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diff --git a/10890.txt b/10890.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb01595 --- /dev/null +++ b/10890.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9739 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 (A.D. +54-211), by Cassius Dio + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 (A.D. 54-211) + An Historical Narrative Originally Composed In Greek During + The Reigns Of Septimius Severus, Geta And Caracalla, Macrinus, + Elagabalus And Alexander Severus: And Now Presented In English + Form By Herbert Baldwin Foster + +Author: Cassius Dio + +Release Date: January 31, 2004 [EBook #10890] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOLUME V. *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Ben Courtney and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team + + + + + + DIO'S ROME + + AN + HISTORICAL NARRATIVE + ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK + DURING THE REIGNS OF + SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA + AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, + ELAGABALUS AND ALEXANDER SEVERUS: + AND + NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + BY + HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, + A.B. (Harvard), Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins), +Acting Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + +_FIFTH VOLUME: Extant Books 61-76 (A.D. 54-211)._ + + 1906 + + * * * * * + +VOLUME CONTENTS + + * * * * * + +Book Sixty-one + +Book Sixty-two + +Book Sixty-three + +Book Sixty-four + +Book Sixty-five + +Book Sixty-six + +Book Sixty-seven + +Book Sixty-eight + +Book Sixty-nine + +Book Seventy + +Book Seventy-one + +Book Seventy-two + +Book Seventy-three + +Book Seventy-four + +Book Seventy-five + +Book Seventy-six + +Book Seventy-seven + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +61 + +Nero seizes the sovereignty (chapters 1, 2). + +At the beginning he is accustomed to yield to the influence of his mother, +whom Seneca and Burrus thrust aside from control of affairs (chapter 3). + +Nero's exhibitions of wantonness and his extravagance: the death of +Silanus (chapters 4-6). + +Love for Acte: Britannicus slain: discord with Agrippina (chapters 7, 8). + +How Nero's mind began to give way (chapter 9). + +About the faults and immoralities of the philosopher Seneca (chapter 10). + +Sabina an object of love: Agrippina murdered (chapters 11-16). + +Domitia put to death: festivities: Nero sings to the accompaniment of his +lyre (chapters 17-21). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +M. Asinius Marcellus, Manius Acilius Aviola. (A.D. 54 = a.u. 807 = First +of Nero, from Oct. 13th). + +Nero Caesar Aug., L. Antistius Vetus. (A.D. 55 = a.u. 808 = Second of +Nero). + +Q. Volusius Saturninus, P. Cornelius Scipio. (A.D. 56 = a.u. 809 = Third +of Nero). + +Nero Caesar Aug. (II), L. Calpurnius Piso. (A.D. 57 = a.u. 810 = Fourth of +Nero). + +Nero Caesar Aug. (III), M. Valerius Messala. (A.D. 58 = a.u. 811 = Fifth +of Nero). + +C. Vipsanius Apronianus, L. Fonteius Capito. (A.D. 59 = a.u. 812 = Sixth +of Nero). + +Nero Caesar Aug. (IV), Cornelius Lentulus Cossus. (A.D. 60 = a.u. 813 = +Seventh of Nero). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 54 (a.u. 807)] [Sidenote:--1--] At the death of Claudius +the leadership on most just principles belonged to Britannicus, who had +been born a legitimate son of Claudius and in physical development was +beyond what would have been expected of his years. Yet by law the power +passed to Nero on account of his adoption. No claim, indeed, is stronger +than that of arms. Every one who possesses superior force has always the +appearance of both saying and doing what is more just. So Nero, having +first disposed of Claudius's will and having succeeded him as master of +the whole empire, put Britannicus and his sisters out of the way. Why, +then, should one stop to lament the misfortunes of other victims? + +[Sidenote:--2--] The following signs of dominion had been observed in his +career. At his birth just before dawn rays not cast by any beam of +sunlight yet visible surrounded his form. And a certain astrologer from +this and from the motion of the stars at that time and their relation to +one another divined two things in regard to him,--that he would rule and +that he would murder his mother. Agrippina on hearing this became for the +moment so beside herself as actually to cry out: "Let him kill me, if only +he shall rule." Later she was destined to repent bitterly of her prayer. +Some people become so steeped in folly that if they expect to obtain some +blessing mingled with evil, they at once through their anxiety for the +advantage pay no heed to the detriment. When the time for the latter also +comes, they are cast down and would choose not to have secured even the +greatest good thing. Yet Domitius, the father of Nero, had a sufficient +previous intimation of his son's coming baseness and licentiousness, not +by any oracle but through the nature of his own and Agrippina's +characters. And he declared: "It is impossible for any good man to be born +from me and from her." As time went on, the finding of a serpent skin +around Nero's neck when he was but a boy caused the seers to say: "He +shall acquire great power from the aged man." Serpents are thought to +slough off their old age with their old skin, and so get power. + +[Sidenote:--3--] Nero was seventeen years of age when he began to rule. He +first entered the camp, and, after reading to the soldiers all that Seneca +had written, he promised them as much as Claudius had been accustomed to +give. Before the senate he read such a considerable document,--this, too, +written by Seneca,--that it was voted the statements should be inscribed +on a silver tablet and should be read every time the new consuls took up +the duties of their office. Consequently those who heard him made +themselves ready to enjoy a good reign according to the letter of the +compilation. At first Agrippina [in company with Pallas, a vulgar and +tiresome man,] managed all affairs pertaining to the empire, and she and +her son went about together, often reclining in the same litter; usually, +however, she would be carried and he would follow alongside. It was she +who transacted business with embassies and sent letters to peoples and +governors and kings. When this had gone on for a considerable time, it +aroused the displeasure of Seneca and Burrus, who were both the most +sensible and the most influential of the advisers of Nero. The one was his +teacher and the other was prefect of the Pretorians. They took the +following occasion to stop this method of procedure. An embassy of +Armenians had arrived and Agrippina wished to ascend the platform from +which Nero was talking with them. The two men, seeing her approach, +persuaded the young man to go down before she could reach there and meet +his mother, pretending some form of greeting. After that was done they did +not return again, making some excuse to prevent the foreigners from seeing +the flaw in the empire. Subsequently they labored to keep any public +business from being again committed to her hands. + +[Sidenote:--4--] When they had accomplished this, they themselves took +charge of the entire empire and gave it the very best and fairest +management that they could. Nero was not in general fond of affairs and +was glad to live at leisure. [The reason, indeed, that he had previously +distrusted his mother and now was fond of her lay in the fact that now he +was free to enjoy himself, and the government was being carried on no less +well. And his advisers after consultation made many changes in existing +customs, abolishing some things altogether and passing a number of new +laws.] They let Nero sow his wild oats with the intention of bringing +about in him through the satisfaction of all his desires a changed +attitude of mind, while in the meantime no great damage should be done to +public interests. Surely they must have known that a young and self-willed +spirit, when reared in unreproved license and in absolute authority, so +far from becoming satiated by the indulgence of its passions is ruined +more and more by these very agencies. Indeed, Nero at first gave but +simple dinners; his revels, his drunkenness, his amours were moderate. +Afterward, as no one reproved him for them and public business was carried +forward none the worse for all of it, he began to believe that what he did +was right and that he could carry his practices to even greater lengths. +[Consequently he began to indulge in each of these pursuits in a more open +and precipitate fashion. And in case his guardians gave him any warning or +his mother any rebuke, he would appear abashed while they were present and +promise to reform; but as soon as they were gone, he would again become +the slave of his desire and yield to those who were dragging him in the +other direction,--a straight course down hill.] Next he came to despise +instruction, inasmuch as he was always hearing from his associates, "Do +_you_ submit to this?" or "Do _you_ fear these people?", "Don't +you know that you are Caesar?", "Have not you the authority over them +rather than they over you?" He was also animated by obstinacy, not wishing +to acknowledge his mother as superior and himself as inferior, nor to +admit the greater good sense of Seneca and Burrus. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Finally he passed the possibility of being shamed, dashed +to the ground and trampled under foot all their suggestions, and began to +follow in the steps of Gaius. When he had once felt a desire to emulate +him, he quite outdid him, for he believed that the imperial power must +manifest itself among other ways by allowing no one to surpass it even in +the vilest deeds. [As he was praised for this by the crowds, and received +many pleasant compliments from them, he gave himself no rest. His doings +were at first confined to his home and associates, but were later on +carried abroad. Thus he attached a mighty disgrace to the whole Roman race +and committed many outrages upon the individuals composing it. Innumerable +acts of violence and insult, of rape and murder, were committed both by +the emperor himself and by those who at one time or another had influence +with him. And, as certainly and inevitably follows in all such practices], +great sums of money naturally were spent, great sums unjustly procured, +and great sums seized by force. For under no circumstances was Nero +niggardly. Here is an illustration. He had ordered no less than two +hundred and fifty myriads at one time to be given to Doryphorus, who +attended to the state documents of his empire. Agrippina had it all piled +in a heap, hoping by showing him the money all together to make him change +his mind. Instead, he asked how much the mass before him amounted to, and +when he was informed he doubled it, saying: "I was not aware that I had +allowed him so little." It can clearly be seen, then, that as a result of +the magnitude of his expenditures he would quickly exhaust the treasures +in the royal vaults and quickly need new revenues. Hence unusual taxes +were imposed and the property of the well-to-do was not left intact. Some +lost their possessions to spite him and others destroyed themselves with +their livelihoods. Similarly he hated and made away with some others who +had no considerable wealth; for, if they possessed any excellent trait or +were of a good family, he became suspicious that they disliked him. + +[Sidenote:--6--] Such were the general characteristics of Nero. I shall +now proceed to details. + +In the matter of horse-races Nero grew so enthusiastic that he adorned +famous race-horses that had passed their prime with the regular street +costume for men and honored them with money for their fodder. The +horsebreeders and charioteers, elated at this enthusiasm of his, proceeded +to abuse unjustifiably even the praetors and consuls. But Aulus Fabricius, +when praetor, finding that they refused to hold contests on fair terms, +dispensed with them entirely. He trained dogs to draw chariots and +introduced them in place of horses. When this was done, the wearers of the +white and of the red immediately entered their chariots: but, as the +Greens and the Blues would not even then participate, Nero at his own cost +gave the prizes to the horses, and the regular program of the circus was +carried out. + +Agrippina showed readiness to attack the greatest undertakings, as is +evidenced by her causing the death of Marcus Julius Silanus, to whom she +sent some of the poison with which she had treacherously murdered her +husband. + +Silanus was governor of Asia, and was in no respect inferior to the +general character of his family. It was for this, more than for anything +else, she said, that she killed him, not wishing to have him preferred +before Nero, by reason of the latter's manner of life. Moreover, she +turned everything into trade and gathered money from the most +insignificant and basest sources. + +Laelianus, who was despatched to Armenia in place of Pollio, had been +assigned to the command of the night watch. And he was no better than +Pollio, for, while surpassing him in reputation, he was all the more +insatiable in respect to gain. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 55 (a.u. 808)] [Sidenote:--7--] Agrippina found a +grievance in the fact that she was no longer supreme in affairs of the +palace. It was chiefly because of Acte. Acte had been brought as a slave +from Asia. She caught the fancy of Nero, was adopted into the family of +Attalus, and was cherished much more carefully than was Nero's wife +Octavia. Agrippina, indignant at this and at other matters, first +attempted to rebuke him, and set herself to humiliating his associates, +some by beatings and by getting rid of others. But when she accomplished +nothing, she took it greatly to heart and remarked to him: "It was I who +made you emperor," just as if she had the power to take away the authority +from him again. She did not comprehend that every form of independent +power given to any one by a private citizen immediately ceases to be the +property of the giver and belongs to the one who receives it to use +against his benefactor. + +Britannicus Nero murdered treacherously by poison, and then, as the skin +was turned livid by the action of the drug, he smeared the body with +gypsum. But as it was being carried through the Forum a heavy rain falling +while the gypsum was still damp washed it all away, so that the horror was +exposed not only to comment but to view. [After Britannicus was dead +Seneca and Burrus ceased to give careful attention to public interests and +were satisfied if they might manage them conservatively and still preserve +their lives. Consequently Nero now made himself conspicuous by giving free +rein to all his desires without fear of retribution. His behavior began to +be absolutely insensate, as is shown, for instance, by his punishing a +certain knight, Antonius, as a seller of poisons and by further burning +the poisons publicly. He took great credit for this action as well as for +prosecuting some persons who had tampered with wills; but other people +only laughed to see him punishing his own acts in the persons of others.] + +[Sidenote:--8--] His secret acts of licentiousness were many, both at home +and throughout the City, by night and by day. He used to frequent the +taverns and wandered about everywhere like a private person. Any number of +beatings and insults took place in this connection and the evil spread to +the theatres, so that those who worked as dancers and who had charge of +the horses paid no attention either to praetors or to consuls. They were +disorderly themselves and led others to be the same, while Nero not only +did not restrain them even by words, but stirred them up all the more. He +delighted in their actions and used to be secretly conveyed in a litter +into the theatres, where unseen by the rest he watched the proceedings. +Indeed, he forbade the soldiers who had usually been in attendance at all +public gatherings to appear there any longer. The reason he assigned was +that they ought not to superintend anything but strictly military affairs, +but his true purpose was to afford those who wished to raise a disturbance +the amplest scope. He made use of the same excuse in reference to his not +allowing any soldier to attend his mother, saying that no one except the +emperor ought to be guarded by them. In this way he displayed his enmity +toward the masses, and as for his mother he was already openly at variance +with her. Everything that they said to each other, or that the imperial +pair did each day, was reported outside the palace, yet it did not all +reach the public and hence conjectures were made to supply missing details +and different versions arose. What was conceivable as happening, in view +of the baseness and lewdness of the pair, was noised abroad as having +already taken place, and reports possessing some credibility were believed +as true. The populace, seeing Agrippina now for the first time without +Pretorians, took care not to fall in with her even by accident; and if any +one did chance to meet her he would hastily get out of the way without +saying a word. + +[Sidenote:--9--] At one spectacle men on horseback overcame bulls while +riding along beside them, and the knights who served as Nero's personal +guard brought down with their javelins four hundred bears and three +hundred lions. On the same occasion thirty knights belonging to the +military fought in the arena. The emperor sanctioned such proceedings +openly. Secretly, however, he carried on nocturnal revels throughout the +length and breadth of the city, insulting the women, practicing lewdness +on boys, stripping those whom he encountered, striking, wounding, +murdering. He had an idea that his incognito was impenetrable, for he used +all sorts of different costumes and false hair at different times: but he +would be recognized by his retinue and by his deeds. No one else would +have dared to commit so many and such gross outrages so recklessly. +[Sidenote: A.D. 56 (a.u. 809)] It was becoming unsafe even for a person to +stay at home, since he would break into shops and houses. It came about +that a certain Julius Montanus, [Footnote: _C. Iulius Montanus C.F._ +(Cp. Suetonius, Life of Nero, chapter 60).] a senator, enraged on his +wife's account, fell upon this reveler and inflicted many blows upon him, +so that he had to remain several days in concealment by reason of the +black eyes he had received. Montanus did not suffer for it, since Nero +thought the violence had been all an accident and was for showing no anger +at the occurrence, had not the other sent him a letter begging his pardon. +Nero on reading the epistle remarked: "So he knew that he was striking +Nero." The suicide of Montanus followed hard after. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 57 (a.u. 810)] In the course of producing a spectacle at +one of the theatres, he suddenly filled the place with sea-water so that +the fishes and sea-monsters [Footnote: [Greek: ktaenae] of the MSS. was +changed to [Greek: kaetae] on the conjecture of Sylburgius, who was +followed by Bekker, Dindorf, and Boissevain. (Compare also Suetonius, Life +of Nero, chapter 12).] swam in it, and had a naval battle between +"Persians" and "Athenians." At the close of it he suddenly withdrew the +water, dried the subsoil, and continued land contests, not only between +two men at a time but with crowds pitted against other crowds. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 58 (a.u. 811)] [Sidenote:--10--] Subsequent to this, +oratorical contests took place, and as a result even of these numbers were +exiled and put to death.--Seneca also was held to account, one of the +charges against him being that he was intimate with Agrippina. [It had not +been enough for him to debauch Julia, nor had he become better as a result +of exile, but he went on to make advances to such a woman as Agrippina, +with such a son.] Not only in this instance but in others he was convicted +of doing precisely the opposite of what he taught in his philosophical +doctrines. He brought accusations against tyranny, yet he made himself a +teacher of tyrants: he denounced such of his associates as were powerful, +yet he did not hold aloof from the palace himself: he had nothing good to +say of flatterers, yet he had so fawned upon Messalina and Claudius's +freedmen [that he had sent them from the island a book containing eulogies +upon them; this latter caused him such mortification that he erased the +passage.] While finding fault with the rich, he himself possessed a +property of seven thousand five hundred myriads; and though he censured +the extravagances of others, he kept five hundred three-legged tables of +cedar wood, every one of them with identical ivory feet, and he gave +banquets on them. In mentioning these details I have at least given a hint +of their inevitable adjuncts,--the licentiousness in which he indulged at +the very time that he made a most brilliant marriage, and the delight that +he took in boys past their prime (a practice which he also taught Nero to +follow). Nevertheless, his austerity of life had earlier been so severe +that he had asked his pupil neither to kiss him nor to eat at the same +table with him. [For the latter request he had a good reason, namely, that +Nero's absence would enable him to conduct his philosophical studies at +leisure without being hindered by the young man's dinners. But as for the +kiss, I can not conceive how that tradition came about. The only +explanation which one could imagine, namely, his unwillingness to kiss +that sort of mouth, is proved to be false by the facts concerning his +favorites. For this and for his adultery some complaints were lodged +against him, but at this time he was himself released without formal +accusations and succeeded in begging off Pallas and Burrus. Later on he +did not come out so well.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 59 (a.u. 811)] [Sidenote:--11--] There was a certain +Marcus Salvius Otho, who through similarity of character and sharing in +wrongdoing had become so intimate with Nero that he was not even punished +for saying one day to the latter: "Then I hope you may see me Caesar." All +that came of it was the response: "I sha'n't see you even consul." It was +to him that the emperor gave Sabina, of patrician family, after separating +her from her husband, and they both enjoyed her together. Agrippina, +therefore, fearing that Nero would marry the woman (for he was now +beginning to entertain a mad passion for her), ventured upon a most unholy +course. As if it were not enough for her story that she had attracted her +uncle Claudius into love for her by her blandishments and uncontrolled +looks and kisses, she undertook to enslave Nero also in similar fashion. +However, I am not sure whether this actually occurred, or whether it was +invented to fit their characters: but I state here what is admitted by +all, that Nero had a mistress resembling Agrippina of whom he was +especially fond because of this very resemblance. And when he toyed with +the girl herself or threw out hints about it to others, he would say that +he was having intercourse with his mother. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 59 (a.u. 812)] Sabina on hearing about this began to +persuade Nero to get rid of his mother in order to forestall her alleged +plots against him. He was likewise incited,--so many trustworthy men have +stated,--by Seneca, whether it was to obscure the complaint against his +own name that the latter was anxious or to lead Nero on to a career of +unholy bloodguiltiness that should bring about most speedily his +destruction by gods and men. But they shrank from doing the deed openly +and were not able to put her out of the way secretly by means of poison, +for she took extreme precautions against all such things. One day they saw +in the theatre a ship that automatically separated in two, let out some +beasts, and came together again so as to be once more seaworthy; and they +at once had another one built like it. By the time the ship was finished +Agrippina had been quite won over by Nero's attentions, for he exhibited +devotion to her in every way to make sure that she should suspect nothing +and be off her guard. He dared, however, do nothing in Rome for fear the +crime should become widely known. Hence he went some distance into +Campania accompanied by his mother, and took a sail on the fatal ship +itself, which was adorned in the most brilliant fashion to the end that +she might feel a desire to use the vessel continually. + +[Sidenote:--13--] When they reached Bauli, he gave for several days most +costly dinners at which he showed great solicitude in entertaining his +mother. If she were absent he feigned to miss her sorely, and if she were +present he was lavish of caresses. He bade her ask whatever she desired +and bestowed many gifts without her asking. When he had shaped the +situation to this extent [Footnote: Adopting Reiske's conjecture, +_nv_.], then rising from dinner about midnight he embraced her, and +straining her to his breast kissed her eyes and hands, exclaiming: +"Mother, farewell, and happiness attend you! For you I live and because of +you I rule." He then gave her in charge of Anicetus, a freedman, +supposedly to convey her home on the ship that he had prepared. + +But the sea would not endure the tragedy about to be enacted on it nor +would it submit to assume responsibility for the deception wrought by the +monstrous contrivance: therefore, though the ship parted asunder and +Agrippina fell into the water, she did not perish. In spite of the fact +that it was dark and she was full of strong drink and that the sailors +used their oar blades on her, so much so that they killed Acerronia Polla, +her fellow voyager, she nevertheless saved her life and reached home. +Thereupon she affected not to realize that it was a plot and let not a +word of it be known, but sent speedily to her son an account of the +occurrence with the implication that it had happened by accident, and +conveyed to him the good news (as she assumed it to be) that she was safe. +Nero hearing this could not endure the unexpected outcome but punished the +messenger as savagely as if he had come to assassinate him, and at once +despatched Anicetus with the sailors to make an end of his mother. He +would not entrust the killing of her to the Pretorians. When she saw them, +she knew for what they had come, and leaping from her bed tore open her +clothing; exposing her abdomen, and cried out: "Strike here, Anicetus, +strike here, for this bore Nero!" + +[Sidenote:--14--] Thus was Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, grandchild of +Agrippa, descendant of Augustus, slain by the very son to whom she had +given the sovereignty and for whose sake she had killed her uncle and +others. Nero when informed that she was dead would not believe it, for the +monstrousness of his bold deed plunged him in doubts; therefore he desired +to behold the victim with his own eyes. So he laid bare her body, looked +her all over and inspected her wounds, finally uttering a remark far more +abominable even than the crime. What he said was: "I did not know I had so +beautiful a mother." + +To the Pretorians he gave money evidently to secure their prayers for many +such occurrences, and he sent to the senate a message in which he +enumerated the offences of which he knew she was guilty, stating also that +she had plotted against him and on being detected had committed suicide. +Yet for all this calm explanation to the governing body he was frequently +subject to agitation at night, so that he would even leap suddenly from +his bed. And by day terror seized him at the sound of trumpets that seemed +to blare forth some horrid din of war from the spot where lay Agrippina's +bones. Therefore he went elsewhere. And when in his new abode he had again +the same experience, he distractedly transferred his residence to some +other place. + +Nero, not having a word of truth from any one and seeing that all approved +what he had been doing, thought that either his actions had escaped notice +or that he had conducted himself correctly. Hence he became much worse +also in other respects. He came to think that all that it was in his power +to do was right and gave heed to those whose speech was prompted by fear +or flattery as if they told absolute truth. For a time he was subject to +fears and questionings, but, after the ambassadors had made him a number +of pleasing speeches, he regained courage. + +[Sidenote:--15--] The population of Rome, on hearing the report, though +horrified were nevertheless joyful, because they thought that now he would +surely come to ruin. Nearly all of the senators pretended to rejoice at +what had taken place, participated in Nero's pleasure, and voted many +measures of which they thought he would be glad. Publius Thrasea Paetus +had also come to the senate-house and listened to the letter. When, +however, the reading was done, he at once rose without making any comment +and went out. Thus what he would have said he could not, and what he could +have said he would not. He behaved in the same way under all other +conditions. For he used to say: "If it were a matter of Nero's putting +only me to death, I could easily pardon the rest who load him with +flatteries. But since among those even who praise him so excessively he +has gotten rid of some and will yet destroy others, why should one stoop +to indecent behavior and perish like a slave, when like a freeman one may +pay the debt to nature? There shall be talk of me hereafter, but of these +men not a word save for the single fact that they were killed." Such was +the kind of man Thrasea showed himself, and he would always encourage +himself by saying: "Nero can kill me, but he can not harm me." + +[Sidenote:--16--] When Nero after his mother's murder reentered Rome, +people paid him reverence in public, but in private so long as any one +could speak frankly with safety they tore his character to very tatters. +And first they hung by night a piece of hide on one of his statues to +signify that he himself ought to have a hiding. Second, they threw down in +the Forum a baby to which was fastened a board, saying: "I will not take +you up for fear you may slay your mother." + +At Nero's entrance into Rome they took down the statues of Agrippina. But +there was one which they did not cut loose soon enough, and so they threw +over it a cloth which gave it the appearance of being veiled. Thereupon +somebody at once affixed to the statue the following inscription: "I am +abashed and thou art unashamed." + +In many quarters at once, also, might be read the inscription: + + "Nero, Orestes, Alemeon, matricides." + +Persons could actually be heard saying in so many words: "Nero put his +mother out of the way." Not a few lodged information that certain persons +had spoken in this way, their object being not so much to destroy those +whom they accused as to bring reproach, on Nero. Hence he would admit no +suit of that kind, either not wishing that the rumor should become more +widespread by such means, or out of utter contempt for what was said. +However, in the midst of the sacrifices offered in memory of Agrippina +according to decree, the sun suffered a total eclipse and the stars could +be seen. Also, the elephants drawing the chariot of Augustus entered the +hippodrome and went as far as the senators' seats, but at that point they +stopped and refused to proceed farther. And the event which one might most +readily conjecture to have taken place through divine means was that a +thunderbolt descended upon his dinner and consumed it all as it was being +brought to him, like some tremendous harpy snatching away his food. + +[Sidenote:--17--] [In spite of this he killed by poison also his aunt +Domitia, whom likewise he used to say he revered like a mother. He would +not even wait a few days for her to die a natural death of old age, but +was eager to destroy her also. His haste to do this was inspired by her +possessions at Baiae and Ravenna, which included magnificent amusement +pavilions that she had erected and] are in fine condition even now. In +honor of his mother he celebrated a very great and costly festival, events +taking place for several days in five or six theatres at once. It was then +that an elephant was led to the very top of the vault of the theatre and +walked down from that point on ropes, carrying a rider. There was another +exhibition at once most disgraceful and shocking. Men and women not only +of equestrian but even of senatorial rank appeared in the orchestra, the +hippodrome, and even the hunting-theatre, like the veriest outcasts. Some +of them played the flute and danced or acted tragedies and comedies or +sang to the lyre. They drove horses, killed beasts, fought as gladiators, +some willingly, others with a very bad grace. Men of that day beheld the +great families,--the Furii, the Horatii, the Fabii, Poreii, Valerii, and +all the rest whose trophies, whose temples were to be seen,--standing down +below the level of the spectators and doing some things to which no common +citizen even would stoop. So they would point them out to one another and +make remarks, Macedonians saying: "That is the descendant of Paulus"; +Greeks, "Yonder the offspring of Mummius"; Sicilians, "Look at Claudius"; +the Epirots, "Look at Appius"; Asiatics, "There's Lucius"; Iberians, +"There's Publius"; Carthaginians, "There's Africanus"; Romans, "There they +all are". Such was the expiation that the emperor chose to offer for his +own indecency. + +[Sidenote:--18--] All who had sense, likewise, bewailed the multitude of +expenditures. Every costliest viand that men eat, everything else, indeed, +of the highest value,--horses, slaves, teams, gold, silver, raiment of +varied hues,--was given away by tickets. Nero would throw tiny balls, each +one appropriately inscribed, among the populace and that article +represented by the token received would be presented to the person who had +seized it. The sensible, I say, reflected that, when he spent so much to +prevent molestation in his disgraceful course, he would not be restrained +from any most outrageous proceedings through mere hope of profit. + +Some portents had taken place about this time, which the seers declared +imported destruction to him, and they advised him to divert the danger +upon others. So he would have immediately put numbers of men out of the +way, had not Seneca said to him: "No matter how many you may slay, you can +not kill your successor." + +It was now that he celebrated a corresponding number of "Preservation +Sacrifices," as he called them, and dedicated the forum for the sale of +dainties, called _Macellum_. [Sidenote:--19--] Somewhat later he +instituted a different kind of feast (called Juvenalia, a word that showed +it belonged in some way to "youth"). The occasion was the shaving of his +beard for the first time. The hairs he cast into a small golden globe and +offered to Jupiter Capitolinus. To furnish amusement members of the +noblest families as well as others did not fail to give exhibitions. For +instance, Aelia Catella danced: he was first of all a man prominent for +family and wealth and also advanced in years,--he was eighty years of age. +Others who on account of old age or disease could not do anything on their +own account sang as chorus. All devoted themselves to practicing as much +as and by whatever way they were able. Regularly appointed "schools" were +frequented by the most distinguished men, women, girls, lads, old women, +old men. In case any one was unable to appear in any other fashion, he +would enter the choruses. And whereas some of them out of shame had put on +masks to avoid being recognized, Nero at the request of the populace had +them taken off and showed these people to those by whom they had once been +ruled. Now most of all it was that these amateur performers and others +deemed the dead happy; for many of the foremost men this year had been +slain. Some of them, charged with conspiracy against Nero, were surrounded +by the soldiers and stoned to death. + +[Sidenote:--20--] And, as there needed to be a fitting climax to these +deeds, Nero himself appeared as an actor and Gallio [Footnote: _L. +Iunius Gallio_.] proclaimed him by name. There stood Caesar on the +stage wearing the garb of a singing zither-player. Spoke the emperor: "My +lords, of your kindness give me ear." Then did the Augustus sing to the +zither a thing called "Attis or the Bacchantes," [Footnote: The title of +one of Nero's poems.] whilst many soldiers stood by and all the people +that the seats would hold sat watching. Yet had he (according to the +tradition) but a slight voice and an indistinct, so that he moved all +present to laughter and tears at once. Beside him stood Burrus and Seneca +like teachers prompting a pupil: they would wave their hands and togas at +every utterance and draw others on to do the same. Indeed, Nero had ready +a peculiar corps of about five thousand soldiers, called Augustans; these +would begin the applause, and all the rest, however loath, were obliged to +shout aloud with them,--except Thrasea. He would never stoop to such +conduct. But the rest, and especially the prominent men, gathered with +alacrity even when in grief and joined as if glad in all the shouts of the +Augustans. One could hear them saying: "Excellent Caesar! Apollo! +Augustus! One like unto the Pythian! By thine own self, O Caesar, no one +can surpass thee!" After this performance he entertained the people at a +feast on boats on the site of the naval battle given by Augustus: thence +at midnight he sailed through a canal into the Tiber. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 60 (a.u. 813)] [Sidenote:--21--] This, then, he did to +celebrate the shaving of his chin. In behalf of his preservation and the +continuance of his authority,--thus he gave notice,--he instituted +quinquennial games, naming them Neronia. In honor of the event he also +constructed the gymnasium at the dedication of which he made a free +distribution of olive oil to the senators and knights. The crown for +singing to the zither, moreover, he took without a contest, for all others +were debarred on the assumption that they were unworthy of victory. [And +immediately in their garb he was enrolled on the very lists of the +gymnasium.] Thenceforward all other crowns for zither playing at all the +contests were sent to him as the only person competent to win victories of +that sort. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +62 + +About the disaster to the Romans in Britain, brought upon them by Buduica +(chapters 1-7). + +Paulinus, returning from subduing the island of Mona, conquers in battle +(chapters 8-12). + +Octavia Augusta and Burrus, likewise Plautus and Pallas, are put to death +by Nero (chapters 13, 14). + +Most swinish reveling at the games of Tigillinus (chapter 15). + +How Nero set the city on fire (chapters 16-18). + +The uprightness of Corbulo: proceedings against Vologaesus and Tiridates +(chapters 19, 20). + +Misfortune attends the endeavors of Paetus: Vologaesus forms a compact +with Corbulo (chapters 21-23). + +Seneca, Soranus, Thrasea, Sabina are put to death: Musonius and Cornutus +are banished (chapters 24-29). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Nero Aug. (IV), Cornelius Cossus Cossi F. Lentulus. (A.D. 60 = a.u. 813 = +Seventh of Nero, from Oct. 13th). + +Caesonius Paetus, P. Petronius Turpilianus. (A.D. 61 = a.u. 814 = Eighth +of Nero). + +P. Marius Celsus, L. Asinius Gallus. (A.D. 62 = a.u. 815 = Ninth of Nero). + +C. Memmius Regulus, L. Verginius Rufus. (A.D. 63 = a.u. 816 = Tenth of +Nero). + +C. Lecanius Bassus, M. Licinius Crassus Frugi. (A.D. 64 = a.u. 817 = +Eleventh of Nero). + +A. Licinius Nerva Silanus, M. Vestinus Atticus. (A.D. 65 = a.u. 818 = +Twelfth of Nero). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 61 (a.u. 814)] [Sidenote:--1--] While this sport was going +on at Rome, a terrible disaster had taken place in Britain. Two cities had +been sacked, eight myriads of Romans and of their allies had perished, and +the island had been lost. Moreover, all this ruin was brought upon them by +a woman, a fact which in itself caused them the greatest shame. Heaven +evidently gave them in advance an indication of the catastrophe. At night +there was heard to issue from the senate-house foreign jargon mingled with +laughter and from the theatre outcries with wailing: yet no mortal man had +uttered the speeches or the groans. Houses under water came to view in the +river Thames, [Footnote: Compare Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 32 ("visamque +speciem in aestuario Tamesae subversae Coloniae").] and the ocean between +the island and Gaul sometimes grew bloody at flood-tide. + +[Sidenote:--2--] The _casus belli_ lay in the confiscation of the +money which Claudius had given to the foremost Britons,--Decianus Catus, +governor of the island, announcing that this must now be sent back. This +was one reason [Lacuna] [Footnote: It would seem natural to supply "for the +uprising," as does Reiske.] and another was that Seneca had lent them on +excellent terms as regards interest a thousand myriads that they did not +want, [Footnote: The meaning of this phrase ( [Greek: achousin]) is not +wholly clear. Naber purposes to substitute [Greek: aitousin] ("that they +were asking for").] and had afterward called in this loan all at once and +levied on them for it with severity. But the person who most stirred their +spirits and persuaded them to fight the Romans, who was deemed worthy to +stand at their head and to have the conduct of the entire war, was a +British woman, Buduica, [Footnote: Known commonly as Boadicea.] of the +royal family and possessed of greater judgment than often belongs to +women. It was she who gathered the army to the number of nearly twelve +myriads and ascended a tribunal of marshy soil made after the Roman +fashion. In person she was very tall, with a most sturdy figure and a +piercing glance; her voice was harsh; a great mass of yellow hair fell +below her waist and a large golden necklace clasped her throat; wound +about her was a tunic of every conceivable color and over it a thick +chlamys had been fastened with a brooch. This was her constant attire. She +now grasped a spear to aid her in terrifying all beholders and spoke as +follows:-- + +[Sidenote:--3--] "You have had actual experience of the difference between +freedom and slavery. Hence, though some of you previously through +ignorance of which was better may have been deceived by the alluring +announcements of the Romans, yet now that you have tried both you have +learned how great a mistake you made by preferring a self-imposed +despotism to your ancestral mode of life. You have come to recognize how +far superior is the poverty of independence to wealth in servitude. What +treatment have we met with that is not most outrageous, that is not most +grievous, ever since these men insinuated themselves into Britain? Have we +not been deprived of our most numerous and our greatest possessions +entire, while for what remains we must pay taxes? Besides pasturing and +tilling all the various regions for them do we not contribute a yearly sum +for our very bodies? How much better it would have been to be sold to +masters once and for all than to ransom ourselves annually and possess +empty names of freedom! How much better to have been slain and perish +rather than go about with subservient heads! Yet what have I said? Even +dying is not free from expense among them, and you know what fees we +deposit on behalf of the dead. Throughout the rest of mankind death frees +even those who are in slavery; only in the case of the Romans do the very +dead live for their profit. Why is it that though none of us has any +money,--and how or whence should we get it?,--we are stripped and +despoiled like a murderer's victims? How should the Romans grow milder in +process of time, when they have conducted themselves so toward us at the +very start,--a period when all men show consideration for even newly +captured beasts? + +[Sidenote:--4--] "But, to tell the truth, it is we who have made ourselves +responsible for all these evils in allowing them so much as to set foot on +the island in the first place instead of expelling them at once as we did +their famous Julius Caesar,--yes, in not making the idea of attempting the +voyage formidable to them, while they were as yet far off, as it was to +Augustus and to Gaius Caligula. So great an island, or rather in one sense +a continent encircled by water, do we inhabit, a veritable world of our +own, and so far are we separated by the ocean from all the rest of mankind +that we have been believed to dwell on a different earth and under a +different sky and some of their wisest men were not previously sure of +even our exact name. Yet for all this we have been scorned and trampled +under foot by men who know naught else than how to secure gain. Still, let +us even at this late day, if not before, fellow-citizens, friends and +relatives,--for I deem you all relatives, in that you inhabit a single +island and are called by [Footnote: Reading [Greek: chechlaemenous](van +Herwerden).] one common name,--let us do our duty while the memory of +freedom still abides within us, that we may leave both the name and the +fact of it to our children. For if we utterly lose sight of the happy +conditions amid which we were born and bred, what pray will they do, +reared in bondage? + +[Sidenote:--5--] "This I say not to inspire you with a hatred of present +circumstances,--that hatred is already apparent,--nor with a fear of the +future,--that fear you already have,--but to commend you because of your +own accord you choose to do just what you ought, and to thank you for +cooperating so readily with me and your own selves at once. Be nowise +afraid of the Romans. They are not more numerous than are we nor yet +braver. And the proof is that they have protected themselves with helmets +and breastplates and greaves and furthermore have equipped their camps +with palisades and walls and ditches to make sure that they shall suffer +no harm by any hostile assault. [Footnote: Corruptions in the text emended +by Reiske.] Their fears impel them to choose this method rather than +engage in any active work like us. We enjoy such a superabundance of +bravery that we regard tents as safer than walls and our shields as +affording greater protection than their whole suits of mail. As a +consequence, we when victorious can capture them and when overcome by +force can elude them. And should we ever choose to retreat, we can conceal +ourselves in swamps and mountains so inaccessible that we can be neither +found nor taken. The enemy, however, can neither pursue any one by reason +of their heavy armor nor yet flee. And if they ever should slip away from +us, taking refuge in certain designated spots, there, too, they are sure +to be enclosed as in a trap. These are some of the respects in which they +are vastly inferior to us, and others are their inability to bear up under +hunger, thirst, cold, or heat, as we can; for they require shade and +protection, they require kneaded bread and wine and oil, and if the supply +of any of these things fails them they simply perish. For us, on the other +hand, any root or grass serves as bread, any plant juice as olive oil, any +water as wine, any tree as a house. Indeed, this very region is to us an +acquaintance and ally, but to them unknown and hostile. As for the rivers, +we swim them naked, but they even with boats can not cross easily. Let us +therefore go against them trusting boldly to good fortune. Let us show +them that they are hares and foxes trying to rule dogs and wolves." + +[Sidenote:--6--] At these words, employing a species of divination, she +let a hare escape from her bosom, and as it ran in what they considered a +lucky direction, the whole multitude shouted with pleasure, and Buduica +raising her hand to heaven, spoke: "I thank thee, Andraste, [Footnote: Not +much information is preserved regarding this indigenous goddess of +Britain. Reimar asserts that she is practically identical with Boccharte, +Astarte, or Venus.] and call upon thee, who are a woman, being myself also +a woman that rules not burden-bearing Egyptians like Nitocris, nor +merchant Assyrians like Semiramis (of these things we have heard from the +Romans), nor even the Romans themselves, as did Messalina first and later +Agrippina;--at present their chief is Nero, in name a man, in fact a +woman, as is shown by his singing, his playing the cithara, his adorning +himself:--but ruling as I do men of Britain that know not how to till the +soil or ply a trade yet are thoroughly versed in the arts of war and hold +all things common, even children and wives; wherefore the latter possess +the same valor as the males: being therefore queen of such men and such +women I supplicate and pray thee for victory and salvation and liberty +against men insolent, unjust, insatiable, impious,--if, indeed we ought to +term those creatures men who wash in warm water, eat artificial dainties, +drink unmixed wine, anoint themselves with myrrh, sleep on soft couches +with boys for bedfellows (and past their prime at that), are slaves to a +zither-player, yes, an inferior zither-player. Wherefore may this +Domitia-Nero _woman_ reign no more over you or over me: let the wench +sing and play the despot over the Romans. They surely deserve to be in +slavery to such a being whose tyranny they have patiently borne already +this long time. But may we, mistress, ever look to thee alone as our +head." + +[Sidenote:--7--] After an harangue of this general nature Buduica led her +army against the Romans. The latter chanced to be without a leader for the +reason that Paulinus their commander had gone on an expedition to Mona, an +island near Britain. This enabled her to sack and plunder two Roman +cities, and, as I said, she wrought indescribable slaughter. Persons +captured by the Britons underwent every form of most frightful treatment. +The conquerors committed the most atrocious and bestial outrages. For +instance, they hung up naked the noblest and most distinguished women, cut +off their breasts and sewed them to their mouths, to make the victims +appear to be eating them. After that they impaled them on sharp skewers +run perpendicularly the whole length of the body. All this they did to the +accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and exhibitions of insolence in all +of their sacred places, but chiefly in the grove of Andate,--that being +the name of their personification of Victory, to whom they paid the most +excessive reverence. + +[Sidenote:--8--] It happened that Paulinus had already brought Mona to +terms; hence on learning of the disaster in Britain he at once set sail +thither from Mona. He was unwilling to risk a conflict with the barbarians +immediately, for he feared their numbers and their frenzy; therefore he +was for postponing the battle to a more convenient season. But as he grew +short of food and the barbarians did not desist from pressing him hard, he +was compelled, though contrary to his plan, to enter into an engagement +with them. Buduica herself, heading an army of about twenty-three myriads +of men, rode on a chariot and assigned the rest to their several stations. +Now Paulinus could not extend his phalanx the width of her whole line, +for, even if the men had been drawn up only one deep, they would not have +stretched far enough, so inferior were they in numbers: nor did he dare to +join battle with one compact force, for fear he should be surrounded and +cut down. Accordingly, he separated his army into three divisions in order +to fight at several points at once, and he made each of the divisions so +strong that it could not easily be broken through. While ordering and +arranging his men he likewise exhorted them, saying: + +[Sidenote:--9--] "Up, fellow-soldiers! Up, men of Rome! Show these pests +how much even in misfortune we surpass them. It is a shame for you now to +lose ingloriously what but a short while ago you gained by your valor. +Often have we ourselves and also our fathers with far fewer numbers than +we have at the present conquered far more numerous antagonists. Fear not +the host of them or their rebellion: their boldness rests on nothing +better than headlong rashness unaided by arms and exercise. Fear not +because they have set on fire a few cities: they took these not by force +nor after a battle, but one was betrayed and the other abandoned. Do you +now exact from them the proper penalty for these deeds, that so they may +learn by actual experience what they undertook when they wronged such men +as us." + +[Sidenote:--10--] After speaking these words to some he came to a second +group and said: "Now is the occasion, now, fellow-soldiers, for zeal, for +daring. If to-day you prove yourselves brave men, you will recover what +has slipped from your grasp. If you overcome this enemy, no one else will +any longer withstand us. By one such battle you will both make sure of +your present possessions and subdue whatever is left. All soldiers +stationed anywhere else will emulate you and foes will be terror-stricken. +Therefore, since it is in your own hands either to rule fearlessly all +mankind, both the nations that your fathers left under your control and +those which you yourselves have gained in addition, or else to be bereft +of them utterly, choose rather to be free, to rule, to live in wealth, to +enjoy prosperity, than through indolence to suffer the reverse of these +conditions." + +[Sidenote:--11--] After making an address of this sort to the group in +question, he came up to the third division and said also to them: "You +have heard what sort of acts these wretches have committed against us, nay +more, you have even seen some of them. Therefore choose either yourselves +to suffer the same treatment as previous victims and furthermore to be +driven entirely out of Britain, or else through victory to avenge those +that perished and also to give to the rest of mankind an example of mild +clemency toward the obedient, of necessary severity toward the rebellious. +I entertain the highest hopes of victory for our side, counting on the +following factors: first, the assistance of the gods; they usually +cooperate with the party that has been wronged: second, our inherited +bravery; we are Romans and have shown ourselves superior to all mankind in +various instances of valor: next, our experience; we have defeated and +subdued these very men that are now arrayed against us: last, our good +name; it is not worthy opponents but our slaves with whom we are coming in +conflict, persons who enjoyed freedom and self-government only so far as +we allowed it. Yet even should the outcome prove contrary to our +hope,--and I will not shrink from mentioning even this contingency,--it is +better for us to fall fighting bravely than to be captured and impaled, to +see our own entrails cut out, to be spitted on red hot skewers, to perish +dissolved in boiling water, when we have fallen into the power of +creatures that are very beasts, savage, lawless, godless. Let us therefore +either beat them or die on the spot. Britain shall be a noble memorial to +us, even though all subsequent Romans should be driven from it; for in any +case our bodies shall forever possess the land." + +[Sidenote:--12--] At the conclusion of exhortations of this sort and +others like them he raised the signal for battle. Thereupon they +approached each other, the barbarians making a great outcry intermingled +with menacing incantations, but the Romans silently and in order until +they came within a javelin's throw of the enemy. Then, while the foe were +advancing against them at a walk, the Romans started at a given word and +charged them at full speed, and when the clash came easily broke through +the opposing ranks; but, as they were surrounded by the great numbers, +they had to be fighting everywhere at once. Their struggle took many +forms. In the first place, light-armed troops might be in conflict with +light-armed, heavy-armed be arrayed against heavy-armed, cavalry join +issue with cavalry; and against the chariots of the barbarians the Roman +archers would be contending. Again, the barbarians would assail the Romans +with a rush of their chariots, knocking them helter-skelter, but, since +they fought without breastplates, would be themselves repulsed by the +arrows. Horseman would upset foot-soldier, and foot-soldier strike down +horseman; some, forming in close order, would go to meet the chariots, and +others would be scattered by them; some would come to close quarters with +the archers and rout them, whereas others were content to dodge their +shafts at a distance: and all these things went on not at one spot, but in +the three divisions at once. They contended for a long time, both parties +being animated by the same zeal and daring. Finally, though late in the +day, the Romans prevailed, having slain numbers in the battle, beside the +wagons, or in the wood: they also captured many alive. Still, not a few +made their escape and went on to prepare to fight a second time. +Meanwhile, however, Buduica fell sick and died. The Britons mourned her +deeply and gave her a costly burial; but, as they themselves were this +time really defeated, they scattered to their homes.--So far the history +of affairs in Britain. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 62 (a.u. 815)] [Sidenote:--13--] In Rome Nero had before +this sent away Octavia Augusta, on account of his concubine Sabina, and +subsequently he put her to death. This he did in spite of the opposition +of Burrus, who tried to prevent his sending her away, and once said to +him: "Well, then, give her back her dowry" (by which he meant the +sovereignty). Indeed, Burrus used such unmitigated frankness that on one +occasion, when he was asked by the emperor a second time for an opinion on +matters regarding which he had already made clear his attitude, he +answered bluntly: "When I have once had my say about anything, don't ask +me again." So Nero disposed of him by poison. He also appointed to command +the Pretorians a certain Ofonius Tigillinus, who outstripped all his +contemporaries in licentiousness and bloodiness. [It was he who won Nero +away from them and made light of his colleague Rufus.] [Footnote: +_Foenius Rufus._] To him the famous sentence of Pythias is said to have +been directed. She had proved the only exception when all the other +attendants of Octavia had joined Sabina in attacking their mistress, +despising the one because she was in misfortune and toadying to the other +because her influence was strong. Pythias alone had refused though cruelly +tortured to utter lies against Octavia, and finally, as Tigillinus +continued to urge her, she spat in his face, saying: + + "My mistress's privy parts are cleaner, Tigillinus, than your mouth." + +[Sidenote:--14--] The troubles of his relatives Nero turned into laughter +and jest. For instance, after killing Plautus [Footnote: _Rubellirs +Plautus_.] he took a look at his head when it was brought to him and +remarked: "I didn't know he had such a big nose," as much as to say that +he would have spared him, had he been aware of this fact beforehand. And +though he spent practically his whole existence in tavern life, he forbade +others to sell in taverns anything boiled save vegetables and pea-soup. He +put Pallas out of the way because the latter had accumulated great wealth +that could be counted by the ten thousand myriads. Likewise he was very +liable to peevishness that showed in his behavior, and at such times he +would not speak a word to his servants or freedmen but write on tablets +whatever he wanted as well as any orders that he had to give them. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 63 (a.u. 816)] [Sidenote:--15--] Indeed, when many of +those who had gathered at Antium perished, Nero made that, too, an +occasion for a festival. + +A certain Thrasea gave his opinion to the effect that for a senator the +extreme penalty should be exile. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 64 (a.u. 817)] To such lengths did +Nero's self-indulgence go that he actually drove chariots in public. +Again, one time after the slaughter of beasts he straightway brought water +into the theatre by means of pipes and produced a sea-fight: then he let +the water out again and arranged a gladiatorial combat. Last of all he +flooded the place once more and gave a costly public banquet. The person +who had been appointed director of the banquet was Tigillinus, and a large +and complete equipment had been furnished. The arrangements made were as +follows. In the center and resting on the water were placed the great +wooden wine vessels, over which boards had been fastened. Round about it +had been built taverns and booths. Thus Nero and Tigillinus and their +fellow-banqueters, being in the center, held their feast on purple carpets +and soft mattresses, while all the other people caroused in the taverns. +These also entered the brothels, where unrestrictedly they might enjoy +absolutely any woman to be found there. Now the latter were some of the +most beautiful and distinguished in the city, both slaves and free, some +hetaerae, some virgins, some wives,--not merely, that is to say, public +wenches, but both girls and women of the very noblest families. Every man +was given authority to have whichever one he wished, for the women were +not allowed to refuse any one. Consequently, the multitude being a regular +rabble, they drank greedily and reveled in wanton conduct. So a slave +debauched his mistress in the presence of his master and a gladiator +ravished a girl of noble family while her father looked on. The shoving +and striking and uproar that went on, first on the part of those who were +going in and second on the part of those who stood around outside, was +disgraceful. Many men met their death in these encounters, and of the +women some were strangled and some were seized and carried off. + +[Sidenote:--16--] After this Nero had the wish (or rather it had always +been a fixed purpose of his) to make an end of the whole city and +sovereignty during his lifetime. Priam he deemed wonderfully happy in that +he had seen his country perish at the same moment as his authority. +Accordingly he sent in different directions men feigning to be drunk or +engaged in some indifferent species of rascality and at first had one or +two or more blazes quietly kindled in different quarters: people, of +course, fell into the utmost confusion, not being able to find any +beginning of the trouble nor to put any end to it, and meanwhile they +became aware of many strange sights and sounds. For soon there was nothing +to be observed but many fires as in a camp, and no other phrases fell from +men's lips but "This or that is burning "; "Where?"; "How?"; "Who set +it?"; "To the rescue!" An extraordinary perturbation laid hold on all +wherever they might be, and they ran about as if distracted, some in one +direction and some in another. Some men in the midst of assisting their +neighbors would learn that their own premises were on fire. Others +received the first intimation of their own possessions being aflame when +informed that they were destroyed. Persons would run from their houses +into the lanes with some idea of being of assistance from the outside, or +again they would dash into the dwellings from the streets, appearing to +think they could accomplish something inside. The shouting and screaming +of children, women, men, and graybeards all together were incessant, so +that one could have no consciousness nor comprehension of anything by +reason of the smoke and shouting combined. On this account some might be +seen standing speechless, as if dumb. All this time many who were carrying +out their goods and many more who were stealing what belonged to others +kept encountering one another and falling over the merchandise. It was not +possible to get anywhere, nor yet to stand still; but people pushed and +were pushed back, they upset others and were themselves upset, many were +suffocated, many were crushed: in fine, no evil that can possibly happen +to men at such a crisis failed to befall them. They could not with ease +find even any avenue of escape, and, if any one did save himself from some +immediate danger, he usually fell into another one and was lost. + +[Sidenote:--17--] This did not all take place on one day, but lasted for +several days and nights together. Many houses were destroyed through lack +of some one to defend them and many were set on fire in still more places +by persons who presumably came to the rescue. For the soldiers (including +the night watch), having an eye upon plunder, instead of extinguishing any +blaze kindled greater conflagrations. While similar scenes were being +enacted at various points a sudden wind caught the fire and swept it over +whatever remained. Consequently no one concerned himself any longer about +goods or houses, but all the survivors, standing in a place of safety, +gazed upon what seemed to be many islands and cities burning. There was no +longer any grief over individual losses, for it was swallowed up in the +public lamentation, as men reminded one another how once before most of +their city had been similarly laid waste by the Gauls. [Sidenote:--18--] +While the whole population was in this state of mind and many crazed by +the disaster were leaping into the blaze itself, Nero mounted to the roof +of the palace, where nearly the whole conflagration could be taken in by a +sweeping glance, and having assumed the lyrist's garb he sang the Taking +(as he said) of Ilium, which, to the ordinary vision, however, appeared to +be the Taking of Rome. + +The calamity which the city at this time experienced has no parallel +before or since, except in the Gallic invasion. The whole Palatine hill, +the theatre of Taurus, and nearly two-thirds of the remainder of the city +were burned and countless human beings perished. The populace invoked +curses upon Nero without intermission, not uttering his name but simply +cursing those who had set the city on fire: and this was especially the +case because they were disturbed by the memory of the oracle chanted in +Tiberius's day. These were the words:-- + + "Thrice three hundred cycles of tireless years being ended, Civil strife + shall the Romans destroy." [Footnote: Compare Book Fifty-seven, chapter + 18.] + +And when Nero by way of encouraging them reported that these verses were +nowhere to be found, they changed and went to repeating another oracle, +which they averred to be a genuine Sibylline production, namely:-- + + "Last of the sons of Aeneas a matricide shall govern." + +And so it proved, whether this was actually revealed beforehand by some +divination or whether the populace now for the first time gave it the form +of a divine saying adapted to existing circumstances. For Nero was indeed +the last emperor of the Julian line descended from Aeneas. + +He now began to collect vast sums from both individuals and nations, +sometimes using compulsion, with the conflagration for his excuse, and +sometimes obtaining it by "voluntary" offers; and the mass of the Romans +had the food supply fund withdrawn. + +[Sidenote:--19--] While he was so engaged, he received news from Armenia +and soon after a laurel wreath in honor of victory. The scattered bodies +of soldiery in that region had been united by Corbulo, who trained them +sedulously after a period of neglect, and then by the very report of his +coming had terrified both Vologaesus, king of Parthia, and Tiridates, +chief of Armenia. He resembled the primitive Romans in that besides coming +of a brilliant family and besides possessing much strength of body he was +still further gifted with a shrewd intelligence: and he behaved with great +bravery, with great fairness, and with great good faith toward all, both +friends and enemies. For these reasons Nero had despatched him to the +scene of war in his own stead and had entrusted to him a larger force than +to anybody else, being equally assured that the man would subdue the +barbarians and would not revolt against him. And Corbulo proved neither of +these assumptions false. + +All other men, however, had it as a particular grievance against him that +he kept faith with Nero. They were very anxious to get him as emperor in +place of the actual despot, and this conduct of his seemed to them his +only defect. + +[Sidenote:--20--] Corbulo, accordingly, had taken Artaxata without a +struggle and had razed the city to the ground. This exploit finished, he +marched in the direction of Tigranocerta, sparing all the districts that +yielded themselves but devastating the lands of all such as resisted him. +Tigranocerta submitted to him voluntarily, and he performed other +brilliant and glorious deeds, as a result of which he induced the +formidable Vologaesus to accept terms that accorded with the Roman +reputation. [For Vologaesus, on hearing that Nero had assigned Armenia to +others and that Adiabene was being ravaged by Tigranes, made preparations +himself to go on a campaign into Syria against Corbulo, but sent into +Armenia Monobazus, king of Adiabene, and Monaeses, a Parthian. These two +had shut up Tigranes in Tigranocerta. But since they did not succeed in +harming him at all by their siege and as often as they tried conclusions +with him were repulsed by both the native troops and the Romans that were +in his army, and since Corbulo guarded Syria with extreme care, Vologaesus +recognized the hopelessness of his attempt and disbanded his forces. Then +he sent to Corbulo and obtained peace on condition that he send a new +embassy to Nero, raise the siege, and withdraw his soldiers from Armenia. +Nero made him no immediate nor speedy nor definite reply, but despatched +Lucius Caesennius Paetus to Cappadocia to see to it that there should be +no Armenian uprising.] + +[Sidenote:--21--] [So Vologaesus attacked Tigranocerta and drove back +Paetus, who had come to its aid. When the latter fled he pursued him, beat +back the garrison left by Paetus at the Taurus, and shut him up in +Rhandea, near the river Arsanias. Then he was on the point of retiring +without accomplishing anything; for destitute as he was of heavy-armed +soldiers he could not approach close to the wall, and he had no large +stock of provender, particularly as he had come at the head of a vast host +without making arrangements for food supplies. Paetus, however, stood in +terror of his archery, which took effect in the very camp itself, as well +as of the cavalry, which kept appearing at all points. Hence he made peace +proposals to his antagonist, accepted his terms, and took an oath that he +would himself abandon all of Armenia and that Nero should give it to +Tiridates. The Parthian was satisfied enough with this agreement, seeing +that he was to obtain control of the country without a contest and would +be making the Romans his debtors for a very considerable kindness. And, as +he learned that Corbulo (whom Paetus several times sent for before he was +surrounded) was drawing near, he dismissed the beleaguered soldiers, +having first made them agree to build a bridge over the river Arsanias for +him. He was not really in need of a bridge, for he had crossed on foot, +but he wished to give them a practical example of the fact that he was +stronger than they. Indeed, he did not retire by way of the bridge even on +this occasion, but rode across on an elephant, while the rest got over as +before. + +[Sidenote:--22--] The capitulation had scarcely been made when Corbulo +with inconceivable swiftness reached the Euphrates and there waited for +the retreating force. When the two armies approached each other you would +have been struck with the difference between them and between their +generals: one set were fairly aglow with delight at their rapidity; the +others were grieved and ashamed of their compact. Vologaesus sent Monaeses +to Corbulo with the demand that the newcomer should give up the fort in +Mesopotamia. So they held a prolonged conference together right at the +bridge crossing the Euphrates, after first destroying the center of the +structure. Corbulo having promised to leave the country if the Parthian +would also abandon Armenia, both of these things were done temporarily +until Nero could learn the outcome of the engagements and begin +negotiations with the envoys of Vologaesus, whom the latter had sent a +second time. The answer given them by the emperor was that he would bestow +Armenia upon Tiridates if this aspirant would come to Rome. Paetus was +deposed from his command and the soldiers that had been with him were sent +somewhere else. Corbulo was again assigned to the war against the same +foes. Nero had intended to accompany the expedition in person, but after +falling down during the ceremony of sacrificing he would not venture to go +abroad but remained where he was.] + +[Sidenote:--23--] [Corbulo therefore officially prepared for war upon +Vologaesus and sent a centurion bidding him depart from the country. +Privately, however, he suggested to the king that he send his brother to +Rome, and this advice met with acceptance, since Corbulo seemed to have +the stronger force. Thus it came about that they both, Corbulo and +Tiridates, met at no other place than Rhandea, which suited them both. It +appealed to the Parthian because there his people had cut off the Romans +and had sent them away under a capitulation, a visible proof of the favor +that had been done them. To the Roman it appealed because his men were +going to wipe out the ill repute that had attached to them there before. +For the meeting of the two was not limited merely to conversation; a lofty +platform had been erected on which were set images of Nero, and in the +presence of crowds of Armenians, Parthians, and Romans Tiridates +approached and did them reverence; after sacrificing to them and calling +them by laudatory names he took off the diadem from his head and set it +upon them. Monobazus and Vologaesus also came to Corbulo and gave him +hostages. In honor of this event Nero was a number of times saluted as +imperator and held a triumph, contrary to precedent.] But Corbulo in spite +of the large force that he had and the very considerable reputation that +he enjoyed did not rebel and was never accused of rebellion. He might +easily have been made emperor, since men thoroughly detested Nero but all +admired him in every way. [In addition to the more striking features of +his submissive behavior he voluntarily sent to Rome his son-in-law Annius, +who served as his lieutenant; this was done professedly that Annius might +escort Tiridates back, but in fact this relative stood in the position of +a hostage to Nero. The latter was so firmly persuaded that his general +would not revolt that Corbulo obtained his son-in-law as lieutenant +[Footnote: Reading [Greek: hyparchon] (Boissevain) for [Greek: hypaton].] +before he had been praetor.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 65 (a.u. 818)] [Sidenote:--24--] Seneca, however, and +Rufus the prefect and some other prominent men formed a plot against Nero. +They could no longer endure his ignoble behavior, his licentiousness, and +his cruelty. They desired at one and the same time to be rid of these +evils and to give Nero his release from them. Indeed, Sulpicius Asper, a +centurion, and Subrius Flavius, a military tribune, both belonging to the +body-guards, admitted this to him point blank. Asper, when interrogated by +the emperor as to the reason for his attempt, replied: "I could help you +in no other way." And the response of Flavins was: "I both loved you and +hated you above all men. I loved you, hoping that you would prove a good +emperor: I have hated you because you do so-and-so. I can not be slave to +charioteer or lyre-player."--Information was lodged and these men were +punished, besides many others indirectly associated with them. Everything +in the nature of a complaint that could be entertained against any one for +excessive joy or grief, for words or gestures, was brought forward and was +believed. Not one of these complaints, even if fictitious, could be +refused credence in view of Nero's actual deeds. Hence conscienceless +friends and house servants of some men flourished greatly. Persons guarded +against strangers and foes,--for of these they were suspicious,--but were +bound to expose themselves whether they would or no to their associates. + +[Sidenote:--25--] It would be no small task to record details about most +of those that perished, but the fate of Seneca needs a few words by +itself. It was his wish to end the life of his wife Paulina at the same +time with his own, for he declared that he had taught her to despise death +and that she desired to leave the world in company with him. So he opened +her veins as well as his own. As he failed, however, to yield readily to +death, his end was hastened by the soldiers; and his dying so speedily +enabled Paulina to survive. He did not lay hands upon himself, however, +until he had revised the book which he had composed and had deposited with +various persons certain other valued possessions which he feared might +come into Nero's hands and be destroyed. Thus was Seneca forced to part +with life in spite of the fact that he had on the pretext of illness +abandoned the society of the emperor and had bestowed upon him his entire +property, supposedly to help defray the expense of necessary building +operations. His brothers, too, perished after him. + +[Sidenote:--26--] Likewise Thrasea and Soranus, who had no superiors in +family, wealth, and every excellence, met their death not because they +were accused of conspiracy but because they were what they were. Against +Soranus Publius Egnatius Celer, a philosopher, gave false evidence. The +victim had had two associates,--Cassius Asclepiodotus of Nicaea and this +Publius of Berytus. Now Asclepiodotus so far from speaking against Soranus +bore witness to his noble qualities; he was at the time exiled for his +pains, but later, under Galba, was restored. Publius in return for his +services as blackmailer received money and honors (as did others of the +same profession), but subsequently he was banished. Soranus was slain on +the charge of having caused his daughter to employ a species of magic, the +foundation for this story being that when he was sick his family had +offered some sacrifices. Thrasea was executed for not appearing regularly +at the senate-house, thus showing that he did not like the measures +passed, for not listening to the emperor's singing and zither-playing, for +not sacrificing to Nero's Divine Voice as did the rest, and for not giving +any public exhibitions: for it was remarked that at Patavium, his native +place, he had acted in a tragedy given in pursuance of some old custom at +a festival held every thirty years. As he made the incision in his artery, +he raised his hand, exclaiming: "To thee, Jupiter, patron of freedom, I +pour this libation of blood." + + +[Sidenote:--27--] [And Junius Torquatus, a descendant of Augustus, made +himself liable to a most strange indictment. He had squandered his +property in a rather lavish way, whether following his native bent or with +the intention of not being very rich. Nero therefore declared that, as he +lacked many things, he must be covetous of the goods of others, and +consequently caused a fictitious charge to be brought against him of +aspiring to imperial power.] + +And why should one be surprised that such complaints +were fastened upon them, [Footnote: A slight gap in the MS. exists here, +filled by a doubtful conjecture of Boissevain's.] seeing that one man +[Footnote: _Salvidienus Orfitus_ (according to Suetonius, Life of +Nero, chap. 37).] was brought to trial and slain for living near the +Forum, for letting out some shops, or for receiving a few friends in them; +and another [Footnote: _C. Cassius Longinus_ (ibid)..] because he +possessed a likeness of Cassius, the murderer of Caesar? + +The conduct of a woman named Epicharis also deserves mention. She had been +included in the conspiracy and all its details had been trusted to her +without reserve; yet she revealed none of these though often tortured in +all the ways that the skill of Tigillinus could devise. And why should one +enumerate the sums given to the Pretorians on the occasion of this +conspiracy or the excessive honors voted to Nero and his friends? Let me +say only that it led to the banishment of Rufus Musonius, the philosopher. +Sabina also perished at this time through an act of Nero's. Either +accidentally or intentionally he had given her a violent kick while she +was pregnant. + +[Sidenote:--28--] The extremes of luxury indulged in by this Sabina I will +indicate in the briefest possible terms. She had gilded girths put upon +the mules that carried her and caused five hundred asses that had recently +foaled to be milked each day that she might bathe in their milk. She +devoted great thought to making her person appear youthful and lustrously +beautiful,--and with brilliant results; and this is why, not fancying her +appearance in a mirror one day, she prayed that she might die before she +passed her prime. Nero missed her so that [after her death, at first, on +learning that there was a woman resembling her he sent for and kept this +female: later] because a boy of the _liberti_ class, named Sporus, +resembled Sabina, he had him castrated and used him in every way like a +woman; and in due time he formally married him though he [Nero] was +already married to a freedman Pythagoras. He assigned the boy a regular +dowry according to contract, and Romans as well as others held a public +celebration of their wedding. + +While Nero had Sporus the eunuch as a wife, one of his associates in Rome, +who had made a specialty of philosophy, on being asked whether the +marriage and cohabitation in question met with his approval replied: "You +do well, Caesar, to seek the company of such wives. If only your father +had had the same ambition and had dwelt with a similar +consort!"--indicating that if this had been the case, Nero would not have +been born, and the government would have been relieved of great evils. + +This was, however, later. At the time with which we are immediately +concerned many, as I stated, were put to death and many who purchased +their preservation with Tigillinus with a great price were released. + +[Sidenote:--29--] Nero continued to commit many ridiculous acts, among +which may be cited his descending at a kind of popular festival to the +orchestra of the theatre, where he read some Trojan lays of his own: and +in honor of these there were offered numerous sacrifices, as there were +over everything else that he did. He was now making preparations to +compile in verse a narration of all the achievements of the Romans: before +composing any of it, however, he began to consider the proper number of +books, and took as his adviser Annaeus Cornutus, who at this time was +famed for his learning. This man he came very near putting to death and +did deport to an island, because, while some were urging him to write four +hundred books, Cornutus said that was too many and nobody would read them. +And when some one objected: "Yet Chrysippus, whom you praise and imitate, +has composed many more," the savant retorted: "But they are a help to the +conduct of men's lives." So Cornutus was punished with exile for this. And +Lucanus was enjoined from writing poetry because he was securing great +praise for his work. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +63 + +Nero, receiving Tiridates with imposing state, places a crown upon his +head (chapters 1-7). + +He journeys to Greece in order to become Periodonikes (chapters 8-10). + +With the help of Tigillinus and Crispinilla he lays Greece waste: Helius +and Polycletus perform the same office for Rome and Italy (chapters 11, +12). + +Nero's marriages and abominations with Sporus and Pythagoras (chapter 13). + +His victories and proclamation: frenzy against Apollo: hatred toward the +senators (chapters 14, 15). + +Digging a canal through the Isthmus (chapter 16). + +Demise of the Scribonii, of Corbulo, of Paris, of the Sulpicii (chapters +17, 18). + +At the solicitation of Helius, Nero returning conducts an Iselasticum +triumph (chapters 19-21). + +Vindex's conspiracy against Nero, and his extinction (chapters 22-24). + +Rufus, saluted as Caesar and Augustus, refuses the sovereignty (chapter +25). + +Nero's flight and demise (chapters 26-29). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +C. Lucius Telesinus, C. Suetonius Paulinus. (A.D. 66 = a.u. 819 = +Thirteenth of Nero, from Oct. 13th). + +Fonteius Capito, Iunius Rufus. (A.D. 67 = a.u. 820 = Fourteenth of Nero). + +C. Silius Italicus, Galerius Trachalus Turpilianus. (A.D. 68 = a.u. 821, +to June 9th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 66 (a.u. 819)] [Sidenote:--1--] In the consulship +of Gaius Telesinus and Suetonius Paulinus one event of great glory and +another of deep disgrace took place. For one thing Nero contended among +the zither-players, and after Menecrates, [Footnote: This proper name is +the result of an emendation by Reimar.]the teacher of this art, had +celebrated a triumph for him in the hippodrome, he appeared as a +charioteer. For the other, Tiridates presented himself in Rome, bringing +with him not only his own children but those of Vologaesus, of Pacorus, +and of Monobazus. They were the objects of interest in a quasi-triumphal +procession through the whole country west from the Euphrates. +[Sidenote:--2--] Tiridates himself was in the prime of life, a notable +figure by reason of his youth, beauty, family, and intelligence: and his +whole train of servants together with the entourage of a royal court +accompanied the advance. Three thousand Parthian horsemen and besides them +numerous Romans followed his train. They were received by gaily decorated +cities and by peoples who shouted their compliments aloud. Provisions were +furnished them free of cost, an expenditure of twenty myriads for their +daily support being thus charged to the public treasury. This went on +without change for the nine months occupied in their journey. The prince +covered the whole distance to the confines of Italy on horseback and +beside him rode his wife, wearing a golden helmet in place of a veil, so +as not to defy the traditions of her country by letting her face be seen. +In Italy he was conveyed in a two-horse carriage sent by Nero and met the +emperor at Naples, which he reached by way of the Picentes. He refused, +however, to obey the order to put down his dagger when he approached the +Roman monarch, and he nailed it firmly to the scabbard. Yet he knelt upon +the ground, and with arms crossed called him master and did obeisance. +[Sidenote:--3--] Nero manifested his approbation of this act and +entertained him in many ways, one of which was a gladiatorial show at +Puteoli. The person who directed the contests was Patrobius, one of his +freedmen. He managed to make it a brilliant and costly affair, as is shown +by the fact that on one of the days not a person but Ethiopians, men, +women, and children, appeared in the theatre. By way of showing Patrobius +some proper honor Tiridates shot at beasts from his elevated seat. And, if +we may trust the report, he transfixed and killed two bulls together with +one arrow. + +[Sidenote:--4--] After this affair Nero took him up to Rome and set the +diadem upon his head. The entire city had been decorated with lights and +garlands, and great crowds of people were to be seen everywhere, the +Forum, however, being especially full. The center was occupied by the +populace, arranged according to rank, clad in white and carrying laurel +branches: everywhere else were the soldiers, arrayed in shining armor, +their weapons and standards reflecting back the sunbeams. The very roof +tiles of the buildings in this vicinity were completely hidden from view +by the spectators who had ascended to these points of vantage. Everything +was in readiness by the time night drew to a close and at daybreak Nero, +wearing the triumphal garb and accompanied by the senate and the +Pretorians, entered the Forum. He ascended the rostra and seated himself +upon the chair of state. Next Tiridates and his suite passed through rows +of heavy-armed men drawn up on each side, took their stand close to the +rostra, and did obeisance to the emperor as they had done before. +[Sidenote:--5--] At this a great roar went up which so alarmed Tiridates +that for some moments he stood speechless, in terror of his life. Then, +silence having been proclaimed, he recovered courage and quelling his +pride made himself subservient to the occasion and to his need, caring +little how humbly he spoke, in view of the prize he hoped to obtain. These +were his words: "Master, I am the descendant of Arsaces, brother of the +princes Vologaesus and Pacorus, and thy slave. And I have come to thee, my +deity, to worship thee as I do Mithra. The destiny thou spinnest for me +shall be mine: for thou art my Fortune and my Fate." + +Nero replied to him as follows: "Well hast thou done to come hither in +person, that present in my presence thou mayest enjoy my benefits. For +what neither thy father left thee nor thy brothers gave and preserved for +thee, this do I grant thee. King of Armenia I now declare thee, that both +thou and they may understand that I have power to take away kingdoms and +to bestow them." At the end of these words he bade him come up the +inclined plane built for this very purpose in front of the rostra, and +Tiridates having been made to sit beneath his feet he placed the diadem +upon his head. At this there was no end of shouts of all sorts. +[Sidenote:--6--] According to decree there also took place a celebration +in the theatre. Not merely the stage but the whole interior of the theatre +round about had been gilded, and all properties brought in had been +adorned with gold, so that people came to refer to the very day as +"golden." The curtains stretched across the sky-opening to keep off the +sun were of purple and in the centre of them was an embroidered figure of +Nero driving a chariot, with golden stars gleaming all about him. So much +for the setting: and of course they had a costly banquet. + +Afterward Nero sang publicly with zither accompaniment and drove a +chariot, clad in the costume of the Greens and wearing a charioteer's +helmet. This made Tiridates disgusted with him; but for Corbulo the +visitor had only praise and deemed the one thing against him to be that he +would put up with such a master. Indeed, he made no concealment of his +views to Nero's face, but one day said to him: "Master, you have in +Corbulo a good slave." The person addressed, however, did not comprehend +his speech.--In all other matters he flattered the emperor and ingratiated +himself most skillfully, with the result that he received all kinds of +gifts, said to have possessed in the aggregate a value of five thousand +myriads, and obtained permission to rebuild Artaxata. Moreover, he took +with him from Rome many artisans, some of whom he got from Nero, and some +whom he persuaded by offers of high wages. Corbulo, however, would not let +them all cross into Armenia, but only the ones whom Nero had given him. +That caused Tiridates to admire him all the more and to despise his chief. + +[Sidenote:--7--] The return was made not by the same route as he followed +in coming,--through Illyricum and north of the Ionian Gulf,--but instead +he sailed from Brundusium to Dyrrachium. He viewed also the cities of +Asia, which helped to increase his amazement at the strength and beauty of +the Roman empire. + +Tiridates one day viewed an exhibition of pancratium. One of the +contestants fell to the ground and was being pummeled by his opponent. +When the prince saw it, he exclaimed: "That's an unfair contest. It isn't +fair that a man who has fallen should be beaten." + +On rebuilding Artaxata Tiridates named it Neronia. But Vologaesus though +often summoned refused to come to Nero, and finally, when the latter's +invitations became burdensome to him, sent back a despatch to this effect: +"It is far easier for you than for me to traverse so great a body of +water. Therefore, if you will come to Asia, we can then arrange [where we +shall be able] to meet each other." [Such was the message which the +Parthian wrote at last.] + +[Sidenote:--8--] Nero though angry at him did not sail against him, nor +yet against the Ethiopians or the Caspian Pylae, as he had intended. [He +saw that the subjugation of these regions demanded time and labor and +hoped that they would submit to him of their own accord:] and he sent +spies to both places. But he did cross over into Greece, not at all as +Flamininus or Mummius or as Agrippa and Augustus his ancestors had done, +but for the purpose of chariot racing, of playing and singing, of making +proclamations, and of acting in tragedies. Rome was not enough for him, +nor Pompey's theatre, nor the great hippodrome, but he desired also a +foreign tour, in order to become, as he said, victor in all the four +contests. [Footnote: Literally "victor of the periodos." This was a name +applied to an athlete who had conquered in the Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean +and Olympian games.] And a multitude not only of Augustans but of other +persons were taken with him, large enough, if it had been a hostile host, +to have subdued both Parthians and all other nations. But they were the +kind you would have expected Nero's soldiers to be, and the arms they +carried were zithers and plectra, masks and buskins. The victories Nero +won were such as befitted that sort of army, and he overcame Terpnus and +Diodorus and Pammenes, instead of Philip or Perseus or Antiochus. It is +probable that his purpose in forcing the Pammenes referred to, who had +been in his prime in the reign of Gaius, to compete in spite of his age, +was that he might overcome him and vent his dislike in abuse of his +statues. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 67 (?)] [Sidenote:--9--] Had he done only this, he would +have been the subject of ridicule. So how could one endure to hear about, +let alone seeing, an emperor, an Augustus, listed on the program among the +contestants, training his voice, practicing certain songs, wearing long +hair on his head but with his chin shaven, throwing his toga over his +shoulder in the races, walking about with one or two attendants, eyeing +his adversaries suspiciously and ever and anon throwing out a word to them +in the midst of a boxing match; how he dreaded the directors of the games +and the wielders of the whip and spent money on all of them secretly to +avoid being shown up in his true colors and whipped; and how all that he +did to make himself victor in the citharoedic contest only contributed to +his defeat in the Contest of the Caesars? How find words to denounce the +wickedness of this proscription in which it was not [Footnote: [Greek: oi] +supplied by Reiske.] Sulla that bulletined the names of others, but Nero +bulletined his own name? What victory less deserves the name than that by +which one receives the olive, the laurel, the parsley, or the fir-tree +garland, and loses the political crown? And why should one bewail these +acts of his alone, seeing that he also by treading on the high-soled +buskins lowered himself from his eminence of power, and by hiding behind +the mask lost the dignity of his sovereignty to beg in the guise of a +runaway slave, to be led like a blind man, to conceive, to bear children, +to go mad [to drive a chariot], as he acted out time after time the story +of Oedipus, and of Thyestes, of Heracles and Alemeon, and of Orestes? The +masks he wore were sometimes made to resemble the characters and sometimes +had his own likeness. The women's masks were all fashioned to conform to +the features of Sabina [in order that though dead she might still move in +stately procession. All the situations that common actors simulate in +their acting he, too, would undertake to present, by speech, by action, by +being acted upon,--save only that] golden chains were used to bind him: +apparently it was not thought proper for a Roman emperor to be bound in +iron shackles. + +[Sidenote:--10--] All this behavior, nevertheless, the soldiers and all +the rest saw, endured, and approved. They entitled him Pythian Victor, +Olympian Victor, National Victor, Absolute Victor, besides all the usual +expressions, and of course added to these names the honorific designations +belonging to his imperial office, so that every one of them had "Caesar" +and "Augustus" as a tag. + +He conceived a dislike for a certain man because while he was speaking the +man frowned and was not overlavish of his praises; and so he drove him +away and would not let him come into his presence. He persisted in his +refusal to grant him audience, and when the person asked: "Where shall I +go, then?" Phoebus, Nero's freedman, replied: "To the deuce!" + +No one of the people ventured either to pity or to hate the wretched +creature. One of the soldiers, to be sure, on seeing him bound, grew +indignant, ran up, and set him free. Another in reply to a question: "What +is the emperor doing?" had to answer: "He is in labor pains," for Nero was +then acting the part of Canace. Not one of them conducted himself in a way +at all worthy of a Roman. Instead, because so much money fell to their +share, they offered prayers that he might give many such performances and +they in this way get still more. + +[Sidenote:--11--] And if things had merely gone on like this, the affair, +while being a source of shame and of ridicule alike, would still have been +deemed free from danger. But as a fact he devastated the whole of Greece +precisely as if he had been despatched to some war and without regard to +the fact that he had declared the country free, also slaying great numbers +[of men, women and children. At first he commanded the children and +freedmen of those who were executed to leave him half their property at +their death, and allowed the original victims to make wills in order to +make it seem less likely that he had killed them for their money; and he +invariably took all that was bequeathed to him, if not more. In case any +one left to him or to Tigillinus less than they were expecting, the wills +were of no avail.--Later he deprived persons of their _entire_ +property and banished all their children at once by one decree. Not even +this satisfied him, but he destroyed not a few of the exiles.] For no one +could begin to enumerate all the confiscated possessions of men allowed to +live and all the votive offerings that he stole from the very temples in +Rome. [The despatch-bearers hurried hither and thither with no piece of +news other than "kill this man!" or that that man was dead. No private +messages, only state documents, were delivered; for Nero had taken many of +the foremost men to Greece under pretence of needing some assistance from +them merely in order that they might perish there. [Sidenote:--12--] The +whole population of Rome and Italy he surrendered like captives to a +certain Helius, a Caesarian. The latter had been given absolutely complete +authority, so that he might confiscate, banish, and put to death (even +before notifying Nero) ordinary persons, knights, and senators alike.] + +Thus the Roman domain was at that time a slave to two emperors at +once,--Nero and Helius; and I do not feel able to say which was the worse. +In most respects they behaved entirely alike, and the one point of +difference was that the descendant of Augustus was emulating +zither-players, whereas the freedman of Claudius was emulating Caesars. I +consider the acts of Tigillinus as a part of Nero's career because he was +constantly with him: but Polyclitus and Calvia Crispinilla by themselves +plundered, sacked, despoiled all the places they could get at. The former +was associated with Helius at Rome, and the latter with Sabina, born +Sporus. Calvia had been entrusted with the care of the boy and with the +oversight of the wardrobe, though a woman and of high rank; and she saw to +it that all were stripped of their possessions. + +[Sidenote:--13--] Now Nero called Sporus Sabina not merely on account of +the fact that by reason of resemblance to her he had been made a eunuch, +but because the boy like the mistress had been solemnly contracted to him +in Greece, with Tigillinus to give the bride away, as the law ordained. +All the Greeks held a festal celebration of their marriage, uttering all +the customary good wishes (as they could not well help) even to the extent +of praying that legitimate children might be born to them. After that Nero +took to himself two bedfellows, Pythagoras to treat as a man and Sporus as +a woman. The latter, in addition to other forms of address, was termed +lady, queen, and mistress. + +Yet why should one wonder at this, seeing that this monarch would fasten +naked boys and girls to poles, and then putting on the hide of a wild +beast would approach them and satisfy his brutal lust under the appearance +of devouring parts of their bodies? Such were the indecencies of Nero. + +When he received the senators he wore a short flowered tunic with muslin +collar, for he had already begun to transgress precedent in wearing ungirt +tunics in public. It is stated also that knights belonging to the army +used in his reign for the first time saddle-cloths during their public +review. + +[Sidenote:--14--] At the Olympic games he fell from the chariot he was +driving and came very near being crushed to death: yet he was crowned +victor. In acknowledgment of this favor he gave to the Hellanodikai the +twenty-five myriads which Galba later demanded back from them. [And to the +Pythia he gave ten myriads for giving some responses to suit him: this +money Galba recovered.] Again, whether from vexation at Apollo for making +some unpleasant predictions to him or because he was merely crazy, he took +away from the god the territory of Cirrha and gave it to the soldiers. In +fact, he abolished the oracle, slaying men and throwing them into the rock +fissure from which the divine _afflatus_ arose. He contended in every +single city that boasted any contest, and in all cases requiring the +services of a herald he employed for that purpose Cluvius Rufus, an +ex-consul. Athens and the Lacedaemonians were exceptions to this rule, +being the only places that he did not visit at all. He avoided the second +because of the laws of Lycurgus, which stood in the way of his designs, +and the former because of the story about the Furies.--The proclamation +ran: "Nero Caesar wins this contest and crowns the Roman people and his +world." Possessing according to his own statement a world, he went on +singing and playing, making proclamations, and acting tragedies. + +[Sidenote:--15--] His hatred for the senate was so fierce that he took +particular pleasure in Vatinius, who kept always saying to him: "I hate +you, Caesar, for being of senatorial rank."--I have used the exact +expression that he uttered.--Both the senators and all others were +constantly subjected to the closest scrutiny in their entrances, their +exits, their attitudes, their gestures, their outcries. The men that stuck +constantly by Nero, listened attentively, made their applause distinct, +were commended and honored: the rest were both degraded and punished, so +that some, when they could endure it no longer (for they were frequently +expected to be on the _qui vive_ from early morning until evening), +would feign to swoon and would be carried out of the theatres as if dead. + +[Sidenote:--16--] As an incidental labor connected with his sojourn in +Greece he conceived a desire to dig a canal across the isthmus of the +Peloponnesus, and he did begin the task. Men shrank from it, however, +because, when the first workers touched the earth, blood spouted from it, +groans and bellowings were heard, and many phantoms appeared. Nero himself +thereupon grasped a mattock and by throwing up some of the soil fairly +compelled the rest to imitate him. For this work he sent for a large +number of men from other nations as well. + +[Sidenote:--17--] For this and other purposes he needed great sums of +money; and as he was a promoter of great enterprises and a liberal giver +and at the same time feared an attack from the persons of most influence +while he was thus engaged, he destroyed many excellent men. Of most of +these I shall omit any mention, merely saying that the stock complaint +under which all of them were brought before him was uprightness, wealth, +and family: all of them either killed themselves or were slaughtered by +others. I shall pause to consider only Corbulo and (of the Sulpicii +Scribonii) Rufus and Proculus. These two deserve attention because they +were in a way brothers and contemporaries, never doing anything separately +but united in purpose and in property as they were in family: they had for +a long time administered the affairs of the Germanies and had come to +Greece at the summons of Nero, who affected to want something from them. A +complaint of the kind which that period so prodigally afforded was lodged +against them. They could obtain no hearing on the matter nor even get +within sight of Nero; and as this caused them to be slighted by all +persons without exception, they began to long for death and so met their +end by slitting open their veins.--And I notice Corbulo, because the +emperor, after giving him also a most courteous summons and invariably +calling him (among other names) "father" and "benefactor," then, as this +general approached Cenchrea, commanded that he be slain before he had even +entered his presence. Some explain this by saying that Nero was about to +sing with zither accompaniment and could not endure the idea of being seen +by Corbulo while he wore the long ungirded tunic. The condemned man, as +soon as he understood the import of the order, seized a sword, and dealing +himself a lusty blow exclaimed: "Your due!" Now for the first time in his +career was he ready to believe that he had done ill both in sparing the +zither-player and in going to him unarmed. + +[Sidenote:--18--] This is the substance of what took place in Greece. Does +it add much to mention that Nero ordered Paris the dancer killed because +he wished to learn dancing from him and was disappointed? Or that he +banished Caecina Tuscus, governor of Egypt, for bathing in the tub that +had been specially constructed for his coming visit to Alexandria? + +In Rome about this same time Helius committed many acts of outrage. One of +these was his killing of a distinguished man, Sulpicius Camerinus, +together with his son; the complaint against them was that whereas they +were called _Pythici_ after some of their ancestors they would not +abandon possession of this name, thus blaspheming Nero's Pythian victories +by the use of a similar title.--And when the Augustans offered to build a +shrine to the emperor worth a thousand librae, the whole equestrian order +was compelled to help defray the expense they had undertaken.--As for the +doings of the senate, it would be a task to describe them all in detail. +For so many sacrifices and days of thanksgiving were announced that the +whole year would not hold them all. + +[Sidenote:--19--] Helius having for some time sent Nero repeated messages +urging him to return as quickly as possible, when he found that no +attention was paid to them, went himself to Greece on the seventh day and +frightened him by saying that a great conspiracy against him was on foot +in Rome. This news made him embark at double quick rate. There was some +hope of his perishing in a storm and many rejoiced, but to no purpose: he +came safely to land. And cause for destroying some few persons was found +in the very fact that they had prayed and hoped that he might perish. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 68 (a.u. 821)] [Sidenote:--20--] So, when he marched into +Rome, a portion of the wall was torn down and a section of the gates +broken in, because some asserted that each of these ceremonies was +customary upon the return of garlanded victors from the games. First +entered men wearing the garlands which, had been won, and after them +others with boards borne aloft on spears, upon which were inscribed the +name of the set of games, the kind of contest, and a statement that "Nero +Caesar first of all the Romans from the beginning of the world has +conquered in it." Next came the victor himself on a triumphal car in which +Augustus once had celebrated his many victories: he wore a vesture of +purple sprinkled with gold and a garland of wild olive; he held in his +hand the Pythian laurel. By his side in the vehicle sat Diodorus the +Citharoedist. After passing in this manner through the hippodrome and +through the Forum in company with the soldiers and the knights and the +senate he ascended the Capitol and proceeded thence to the palace. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 68 (a.u. 821)] The city was all decked with garlands, was +ablaze with lights and smoky with incense, and the whole population,--the +senators themselves most of all,--kept shouting aloud: "Vah, Olympian +Victor! Vah Pythian Victor! Augustus! Augustus! Hail to Nero the Hercules, +hail to Nero the Apollo!! The one National Victor, the only one from the +beginning of time! Augustus! Augustus! O, Divine Voice! Blessed are they +that hear thee!"--Why should I employ circumlocutions instead of letting +you see their very words? The actual expressions used do not disgrace my +history: no, the concealment of none of them rather lends it distinction. + +[Sidenote:--21--] When he had finished these ceremonies, he announced a +series of horse-races, and transferring to the hippodrome these crowns and +all the rest that he had secured by victories in chariot racing, he put +them about the Egyptian obelisk. The number of them was one thousand eight +hundred and eight. After doing this he appeared as charioteer.--A certain +Larcius, a Lydian, approached him with an offer of twenty-five myriads if +he would play and sing for them. Nero would not take the money, disdaining +to do anything for pay; and so Tigillinus collected it, as the price of +not putting Larcius to death. However, the emperor did appear on the stage +with an accompanied song and he also gave a tragedy. In the equestrian +contests he was seldom absent, and sometimes he would voluntarily let +himself be defeated in order to make it more credible that he really won +at other times. + +Dio 62nd Book: "And he inflicted uncounted woes on many cities." + +[Sidenote:--22--] This was the kind of life Nero led, this was the way he +ruled. I shall narrate also how he was put down and driven from his +throne. + +While Nero was still in Greece, the Jews revolted openly and he sent +Vespasian against them. The inhabitants of Britain and of Gaul, likewise, +oppressed by the taxes, experienced an even keener distress, which added +fuel to the already kindled fire of their indignation. + +--There was a Gaul named Gaius Julius Vindex [an Aquitanian], descended +from the native royal race and on his father's side entitled to rank as a +Roman senator. He was strong of body, had an intelligent mind, was skilled +in warfare and was full of daring for every enterprise. [He was to the +greatest degree a lover of freedom and was ambitious; and he stood at the +head of the Gauls.] Now this Vindex made an assembly of the Gauls, who had +suffered much during the numerous forced levies of money, and were still +suffering at Nero's hands. And ascending a tribunal he delivered a long +and detailed speech against Nero, saying that they ought to revolt from +the emperor and join him in an attack [upon him],--"because," said he, "he +has despoiled the whole Roman world, because he has destroyed all the +flower of their senate, because he debauched and likewise killed his +mother, and does not preserve even the semblance of sovereignty. Murders, +seizures and outrages have often been committed and by many other persons: +but how may one find words to describe the remainder of his conduct as it +deserves? I have seen, my friends and allies,--believe me,--I have seen +that man (if he is a man, who married Sporus and was given in marriage to +Pythagoras) in the arena of the theatre and in the orchestra, sometimes +with the zither, the loose tunic, the cothurnus, [Footnote: The two kinds +of footwear mentioned here appear in the Greek as _chothornos_ and +_embates_ respectively. These words are often synonymous, and both +may refer, as a rule, to _high_ boots. In the present passage, +however, some kind of contrast is evidently intended, and the most +acceptable solution of the question is that given by Sturz, in his +edition, who says that the _chothornos_ seems to have been used by +Nero only in singing, whereas he wore the _embates_ (as also the +mask) while acting.] sometimes with wooden shoes [Footnote: see previous +footnote] and mask. I have often heard him sing, I have heard him make +proclamations, I have heard him perform tragedy. I have seen him in +chains, I have seen him dragged about, pregnant, bearing children, going +through all the situations of mythology, by speech, by being addressed, by +being acted upon, by acting. Who, then, will call such a person Caesar and +emperor and Augustus? Let no one for any consideration so abuse those +sacred titles. They were held by Augustus and by Claudius. This fellow +might most properly be termed Thyestes and Oedipus, Alcmeon and Orestes. +These are the persons he represents on the stage and it is these titles +that he has assumed rather than the others. Therefore now at length rise +against him: come to the succor of yourselves and of the Romans; liberate +the entire world!" + +[Sidenote:--23--] Such words falling from the lips of Vindex met with +entire approval from all. Vindex was not working to get the imperial +office for himself but chose Servius Sulpicius Galba for that position: +this man was distinguished for his upright behavior and knowledge of war, +was governor of Spain, and had a not inconsiderable force. He was also +nominated by the soldiers as emperor. + +It is stated that Nero having offered by proclamation +two hundred and fifty myriads to the person who should kill Vindex, the +latter when he heard of it remarked: "The person who kills Nero and brings +his head to me may take mine in return." That was the sort of man Vindex +was. + +[Sidenote:--24--] Rufus, governor of Germany, set out to make war on +Vindex; but when he reached Vesontio he sat down to besiege the city, for +the alleged reason that it had not received him. Vindex came against him +to the aid of the city and encamped not far off. They then sent messages +back and forth to each other and finally held a conference together at +which no one else was present and made a mutual agreement,--against Nero, +as it was thought. After this Vindex set his army in motion for the +apparent purpose of occupying the town: and the soldiers of Rufus, +becoming aware of their approach, and thinking the force was marching +straight against them, set out without being ordered to oppose their +progress. They fell upon the advancing troop while the men were off their +guard and in disarray, and so cut down great numbers of them. Vindex +seeing this was afflicted with so great grief that he slew himself. For he +felt, besides, at odds with Heaven itself, in that he had not been able to +attain his goal in an undertaking of so great magnitude, involving the +overthrow of Nero and the liberation of the Romans. + +This is the truth of the matter. Many afterwards inflicted wounds on his +body, and so gave currency to the erroneous supposition that they had +themselves killed him. + +[Sidenote:--25--] Rufus mourned deeply his demise, but refused to accept +the office of emperor, although his soldiers frequently obtained it. He +was an energetic man and had a large, wide-awake body of troops. His +soldiers tore down and shattered the image of Nero and called their +general Caesar and Augustus. When he would not heed them, one of the +soldiers thereupon quickly inscribed these words on one of his standards. +He erased the terms, however, and after a great deal of trouble brought +the men to order and persuaded them to submit the question [Footnote: +[Greek: ta pragmata] supplied by Polak.] to the senate and the people. It +is hard to say whether this was merely because he did not deem it right +for the soldiers to bestow the supreme authority upon any one (for he +declared this to be the prerogative of the senate and the people), or +because he was entirely highminded and felt no personal desire for the +imperial power, to secure which others were willing to do everything. + +[Sidenote:--26--] [Nero was informed of the Vindex episode as he was in +Naples viewing the gymnastic contest just after luncheon. He was naturally +far from sorry, and leaping from his seat vied in prowess with some +athlete. He did not hurry back to Rome but merely sent a letter to the +senate, in which he asked them to regard leniently his non-arrival, +because he had a sore throat, implying that when he did come he wanted to +sing to them. And he continued to devote the same care and attention to +his voice, to his songs, and to the zither tunes, not only just then but +also subsequently: so he would not try a tone of his intended program. If +he was at any time compelled by circumstances to make some exclamation, +yet somebody, reminding him that he was to appear as citharoedist, would +straightway check and control him. + +In general he still behaved in his accustomed manner and +he was pleased with the news brought him because he had been expecting in +any event to overcome Vindex and because he thought he had now secured a +justifiable ground for money-getting and murders. He enjoyed the same +degree of luxury; and upon the completion and adornment of the heroum of +Sabina he gave it a brilliant dedication, taking care to have inscribed +upon it: "The Women have built This to Sabina, the Goddess Venus." And the +writing told the truth: for the building had been constructed with money +of which a great part had been stolen from women. Also he had his numerous +little jokes, of which I shall mention only one, omitting the rest.] One +night he suddenly summoned in haste the foremost senators and knights, +apparently to make some communication to them regarding the political +situation. When they were assembled, he said: "I have discovered a way by +which the water organ"--I must write exactly what he said--"will produce a +greater and more harmonious volume of sound." Such were his jokes about +this period. And little did he reck that both sets of doors, those of the +monument and those of the bedchamber of Augustus, opened of their own +accord in one and the same night, or that at Albanum it rained so much +blood that rivers of it flowed over the land, or that the sea retreated a +good distance from Egypt and covered a large portion of Lycia. +[Sidenote:--27--] But when he heard about Galba's being proclaimed emperor +by the soldiers and about the desertion of Rufus, he fell into great fear: +he made preparations in person at Rome and he sent against the rebels +Rubrius Gallus and some others. + +On learning that Petronius, [Footnote: _P. Petronius Turpilianus_.] +whom he had sent ahead against the rebels with the larger portion of the +army, also favored the cause of Galba, Nero reposed no further hope in +arms. + +Being abandoned by all without exception he began forming plans to kill +the senators, burn the city to the ground, and sail to Alexandria. He +dropped this hint in regard to his future course: "Even though we be +driven from our empire, yet this little artistic gift of ours shall +support us there." To such a pitch of folly had he come as to believe that +he could live for a moment as a private citizen and would be able to +appear as a musician. + +He was on the point of putting those measures into effect when the senate +first withdrew the guard that surrounded Nero, then entered the camp, and +declared Nero an enemy but chose Galba in his place as emperor. + +But when he perceived that he had been deserted also by his body-guards +(he happened to be asleep in some garden), he undertook to make his +escape. Accordingly, he assumed shabby clothing and mounted a horse no +better than his attire. Closely veiled he rode while it was yet night +towards an estate of Phao, a Caesarian, in company with the owner of the +place, and Epaphroditus and Sporus. [Sidenote:--28--] While he was on the +way an extraordinary earthquake occurred, so that one might have thought +the whole world was breaking apart and all the spirits of those murdered +by him were leaping up to assail him. Being recognized, they say, in spite +of his disguise by some one who met him he was saluted as emperor; +consequently he turned aside from the road and hid himself in a kind of +reedy place. There he waited till daylight, lying flat on the ground so as +to run the least risk of being seen. Every one who passed he suspected had +come for him; he started at every voice, thinking it to be that of some +one searching for him: if a dog barked anywhere or a bird chirped, or a +bush or twig was shaken by the breeze, he was thrown into a violent +tremor. These sounds would not let him have rest, yet he dared not speak a +word to any one of those that were with him for fear some one else might +hear: but he wept and bewailed his fortune, considering among other things +how he had once stood resplendent in the midst of so vast a retinue and +was now dodging from sight in company with three freedmen. Such was the +drama that Fate had now prepared for him, to the end that he should no +longer represent all other matricides and beggars, but only himself at +last. Now he repented of his haughty insolence, as if he could make one of +his acts undone. Such was the tragedy in which Nero found himself +involved, and this verse constantly ran through his mind: + + "Both spouse and father bid me pitiably die." + +After a long time, as no one was seen to be searching for him, he went +over into the cave, where in his hunger he ate such bread as he had never +before tasted and in his thirst drank water such as he had never drunk +before. This gave him such a qualm that he said: "So this is my famous +frigid _decocta_." [Footnote: Reading [Greek: apepsthon] (Reimar, +Cobet et al)..] + +While he was in this plight the Roman people were going wild with delight +and offering whole oxen in sacrifice. Some carried small liberty caps, and +they voted to Galba the rights pertaining to the imperial office. For Nero +himself they instituted a search in all directions and for some time were +at a loss to know whither he could have betaken himself. When they finally +learned, they sent horsemen to dispose of him. He, then, perceiving that +they were drawing near, commanded his companions to kill him. As they +refused to obey, he uttered a groan and said: "I alone have neither friend +nor foe." By this time the horsemen were close at hand, and so he killed +himself, uttering that far-famed sentence: "Jupiter, what an artist +perishes in me!" And as he lingered in his agony Epaphroditus dealt him a +finishing stroke. He had lived thirty years and nine months, out of which +he had ruled thirteen years and eight months. Of the descendants of Aeneas +and of Augustus he was the last, as was plainly indicated by the fact that +the laurels planted by Livia and the breed of white chickens perished +somewhat before his death. + +There was no one who might not hope to lay hands on the sovereignty in a +time of so great confusion. + +Rufus visited Galba and could obtain from him no important privileges, +unless one reckons the fact that a man who had frequently been hailed as +emperor was allowed to live. Among the rest of mankind, however, he had +acquired a great name, greater than if he had accepted the sovereignty, +for refusing to receive it. + +Galba, now that Nero had been destroyed and the senate had voted him the +imperial authority and Rufus had made advances to him, plucked up courage. +However, He did not adopt the name "Caesar," until envoys of the senate +had paid him a visit. Nor had he hitherto inscribed the name "emperor" in +any document. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +64 + +Omens announcing Galba's sovereignty: his avarice: the insolence of +freedmen, of Nymphidius, of Capito (chapters 1, 2). + +His ferocious entrance into the city: punishment of the Neronians (chapter +3). + +About the uprising of Vitellius against Galba (chapter 4). + +L. Piso Caesar adopted by Galba: Otho usurps the sovereignty (chapter 5). + +Death of Galba and Piso (chapter 6). + +Otho assumes the sovereignty amid unfavorable auspices and flattery +(chapters 7, 8). + +Insolence of the soldiers: the Pseudo-Nero (chapter 9). + +Battles between Otho and Vitellius at Cremona (chapters 10, 11). + +Otho's speech to his soldiers (chapters 12, 13). + +How Otho with his dagger took his own life (chapters 14, 15). + +The rapacity of Valens (chapter 16). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +C. Silius Italicus, Galerius Trachalus Turpilianus. (A.D. 68 = a.u. 821, +from the 9th of June). + +Galba Caes. Aug. (II), T. Vinius. (A.D. 69 = a.u. 822, to January 15th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 68 (a.u. 821)] [Sidenote:--1--] Thus was Galba declared +emperor just as Tiberius had foretold when he said to him: "You also shall +have a little taste of sovereignty." The event was likewise foretold by +unmistakable omens. He beheld in visions the Goddess of Fortune telling +him that she had now stuck by him for a long time yet no one appeared +ready to take her into his house; and if she should be barred out much +longer she should take up her abode with some one else. During those very +days also boats full of weapons and under the guidance of no human being +came to anchor off the coast of Spain. And a mule brought forth young, an +occurrence which had been previously interpreted as destined to portend +the possession of authority by him. Again, a boy that was bringing him +incense in the course of a sacrifice suddenly had his hair turn gray; +whereupon the seers declared that dominion over the younger generation +should be given to his old age. + +[Sidenote:--2--] These, then, were the signs given beforehand that had a +bearing on his sovereignty. Personally his conduct was in most ways +moderate and he avoided giving offence since he bore in mind that he had +not taken the emperor's seat but it had been given him;--indeed, he said +so frequently:--unfortunately, he collected money greedily since his wants +were numerous, though he spent comparatively little after all, bestowing +upon some persons not even denarii but merely asses. His freedmen, +however, committed a great number of wrongs, the responsibility for which +was laid upon him. Ordinary individuals need only keep themselves from +crime, but those who hold sovereign power must see to it that no dependent +of theirs practices villany either. For it makes little difference to the +ones who suffer wrong at whose hands they happen to be ill treated. +Consequently, even though Galba abstained from inflicting injury, yet he +was ill spoken of because he allowed these others to commit crimes, or at +least was ignorant of what was taking place. Nymphidius and Capito, in +particular, were allowed by him to run riot. For instance, Capito, when +one day some one appealed a case from his jurisdiction, changed his seat +hastily to a high chair near by and then cried out: "Now plead your case +before Caesar!" He went through the form of deciding it and had the man +put to death. Galba felt obliged to proceed against them for this. + +[Sidenote:--3--] As he drew near the City, the guards of Nero met him and +asked that their organization be preserved intact. At first he was for +postponing his decision and averred that he wanted to think the matter +over. Since, however, they would not obey but kept up a clamor, the army +submitted to them. As a consequence about seven thousand of his soldiers +lost their lives and the guardsmen were decimated. This shows that even if +Galba was bowed down with age and disease, yet his spirit was keen and he +did not believe in an emperor's being compelled to do anything +unwillingly. A further proof is that when the Pretorians asked him for the +money which Nymphidius had promised them, he would not give it, but +replied: "I am accustomed to levy soldiers, not to buy them." And when the +populace brought urgent pressure to bear on him to kill Tigillinus and +some others who had before been wantonly insolent, he would not yield, +though he would probably have disposed of them had not their enemies made +this demand. Helius, however, as well as Narcissus, Patrobius, Lucusta the +poison merchant, and some others who had been active in Nero's day, he +ordered to be carried in chains all over the city and afterwards to +receive punishment. The slaves, likewise, who had been guilty of any act +or speech detrimental to their masters were handed over to the latter for +punishment. + +Some disdained receiving their own slaves, wishing to be rid of rascally +slaves. + +Galba demanded the return of all moneys and objects of value which any +persons had received from Nero. However, if anybody had been exiled by the +latter on the charge of impiety towards the emperor, he restored him to +citizenship; and he also transferred to the tomb of Augustus the bones of +members of the imperial family who had been murdered, and he set up their +images anew. + +For this he was praised. On the other hand he was the victim of uproarious +laughter for wearing a sword whenever he walked on the street, since he +was so old and weak of sinew. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 69 (a.u. 822)] [Sidenote:--4--] I shall relate also the +circumstances of his death. The soldiers in Germany under control of Rufus +became more and more excited because they could not obtain any favors from +Galba; and, having failed to secure the object of their desire through the +medium of Rufus, they sought to obtain it through somebody else. This they +did. With Aulus Vitellius, governor of Lower Germany, at their head they +revolted. All that they had in mind regarding him was the nobility of his +birth, and they paid no attention to the fact that he had been a favorite +of Tiberius and was a slave to the licentious habits of his former master; +or perhaps they thought that on this very account he would suit their +purpose all the better. Indeed, Vitellius himself deemed himself of so +little account that he made fun of the astrologers and used their +prediction as evidence against them, saying: "Certainly they know nothing +who declare that I shall become emperor." Nero when he heard it also +laughed, and felt such contempt for the fellow that he did not try to +injure him. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Galba on being informed of his defection adopted Lucius +Piso, a youth of good family, affable and prudent, and appointed him +Caesar. At the same time Marcus Salvius Otho, angry because _he_ had +not been adopted by Galba, brought about once more a beginning of +countless evils for the Romans. He was always held in honor by Galba, so +much so that on the day of the latter's death he was the only one of the +senators to attend him at the sacrifice. And to him most of all was the +catastrophe due. For when the diviner declared that Galba would be the +victim of conspiracy and therefore urged him by no means to go abroad +anywhere, Otho heard it, and hastening down immediately as if on some +other errand was admitted within the wall by some few soldiers who were in +the conspiracy with him. The next step was the winning over or rather the +buying up of the rest, who were displeased at Galba, by means of many +promises. From them he received the imperial office at once and later his +claim was acknowledged by the others. [Sidenote:--6--] Galba on learning +what was taking place thought he could bring the men into a better frame +of mind and sent some emissaries to the camp for this purpose. Meanwhile a +soldier holding aloft a bare blade covered with blood had approached him +and said: "Be of good cheer, emperor: I have killed Otho, and no further +danger awaits you." Galba, believing this, said to him: "And who ordered +you to do that?" He himself started for the Capitol to offer sacrifice. As +he reached the middle of the Roman Forum, horsemen and footsoldiers met +him and then and there cut down in the presence of many senators and +crowds of plebeians the old man, their consul, high priest, Caesar, +emperor. After abusing his body in many ways they cut off his head and +stuck it on a pole.--So he was struck by a javelin hurled into the very +chair in which he was being carried, was wounded at the very moment he was +bending forward from it, and only said: "Why, what harm have I done?" +Sempronius Densus, a centurion, defended him as long as he was able, and +finally, when he could accomplish nothing, let himself be slain with his +sovereign. This is why I have included his name, for he richly deserves to +be mentioned. Piso also was killed and numerous others, but not in aiding +the emperor. + +When the soldiers had done this, they cut off their heads, which they then +carried to Otho (who was in the camp) and also into the senate-house; and +the senators, though terror-stricken, affected to be glad. + +Galba had lived seventy-two years and twenty-three days, +out of which he ruled nine months and thirteen days. Piso perished after +him, making this atonement for having been appointed Caesar. + +[Sidenote:--7--] This was the end that befell Galba. But retribution was +destined full soon enough to seek out Otho in his turn, as he at once +learned. As he was offering his first sacrifice, the omens were seen to be +unfavorable, so that he repented of what had been done and said: "What +need was there of my playing on the long flutes?" This is a colloquial and +proverbial expression that has reference to those who do anything out of +their usual line. Later he was so disturbed in his sleep at night that he +fell out of the bed and alarmed the guards who slept at the door. They +rushed in and found him lying on the ground. Yet once he had entered upon +the imperial office he could not put it off; and he remained in it and +paid the penalty, in spite of many temperate acts intended to conciliate +people. It was not particularly his nature to behave that way, but since +on account of Vitellius his prospects were in a somewhat precarious state, +he did not wish to alienate the bulk of the population. + +Just at this time, to be sure, he annulled the sentences against some +senators and granted various slight favors to others. By way of gaining +the public approval he constantly frequented the theatres: he bestowed +citizenship upon foreigners and made many other attractive announcements. +Yet he did not succeed in winning the attachment of any one save a certain +few, like himself. [For his restoration of the images of those under +accusation and] his life and habits, his keeping Sporus as a companion and +employing the rest of the Neronians, alarmed everybody. + +[Sidenote:--8--] Moreover, the senate voted him all the privileges +pertaining to his office. He said that he had been forced to do as he did, +had been brought within the walls against his will, and had actually +risked his life after that by opposing the scheme. He regularly talked in +a considerate manner and assumed a kindly expression and attitude; he +threw kisses on his fingers to everybody and made many promises. But the +fact did not escape men that his rule was sure to be more licentious and +oppressive than Nero's. (Indeed, he had immediately applied to himself the +latter's name). + +[Sidenote:--9--] They hated him most of all, however, because he had +demonstrated the fact that the imperial office was for sale and had put +the city in the power of the boldest spirits; likewise because he held the +senate and the people in slight esteem and had impressed upon the soldiers +also this idea,--that they could kill or again create a Caesar. Moreover, +he had brought the soldiers into such a daring and lawless condition by +his gifts and his immoderate attentions that one day they forced an +entrance just as they were into the palace while a number of the senators +were dining there with Otho. before departing they rushed into the +banquet-room itself, killing those that strove to bar their progress. And +they would have slaughtered everybody found there had not the guests +jumped up and hid themselves prior to their irruption. For this behavior +the men received money, it being assumed that their act was due to their +liking for Otho. + +About this time also a man was caught pretending to be Nero. His name was +unknown to Dio. And at last he paid the penalty. + +[Sidenote:--10--] Otho, not succeeding by frequent invitations in +persuading Vitellius to come and share the imperial office, eventually +plunged into open war against him. And he sent soldiers whom he put in +charge of several different leaders; this fact was largely responsible for +his reverses. + +Valens was so eager for money and gathered it so assiduously from every +source that he put to death the decurion, who had concealed him and had +saved his life, on account of a thousand denarii which he thought had been +purloined from his possessions. + +Otho declined battle, saying that he could not see a battle fought between +kindred, just as if he had become emperor in some legitimate fashion and +had not killed the consuls and the Caesar [Footnote: Piso and Galba are +meant.] and the emperor [Footnote: Piso and Galba are meant.] in Rome +itself. There fell in the battles which took place near Cremona four +myriads of men on both sides. Here, they say, various omens appeared +before the battle, most noteworthy being an unusual bird, such as men had +never before beheld, that was seen for a number of days. + +[Sidenote:--11--] After the forces of Otho had been worsted, a certain +horseman brought word of the disaster to Otho. When the bystanders refused +to credit his report--it chanced that there were many gathered there--and +some set to calling him "renegade" and others "enemy," he exclaimed: +"Would that this news were false, Caesar: for most gladly would I have +died to secure thy victory. As it is, my demise is determined, that no one +may think I fled hither to secure my own safety. But do thou be assured +that the enemy will ere long arrive, and debate what must be done." Having +finished these words, he despatched himself. [Sidenote:--12--] This act +caused all to believe him, and they were ready to renew the conflict. +Those present formed a numerous body and there were not a few others at +hand from Pannonia. But the most important consideration, as usual in such +cases, was that they loved Otho and were quite devoted to him, not in word +but in their hearts. When, however, they besought him not to abandon +either himself or them, he waited until the rest, at report of the news, +had come running together, and then, after some muttered words to himself, +he delivered to the soldiers a speech, from which the following is a brief +excerpt: + +[Sidenote:--13--] "Enough, quite enough, has already been done. I hate a +civil war, even though I conquer: and I love all Romans, even though they +do not side with me. Let Vitellius be victor, since this has pleased the +gods; and let the lives of his soldiers also be spared, since this pleases +me. It is far better and more just that one should perish for all, rather +than many for one, and that I should refuse on account of one single man +to embroil the Roman people and cause so great a mass of human beings to +perish. I certainly should prefer to be a Mucius, a Decius, a Curtius, a +Regulus, rather than a Marius, a Cinna, or a Sulla,--not to mention other +names. Therefore do not force me to become one of these men I hate, nor +grudge me the privilege of imitating one of those whom I commend. Do you +depart to meet the conqueror and do him reverence. As for me, I shall find +means to free myself, that all men may be taught by the event that you +have chosen such an emperor as has not given you up to save himself but +himself to save you." + +[Sidenote:--14--] Of this nature were the words of Otho. Falling upon the +ears of the soldiers they aroused both admiration of the man and pity for +what might befall him: his troops shed tears of lamentation and mourning, +calling him father and terming him dearer than children and parents. +["Upon thee our lives depend," they said, "and for thee we will all die."] +This argument continued so for most of the day, Otho begging to be allowed +to die and the soldiers refusing to permit him to carry out his wish. +Finally, he reduced them to silence and said: "It can not be that I should +show myself inferior to this soldier, whom you have seen kill himself for +the single reason that he had borne news of defeat to his own emperor. I +shall certainly follow in his footsteps, that I may cease to see or hear +aught any longer. And you, if you love me in reality, let me die as I +desire and do not compel me to live against my will, but take your way to +the victor and gain his good graces." + +[Sidenote:--15--] At the close of this speech he retired into his +apartments and after sending some messages to his intimate friends and +some to Vitellius in their behalf he burned all the letters which anybody +had written to him containing hostile statements about Vitellius, not +wanting them to serve as damaging evidence against anybody. Then he called +each one of the persons that were at hand, greeted them, and gave them +money. Meantime there was a disturbance made by the soldiers, so that he +was obliged to go out and quiet them, and he did not come back until he +had sent them to a place of safety, some here, some there. So then, when +quiet had been permanently restored, taking a short sword he killed +himself. The grief-stricken soldiery took up his body and buried it, and +some slew themselves upon his grave. This was the end that befell Otho, +after he had lived thirty-seven years lacking eleven days and had reigned +ninety days, and it overshadowed the impiety and wickedness of his active +career. In life the basest of men he died most nobly. He had seized the +empire by the most villainous trick, but took leave of it most creditably. + +A series of brawls among the soldiers immediately ensued, and a number of +them were slain by one another; afterwards they reached an agreement and +set out to meet the victorious party. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +65 + +Vitellius is proclaimed emperor: feasts his eyes on gladiators and +slaughters: drives astrologers from Italy (chapter 1). + +Vitellius's excess in banquets, in his home, in furniture, in his almost +absurd magnificence (chapters 2-5). + +Praiseworthy points in his character (chapters 6, 7). + +Portents of ill omen: the soldiers declare Vespasian emperor (chapter 8). + +Mucianus is sent by Vespasian against Vitellius: Primus of his own accord +takes the lead against Vitellius (chapter 9). + +Alienus, put in charge of the war by Vitellius, is the author of a +desertion, but is in turn seized by his followers, who change their minds +(chapter 10). + +The adherents of Vitellius are conquered in battle (chapters 11-14). + +Catastrophe befalls the dwellers in Cremona (chapter 15). + +Wavering on the part of Vitellius: the Capitol is burned in the course of +a siege by Sabinus (chapters 16, 17). + +Disaster to the city of Rome, taken by Vespasian's captains (chapters 18, +19). + +How Vitellius was taken and perished (chapters 20, 21). + +How a brother and son of Vitellius met their fate (chapter 22). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +(Galba (II) and T. Vinius Coss.): A.D. 69 = a.u. 822, from January 15th. +The following _Consules Suffecti_ took office: + +On the Calends of March--T. Virginius Rufus, Vopiscus Pompeius. + +On the Calends of May--Caelius Sabinus, T. Flavins Sabinus. + +On the Calends of July--T. Arrius Antoninus, P. Marius Celsus (II). + +On the Calends of September--C. Fabius Valens, A. Alienus Caecinna (also +Roscius Regulus, as Caecinna was condemned on the last day of October). + +On the Calends of November--Cn. Caecilius Simplex, C. Quintius Atticus. + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 69 (a.u. 822)] [Sidenote:--1--] The population of Rome +when it heard of the downfall of Otho naturally transferred its allegiance +immediately. Otho, whom people previously praised and for whose victory +they prayed, they now abused as an enemy, and Vitellius, upon whom they +had been invoking curses, they praised and declared emperor. So truly +there is nothing constant in human affairs. Those who flourish most and +those who are lowliest alike choose unstable standards, and construct +their praises and their censures, their honors and their degradations to +conform to the accidents of their situation. + +News of the death of Otho was brought to him [Vitellius] while in Gaul. +There he was joined by his wife and child, whom he placed on a platform +and saluted as Germanicus and imperator, though the boy was only six years +old. + +[Vitellius witnessed gladiatorial combats at Lugdunum and again at +Cremona, as if the crowds of men who had perished in the battles and were +even then exposed unburied to the elements did not suffice. He beheld the +slain with his own eyes, for he traversed all the ground where they lay +and gloated over the spectacle as if he were still in the moment of +victory; and not even after that did he order them to be buried.] Upon +reaching Rome and adjusting affairs to suit him, he issued a bulletin +banishing the astrologers and commanding them by this particular day +(mentioning a given date) to leave the whole country of Italy. They by +night put up in turn another document, in which they announced that he +should lose his life by the day on which he actually died. So accurate was +their previous knowledge of what should come to pass. + +[Sidenote:--2--] Vitellius was fond of luxury and licentiousness and cared +for nothing else human or divine. He had always been the kind of man that +would spend his time in taverns and gaming houses, over dancers and +charioteers. Incalculable were the sums he spent on such pursuits, and the +consequence was that he had many creditors. Now, when he attained to so +great authority, his wantonness only increased, and his expenditures went +on most of the day and night alike. He was insatiate in filling himself, +yet kept constantly vomiting what he ate, apparently living on the mere +passage of food. Yet that was what enabled him to hold out; for his fellow +banqueters fared very badly. [He was always inviting numbers of the +foremost men to his table and he was frequently entertained at their +houses.] + +[Sidenote:--3--] On this point one of them, Vibius Crispus, [Footnote: +_Q. Vibius Crispus._] was the author of a most witty remark. Having been +compelled for some days by sickness to absent himself from the convivial +board, he said: "If I had not fallen ill, I should certainly have died." +The entire period of his reign consisted in nothing but carousals and +revels. All the most valuable food products were brought together from the +ocean itself (not to go farther) from the earth and from the +Mediterranean, and were prepared in so costly a fashion that even now some +cakes and other dishes are named Vitellian, after him. Why should one go +into the details of these affairs? It is admitted by quite everybody that +during the period of his reign he expended on dinners two hundred million +two thousand five hundred denarii. There came very near being a famine in +all costly articles of food, yet it was imperative that they should be +provided. Once he had a dish made that cost twenty-five myriads, into +which he put a mixture of tongues and brains and livers of fish and +certain kinds of birds. As it was impossible to make so large a vessel of +pottery, it was made of silver and remained extant for some time, regarded +somewhat in the light of a votive offering, until Hadrian finally set eyes +on it and had it melted down. + +[Sidenote:--4--] Since I have mentioned this fact, I will also add +another, namely that not even Nero's Golden House would satisfy Vitellius. +He delighted in and commended the name and the life and all the practices +of its former owner, yet he found fault with the structure itself, saying +that it had been badly built and was scantily and meanly equipped. When he +fell ill one time he looked about for a room to afford him an abode; so +little did even Nero's surroundings satisfy him. His wife Galeria +ridiculed the small amount of decoration found in the royal apartments. +This pair, as they spent other people's money, never stopped to count the +cost of anything; but those who invited them to meals found themselves in +great trouble [save a few whom he compensated for it]. Yet the same +persons would not regularly entertain him the entire day, but one set of +men furnished breakfast, another lunch, another dinner, and still another +certain viands for dessert calculated to stimulate a jaded appetite. +[Footnote: This little phrase is taken direct from Plato's +_Critias_, 115 B.] [For all who were able were eager to entertain him.] +It is said that after the elapse of a few days he spent a hundred myriads +upon a dinner. [His birthday celebration lasted over two days and numbers +of beasts and of men were slain.] + +[Sidenote:--6--] [Though his life was of this kind he was not entirely +without good deeds. For example, he retained the coinage minted under Nero +and Galba and Otho, evincing no displeasure at their images; and whatever +gifts had been bestowed upon any persons he held to be valid and deprived +no one of any such possession. He did not collect any sums still owing of +former public contributions, and he confiscated no one's property. A very +few of those who sided with Otho he put to death but did not withhold even +the property of these from their relatives. Upon the kinsmen of those +previously executed he bestowed all the funds that were found in the +public treasury. He did not obstruct the execution of the wills of such as +had fought against him and had fallen in the battles. Furthermore he +forbade the senators and the knights to fight as gladiators or to appear +in any spectacle in the orchestra. And for these measures he was +commended.] + +[Sidenote:--7--] He was a constant attendant of the theatres, and this won +the attachment of the populace. He ate with the most influential men on +free and easy terms, and this gained their favor to an even greater +degree. His old companions he never failed to remember and honored them +greatly, not (like some others) disdaining to appear to recognize any of +them. Many persons have unexpectedly attained to great power feel hate for +those who are acquainted with their former humble state. [Vitellius, when +Priscus opposed him in the senate and denounced one of the soldiers, +called the tribunes to his side as if he had some need of their +assistance. He did not himself do Priscus any harm and did not allow the +officials to hurt him, but merely said: "Be not indignant, Conscript +Fathers, that we two out of your number have had a little dispute with +each other." This act seemed to have been due to a kindly disposition. The +fact, however, that he wished to imitate Nero and offered sacrifices to +his Manes, and that he spent so great sums on dinners, though it caused +joy to some, made the sensible grieve, since they were fully aware that +not all the money in the whole world would be sufficient for him.] + +[Sidenote:--8--] While he was behaving in this way, evil omens occurred. A +comet star was seen, and the moon contrary to precedent appeared to have +had two eclipses, being obscured by shadows on the fourth and on the +seventh day. Also people saw two suns at once, one in the west weak and +pale, and one in the east brilliant and powerful. On the Capitol many huge +footprints were seen, presumably of some spirits that had descended that +hill. The soldiers who had slept there the night in question said that the +temple of Jupiter had opened of itself with great clangor and some of the +guards were so terrified that they expired. At the same time that this +happened Vespasian, engaged in warfare with the Jews, [sent his son Titus +to the emperor Galba to give him a message. But when Titus returned, +having learned on the way] of the rebellion of Vitellius and of Otho, he +deliberated what ought to be done. [For Vespasian was in general not +rashly inclined and he hesitated very much about involving himself in such +troublous affairs.] + +[Sidenote:--9--] But people favored him greatly: his reputation won in +Britain, his fame derived from the war under way, his kindheartedness and +prudence, all led them to desire to have him at their head. Likewise +Mucianus urged him strongly, hoping that Vespasian should get the name of +emperor and that he as a result of the other's good nature should enjoy an +equal share of power. Vespasian's soldiers on ascertaining all these facts +surrounded his tent and hailed him as emperor. Portents and dreams +pointing him out as sovereign long before had also fallen to the lot of +Vespasian, and these will be recited in the story of his life. For the +time being he sent Mucianus to Italy against Vitellius, while he himself, +after taking a look at affairs in Syria and entrusting to others the +conduct of the war against the Jews, proceeded to Egypt. There he +collected money, of which of course he needed a great deal, and grin, +which he desired to send in as large quantities as possible to Rome. The +soldiers in Moesia, hearing how matters stood with him, would not wait for +Mucianus,--they had learned that he was _en route_,--and chose as +their general Antonius Primus, [Footnote: _M. Antonius Primus._] who +had suffered sentence of exile in Nero's reign but had been restored by +Galba and was commander of the legion in Pannonia. This man held supreme +authority, although not chosen by the emperor nor by the senate. So great +was the soldiers' anger at Vitellius and their zest for plunder. They were +doing this for no other purpose except to pillage Italy. And their +intention was realized. + +[Sidenote:--10--] Vitellius when he heard about it remained where he was +and went on with his luxurious living even to the extent of arranging +gladiatorial combats. In the course of these it was proposed that Sporus +portray the role of a maiden being ravished, but he would not endure the +shame and committed suicide. Vitellius gave the charge of the war to +Alienus [Footnote: _A. Caevina Alienus._] and certain others. Alienus +reached Cremona and occupied the town, but seeing that his own soldiers +were out of training as a result of their luxurious life in Rome and +impaired by lack of practice, whereas the others were physically well +exercised and stout of heart, he was afraid. Subsequently, when friendly +proposals came to him from Primus, he called the soldiers together and by +indicating the weakness of Vitellius and the strength of Vespasian +together with the character of the two men he persuaded them to revolt. +Then they removed the images of Vitellius from their standards and took an +oath that they would be governed by Vespasian. But, after the meeting had +broken up and they had retired to their tents, they changed their minds +and suddenly gathering excitedly in force with great outcry they again +saluted Vitellius as emperor and imprisoned Alienus for having betrayed +them, and they paid no heed to his consular office. Such are the regular +practices of civil wars. + +[Sidenote:--11--] The great confusion which under these conditions +prevailed in the camp of Vitellius was increased that night by an eclipse +of the moon. It was not so much its being obscured (though even such +phenomena cause fear to men in excitement) as the fact that the luminary +appeared both blood-colored and black and reflected still other terrifying +shades. Not for this, however, would the men change their attitude or +yield: but when they encountered each other they contended most +vigorously, although, as I said, the Vitellians were leaderless; for +Alienus had been imprisoned at Cremona. + +On the following day, when Primus through messengers tried to induce them +to come to terms, the soldiers of Vitellius sent a return message to him +urging that he espouse the cause of Vitellius. When, moreover, they joined +battle with his soldiers they contended most vigorously. The battle was +not the result of any concerted plan. Some few horsemen, as often happens +when two forces are encamped opposite each other, were out foraging in +front of the others and suddenly made an attack. After that reinforcements +came from both armies to each of the two parties in whatever order the +troops happened to become aware of the situation,--first to one side, then +to the other, now of one kind of fighting force, now of another, infantry +or cavalry: and the conflict was marked by vicissitudes until all had +hastened to the front. Then they got into some kind of regular formation +and carried on the struggle with some order even though leaderless. +Alienus, as you remember, had been imprisoned. + +[Sidenote:--12--] From this point on the battle between them was a well +matched and evenly balanced affair, not only during the day but at night +as well. For the coming of night did not separate them. They were +thoroughly angry and determined, although they were acquainted with each +other and talked back and forth. Hence not hunger nor fatigue nor cold nor +darkness nor wounds nor deaths nor the remains of men that fell on this +field before [nor the memory of the disaster nor the number of those that +perished to no purpose] mitigated their fierceness. Such was the madness +that possessed both sides alike [and so eager were they, incited by the +very memories of the spot, which made one party resolved to conquer this +time also, and the other not to be conquered this time either. So they +fought as against foreigners instead of kindred, and as if all on both +sides were absolutely obliged either to perish at once or thereafter to be +slaves. Therefore, not even when night came on, as I stated, would they +yield; but though tired out and for that reason often resting and +indulging in conversation together, they nevertheless continued to +struggle]. As often as the moon shone out (it was constantly being +concealed by [numerous] clouds [of all shapes that kept passing in front +of it]), one might see them sometimes fighting, sometimes +[Sidenote:--13--] standing and leaning on their spears, sometimes sitting +down. Now and then they would shout in unison on one side the name of +Vespasian and on the other that of Vitellius, and again they would +challenge each other with abuse and praise of the two men. At intervals +one soldier would have a private chat with an opponent:--"Comrade, +fellow-citizen, what are we doing? Why are we fighting? Come over to my +side." "Oh, no, you come to my side." But what is there surprising about +this, considering that when the women of the city in the course of the +night brought food and drink to give to the soldiers of Vitellius, the +latter after eating and drinking themselves passed the supplies on to +their antagonists? One of them would call out the name of his adversary +(for they practically all knew one another and were well acquainted) and +would say: "Comrade, take and eat this. I give you not a sword, but bread. +Take and drink: I hold toward you not a shield but a cup. For whether you +kill me or I you, this will afford us a more comfortable leave-taking, and +will save from feebleness and weakness the hand with which either you cut +me down or I you. These are the consecrated offerings that Vitellius and +Vespasian give us while we are yet alive, that they may sacrifice us to +the corpses of the past." That would be the style of their conversation, +after which they would rest a while, eat a bit, and then renew the battle. +Soon they would stop again, and then once more join in conflict. + +[Sidenote:--14--] It went on this way the whole night through till dawn +broke. At that time two men of the Vespasian party wrought a notable +achievement. Their side was being severely damaged by an engine of some +sort, and these two, seizing shields from among the spoils of the +Vitellian faction, mingled with the opposing ranks, and made their way to +the engine without its being noticed that they did not belong to that +side. Thus they managed to cut the ropes of the affair, so that not +another missile could be discharged from it. As the sun was rising the +soldiers of the third legion, called the Gallic, that wintered in Syria +but was now by chance in the party of Vespasian, suddenly according to +custom saluted the Sun God. The followers of Vitellius, suspecting that +Mucianus had arrived, underwent a revulsion of feeling, and panic-stricken +at the shout took to flight. (Another instance of how the smallest things +can produce great alarm in men who are completely tired out). They retired +within the wall, from which they stretched forth their hands and made +supplications. As no one listened to them, they released the consul, and, +having arrayed him in his robe of office with the fasces, then sent him as +an intercessor. Thus they obtained a truce, for Alienus because of his +rank and the way he had been treated easily persuaded Primus to accept +their submission. + +[Sidenote:--15--] When, however, the gates were opened and an amnesty had +been declared for all, suddenly soldiers came rushing in from all +directions and began plundering and setting fire to everything. This +catastrophe proved to be one of the greatest recorded. The city was +distinguished for the size and beauty of its buildings, and great sums of +money belonging to natives and to strangers had been accumulated there. +The larger portion of the harm was done by the Vitellians, since they knew +exactly which were the houses of the richest men and all about the +entrances on the alleys. They showed no scruples about destroying the +persons in whose behalf they had fought, but dealt blows, committed +murder, and acted as if it were they who had been wronged and had +conquered. Thus, counting those that fell in battle, five myriads perished +altogether. + +[Sidenote:--16--] Vitellius, on learning of the defeat, was for a time +quite disturbed. Omens had contributed to make him uneasy. He had been +offering a certain sacrifice, and after it was addressing the soldiers, +when a lot of vultures swooped down, scattered the sacred meats, and +nearly knocked him from the platform. Accordingly, the news of the defeat +troubled him still more, and he quietly sent his brother to Tarracina, a +strong city, which the latter occupied. But when the generals of Vespasian +approached Rome he became alarmed and took his departure. He did nothing +and formed no plan, but in a state of terror was carried back and forth on +the billows of chance. One moment he was for clinging to the sovereignty +and he was making definite preparations for warfare: the next he was quite +willing to give it up and was definitely getting ready to live as a +private person. At times he wore the purple chlamys and girded on a sword: +again he assumed dark colored clothing. His public addresses both in the +palace and in the Forum were now of one tenor, now of another, first +urging battle and next terms of peace. At times he was inclined to +surrender himself for the public welfare, and later he would clasp his +child in his arms, kiss him, and hold him out to the people as if to +arouse their pity. Similarly he would dismiss the Pretorians and then send +for them again, would leave the palace to retire to his brother's house +and then return: in this way he dulled the enthusiasm of almost everybody +interested in him. Seeing him dashing hither and thither so frenziedly +they ceased to carry out commands with their usual diligence, and began to +consider their own interests as well as his. They ridiculed him a great +deal, especially when in the assemblies he proffered his sword to the +consuls and to the senators present as if to show that by this act he had +divested himself of the imperial office. No one of the above persons dared +to take it, and the bystanders jeered. + +[Sidenote:--17--] In view of these conditions, when Primus at last drew +near, the consuls, Gaius Quintius Atticus and Gnaeus Caecilius Simplex, +together with Sabinus (a relative of Vespasian) and the other foremost men +held a consultation, the result of which was that they set out for the +palace in company with the soldiers that favored their cause, intending to +either persuade or force Vitellius to resign his position as emperor. They +encountered, however, the Celtae who were guarding him, and getting +decidedly the worst of the encounter they fled to the Capitol. Arrived +there they sent for Domitian, son of Vespasian, and his relatives, and put +themselves in a state of defence. The following day, when their +adversaries assailed them, they managed for a time to repulse them; but +when the environs of the Capitol were set on fire, its defenders were +beaten back by the flame. In this way the soldiers of Vitellius forced +their way up, slaughtered many of the resisting party, and after +plundering the whole stock of votive offerings burned down with other +structures the great temple. Sabinus and Atticus they arrested and sent +them to Vitellius. Domitian and the junior Sabinus had made their escape +from the Capitol at the first noise of conflict and by concealing +themselves in houses had succeeded in eluding observation. + +[Sidenote:--18--] Those soldiers of Vespasian that were led by Quintus +Petilius Cerialis [Footnote: The epitome of Dio spells uniformly +_Cerealius_.] (one of the foremost senators and a relative of Vespasian +by marriage) and by Antonius Primus--for Mucianus had not yet overtaken +them--were by this time close at hand, and Vitellius fell into the depths +of terror. The oncoming leaders through the medium of certain messengers +and by placing their letters in coffins with dead bodies, in baskets full +of fruit, or the reed traps of bird-catchers, learned all that was being +done in the city and formed their plans accordingly. Now, when they saw +the blaze rising from the Capitol as from a beacon, they made haste. The +first of the two to approach the city with his cavalry was Cerialis, [and +he was defeated at the very entrance by being cut off with horsemen in a +narrow spot. However, he prevented any harm being done by his opponents. +For Vitellius, hoping that his proved superiority would afford him an +opportunity to make terms, restrained his soldiers]. And having convened +the senate he sent envoys chosen from that body together with the vestal +virgins to Cerialis as envoys. + +[Sidenote:--19--] Since no one would listen to them and they came very +near losing their lives, the emissaries visited Primus, who was also at +last approaching; from him they secured an audience, but accomplished +nothing. For at this juncture his soldiers came angrily toward him and +overcame with ease the guard at the Tiber bridge. (When the latter took +their stand upon it and disputed their passage, the horsemen forded the +stream and fell upon them from the rear). After this various bodies of men +made assaults at various points and committed some of the most atrocious +deeds. All the behavior for which they censured Vitellius and his +followers, behavior which they pretended was the cause of the war between +them, they themselves repeated, slaying great numbers. Many of those +killed were struck with pieces of tiling from the roof or cut down in +alleyways while jostled about by a throng of adversaries. Thus as many as +fifty thousand human beings were destroyed during those days of carnage. + +[Sidenote:--20--] So the city was being pillaged, and the men were some +fighting, some fleeing, some actually plundering and murdering by +themselves in order that they might be taken for the invaders and so +preserve their lives. Vitellius in dread put on a ragged, dirty, little +tunic and concealed himself in an obscure alcove where dogs were kept, +intending to run off during the night to Tarracina and join his brother. +But the soldiers found him after a short search, for he could not long be +sure of remaining hid, seeing that he had been emperor. They seized him, a +mass of shavings and blood--for the dogs had done him some harm +already--and stripping off his clothes they bound his hands behind his +back, put a rope around his neck and dragged from the palace the Caesar +who had reveled there. Down the Sacred Way they hauled the emperor who had +frequently paraded past in his chair of state. Then they conducted the +Augustus to the Forum, where he had often addressed the people. Some +buffeted him, some plucked at his beard, all ridiculed him, all insulted +him, laying especial stress in their remarks on his intemperance, since he +had an expansive paunch. [Sidenote:--21--] When in shame at this treatment +he kept his eyes lowered, the soldiers would prick him under the chin with +their daggers, to make him look up even against his will. A certain Celt +who saw this would not endure it, but taking pity on him cried: "I will +help you, as well as I can alone." Then he wounded Vitellius and killed +himself. However, Vitellius did not die of the wound but was haled to the +prison, as were also his statues, while many amusing and many disgraceful +remarks were made about them. Finally, grieved to the heart at the way he +had been treated and what he was compelled to hear, he was heard to +exclaim: "Yet I was once your emperor!" At that the soldiers flew into a +rage and took him to the top of the Scalae Gemoniae, where they struck him +down. His head was cut off and carried about all over the city. + +[Sidenote:--22--] Subsequently his wife saw to his burial. He had lived +fifty-four years [and eighty-nine days] and had reigned for a year lacking +ten days. His brother had started from Tarracina to come to his +assistance, but learned while _en route_ that he was dead. He also +encountered a detachment of men sent against him and made terms with them +on condition that his life should be spared. In spite of this he was +murdered not long afterward. The son of Vitellius, too, perished soon +after his father, notwithstanding that Vitellius had killed no relative +either of Otho or of Vespasian. After all these various events had taken +place, Mucianus came up and administered necessary details in conjunction +with Domitian, whom he also presented to the soldiers and had him make a +speech, boy though he was. Each of the soldiers received twenty-five +denarii. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +66 + +Vespasian is made Emperor: is also designated as such by portents (chapter +1). + +The arrogance of Mucianus and Domitian (chapter 2). + +Revolt of the Germans (chapter 3). + +About the taking of Jerusalem by Titus (chapters 4-7). + +Vespasian levies money in Egypt (chapter 8). + +He treats the Romans considerately: drives philosophers from the capital +(chapters 9-13). + +He gathers money by the efforts of his concubine Caenis, as well as by his +own (chapter 14). + +The Temple of Peace and the Colossus are erected: Berenice is dismissed: +the Cynics are punished (chapter 15). + +The punishment of Julius Sabinus: likewise of the conspirators, Alienus +and Marcellus (chapter 16). + +How Vespasian met his death (chapter 17). + +The mildness of character of Titus Caesar Augustus (chapters 18, 19). + +War in Britain, which is ascertained to be an island (chapter 20). + +How Mount Vesuvius flamed forth: conflagration at Rome (chapters 21-24). + +Spectacles: death of Titus (chapters 25, 26). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (II), Titus Caesar. (A.D. 70 = a.u. 823 = Second of +Vespasian, from July 1st). + +Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (III), M. Cocceius Nerva. (A.D. 71 = a.u. 824 = +Second of Vespasian). + +Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (IV), Titus Caesar (II). (A.D. 72 = a.u. 825 = Third +of Vespasian). + +Domitianus Caesar (II), M. Valerius Messalinus. (A.D. 73 = a.u. 826 = +Fourth of Vespasian). + +Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (V), Titus Caesar (III). (A.D. 74 = a.u. 827 = Fifth +of Vespasian). + +Fl. Vespasianus Aug. (VI), Titus Caesar (IV). (A.D. 75 = a.u. 828 = Sixth +of Vespasian). + +Fl. Vespasianus (VII), Titus Caesar (V). (A.D. 76 = a.u. 829 = Seventh of +Vespasian). Fl. Vespasianus (VIII), Titus Caesar (VI). (A.D. 77 = a.u. 830 += Eighth of Vespasian). + +L. Ceionius Commodus, D. Novius Priscus. (A.D. 78 = a.u. 831 = Ninth of +Vespasian). + +Fl. Vespasianus (IX), Titus Caesar (VII). (A.D. 79 = a.u. 832 = First of +Titus, from June 23rd). + +T. Vespasianus (VIII), Domitianus (VII). (A.D. 80 = a.u. 833 = Second of +Titus). + +L. Fl. Silva Nonius Bassus, Asinius Pollio Verrucosus. (A.D. 81 = a.u. 834 += Third of Titus, to September 13th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 70 (a.u. 823)] [Sidenote:--1--] Such was the course of +events on the heels of which Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate +and Titus and Domitian were given the title of Caesars. The consular +office was assumed by Vespasian and Titus while the former was in Egypt +and the latter in Palestine. Vespasian had seen portents and dreams that +long beforehand indicated that he was destined to rule. As he was eating +dinner in the country, where most of his time was spent, a cow approached +him, knelt down, and put her head beneath his feet. Another time, when he +was taking food, a dog threw a human hand under the table. And a +conspicuous cypress tree, which had been uprooted and overthrown by a +violent wind, on the next day stood upright again by its own power and +continued to flourish. From a dream he learned that when Nero Caesar +should lose a tooth, he should be emperor: and this matter of the tooth +became a reality on the following day. Nero himself in his slumbers +thought he was bringing the chariot of Jupiter to Vespasian's house. These +occurrences, of course, needed interpretation. But in addition a Jew named +Josephus, who had previously been disliked by him and imprisoned, gave a +laugh and said: "You may imprison me now, but a year later when you become +emperor you will release me." + +[Sidenote:--2--] Thus had Vespasian, like some others, been born for the +position. While he was as yet absent in Egypt Mucianus administered all +the details of government with the help of Domitian. Mucianus feeling that +he had himself given the sovereignty to Vespasian exulted greatly at these +facts above all,--that he was called "brother" by him, and that he had +authority to decide every question that he liked without the emperor's +express approval and could issue written orders by merely adding his +superior's name. For this purpose, too, he wore a finger ring that had +been sent him, which was intended to impress the imperial seal upon +documents requiring authorization. [Indeed, Domitian himself gave offices +and procuratorships to many persons, appointing prefect after prefect and +even consuls.] In fine, they behaved in every way so much like absolute +rulers that Vespasian once sent the following message to Domitian: "I +thank you, my child, for letting me hold office and that you have not yet +dethroned me." + +Now Mucianus gathered into the public treasury from every possible quarter +vast sums of money, showing an entire readiness to relieve Vespasian of +the censure which such a proceeding caused. He was forever declaring that +money was the sinews of sovereignty; and in accordance with this belief he +was constantly urging Vespasian to obtain funds from every quarter, and +for his own part he continued from the outset to collect revenue, thus +providing a large amount of money for the empire and acquiring a large +amount himself. + +[Sidenote:--3--] In Germany various uprisings against the Romans took +place which are not worth mentioning for my purposes, but there was one +incident that must cause us surprise. A certain Julius Sabinus, one of the +foremost of the Lingones, collected by his own efforts a separate force +and took the name of Caesar, declaring that he was a descendant of Julius +Caesar. He was defeated in several engagements, whereupon he fled to a +field and plunged into a subterranean vault beneath a monument, which he +first burned to the ground. His pursuers thought he had perished in the +conflagration, but as a matter of fact he hid himself there with his wife +for nine years and had two male children by her. The troubles in Germany +were settled by Cerialis in the course of a number of battles, in one of +which so great a multitude of Romans and barbarians both were slain that +the river flowing near by was held back by the bodies of the fallen. +Domitian stood in fear of his father because of what he did and still more +because of what he intended, for his plans were on no small scale. He +happened to be spending most of his time near the Alban Mount, devoting +himself to his passion for Domitia, the daughter of Corbulo. Her he took +away from her husband, Lucius Lamia Aelianus, and at this time he had her +for one of his mistresses, but later he actually married her. + +[Sidenote:--4--] Titus, who was assigned to take charge of the war with +the Jews, [undertook to win them over by certain conferences and offers; +as they would not yield, he proceeded to direct hostilities. The first +battles he fought were rather close; finally he prevailed and took up the +siege of Jerusalem. This town had three walls including that surrounding +the temple. The Romans accordingly heaped up mounds against the +fortifications and brought their engines to bear: then collecting in a +dense force they repulsed all sallying parties and with their slings and +arrows kept back all the defenders of the wall. Many persons that had been +sent by some of the barbarian kings they kept prisoners. The Jews who came +to the assistance of their countrymen were many of them from the immediate +region and many from kindred districts, not only in this same Roman empire +but from beyond the Euphrates, and they, too, kept directing missiles and +stones with considerable force on account of the higher ground, some being +flung from the hand and some hurled by means of engines. They likewise +made night and day sallies as often as occasion offered, set fire to the +engines, slew numerous combatants, and by digging out under the wall took +away earth from beneath the mound. As for the rams, they lassoed some of +them and broke the ends off, others they seized and pulled up with hooks, +while by means of thick boards well fastened together and strengthened +with iron, which they let down against the face of the wall, they turned +aside the assaults of the remainder. The Romans' chief cause of discomfort +was the lack of water; their supply was of poor quality and had to be +brought from a distance. + +The Jews found their underground passages a source of strength. They had +these affairs dug from within the city out under the walls to distant +points in the country, and going out through them they would attack +parties in search of water and harass scattered detachments. Consequently +Titus stopped them all up.] + +[Sidenote:--5--] In the course of these operations many on both sides were +wounded and killed. Titus himself was struck on the left shoulder by a +stone, and as a result of this accident the arm was always weaker. After a +time the Romans managed to scale the outside circle, and, pitching their +camps between the two encompassing lines of fortification, assaulted the +second wall. Here, however, they found the conditions confronting them to +be different. When all the inhabitants had retired behind the second wall, +its defence proved an easier matter because the circuit to be guarded was +so much less. Titus, accordingly, made anew a proclamation offering them +immunity. They, however, even under these circumstances held out. And the +captives and deserters from the enemy so far as they could do so +unobserved spoiled the Roman water supply and slew many men that they +could cut off from the main force, so that Titus refused to receive any of +them. Meantime some of the Romans, too, growing disheartened, as often +happens in a prolonged siege, and furthermore suspecting that the city was +really, even as report declared, impregnable, went over to the other side. +The Jews although they were short of food treated them kindly, in order to +be able to exhibit deserters to their own ranks. + +[Sidenote:--6--] Though a breach in the wall was effected by engines, +still the capture did not immediately follow; the defenders killed great +numbers that tried to crowd through the opening. Next they set fire to +some of the buildings near by, expecting in this way to check the onward +progress of the Romans, even should the latter make themselves masters of +the entire circuit. In this way they damaged the wall and unintentionally +burned down the barrier encompassing their sacred precinct. The entrance +to the temple was now laid open to the Romans. The soldiers on account of +their superstition would not immediately rush in, but at last, as Titus +forced them, they made their way inside. Then the Jews carried on a +defence much more vigorous than before, as if they had discovered a rare +and unexpected privilege in falling near the temple, while fighting to +save it. The populace was stationed in the outer court, the senators on +the steps, and the priests in the hall of worship itself. And though they +were but a handful fighting against a far superior force they were not +subdued until a section of the temple was fired. Then they went to meet +death willingly, some letting themselves be pierced by the swords of the +Romans, some slaughtering one another, others committing suicide, and +others leaping into the blaze. It looked to everybody, and most of all to +them, apparently, [that so far from being ruin, it was victory and +salvation and happiness to perish along with the temple]. [Sidenote:--7--] +Even under these conditions many captives were taken, among them Bargiora, +[Footnote: Properly Simon Bar-Giora (patronymic).] the commander of the +enemy: he was the only one punished in the course of the triumphal +celebration. + +Thus was Jerusalem destroyed on the very day of Saturn, which even now the +Jews reverence most. To commemorate the event it was ordered that the +conquered, while still preserving their own ancestral customs should +annually pay a tribute of two denarii to Capitoline Jupiter. As a reward +for this success both generals received the title of imperator, but +neither had that of _Iudaicus_, although all the other privileges +(including arches bearing trophies) that were proper after so great a +victory were voted to them. + +[Sidenote:--8--] Hard upon Vespasian's entrance into Alexandria the Nile +overflowed, and rose in one day a palm higher than usual; indeed, such an +occurrence, it was said, had taken place only once before. Vespasian +himself healed two persons who had come to him because of a vision seen in +dreams. One of them, who had a weak hand, he cured by treading upon that +member, and the other one, who was blind, by spitting upon his eyes. His +divine power herein shown gave him great repute, yet the Alexandrians, far +from enjoying his society, detested him heartily; not only in private but +in public they were forever making fun of and abusing him. They had +expected to receive some great reward from him because they had taken the +first steps in making him emperor, but instead of securing anything they +had additional contributions levied upon them. Large were the sums he +gathered from them, for he omitted not a single source of revenue, no, not +even the first that might offer itself, though its character were +reprehensible, but he sought money from everybody alike, of secular or +religious profession. As for taxes, he renewed many that had been +abolished and increased those that were usual [and introduced still other +new ones]. And he adopted this same course later in the rest of the +subject territory, [in Italy] and in Rome itself. Hence the Alexandrians +[both for the reasons mentioned and because most of the royal possessions +had been sold were vexed and] threw out various derogatory remarks about +him, one of them being: "You want six obols more." Vespasian, +consequently, although the most affable of men, became indignant and gave +orders that the six obols per man should be levied, and thought seriously +about taking vengeance upon them. [The words themselves contained an +insult, and of their many undignified and anapaestic rhythms there was not +a single one but aroused his anger.] Titus, however, begged them off and +Vespasian accordingly spared them. Yet they would not let him alone, and +in some assembly they all together shouted at Titus these very words: "We +forgive him. He doesn't understand being Caesar." + +So they continued to be foolhardy, took their thorough fill of that +license which is always working to their detriment, and abused the good +nature of the emperor. [Sidenote:--9--] Vespasian soon ceased to notice +them. He sent a despatch to Rome rescinding the disfranchisement of such +persons as had been condemned for so-called acts of maiestas by Nero and +succeeding rulers. His action included living and dead alike, and he +moreover stopped the indictments made upon such complaints.--The +astrologers he banished from Rome, yet he consulted all of them who were +distinguished, and through the influence of Barbillus, a man of that +profession, allowed the Ephesians to celebrate some sacred games. This was +a privilege he granted to no other city. + +He soon had Egypt subdued and sent from there a large supply of grain to +Rome. He had left his son Titus at Jerusalem to sack the town, and awaited +its capture that he might return to Rome in his son's company. But, as +time dragged in the conduct of the siege, he left Titus in Palestine and +took passage himself on a merchantman; he sailed in this manner as far as +Lycia, and from that country partly by overland journeys and partly by +seafaring he came to Brundusium. + +After this he came to Rome, meeting Mucianus and other prominent men at +Brundusium and Domitian at Beneventum. In consequence of the consciousness +of his own designs and of what he had already done, Domitian was ill at +ease, and moreover he occasionally feigned madness. He spent most of his +time on the Alban estate and did many ridiculous things, one of them being +to impale flies on pencils. Even though this incident be unworthy of the +dignity of history, yet because it shows his character so well and +particularly in view of the fact that he continued the same practice after +he became emperor, I have been obliged to record it. Hence that answer was +not without wit which some one made to a person who enquired what Domitian +was doing. "He is living in retirement," he said, "without so much as a +fly to keep him company." [Sidenote:--10--] Vespasian though he humbled +this upstart's pride greeted all the rest not like an emperor but like a +private person, for he remembered his previous experience. + +On reaching Rome he bestowed gifts upon both soldiers and populace; he +made repairs in the sacred precincts and upon those public works which +showed signs of wear and tear; such as had already crumbled to decay he +restored; and when they were completed he inscribed upon them not his own +name but the names of the persons who had originally reared them. + +He immediately began to construct the temple on the Capitoline, being +himself the first to carry away some of the soil; and, as a matter of +course, he urged the other most prominent men to do this same thing in +order that the rest of the populace might have no excuse for shirking this +service. + +The property of his opponents who had fallen in one conflict or another he +delivered to their children or to other kin of theirs; furthermore, he +destroyed contracts of long standing representing sums due and owing to +the public treasury. + +Though he invariably expended in munificent fashion all that was requisite +for the public welfare and arranged the festivals on a most sumptuous +scale, his own living was very far from costly, and he sanctioned no +greater outlay than was absolutely necessary. Therefore even in the +taverns he allowed nothing cooked to be sold except pulse. Thus he made it +quite plainly evident that he was amassing riches not for his own +enjoyment but for the needs of the people. + +Vespasian got laughed at every time that he would say, when spending +money: "I am making this outlay from my own purse." + +He was neither of noble family nor rich. + +The general routine of life that he followed was this. He lived but little +in the palace, spending most of his time in the so-called Sallustian +Gardens. There he received anybody who desired to see him, not only +senators but people in general. With his intimate friends he would +converse also before dawn while lying in bed; others could greet him on +the streets. The doors of the royal residence were open all day long and +no guard was stationed at them. He was a regular visitor in the senate, +whose members he consulted in regard to all projects, and he frequently +tried cases in the Forum. Whatever measures he was prevented by old age +from reading aloud, as well as any communications that he sent to the +senate when absent, he usually caused to be read by his sons, showing +honor by this course to the legislative body. Every day he had many of the +senators and others join him at table, and he himself often dined at the +houses of his intimate friends. [Sidenote:--11--] In general, his +forethought for public interests caused him to be regarded as a real +emperor. In his ordinary existence he was sociable and lived on a footing +of equality with his subjects. He joked in unconventional manner and +rather liked jokes upon himself. In case any anonymous documents were +posted,--as happens to every emperor,--containing statements insulting to +himself, he showed no signs of disturbance but posted in turn a suitable +reply. + +One day Phoebus approached him to make an apology. It seemed that once, +during Nero's reign, Vespasian when in the theatre in Greece had frowned +at the misconduct of the emperor (of which he was a witness), whereupon +Phoebus had angrily bidden him "Go!" And upon Vespasian's enquiring "Where +to?" the other had responded "to the devil." [Footnote: This sentiment is +expressed in the Greek by "to the crows."] Now when Phoebus apologized for +this speech the monarch did him no harm, in fact vouchsafed him no answer +at all, save a curt "Go to the devil yourself!"--Again, when Vologaesus +forwarded a letter to the emperor addressed as follows: "Arsaces, King of +Kings, to Flavius Vespasian, Greeting," the recipient did not rebuke him +but wrote a reply couched in the same terms and added none of his imperial +titles. + +[Sidenote:--12--] Helvidius Priscus, the son-in-law of Thrasea, had been +brought up in the doctrines of the Stoics and imitated Thrasea's +bluntness, though there was no occasion for it. He was at this time +praetor and instead of doing aught to increase the honor due to the +emperor he would not cease reviling him. Therefore the tribunes once +arrested him and gave him in charge of their assistants, at which +procedure Vespasian was overcome by emotion and went out of the +senate-house in tears, uttering this single exclamation only: "A son +shall be my successor or no one at all." + +[Sidenote: A.D. 71 (a.u. 824)] After Jerusalem had been captured Titus +returned to Italy and celebrated a triumph, both he and his father riding +in a chariot. Domitian, now in his consulship, also took part in the +festivities, mounted upon a charger. Vespasian next established in Rome +teachers of both Latin and Greek learning, who drew their pay from the +public treasury. + +[Sidenote:--12--] It became strikingly clear that Vespasian hated +Helvidius Priscus not so much for personal affronts or on account of the +friends that the man had abused as because he was a turbulent fellow that +cultivated the favor of the rabble, was forever denouncing royalty and +praising democracy. Helvidius's behavior, moreover, was consistent with +his principles; he banded various men together, as if it were the function +of philosophy to insult those in power, to stir up the multitudes, to +overthrow the established order of things, and to incite people to +revolution. He was a son-in-law of Thrasea and affected to emulate the +latter's conduct: his failure to do so was striking. Thrasea lived in +Nero's time and disliked the tyrant. Even so, however, he never spoke or +behaved toward him in any insulting way: he merely refused to share in his +practices. But Helvidius had a grudge against Vespasian and would not let +him alone either in private or in public. By what he did he invited death +and for his meddlesome interference he was destined ultimately to pay the +penalty. + +Mucianus desired to be honored by all and beyond all, so +that he was displeased not merely if a man insulted him but even if any +one failed to extol him greatly. Hence, just as he was never tired of +honoring those who assisted him to even the slightest extent, so his +hatred was most cruel for all who did not so conduct themselves. + +Mucianus made a great number of remarkable statements to Vespasian against +the Stoics, as, for instance, that they are full of empty boasting, and if +one of them lets his beard grow long, elevates his eyebrows, wears his +fustian cape thrown carelessly back and goes barefoot, he straightway +postulates wisdom, bravery, righteousness as his own. He gives himself +great airs, even though he may not understand (as the proverb says) either +letters or swimming. They view everybody with contempt and call the man of +good family a mollycoddle, the ill-born a dwarfed intellect, a handsome +person licentious, an ugly person comely, the rich man an apostle of +greed, and the poor man a servile groveler. + +And Vespasian did immediately expel from Rome all the philosophers except +Musonius: Demetrius and Hostilianus he confined upon islands. Hostilianus +would not stop, to be sure,--he happened to be conversing with somebody +when he heard about the sentence of exile against him and merely inveighed +all the more strongly against monarchy,--yet he straightway withdrew. +Demetrius even now would not yield, and Vespasian bade it be told him: +"You are working every way to have me kill you, but I am not slaughtering +barking dogs." + +[Sidenote:--13--] Before long many others who followed the so-called Stoic +system made themselves prominent, among whom was Demetrius the cynic. +These men, abusing the title of philosophy, kept teaching their disciples +publicly many pernicious doctrines, and in this way were gradually +corrupting [Footnote: Reading [Greek: hypodiephtheiron] (Dindorf).] some. +Under these circumstances Mucianus, influenced more by anger than by +fondness for speaking, uttered many charges against them and persuaded +Vespasian to expel all such persons from the city. + +[Sidenote:--14--] This period saw also the demise of Vespasian's +concubine, Caenis. I have mentioned her because she was exceedingly +faithful and possessed naturally a most excellent memory. For instance, +her mistress Antonia, the mother of Claudius, had had her write secretly +to Tiberius about Sejanus and later had ordered the message erased, that +no trace of the same might be left. Thereupon she replied: "It is in vain, +mistress, that you have issued this command. All of this and whatever else +you dictate to me I always carry with me in my soul and it can never be +erased." This is one thing I have admired about her and a second is that +Vespasian should have been so much pleased with her. This fact gave her +the greatest influence, and she collected untold wealth, so that it was +even thought that she obtained money by her independent efforts. She +received vast sums from all sources and sold to some persons offices, to +others procuratorships, the command of campaigns, priesthoods, and to some +actually imperial decisions. For Vespasian killed no one to get his money +and took care to preserve large numbers of those who freely gave it. The +person who secured the funds was his concubine, but it was suspected that +Vespasian willingly allowed her to do as she did; and this belief was +strengthened by his other acts, a few of which, for the sake of +illustration, I shall relate. When certain persons voted to erect to him a +statue costing twenty-five myriads, he stretched out his hand and said: +"Give me the money; this [Footnote: i.e., the hollowed hand (compare +Suetonius Vespasian, chapter 23).] will serve as its pedestal."--And to +Titus, who was angry at the tax on urinating [Footnote: This refers to +conveniences in the public streets.], which was appointed along with the +rest, he replied, as he picked up some gold pieces that were the product +of it: "See, my child, if they smell at all." + +[Sidenote: A.D. 75 (a.u. 828)] [Sidenote:--15--] In the sixth year of +Vespasian as magistrate and the fourth of Titus the precinct of Peace was +dedicated and the so-called Colossus was set up on the Sacred Way. It is +said to have been one hundred feet high, and to have had--according to one +account--the figure of Nero, according to others that of Titus. Vespasian +would often have beasts slain in the theatres. He did not particularly +enjoy gladiatorial combats of men, although Titus during the youthful +sports which were celebrated in his own land had once had a sham fight in +heavy armor with Alienus. The Parthians, who fell into a war with some +peoples, asked for an alliance with him, but he did not go to their aid, +saying that it was not proper for him to interfere in other persons' +business. + +Berenice was at the height of her power and consequently came to Rome +along with her brother Agrippa. [Footnote: This Agrippa, known also as +Herodes II, was an intimate friend of the Jewish historian Josephus and a +companion of Titus at the siege of Jerusalem. It was before him, moreover, +that the apostle Paul made his defence in A.D. 60.] The latter was +accorded pretorial honors, while she dwelt in the Palace and cohabited +with Titus. She expected to be married to him and behaved in all respects +as if his wife. But when he perceived that the Romans were displeased at +the situation he sent her away; for various reports were in circulation. +At this time, too, certain sophists of the cynic school managed somehow to +slip into the city: first, Diogenes entered the theatre when it was full +of men and denounced them in a long, abusive speech, for which he was +flogged; after him Heras, who showed no greater disposition to be +obedient, gave vent to many senseless bawlings in the true cynic +(dog-like) manner,--and for this behavior was beheaded. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 79 (a.u. 832)] [Sidenote:--16--] About the same period +that these events took place it happened that at a certain inn such a +quantity of overflowed the vessels that it ran out into the street. +Moreover, Sabinus the Gaul, already mentioned, the person who had once +named himself Caesar, had later taken up arms, had been defeated and had +hidden himself in the monument, was discovered [Footnote: The meaning is +clear. Cobet (Mnemosyne, N.S.X). thinks that ephorathae expresses the idea +more accurately than the commonly accepted ephanerothae (Boissevain also +ephorathae).] and brought to Rome. With him perished also his wife +Peponila, who had previously saved his life. She had presented her +children before Vespasian and had delivered a most pitiful speech in their +behalf: "These little ones, Caesar, I both brought forth and reared in the +monument, that we might be a greater number to supplicate you." She caused +both him and the rest to weep; no mercy, however, was shown to the family. +Meantime the emperor was also the object of a conspiracy on the part of +Alienus and Marcellus, although he considered them among his best friends +and bestowed honors upon them quite unstintedly. They did not succeed in +killing him, though. Upon their being detected, Alienus was slain at once, +in the imperial residence itself, as he rose from a meal with his intended +victim. Titus issued this order to prevent his carrying his rebellion any +further during the night; Alienus had already made arrangements with not a +few of the soldiers. Marcellus was brought to trial before the senate and +was condemned, whereupon he cut his own throat with a razor. Not even +benefits, it may be remarked, can subdue those who are naturally vicious, +as is shown by the plotting of these men against him who had done them so +many kindnesses. + +[Sidenote:--17--] It was after the episode just narrated that Vespasian +fell sick, not, if the truth be known, of his ordinary gout but of fever +and passed away at Aquae Cutiliae, [Footnote: These are mineral springs, +chiefly sulphurous in nature, both hot and cold, situated near the town of +Cutiliae, famous for its pool with the "floating island." Celsus (On +Medicine, Book Four, chapter 5 (=12)) recommends bathing and standing in +such cold mineral springs as those at Cutiliae in cases where a patient +suffers from inability of the stomach to assimilate food.--The town itself +is between Reate and Interocrea among the Sabines. (And compare Suetonius, +Vespasian, chapter 24).] so-called, in Sabine territory. Some, who +endeavor falsely to incriminate Titus (among them the emperor Hadrian) +have spread a report that he was poisoned at a banquet. Portents had +occurred in his career indicating his approaching end, such as the comet +star which was seen for a considerable period and the opening of the +monument of Augustus of its own accord. When the sick man's physician +chided him for continuing his usual course of living and attending to all +the duties that belonged to his office, he answered: "The emperor ought to +die on his feet." To those who said anything to him about the comet he +responded: "This is an omen not for me but for the Parthian king. He has +flowing hair like the comet, whereas I am baldheaded." When he at length +came to the belief that he was to die, he said only: "Now I shall become a +god." He had lived to the age of sixty-nine years and eight months. His +reign lasted ten years lacking six days. Accordingly, it results that from +the death of Nero to Vespasian's becoming emperor a year and twenty-two +days elapsed. I have recorded this fact to prevent a misapprehension on +the part of any persons who might reckon the time with reference to the +men who were in power. They, however, did not legitimately succeed one +another, but each of them while his rival was alive and still ruling +believed himself to be emperor from the moment that the thought first +entered his head. One must not enumerate all the days of their reigns as +if those days had followed one after another in orderly succession, but +make a single sweeping calculation with the exact time, as I have stated +it, in mind. + +[Sidenote:--18--] At his death Titus succeeded to the imperial power. +Titus as a ruler committed no act of murder or passion, but showed himself +upright, though the victim of plots, and self-controlled, though Berenice +came to Rome again. Perhaps this was because he had undergone a change. +(To share a reign with somebody else is a very different thing from being +one's self an independent ruler. In the former case persons are heedless +of the good name of the sovereignty and enjoy greedily the authority it +gives them, thus doing many things that make their position the object of +envy and slander. Actual monarchs, on the other hand, knowing that +everything depends on their decision, have some eye to good repute as well +as to other matters. So Titus said to somebody whose society he had +previously affected: "It is not the same thing to desire something from +another as to decide a case yourself, nor to ask something from another as +it is to give it to some one yourself.") Perhaps his satisfactory conduct +was also due to his surviving so short a time compared with most rulers, +for he was thus given little opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived +after this only two years, two months and twenty days in addition to his +thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days. People compare this +feature of Titus's career with the fullness of years of Augustus, and say +that the latter would never have won affection if he had lived a shorter +time, nor the former, if he had lived longer. Augustus, though at the +outset he had shown himself rather harsh because of the wars and the +political factions, was able later in the course of time to become +distinguished for his kindnesses: Titus ruled with forbearance and died at +the summit of his glory, whereas if he had enjoyed a longer life, it might +have been proved that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than +to virtue. + +[Sidenote:--19--] It is worth noting that Titus during his reign put no +senator to death, nor was any one else slain by him all the time that he +was emperor. Cases involving maiestas he would never entertain himself nor +allow others to entertain, for he said: "It is impossible for me to be +insulted or outraged in any way. I do naught that deserves censure and I +care not for what is falsely reported. As for the emperors that are dead +and gone, they will avenge themselves in case any one does them wrong, if +in very truth they be heroes and possess some power."--He also made +various arrangements to render men more secure and free from trouble. One +of these was the posting of a notice confirming all gifts bestowed upon +any person by the former emperors. This also enabled him to avoid the +nuisance of having people petition him individually about the +matter.--Informers he banished from the city. + +In money matters he was frugal and sanctioned no unnecessary expenditure, +yet he did not punish any one for opposite tendencies. + +In his reign also the False Nero appeared, who was an Asiatic and called +himself Terentius Maximus. He resembled Nero in form and voice: he even +sang to the zither's accompaniment. He gained a few followers in Asia and +in his onward progress to the Euphrates he secured a far greater number +and at length sought a retreat with Artabanus, the Parthian chief, who, +out of the anger that he felt toward Titus, both received the pretender +and set about preparations for restoring him to Rome. (Compare John of +Antioch, frag. 104 Mueller). + +[Sidenote:--20--] Meantime war had again broken out in Britain, and Gnaeus +Julius Agricola overran the whole of the hostile region. He was the first +of the Romans whom we know to discover that Britain was surrounded by +water. Some soldiers had rebelled and after killing centurions and a +military tribune had taken refuge in boats. In these they put out to sea +and sailed around to the western portion of the country just as the +billows and the wind bore them. And without knowing it they came around +from the opposite side and stopped at the camps on this side again. At +that Agricola sent others to try the voyage around Britain and learned +from them, too, that it was an island. + +As a result of these events in Britain Titus received the title of +imperator for the fifteenth time. Agricola for the rest of his life lived +in dishonor and even in want because he had accomplished greater things +than a mere general should. Finally he was murdered on this account by +Domitian, in spite of having received triumphal honors from Titus. + +[Sidenote:--21--] In Campania remarkable and frightful occurrences took +place. A great fire was suddenly created just at the end of autumn. It was +this way. The mountain Vesuvius stands over against Naples near the sea +and has unquenchable springs of fire. Once it was equally high at all +points and the fire rose from the center of it. This is the only portion +of it that is in a blaze, for the outside parts of the mountain remain +even now unkindled. Consequently, as the latter are never burned, while +the interior is constantly growing brittle and being reduced to ashes, the +surrounding peaks retain their original height to this day, but the whole +section that is on fire, as it is consumed in the course of time, has +grown hollow from continual collapse. Thus the entire mountain, if we may +compare great things to small, resembles a hunting-theatre. The outlying +heights of it support both trees and vines,--many of them,--but the crater +is given over to fire and sends up smoke by day, flame by night. It looks +as if quantities of incense of all sorts were being burned in it. This +goes on all the time, sometimes more, sometimes less. Often it throws up +ashes, when there is a general settling in the interior, or again it sends +up stones when the air forces them out. It echoes and bellows, too, +because its vents are not all together but are narrow and hidden. + +[Sidenote:--22--] Such is Vesuvius, and these phenomena regularly occur +there at least once a year. But all the other happenings that took place +in former time, though they may have seemed great and unusual to those who +on each occasion observed them, nevertheless would be reckoned as but +slight in comparison with what now occurred even though they should all be +rolled into one. This was what befell. Numbers of huge men quite +surpassing any human stature,--such creatures as giants are depicted to +be,--appeared now on the mountain, now in the country surrounding it, and +again in the cities, wandering over the earth day and night and also +traversing the air. After this fearful droughts and earthquakes sudden and +violent occurred, so that all the level ground in that region undulated +and the heights gave a great leap. Reverberations were frequent, some +subterranean resembling thunder and some on the surface like bellowings. +The sea joined the roar and the sky resounded with it. Then suddenly a +portentous crash was heard, as if the mountains were tumbling in ruins. +And first there were belched forth stones of huge size that rose to the +very summits before they fell; after them came a deal of fire and smoke in +inexhaustible quantities so that the whole atmosphere was obscured and the +whole sun was screened from view as if in an eclipse. [Sidenote:--23--] +Thus night succeeded day and darkness light. Some thought the giants were +rising in revolt (for even at this time many of their forms could be +discerned in the smoke and moreover a kind of sound of trumpets was +heard), while others believed that the whole world was disappearing in +chaos or fire. Therefore they fled, some from the houses into the streets, +others from without into the house; in their confusion, indeed, they +hastened from the sea to the land or from the land to the sea, deeming any +place at a distance from where they were safer than what was near by. +While this was going on an inconceivable amount of ashes was blown out and +covered the land and the sea everywhere and filled all the air. It did +harm of all sorts, as chance dictated, to men and places and cattle, and +the fish and the birds it utterly destroyed. Moreover, it buried two whole +cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii, while the populace was seated in the +theatre. The entire amount of dust was so great that some of it reached +Africa and Syria and Egypt, and it also entered Rome, where it occupied +all the air over the city and cast the sun into shadow. There, too, no +little fear was felt for several days, since the people did not know and +could not conjecture what had happened. They like the rest thought that +everything was being turned upside down, that the sun was disappearing in +the earth and the earth was bounding up to the sky. This ashes for the +time being did them no great harm: later it bred among them a terrible +pestilence. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 80 (a.u. 833)] [Sidenote:--24--] Another fire, above +ground, in the following year spread over a very large portion of Rome +while Titus was absent on business connected with the catastrophe that had +befallen in Campania. It consumed the temple of Serapis, the temple of +Isis, the Saepta, the temple of Neptune, the Baths of Agrippa, the +Pantheon, the Diribitorium, the theatre of Balbus, the stage-building of +Pompey's theatre, the Octavian buildings together with their books, and +the temple of Capitoline Jupiter with its surrounding temples. Hence the +disaster seemed to be not of human but of divine contrivance. Any one can +estimate from the list of buildings that I have given, how many more must +have been destroyed. Titus, accordingly, sent two exconsuls to the +Campanians to supervise the founding of settlements and bestowed upon the +inhabitants money that came (besides various other sources) from those +citizens that had died without heirs. As for himself, he took nothing from +individual or city or king, although many kept offering and promising him +large sums. In spite of this, he restored everything from funds already at +hand. [Sidenote:--25--] Most of his deeds had no unusual quality to mark +them, but in dedicating the hunting-theatre and the baths that bear his +name he produced many remarkable spectacles. Cranes fought with one +another, and four elephants, as well as other grazing animals and wild +beasts, to the number of nine thousand, were slaughtered, and women (not +of any prominence, however,) took part in despatching them. Of men several +fought in single combat and several groups contended together in infantry +and naval battles. For Titus filled the above mentioned theatre suddenly +with water and introduced horses and bulls and some other tractable +creatures that had been taught to behave in the liquid element precisely +as upon land. He introduced also human beings on boats. These persons had +a sea-fight there, impersonating two parties, Corcyreans and Corinthians: +others gave the same performance outside in the grove of Gaius and Lucius, +a spot which Augustus had formerly excavated for this very purpose. There, +on the first day, a gladiatorial combat and slaughter of beasts took +place; this was done by building a structure of planks over the lake that +faced the images and placing benches round about it. On the second day +there was a horse-race, and on the third a naval battle involving three +thousand men. Afterwards there was also an infantry battle. The Athenians +conquered the Syracusans (these were the names that were used in the naval +battle), made a landing on the islet, and having assaulted a wall +constructed around the monument took it. These were the sights offered to +spectators, and they lasted for a hundred days. + +Titus also contributed some things that were of practical use to the +people. He would throw down into the theatre from aloft little wooden +balls that had a mark, one signifying something to eat, another clothing, +another a silver vessel, or perhaps a gold one, or again horses, +pack-animals, cattle, slaves. Those who snatched them had to carry them +back to the dispensers of the bounty to secure the article of which the +name was inscribed. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 81 (a.u. 834)] [Sidenote:--26--] When he had finished this +exhibition, he wept so bitterly on the last day that all the people saw +him, and after this time he performed no other great deed; but the +following year, in the consulship of Flavius [Footnote: L. Flavius Silva +Nonius Bassus.] and Pollio, [Footnote: Asinius Pollio Verrucosus.] +subsequent to the dedication of the buildings mentioned, he passed away at +the same Aquae that was the scene of his father's demise. The common +report had it that he was done to death by his brother, for he had +previously been the object of that person's plot: but some writers state +that a disease carried him off. The tradition is that, while he was still +breathing and had a possible chance of recovery, Domitian, to hasten his +end, put him in a box packed with a quantity of snow, pretending that the +disease required a chill to be administered; and, before his victim was +dead, he rode off to Rome, entered the camp, and received the title and +authority of emperor, having given the soldiers all that his brother had +been wont to give them. Titus, as he expired, said: "I have made but one +error." What this was he did not reveal, and no one else feels quite sure +about it. Some have conjectured one thing and some another. The prevailing +impression, according to one set of historians, is that he referred to +keeping his brother's wife, Domitia. Others (whom I am for following) say +what he meant was that, after finding Domitian openly plotting against +him, he had not killed him, but had chosen rather himself to suffer that +fate at his rival's hands and to surrender the government of Rome to a man +whose nature will be portrayed in the continuation of my narrative. Titus +had ruled for two years, two months, and twenty days, as has been +previously stated. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +67 + +Domitian's cruel character: his hatred of his father and brother (chapters +1, 2). + +He puts aside Domitia: falls in love with Julia: slays the Vestals +(chapter 3). + +The German war (chapters 4, 5). + +Dacian war with Decebalus (chapters 6, 7). + +Domitian's nocturnal spectacles and entertainments (chapters 8, 9). + +Events of the Dacian war (chapter 10). + +Antonius, governor of Germany, rebels: many are slain (chapters 11-14). + +How Domitian was killed through snares laid by certain men (chapters +15-18). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +L. Fl. Silva Nonius Bassus, Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Cosa. (A.D. 81 = +a.u. 834 = First of Domitian, from Sept. 13th). + +Domitianus Aug. (VIII), T. Flavius Sabinus. (A.D. 82 = a.u. 835 = Second +of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (IX), Q. Petilius Rufus (II). (A.D. 83 = a.u. 836 = Third +of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (X), T. Aurelius Sabinus. (A.D. 84 = a.u. 837 = Fourth of +Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XI), T. Aurelius Fulvus. (A.D. 85 = a.u. 838 = Fifth of +Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XII), Ser. Cornelius Dolabella. (A.D. 88 = a.u. 839 = +Sixth of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XIII), A. Volusius Saturninus. (A.D. 87 = a.u. 840 = +Seventh of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XIV), L. Minucius Rufus. (A.D. 88 = a.u. 841 = Eighth of +Domitian). + +T. Aurelius Fulvus (II), A. Sempronius Atratinus. (A.D. 89 = a.u. 842 = +Ninth of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XV), M. Cocceius Nerva (II). (A.D. 90 = a.u. 843 = Tenth +of Domitian). + +M. Ulpius Traianus, Manius Acilius Glabrio. (A.D. 91 = a.u. 844 = Eleventh +of Domitian). Domitianus Aug. (XVI), Q. Volusius Saturninus. (A.D. 92 = +a.u. 845 = Twelfth of Domitian). + +Sex. Pompeius Collega, Cornelius Priscus. (A.D. 93 = a.u. 846 = Thirteenth +of Domitian). + +L. Nonius Asprenas, M. Arricinius Clemens. (A.D. 94 = a.u. 847 = +Fourteenth of Domitian). + +Domitianus Aug. (XVII), T. Flavius Clemens. (A.D. 95 = a.u. 848 = +Fifteenth of Domitian). + +Manlius Valens, Antistius Vetus. (A.D. 96 = a.u. 849 = Sixteenth of +Domitian, to Sept. 18th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 81 (a.u. 834)] [Sidenote:--1--] Domitian was both, bold +and passionate, both treacherous and given to dissembling. Hence, from +these two characteristics, rashness on the one hand and craftiness on the +other, he did much harm, falling upon some persons with the swiftness of a +thunderbolt and damaging others by carefully prepared plots. The divinity +that he chiefly revered was Minerva, so that he was wont to celebrate the +Panathenaea on a magnificent scale: on this occasion he had contests of +poets and chroniclers and gladiators almost every year at Albanum. This +district, situated below the Alban Mount, from which it was named, he had +set apart as a kind of acropolis. He had no genuine affection for any +human being save a few women, but he always pretended to love the person +whom at any time he was most determined to slay. He could not be relied +upon even by those who did him some favor or helped him in his most +revolting crimes, for whenever any persons furnished him with large sums +of money or lodged information against numbers of men, he was sure to +destroy these benefactors, being especially careful to do so in the case +of slaves who had given information against their masters. [Accordingly, +such individuals, though, they received money and honors and offices all +at once from him, lived in no greater honor and security than other men. +The very offences to which they had [Sidenote: A.D. 82 (a.u. 835)] been +urged by Domitian commonly were made pretexts for their destruction, the +emperor's object being to have the actual perpetrators appear solely +responsible for their wrongdoing. It was the same intention which led him +once to issue a public notice to the effect that, when an emperor does not +punish informers he is the cause of the existence of such a class.] + +[Sidenote:--2--] Though this was his behavior to all throughout the course +of his reign, still he quite outdid himself in dealing dishonor and ruin +to his father's and brother's friends. [To be sure, he himself posted a +notice that he would ratify all the gifts made to any persons by them and +by other emperors. But this was mere show.] He hated them because they did +not supply all his demands, many of which were unreasonable, as also +because they had been held in some honor. [Whatever had enjoyed their +affection and the benefit of their influence beyond the ordinary he +regarded as hostile to him.] Therefore, although he himself had a passion +for a eunuch named Earinus, nevertheless, because Titus had also shown +great liking for castrated persons, he carried his desire to cast +reflections on his brother's character to the extent of forbidding any one +thereafter in the Roman empire to be castrated. In general, he was +accustomed to say that those emperors who failed to punish large numbers +of men were not good, but merely fortunate. [Personally, he paid no +attention to those who praised Titus for not causing a single senator's +death, nor did he care that the senate frequently saw fit to pass decrees +that the emperor should not be permitted to put to death any of his peers. +The emperor, as he believed, was far and away superior to them and might +put any one of them out of the way either on his own responsibility or +with the consent of the rest; it was ridiculous to suppose that they could +offer any opposition or refuse to condemn a man. Some would praise Titus, +only not in Domitian's hearing; for such effrontery would be deemed as +grave an offence as if they were to revile the emperor in his presence and +within hearing: but [Lacuna] [Footnote: A gap must probably be construed +here. Bekker (followed by Dindorf) regarded it as coming after "secretly" +and consisting of but a word or two (e.g. "he hated them") but Boissevain +locates it as indicated above and believes that considerably more is +missing.] because he understood that they were doing this secretly +[Lacuna] Then there was another thing] that resembled play-acting. +Domitian pretended that he too loved his brother and mourned him. He read, +with tears, the eulogies upon him [and hastened to have him enrolled among +the heroes], pretending just the opposite of what he really wished. +(Indeed, he abolished the horse-race on Titus's birthday). People in +general were not safe whether they sympathized with his indignation or +with his joy. In one case they [Footnote: Reading [Greek: emellon] +(Dindorf, Boissevain).] were sure to offend his feelings and in the other +to let their lack of genuineness appear. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 83 (a.u. 836)] [Sidenote:--3--] His wife, Domitia, he +planned to put to death on the ground of adultery, but, having been +dissuaded by Ursus, he sent her away and midway on the road murdered +Paris, the dancer, because of her. And many people paid honor to that spot +with flowers [Sidenote: A.D. 83 (a.u. 836)] and perfumes, he gave orders +that they, too, should be slain. After this he took into his house, quite +undisguisedly, his own niece,--Julia, that is to say. [Then on petition of +the people he became reconciled, to be sure, with Domitia, but continued +none the less his relations with Julia.] + +He was removing many of the foremost men on many pretexts and by means of +murders and banishments. [He also conveyed many to some out-of-the-way +place, where he got rid of them; and not a few he caused to die in some +way or other by their own acts that they might seem to have suffered death +by their own wish and not through outside force.] He did not spare even +the vestal virgins, but punished them on charges of their having had +intercourse with men. It is further reported that since their examination +was conducted in a harsh and unfeeling manner, and many of them were +accused and constantly being punished, one of the pontifices, Helvius +Agrippa, could not endure it, but, horror-stricken, expired there in the +senate where he sat. [Domitian also took pride in the fact that he did not +bury alive, as was the custom, the virgins he found guilty of debauchery, +but ordered them to be killed by some different way.] + +After this he set out for Gaul and plundered some of the tribes across the +Rhine enjoying treaty rights,--a performance which filled him with conceit +as if he had achieved some great success. Presumably on account of the +victory he increased the soldiers' wages, so that whereas each had been +receiving seventy-five denarii he commanded that a hundred be given them. +Later he thought better of it, but instead of diminishing the amount he +curtailed the number of men-at-arms. Both of these steps entailed great +injury to the public weal: he had made the defenders of the State too few, +while rendering their support an item of great expense. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 84 (a.u. 837)] [Sidenote:--4--] Next he made a campaign +into Germany and returned without having seen a trace of war anywhere. And +what need is there of mentioning the honors bestowed upon him at this +juncture for his exploit or from time to time upon the other emperors who +were like him? For the object in any case was simply not to arouse the +rage of those despots by letting them suspect, in consequence of the small +number and insignificance of the rewards, that the people saw through +them. Yet Domitian had this worst quality of all, that he desired to be +flattered, and was equally displeased with both sorts of men, those who +paid court to him and those who did not. He disliked the former because +their attitude seemed one of cajolery and the latter because it seemed one +of contempt. Notwithstanding [he affected to take pleasure in the honorary +decrees voted him by the senate. Ursus he came near killing because he was +not pleased with his sovereign's exploits, and then, at the request of +Julia, he appointed him consul.] Subsequently, being still more puffed up +by his folly, he was elected consul for ten years in succession, and first +and only censor for life of all private citizens and emperors: and he +obtained the right to employ twenty-four lictors and the triumphal garb +whenever he entered the senate-house. He gave October a new name, +Domitianum, because he had been born in that month. Among the charioteers +he instituted two more parties, calling one the Golden and the other the +Purple. To the spectators he gave many objects by means of balls thrown +among them; and once he gave them a banquet while they remained in their +seats and at night provided for them wine that flowed out in several +different places. All this caused pleasure seemingly to the populace, but +was a source of ruin to the powerful. For, as he had no resources for his +expenditures, he murdered numbers of men, bringing some of them before the +senate and accusing others in their absence. Lastly, he put some out of +the way by concocting a plot and administering to them secret drugs. + +Many of the peoples tributary to the Romans revolted when contributions of +money were forcibly extorted from them. The Nasamones are an instance in +point. They massacred all the collectors of the money and so thoroughly +defeated Flaccus, [Footnote: Probably _Cn. Suellius Flaccus._] +governor of Numidia, who attacked them, that they were able to plunder his +camp. Having gorged themselves on the provisions and the wine that they +found there they fell into a slumber, and Flaccus becoming aware of this +fact assailed and annihilated them all and destroyed the non-combatants. +Domitian experienced a thrill of delight at the news and remarked to the +senate: "Well, I have put a ban on the existence of the Nasamones." + +Even as early as this he was insisting upon being regarded as a god and +took a huge pleasure in being called "master" and "god." These titles were +used not merely orally but also in documents. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Chariomerus, king of the Cherusci, had been driven out of +his kingdom by the Chatti on account of his friendship for the Romans. At +first he gathered some companions and was successful in his attempt to +return. Later he was deserted by these men for having sent hostages to the +Romans and so became the suppliant of Domitian. He was not accorded an +alliance but received money. + +In Moesia, [Footnote: An error of the excerptor. The +Lygians lived north of Moesia.] the Lygians, who had been at war with some +of the Suebi, sent envoys, asking Domitian for an alliance. They obtained +one that was strong, not in numbers, but in dignity: in other words, they +were granted only a hundred knights. The Suebi, indignant at this, added +to their contingent the Iazygae and began to prepare well in advance to +cross the Ister. + +Masyus, king of the Semnones, and Ganna, a virgin (she was priestess in +Celtica after Veleda), came to Domitian and having been honored by him +returned. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 86 (a.u. 839)] [Sidenote:--6--] The greatest war that the +Romans had on their hands at this time was one against the Dacians. +Decebalus was now king of the latter [since Douras, to whom the +sovereignty belonged, had voluntarily withdrawn from it in favor of +Decebalus, because]. He had a good comprehension of the rules of warfare +and was good at putting them in practice, displayed sagacity in advancing, +took the right moment for retreating, was an expert in ambuscades, a +professional warrior, knew how to make good use of a victory and to turn a +defeat to advantage. Hence he showed himself for a long time a worthy +antagonist of the Romans. + +I call the people Dacians, just as they name themselves and as the Romans +do; but I am not ignorant that some of the Greeks refer to them as Getae, +whether that is the right term or not. I myself know Getae that live along +the Ister, beyond the Haemus range. + +Domitian made an expedition against them, to be sure but did not enter +into real conflict. [Instead, he remained in a city of Moesia, rioting, as +was his wont.] (Not only was he averse to physical labor and timorous in +spirit, but also most profligate and lewd toward women and boys alike). +But he sent others to officer the war and for the most part he got the +worst of it. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 87(?)] Decebalus, king of the Dacians, carried on +negotiations with Domitian, promising him peace. Domitian sent against him +Fuscus [Footnote: _Cornelius Fuscus_, pretorian prefect.] with a +large force. On learning of it Decebalus sent an embassy to him anew, +sarcastically proposing to make peace with the emperor in case each of the +Romans should choose to pay two asses as tribute to Decebalus each year; +if they should not choose to do so, he affirmed that he should make war +and afflict them with great ills. + +Dio [Lacuna] 67th Book [Lacuna] "When the soldiers making the campaign +with Fuscus asked him to lead them." + +[Sidenote: A.D. 90 (a.u. 843)] [Sidenote:--7--] Meantime he conceived a +wish to take measures against the Quadi and the Marcomani because they had +not assisted him against the Dacians. So he entered Pannonia to make war +upon them, and the second set of envoys that they sent in regard to peace +he killed. + +[Sidenote:--8--] The same man laid the blame for his defeat, however, upon +his commanders. All the superior plans he claimed for himself, though he +executed none of them, but for the inferior management he blamed others, +even though it was through his orders that some accident had taken place. +Those who succeeded incurred his hatred and those who failed his censure. + +Domitian, being defeated by the Marcomani, took to flight and by hastily +sending messages to Decebalus, king of the Dacians, induced him to make a +truce with him. The monarch's frequent previous requests had always met +with refusal. Decebalus now accepted the arrangement, for he was indeed +hard pressed, yet he did not wish personally to hold a conference with +Domitian, but sent Diegis with other men to give him the arms and a few +captives, whom he pretended were the only ones he had. When this had been +accomplished, Domitian set a diadem on the head of Diegis, just as if he +had in very truth conquered and could make some one king over the Dacians. +To the soldiers he granted honors and money. Like a victor, again, he sent +on ahead to Rome, besides many other things, envoys from Decebalus, and +something which he affirmed was a letter of his, though rumor declared it +had been forged. He graced the festival that followed with many articles +pertaining to a triumph, though they did not belong to any booty he had +taken;--quite the reverse: and besides allowing the truce he made an +outlay of a great deal of money immediately and also presented to +Decebalus artisans of every imaginable profession, peaceful and warlike, +and promised that he would give him a great deal more. These exhibits came +from the imperial furniture which he at all times treated as captive +goods, because he had enslaved the empire itself. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 91 (a.u. 844)] So many rewards were voted +him that almost the whole world (so far as under his dominion) was filled +with his images and statues of both silver and gold. He also gave an +extremely costly spectacle in regard to which we have noted nothing that +was striking for historical record, save that virgins contended in the +foot-race. After this, in the course of holding what seem to have been +triumphal celebrations, he arranged numerous contests. First of all, in +the hippodrome he had battles of infantry against infantry, and again +battles of cavalry, and next he gave a naval battle in a new place. And +there perished in it practically all the naval combatants and numbers of +the spectators. A great rain and violent storm had suddenly come up, yet +he allowed no one to leave the spectacle; indeed, though he himself +changed his clothing to a thick woolen cloak, he would not permit the +people to alter their attire. As a result, not a few fell sick and died. +By way of consoling them for this, he provided them at public expense a +dinner lasting all night. Often, too, he would conduct games at night, and +sometimes he would pit dwarfs [Footnote: Reading [Greek: nanous] +(Dindorf)] and women against each other. + +[Sidenote:--9--] So at this time he feasted the populace as described, but +on another occasion he entertained the foremost men of the senate and the +knights in the following fashion. He prepared a room that was pitch black +on every side, ceiling, walls and floor, and had ready bare couches, all +alike, resting on the uncovered ground; then he invited in his guests +alone, at night, without their attendants. And first he set beside each of +them a slab shaped like a gravestone, bearing a person's name and also a +small lamp, such as hangs in tombs. Next well-shaped, naked boys, likewise +painted black, entered after the manner of phantoms, and, after passing +around the guests in a kind of terrifying dance, took up their stations at +their feet. After that, whatever is commonly dedicated in the course of +offerings to departed spirits was set before them also, all black, and in +dishes of a similar hue. Consequently, every single one of the guests +feared and trembled and every moment felt certain that he was to be slain, +especially as on the part of everybody save Domitian there was dead +silence, as if they were already in the realms of the dead, and the +emperor himself limited his conversation to matters pertaining to death +and slaughter. Finally he dismissed them. But he had previously removed +their servants, who stood at the doorway, and gave them in charge of +other, unknown slaves, to convey either to carriages or litters, and by +this act he filled them with far greater fear. Scarcely had each one +reached home and was beginning to a certain extent to recover his spirits, +when a message was brought him that some one was there from the Augustus. +While they were expecting, as a result of this, that now at last they +should surely perish, one person brought in the slab, which was of silver, +then another something else, and another one of the dishes set before them +at the dinner, which proved to be made of some costly material. Finally +came [Footnote: Verb supplied by Xylander.] that particular boy who had +been each one's familiar spirit, now washed and decked out. Thus, while in +terror all night long, they received their gifts. + +Such was the triumph or, as the crowd said, such was the expiatory service +that Domitian celebrated for those who had died in Dacia and in Rome. Even +at this time, too, he killed off some of the foremost men. And he took +away the property of whoever buried the body of any one of them, because +the victim had died on ground belonging to the sovereign. + +[Sidenote:--10--] Here are some more events worth recording, that took +place in the Dacian War. Julianus, assigned by the emperor to take charge +of the war, made many excellent regulations, one being his command that +the soldiers should inscribe their own names and those of the centurions +upon their shields, in order that those of them who committed any +particular good or bad action might be more readily observed by him. +Encountering the enemy at Tapai, [Footnote: Pape thinks that the proper +Latin form of this word be _Tabae_.] he killed a very great number of +them. Among them Vezinas, who ranked next to Decebalus, since he could not +get away alive, fell down purposely as if dead. In this way he escaped +notice and fled during the night. Decebalus, fearing that the Romans now +they had conquered would proceed against his residence, cut down the trees +that were on the site and attached weapons to the trunks, to the end that +his foes might think them soldiers, and so be frightened and withdraw. +This actually took place. + +[Sidenote:--11--] Antonius, a certain commander of this period in Germany, +revolted against Domitian: him Lucius Maximus overcame and overthrew. For +his victory he does not deserve any remarkable praise; [for many others +have unexpectedly won victories, and his soldiers contributed largely to +his success:] but for his burning all the documents that were found in the +chests of Antonius, thus esteeming his own safety as of slight importance +in comparison with having no blackmail result from them, I do not see how +I may celebrate his memory as it deserves. But Domitian, as he had got a +pretext from that source, proceeded to a series of slaughters even without +the documents, and no one could well say how many he killed. [Indeed, he +condemned himself so for this act that, to prevent any remembrance of the +dead surviving, he prohibited the inscribing of their names in the +records. Furthermore, he did not even make any communication to the senate +regarding those put out of the way, although he sent their heads as well +as that of Antonius to Rome and exposed them in the Forum.] But one young +man, Julius Calvaster, who had served as military tribune in the hope of +getting into the senate, was saved in a most unexpected fashion. Inasmuch +as it was being proved that he had frequent meetings with Antonius alone +and he had no other way to free himself from the charge of conspiracy, he +declared that he had met him for amorous intercourse. The fact that he was +of an appearance to inspire passion lent color to his statement. In this +way he was acquitted. + +After just one more remark about the events of that time, I will cease. +Lusianus Proculus, an aged senator, who spent most of his time in the +country, had come out with Domitian from Borne under compulsion so as to +avoid the appearance of deserting him when in danger and the death that +might very likely be the result of such conduct. When the news came, he +said: "You have conquered, emperor, as I ever prayed. Therefore, restore +me to the country." Thereupon he left him without more ado and retired to +his farm. And after this, although he survived for a long time, he never +came near him. + +During this period some had become accustomed to smear needles with poison +and then to prick with them whomsoever they would. Many persons thus +attacked died without even knowing the cause, and many of the murderers +were informed against and punished. And this went on not only in Rome but +over practically the entire civilized world. + +[Sidenote:--12--] To Ulpius Trajan and to Acilius Glabrio, who were +consuls then, the same signs are said to have appeared. They foretold to +Glabrio destruction, but to Trajan the imperial office. [Numerous wealthy +men and women both were punished for adultery, and some of the women had +been debauched by _him_. Many more were fined or executed on other +charges.] A woman was tried and lost her life because she had stripped in +front of an image of Domitian [and another for having had dealings with +astrologers]. Among the many who perished at this time was also Mettius +Pompusianus, whom Vespasian had refused to harm in any way after learning +from some report that he would one day be sole ruler, but [Footnote: +Reading [Greek: halla](Dindorf).] rather honored, saying: "You will +certainly remember me and will certainly honor me in return." But Domitian +first exiled him to Corsica and later put him to death, one of the +complaints being that he had the inhabited world painted on the walls of +his bedchamber and another that he had excerpted and was wont to read the +speeches of kings and other eminent men that are written in Livy. Also +Maternus, a sophist, met his death because in a practice speech [Footnote: +Hartman (Mnemosyne, N. S. XXI, p. 395) would read [Greek: hasteion] for +[Greek: haschon]. "Maternus met his death because he had made some witty +remark against tyrants." H. maintains that Domitian could not know what +Maternus said in his closet; but to the present translator the MS. +tradition seems to lend to this incident a greater homogeneousness of +detail with the preceding, and he retains it simply on that basis.] he had +said something against tyrants. The emperor himself used to visit both +those who were to accuse and those who were to give evidence for +condemnation, and he would frame and compose everything that required to +be said. Often, too, he would talk to the prisoners alone, keeping tight +hold of their chains with his hands. In the former case he would not +entrust to others what was to be said, and in the latter he feared the men +even in their bonds. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 93 (a.u. 846)] [Sidenote:--13--] As censor, likewise, his +behavior was noteworthy. He expelled Caecilius Rufinus from the senate +because he danced, and restored Claudius Pacatus, though an ex-centurion, +to his master because he was proved to be a slave. What came after, to be +sure, can not be described in similar terms,--his deeds, that is to say, +as emperor. _Then_ he killed Arulenus Rusticus for being a +philosopher and for calling Thrasea sacred, and Herennius Senecio because +in his long career he had stood for no office after the quaestorship and +because he had compiled the life of Helvidius Priscus. Many others also +perished as a result of this same charge of philosophizing, and all +remaining members of that profession were again driven from Rome. One +Juventius Celsus, however, who had been conspicuous in conspiring with +certain persons against Domitian and had been accused of it, saved his +life in a remarkable way. When he was on the point of being condemned, he +begged that he might speak a few words with the emperor in private. Having +gained the opportunity he did obeisance before him and after repeatedly +calling him "master," and "god" (terms that were already being applied to +him by others), he said: "I have done nothing of the sort. And if I obtain +a respite, I will pry into everything and both inform against and convict +many persons for you." He was released on these conditions, but did not +report any one; instead, by advancing different excuses at different +times, he lived until Domitian was killed. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 95 (a.u. 848)] [Sidenote:--14--] During this period the +road leading from Sinuessa to Puteoli was paved with stones. And the same +year Domitian slew among many others Flavius Clemens the consul, though he +was a cousin and had to wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of +the emperor's. [Footnote: His sister's daughter.] The complaint brought +against them both was that of atheism, under which many others who drifted +into Jewish ways were condemned. Some of these were killed and the +remainder were at least deprived of their property. Domitilla was merely +banished to Pandateria; but Glabrio, colleague of Trajan in the +consulship, after being accused on various regular stock charges, and also +of fighting with wild beasts, suffered death. This ability in the arena +was the chief cause of the emperor's anger against him,--an anger prompted +by jealousy. In the victim's consulship Domitian had summoned him to +Albanum to attend the so-called Juvenalia and had imposed on him the task +of killing a large lion. Glabrio not only had escaped all injury but had +despatched the creature with most accurate aim. + +As a consequence of his cruelty the emperor was suspicious of all mankind +and ceased now to put hopes of safety in either the freedmen or the +prefects, whom he usually caused to be tried during their very term of +office. Moreover, Epaphroditus, who belonged to Nero, he first drove out +and then slew, censuring him for not having defended Nero; his object was +by the vengeance that he took in this person's case to terrify his own +freedmen long enough in advance to prevent their ever attempting a similar +deed. [Sidenote: A.D. 96 (a.u. 849)] It did him no good, however, for he +became the object of a conspiracy in the following year and perished in +the consulship of Gaius [Footnote: An error, possibly emanating from Dio. +The man's right name is _T. Manlius Valens._] Valens (who died after +holding the consular office in his ninetieth year) and of Gaius Antistius. +[Sidenote:--15--] Those who attacked him and prepared the undertaking were +Parthenius his cubicularius (though he was the recipient of such marks of +imperial favor as to be allowed to wear a sword) and Sigerus, [Footnote: +Probably the person who is called Saturius in Suetonius, Domitian, chapter +17.] who was also a member of the excubiae, as well as Entellus, the +person entrusted with the care of the state documents, and Stephanus, a +freedman. The plot was not unknown to Domitia, the emperor's wife, nor to +the prefect Norbanus, nor to the latter's partner in office, Petronius +Secundus: at least, this is the tradition. Domitia was ever an object of +the imperial hatred and consequently stood in terror of her life; the rest +no longer loved their sovereign, some of them because complaints had been +lodged against them and others because they were expecting them to be +lodged. For my part, I have heard also the following account,--that +Domitian, having become suspicious of all these persons, conceived a +desire to kill them, and wrote their names on a two-leaved tablet of +linden wood, and put it under his pillow on the couch where he was wont to +repose; and one of the naked prattling [Footnote: Compare Book +Forty-eight, chapter 44.] boys, while the emperor was asleep in the +daytime, filched it away and kept it without knowing what it contained. +Domitia then chanced upon it and reading what was written gave information +of the matter to those involved. As a result, they changed their plans +somewhat and hastened the plot; yet they did not proceed to action until +they had determined who was to succeed to the office. Having conversed +with various persons, when they found that no one would accept it +(everybody was afraid of them, thinking that they were simply testing +people's loyalty) they betook themselves to Nerva. He was of most noble +birth and most suitable character and had, besides, encountered danger +through being slandered by astrologers [who declared that he should be +sovereign.] Thus they the more easily persuaded him to be the next to +receive the power. In truth, Domitian, who conducted an investigation of +the days and the hours when the foremost men had been born, had +consequently ere this despatched not a few even of those who entertained +no hopes of gaining any power. [Footnote: As the MS tradition of this +sentence is corrupt, the emendations of Polak have been adopted.] And he +would have slain Nerva, had not one of the astrologers who favored the +latter declared that he would die within a few days. [Believing that this +would really prove true, he did not desire to be guilty of this additional +murder, inasmuch as Nerva in any event was to meet death so very soon.] + +[Sidenote:--16--] Since no occurrence of such magnitude is without +previous indications, various unfavorable tokens appeared in his case, +too. In a vision he himself beheld Rusticus approaching him with a sword; +and he thought that Minerva, whose statue he kept in his bedchamber, had +thrown away her weapons and, mounted upon a chariot drawn by black horses, +was being swallowed up in an abyss. But the feature which of all claims +our wonder is connected with the name of Larginus Proculus. He had +publicly foretold in Germany that the emperor should die on the day when +he actually did die, and was, therefore, sent on to Rome by the governor. +Brought before Domitian he declared once more that this should be so. A +death sentence was postponed in order that he might be put to death after +the emperor had escaped the danger. Meanwhile Domitian was slain, his life +was saved, and he received a hundred thousand denarii from Nerva. Some one +else had on a previous occasion told the ruler both when and how he should +perish, and then being asked what manner of death he, the prophet, should +meet, he answered that he would be despatched by dogs. Thereupon command +was given that the fellow should be burned alive, and the fire was applied +to him. But just then there was a great downpour of rain, the pyre was +extinguished, and later dogs found him lying upon it with his hands bound +behind him and tore him to pieces. + +[Sidenote:--17--] I have one more astonishing fact to record, which I +shall touch on after I have given the account of Domitian's end. As soon +as he rose to leave the courthouse and was ready to take his afternoon +nap, as was his custom, first Parthenius took the blade out of the sword, +which always lay under his pillow, so that he should not have the use of +that. Next he sent in Stephanus, who was stronger then the rest. The +latter smote Domitian, and though it was not an opportune blow the emperor +was knocked to the ground, where he lay. Then, fearing an escape, +Parthenius leaped in, or, as some believe, he sent in Maximus, a freedman. +Thus both Domitian was murdered, and Stephanus perished likewise in a rush +that those who had not shared in the conspiracy made upon him. + +[Sidenote:--18--] The matter of which I spoke, saying that it surprises me +more than anything else, is this. A certain Apollonius of Tyana on the +very day and at that very hour when Domitian was being murdered (this was +later confirmed by other events that happened in both places) climbed a +lofty stone at Ephesus (or possibly some other town) and having gathered +the populace, uttered these words: "Bravo, Stephanus! Good, Stephanus! +Smite the wretch! You have struck, you have wounded, you have killed +him!!" This is what really took place, though there should be ten thousand +doubters. Domitian had lived forty-four years, ten months, and twenty-six +days. His reign had lasted fifteen years and five days. His body was +stolen away and buried by his nurse, Phyllis. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +68 + +Most of Domitian's measures are annulled (chapter 1). + +The excellencies of Nerva Augustus Caesar: his kindness to Verginius +(chapter 2). + +The conspiracy of Crassus: rebellion of the Pretorians: adoption of Trajan +(chapter 3). + +Birthplace and praise of Trajan: Nerva dies (chapter 4). + +How Trajan entered upon his sovereignty (chapter 5), + +He undertakes a war against Decebalus, proving himself formidable to the +latter but worthy the affection of his own people (chapters 6, 7). + +He conquers the Dacians and holds a triumph over them (chapters 8-10). + +A second war against the Dacians (chapters 11, 12). + +How Trajan saddled the Danube with a stone bridge (chapter 13). + +With the disappearance from the scene of Decebalus the Dacians are reduced +to the condition of a province: Arabia is taken (chapter 14). + +Embassies: the Pontine marshes filled: statues to the well-deserving: the +column of Trajan (chapters 15, 16). + +Campaign against the Parthians on account of the expulsion of Exedares +from Armenia and the introduction there of Parthomasiris (chapters 17, +18). + +Parthomasiris gains access to Trajan and Armenia is taken away from him +(chapters 19, 20). + +How Abgarus the Osrhoenian obtained pardon from Trajan (chapter 21). + +About the envoys of Mannus and Manisarus sent to Trajan (chapter 22). + +Trajan is named Optimus, and, after the capture of Nisibis and Batnae, +Parthicus (chapter 23). + +About the huge earthquake at Antioch (chapters 24, 25). + +After the bridging of the Tigris he reduces Adiabene, Mesopotamia, and +Ctesiphon (chapters 26-28). + +He loses and regains several districts: he bestows a king upon the +Parthians (chapters 29, 30). + +He besieges the Atreni without result (chapter 31). The Jews in Cyrene, +Egypt, and Cyprus rebel, and are crushed, chiefly through the activity of +Lusius (chapter 32). + +The Parthians cast out the king imposed upon them: Trajan dies (chapter +33). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +C. Manlius Valens, C. Antistius Vetus. (A.D. 96 = a.u. 849 = First of +Nerva, from Sept. 18th). + +Nerva Caes. Aug. (III), L. Verginius Rufus (III). (A.D. 97 = a.u. 850 = +Second of Nerva). + +Nerva Caes. Aug. (IV), Nerva Traianus Caes. (II). (A.D. 98 = a.u. 851 = +Third of Nerva, to January 27th). + +C. Sosius Senecio (II), A. Cornelius Palma. (A.D. 99 = a.u. 852 = Second +of Trajan). + +Nerva Traianus Aug. (III), Sex. Iul. Frontinus (III). (A.D. 100 = a.u. 853 += Third of Trajan). + +Nerva Traianus Aug. (IV), Sex. Articuleius Paetus. (A.D. 101 = a.u. 854 = +Fourth of Trajan). + +C. Sosius Senecio (III), L. Licinius Sura (II). (A.D. 102 = a.u. 855 = +Fifth of Trajan). + +Nerva Traianus Aug. (V), Q. Messius Maximus (II). (A.D. 103 = a.u. 856 = +Sixth of Trajan). + +Suburanus (II), P. Neratius Marcellus. (A.D. 104 = a.u. 857 = Seventh of +Trajan). + +Ti. Iulius Candidus (II), A. Iulius Quadratus (II). (A.D. 105 = a.u. 858 = +Eighth of Trajan). + +L. Ceionius Commodus Verus, L. Cerealis. (A.D. 106 = a.u. 859 = Ninth of +Trajan). + +C. Sosius Senecio (IV), L. Licinius Sura (III). (A.D. 107 = a.u. 860 = +Tenth of Trajan). + +Ap. Trebonius Gallus, M. Atilius Bradua. (A.D. 108 = a.u. 861 = Eleventh +of Trajan). + +A. Cornelius Palma (II), C. Calvisius Tullus (II). (A.D. 109 = a.u. 862 = +Twelfth of Trajan). + +Clodius Priscinus, Solenus Orfitus. (A.D. 110 = a.u. 863 = Thirteenth of +Trajan). + +C. Calpurnius Piso, M. Vettius Bolanus. (A.D. 111 = a.u. 864 = Fourteenth +of Trajan). Nerva Traianus Aug. (VI), C. Iulius Africanus. (A.D. 112 = a.u. +865=Fifteenth of Trajan). + +L. Celsus (II), Clodius Crispinus. (A.D. 113 = a.u. 866=Sixteenth of +Trajan). + +Q. Ninnius Hasta, P. Manilius Vopiscus. (A.D. 114 = a.u. 867=Seventeenth of +Trajan). + +L. Vipsanius Messala, M. Pedo Virgilianus. (A.D. 115 = a.u. 868=Eighteenth +of Trajan). + +L. Aelius Lamia, Aelianus Vetus. (A.D. 116 = a.u. 869 = Nineteenth of +Trajan). + +Quinctius Niger, C. Vipsanius Apronianus. (A.D. 117 = a.u. 870=Twentieth of +Trajan, to Aug. 11th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 96 (a.u. 849)] [Sidenote:--1--] After Domitian, the Romans +appointed Nerva Cocceius emperor. The hatred felt for Domitian caused his +images, many of which were of silver and many of gold to be melted down; +and from this source large amounts of money were obtained. The arches, +too, of which more had been erected to the late emperor than previously to +any one man, were torn down. Nerva also released such as were on trial for +maiestas and restored the exiles. All the slaves and freedmen that had +conspired against their masters he put to death, and allowed that class of +persons to lodge no complaint whatever against their masters. Others were +not permitted to accuse anybody for maiestas or for "Jewish living." Many +who had been sycophants were condemned to death, among whom was Seras +[Lacuna] [Footnote: The name is suspicious and possibly a corrupt +reading.] the philosopher. Now, as a quite extraordinary disturbance arose +from the fact that everybody was accusing everybody else, Fronto, the +consul, is said to have remarked that it was bad to have an emperor under +whom no one could do anything, but worse to have one under whom any one +could do everything. Nerva, on hearing this, prohibited the future +recurrence of such scenes. But Nerva, as a result of old age and sickness +(which was always making him vomit his food), was rather weak. + +[Sidenote:--2--] He also forbade gold statues being made in his honor. He +paid back to such as under Domitian had been causelessly deprived of their +property all that was still found in the imperial treasury. To the very +poor Romans he granted allotments of land worth in the aggregate fifteen +hundred myriads, and put certain senators in charge of their purchase and +distribution. When he ran short of funds he sold many robes and plate, +both silver and gold, besides furniture, both his own and what belonged to +the imperial residence, many fields and houses,--in fact, everything save +what was quite necessary. He did not, however, haggle over the prices of +them, and in this very point benefited many persons. He abolished many +sacrifices, many horse-races, and some other spectacles, in an attempt to +reduce expenses as far as possible. In the senate he took oath that he +would not cause the death of any of the senators and he kept his pledge in +spite of plots. And he did nothing without the advice of prominent men. +Among his various laws were those prohibiting any one from being made a +eunuch and from marrying one's niece. When consul he did not hesitate to +take as his colleague Verginius Rufus, though the latter had been +frequently saluted as emperor. [Footnote: Compare Book Sixty-three, +chapter 25 of Dio, and also Tacitus, _Historiae_ I, 9.] [Sidenote: +A.D. 97 (a.u. 850)] Upon his monument was inscribed when he died: "Having +conquered Vindex he ascribed the credit of victory not to himself but to +his country." [Footnote: Compare also Pliny's Letters, Book Six, number +10.] + +[Sidenote:--3--] Nerva ruled so well that he once remarked: "I have done +nothing that could prevent me from laying down the imperial office and +returning to private life in safety." When Crassus Calpurnius, a grandson +of the famous Crassi, formed a plot with some others against him, he made +them sit beside him at a spectacle--they were still ignorant of the fact +that they had been informed upon--and gave them some swords, nominally to +look at and see if they were sharp (as was often done), but really by way +of showing that he did not care if he died that moment where he was. + +Aelianus Casperius, who was governor under him as he had been under +Domitian, and had become one of the Pretorians, incited the soldiers to +mutiny against him; his plan was to have them demand some persons for +execution. Nerva resisted them stoutly, even to the point of baring his +collar-bone and offering them his throat: but he accomplished nothing and +those whom Aelianus wished were put out of the way. Wherefore Nerva, +subjected to such profound humiliation because of his old age, ascended +the Capitol and cried aloud: "To the good fortune of the Roman people and +senate and myself I adopt Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajan." + +Subsequently in the senate he designated him Caesar and sent a message to +him, written with his own hand (Trajan was governor of Germany): + + "The Danaans by thy weapons shall requite my tears." [Footnote: From + Homer's Iliad, Book One, verse 42.] + +[Sidenote:--4--] Thus did Trajan become Caesar and afterwards emperor, +although there were relatives of Nerva. But the man did not esteem family +relationship above the safety of the State, nor was he less inclined to +adopt Trajan because the latter was a Spaniard instead of an Italian or +Italiot, [Footnote: Dio means by _Italian_ one born in Italy, by +_Italiot_ one who settles in Italy.] or because no foreigner had +previously held the Roman sovereignty. It was a person's virtue and not +his country that he thought needed examination. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 98 (a.u. 851)] Soon after this act he passed away, having +ruled during the period of one year, four months and nine days. His life +prior to that time [Footnote: Reading [Greek: proebebiochei] +(Boissevain).] had comprised sixty-five years, ten months, and ten days. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Trajan, before he became emperor, had had a dream of the +following nature. He thought that an old man in purple robe and vesture, +moreover adorned with a crown, as the senate is represented in pictures, +impressed a seal upon him with a finger ring, first on the left side of +his throat and then on the right. When he had been made emperor, he sent a +despatch to the senate written with his own hand, which stated, among +other things, that he would not slay nor dishonor any man of worth. This +he confirmed by oaths not merely at that time but also later. + +He sent for Aelianus and the Pretorians who had mutinied against Nerva, +pretending that he was going to employ them in some way, and relieved the +world of their presence. [Sidenote: A.D. 99 (a.u. 852)] When he had +entered Rome he did much toward the administration of state affairs and to +please the excellent. To the former business he gave unusual attention, +making many grants even to Italian cities for the support of their +children, and to good citizens he did continual favors. Plotina, his wife, +on first going into the palace turned around so as to face the Scalae and +the populace, and said: "My wish is to issue hence the same sort of person +as I am now when I enter." And she so conducted herself during the entire +sovereignty as to incur no censure. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 100 (a.u. 853)] [Sidenote:--6--] After spending some time +in Rome he instituted a campaign against the Dacians; for he made their +deeds the object of thought and was irritated at the amount of money they +were annually getting. He likewise saw that their power and their pride +were increasing. Decebalus, learning of his advance, was frightened, since +he well knew that formerly he had conquered not the Romans but Domitian, +whereas now he would be fighting against both Romans and Trajan as emperor. + +And Trajan had a great reputation for justice, for bravery, and for simple +living. He was strong in body (being in his forty-second year when he +began to rule) [so that in every enterprise he toiled almost as much as +the rest;] and his intellectual powers were at their highest, so that he +had neither the recklessness of youth nor the sluggishness of old age. He +did not envy nor kill any one, but honored and exalted all without +exception that were men of worth, and hence he neither feared nor hated +one of them. To slanders he paid very little heed and was no slave of +anger. He refrained equally from the money of others and from unjust +murders. [Sidenote:--7--] He expended vast sums on wars and vast sums on +works of peace; and while making very many most necessary repairs on roads +and harbors and public buildings, he drained no one's blood for these +undertakings. His nature was so noble and magnanimous that even upon the +hippodrome he merely inscribed the statement that he had made it suitable +for the Roman people when it had crumbled away in spots, and had rendered +it larger and more beautiful. For these deeds he was better satisfied to +be loved than honored. His meetings with the people were marked by +affability and his intercourse with the senate by dignity. He was loved by +all and dreaded by none save the enemy. He joined people in hunting and +banquets, and in work and plans and jokes. Often he would make a fourth in +somebody's litter, and sometimes he would enter persons' houses even +without a guard and make himself at home. He lacked education in the exact +sense,--book-learning, at least,--but he both understood and carried out +its spirit, and there was no quality of his that was not _excellent_. +I know well enough that he was given to wine and boys, but if he had ever +committed or endured any base or wicked deed as a result of this, he would +have incurred censure. As the case stood, he drank all the wine he wanted, +yet remained sober, and his pursuit of pederasty harmed no one. And even +if he did delight in war, still he was satisfied with success in it,--with +overthrowing a most hostile element and bettering his own side. Nor did +the usual thing under such circumstances,--conceit and arrogance on the +part of the soldiers,--ever manifest itself during his reign; with such a +firm hand did he rule them. For these reasons Decebalus was somewhat +justified in fearing him. + +[Sidenote:--8--] When Trajan, in the course of his campaign against the +Dacians had come near Tapai, where the barbarians were encamping, a large +mushroom was brought to him, on which it said in Latin characters that the +Buri and other allies advised Trajan to turn back and make peace. At +Trajan's first encounter with the foe he visited many of the wounded on +his own side and killed many of the enemy. And when the bandages gave out, +he is said not to have spared even his own clothing, but to have cut it up +into strips. In honor of the soldiers that had died in battle he ordered +an altar erected and the performance of funeral rites annually. + +[Sidenote:--9--] [Decebalus had sent envoys also before the defeat, and no +longer the long-haired men, as before, but the chief among the +cap-wearers. [Footnote: Latin, _pileati_. The distinction drawn is +that between the plebeians and the _nobles_, to whom reference is +made respectively by the terms "unshorn" and "covered." Compare here the +make up of the Marcomanian embassy in Book Seventy-two, chapter two.] +These threw down their arms and casting themselves upon the earth begged +Trajan that if possible Decebalus himself be allowed to meet and confer +with him, promising that he would do everything that might be commanded; +or, if not, that at least some one should be despatched to agree upon +terms with him. Those sent were Sura and Claudius Livianus, the prefect; +but nothing was accomplished, for Decebalus did not dare even to come near +them. He sent representatives also on this occasion. + +Trajan had now seized some fortified mountains and on them found the arms +and the captured engines, as well as the standard which had been taken in +the time Fuscus. [Sidenote: A.D. 101 (a.u. 854)] Undertaking to ascend the +heights themselves, he secured one crest after another amid dangers and +approached the capital of the Dacians. Lusius, attacking in another +quarter, slaughtered numbers and captured still more alive. Then Decebalus +sent envoys. + +Decebalus, for this reason, and particularly because Maximus at the same +time had possession of his sister and a strong position, was ready to +agree without exception to every demand made. It was not that he intended +to abide by his agreement, but he wanted to secure a respite from his +temporary reverses.] So, though against his will, he made a compact to +surrender his arms, engines, and manufacturers of engines, to give back +the deserters, to demolish his forts, to withdraw from captured territory, +and furthermore to consider the same persons enemies and friends as the +Romans did [besides neither giving shelter to any of the deserters, +[Footnote: Reading [Greek: automolon tina] (Boissevain).] nor employing +any soldiers from the Roman empire, for he had acquired the largest and +best part of his force by persuading them to come from that quarter]. When +he came into Trajan's presence, he fell upon the earth and did obeisance +[and cast away his arms. He also sent envoys to the senate to secure these +terms, in order that he might have the further ratification of the peace +by that body. At the conclusion of this compact the emperor left a camp in +Sarmizegethusa, and, having placed garrisons at intervals through the +remainder of the territory, returned to Italy.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 103 (a.u. 856)] [Sidenote:--10--] The envoys from +Decebalus were introduced in the senate. They laid down their arms, +clasped their hands in the posture of captives, and spoke some words of +supplication; thus they obtained peace and received back their arms. +Trajan celebrated a triumph and was given the title of Dacicus; in the +theatre he had contests of gladiators, in whom he delighted, and he +brought back dancers once more to the theatre, being in love with one of +them, Pylades. However, he did not pay less attention to general +administration, as might have been expected of a warlike personage, nor +did he hold court the less: on the contrary, he conducted trials now in +the forum of Augustus, now in the porch named the Porch of Livia, and +often elsewhere on a platform. + +And since Decebalus was reported to him to be acting in many ways contrary +to the treaty, since he was gathering arms, receiving such as deserted, +repairing the forts, sending ambassadors to the neighbors, and injuring +those who had previously differed with him, since also he was devastating +some land of the Iazygae (which Trajan later would not give back to them +when they asked for it), therefore, the senate voted that he was again an +enemy. And Trajan again conducted the war against him, commanding in +person and not represented by others. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 104 (a.u. 857)] [Sidenote:--11--] [As numerous Dacians +kept transferring their allegiance to Trajan, and for certain other +reasons, Decebalus again requested peace. But since he could not be +persuaded to surrender both his arms and himself, he proceeded openly to +collect troops and called the surrounding nations to his aid, saying that +if they deserted him they themselves would come into danger and that it +was safer and easier by fighting on his side to preserve their freedom, +before suffering any harm, than if they should allow his people to be +destroyed and then later be subjugated when bereft of allies.] And +Decebalus in the open field came off poorly, but by craft and deceit he +almost compassed the death of Trajan. He sent into Moesia some deserters +to see whether they could make away with him, inasmuch as the emperor was +generally accessible, and now, on account of the needs of warfare, +admitted to conference absolutely every one who desired it. But this plan +they were unable to carry out, since one of them was arrested on suspicion +and, under torture, revealed the entire plot. + +[Sidenote:--12--] Longinus was the commandant of the Roman camp who had +made himself a terror to the Dacian leader in warfare. The latter, +therefore, sent him an invitation and persuaded him to meet him, on the +pretext that he would perform whatever should be enjoined. He then +arrested him and questioned him publicly about Trajan's plans. As the +Roman would not yield at all, he took him about with him under guard, +though not in bonds. And [Decebalus sending an envoy to Trajan, asked that +he might get back the territory as far as the Ister and receive indemnity +for all the money he had spent on the war,] in recompense for restoring +Longinus to him. An ambiguous answer was returned, of a kind that would +not make Decebalus think that the emperor regarded Longinus as of either +great value or small, the object being to prevent his being destroyed on +the one hand, or being preserved on excessive terms, on the other. So +Decebalus delayed, still considering what he should do. + +Meanwhile Longinus, having [through his freedman] secured a poison [--he +had promised Decebalus that he would reconcile Trajan to the proposition, +in order that the Dacian should be as far as possible from suspecting what +was to happen, and so not keep an especially careful watch over him. Also, +to enable his servant to attain safety, he wrote a letter containing a +supplication, and gave it to the freedman to carry to Trajan. Then, when +he had gone, at night he took the poison,] drank it and died. [After this +event Decebalus asked Trajan to give him back his freedman, promising to +give him in return the body of Longinus and ten captives. He sent at once +the centurion who had been captured with the dead general, assuming that +this man would arrange the matter for him; and it was from the centurion +that the whole story of Longinus was learned. However, Trajan neither sent +him back, nor surrendered the freedman, deeming his safety more valuable +for establishing the dignity of the empire than the of Longinus.] + +[Sidenote:--13--] Now, Trajan constructed over the Ister a stone bridge, +for which I cannot sufficiently admire him. His other works are most +brilliant, but this surpasses them. There are twenty square pieces of +stone, the height of which is one hundred and fifty feet above the +foundations and the breadth sixty, and these, standing at a distance of +one hundred and seventy feet from one to another, are connected by arches. +How then could one fail to be astonished at the expenditure made upon +them? Or the manner in which each of them was placed in a river so deep, +in water so full of eddies, on ground so slimy? It was impossible, you +note, to divert the course of the river in any direction. I have spoken of +the breadth of the river; but the stream is not uniformly so limited, +since it covers in some places twice and elsewhere thrice as much ground, +but the narrowest point, and the one in that region most adapted to +bridge-building, has just those dimensions. Yet the very fact that the +river here shrinks from a great flood to such a narrow channel and is here +confined, though it again expands into a greater flood, makes it all the +more violent and deep; and this feature must be considered in estimating +the difficulty of preparing a bridge. This achievement, then, shows the +greatness of Trajan's designs, though the bridge is of no particular use +to us. Merely the piers are standing, affording no means of crossing, as +if they were erected for the sole purpose of demonstrating that there is +nothing which human energy can not accomplish. Trajan's reason for +constructing the bridge was his fear that, some time when the Ister was +frozen, war might be made on the Romans across the water, and his desire +to enjoy the easy access to them that this work would permit. Hadrian, on +the contrary, was afraid that the barbarians might overpower the guard at +the bridge and cross into Moesia, and so he removed the surface work. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 105 (a.u. 858)] [Sidenote:--14--] Trajan, having crossed +the Ister on this bridge, conducted the war with prudence, rather than +with haste, and eventually, after a hard struggle, vanquished the Dacians. +In the course of these encounters he personally performed many deeds of +good generalship and bravery, and his soldiers ran many risks and +displayed great prowess on his behalf. It was here that a certain +horseman, dangerously wounded, was carried from the battle on the +supposition that he could be healed; but, when he found that he could not +recover, he rushed from his quarters (since his hurt had not incapacitated +him) and stationing himself in the line again he perished, after having +displayed great valor. [Sidenote: A.D. 106 (a.u. 859)] Decebalus, when his +capital and all his territory had been occupied and he was himself in +danger of being captured, committed suicide, and his head was brought to +Rome. + +In this way Dacia became subject to Rome and Trajan founded cities there. +The treasures of Decebalus were also discovered, though hidden beneath the +Sargetia river, which ran past his palace. He had made some captives +divert the course of the river and had then excavated its bed. There he +had placed a large amount of silver and of gold and other objects of great +value, that could endure some moisture, had heaped stones over them and +piled on earth. After that he had let the river flow over them. The same +captives were compelled to deposit his robes and other similar objects in +neighboring caves; and when he had effected this, he made away with them +to prevent their talking. But Bicilis, a comrade of his, who knew what had +been done, was seized and gave this information.--About this same time, +Palma, who was governor of Syria, subdued the portion of Arabia, near +Petra, and made it subservient to the Romans. + +[Sidenote:--15--] [The ambassadors who came from the kings were given +seats by Trajan in the senatorial row at spectacles.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 107 (a.u. 860)] Upon Trajan's return to +Rome the greatest imaginable number of embassies came to him from the +barbarians, even the Indi being represented. And he gave spectacles on one +hundred and twenty-three days. At these affairs thousands, yes, possibly +tens of thousands of animals, both wild and tame, were slaughtered, and +fully ten thousand gladiators fought in combat. + +About the same period he made the Pontine marshes traversable by means of +a stone foundation, and built roads alongside, which he furnished with +most magnificent bridges.--All the obsolete money he had melted down. + + +[He had sworn not to commit bloodshed and he confirmed +his promise by his actions in spite of plots. He was by nature not at all +given to duplicity or guile or harshness. He loved and greeted and honored +the good, and the rest he neglected. His age made him still more inclined +to mildness.] When Licinius Sura died, he bestowed upon +him a public funeral and a statue. This man had attained such a degree of +wealth and pride that he built a gymnasium for the Romans. So great was +the friendship and confidence [which Sura showed toward Trajan and Trajan +toward him that although the man was often slandered,--as naturally +happens in the case of all those who possess any influence with the +emperors,--Trajan never felt a moment's suspicion or hatred. On the +contrary, when those who envied him became insistent, Trajan] went +[uninvited to his house] to dinner. And having dismissed his whole +body-guard he first called Sura's physician and had him anoint his eyes +and then his barber shave his chin. Anciently the emperors themselves as +well as all other people used to do this. It was Hadrian who first set the +fashion of wearing a beard. When he had done this, he next took a bath and +had dinner. So the next day he said to his friends who were always in the +habit of making statements detrimental to Sura: "If Sura had wanted to +kill me, he would have killed me yesterday." [Sidenote:--16--] Now he did +a great thing in running this risk in the case of a man who had been +calumniated, but a still greater thing in believing that he would never be +harmed by him. + +So it was that the confidence of his mind was strengthened by his own +knowledge of his dealings with Sura instead of being influenced by the +fancies of others. + +Indeed, when he first handed to him [Footnote: Saburanus. (?)] who was to +be prefect of the Pretorians the sword which the latter required to wear +by his side, he bared the blade, holding it up said: "Take this sword, to +the end that if I rule well, you may use it for me, but if ill, against +me." + +He also set up images of Sosia and Palma and Celsus, [Footnote: _L. +Publilius Celsus_.]--so greatly did he esteem them above others. Those, +however, who conspired against him (among whom was Crassus) he brought +before the senate and caused to be punished. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 114 (a.u. 867)] Again he gathered collections of books. +And he set up in the Forum an enormous column, to serve at once as a +sepulchral monument to himself and as a reminder of his work in the Forum. +The whole region there was hilly and he dug it down for a distance +equaling the height of the column, thus making the Forum level. + +[Sidenote:--17--] Next he made a campaign against the Armenians and +Parthians on the pretext that the Armenian king [Footnote: +_Exedares_.] had obtained his diadem not at his hands but from the +Parthian king. [Footnote: _Osrhoes_.] His real reason, however, was a +desire to win fame. [On his campaign against the Parthians, when he had +reached Athens, an embassy from Osrhoes met him asking for peace and +proffering gifts. This king had learned of his advance and was terrified +because Trajan was wont to make good his threats by deeds. Therefore he +humbled his pride and sent a supplication that war be not made against +him: he asked Armenia for Parthomasiris, who was likewise a son of +Pacorus, and requested that the diadem be sent to him. He had put a stop, +he said, to the reign of Exedares, who was beneficial neither to the +Romans nor to the Parthians. + +The emperor neither received the gifts, nor sent any answer or command, +save that friendship is determined by deeds and not by words; and that +accordingly when he should reach Syria he would do what was proper. + +And being of this mind he proceeded through Asia, Syria, and adjoining +provinces to Seleucia. Upon his coming to Antioch, Abgarus the Osrhoenian +did not appear in person, but sent gifts and a friendly communication. +For, as he dreaded both him and the Parthians, he was trying to play a +double game and for that reason would not come to confer with him.] + +[Sidenote:--19--] Parthomasiris behaved in rather violent fashion. In his +first letter to Trajan he had signed himself as king, but when no answer +came to his epistle, he wrote again, omitting this title, and asked that +Marcus Junius, the governor of Cappadocia, be sent to him, implying that +he wanted to prefer some request through him. Trajan, accordingly, sent +him the son of Junius, and himself went ahead to Arsamosata, of which he +took possession without a struggle. Then he came to Satala and rewarded +with gifts Anchialus, the king of the Heniochi and Machelones. At Elegeia +in Armenia he awaited Parthomasiris. He was seated upon a platform in the +trenches. The prince greeted him, took off his diadem from his head, and +laid it at his feet. Then he stood there in silence, expecting to receive +it back. At this the soldiers shouted aloud, and hailed Trajan imperator +as if on account of some victory. (They termed it an uncrowned, [Footnote: +Reading [Greek: haselinon] (Bekker) = "without the parsley crown" (such as +was bestowed upon victors in some of the Greek games).] bloodless victory +to see the king, a descendant of Arsaces, a son of Pacorus, and a nephew +of Osrhoes, standing beside Trajan without a diadem, like a captive). The +shout terrified the prince, who thought that it heralded insult and +destruction for him. He turned about as if to flee, but, seeing that he +was hemmed in on all sides, begged as a favor not to be obliged to speak +before the crowd. Accordingly, he was escorted into the tent, where he had +none of his wishes granted. [Sidenote:--20--] So out he rushed in a rage, +and from there out of the camp, but Trajan sent for him, and again +ascending the platform bade him speak in the hearing of all everything +that he desired. This was to prevent any person from spreading a false +report through ignorance of what had been said in private conference. On +hearing this exhortation Parthomasiris no longer kept silence, but with +great frankness made many statements, some of them being to the effect +that he had not been defeated or captured, but had come there voluntarily, +believing that he should not be wronged and should receive back the +kingdom, as Tiridates had received it from Nero. Trajan made appropriate +replies to all his remarks and said that he should abandon Armenia to no +one. It belonged to the Romans and should have a Roman governor. He would, +however, allow Parthomasiris to depart to any place he pleased. So he sent +the prince away together with his Parthian companions and gave them an +escort of cavalry to ensure their meeting no one and adopting no +rebellious tactics. All the Armenians who had come with him he commanded +to remain where they were, on the ground that they were already his +subjects. + +[Sidenote:--21--] [Leaving garrisons at opportune points Trajan came to +Edessa, and there for the first time he set eyes upon Abgarus. Previously +this person had sent envoys and gifts to the prince frequently, but he +himself for different reasons at different times failed to put in an +appearance. The same was true also of Mannus, the phylarch of adjoining +Arabia, and Sporaces, phylarch of Anthemusia. On this occasion, however, +he was persuaded partly by his son Arvandes, who was beautiful and in the +prime of youth and therefore on good terms with Trajan, and partly by the +fear of the latter's presence near by; consequently he met him on the +road, made his apologies, and obtained pardon. He had a powerful +intercessor in the boy. Accordingly, he became a friend of Trajan's and +entertained him with a banquet. At the dinner in question he presented his +boy in some kind of barbaric dance.] + +[Sidenote:--22--] [When Trajan came into Mesopotamia, Mannus sent a herald +to him, and Manisarus despatched envoys in regard to peace, because, he +said, Osrhoes was making a campaign against him, and he was ready to +withdraw from Armenia and Mesopotamia so far as captured. Thereupon the +emperor replied that he would not believe him until he should come to him +and confirm his offers by deeds, as he was promising. He was also +suspicious of Mannus, especially because the latter had sent an auxiliary +force to Mebarsapes, king of Adiabene, and then had lost it all at the +hands of the Romans. Therefore Mannus never waited for the Romans to draw +near but took his course to Adiabene to find shelter with the other two +princes. Thus were Singara and some other points occupied by Lusius, +without a battle.] + +When he had captured the whole country of Armenia and +had won over also many of the kings, some of whom, since they submitted, +he treated as his friends, and others, though disobedient, he subdued +without resort to arms, [Sidenote:--23--] the senate voted to him many +honors of various descriptions, and they bestowed upon him the title of +Optimus, i.e., Excellent.--He was always accustomed to trudge on foot with +his entire army and he had the ordering and arrangement of the troops +throughout the entire expedition, leading them sometimes in one order and +sometimes in another; and he forded as many rivers as they did. Sometimes +he even had his scouts circulate false reports, in order that the soldiers +might at the same time practice military manoeuvres and be so impervious +to alarm as to be ready for anything. After he had captured Nisibis and +Batnae he was given the title of Parthicus. But he took greater pride in +the name of Optimus than in all the rest, inasmuch as it belonged rather +to his character than to his arms. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 115 (a.u. 868)] [Sidenote:--24--] While he was staying in +Antioch, a dreadful earthquake occurred. Many cities were damaged, but +Antioch was most of all unfortunate. Since Trajan was wintering there and +many soldiers and many private persons had flocked thither from all +directions for lawsuits, embassies, business, or sightseeing, there was no +nation nor people that went unscathed. Thus in Antioch the whole world +under Roman sway suffered disaster. + +There were many thunderstorms to start with and portentous winds, but no +one could have expected that so many evils would result from them. First +came, on a sudden, a great bellowing roar, and there followed it a +tremendous shock. The whole earth was up-heaved and buildings leaped into +the air. Those that were lifted up collapsed and were smashed to pieces, +[Sidenote: A.D. 115 (a.u. 868)] while others were beaten this way and that +as if by the surges and were turned about. The wrecks were strewn a long +distance over the countryside. The crash of grinding and breaking timbers, +tiles, and stones together became most frightful, and an inconceivable +mass of dust arose, so that no one could see any person nor say or hear +anything. Many persons were hurt even outside the houses, being picked up +and tossed violently about, and then with a momentum as in a fall from a +cliff dashed to the earth. Some were maimed, others killed. Not a few +trees leaped into the air, roots and all. + +The number of those found in the houses who perished was beyond discovery. +Multitudes were destroyed by the very force of the collapse and crowds +were suffocated in the debris. Those who lay with a part of their bodies +buried under the stones or timbers suffered fearful agony, being able +neither to live nor to find an immediate death. + +[Sidenote:--25--] Nevertheless many even of these were saved, as was +natural in such overwhelming numbers of people. And those outside did not +all get off safe and sound. Numbers lost their legs or their shoulders and +some [Lacuna] their [Lacuna] heads. Others vomited blood. One of these was +Pedo the consul, and he died at once. In brief, there was no form of +violent experience that those people did not undergo at that time. And as +Heaven continued the earthquake for several days and nights, the people +were dismayed and helpless, some crushed and perishing under the weight of +the buildings pressing upon them, and others dying of hunger in case it +chanced that by the inclination of the timbers they were left alive in a +clear space, it might be in a kind of arch-shaped colonnade. When at last +the trouble had subsided, some one who ventured to mount the ruins caught +sight of a live woman. She was not alone but had also an infant, and had +endured by feeding both herself and her child with her milk. They dug her +out and resuscitated her together with her offspring, and after that they +searched the other heaps but were no longer able to find in them any +living creature save a child sucking at the breasts of its mother, who was +dead. As they drew out the corpses they no longer felt any pleasure at +their own escape. + +So great were the disasters that had overwhelmed Antioch at this time. +Trajan made his way out through a window of the room where he was. Some +being of more than human stature had approached him and led him forth, so +that he survived with only a few small bruises. As the shocks extended +over a number of days, he lived out of doors in the hippodrome. Casium +itself, too, was so shaken that its peaks seemed to bend and break and to +be falling upon the city. Other hills settled, and quantities of water not +previously in existence came to light, while quantities more escaped by +flowing away. + +[Sidenote:--26--] Trajan about spring time proceeded into the enemy's +country. Now since the region near the Tigris is barren of timbers fit for +shipbuilding, he brought the boats which had been constructed in the +forests surrounding Nisibis on wagons to the river. The vessels had been +arranged in such a way that they could be taken apart and put together. He +had very hard work in bridging the stream opposite Mount Carduenum, for +the opposing barbarians tried to hinder him. Trajan, however, had a great +abundance of both ships and soldiers, and so some boats were fastened +together with great speed while others lay motionless in front of them, +carrying heavy infantry and archers. Still others kept making dashes this +way and that, as if they intended to cross. As a result of these tactics +and from their very astonishment at seeing so many ships at once appear +_en masse_ from a land devoid of trees the barbarians gave way and +the Romans crossed over. They won possession of the whole of Adiabene. +(This is a portion of Assyria in the vicinity of Ninus; and Arbela and +Gaugamela, close to which Alexander conquered Darius, are also in this +same territory. The country has also been called Atyria in the language of +the barbarians, the double S being changed to T). + +[Adenystrae was a strong post to which one Sentius, a +centurion, had been sent as an envoy to Mebarsapes. He was imprisoned by +the latter in that place, and later, at the approach of the Romans, he +made an arrangement with some of his fellow-prisoners, and with their aid +escaped from his shackles, killed the commander of the garrison, and +opened the gates to his countrymen.] [Sidenote:--26--] Hereupon they +advanced as far as Babylon itself, being quite free from molestation, +since the Parthian power had been ruined by civil conflicts and was still +at this time involved in dissensions. + +[Sidenote:--27--] Cassius Dio Cocceianus in writings concerning the Latins +has written that this city [i.e. Babylon] comprised a circuit of four +hundred stades. (Compare also Tzetzes, Exegesis of Homer's Iliad, p. 141, +15 ff). + +Here, moreover, Trajan saw the asphalt out of which the walls of Babylon +had been built. When mixed with baked bricks or smooth stones this +material affords so great strength as to render them stronger than rock or +any kind of iron. He also looked at the opening from which issues a deadly +vapor that destroys any creature living upon the earth and any winged +thing that so much as inhales a breath of it. If it extended far above +ground or had several vents, the place would not be inhabitable; but, as +it is, this gas circles round within itself and remains stationary. Hence +creatures that fly high enough above it and such as remain to one side are +safe. I saw another opening like it at Hierapolis in Asia, and tested it +by means of birds; I bent over it myself and myself gazed down upon the +vapor. It is enclosed in a sort of a cistern and a theatre had been built +over it. It destroys all living things save human beings that have been +emasculated. The reason for that I can not comprehend. I relate what I +have seen as I have seen it and what I have heard as I have heard it. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 116 (a.u. 869)] Trajan had planned to conduct the +Euphrates through a channel into the Tigris, in order that boats might be +floated down by this route, affording him an opportunity to make a bridge. +But on learning that it had a much higher elevation than the Tigris, he +did not do it, fearing that the water might rush pell-mell down hill and +render the Euphrates unnavigable. So he conveyed the boats across by means +of hauling engines at the point where the space between the rivers is the +least--the whole stream of the Euphrates empties into a swamp and from +there somehow joins the Tigris--then crossed the Tigris and entered +Ctesiphon. Having taken possession of this town he was saluted as +imperator and established his right to the title of Parthicus. Various +honors were voted him by the senate, among others the privilege of +celebrating as many triumphs as he might desire. + +After his capture of Ctesiphon he felt a wish to sail down into the Red +Sea. This is a part of the ocean and has been so named [Footnote: [Greek: +erythra] from Erythras, who was said to have been drowned in it (as if in +English we should invent a King Redd).] from some person formerly ruler +there. Mesene, the island in the Tigris of which Athambelus was king, he +acquired without difficulty. [And it remained loyal to Trajan, although +ordered to pay tribute.] But through a storm, and the violence of the +Tigris, and the backward flow from the ocean, he fell into danger. The +inhabitants of the so-called palisade of Spasinus [they were subject to +the dominion of Athambelus] received him kindly. + +[Sidenote:--29--] Thence he came to the ocean itself, and when he had +learned its nature and seen a boat sailing to India, he said: "I should +certainly have crossed over to the Indi, if I were still young." He gave +much thought to the Indi, and was curious about their affairs. Alexander +he counted a happy man and at the same time declared that he himself had +advanced farther. This was the tenor of the despatch that he forwarded to +the senate, although he was unable to preserve even what territory had +been subdued. On its receipt he obtained among other honors the privilege +of celebrating a triumph for as many nations as he pleased. For, on +account of the number of those peoples regarding which communications in +writing were being constantly forwarded to them, they were unable to +understand them or even to name some of them correctly. So the citizens of +the capital prepared a trophy-bearing arch, besides many other decorations +in his own forum, and were getting themselves in readiness to meet him +some distance out when he should return. But he was destined never to +reach Rome again nor to accomplish anything deserving comparison with his +previous exploits, and furthermore to lose even those earlier +acquisitions. For, during the time that he was sailing down the ocean and +returning from there again, all his conquests were thrown into tumult and +revolted. And the garrisons placed among the various peoples were in some +cases driven out and in others killed. + +[Sidenote:--30--] Trajan ascertained this in Babylon. [Footnote: The +Tauchnitz reading, [Greek: en ploio] will not fit the context. Just below +[Greek: ithous] (Bekker) has to be read for [Greek: mythous].] He had +taken the side-trip there on the basis of reports, unmerited by aught that +he saw (which were merely mounds and stones and ruins), and for the sake +of Alexander, to whose spirit he offered sacrifice in the room where he +had died. When, therefore, he ascertained it, he sent Lusius and Maximus +against the rebels. The latter perished after a defeat in the field; but +Lusius was generally successful, recovering Nisibis, besieging Edessa, +plundering and burning. Seleucia was also captured by Erucius Clarus and +Julius Alexander, lieutenants, and was burned. Trajan, in fear that the +Parthians, too, might begin some revolt, decided to give them a king of +their own. And when he came to Ctesiphon he called together in a great +plain all the Romans and likewise all the Parthians that were there at the +time. He mounted a lofty platform, and, after describing in lofty language +what he had accomplished, he appointed Parthamaspates king of the +Parthians and set the diadem upon his head. + +[Sidenote: LXXV, 9, 6] When Volgaesus, the son of Sanatruces, confronted +in battle array the followers of Severus and before coming to an actual +test of strength asked and secured an armistice, Trajan sent envoys to him +and granted him a portion of Armenia in return for peace. + +[Sidenote:--31--] Next he came into Arabia and commenced operations +against the people of Hatra, since they, too, had revolted. This city is +neither large nor prosperous. The surrounding country is mostly desert and +holds no water (save a small amount, poor in quality), nor timber, nor +herb. It is protected by these very features, which make a siege in any +form impossible, and by the Sun, to whom it is, in a way, consecrated. It +was neither at this time taken by Trajan nor later by Severus, although +they knocked down some parts of its wall. Trajan sent the cavalry ahead +against the wall but failed in his attempt, and the attacking force was +hurled back into the camp. As he was riding by, he barely missed being +wounded himself, in spite of the fact that he had laid aside his imperial +attire to avoid being recognized. Seeing the majestic gray head and his +august countenance they suspected him to be the man he was, shot at him, +and killed a cavalryman in his escort. There were peals of thunder and +rainbow tints glimmered indistinctly. Flashes of lightning and spray-like +storms, hail and thunderbolts fell upon the Romans as often as they made +assaults. And whenever they ate a meal, flies settled on the food and +drink causing universal discomfort. Thus Trajan left the place and not +long after began to fail in health. + +[Sidenote:--32--] Meanwhile the Jews in the region of Cyrene had put one +Andreas at their head and were destroying both the Romans and the Greeks. +They would cook their flesh, make belts for themselves of their entrails, +anoint themselves with their blood, and wear their skins for clothing. +Many they sawed in two, from the head downwards. Others they would give to +wild beasts and force still others to fight as gladiators. In all, +consequently, two hundred and twenty thousand perished. In Egypt, also, +they performed many similar deeds, and in Cyprus under the leadership of +Artemio. There, likewise, two hundred and forty thousand perished. For +this reason no Jew may set foot in that land, but even if one of them is +driven upon the island by force of the wind, he is put to death. Various +persons took part in subduing these Jews, one being Lusius, who was sent +by Trajan. + +[Lusius Quietus was a Moor, himself a leader of the +Moors, and had belonged to [Footnote: Some puzzling corruption in the MS.] +a troop in the cavalry. Condemned for base conduct he was temporarily +relieved of his command and dishonored. [Footnote: Probably in the days of +Domitian.] But later, when the Dacian war came on and the army stood in +need of the Moorish alliance, he came to it of his own accord and gave +great exhibitions of prowess. For this he was honored, and in the second +war performed far greater and more numerous exploits. Finally, he advanced +so far in bravery and good fortune during this war which we are +considering that he was enrolled among the ex-praetors, became consul, and +governed Palestine. To this chiefly was due the jealousy and hatred felt +for him, and his destruction.] Now when Trajan had invaded the hostile +territory, the satraps and kings of that region approached him with gifts. + One of these gifts was a horse taught to do obeisance. It would kneel +with its front legs and place its head beneath the feet of whoever stood +near. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 117 (a.u. 870)] [Sidenote:--33--] Now Trajan was preparing +to make a new expedition into Mesopotamia. Finding himself, however, held +fast by the clutches of the disease, he started to sail to Italy himself +and left behind Publius Aelius Hadrian with the army in Syria. So the +Romans, who had conquered Armenia, most of Mesopotamia, and the Parthians, +had labored in vain and had vainly undergone danger. The Parthians +disdained Parthamaspates and began to have kings according to their +original custom. Trajan suspected that his falling sick was due to the +administration of poison. Some declare it was because his blood, which +annually descended into the lower part of his body, was kept from flowing. +He had also become paralyzed, so that part of his body was disabled, and +his general diathesis was dropsical. And on coming to Selinus in Cilicia, +which we also call Traianoupolis, he suddenly expired after a reign of +nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +69 + +Hadrian without being adopted succeeds, through the favor of Plotina +(chapters 1, 2). + +About the assassinations authorized by Hadrian: about his varied learning +and jealousies (chapters 3, 4). + +His virtues, particularly affability and generosity: old arrears of debt +forgiven (chapters 5, 8). + +Travels: discipline of the army reformed: interest in hunting (chapters 9, +10). + +How he honored Antinous with various marks of remembrance (chapter 11). + +Uprising of Jews on account of the founding of Capitolina: Bithynia +recovered (chapters 12-14). + +The Albanians are held in check: Pharasmanes the Iberian is honored +(chapter 15). + +The Temple of Jupiter Olympius and the Panellenium are consecrated +(chapter 16). + +Growing ill, he adopts Commodus, slays Servianus: the distinguished +services of Turbo, Fronto, Similis (chapters 17-19). + +On the death of Commodus he adopts Antoninus, the latter adopting at the +same time Marcus and Verus (chapters 20, 21). + +How Hadrian departed this life (chapters 22, 23). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Quinctius Niger, Vipsanius Apronianus. (A.D. 117 = a.u. 870 = First of +Hadrian, from Aug. 11th). + +Hadrianus Aug. (II), Claudius Fuseus Salinator. (A.D. 118 = a.u. 871 = +Second of Hadrian). + +Hadrianus Aug. (III), Q. Iunius Rusticus. (A.D. 119 = a.u. 872 = Third of +Hadrian). + +L. Catilius Severus, T. Aurelius Fulvus. (A.D. 120 = a.u. 873 = Fourth of +Hadrian). + +L. Annius Verus, Aur. Augurinus. (A.D. 121 = a.u. 874 = Fifth of Hadrian). + +Acilius Aviola, Corellius Pansa. (A.D. 122 = a.u. 875 = Sixth of Hadrian). +Q. Arrius Paetinus, C. Ventidius Apronianus. (A.D. 123 = a.u. 876 = +Seventh of Hadrian). + +Manius Acilius Glabrio, C. Bellicius Torquatus. (A.D. 124 = a.u. 877 = +Eighth of Hadrian). + +P. Corn. Scipio Asiaticus (II), Q. Vettius Aquilinus. (A.D. 125 = a.u. 878 += Ninth of Hadrian). + +Annius Verus (III), L. Varius Ambibulus. (A.D. 126 = a.u. 879 = Tenth of +Hadrian). + +Gallicianus, Caelius Titianus. (A.D. 127 = a.u. 880 = Eleventh of +Hadrian). + +L. Nonius Asprenas Torquatus (II), M. Annius Libo. (A.D. 128 = a.u. 881 = +Twelfth of Hadrian). + +Iuventius Celsus (II), Marcellus. (A.D. 129 = a.u. 882 = Thirteenth of +Hadrian). + +Q. Fabius Catullinus, M. Flavius Aper. (A.D. 130 = a.u. 883 = Fourteenth +of Hadrian). + +Ser. Octav. Laenas Pontianus, M. Antonius Rufinus. (A.D. 131 = a.u. 884 = +Fifteenth of Hadrian). + +Augurinus, Severianus (or, according to others, Sergianus). (A.D. 132 = +a.u. 885 = Sixteenth of Hadrian). + +Hiberus, Iunius Silanus Sisenna. (A.D. 133 = a.u. 886 = Seventeenth of +Hadrian). + +Servianus (III), Vibius Varus. (A.D. 134 = a.u. 887 = Eighteenth of +Hadrian). + +Pontianus, Atilianus. (A.D. 135 = a.u. 888 = Nineteenth of Hadrian). + +L. Ceionius Commodus Verus, Sex. Vetulenus Civica Pompeianus. (A.D. 136 = +a.u. 889 = Twentieth of Hadrian). + +L. Aelius Verus Caesar, P. Caelius Balbinus Vibullius. (A.D. 137 = a.u. +890 = Twenty-first of Hadrian). + +Camerinus, Niger. (A.D. 138 = a.u. 891 = Twenty-second of Hadrian, to July +10th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 117 (a.u. 870)] [Sidenote:--1--] Hadrian had not been +adopted by Trajan. He was merely a fellow-citizen of the latter, had +enjoyed Trajan's services as guardian, was of near kin to him, and had +married his niece. In fine, he was a companion of his, sharing his daily +life, and had been assigned to Syria for the Parthian War. However, he had +received no distinguishing mark of favor from Trajan and had not been one +of the first to be appointed consul. His position as Caesar and emperor +was due to the fact that, when Trajan died without an heir, Attianus, a +fellow-citizen and former guardian, together with Plotina, who was in love +with him, secured him the appointment,--their efforts being facilitated by +his proximity and his having a large force under his command. My father +Apronianus, who was governor of Cilicia, had ascertained accurately the +whole story about him. He used to relate the different incidents, and said +in particular that the death of Trajan was concealed for several days to +the end that the adoption might be announced. This was shown also by his +letters to the senate, the signature upon which was not his, but +Plotina's. She had not done this in any previous instance. + +[Sidenote:--2--] At the time that he was declared emperor, Hadrian was in +Antioch, the metropolis of Syria, of which he was governor. In a dream +just before that day he seemed to see fire descend from heaven in the +midst of clear sky and wholly fair weather and fall first upon the left of +his throat and then upon the right also, though it neither frightened nor +injured him. And Hadrian wrote to the senate, asking that his sovereignty +be confirmed also by that body, and forbidding any measure to be voted (as +was so often done) either then or thereafter that contained any special +honor for him, unless he should first himself approve it. + +The bones of Trajan were deposited in his column, and the so-called +Parthian games continued for a number of years. At a later date even this +observance, like many others, was abolished. + +Hadrian's rule was in general most humane. [In a letter he expresses +himself with the greatest degree of consideration for others and swears +that he will neither do anything contrary to the public advantage nor put +to death any senator, calling down destruction upon himself, if he shall +transgress these principles in any way. But] Still he was spoken against +on account of some murders of excellent men that he had sanctioned in the +beginning of his reign and near the end of his life. And for this reason +he came near not being enrolled among the heroes. Those murdered at the +beginning were Palma and Celsus, Nigrinus and Lusius, the first two for +the alleged reason that they had conspired against him during a hunt, and +the others on certain other complaints, because they had great influence, +or were in a strong position as regards wealth and fame. Hadrian felt so +keenly the talk that was made about them that he defended himself and +declared upon oath that he had not ordered their deaths. Those that +perished at the end of the reign were Servianus and his grandson Fuscus. + +Hadrian was a pleasant man to meet and his presence shed a kind of grace. + +[Sidenote:--3--] As for Hadrian's family, he was a son of [a man of +senatorial rank, an ex-praetor] Hadrianus, [for thus he was named]. In +regard to his disposition, he was fond of literature in both languages and +has left behind all kinds of prose pieces as well as compositions in +verse. His ambition was insatiable, and as a result he practiced all +conceivable pursuits, even the most trivial. He modeled and painted and +declared that there was nothing in peace or in war, in imperial or in +private life, of which he was not cognizant. [And this, of course, did +people no harm; but his jealousy of those who excelled in any branch was +terrible and] ruined many besides utterly destroying quite a few. [For,] +since he desired to surpass everybody in everything, [he hated those who +attained eminence in any direction.] This feeling it was which led him to +undertake the overthrow of two sophists, Favorinus the Gaul and Dionysius +the Milesian, [by various methods, chiefly] by stirring up their +antagonists [who were of little or no worth at all]. Dionysius is said to +have remarked at this time to Avidius [Footnote: Boissevain's reading.] +Heliodorus, who managed his correspondence: "Caesar can give you money and +honor, but he can't make you an orator." Favorinus was about to bring a +case before the emperor in regard to exemption from taxes, a privilege +which he desired to secure in his native city. Suspecting, however, that +he should be unsuccessful and be insulted in addition he entered the +courtroom, to be sure, but made no other statement save: "My teacher stood +this night in a dream by my side and bade me do service for my country, +since I have been born in it." + +[Sidenote:--4--] Now Hadrian spared these men, although he was displeased +with them, for he could find no satisfactory pretext to use against them +that might compass their destruction. But he first banished and later +actually put to death Apollodorus the architect, who had planned the +various creations of Trajan in Rome,--the forum, the odeum, and the +gymnasium. The excuse given was that he had been guilty of some +misdemeanor, but the true reason was that, when Trajan was consulting him +on some point about the works, he had said to Hadrian, who broke in with +some remark: "Be off and draw gourds. You don't understand any of these +matters." It happened that Hadrian at the time was pluming himself upon +some such drawing. When he became emperor, therefore, he remembered the +slight and would not endure the man's freedom of speech. He sent him his +own plan of the temple of Venus and Roma by way of showing him that a +great work could be accomplished without his aid, and he asked Apollodorus +whether the structure was a good one. The latter in his reply said about +the temple that it ought to have been made to tower aloft in the air and +have been scooped out beneath. Then, as a result of being higher, it would +have stood out more conspicuously on the Sacred Way, and might have +received [Sidenote: A.D. 117 (a.u. 870)] within its expanse the engines, +so that they could be built unobserved and could be brought into the +theatre without any one's being aware of it beforehand. In regard to the +statues, he said that they had been made too tall for the height adopted +in the principal room. "If the goddesses," he said, "wish to get up and go +out, they will be unable to do so." When he wrote this so bluntly to +Hadrian, the latter was both vexed and exceedingly pained because he had +fallen into a mistake that could not be set right. He restrained neither +his anger nor his grief, but murdered the man. [By nature] the emperor was +such a person [that he was jealous not only of the living, but also of the +dead. For instance,] he abolished Homer and introduced in his stead +Antimachus, whose name many persons had not previously known. + +[Sidenote:--5--] These acts were charged against him as offences, and so +were also his great exactness, his superfluous labors, and his divided +interests. But he healed the wounds made and recovered favor by his +general care, his foresight, his grandeur and his skill. Again, he did not +stir up any war and ended those already in progress. He deprived no one of +money unjustly, and upon many peoples and private citizens and senators +and knights he bestowed large sums. He did not wait to be asked, but was +certain to act each time according to each man's needs. The military he +trained with great precision, so that its strength rendered it neither +disobedient nor insolent. Allied and subject cities he aided most +munificently. He had seen many that no other emperor had even set eyes +upon, and he assisted practically all of them, giving to some water, to +others harbors, or food, or public works, or money, and to still others +various honors. + +[Sidenote:--6--] As a leader of the Roman people he was distinguished for +force rather than for flattery. Once, at a gladiatorial contest, when the +crowd was urging its petition strongly, he not only would not grant its +wish, but further ordered this command of Domitian's to be proclaimed: "Be +silent." The words were not uttered, though. The herald raised his hand +and by that very gesture quieted the people as he had been accustomed to +do. (They are never silenced by proclamation). Then, when they had become +quiet, he said: "This is what he wishes." Hadrian was not in the least +angry with the herald; on the contrary, he honored him for not publishing +the rudeness of the order. He could endure such things and was not +displeased if he was aided in any unexpected way and by chance comers. It +must be admitted that once, when a woman passed him on some road and +preferred a request, he at first said to her: "I haven't time." +Afterwards, when she cried out loudly, saying: "Don't be emperor, then", +he turned about and granted her a hearing. + +[Sidenote:--7--] He transacted through the senate all serious and most +urgent business and he held court with the assistance of prominent men now +in the palace or again in the Forum, the Pantheon, and in many other +places, always on a platform, so that what was done was open to public +inspection. Sometimes he would join the consuls when _they_ were +trying cases, and he showed them honor at the horse-races. When he +returned home he was accustomed to be carried in a litter, in order not to +trouble any one to accompany him. On days neither sacred nor public he +remained at home, and admitted no one even long enough to greet him, +unless it were some urgent matter; this was to relieve the courtiers of +needless annoyance. Both in Rome and abroad he always kept the noblest men +about him; and he used to join them at banquets, which led to his being +often carried in their litters as one of a party of four. As frequently as +possible he went hunting, and he breakfasted without wine; in fact, most +of his food was served without any accompanying beverage; and often in the +midst of a meal he would turn his attention to a case at law: later he +would drive in the company of all the foremost and best men, and their +eating together was the occasion for all kind of discussions. When his +friends were very ill, he would go to see them, and he used to attend +their festivals, besides evincing pleasure at visiting their country seats +and houses. As might have been expected, then, he set up in his forum +images for many who were dead and many still alive. No one of his +associates, moreover, displayed insolence nor sold aught that he should +pronounce or perform, as the Caesarians and other attendants in the suite +of emperors have made it their custom to do. + +[Sidenote:--8--] This is a kind of preface, of a summary nature, I have +been giving in regard to his character. I shall also touch upon all the +details that require mention. + +The Alexandrians had been rioting and nothing would make them stop until +they received a letter from Hadrian rebuking them. So true it is that an +emperor's word has more power than force of arms. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 118 (a.u. 871)] On coming to Rome he canceled debts owing +to the imperial treasury and to the public treasury of the Romans, setting +a limit of sixteen years, from which and as far back as which this +provision was to be observed. On his own birthday he gave a spectacle to +the people free of charge, and slaughtered numbers of wild beasts,--one +hundred lions and a like number of lionesses biting the dust on this one +occasion. Gifts, likewise, he brought about by means of balls both in the +theatres and in the hippodrome, one lot for the men and one lot for the +women. Indeed, he had also commanded them to battle separately. + +This, then, was what happened that year. Euphrates the philosopher also +died a death of his own choosing; and Hadrian assented to his drinking +hemlock in consideration of his extreme age and sickliness. +[Sidenote:--9--] Hadrian went from one province to another, visiting the +districts and cities and observing all the garrisons and fortifications. +Some of these he removed to more desirable locations, some he abolished, +and he founded some new ones. He personally oversaw and investigated +absolutely everything, not merely the usual appurtenances of camps,--I +mean weapons and engines and ditches and enclosures and palisades,--but +also the private affairs of each one, and the lives, the dwellings and the +characters both of the men serving in the organization, and of the +commanders themselves. Many cases of too delicate living and equipment he +harmonized with military needs and reformed in various ways. He exercised +the men in every variety of battle, honoring some and reproving others. He +taught all of them what they ought to do. And to make sure that they +should obtain benefit from observing _him_, he led everywhere a +severe existence and walked or rode horseback on all occasions. Never at +this period did he enter either a chariot or a four-wheeled vehicle. He +covered his head neither in heat nor in cold, but alike in Celtic snows +and under scorching Egyptian suns he went about with it bare. [Sidenote: +A.D. 119 (a.u. 872)] In fine, so thoroughly by action and exhortations did +he train and discipline the whole military force throughout the whole +empire that even now the methods then introduced by him are the soldiers' +law of campaigning. This best explains why he lived for the most part at +peace with foreign nations. As they saw what support he had and were +victims of no injustice, but instead received money, they made no +uprising. So excellently had his soldiery been trained, that the cavalry +of the so-called Batavians swam the Ister with their heavy armor on. +Seeing this the barbarians stood in terror of the Romans, and turning +their attention to their own affairs [Footnote: Reading [Greek: epi] +(Dindorf) instead of [Greek: peri]] they employed Hadrian as an arbitrator +of their differences. + +[Sidenote:--10--] He also constructed theatres and held games as he +traveled about from city to city, dispensing, however, with the imperial +paraphernalia. This he never used outside of Rome. His own country, though +he did her great honor and bestowed many proud possessions on her, he +nevertheless did not set eyes upon. + +He is said to have been enthusiastic over hunting. Indeed, he broke his +collar-bone in this pursuit and came near losing a leg. And to a city that +he founded in Mysia he gave the name of Adrianotherae. [Sidenote: A.D. 121 +(a.u. 874)] However, he did not, while so occupied, leave undone any of +the duties pertaining to his office. Of his enthusiasm for hunting his +horse Borysthenes, which was his favorite steed for the chase, gives us an +indication. When the animal died, he prepared a tomb for him, set up a +slab, and placed an inscription upon it. Hence it is scarcely surprising +that when Plotina died, the woman through whom he had secured the imperial +office, and who was passionately in love with him, he honored her to the +extent of wearing mourning garments for nine days, building a temple to +her, and composing several hymns to her memory. + +When Plotina was dead, Hadrian praised her and said: "Though she asked +much of me, she was never refused aught." By this he surely meant to say: +"Her requests were of such a character that they neither burdened me nor +afforded me any justification for saying no." + +He was so skillful in hunting that once he brought down a huge boar with a +single blow. + +[Sidenote:--11--] On reaching Greece he became a spectator at the +Mysteries. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 122 (a.u. 875)] After this he passed through Judaea into +Egypt and offered sacrifice to Pompey, about whom, he is said to have +uttered this verse: + + Strange lack of tomb for one with shrines o'erwhelmed! [Footnote: + Compare Appian, Civil Wars, Book Two, chapter 86 (also Spartianus, 14, + 4).] + +And he restored his monument, which had fallen to ruin. In Egypt also he +restored the so-called City of Antinous. Antinous was from Bithynium, a +city of Bithynia which we also call Claudioupolis; he had been a favorite +of the emperor and had died in Egypt, either by falling into the Nile, as +Hadrian writes, or, as is more probably the truth, by being offered in +sacrifice. For Hadrian, as I have stated, was in general a great dabbler +in superstitions and employed divinations and incantations of all kinds. +Accordingly, he honored Antinous either because of his love for him or +because he had voluntarily submitted to death (it being necessary that a +life be surrendered voluntarily for the accomplishment of the ends he had +in view), by building a city on the spot where he had suffered this fate +and naming it after him: and he further set up likenesses, or rather +sacred statues of him, practically all over the world. Finally, he +declared that he had seen a star which he assumed to belong to Antinous, +and gladly lent an ear to the fictitious tales woven by his associates to +the effect that the star had really come into being from the spirit of +Antinous and had then appeared for the first time. [Sidenote: A.D. 133 +(a.u. 886)] On this account he became the object of some ridicule [as also +because the death of his sister Paulina he had not immediately paid her +any honor. [Lacuna]] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 133 (a.u. 886)] [Sidenote:--12--] In Jerusalem he founded +a city in place of the one razed to the ground, naming it Aelia +Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of the god he raised a new +temple to Jupiter. This brought on a war that was not slight nor of brief +duration, for the Jews deemed it intolerable that foreign races should be +settled in their city and foreign religious rites be planted there. While +Hadrian was close by in Egypt and again in Syria, they remained quiet, +save in so far as they purposely made the weapons they were called upon to +furnish of poorer quality, to the end that the Romans might reject them +and they have the use of them. But when he went farther away, they openly +revolted. To be sure, they did not dare try conclusions with the Romans in +the open field, but they occupied advantageous positions in the country +and strengthened them with mines and walls, in order that they might have +places of refuge whenever they should be hard pressed, and meet together +unobserved under ground; and in these subterranean passages they sunk +shafts from above to let in air and light. [Sidenote:--13--] At first the +Romans made no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been +up-heaved, and the Jews all over the world were showing signs of +disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great +hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by open acts; many +other outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, +and the whole earth, almost, was becoming convulsed over the matter. Then, +indeed, did Hadrian send against them his best generals, of who Julius +Severus was the first to be despatched, from Britain, of which he was +governor, against the Jews. He did not venture to attack his opponents at +any one point, seeing their numbers and their desperation, but by taking +them in separate groups by means of the number of his soldiers and his +under-officers and by depriving them of food and shutting them up he was +able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to +crush and exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them survived. +[Sidenote:--14--] Fifty of their most important garrisons and nine hundred +and eighty-five of their most renowned towns were blotted out. Fifty-eight +myriads of men were slaughtered in the course of the invasions and +battles, and the number of those that perished by famine and disease and +fire was past all investigating. Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made +desolate, an event of which the people had had indications even before the +war. The tomb of Solomon, which these men regarded as one of their sacred +objects, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed and many wolves and hyenas +rushed howling into their cities. + +Many Romans, moreover, perished in the war. Wherefore Hadrian in writing +to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the +emperors: "If you and your children are in health, it shall be well: I and +the armies are in health." + +[Sidenote: A.D. 134(?)] Severus [Footnote: Not the same person as is +mentioned in the previous chapter.] he sent into Bithynia, which needed no +force of arms but a governor and presiding officer who was just and +prudent and had a reputation. All these qualifications Severus possessed. +And he managed and administered both their private and their public +affairs in such a way that we [Footnote: i.e., "we natives of Bithynia" +(Dio's country).] are still, even to-day wont to remember him. [Pamphylia +in place of Bithynia was given into the jurisdiction of the senate and the +lot.] + +[Sidenote:--15--] This, then, was the ending that the war with the Jews +took. A second war was started among the Alani (they are Massagetae) by +Pharasmanes. On Albanis and Media he inflicted severe injury and then laid +hold on Armenia and Cappadocia, after which, as the Alani were on the one +hand persuaded by gifts from Vologaesus and on the other stood in dread of +Flavius Arrianus, the governor of Cappadocia, he stopped. [Envoys were +sent from Vologaesus and from the Iazygae; the former made some charges +against Pharasmanes and the latter wanted to confirm the peace. [?] +[Footnote: It is impossible to determine, from the date of this fragment, +whether the subject should be Hadrian or Antoninus Pius.] introduced them +to the senate and was empowered by that body to return appropriate +answers; and accordingly he prepared and read to them his responses.] + +[Sidenote:--16--] Hadrian completed the Olympieum in Athens, in which his +own statue also stands, and consecrated there a serpent, which was brought +from India. He also presided at the Dionysia, the greatest office within +the gift of the people, and arrayed in the local costume carried it +through brilliantly. He allowed the Greeks, too, to build his sepulchre +(called the Panellenium), and instituted a series of games to be connected +with it; and he granted to the Athenians large sums of money, annual corn +distribution, and the whole of Cephallenia.--Among various laws that he +enacted was one to the effect that no senator, either personally or +through the medium of another, should have any tax farmed out to him. +[Sidenote: A.D. 135 (a.u. 888)] After he had come to Rome, the crowd at a +spectacle shouted their request for the emancipation of a certain +charioteer: but he replied by means of a writing on a board: "It is not +right for you either to ask me to free another's slave or to force his +master to do so." + +[Sidenote:--17--] He now began to be sick, having suffered even before +this from blood gushing from his nostrils: this flow now grew very much +more copious, so that he despaired of his life. Consequently, he appointed +as Caesar for the Romans Lucius Commodus, although this man frequently +vomited blood. [Sidenote: A.D. 136 (a.u. 889)] Servianus and his grandson +Fuscus, the former a nonagenarian and the latter eighteen years of age, +were put to death on the ground that they were displeased at this action. +Servianus before being executed asked for fire, and as he offered incense +he exclaimed: "That I am guilty of no wrong, ye; O Gods, are well aware: +and as for Hadrian I pray only this, that he may desire to die and not be +able." And, indeed, Hadrian did come to his end only after often praying +that he might expire and often feeling a desire to kill himself. There is +in existence also a letter of his which lays stress on this very matter, +showing what a dreadful thing it is for a man to desire to die and not be +able. This Servianus had been by Hadrian deemed capable of filling the +imperial office. He had once at a banquet told his friends to name for him +ten men who were competent to be sole rulers, and then after a moment's +pause, had added: "I want to know _nine_: I have one already, +Servianus." + +[Sidenote:--18--] Other excellent men, also, had come to light during that +period, of whom the most distinguished were Turbo and Similis, who, +indeed, were honored with statues. + +Turbo was a man of great qualities as a general, who had become prefect +(or commander of the Pretorians). He committed no act of luxury or +haughtiness, but lived like one of the multitude: the entire day he spent +in proximity to the palace and often he would go there even shortly before +midnight, when some of the others were beginning to sleep. A +characteristic anecdote is that which brings in the name of Cornelius +Fronto, at this time reputed to be the foremost Roman advocate in +lawsuits. One evening very late he was returning home from dinner and +ascertained from a man whose counsel he had promised to be that Turbo was +holding court. Accordingly, just as he was, in his dress for dinner, he +went into his courtroom and greeted him not with the morning salutation, +_I wish you joy_, but with that belonging to the evening, _I trust +your health continues good_. + +Turbo was never seen at home in the daytime even when he was sick; and to +Hadrian, who advised him to remain quiet, he replied: "The prefect ought +to die on his feet." + +[Sidenote:--19--] Similis, who was of greater age and more advanced rank, +in character was second to none of the great men, I think. Very slight +things may serve us as evidence. When he was centurion, Trajan had +summoned him to enter his presence before the prefects, whereupon he said: +"It is a shame for you, Caesar, to be talking with a centurion, while the +prefects stand outside." And he took unwillingly at that time the command +of the Pretorians, and after taking it resigned it. Having with difficulty +secured his release he spent the rest of his life, seven years, quietly in +the country, and upon his tomb he had this inscription placed: "Similis +lies here, who existed so-and-so many years, but lived for seven." + +Julius (?) Fabius (?), not being able to endure his +son's effeminacy, desired to throw himself into the river. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 138 (a.u. 891)] [Sidenote:--20--] Hadrian became +consumptive as a result of the great loss of blood, and that led to +dropsy. And as it happened that Lucius Commodus was suddenly removed from +the scene by the outgushing of a large quantity of blood all at once, he +convened at his house the foremost and most renowned of the senators; and +lying on a couch he spoke to them as follows: "I, my friends, was not +permitted by nature to secure offspring, but you have made it possible by +legal enactment. There is this difference between the two ways,--that a +begotten son turns out to be whatever sort of person Heaven pleases, +whereas one that is adopted a man takes to himself because he chooses just +that sort of being. Thus in process of nature a maimed and [Sidenote: A.D. +138 (a.u. 891)] senseless creature is often given to a parent, but by +process of voluntary decision one of sound body and sound mind is certain +to be selected. For this cause I formerly chose out Lucius from among all, +a person of such attainments as I could never have prayed to find in a +child. But since the Heavenly Power has taken him from among us, I have +found an emperor in his place whom I now give you, one who is noble, mild, +tractable, prudent, neither young enough to do anything reckless nor old +enough to neglect aught,--one brought up according to the laws, who has +held possession of authority according to his country's traditions, so +that he is not ignorant of any matters pertaining to his office, but can +handle them all effectively. I refer to Aurelius Antoninus here. Although +I know him to be the most retiring of men and to be far from desiring any +such thing, still I do not think that he will deliberately disregard +either me or you but will accept the office even against his will." + +[Sidenote:--21--] So it was that Antoninus became emperor. Since he was +destitute of male children, Hadrian adopted for him Commodus's son +Commodus and, moreover, besides the latter, Marcus Annius Verus; for he +wished to appoint those who were afterwards to be emperors for as long a +time ahead as possible. (This Marcus Annius, earlier named Catilius, was a +grandson of Annius Verus who had thrice been consul and prefect of the +city). And though Hadrian urged Antoninus to adopt them both, he preferred +Verus on account of his kinship and his age and because he already +exhibited an extremely strong cast of mind. This led him to apply to the +young man the name Verissimus, with a play upon the meaning of the Latin +word. + +[Sidenote:--22--] By certain charms and species of magic Hadrian was +relieved of the water, but shortly was full of it again. Since, therefore, +he was constantly growing worse and might be said to be slowly perishing +day by day, he began to long for death. Often he would ask for poison and +a sword, but no one would give them to him. As no one would obey him, +although he promised money and immunity, he sent for Mastor, an Iazygian +barbarian that had become a captive, whom he had employed in hunts on +account of his strength and daring. Then, partly by threatening him and +partly by making promises, he compelled the man to undertake the duty of +killing him. He drew a colored line around a spot beneath the nipple that +had been shown him by Hermogenes the physician, in order that he might +there be struck a finishing blow and perish painlessly. But even this plan +did not succeed, for Mastor became afraid of the project and in terror +withdrew. The emperor lamented bitterly the plight in which the disease +had placed him and bitterly his powerlessness, in that he was not able to +make away with himself, though he might still, even when so near death, +destroy anybody else. Finally he abandoned his careful regimen and through +using unsuitable foods and drinks met his death, saying and shouting aloud +the popular saying: "Many physicians have ruined a king." + +[Sidenote:--23--] He had lived sixty-two years, five months and nineteen +[Footnote: Seventeen, according to the common tradition.] days, and had +been emperor twenty years and eleven months. He was buried near the river +itself, close to the Aelian bridge; that was where he had prepared his +tomb, for the one belonging to Augustus was full and no other body was +deposited there. + +This emperor was hated [by the people, in spite of his excellent reign] on +account of the early and the late murders, since they had been unjustly +and impiously brought about. Yet he had so little of a bloodthirsty +disposition that even in the case of some who took pains to thwart him he +deemed it sufficient to write to their native lands the bare statement +that they did not please him. And if any man who had children was +absolutely obliged to receive punishment, still, in proportion to the +number of his children he would also lighten the penalty imposed. +[Notwithstanding, the senate persisted for a long time in its refusal to +vote him divine honors, and in its strictures upon some of those who had +committed excesses during his reign and had been honored therefor, when +they ought to have been chastised.] + +After Hadrian's death there was erected to him a huge equestrian statue +representing him with a four-horse team. It was so large that the bulkiest +man could walk through the eye of each horse, yet because of the extreme +height of the monument persons passing along on the ground below are wont +to think that the horses themselves as well as Hadrian are very small. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +70 + +Antoninus Pius, succeeding by adoption, effects the deification of Hadrian +(chapter 1). + +The cognomen Pius is bestowed upon Antoninus by the senate (chapter 2). + +He showed little hostility toward the Christians: was careful in trifles: +met a quiet death in old age (chapter 3). + +Earthquake that damaged Bithynia, the Hellespontine region, and especially +Cyzicus (chapter 4). + +He is compared with Numa: his gentleness and kindliness (chapter 5). + +He was intent upon justice, not upon enlarging the empire: hence the +barbarians brought their quarrels to him to settle (chapters 6, 7). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Camerinus, Niger. (A.D. 138 = a.u. 891 = First of Antoninus, from July +10th). + +Antoninus Pius Aug. (II), Bruttius Praesens. (A.D. 139 = a.u. 892 = Second +of Antoninus). + +Antoninus Pius Aug. (III), Aurelius Caesar (II). (A.D. 140 = a.u. 893 = +Third of Antoninus). + +M. Peducaeus Sylloga Priscinus, T. Hoenius Severus. (A.D. 141 = a.u. 894 = +Fourth of Antoninus). + +L. Cuspius Rufinus, L. Statius Quadratus. (A.D. 142 = a.u. 895 = Fifth of +Antoninus). + +C. Bellicius Torquatus, Tib. Claudius Atticus Herodes. (A.D. 143 = a.u. +896 = Sixth of Antoninus). + +Avitus, Maximus. (A.D. 144 = a.u. 897 = Seventh of Antoninus). + +Antoninus Pius Aug. (IV), M. Aurelius Caesar (II). (A.D. 145 = a.u. 898 = +Eighth of Antoninus). + +Sex. Erucius Clarus (II), Cn. Claudius Severus. (A.D. 146 = a.u. 899 = +Ninth of Antoninus). + +Largus, Messalinus. (A.D. 147 = a.u. 900 = Tenth of Antoninus). + +L. Torquatus (III), C. Iulianus Vetus. (A.D. 148 = a.u. 901 = Eleventh of +Antoninus). Sergius Scipio Orfitus, Q. Nonius Priscus. (A.D. 149 = a.u. +902 = Twelfth of Antoninus). + +Gallicanus, Vetus. (A.D. 150 = a.u. 903 = Thirteenth of Antoninus). + +Quintilius Condianus, Quintilius Maximus. (A.D. 151 = a.u. 904 = +Fourteenth of Antoninus). + +M.' Acilius Glabrio, M. Valerius Homullus. (A.D. 152 = a.u. 905 = +Fifteenth of Antoninus). + +C. Bruttius Praesens, A. Iunius Rufinus. (A.D. 153 = a.u. 906 = Sixteenth +of Antoninus). + +L. Ael. Aurelius Commodus, T. Sextius Lateranus. (A.D. 154 = a.u. 907 = +Seventeenth of Antoninus). + +C. Iulius Severus, M. Rufinius Sabinianus. (A.D. 155 = a.u. 908 = +Eighteenth of Antoninus). + +M. Ceionius Silvanus, C. Serius Augurinus. (A.D. 158 = a.u. 909 = +Nineteenth of Antoninus). + +Barbaras, Regulus. (A.D. 157 = a.u. 910 = Twentieth of Antoninus). + +Tertullus, Sacerdos. (A.D. 158 = a.u. 911 = Twenty-first of Antoninus). + +Plautius Quintilius, Statius Priscus. (A.D. 159 = a.u. 912 = Twenty-second +of Antoninus). + +T. Clodius Vibius Varus, App. Annius Atilius Bradua. (A.D. 160 = a.u. 913 += Twenty-third of Antoninus). + +M. Ael. Aurelius Verus Caesar (III), I. Ael. Aurelius Commodus (II). (A.D. +161 = a.u. 914 = Twenty-fourth of Antoninus, to March 7th). + + +I. From Dio: + +[Sidenote: A.D. 138 (a.u. 891)] [Sidenote:--1--] It should be noted that +information about Antoninus Pius is not found in the copies of Dio, +probably because the books have met with some accident, so that the +history of his reign is almost wholly unknown, save that when Lucius +Commodus, whom Hadrian had adopted, died before Hadrian, Antoninus was +also adopted by him and became emperor, and that when the senate demurred +to giving heroic honors to Hadrian after his demise on account of certain +murders of eminent men, Antoninus addressed many words to them with tears +and laments, and finally said: "I will not govern you either, if he has +become base and inimical and a national foe in your eyes. For you will of +course be annulling all his acts, of which my adoption was one." On +hearing this the senate both through respect for the man and through a +certain fear of the soldiers bestowed the honors upon Hadrian. + +[Sidenote:--2--] Only this in regard to Antoninus is preserved in Dio. +Yes, one thing more--that the senate gave him the titles both of Augustus +and of Pius for some such reason as the following. When in the beginning +of his imperial reign many men were accused and some of them had been +interceded for by name, he nevertheless punished no one, saying: "I must +not begin my career of supervision with such deeds." + +[Sidenote: LXIX, 15, 3] [When Pharasmanes the Iberian came to Rome with +his wife, he increased his domain, allowed him to offer sacrifice on the +Capitoline, set up a statue of him on horseback in the temple of Bellona, +and viewed an exercise in arms of the chieftain, his son, and the other +prominent Iberians.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 139 (a.u. 892)] We do not find preserved, either, the +first part of the account of Marcus Verus, who ruled after Antoninus and +all that the latter himself did in the case of Lucius, son of Commodus, +whom Marcus made his son-in-law, and all that Lucius accomplished when +sent by his father to the war against Vologaesus. I shall speak briefly +about these matters, gathering my material from other books, and then I +shall go back to the continuation of Dio's narrative. + +II. From Xiphilinus: + +[Sidenote: LXX, 3] [Sidenote: A.D. 153 (a.u. 906)] Antoninus is admitted +by all to have been noble and good, not oppressive to the Christians nor +severe to any of his other subjects; instead, he showed the Christians +great respect and added to the honor in which Hadrian had been wont to +hold them. For Eusebius, son of Pamphilus, cites in his Church History +[Footnote: IV, 9.] some letters of Hadrian in which the latter is shown to +threaten terrible vengeance upon those who harm in any way or accuse the +Christians, and to swear by Hercules that they shall receive punishment. + +Antoninus is said also to have been of an enquiring turn of mind and not +to have held aloof from careful investigation of even small and +commonplace matters; for this those disposed to scoff called him +Cumminsplitter. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 161 (a.u. 914)] Quadratus states that he died at an +advanced age, and that the happiest death befell him, like unto gentlest +slumber. + +[Sidenote:(A.D. 177?)] [Sidenote:--4--] In the days of Antoninus also a +most frightful earthquake is said to have occurred in the region of +Bithynia and the Hellespont. Various cities were severely damaged or fell +without a building left standing, and in particular Cyzicus; and the +temple there that was the greatest and most beautiful of all temples was +thrown down. Its columns were four cubits in thickness and fifty cubits in +height, each of a single block of stone; and each of the other features of +the edifice was more to be wondered at than to be praised. Somewhere in +the interior of the country the peak of a mountain rose upwards and surges +of the sea are said to have gushed out, while the spray from pure, +transparent sea-water was driven to a great distance over the land. +[Footnote: Compare also Zonaras V, 12 (p. 80, II. 3-11 Dind).. It is not +certain whether this earthquake properly belongs to the reign of Pius or +that of Marcus. If to the former, it must have occurred between 150 and +155 B.C. See _Hermes_ XXVI, pages 444-446 (Boissevain: _Zonaras +Quelle fuer die Romische Kaisergeschichte von Nerva bis Severus +Alexander_) and XXXII, pages 497-508 (B. Keil: _Kyzikenisches_); +also _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ I, page 30 ff. (article by de +Boor).]--So much is the account of Antoninus at present extant. He reigned +twenty-four years. + +III. Of Dio [or rather of Eutropius, or John of Antioch]. Taken from the +Writings of Suidas. + +This prince Antoninus was an excellent man and deserves to be compared +especially with Numa on account of the similarity of his reign to that +king's, just as Trajan was seen to resemble Romulus. The private life that +Antoninus lived was thoroughly excellent and honorable, [Sidenote:--5--] +and in his position as ruler he seemed to be even more excellent and more +prudent. To no one was he harsh or oppressive, but he was gracious and +gentle toward all. + +[Sidenote:--6--] In warfare he sought glory rather from an impulse of duty +than from one of gain, and was determined to preserve the borders of the +empire intact rather than to extend them to greater distances. In the +matter of men he appointed to the administration of public affairs, so far +as possible, those who were particularly scrupulous about right conduct, +and he rewarded good officials with the honors that were in his power to +grant, whereas he banished the worthless (though without any harshness) +from the conduct of public affairs. + +[Sidenote:--7--] He was admired not alone by those of his own race, but +even by foreigners, as was shown by some of the neighboring barbarians +laying down their arms and permitting the prince to decide their quarrels +by his vote. And whereas he had in the course of his life as a private +citizen amassed a vast amount of money, when he entered upon office he +expended his own abundance upon gifts for the soldiers and for his +friends. To the public treasury he left a great deal of property of all +kinds. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +71 + +The emperor Marcus takes Verus as an associate: he gives him charge of the +Parthian war (chapters 1, 2). + +Wars with the Iazyges, Marcomani, and Germans (chapters 3 and 5). + +About the war in Egypt with the Bucoli (chapter 4). + +Marcus's tirelessness in hearing cases at law (chapter 6). + +The Iazyges conquered (chapter 7). + +The Quadi are vanquished by rain sent from Heaven in answer to Roman +prayers (chapters 8 and 10). + +About the Thunderbolt Legion from Melitene (chapter 9). + +How envoys came to the emperor from a number of barbarians,--the Quadi, +Astingi, Iazyges, Marcomani, Naristi (chapters 11-21). + +Revolt of Cassius and of Syria (chapters 22-26). + +How Cassius was killed, together with his son (chapter 27). + +Kindness of Marcus toward the adherents of Cassius: death of Faustina and +honors accorded her (chapters 28-31). + +The return of Marcus and his generosity (chapter 32). + +With his son Commodus he subjugates the Scythians: he himself meets death +(chapter 33). + +Eulogy of Marcus (chapters 34, 35). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +M. Ael. Aurel. Verus Caes. (III), L. Ael. Aurel. Commodus (II). (A.D. 161 += a.u. 914 = First of Marcus, from March 7th). + +Iunius Rusticus, Vettius Aquilinus. (A.D. 162 = a.u. 915 = Second of +Marcus). + +I. Aelianus, Pastor. (A.D. 163 = a.u. 916 = Third of Marcus). + +M. Pompeius Macrinus, P. Iuventius Celsus. (A.D. 164 = a.u. 917 = Fourth +of Marcus). + +L. Arrius Pudens, M. Gavius Orfitus. (A.D. 165 = a.u. 918 = Fifth of +Marcus). + +Q. Servilius Pudens, L. Fufidius Pollio. (A.D. 166 = a.u. 919 = Sixth of +Marcus). L. Aurelius Verus Aug. (III), Quadratus. (A.D. 167 = a.u. 920 = +Seventh of Marcus). + +T. Iunius Montanus, L. Vettius Paulus. (A.D. 168 = a.u. 921 = Eighth of +Marcus). + +Q. Sosius Priscus, P. Caelius Apollinaris. (A.D. 169 = a.u. 922 = Ninth of +Marcus). + +M. Cornelius Cethegus, C. Erucius Clarus. (A.D. 170 = a.u. 923 = Tenth of +Marcus). + +L. Septimius Severus (II), L. Alfidius Herennianus. (A.D. 171 = a.u. 924 = +Eleventh of Marcus). + +Maximus, Orfitus. (A.D. 172 = a.u. 925 = Twelfth of Marcus). + +M. Aurelius Severus (II), T. Claudius Pompeianus. (A.D. 173 = a.u. 926 = +Thirteenth of Marcus). + +Gallus, Flaccus. (A.D. 174 = a.u. 927 = Fourteenth of Marcus). + +Piso, Iulianus. (A.D. 175 = a.u. 928 = Fifteenth of Marcus). + +Pollio (II), Aper (II). (A.D. 176 = a.u. 929 = Sixteenth of Marcus). + +L. Aurel. Commodus Aug., Quintilius. (A.D. 177 = a.u. 930 = Seventeenth of +Marcus). + +Rufus, Orfitus. (A.D. 178 = a.u. 931 = Eighteenth of Marcus). + +Commodus Aug. (II), T. Annius Aurel. Verus (II). (A.D. 179 = a.u. 932 = +Nineteenth of Marcus). + +L. Fulvius Bruttius Praesens (II), Sextus Quintilius Condianus. (A.D. 180 += a.u. 933 = Twentieth of Marcus, to March 17th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 161 (a.u. 914)] [Sidenote:--1--] Marcus Antoninus, the +philosopher, upon obtaining the sovereignty at the death of Antoninus, who +adopted him, had immediately taken to share the authority with him the son +of Lucius Commodus, Lucius Verus. He was personally weak in body and he +devoted the greater part of his time to letters. It is told that even when +he was emperor he showed no shame (or hesitation) at going to a teacher +for instruction, but became a pupil of Sextus, the Boeotian philosopher, +[Footnote: "Sextus of Chaeronea, grandson of Plutarch" (Capitolinus, +_Vita M. Antoni Philosophi_, 3, 2).] and did not hesitate to go to hear +the lectures of Hermogenes on rhetoric. He was most inclined to the Stoic +school. + +Lucius, on the other hand, was strong and rather young, and better suited +for military enterprises. Therefore, Marcus made him his son-in-law by +marrying him to his daughter Lucilla, and sent him to the Parthian war. + +[Sidenote:--2--] For Vologaesus had begun war by assailing on all sides +the Roman camp under Severianus, situated in Elegeia, a place in Armenia; +and he had shot down and destroyed the whole force, leaders and all. He +was now proceeding with numbers that inspired terror against the cities of +Syria. [Sidenote: A.D. 162 (a.u. 915)] Lucius, accordingly, on coming to +Antioch collected a great many soldiers, and with the best commanders +under his supervision took up a position in the city, spending his time in +ordering all arrangements and in gathering the contingent for the war. He +entrusted the armies themselves to Cassius. The latter made a noble stand +against the attack [Sidenote: A.D. 165 (a.u. 918)] of Vologaesus, and +finally the chieftain was deserted by his allies and began to retire; then +Cassius pursued him as far as Seleucia and destroyed it and razed to the +ground the palace of Vologaesus at Ctesiphon. In the course of his return +he lost a great many soldiers through famine and disease, yet he started +off to Syria with the men that were left. Lucius attained glory by these +exploits and felt a just pride in them, yet his extreme good fortune did +him no good. [Sidenote: A.D. 169 (a.u. 922)] For he is said to have +subsequently plotted against his father-in-law Marcus and to have perished +by poison before he could accomplish anything. + + * * * * * + +Fragments of Dio from Suidas (thought by de Valois to belong to Book +LXXI). + +[Martius Verus sends out Thucydides to conduct Sohaemus into Armenia; and +he, in spite of lack of arms, applied himself sturdily to this distant +task with the inherent good sense that he showed in all business falling +to his lot. Marcus had the gift not only of overpowering his antagonists +or anticipating them by swiftness or outwitting them by deceit (on which +qualities generals most rely), but also of persuading them by trustworthy +promises and conciliating them by generous gifts and luring them on by +tempting hopes. He was suave in all that he did or said, and soothed the +vexed and angry feelings of each adversary while greatly raising his +hopes. He knew well the right time for flattery and presents and +entertainment at table. And since in addition to these talents he showed +persistency in endeavor and activity together with speed against his foes, +he made it plain to the barbarians that his friendship was better worth +gaining than his enmity. So when he arrived at the New city, which a +garrison of Romans placed there by Priscus was occupying, and found them +attempting mutiny, he took care, both by word and by deed, to bring them +to a better temper, and he made the city the foremost of Armenia.] + +[* * _Bridging_.--By the Romans the streams and rivers are bridged +with the greatest ease, since the soldiers are always practicing at it, +and it is carried on like any other warlike exercise on the Ister and the +Rhine and the Euphrates. The manner of doing it (which I think not +everybody knows) is as follows. The boats, by means of which the river is +bridged, are flat. They are anchored up stream a little above the spot +where the bridge is to be constructed. When the signal is given, they +first let one ship drift down stream close to the bank that they are +holding. When it has come opposite the spot to be bridged, they throw into +the water a basket filled with stones and fastened with a cord, which +serves as an anchor. Made fast in this way the ship is joined to the bank +by planks and bridgework, which the vessel carries in large quantities, +and immediately a floor is laid to the farther edge. Then they release +another ship at a little distance from this one and another one after that +until they run the bridge to the opposite bank. The boat which is near the +hostile side carries also towers upon it and a gate and archers and +catapults. + +As many weapons were hurled at the men engaged in bridging, Cassius +ordered weapons and catapults to be discharged. And when the front rank of +the barbarians fell, the rest gave way.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 172 (a.u. 925)] [Sidenote:--3--] Cassius, however, was +bidden by Marcus to have the superintendence of all Asia. The emperor +himself fought for a long time, in fact almost his whole life, one might +say, with the barbarians in the Ister region, the Iazyges and the +Marcomani, first one and then the other, and he used Pannonia as his +starting point. + +The Langobardi and the Obii [Footnote: Or perhaps _Osi_.] to the +number of six thousand crossed the Ister, but the cavalry under Vindex +[Footnote: _M. Macrinius Avitus Catonius Vindex_.] marched out and +the infantry commanded by Candidus got the start of them, so that an utter +rout of the barbarians was instituted. The barbarians, thrown into +consternation by such an outcome of their very first undertaking, +despatched as envoys to the headquarters of Iallius Bassus [Footnote: +_M. Iallius Bassus_.] (administrator of Pannonia) Bellomarius [Footnote: +Or perhaps _Badomarius_.], king of the Marcomani, and ten more, for +they selected one man per nation. The envoys took oaths to cement the +peace and departed homewards. + +Many of the Celtae, too, across the Rhine, advanced to the confines of +Italy and inflicted much serious harm upon the Romans. They, in turn, were +followed up by Marcus, who opposed to them the lieutenants Pompeianus and +Pertinax. Pertinax, who later became emperor, greatly distinguished +himself. Among the corpses of the barbarians were found also the bodies of +women in armor. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 168(?)] Yet, when a most violent struggle and brilliant +victory had taken place, the emperor nevertheless refused the petition of +the soldiers for money, making this statement: "Whatever excess they +obtain above the customary amount will be wrung from the blood of their +parents and their kinsmen. For respecting the fate of the empire Heaven +alone can decide."--And he ruled them so temperately and firmly that even +in the course of so many and great wars he was impelled neither by +flattery nor by fear to do aught that was unfitting. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 172 (a.u. 925)] After conquering them +Marcus received the title of Germanicus. We give the name "Germans" to +those who dwell in the northern regions. + +[Sidenote:--4--] The so-called Bucoli began a disturbance in Egypt, and +under the leadership of Isidorus, a priest, [Footnote: Omitting [Greek: +kai].] caused the rest of the Egyptians to revolt. They had first, arrayed +in women's garments, deceived the Roman centurion, making him think that +they were Bucoli women and wanted to give him gold pieces in exchange for +their husbands, and then striking him down when he approached them. His +companion they sacrificed, and after taking a common oath over his +entrails they devoured them. Isidorus surpassed in bribery all his +contemporaries. Next, having conquered the Romans in Egypt in regular +battle they came very near capturing Alexandria, and would have done so, +had not Cassius been sent against them from Syria as directing general. He +succeeded in spoiling the concord that existed among them and sundering +them one from another, for on account of their numbers and desperation he +had not ventured to attack them united. So when they fell into factional +disputes he easily subdued them. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Now it was in Marcus's war against the Germans (if +mention ought to be made of these matters), that a captive lad on being +asked some questions by him rejoined: "I can not answer you because of the +cold. So if you want to find out anything, command that a coat be given +me, if you have one."--And a soldier one night, who was doing guard duty +on the Ister, hearing a shout of his fellow-soldiers in captivity on the +other side, at once swam the stream just as he was, released them, and +brought them back. + +One prefect of Marcus's was Bassaeus Rufus, a good man on the whole, but +uneducated and boorish, having been brought up in poverty in his early +youth. [Wherefore he had been disinclined to go on the campaign, and what +Marcus said was incomprehensible to him.] Once some one had interrupted +him in the midst of trimming a vine that wound about a tree, and when he +did not come down at the first bidding, the person rebuked him, and said: +"Come down there, prefect." This he said thinking to humiliate him for his +previous haughtiness; yet later Fortune gave him this title to wear. + +[Sidenote:--6--] The emperor, as often as he had leisure from war, held +court and used to order that a most liberal supply of water be measured +out for the speakers. [Footnote: This refers to the contrivance known as +the clepsydra or water-clock, which measured time by the slow dropping of +water from an upper into a lower vessel, somewhat on the plan of the +hour-glass.] He made inquiries and answers of greater length, so that +exact justice was ensured by every possible expedient. When thus engaged +he would often hold court to try the same case for eleven or even twelve +days and sometimes [Sidenote: A.D. 172 (a.u. 926)] at night. He was +industrious and applied himself diligently to all the duties of his +office; and there was nothing which he said or wrote or did that he +regarded a minor matter, but sometimes he would consume whole days on the +finest point, putting into practice his belief that the emperor should do +nothing hurriedly. For he thought that if he should slight even the +smallest detail, it would bring him reproach that would overshadow all his +other achievements. Yet he was so frail in body that at first he could not +endure the cold, but when the soldiers had already come together in +obedience to orders he would retire before speaking a word to them; and he +took but very little food always, and that at night. It was never his +custom to eat during the daytime unless it were some of the drug called +theriac. [Footnote: See Galen, On Antidotes, Book Two, chapter 17, and On +Theriac (to Piso), chapter 2.] This drug he took not so much because he +feared anything as because his stomach and chest were in bad condition. +And it is related that this practice enabled him to endure the disease as +well as other hardships. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 172(?) 173(?)] [Sidenote:--7--] The Iazyges were conquered +by the Romans on land at this time and subsequently on the river. By this +I mean not that any naval battle took place, but that the Romans followed +them as they fled over the frozen Ister and fought there as on dry land. +The Iazyges, perceiving that they were being pursued, awaited the foe's +onset, expecting easily to overcome them, since their opponents were not +accustomed to ice. Accordingly, some of the barbarians dashed straight at +them, while others rode around to attack the flanks, for their horses were +trained to run safely even over a surface of this kind. The Romans, seeing +this, were not alarmed, but made a close formation, placing themselves so +as to face all of them at once. The majority laid down their shields and +resting one foot upon them, so that they might slip less, received the +enemy's assault. Some seized bridles, others shields and spear-shafts, and +drew them towards them. Then, becoming involved in close conflict, they +knocked down both men and horses, for on account of their momentum the +enemy could not help slipping. The Romans also slipped down: but in case +one of them fell on his back he dragged his adversary down on top of him +and then by winding his legs about him as in a wrestling match would get +him underneath; and if one fell on his face, he made his opponent fall +before he did, also on his face. The barbarians, being unused to a contest +of this sort, and having lighter equipment, were unable to resist, so that +but few escaped out of a large force. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 174 (a.u. 927)] [Sidenote:--8--] So Marcus made the +Marcomani and Iazyges subservient by a series of great struggles and +dangers. A great war against the so-called Quadi also fell to his lot and +it was his good fortune to win an unexpected victory, or rather it was +given him from Heaven. At a time when the Romans had run into danger in +the battle the Heavenly Power most unexpectedly saved them. The Quadi had +surrounded them at an opportune spot and the Romans were fighting +valiantly with their shields locked together: and the barbarians ceased +fighting, expecting to capture their enemies easily by heat and thirst. So +they posted guards all about and hemmed them in to prevent their getting +water anywhere, for the barbarians were far superior in numbers. The +Romans fell into dire distress from their fatigue and wounds and the sun's +heat and their thirst, and for these reasons could neither fight nor march +in any direction but were standing and being scorched in line of battle +and at their several posts, when suddenly numbers of clouds rushed +together and a great rain, certainly of divine origin, came pouring down. +Indeed, there is a story that Arnouphis, an Egyptian wizard, who was a +companion of Marcus, invoked by means of enchantments various deities and +in particular Mercury, god of the air, and by this means attracted the +rain. + +[Sidenote:--9--] This is what Dio says about it, but he seems to be +telling an untruth, whether voluntarily or involuntarily; I am more +inclined to think it is voluntarily. It surely must be so, for he was not +ignorant of the fact that one company of the soldiers had the special name +of "The Thunderbolt" (he mentions it in the list along with the rest), +[Footnote: The reference is evidently to Book Fifty-five, chapter 23, but +it should be observed that the names, though very possibly having the same +sense, are not identical. The legion is here called [Greek: keraunobolos] +(=Fulminatrix or Fulminata) but in 55, 23 [Greek: keraunophoros] (= +Fulminifera).] and this was due to no other cause (nor is any other +reported) save that event which gave rise to the title in this very +war,--an event which enabled the Romans to survive on this occasion and +brought destruction upon the barbarians. It was not Arnouphis, the wizard, +for Marcus is not accounted to have taken pleasure in the company of +wizards and charms. But what I have reference to is as follows: Marcus had +a company (and the Roman name for company is "legion") of soldiers from +Melitene. They were all worshipers of Christ. Now it is stated that in +that battle, when Marcus was in a quandary over having been surrounded and +feared the loss of his whole army, the prefect approached him and said +that those called Christians can accomplish anything whatever by their +prayers, and that among them there chanced to be a whole company of this +sect. Marcus, on hearing this, made an appeal to them to pray to their +God. And when they had prayed, the God immediately gave ear, hurling a +thunderbolt upon the enemy and encouraging the Romans with rain. Marcus +was astounded at what happened and honored the Christians by an official +decree, while the legion he named "The Thunderbolt." It is said also that +there is a letter of Marcus extant on this matter. But the Greeks, though +they know that the company was called "Thunderbolt" and bear witness to +the fact themselves, make no statement whatever about the reason for the +appellation. + +[Sidenote:--10--] Dio goes on to say that when the rain poured down at +first all bent their faces upwards and received it in their mouths. Then +some held their shields and their helmets as pails, and they themselves +took fullmouthed draughts of it and gave their horses to drink. The +barbarians making a charge upon them, they drank and fought at the same +time; and some who were wounded gulped down together the water and the +blood that flowed into their helmets. The most of them had given so much +attention to drinking that they would have suffered some great damage from +the enemy's onset had not a violent hail and numbers of thunderbolts +fallen upon the latter's ranks. In the same spot one might see water and +fire descending from Heaven at the same time: the one side was being +drenched and drinking, the other was being burned with fire and dying. The +fire did not touch the Romans, but if it fell anywhere among them it was +straightway extinguished. On the other hand, the shower did the barbarians +no good, but like oil served rather to feed the flames that fed on them, +and they searched for water while in the midst of rain. Some wounded +themselves in the attempt to put out the fire with blood, and others ran +over to the side of the Romans, convinced that they alone had the saving +water. Marcus finally took pity on them. He was for the seventh time +saluted as imperator by the soldiers. And although he was not wont to +accept any such honor before the senate voted it, [Footnote: Cp. Mommsen, +_Staatsrecht_, 12, p. 123 (or 13, p. 124); also III, p. 1108.] +nevertheless this time he took it under the assumption that it was +bestowed from Heaven, and he sent a despatch to that effect to the +senate.--Moreover Faustina was named "Mother of the Legions." + +[Sidenote:--11--] [Marcus [Antoninus] remained in Pannonia in order to +transact business with the embassies of the barbarians. Many came to him +also at this time. Some promised an alliance: they were led by Battarius, +a child twelve years old, and they received money and succeeded in +restraining Tarbus, a neighboring potentate, who had come into Dacia, was +demanding money, and threatening to make war if he should not get it. +Others, like the Quadi, were asking for peace, and they obtained it, the +emperor's purpose being to have them detached from the Marcomani. Another +reason was that they gave horses and cattle, surrendered all the deserters +and the captives at first to the number of thirteen thousand, though later +they promised to restore the remainder as well. However, the right of free +intercourse even at markets was not granted them, the intention being to +prevent the Iazyges and the Marcomani, whom they had sworn not to receive +nor let pass through their country, from either mingling with them or +presenting themselves also in the guise of Quadi,--a plan which would +enable them to reconnoitre the Roman position and to purchase provisions. +Besides these who came to Marcus, many others despatched envoys, some by +tribes and some by nations, offering to surrender themselves. Some of them +were sent on campaigns to other parts of the world, and the captives and +deserters who were fit for it were similarly treated. Others received +land, in Dacia or in Pannonia or in Moesia and Germany or in Italy itself. +A few of them who settled at Ravenna made an uprising and even dared to +take possession of the city: and for this reason he did not again bring +any barbarian into Italy, but made even those who had previously come +there find homes outside.] + +Detachments of both Astingi and Lacringi had come to lend assistance to +Marcus. + +[Sidenote:--12--] [The Astingi, whose leaders were Raus and Raptus, came +into Dacia to settle, in the hope of receiving both money and land in +return for terms of alliance. As they did not obtain this, they put their +wives and children in the keeping of Clemens, [Footnote: _Sex. Cornelius +Clemens._] with the apparent intention of acquiring the land of the +Costobocci by force of arms; and upon conquering them they injured Dacia +no less. The Lacringi, fearing that Clemens out of dread might lead these +newcomers into the land which they were inhabiting, attacked them off +their guard and won a decisive victory. As a result, the Astingi committed +no further deeds displaying hostility to the Romans, but by making urgent +supplication to Marcus received money from him and asked that land might +be given them if they should harm in some way his temporary enemies. Now +these performed some of their promises. The Cotini made similar +propositions, but upon getting control of Tarrutenius Paternus, secretary +of the emperor's Latin letters, under the pretext of requiring his aid for +a campaign against the Marcomani, they not only failed to take this course +but did him frightful injury and thereby ensured their own destruction +later.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 171 (a.u. 924)] When in one battle the Marcomani were +successful and killed Marcus Vindex, the prefect, he erected three statues +in his memory. + +[Sidenote:--13--] [Envoys were also sent to Marcus by the Iazyges, +requesting peace, but they did not obtain any. For Marcus, knowing their +race to be untrustworthy, and, furthermore, because he had been deceived +by the Quadi, wished to annihilate them absolutely. [Footnote: Reading +[Greek: exelein] (Boissevain) in place of the MS. [Greek: exelthein].] The +Quadi had not only made alliances at this time with the Iazyges, but +previously, too, were wont to receive in their own land Marcomanian +fugitives who might be hard pressed, while that tribe was at war with the +Romans. Nor did they do aught else that they had agreed, for they did not +restore all the captives, but only a few, and these were such as they +could not sell nor use for any work as helpers. And whenever they did give +back any of those in good condition, they would keep their relatives at +home in order that the men given up might desert again to join their +friends. They also expelled their king, Furtius, and on their own +responsibility made Ariogaesus king instead. Consequently the emperor did +not confirm him, since he had not been legally installed, nor renew the +treaty of peace, though they promised to return fifty thousand captives if +he would.] + +[Sidenote:--14--] [Against Ariogaesus Marcus was so bitter that he issued +a proclamation to the effect that any one who would bring him alive should +receive a thousand gold pieces, and any one who killed him and exhibited +his head, five hundred. Yet in other cases this emperor was always +accustomed to treat even his most stubborn foes humanely; for instance, he +did not kill, but merely sent to Britain Tiridates, a satrap who roused a +tumult in Armenia and the person who slew the king of the Heniochi and +then held the sword in Verus's [Footnote: _P. Martius Verus._] face, +when the latter rebuked him for it. This, then, shows the extent of his +irritation against Ariogaesus at the time. However, when the man was later +captured he did him no harm, but sent him away to Alexandria.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 174(?) 175(?)] When Pertinax in +consideration of his brave exploits obtained the consulship, there were +nevertheless some who showed displeasure at the fact that he was of +obscure family, and quoted the line from tragedy: + + "Such things the wretched war brings in its train." [Footnote: From + Euripides, The Suppliants, verse 119.] + +They did not know that he should yet be sovereign. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 176(?)] [Sidenote:--15--] [At the request of the +Marcomani, as expressed by their envoys and in view of the fact that they +had followed all the injunctions laid upon them, even if sullenly and +hesitatingly, he released to them one half of the adjoining territory, so +that they could settle for a distance of about thirty-eight stades +[Footnote: Or five miles.] from the Ister, and established the places and +the days for their meeting together (these had not been previously +determined), and he exchanged hostages with them.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 175 (a.u. 928)] [Sidenote:--16--] [The Iazyges, also, when +they had experienced reverses, came to an agreement, Zanticus himself +appearing as suppliant before Antoninus. Previously they had imprisoned +Banadaspus, their second king, for making proposals to him. Now, however, +all the foremost men came in company with Zanticus and made the same +compact as that accepted by the Quadi and the Marcomani, except in so far +as they were required [Footnote: Reading [Greek: aemellon] (Boissevain).] +to dwell twice as far away from the Ister as those tribes. It was his wish +to root them out utterly. That they were still strong at this time and +could have done the Romans great harm is evident from the fact that they +gave back one hundred thousand captives out of a body in which many had +been sold, many were dead, and many had run away and been recaptured. They +supplied Antoninus at once with a cavalry force of eight thousand allies, +fifty-five hundred of whom he sent to Britain.] + +[Sidenote:--17--] [The revolt of Cassius and Syria forced Marcus +Antoninus, even contrary to his wishes, to come to terms with the Iazyges. +He was so upset at the news that he did not even communicate to the senate +the basis of the reconciliation made with them, as he was wont to do in +all other cases.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 179-180] + +[Sidenote:--18--] [The Iazyges sent an embassy and asked to be released +from some of the agreements they had made, and a certain leniency was +shown them, to prevent their being entirely alienated. Yet neither they +nor the Buri were willing to join the Roman alliance until they received +pledges from Marcus that he would without fail prosecute the war to the +uttermost. They were afraid that he might make a treaty with the Quadi, as +before, and leave enemies dwelling at their doors.] + +[Sidenote:--19--] [Marcus gave audience to such persons as came in the +capacity of envoys from outside nations, but all were not received on the +same footing. This varied according as the individual states were worthy +to receive citizenship, or freedom from taxes, or perpetual or temporary +exemption from tribute, or to enjoy permanent support. And when the +Iazyges proved themselves most useful to him, he released them from many +of the restrictions imposed upon them,--indeed, from all, save from the +arrangements made in regard to their gatherings and mutual intercourse, +and the provisions that they should _not_ use boats of their own and +_should_ keep away from the islands in the Ister. And he permitted +them to go through Dacia and have dealings with the Rhoxolani as often as +the governor of Dacia would give them permission.] + +[Sidenote:--20--] [The Quadi and the Marcomani sent envoys to Marcus, +saying that the two myriads of soldiers that were in the forts would not +allow [Footnote: Supplying, with Reiske, [Greek: epetrepon.]] them to +pasture or till the soil or do anything else with freedom, but kept +receiving many deserters from them and captives of theirs; yet the +soldiers themselves were enduring no great hardships, inasmuch as they had +bath-houses and all necessary provisions in abundance. The Quadi, +consequently, would not endure the watch kept on them from fortifications +and undertook to withdraw _en masse_ to the territory of the +Semnones. But Antoninus learned beforehand of their intention and by +barring the roads thither prevented them. This showed that he desired not +to acquire their territory, but to punish the members of the tribe.] + +[Sidenote:--21--] [And the Naristi, having encountered hardships, deserted +to the number of three thousand at once and received land in our +territory.] + +[Sidenote:--22--] Upon the rebellion of Cassius in Syria, Marcus, in great +alarm, summoned his son Commodus from Rome, since he was now able to enter +the ranks of the iuvenes. Now Cassius, who was a Syrian from Cyrrhus, had +shown himself an excellent man and the sort of person one would desire to +have as emperor: only he was a son of one Heliodorus, [Footnote: _C. +Avidius Heliodorus_ (cp. Book Sixty-nine, chapter 3).] who had been +delighted to secure the governorship of Egypt as a result of his +oratorical skill. But in this uprising he made a terrible mistake, and it +was all due to his having been deceived by Faustina. The latter, who was a +daughter of Antoninus Pius, seeing that her husband had fallen ill, and +expecting that he might die at any moment, was afraid that the imperial +office might revert to some outsider and she be left in private life; for +Commodus was both young and rather callow, besides. So she secretly +induced Cassius to make preparations to the end that if anything should +happen to Antoninus he might take both her and the sovereignty. +[Sidenote:--23--] Now while he was in this frame of mind, a message came +that Marcus was dead (in such circumstances reports always make matters +worse than they really are) and immediately, without waiting to confirm +the rumor, he laid claim to the empire on the ground that it had been +bestowed upon him by the soldiers at this time quartered in Pannonia. And +in spite of the fact that before long he learned the truth, nevertheless, +since he had once made a move, he would not change his attitude but +speedily won over the whole district bounded by the Taurus, and was making +preparations to maintain his ascendancy by war. Marcus, on being informed +of his uprising by Verus, the governor of Cappadocia, for a time concealed +it; but, as the soldiers were being mightily disturbed by the reports and +were doing a deal of talking, he called them together and read an address +of the following nature: + +[Sidenote:--24--] "Fellow-soldiers, I have not come before you to express +indignation, nor yet in a spirit of lamentation. Why rage against Fate, +that is all-powerful? But perchance it is needful to bewail the lot of +those who are undeservedly unfortunate, a lot which is now mine. Is it not +afflicting for us to meet war after war? Is it not absurd to be involved +in civil conflict? Are not both these conditions surpassed in affliction +and in absurdity by the proof before us that there is naught to be trusted +among mankind, since I have been plotted against by my dearest friend and +have been thrust into a conflict against my will, though I have committed +no crime nor even error? What virtue, what friendship shall henceforth be +deemed secure after this experience of mine? Has not faith, has not hope +perished? If the danger were mine alone, I should give the matter no +heed,--I was not born to be immortal,--but since there has been a public +secession (or rather obsession) and war is fastening its clutches upon all +of us alike, I should desire, were it possible, to invite Cassius here and +argue the case with him in your presence or in the presence of the senate; +and I would gladly, without a contest, withdraw from my office in his +favor, if this seemed to be for the public advantage. For it is on behalf +of the public that I continue to toil and undergo dangers and have spent +so much time yonder outside of Italy, during mature manhood and now in old +age and weakness, though I can not take food without pain nor get sleep +free from anxiety. + +[Sidenote:--25--] "But since Cassius would never be willing to agree to +this (for how could he trust me after having shown himself so +untrustworthy towards me?), you, at least, fellow-soldiers, ought to be of +good cheer. Cilicians, Syrians, Jews and Egyptians have never proved your +superiors nor shall so prove, even if they assemble in numbers ten times +your own, whereas they are now by the same proportion inferior. Nor yet +would Cassius himself now appear worthy of any particular consideration, +however much he may seem to possess the qualities of generalship, however +many successes he may seem to have gained. An eagle is not formidable at +the head of an army of daws, nor a lion commanding fawns; and it was not +Cassius, but you, that brought to an end the Arabian or the famous +Parthian War. Again, even though he is renowned as a result of his +achievements against the Parthians, yet you have Verus, who has won more +victories than he and has acquired more territory in a not less, but more +distinguished manner.--But probably he has already changed his mind, on +hearing that I am alive, for surely he has done this on no other +assumption than that I was dead. And if he resists still further, yet when +he learns that we are approaching, he will surely hesitate both out of +fear of you and out of respect for me. + +[Sidenote:--26--] "There is only one thing I fear, fellow-soldiers (you +shall be told the whole truth), and that is that he may either kill +himself because ashamed to come into our presence, or some one else upon +learning that I shall come and am setting out against him may do it. Then +should I be deprived of a great prize both of war and of victory, and of a +magnitude such as no human being ever yet obtained. What is this? Why, to +forgive a man that has done you an injury, to remain a friend to one who +has transgressed friendship, to continue faithful to one who has broken +faith. Perhaps this seems strange to you, but you ought not to disbelieve +it. For all goodness has not yet perished from among mankind, but there is +still in us a remnant of the ancient virtue. And if any one does +disbelieve it, that renders the more ardent my desire that men may see +accomplished what no one would believe could come to pass. That would be +one profit I could derive from present ills, if I could settle the affair +well and show to all mankind that there is a right way to handle even +civil wars." + +[Sidenote:--27--] This is what Marcus both said to the soldiers and wrote +to the senate, in no place abusing Cassius, save he constantly termed him +ungrateful. Nor, indeed, did Cassius ever utter or write anything of a +nature insulting to Marcus. + +Marcus at the time he was preparing for the war against Cassius would +accept no barbarian alliance although he found a concourse of foreign +nations offering their services; for he said that the barbarians ought not +to know about troubles arising between Romans. + +While Marcus was making preparations for the civil war, many victories +over various barbarians were reported at one and the same time with the +death of Cassius. The latter while walking had encountered Antonius, a +centurion, who gave him a sudden wound in the neck, though the blow was +not entirely effective. And Antonius, borne away by the impetus of his +horse, left the deed incomplete, so that his victim nearly escaped; but +meantime the decurion had finished what was left to do. They cut off his +head and set out to meet the emperor. + +Marcus Antoninus [was so much grieved at the destruction +of Cassius that he would not even endure to see the severed head, but +before the murderers drew near gave orders that it should be buried.] + +Thus was this pretender slain after a dream of +sovereignty lasting three months and six days, and his son was murdered +somewhere else. And Marcus upon reaching the provinces that had joined in +Cassius's uprising treated them all very kindly and put no one, either +obscure or prominent, to death. + +[Sidenote:--28--] [The same man would not slay nor imprison nor did he put +under any guard any one of the senators associated with Cassius. He did +not so much as bring them before his own court, but merely sent them +before the senate, nominally under some other complaint, and appointed +them a fixed day on which to have their case heard. Of the rest he brought +to justice a very few, who had not only cooperated with Cassius to the +extent of some overt action but were personally guilty of some crime. A +proof of this is that he did not murder nor deprive of his property +Flavius Calvisius, the governor of Egypt, but merely confined him on an +island. The records made about his case Marcus caused to be burned, in +order that no reproach might attach to him from them. Furthermore he +released all his relatives.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 176 (a.u. 929)] [Sidenote:--29--] About this same time +Faustina died, either of the gout from which she had suffered or from less +natural causes and to avoid being convicted of her compact with +Cassius.--Moreover, Marcus destroyed the documents [found in the chests of +Pudens], [Footnote: Reimar suggested that perhaps Pudens was secretary of +the Greek letters of Cassius, as Manlius (Book Seventy-two, chapter 7) was +of his Latin letters.] not even reading them, in order that he might not +learn even a name of any of the conspirators who had written something +against him and that he might not [therefore] be reluctantly forced to +hate any one. Another account is that Verus, who was sent ahead into +Syria, of which he had secured the governorship, found them among the +effects of Cassius and put them out of the way, saying that this course +would most probably be agreeable to the emperor, but even if he should be +angry, it would be better that he [Verus] himself should perish than many +others. Marcus was so averse to slaughter that he saw to it that the +gladiators in Rome contended without danger, like athletes; for he never +permitted any of them to have any sharp iron, but they fought with blunt +weapons, rounded off at the ends. [And so far was he from countenancing +any slaughter that though at the request of the populace he ordered to be +brought in a lion trained to eat men, he would not look at the beast nor +emancipate its teacher, in spite of the long-continued and urgent demands +of the people. Instead, he commanded proclamation to be made that the man +had done nothing to deserve freedom.] + +[Sidenote:--30--] In his great grief over the death of Faustina he wrote +to the senate that no one of those who had cooperated with Cassius was +dead, as if in this fact alone he could find some consolation for +Faustina's loss. "May it never happen," he continued, "that any one of you +is slain during [Footnote: Reading [Greek: ep emou] (Dindorf).] my +lifetime either by my vote or by your own." Finally he said: "If I do not +obtain this request, I shall hasten on to death." So pure and excellent +and godfearing did he show himself throughout his career. [Nothing could +force him to do anything inconsistent with his character, neither the +wickedness of daring attempts nor the expectation of similar events to +follow as the result of pardon. To such an extent did he refrain from +inventing any imaginary conspiracy and concocting any tragedy that had not +taken place, that he released even those who most openly rose against him +and took arms against him and against his son, whether they were generals +or heads of tribes or kings, and he put none of them to death either by +his own action or by that of the senate or by any other arrangement +whatever. Wherefore I actually believe that if he had captured Cassius +himself alive, he would certainly have saved him from injury.] For he +conferred benefits upon many who had been murderers,--so far as lay in +their power,--of himself and his son. + +[Sidenote:--31--] A law was at this time passed that no one should be +governor in the province from which he had originally come, because the +revolt of Cassius had occurred during his administration of Syria, which +included his native district. It was voted by the senate that silver +images of Marcus and Faustina should be set up in the temple of Venus and +Roma, and that an altar should be erected whereon all the maidens married +in the city and their bridegrooms should offer sacrifice; also that a +golden image of Faustina should be carried in a chair to the theatre on +each occasion that the emperor should be a spectator, and that it should +be placed in the seat well forward, where she herself was wont to take her +place when alive, and that the women of chief influence should all sit +round about it. + +[Sidenote:--32--] Marcus went to Athens, where after being initiated into +the mysteries he bestowed honors upon the Athenians and gave teachers to +all men in Athens, for every species of knowledge, these teachers to +receive an annual salary. On his return to Rome he made an address to the +people; and while he was saying, among other things, that he had been +absent many years, they cried out: "Eight!" and indicated this also with +their hands, in order that they might receive an equal number of gold +pieces for a banquet. He smiled and himself uttered the word "Eight." +After that he distributed to them two hundred denarii apiece, more than +they had ever received before.--In addition to doing this, he forgave all +persons all their debts to the imperial and to the public treasury for a +space of forty-six years, outside of the sixteen granted by Hadrian. And +all the documents relating to these debts he ordered burned in the Forum. +[Sidenote: A.D. 177 (a.u. 930)]--He gave money to many cities, one of them +being Smyrna, that had suffered terribly by an earthquake; he also +assigned the duty of building up this place to an ex-praetor of senatorial +rank. Therefore I am surprised at the censures even now passed upon him to +the effect that he was not a man of large calibre. For, whereas in +ordinary matters he was really quite frugal, he never demurred at a single +necessary expenditure (though, as I have said, [Footnote: The reference +here made by Dio may very possibly be to a passage reproduced by Zonaras +(XII, 1), regarding the authenticity of which Boissevain is nevertheless +somewhat doubtful. For the sake of completeness a translation is here +given ([Greek: oumaen [Lacuna] ebiasato]): + + "Yet he was not thereby induced to secure money from the subject + nations. On one occasion, indeed, with wars impending, he had come short + for funds and still did not devise any new tax nor endure to ask money + from any one. Instead, he exposed in the Forum all the heirlooms of the + palace, even down to this or that piece of finery belonging to his wife, + and solicited their purchase by any person so disposed. This brought him + a store of coin, which he distributed to the soldiers. By success in the + war he gained many times the amount in question, and he issued a + proclamation to the effect than any one so disposed among the purchasers + of the imperial property might return the article purchased and receive + its value. Some did so, but the majority declined. And nobody was + compelled to restore any object thus acquired."] + +he hurt no one by levies), and he necessarily laid out very large sums +beyond the ordinary requirements. + +[Sidenote:--33--] The Scythian imbroglio, which needed his attention, +caused him to give his son a wife, Crispina, sooner than he actually +wished. The Quintilii could not end the war, although there were two of +them and they possessed prudence, courage, and considerable experience. +Consequently the rulers themselves were forced to take the field. +[Sidenote: A.D. 178 (a.u. 931)] Marcus also asked the senate for money +from the public treasury, not because it had not been placed in the +sovereign's authority, but because Marcus was wont to declare that this +and everything else belonged to the senate and the people. "We," said he +(speaking to the senate), "are so far from having anything of our own that +we even live in a house of yours." He set out, therefore, after these +remarks, and after hurling the bloody spear, that lay in the temple of +Bellona, into hostile territory. (I heard this from men who accompanied +him). [Sidenote: A.D. 179] Paternus was given a large detachment and sent +to the scene of fighting. The barbarians held out the entire day, but were +all cut down by the Romans. And Marcus was for the tenth time saluted as +imperator. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 180 (a.u. 933)] Had he lived longer, he +would have subdued the whole region: as it was, he passed away on the +seventeenth of March, not from the effects of the sickness that he had at +the time, but by the connivance of his physicians, as I have heard on good +evidence, who wanted to do a favor to Commodus. + +[Sidenote:--34--] When at the point of death he commended his son to the +protection of the soldiers (for he did not wish his death to appear to be +his fault); and to the military tribunes, who asked him for the watchword, +he said: "Go to the rising sun: I am already setting." After he was dead +he obtained many marks of honor and was set up in gold within the +senate-house itself. + +So this was the manner of Marcus's demise, [who besides all other virtues +was so godfearing that even on the dies nefasti he sacrificed at home; and +he ruled better than any that had ever been in power. To be sure, he could +not display many feats of physical prowess; yet in his own person he made +a very strong body out of a very weak one.] Most of his life he passed in +the service of beneficence, and therefore he erected on the Capitol a +temple to that goddess and called her by a most peculiar name, which had +never before been current. [Footnote: What this name was no one knows. +Sylburgius conjectured that it might be _Aequanimitas_.] He himself +refrained from all offences, [and committed no faults voluntarily:] but +the offences of others, particularly those of his wife, he endured, and +neither investigated them nor punished them. In case any person did +anything good, he would praise him and use him for the service in which he +excelled, but about others he did not trouble himself, [saying: "It is +impossible for one to create such men as one wishes to have, but it is +proper to employ those in existence for that in which each of them may be +useful to the commonwealth."] That all his actions were prompted not by +pretence but by real virtue is strikingly clear. He lived fifty-eight +years, ten months, and twenty-two days, and of this time he had spent +considerable as assistant to the previous Antoninus and had himself been +emperor nineteen years and eleven days, yet from first to last he remained +the same and changed not a particle. So truly was he a good man, without +any pretence about him. [Sidenote:--35--] He was vastly helped by his +education being an expert in rhetoric and in philosophical argument. In +the one he had Cornelius Fronto and Claudius Herodes for teachers, and in +the other, Junius Rusticus and Apollonius of Nicomedea, [Footnote: Since +Apollonius was really from Chalcedon, an error may here charged to Dio's +or some one else's account.] both of whom followed Zeno's school. As a +result, great numbers pretended to engage in philosophy, in order that +they might be enriched by the emperor. + +After all, however, he owed his great attainments chiefly to his natural +disposition; for even before he enjoyed the society of those men he was +unflinchingly set upon virtue. While still a boy he delighted all his +relations, who were numerous and influential and wealthy, and was loved by +all of them. This, most of all, led Hadrian to adopt him into his family, +and Marcus, for his part, did not grow haughty [but, though young and a +Caesar he dutifully played the part of servant to Antoninus through all +the latter's reign and ungrudgingly did honor to the other men of +eminence. Before going to see his father he used to greet the most worthy +men in the house near the Tiber where he lived, and in the very apartment +where he slept; and all this time, instead of wearing the attire allowed +by his rank, he went dressed as a private citizen. He visited many who +were sick and invariably met his teachers at the proper time. Dark +garments were what he wore on going out when not in his father's company, +and he never used the attendant for himself alone. Upon being appointed +leader of the knights he entered the Forum with the rest, although he was +Caesar. This shows how excellent was his own natural disposition, though +it was aided to the greatest degree by education.] He was always steeped +in Greek and Latin rhetorical and philosophical learning [though he had +reached man's estate and had hopes of becoming emperor]. + +[Sidenote:--36--] Before he was made Caesar he had a dream in which he +seemed to have shoulders and hands of ivory and to use them in all +respects as he did his real limbs. + +As a result of his great labors and studies he was extremely frail in +body, yet from the very start he enjoyed such good health that he used to +fight in armor and on a hunt struck down wild boars while on horseback. +[And not only in his early youth but even later he wrote most of his +letters to his intimate friends with his own hand.] However, he did not +meet the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong [in body] +and was involved in the greatest variety of troubles throughout +practically the whole period that he was ruler. But I am sure I admire him +all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary +happenings he both himself survived and preserved the empire. One thing in +particular contributed to his lack of happiness,--the fact that after +rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was monstrously +disappointed in him. This matter must now form the subject of our +discourse, for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of +iron and rust, [Footnote: Reading [Greek: chatiomenaen] (Dindorf, +following Reiske).] as affairs did for the Romans of that day. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +73 + +About Commodus Augustus (chapter 1). + +How Commodus made terms of peace with the Marcomani, the Quadi, and the +Buri (chapters 2, 3). + +Intrigues of Pompeianus against Commodus (chapter 4). + +About the killing of the Quintilii (chapters 5-7). + +About the war in Britain, and the captain, Ulpius Marcellus (chapter 8). + +How Perennis, pretorian prefect, was slain (chapters 9, 10) + +Statue erected to Victorinus (chapter 11). + +Crimes and death of Cleander, a Caesarian (chapters 12, 13) + +Fresh assassinations occur (chapter 15). + +Commodus's titles (chapter 15). + +About the spectacles presented by Commodus, and his insolent behavior +(chapters 16-21). + +Commodus is killed as the result of a conspiracy (chapter 22). + +Dio begins to lay the foundations of his history (chapter 23). + +Portents indicating the death of Commodus (chapter 24). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + + +L. Fulvius Bruttius Praesens (II), Sextus Quintilius Condianus. (A.D. 180 += a.u. 933 = First of Commodus, from March 17th). + +Commodus Aug. (III), Antistius Burrus. (A.D. 181 = a.u. 934 = Second of +Commodus). + +C. Petronius Mamertinus, Cornelius Rufus. (A.D. 182 = a.u. 935 = Third of +Commodus). + +Commodus Aug. (IV), Aufidius Victorinus (II). (A.D. 183 = a.u. 936 = +Fourth of Commodus). + +L. Eggius Marullus, Cn. Papirius Aelianus. (A.D. 184 = a.u. 937 = Fifth of +Commodus). + +Maternus, Bradua. (A.D. 185 = a.u. 938 = Sixth of Commodus). + +Commodus Aug. (V), Acilius Glabrio (II). (A.D. 186 = a.u. 939 = Seventh of +Commodus). Crispinus, Aelianus. (A.D. 187 = a.u. 940 = Eighth of +Commodus). + +C. Allius Fuscianus (II), Duillius Silanus (II). (A.D. 188 = a.u. 941 = +Ninth of Commodus). + +Iunius Silanus, Servilius Silanus. (A.D. 189 = a.u. 942 = Tenth of +Commodus). + +Commodus Aug. (VI), M. Petronius Septimianus. (A.D. 190 = a.u. 943 = +Eleventh of Commodus). + +Apronianus, Bradua. (A.D. 191 = a.u. 944 = Twelfth of Commodus). + +Commodus Aug. (VII), P. Helvius Pertinax (II). (A.D. 192 = a.u. 945 = +Thirteenth of Commodus, to Dec. 31st). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 180 (a.u. 933)] [Sidenote:--1--] This [Commodus] was not +naturally wicked, but was originally as free from taint as any man ever +was. His great simplicity, however, and likewise his cowardice made him a +slave of his companions and it was through them that he first, out of +ignorance, missed the better life and then was attracted into +licentiousness and bloodthirsty habits, which soon became second nature. +[And this, I think, Marcus clearly perceived beforehand.] He was nineteen +years old when his father died, leaving him many guardians, among whom +were numbered the best men of the senate. But to their suggestions and +counsels Commodus bade farewell, and, after making a truce with the +barbarians, he hastened to Rome. + +[Sidenote:--2--] [For the Marcomani by reason of the number of their +people that were perishing and the damage constantly being done to their +farms no longer had either food or men in any numbers. Thus they sent only +two of their foremost representatives and two others that were of inferior +rank as envoys in regard to peace. And whereas he might easily have put an +end to their resistance, he so detested exertion and was so eager for the +comforts of city life that he made terms with them. Besides the conditions +which his father had settled upon with them new ones were now imposed +requiring them to restore to him the deserters and the captives that they +took after this time and to contribute annually a stipulated amount of +grain,--a demand from which he subsequently released them. He obtained +some weapons from them and also soldiers, thirteen thousand from the Quadi +and a smaller number from the Marcomani. In return for this contingent he +relieved them of the requirement of an annual levy. However, he issued +further orders that they should not assemble often nor in many parts of +the country, but once each month, in one place, in the presence of a Roman +centurion; and again, that they should not make war upon the Iazyges, the +Buri, or the Vandili. On these terms a reconciliation was effected and all +the garrisons in their country beyond the detached border territory were +abandoned [Lacuna]] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 181(?)] [Sidenote:--3--] [Commodus also granted peace to +an embassy from the Buri. Previously he would not have it, though often +asked, because they were strong and because it was not peace they wanted, +but the securing of a respite for further preparations. Now, however, +since they were exhausted, he made terms with them and accepted hostages. +From the Buri he received back many captives and from the others +[Footnote: The MS. is here very possibly corrupt.] fifteen thousand, and +he compelled the others [Footnote: The MS. is here very possibly corrupt.] +to take oath that they would never dwell in nor use as pasture forty +stadia of their territory, nearest to Dacia. The same (?) Sabinianus also +reduced twelve thousand of the neighboring Dacians who had been driven out +of their own country and were on the point of aiding the rest. [Footnote: +The MS. is here very possibly corrupt.] He promised these that some land +in our Dacia should be given them.] + +[Sidenote:--4--] Frequent plots were formed by various persons against +Commodus [for he did many reprehensible deeds] and he murdered great +numbers both of men and of women, some openly and some by secret +poison,--in a word, practically all those who had attained eminence during +his father's lifetime and his own. Exceptions were Pompeianus and Pertinax +and Victorinus: these for some reason unknown to me he did not kill. THIS +AND WHAT FOLLOWS I STATE NOT ON THE AUTHORITY OF ANOTHER'S TRADITION, BUT +FROM MY OWN OBSERVATION. On coming to Rome he had a conference with the +senate, at which he talked a great deal of nonsense, one thing that he +said in praise of himself being that he had once on horseback saved the +life of his father, who had fallen into a deep mire. Of such a nature were +his lofty pratings. [Sidenote: A.D. 182 (a.u. 935)]As he was entering the +hunting theatre, Claudius Pompeianus laid a snare for him. He held up a +sword in the narrow passage which served as an entrance and said: "See, +this is what the senate has sent you." + +This man had taken as his spouse the daughter of Lucilla, but had intimate +relations both with the daughter herself and with the girl's mother; in +this way he had become friendly with Commodus, so that he was his +companion at banquets and in the diversions of youth. Lucilla, who was +neither more respectable nor more continent than her brother Commodus, +detested the girl's husband, Pompeianus. It was for this reason that she +persuaded the aforementioned to undertake the attack upon Commodus, and +she not only caused his destruction, but was herself detected and put out +of the way. Commodus killed also Crispina, because he was angry with her +for some act of adultery. Previous to their execution both women had keen +banished to the island of Capreae. + +There was a certain Marcia, mistress of Quadratus (one of the men murdered +at this time) and Eclectus, his cubicularius: the latter became also the +cubicularius of Commodus, and the former, first, the emperor's mistress +and later the wife of Eclectus; and she beheld them also perish by +violence. The tradition is that she very much favored the Christians and +did them many kindnesses, as she was enabled to do through possessing all +influence with Commodus. + +Commodus killed also Julianus [Salvius, [Footnote: _P. Salvius +Julianus._] and Tarrutenius Paternus, who was numbered among the +exconsuls, and others with them; he furthermore put to death some woman of +the nobility. [Footnote: Vitrasia Faustina by name.] Yet Julianus after +the death of Marcus could at once have done anything at all that he +pleased against him, since he possessed great renown, was in charge of a +large army, and enjoyed the devotion of his soldiers: and he refused to +make any rebellious move, both because of his own uprightness and because +of the good will that he bore to Marcus, though dead. And Paternus, if he +had plotted against Commodus, as he was accused of doing, could easily +have murdered him while he himself still commanded the Pretorians; but he +had not done it.] + +The emperor murdered likewise Condianus and Maximus Quintilius; for they +had a great reputation on account of education and military ability and +fraternal harmony and wealth. Their notable talents led to the suspicion +that, even if they were not planning any hostile movement, still they were +not pleased with the state of affairs. Thus, even as they had lived +together, so they died together, and one child as well. They had exhibited +the most striking example ever seen of affection for each other, and at no +time had they been divided, even in their political offices. They had +grown prosperous and exceedingly wealthy and were wont to govern together +and to assist each other in trying cases at law. + +Sextus Condianus, son of Maximus, who surpassed the generality of men in +character and education, when be heard that sentence of death had been +passed upon him, too, drank hare's blood (he was at that time located in +Syria); and after this he mounted a horse and purposely fell from it. +Then, as he vomited the blood (which was supposed to be his own), he was +taken up in the expectation of his immediate demise and conveyed into a +dwelling. The man himself now disappeared from view, but a ram's body was +placed in a coffin, in his place and burned. Thereafter, by constantly +changing his appearance and clothing, he wandered about, now here, now +there. And when this story was reported (for it is impossible to conceal +for a long time so weighty a matter), there was hue and cry after him in +every place, bar none. Many were punished in his stead on account of their +resemblance, and many, too, who were alleged to have shared his +confidences or to have received and hidden him. Several, moreover, who had +perhaps never even seen him, were deprived of their property. But no one +knows whether he was really killed (though a great number of heads +purporting to be his were carried to Rome) or whether he made good his +escape. + +Some other person, after the death of Commodus, dared to assert that +_he_ was Sextus and to undertake the recovery of his wealth and +dignities. And he played the part well while many persons asked him +numbers of questions: when, however, Pertinax enquired of him something +about Grecian affairs, with which the real Sextus had been well +acquainted, he suffered the greatest embarrassment, not being able even to +understand what was said. [So it was that nature had made him like +Condianus in form and practice like him in other ways, but he did not +share in his education.] + +[Sidenote:--7--] This matter came to my own ears, and another thing that I +saw I shall now describe. There is in the city of Mallus, in Cilicia, an +oracle of Amphilochus, that gives responses by means of dreams. It had +given warning also to Sextus, in a way that he indicated by a drawing. The +picture that he put on a board represented a boy strangling two serpents +and a lion pursuing a fawn. I was with my father, then governor of +Cilicia, and could not comprehend what they meant until I learned that +Sextus's brothers had been, as it were, strangled by Commodus (who later +emulated Hercules), just as Hercules, when an infant, is related to have +strangled the serpents sent against him by Juno: similarly, the Quintilii +were hanged; I learned also that Sextus was a fugitive and was being +pursued by a more powerful adversary. + +I should render my narrative unduly irksome, were I to set down carefully +every single man put to death by this ruler,--all that he despatched +because of false information, because of unjustified suspicions, because +of notable wealth, because of distinguished family, because of unusual +education, or for any other excellence. + +[Commodus displayed in Rome itself many marks of wealth and very many +more, even, of love for the beautiful. Indeed, he performed one or two +acts of public benefit. Manilius, a kinsman of Cassius, who had been +secretary of his Latin letters and had possessed the greatest influence +with him, was caught after a flight, but the emperor would not listen to a +word of his, though he promised to lay a great deal of information, and +burned all the conspirator's documents without reading them.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 184 a.u. 937] [Sidenote:--8--] He had also some wars with +the barbarians beyond Dacia, in which Albinus and Niger, who later fought +the emperor Severus, won fame, but the greatest conflict was the one in +Britain. When the tribes in the island, passing beyond the wall that +separated them from the Roman legions, proceeded to commit many outrages +and cut down a general, together with the soldiers that he had, Commodus +was seized with fear and sent Marcellus Ulpius against them. This man, who +was temperate and frugal and always followed strict military rules in +regard to food and all other details when he was at war, became in course +of time haughty and arrogant. He was conspicuously incorruptible in the +matter of bribes, but was not of a pleasant or kindly nature. He showed +himself more wakeful than any other general, and, as he desired his +associates also to be alert, he wrote orders on twelve tablets (such as +are made out of linden wood) [almost] every evening, and bade a man carry +them to various persons at various hours, that they, believing the general +to be always awake, might not themselves take their fill of sleep. Nature +had made him able in the first place to go without sleep and he had +developed this faculty a great deal more by abstinence from food. [Of +scarcely anything did he eat his fill and] in order to avoid satisfying +his hunger even with bread he sent to Rome for the loaves: [this was not +because he could not eat what was prepared in that region, but] it was +done with the purpose that the age of the article might prevent him eating +ever so little more than what was absolutely necessary. [His gums, which +were sore, were easily made to bleed by the dryness of the bread. And he +made it his practice to affect sleeplessness even more than was the case, +that he might have a reputation for being always awake.] This was the kind +of man Marcellus was, who inflicted great damage upon the barbarians in +Britain. Later he narrowly escaped being destroyed by Commodus on account +of his peculiar excellence, but was, nevertheless, released. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 185 (a.u. 938)] [Sidenote:--9--] Perennis, commander of +the Pretorians after Paternus, met destruction on account of a rebellion +of the soldiers. For, since Commodus had devoted himself to chariot-racing +and licentiousness and paid scarcely any attention to matters pertaining +to the empire, Perennis was compelled to manage not only military affairs, +but everything else, and to preside over the government. The soldiers, +accordingly, when anything did not go to suit them, laid the blame upon +Perennis and cherished anger against him. + +The soldiers in Britain chose Priscus, a lieutenant, emperor. But he +deprecated their action, saying "I am as little suited for emperor as you +are for soldiers." + +The lieutenants in Britain had been rebuked for their turbulence (indeed, +they had not become quiet until Pertinax put a stop to their discord), and +now they chose of their number fifteen hundred javelin-slingers, whom they +sent into Italy. They had approached Rome without meeting any hindrance, +when Commodus met them and enquired: "Why is this, fellow-soldiers? What +does your presence signify?" Their answer was: "We are here because +Perennis is plotting against you, and intends to make his son emperor." +Commodus believed them, especially since Cleander dwelt at length upon the +point. (The latter was often prevented by Perennis from doing all that he +desired, and consequently entertained a bitter hatred for him). Therefore +he delivered the prefect to the soldiers of whom he was commander, and did +not venture to despise fifteen hundred men, though he had many times that +number of Pretorians. So Perennis was abused and struck down, and his wife +and sister and two sons were also killed. + +[Sidenote:--10--] Thus was he slain though he deserved a far different +fate both on his own account and for the interest of the entire Roman +domain. Only, it may be remarked that his fondness for office had been the +chief cause of the ruin of his colleague Paternus. Privately he was never +remotely concerned about either fame or wealth, but lived a most +incorruptible and temperate life, and for Commodus he preserved his empire +in entire safety. [For the emperor wholly followed his amusements and gave +himself over to chariot-driving and cared not a whit for any political +interests; nor, indeed, had he given his mind to the matter ever so +zealously, could he have accomplished aught by reason of his luxurious +living and inexperience.] + +And the Caesarians, having got rid of this man, with Cleander at their +head entered upon every form of outrage, selling all privileges, doing +violence, plunging into licentiousness. + +Commodus during most of his life was given to idleness and horses and +battles of beasts and of men. Aside from his performances at home he +despatched many beasts in public and many men on many occasions. With his +own hands and without assistance he gave the finishing stroke to five +hippopotami at one time and to two elephants on separate days. Moreover, +he killed rhinoceroses and a camelopard. This is what I have to say in +general with reference to his whole career. + +[Sidenote:--11--] To Victorinus, prefect of the city, a statue was +granted. [He died not as the victim of a plot. At one time what might be +called a loud rumor and many reports were circulating in regard to his +destruction] and, though Commodus frequently wished to get him out of the +way, he still kept putting it off and shrinking from the deed until the +man grew very bold, and one day approaching Perennis said: "I hear that +you wish to kill me. Why then do you delay? Why do you put it off, when +you might do it this very day?" [But not even this caused him to suffer +any harm at the hands of any one else; it was a self-sought death that he +suffered, and the fact seems strange, inasmuch as he had been honored +among the foremost men by Marcus and in mental excellence and forensic +eloquence stood second to none of his contemporaries. Indeed, by +mentioning two incidents in his history I shall reveal his whole +character.] + +Once, when he was governor of Germany, he at first attempted by private +persuasion indoors to induce his lieutenant not to accept bribes. As the +latter would not listen to him, he mounted the tribunal and [after bidding +the herald proclaim him] took oath that he had never received bribes and +never would receive any. Next he bade his under-officer also take oath; +and when this person refused to perjure himself, he ordered him to be +dismissed from office. [And later as commandant of Africa he had an +associate of similar character to the man just mentioned. He did not, to +be sure, treat him in the same way, but put him aboard a boat and sent him +back to Rome.] This is the kind of man Victorinus was. + +[Sidenote:--12--] As for Cleander, who after Perennis possessed greatest +influence, he had been sold along with his fellow-slaves and had been +brought to Rome along with them for the purpose of carrying burdens. As +time went on he attained such prominence that he slept before the chamber +of Commodus, married the emperor's concubine Damostratia, and put to death +Saoterus of Nicomedea (who had held the position before him) besides many +others. Yet this victim had possessed very great influence, so that the +Nicomedeans obtained from the senate the right of holding a series of +games and of building a temple to Commodus. At any rate, Cleander, raised +to greatness by the power of Fortune, granted and sold senatorships. +praetorships, procuratorships, leaderships,--in a word everything. Some by +expending all that they possessed had finally become senators. It came to +be said of Julius Solon (an exceedingly obscure man) that he had been +deprived of his property and banished to the senate. [Sidenote: A.D. 189 +(a.u. 942)] Not only did Cleander do this, but he appointed twenty-five +consuls for one year,--something which never occurred before or after. One +of those consuls was Severus, who later became emperor. The man obtained +money, therefore, from every quarter and amassed more wealth than had ever +yet belonged to those nominated cubicularii. A great deal of it he gave to +Commodus and his concubines and a great deal of it he spent on houses, +baths, and other works useful to individuals and to cities. + +[Sidenote:--13--] This Cleander, who had soared to so exalted a height, +himself fell suddenly and perished in dishonor. It was not the soldiers +that killed him, as they had Perennis, but the populace. There occurred a +real and pressing famine, which was increased to the utmost severity by +Papirius Dionysius, the grain commissioner, in order that Cleander, whose +thefts would seem as much responsible for it as any cause, might both +incur hatred and suffer destruction at the hands of the Romans. So it fell +out. There was a horse-race on, and as the horses were about to contend +for the seventh time a crowd of children ran into the race course, at +their head a tall and sturdy maiden. As a result of what subsequently +happened she was deemed by people to have been a divinity. The children +shouted many wild words of complaint, which the people took up again and +began to bawl anything that came into their heads. Finally, the throng +jumped down and started to find Commodus (who was then in the Quintilian +suburb), invoking many blessings on his head but many curses upon +Cleander. The latter sent some soldiers against them, who wounded and +killed a few, but encouraged by their numbers and the strength of the +Pretorians they became still more urgent. They drew near to Commodus +before information reached him from any source of what was going on. Then +the famous Marcia, wife of Quadratus, brought him the news. And Commodus +was so terrified,--he was always the veriest coward,--that he at once +ordered Cleander to be slain and also his child, who was in Commodus's +hands to be reared. The child was dashed to the earth and perished, and +the Romans, taking the body of Cleander, dragged it away and abused it and +carried his head all about the city on a pole. They also wounded some +other men who had possessed great power during his ascendancy. + +[Sidenote:--14--] Commodus, taking a respite from his lusts and sports, +developed a taste for blood and proceeded to compass the death of +distinguished men. Among these was Julianus the prefect, whom he used to +embrace and caress in public and saluted as "father." Another was Julius +Alexander, who was executed for having brought down a lion by a lucky cast +of his javelin while on horseback. [Footnote: Boissevain suggests that the +"Roman Hercules" perhaps feared that Alexander might diminish his glory.] +This victim, on becoming aware of the presence of his assassins, murdered +them by night and likewise put out of the way all his own enemies at +Emesa, his native town. After doing this he mounted a horse and started +toward the barbarians; and he would have escaped, had he not carried a +favorite along with him. He was himself a most excellent horseman, but he +would not think of abandoning the lad, who was tired out, and so when he +was being overtaken he killed both the boy and himself. Dionysius, too, +the grain commissioner, met his death by the orders of Commodus. + +Moreover, a pestilence, as great as any I know, took place, for it should +be noted that two thousand persons several times died in Rome on a single +day. Many more, not merely in the capital but throughout almost the entire +empire, perished by the hands of scoundrels, who smeared some deadly drugs +on tiny needles, and, for pay, infected men with the poison by means of +these instruments. The same thing had happened before in the reign of +Domitian. [Footnote: See Book Sixty-seven, chapter 11.] But the death of +these unfortunates was not regarded as of any importance. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 190 (a.u. 943)] [Sidenote:--15--] Still, the effect of +Commodus upon the Romans was worse than that of all pestilences and all +villanies. One feature was that whatever honors they were wont to vote to +his father out of pure regard they were compelled by fear and by strict +injunction to assign also to the son. He gave orders that Rome itself be +called Commodiana, the legions "Commodian," and the day on which this +measure was voted "Commodiana." Upon himself he bestowed, in addition to +very many other titles, that of Hercules. Rome he termed "the Immortal," +"the Fortunate," "the Universal Colony of the Earth" (for he wished it to +seem a settlement of his own). In his honor a gold statue was erected of a +thousand pounds' weight, together with a bull and a cow. Finally, all the +months were likewise called after him, so that they were enumerated as +follows: Amazonian, Invincible, Fortunate, Pious, Lucius, Aelius, +Aurelius, Commodus, August, Herculean, Roman, Transcendent. For he had +assumed these different names at different times. "Amazonian" and +"Transcendent," however, he applied exclusively to himself, to indicate +that in absolutely every respect he unapproachably surpassed all mankind. +So extravagantly did the wretch rave. And to the senate he would send a +despatch couched in these terms: "Caesar Imperator, Lucius Aelius Aurelius +Commodus, Augustus, Pius, Beatus, Sarmaticus, Germanicus, Maximus, +Britannicus, Peacemaker of the World, Invincible, Roman Hercules, High +Priest, Holder of Tribunician Authority for the eighteenth term, Imperator +for the eighth time, Consul for the seventh time, Father of the +Fatherland, to consuls, praetors, tribunes and the Commodian Fortunate +Senate, Greeting." Great numbers of statues were erected displaying him in +the garb of Hercules. And it was voted that his age should be called the +"Golden Age" and that entries to correspond with this should in every case +be made in the records. + +[Sidenote:--16--] Now this Golden One, this Hercules, this God (such was +another designation of his) one day in the afternoon rode suddenly from +the suburbs with haste into Rome and conducted thirty horse-races in two +hours. These proceedings had much to do with his running short of money. +He was also fond of bestowing gifts and frequently presented the populace +with one hundred and forty denarii apiece. But most of his expenditures +were for the objects that I have mentioned. [So it was that neither his +general income nor what was provided by Cleander (though incalculable in +amount) sufficed him, and he was compelled to bring charges against both +women and men,--charges not serious enough for capital punishment but +prolific in threats and terror.] Some of these persons he murdered, to +others he sold preservation in return for their property [and got +something from them by constraint under the pretence that it was a +voluntary offering]. And finally on his birthday he ordered us, our wives, +and our children each to contribute two aurei [a year as] a kind of +first-fruits, and the senators in all the other cities five denarii per +head. [Of this, too, he saved not the smallest part, but spent it all +disgracefully on beasts and gladiators.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 192 (a.u. 945)] [Sidenote:--17--] In public he nowhere +drove chariots except sometimes on a moonless night. He became very +desirous to play the character also in public, but, being ashamed to be +seen doing this, he kept it up constantly at home, wearing the Green +uniform. Beasts, moreover, in large numbers were slaughtered at his house +and many also in public. Again, he would contend as gladiator: (at home he +killed a man in this way, and, in pretending to shave others, instead of +taking off the hairs he sliced off one man's nose, another's ears, and +some other feature of a third;) but in public his contests were [Footnote: +It is just barely possible that the original gave some different idea from +"his contests were" (cp. the text of Boissee).] minus the steel and human +blood. Before entering the theatre he would put on a cleeved tonic of +silk, white interwoven with gold, and we greeted him standing there in +this attire. When he actually went in he donned a pure purple dress +sprinkled with gold, assuming also a similar chlamys of Greek pattern and +a crown made of Indic gems and gold, and carried such a herald's staff as +Mercury does. The lion skin and club were carried before him along the +streets, and at the theatres were invariably placed on a gilded chair, +whether he was present or absent. He himself would enter the theatre in +the garb of Mercury, and casting off everything else begin his performance +in simple tunic and unshod. + +[Sidenote:--18--] On the first day he individually killed a hundred bears +by shooting down at them from the top of the elevated circle. The whole +theatre had been divided up by some diameters built in, which supported a +circular roof and intersected each other, the object being that the +beasts, divided into four herds, might be more easily speared at short +range from any point. In the midst of the struggle he grew weary, and +taking from a woman some sweet wine cooled in a club-shaped cup drank it +down at a gulp. At this both the populace and we on the instant all +shouted this phrase, common at drinking bouts: "Long life to you!" + +Let no one think that I sully the dignity of history in noting down such +happenings. In general I should have preferred not to mention it, but +since it was one of the emperor's acts and I was myself present, taking +part in everything seen and heard and spoken, I have judged it proper to +suppress none of the details, but to hand them down to the attention of +those who shall live hereafter, just as I should do in the case of +anything else especially great and important. And, indeed, all the +remaining events that took place in my lifetime I shall polish and +elaborate more than earlier occurrences for the reason that my evidence is +that of a contemporary and I know no one else who has my ability at +reducing notable things to writing that has studied them so exhaustively +as I. + +[Sidenote:--19--] It was on the first day, then, that this took place. On +the others he frequently went down from the raised section to the bottom +of the circle and slaughtered all the tame animals that he approached, +some of them also being led to him or brought before him in nets. He also +killed a tiger, a hippopotamus, and an elephant. After accomplishing this, +he retired, but at the conclusion of breakfast fought again as a +gladiator. The form of fighting which he practiced and the armor which he +used was that pertaining to the so-called _secutor:_ in his right +hand he held the shield and in his left the wooden sword. He prided +himself very greatly upon being left-handed. His antagonist would be some +professional athlete, or, perhaps, gladiator, with a cane; this was +sometimes a man that the emperor himself challenged and sometimes one that +the people chose. In this and other matters he acted the same way as the +other gladiators, except that they go in for a very small sum, whereas +Commodus had twenty-five myriads from the gladiatorial fund given him each +day. There stood beside him during the contest Aemilius Laetus, the +prefect, and Eclectus, his cubicularius. He went through a skirmish, and, +of course, conquered, and then, just as he was, he kissed them [Footnote: +Supplying [Greek: ois] (after Reimar).] with his helmet on. After this the +rest did some fighting.--The first day he personally paired all the +combatants, either down below, where he wore all the attire of Mercury, +including a gilded wand, or else from his place on the elevated platform; +and we took his proceeding as an omen. Later he ascended his customary +seat and from that point viewed the remainder of the spectacle with us. +Nothing more was done that resembled child's play, but great numbers of +men were killed. At one place somebody delayed about slaying and he +fastened the various opponents together and bade them all fight at once. +At that the men so bound struggled one against another and some killed +those who did not belong to their group, since the numbers and the limited +space had brought them into proximity. + +[Sidenote:--20--] That spectacle as here described lasted fourteen days. +While the contests were going on we senators invariably attended, along +with the knights, save that Claudius Pompeianus the elder never appeared, +but sent his sons, remaining away himself. He chose rather to be put to +death for this than to behold the child of Marcus as emperor conducting +himself so.--Besides all the rest that we did, we shouted whatever we were +bidden and this sentence continuously: "Thou art lord, and thou art +foremost, of all most fortunate: thou dost conquer, thou shalt conquer; +from everlasting, Amazonian, thou dost conquer!" + +Of the rest of the people many did not even enter the theatre and some +managed to steal out quietly, for they were partly ashamed of what was +being done and partly afraid. A story was current that he would like to +shoot a few of them as Hercules had the Stymphalian birds. This story was +believed, too, because once he had gathered all the men in the city who by +disease or some other calamity had lost their feet, had fastened some +dragon's extremities about their knees, and after giving them sponges to +throw instead of stones had killed them with blows of a club, on the +pretence that they were giants. + +[Sidenote:--21--] This fear was shared by all, both us and the rest. Here +is another way in which he menaced us senators,--an act which he certainly +expected would be the death of us. He had killed an ostrich, and cutting +off its head he came toward where we were sitting. In his left hand he +held the spoils and in the right stretched aloft his bloody sword. He +spoke not a word, but with a grin wagged his head to and fro, intimating +that he would subject us to this same treatment. And many on the spot +would have perished by the sword for laughing at him (for it was laughter +and not grief that overcame us), had I not myself chewed a laurel leaf, +which I got from my garland, and brought the rest who were sitting near me +to munch similar sprigs, so that in the constant motion of our jaws we +might conceal the fact that we were laughing. After this occurrence he +raised our spirits, since before fighting again as a gladiator he bade us +enter the theatre in the equestrian garb and with woolen cloaks. (This was +something we never do when going into the theatre unless some emperor has +passed away). And on the last day his helmet was carried out by the gates +through which the dead are taken out. That made us all without exception +think that he was surely about to meet his end in some way. + +[Sidenote:--22--] And he did die (or rather was despatched) before a great +while. Laetus and Eclectus, displeased at the way he acted, and moreover +filled with fear at the threats he uttered against them when he was +checked in any of his whims, formed a plot against him. Commodus was +anxious to slay both the consuls (Erucius Clarus and Sosius Falco) and on +the first of the month to issue as consul and secutor at once from the +place where the gladiators are kept. He had the first cell in their +quarters, as if he were one of them. Let no one be incredulous about this, +for he even cut off the head of the Colossus and put one of his own there +instead; and then, having given it a club and placed a bronze lion at its +feet so as to make it look like Hercules, he inscribed, besides the titles +that belonged to him, also this sentence: "First of secutors to engage; +the only left-handed fighter that has conquered twelve times"--I think it +is--"a thousand." + +[Lacuna] was written by Lucius Commodus Hercules, and upon it was +inscribed the well known couplet, viz.: "Hercules I, Jove's son, Lord of +Fair Fame, Not Lucius, howsoe'er constrained thereto." + +For these reasons Laetus and Eclectus, making Marcia their confidante, +attacked him. At night on the last of the year, when people were busy with +merry-making, they had Marcia administer poison to him in cooked beef. The +wine he had consumed and his always immoderate use of the baths kept him +from succumbing at once, and instead he vomited; this caused him to +suspect the attempt and he uttered some threats. Then they sent Narcissus, +an athlete, to him and had this man strangle him in the midst of a bath. +This was the end that Commodus met after ruling twelve years, nine months, +and fourteen days. He had lived thirty-one years and four months, and with +him the imperial house of the true Aurelii ceased. + +[Sidenote:--23--] After this there occurred most violent wars and +factional disturbances. The compilation of facts in this work of mine has +been due to the following chance. I had written and published a book about +the dreams and signs which caused Severus to expect the imperial power; +and he, happening to look at a copy that was sent him by me, wrote me a +long and complimentary acknowledgment. This letter I received about +nightfall and soon after went to sleep. And in my slumbers Heaven +commanded me that a history be written. So it came about that I wrote the +narrative with which I am at this moment concerned. And because it pleased +Severus himself and other people very much, I then conceived a desire to +compile a record of all other matters of Roman interest. Therefore I +decided no longer to leave that treatise as a separate composition, but to +incorporate it in this present history, in order that in one undertaking I +might write positively everything from the beginning as far as Fortune +sees fit to permit. I have obtained this goddess, it appears, as the guide +of the conduct of my life, and therefore I am dependent on her entirely: +she gives me strength for my historical research when I am respectful and +subdued before her, and wins me back to work by means of dreams when I am +discouraged and give up the task: she grants me delightful hopes in regard +to the future, that time will allow this history to survive and never let +its brightness be dimmed. To gather an account of everything done by the +Romans from the beginning until the death of Severus has taken me ten +years, and to arrange it in literary form twelve years more. The rest will +be written as opportunity offers. + +[Sidenote:--24--] Prior to the death of Commodus there were the following +signs. Many ill-boding eagles wandered about the Capitol uttering cries +that portended naught of peace, and an owl hooted there. [Sidenote: A.D. +191 (a.u. 944)] A fire, starting by night in some dwelling, laid hold of +the temple of Peace and spread to the stores of Egyptian and Arabian +wares: then, leaping to a great height, it entered the palace and burned a +very large portion of it, so that the documents belonging to the empire +almost all perished. This as much as anything made it clear that the +injury would not stop in the City but extend over the entire civilized +world. The conflagration could not be extinguished by human hands, +although great numbers of civilians and great numbers of soldiers were +carrying water and Commodus himself came from the suburbs to cheer them +on. Only after it had destroyed everything on which it had fastened did it +spend its force and reach a limit. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +74 + +Pertinax, through the agency of Eclectus and Laetus, is created emperor by +the soldiers and by the senate (chapter 1). + +Commodus is declared an enemy and is made a subject for jest (chapter 2). + +Kindness of Pertinax toward Pompeianus, Glabrio, and the senators (chapter +3). + +Omens portending supreme power for him (chapter 4). + +Pertinax reforms pernicious practices: he sells Commodus's apparatus of +licentiousness (chapter 5, 6). + +His moderation with regard to his own family (chapter 7). + +At the instigation of Laetus Falco the consul is slated for emperor +(chapter 8). + +Death of Pertinax Augustus (chapter 9, 10). + +Flavius Sulpicianus and Julianus strive in outbidding each other for the +sovereignty (chapter 11). + +Julianus is made emperor contrary to the wishes of the senate and the +Roman people (chapters 12, 13). + +About the three leaders, Severus, Niger, Albinus (chapter 14). + +Severus forms an alliance with Albinus and proceeds against Julianus +(chapter 15). + +Julianus, in the midst of laughable preparations, is killed by order of +the senate (chapters 16, 17). + + +DURATION OF TIME, five months (from the Calends of January +to the Calends of June), in which the following were consuls: + +1. Quintus Sosius Falco, C. Erucius Clarus. + +2. Flavius Sulpicianus, Fabius Cilo Septiminus (from the +Calends of March). + +3. Silius Messala (from the Calends of May). +(A.D. 193 = a.u. 946). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 193 (a.u. 946)] [Sidenote:--1--] Pertinax was one of those +men to whom no exception can be taken, but he ruled only for an +exceedingly brief space of time and was then put out of the way by the +soldiers. While the fate of Commodus was still a secret the party of +Eclectus and Laetus came to him and acknowledged [Footnote: Reading +[Greek: emaenusan] (Dindorf, after H. Stephanus).] what had been done. On +account of his excellence and reputation they were glad to select him. He, +after seeing them and hearing their story, sent his most trustworthy +comrade to view the body of Commodus. When the man confirmed the report of +the act, he was then conveyed secretly into the camp and caused the +soldiers consternation; but through the presence of the adherents of +Laetus and by means of promises [Footnote: Reading [Greek: epaeggeilato] +(Dindorf, after Bekker).] to give them three thousand denarii per man, he +won them over. They would certainly have remained content, had he not +phrased the conclusion of his speech somewhat as follows: "There are many +unpleasant features, fellow-soldiers, in the present situation, but the +rest with your help shall be set right again." On hearing this they took +occasion to suspect that all the irregular privileges granted them by +Commodus would be abolished. Though irritated, they nevertheless remained +quiet, concealing their anger. + +On leaving the fortifications he came to the senate-house while it was +still night, and after greeting us (so far as a man might approach him in +the midst of such a jostling throng) he said in an impromptu way: "I have +been named emperor by the soldiers; however, I don't desire the office and +am going to resign it this very day because of my age and health and the +unpleasant condition of affairs." This was no sooner said than we gave the +selection our genuine approbation and chose him in very truth; for he was +noble in spirit and strong in body, except that he walked a little lame. + +[Sidenote:--2--] In this way was Pertinax declared emperor and Commodus an +enemy, while both senate and people denounced the latter long and +savagely. They desired to hale away his body and tear it limb from limb, +as they did his images; but, when Pertinax told them that the corpse had +already been interred, they spared his remains but glutted their rage on +his representations, calling him all sorts of names. But "Commodus" or +"emperor" were two that no one applied to him. In stead, they termed him +"wretch" and "tyrant," adding in jest titles like "the gladiator," "the +charioteer," "the left-handed," "the ruptured man." To the senators, who +had been excited most by fear of Commodus, the crowd called out: "Huzza, +huzza, you are saved, you have conquered!" All the shouts that they had +been accustomed to raise with a kind of rhythmic swing to pay court to +Commodus in the theatres they now chanted metamorphosed into the most +ridiculous nonsense. Since they had got rid of one ruler, and as yet had +nothing to fear from his successor, they made the most of their freedom in +the intervening time and secured a reputation for frankness by their +fearlessness. They were not satisfied merely to be relieved of further +terror, but desired to show their courage by wanton insolence. + +[Sidenote:--3--] Pertinax was a Ligurian from Alba Pompeia; his father was +not of noble birth and he himself had just enough literary training for +ordinary needs. Under these conditions he had become an associate of +Claudius Pompeianus, through whose influence he had become a commander in +the cavalry, and had reached such a height that he now came to be emperor +over his former friend. And I at that time, during the reign of Pertinax, +saw Pompeianus for the first and last occasion. He was wont to live mostly +in the country on account of Commodus [and very seldom came down to the +city], making his age and a disease of the eyes his excuse [and he had +never before, when I was present, entered the senate]. Moreover, after +Pertinax he was always ill. [During his reign he saw and was well +[Footnote: Reading [Greek: erroto] (Dindorf).] and advised.] Pertinax +honored him mightily in every way and in the senate made him take the seat +beside him. [The same privilege he accorded also to Acilius Glabrio. This +man, too, at that period both heard and saw. It was to these, then, that +he granted such surpassing honor.] Toward us also he behaved in a very +sociable way. He was easy of access, listened readily to any one's +request, and cordially answered as he thought right. Again, he gave us +banquets marked by moderation. Whenever he failed to invite us, he would +send to various persons various foods, even the least costly. For this the +wealthy and vainglorious made great sport of him, but the rest of us, who +valued excellence above debauchery, approved his course. + +[Public opinion regarding Pertinax was so different from +that in the case of Commodus that those who heard what had happened, +suspecting that this story had been spread by Commodus to test them, in +several instances (governors of provinces being particularly involved) +imprisoned the men who brought the news. It was not that they did not wish +it to be true, but they were more afraid of seeming to have helped destroy +Commodus than of not attaching themselves to Pertinax. For under the +latter one who even committed an error of this kind might still breathe +freely, but under the former not even a faultless person could feel safe.] + +[Sidenote:--4--] While he was still in Britain, after that great revolt +which he quelled, and was being accorded praise on all sides, a horse +named Pertinax won a race at Rome. It belonged to the Greens and was +picked as a winner by Commodus. So, when its partisans raised a great +shout, proclaiming "It is Pertinax," the others, their opponents, in +disgust at Commodus likewise prayed (speaking with reference to the man, +not the horse): "Would that it might be so!" Later, when this same horse +by reason of age had given up racing and was in the country, it was sent +for by Commodus, who brought it into the hippodrome, gilded its hoofs, and +adorned its back with a gilded skin. And people suddenly seeing it cried +out again: "It is Pertinax!" The very expression was itself ominous, since +it occurred at the last horse-race that year, and immediately after it the +sovereignty passed to Pertinax. A similar import was attached to the club, +for Commodus when about to fight on the final day had given it to +Pertinax. + +[Sidenote:--5--] It was in this way that Pertinax came into power. He +obtained all the proper titles and a new one for wishing to be democratic. +That is, he was named Princeps Senatus, according to ancient custom. He at +once reduced to order everything that was previously irregular and lacking +in discipline. He showed in his capacity of emperor kindliness and +uprightness, unimpeachable management, and a most careful consideration +for the public welfare. Pertinax did everything, in fact, that a good +emperor should do, and he removed the stigma of disgrace from the memories +of those who had been unjustly put to death; moreover, he took oath that +he would never sanction such a penalty. Immediately some recalled their +relatives and some their friends with tears and joy at once; formerly not +even these exhibitions of emotion were allowed. After this they exhumed +the bodies, some of which were found entire and some in fragments, +according as decay and time had caused each of them to fare, and they gave +them decent treatment and deposited them in their ancestral tombs. + +At this time the treasury was suffering from such lack of funds that only +twenty-five myriad denarii could be found. Pertinax therefore had +difficulty in raising money from the images and the arms, the horses and +the trappings, and the favorites of Commodus, but gave to the Pretorians +all that he had promised and to the people one hundred denarii apiece. All +the articles that Commodus had gathered by way of luxury and for armed +combats and for chariot driving were exposed in the auction-room, the +principal object sought being their sale, though there was a further +intention to show what were the late emperor's deeds and practices and to +ascertain who would purchase such articles. + +[Sidenote:--6--] Laetus consistently spoke well of Pertinax and abused +Commodus [relating all the latter's evil deeds]. + +He [Footnote: Pertinax is meant.] summoned some barbarians that had +received a large sum of gold coin from Commodus in return for preservation +of peace (the party was already on the road) and demanded its return, +saying: "Tell your people that Pertinax is ruler." The foreigners knew his +name very well as a result of the reverses they had suffered when he made +a campaign against them with Marcus.--Let me tell you another similar act +of his intended to cast reflections upon Commodus. He found that some +filthy clowns and buffoons, disgusting in appearance, with still more +disgusting names and habits, had been made extremely wealthy by Commodus +on account of their wantonness and licentiousness; accordingly, he made +public their titles and the amounts they had acquired. The former caused +laughter and the latter wrath and grief, for there were some of them that +possessed just the sums for which the emperor had slain numbers of +senators. However, Laetus did not remain permanently loyal to Pertinax, or +perhaps we might even say not for a moment. Since he did not get what he +wanted, he proceeded to incite the soldiers against him (as will be +related). + +[Sidenote:--7--] Pertinax appointed as prefect of the city his +father-in-law, Flavius Sulpicianus, a man who in any case deserved the +position. Yet he was unwilling to make his wife Augusta or his son Caesar, +though we voted him permission. He rejected emphatically each proposition, +whether because he had not yet firmly rooted his own power, or because he +did not choose to let his unchaste consort sully the name of Augusta. As +for his son, who was still a child, he did not care to have him spoiled by +the dignity [Footnote: Reading [Greek: ogkho] (Reimar) for the MS. [Greek: +horkho].] and the hope implied in the name before he should be educated. +Indeed, he would not even bring him up in the palace, but on the very +first day of his sovereignty he put aside everything that had belonged to +him previously and divided it between his children--he had also a +daughter--and gave orders that they should live at their grandfather's +house; there he visited them occasionally in the capacity of father and +not of emperor. + +[Sidenote:--8--] Now, since the soldiers were no longer allowed to plunder +nor the Caesarians to indulge their licentiousness, they hated him +bitterly. The Caesarians attempted no revolt, because they were unarmed, +but the Pretorian soldiers and Laetus formed a plot against him. In the +first place they selected Falco the consul for emperor, because he was +prominent for both wealth and family, and purposed to bring him to the +camp while Pertinax was at the coast investigating the corn supply. The +latter, learning of the plan, returned in haste to the City, and coming +before the senate said: "You should not be ignorant, Conscript Fathers, +that though I found but twenty-five myriad denarii, I have distributed as +much to the soldiers as did Marcus and Lucius, to whom were left +sixty-seven thousand five hundred myriads. It is the surprising Caesarians +who have been responsible for this deficiency of funds." Pertinax told a +lie when he said that he had bestowed upon the soldiers an equal amount +with Lucius and Marcus; for the one had given them about five thousand and +the other about three thousand denarii apiece. The soldiers and the +Caesarians, who were present in the senate in great numbers, became +mightily indignant and muttered dangerously. But as we were about to +condemn Falco [and were already declaring him an enemy] Pertinax rose and +cried out: "Heaven forbid that any senator, while I am ruler, be put to +death even for a just cause!" [And in this way Falco's life was saved, and +thenceforth he lived in the country, preserving a cautious and respectful +demeanor.] + +[Sidenote:--9--] But Laetus, using Falco as a starting point, destroyed +many of the soldiers on the pretence that the emperor ordered it. The +rest, when they became aware of it, were afraid that they should perish, +too, and raised a tumult. Two hundred bolder than their mates invaded the +palace with drawn swords. Pertinax had no warning of their approach until +they had got upstairs. Then his wife rushed in and informed him what had +happened. On learning this he behaved in a way which one may call noble or +senseless or however one pleases. For, whereas he might probably have +killed his assailants (since he had the night-guard and the cavalry by to +protect him and there were also many other people in the palace at the +time), or might at any rate have concealed himself and made his escape to +some place or other, and might have closed the doors of the palace and the +other intervening doors, he, nevertheless, adopted neither alternative. +Instead, hoping to awe them by his presence and thus gain a hearing and +persuade them to their duty, he confronted the approaching band, which was +already indoors. No one of their fellow soldiers had barred the way, and +the porters and other Caesarians so far from making any door fast had +opened absolutely all the entrances. The soldiers, seeing him, at first +were [Sidenote:--10--] abashed, save one, and rested their eyes on the +floor and began thrusting their swords back into their scabbards. But the +one exception leaped forward, exclaiming: "This sword the soldiers have +sent you," and forthwith made a dash at him, striking him a blow. Then his +comrades did not restrain themselves and felled their emperor together +with Eclectus. The latter alone had not deserted him and defended him as +far as he was able, even to the extent of wounding several. Wherefore I, +who still earlier believed that he had shown himself a man of worth, now +thoroughly admired him. The soldiers cut off the head of Pertinax and +stuck it on a spear, glorying in the deed. Thus did Pertinax, who +undertook to restore everything in a brief interval, meet his end. He did +not comprehend, though a well trained man of affairs, that it is +impossible with safety to reform everything at once, but that the +constitution of a government requires, if anything does, both time and +wisdom. He had lived sixty-seven years lacking four months and three days. +He had reigned eighty-seven days. + +[Sidenote:--11--] When the fate of Pertinax was reported, some ran to +their homes and some to those of the soldiers, and paid heed to their own +safety. It happened that Sulpicianus had been despatched by Pertinax to +the camp to set in order matters there, and he consequently stayed there +and took action looking to the appointment of an emperor. But there was a +certain Didius Julianus [of senatorial rank but eccentric character], an +insatiate money-getter and reckless spender, always anxious for a change +in the government, who on account of the last named proclivity had been +driven out by Commodus to his own city, Mediolanum. He, accordingly, on +hearing of the death of Pertinax, hastily made his way to the camp, and +standing near the gates of the fort made offers to the soldiers in regard +to the Roman throne. Then ensued a most disgraceful affair and one +unworthy of Rome. For just as is done in some market and auction-room, +both the city and her whole empire were bid off. The sellers were the +people who had killed their emperor, and the would-be buyers were +Sulpicianus and Julianus, who vied to outbid each other, one from within, +the other from without. By their increases they speedily reached the sum +of five thousand denarii per man. Some of the guard kept reporting and +saying to Julianus: "Sulpicianus is willing to give so much; now what will +you add?" And again to Sulpicianus: "Julianus offers so much; how much +more do you make it?" Sulpicianus would have won the day, since he was +inside and was prefect of the city and was the first to say five thousand, +had not Julianus raised his bid, and no longer by small degrees but by +twelve hundred and fifty denarii at once, which he offered with a great +shout, indicating the amount likewise on his fingers. Captivated by the +difference and at the same time through fear that Sulpicianus might avenge +Pertinax (an idea that Julianus put into their heads) they received the +highest bidder inside and designated him emperor. + +[Sidenote:--12--] So toward evening the new ruler turned his steps with +speed toward the Forum and senate-house. He was escorted by a vast number +of Pretorians with numerous standards as if prepared for action, his +object being to scare both us and the populace and thereby secure our +allegiance. The soldiers called him "Commodus," and exalted him in various +other ways. As the news was brought to us each individually, and we +ascertained the truth, we were possessed with fear of Julianus and the +soldiers, especially all of us who had [Lacuna] any favors for Pertinax. +[Footnote: A slight gap in the MS., where we should perhaps read: "all of +us who had done any favors for Pertinax or anything to displease Julianus" +(Boissevain).] [Lacuna] I was one of them, for I had been honored by +Pertinax in various ways, owing to him my appointment as praetor, and when +acting as advocate for others at trials I had frequently proved Julianus +in the wrong on many points. Nevertheless, we put in an appearance, and +partly for this very reason, since it did not seem to us to be safe to +hide at home, for fear that act in itself might arouse suspicion. So when +bath [Footnote: Reading [Greek: leloumenoi] (Reiske) for the MS. [Greek: +dedoulomenoi].] and dinner were both over, we pushed our way through the +soldiers, entered the senate-house, and heard the potentate deliver a +characteristic speech, in the course of which he said: "I see that you +need a ruler, and I myself am better fitted than any one else to direct +you. And I should mention all the advantages I can offer, if you did not +know them perfectly and had not already had experience with me. +Consequently, I felt no need of being attended by many soldiers, but have +come to you alone, that you may ratify what has been given me by them." "I +am here alone" is what he said, when he had surrounded the entire exterior +of the senate-house with heavily armed men and had a number of soldiers in +the senate-house itself. Moreover, he mentioned our being aware what kind +of person he was, and made us both hate and fear him. + +[Sidenote:--13--] In this way he got his imperial power confirmed also by +decrees of the senate and returned to the palace. Finding the dinner that +had been prepared for Pertinax he made great fun of it, and sending out to +every place from which by any means whatever something expensive could be +procured at that time of day he satisfied his hunger (the corpse was still +lying in the building) and then proceeded to amuse himself by dicing. +Among his companions was Pylades the dancer. The next day we went up to +visit him, feigning in looks and behavior much that we did not feel, so as +not to let our grief be detected. The populace, however, openly frowned +upon the affair, spoke its mind as much at it pleased, and was ready to do +what it could. Finally, when he came to the senate-house and was about to +sacrifice to Janus before the entrance, all bawled out as if by +preconcerted arrangement, terming him empire-plunderer and parricide. He +affected not to be angry and promised them some money, whereupon they grew +indignant at the implication that they could be bribed and all cried out +together: "We don't want it, we won't take it!" The surrounding buildings +echoed back the shout in a way to make one shudder. When Julianus had +heard their response, he could endure it no longer, but ordered that those +who stood nearest should be slain. That excited the populace a great deal +more, and it did not cease expressing its longing for Pertinax or its +abuse of Julianus, its invocations of the gods or its curses upon the +soldiers. Though many were wounded and killed in many parts of the city, +they continued to resist and finally seized weapons and made a rush into +the hippodrome. There they spent the night and the ensuing day without +food or drink, calling upon the remainder of the soldiery (especially +Pescennius Niger and his followers in Syria) with prayers for assistance. +Later, feeling the effects of their outcries and fasting and loss of +sleep, they separated and kept quiet, awaiting the hoped for deliverance +from abroad. + + "I do not assist the populace: for it has not called upon me." + +[Sidenote:--14--] Julianus after seizing the power in this way managed +affairs in a servile fashion, paying court to the senate as well as to men +of any influence. Sometimes he made offers, again he bestowed gifts, and +he laughed and sported with anybody and everybody. He was constantly going +to the theatre and kept getting up banquets: in fine, he left nothing +undone to win our favor. However, he was not trusted; his servility was so +abject that it made him an object of suspicion. Everything out of the +common, even if it seems to be a kindness to somebody, is regarded by men +of sense as a trap. + +The senate had at one time voted him a golden statue and he refused to +accept it, saying: "Give me a bronze one so that it may last; for I +perceive that the gold and silver statues of the emperors that ruled +before me have been torn down, whereas the bronze ones remain." In this he +was not right: since 'tis excellence that safeguards the memory of +potentates. And the bronze statue that was bestowed upon him was torn down +after he was overthrown. + +This was what went on in Rome. Now I shall speak about what happened +outside and the various revolutions. There were three men at this time who +were commanding each three legions of citizens and many foreigners +besides, and they all asserted their claims,--Severus, Niger, and Albinus. +The last-named governed Britain, Severus Pannonia, and Niger Syria. These +were the three persons darkly indicated by the three stars that suddenly +came to view surrounding the sun, when Julianus in our presence was +offering the Sacrifices of Entrance in front of the senate-house. These +heavenly bodies were so very brilliant that the soldiers kept continually +looking at them and pointing them out to one another, declaring moreover +that some dreadful fate would befall the usurper. As for us, however much +we hoped and prayed that it might so prove, yet the fear of the moment +would not permit us to gaze at them, save by occasional glances. Such are +the facts that I know about the matter. + +[Sidenote:--15--] Of the three leaders that I have mentioned Severus [was] +the shrewdest [in being able to foresee the future with accuracy, to +manage present affairs successfully, to ascertain everything concealed as +well as if it had been laid bare and to work out every complicated +situation with the greatest ease.] He understood in advance that after +deposing Julianus the three would fall to blows with one another and offer +combat for the possession of the empire, and therefore determined to win +over the rival who was nearest him. So he sent a letter by one of his +trusted managers to Albinus, creating him Caesar. Of Niger, who was proud +of having been invoked by the people, he had no hopes. Albinus on the +supposition that he was going to share the empire with Severus remained +where he was: Severus made all strategic points in Europe, save Byzantium, +his own and hastened toward Rome. He did not venture outside a protecting +circle of weapons, having selected his six hundred most valiant men in +whose midst he passed his time day and night; these did not once put off +their breastplates until they reached Rome. + +[This Fulvius [Footnote: The name, so far as can be discerned in the MS., +may be Fulvius or Flavius or Fabius. The position and import of the +fragment are alike doubtful.] (?) too, who when governor of Africa had +been tried and condemned by Pertinax for rascality, avarice, and +licentiousness, was later elevated to the highest position by the same +man, now become emperor, as a favor to Severus.] + +[Sidenote:--16--] Julianus on learning the condition of affairs had the +senate make Severus an enemy and proceeded to prepare against him. [In the +suburbs he constructed a rampart, wherein he set gates, that he might take +up a position there outside and fight from that base.] The City during +these days became nothing more nor less than a camp, pitched, as it were, +in hostile territory. There was great turmoil from the various bodies of +those bivouacked and exercising,--men, horses, elephants. The mass of the +population stood in great fear of the armed men [because the latter hated +them.] Occasionally laughter would overcome us. The Pretorians did nothing +that was expected of their name and reputation, for they had learned to +live delicately. The men summoned from the fleet that lay at anchor in +Misenum did not even know how to exercise. The elephants found the towers +oppressive and so would not even carry their drivers any longer [but threw +them off also]. What caused us most amusement was his strengthening the +palace with latticed gates and strong doors. For, as it seemed likely that +the soldiers would never have slain Pertinax so easily if the building had +been securely fastened, Julianus harbored the belief that in case of +defeat he would be able to shut himself up there and survive. + +Moreover, he put to death both Laetus and Marcia, so that all the +conspirators against Commodus had now perished. Later Severus gave +Narcissus also to the beasts, making the proclamation (verbatim): "This is +the man that strangled Commodus." The emperor likewise killed many boys +for purposes of enchantments, thinking that he could avert some future +calamities, if he should ascertain them in advance. And he kept sending +man after man to find Severus and assassinate him. [Vespronius Candidus, a +man of very distinguished rank but still more remarkable for his +sullenness and boorishness, came near meeting his end at the hands of the +soldiers.] + +[Sidenote:--17--] The avenger had now reached Italy and without striking a +blow took possession of Ravenna. The men whom his opponent kept sending to +him to either persuade him to turn back or else block his approaches were +won over. The Pretorians, in whom Julianus reposed most confidence, were +becoming worn out by constant toil and were getting terribly alarmed at +the report of Severus's proximity. At this juncture Julianus called us +together and bade us vote for Severus to be his colleague in office. + +The soldiers were led to believe by communications from Severus that, if +they would surrender the assassins of Pertinax and themselves offer no +hostile demonstration, they should receive no harm; therefore they +arrested the men who had killed Pertinax and announced this very fact to +Silius Messala, the consul. The latter assembled us in the Athenaeum, +[Footnote: Located on the Capitol, and established by Hadrian.] so called +from the fact that it was a seat of educational activity, and informed us +of the news from the soldiers. We then sentenced Julianus to death, named +Severus emperor, and bestowed heroic honors upon Pertinax. So it was that +Julianus came to be slain as he was reclining in the palace itself; he had +only time to say: "Why, what harm have I done? Whom have I killed?" He had +lived sixty years, four months, and the same number of days, out of which +he had reigned sixty-six days. + +Dio, 74th Book: "Men of intelligence should neither begin a war nor seek +to evade it when it is thrust upon them. They should rather grant pardon +to him who voluntarily conducts himself properly, in spite Of any previous +transgression, [Lacuna] + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +Severus takes vengeance on the Pretorians who were the assassins of +Pertinax and enters the city (chapters 1, 2). + +Prodigies which portended the sovereignty to Severus (chapter 3). + +Funeral procession which he superintended, in honor of Pertinax (chapters +4, 5). + +War of Severus Augustus against Pescennius Niger (chapters 6-9). + +The storming of Byzantium (chapters 10-14). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Q. Sosius Falco, C. Erucius Clarus. (A.D. 193 = a.u. 946 = First of +Severus, from the Calends of June). + +I. Septimius Severus Aug. (II), D. Clodius Septimius Albinus Caes. (A.D. +194 = a.u. 947 = Second of Severus). + +Scapula Tertullus, Tineius Clemens. (A.D. 195 = a.u. 948 = Third of +Severus). + +C. Domitius Dexter (II), L. Valerius Messala Priscus. (A.D. 196 = a.u. 949 += Fourth of Severus). + + +[Sidenote:--1--] Severus upon becoming emperor in the manner described +punished with death the | Pretorians | who had contrived the fate of +Pertinax. Before reaching Rome he summoned those remaining [Pretorians], +surrounded them in a plain while they still did not know what was going +to happen to them, and having reproached them long and bitterly for +their transgression against their emperor he relieved them of their +arms, took away their horses, and expelled them from Rome. The majority +reluctantly proceeded to throw away their arms and let their horses go, +and scattered uninjured, in their tunics. One man, as his horse refused +to leave him, but kept following him and neighing, slew both the beast +and himself. To the spectators it seemed that the horse also was glad to +die. + +When he had attended to this matter Severus entered Rome; he went as far +as the gates on horseback and in cavalry costume, but from that point on +changed to citizen's garb and walked. The entire army, both, infantry and +cavalry, in full armor accompanied him. The spectacle proved the most +brilliant of all that I have witnessed, for the whole city had been decked +with wreaths of blossoms and laurel and besides being adorned with richly +colored stuffs blazed with lights and burning incense. The population, +clad in white and jubilant, gave utterance to many hopeful expressions. +The soldiers were present, conspicuous by their arms, as if participating +[Footnote: Reading [Greek: pompeyontes] (Dindorf, after Bekker).] in some +festival procession, and we, too, were walking about in our best attire. +The crowd chafed in their eagerness to see him and to hear him say +something, as if his voice had been somehow changed by his good fortune, +and some of them held one another up aloft to get a look at him from a +higher position. + +[Sidenote:--2--] Having entered in this style he began to make us rash +promises, such as the good emperors of old had given, to the effect that +he would not put any senator to death. He not only took oath concerning +this matter, but what was of greater import he also ordered it ratified by +public decree, and passed an ordinance that both the emperor and the +person who helped him in any such deed should be considered an +enemy,--themselves and also their children. Yet he was himself the first +to break the law and instead of keeping it caused the death of many +persons. Even Julius Solon himself, who framed this decree according to +imperial mandate, was a little later murdered. The emperor did many things +that were not to our liking. [He was blamed for making the city turbulent +by the multitude of soldiers and he oppressed the commonwealth by +excessive expenditure of funds: he was blamed most of all for placing his +hope of safety in the strength of his army and not in the good-will of his +companions.] But some found fault with him especially because, whereas it +had been the custom for the body-guard to be drawn from Italy, Spain, +Macedonia and Noricum only,--a plan which furnished men more distinguished +in appearance and of simpler habits,--he had abolished this method, [He +ruled that any vacancies should be filled from all the legions alike; this +he did with the idea that he should find them as a result more conversant +with military practices and should be setting up warfare as a kind of +prize for the excellent. As a matter of fact he incidentally ruined all +the most reliable men of military age in Italy, who turned their attention +to robbery and gladiatorial fighting in place of the service that had +previously claimed it.] and filled the city with a throng of motley +soldiers, most savage in appearance, most terrifying in their talk, and +most uncultured to associate with. + +[Sidenote:--3--] The signs which led him to expect the sovereignty were +these. When he had been registered in the senate-house, it seemed to him +in a vision that a she-wolf suckled him, as was the case with Romulus. On +the occasion of his marrying Julia, Faustina, the wife of Marcus, prepared +their bedchamber in the temple of Venus opposite the palace; and once, +when he was asleep, water gushed from his hand as from a spring; and when +he was governor of Lugdunum, the whole Roman domain approached and greeted +him,--all this in dreams, I mean. At another time he was taken by some one +to a point affording a wide view; and as he gazed from it over all the +earth and all the sea he laid his fingers on them as one might on some +instrument [Footnote: Compare Plato, Republic, 399 C.] capable of all +harmonies, and they answered to his touch. Again, he thought that in the +Roman Forum a horse threw Pertinax, who was already mounted, but readily +took him on its back. These things he had already learned from dreams, but +in his waking hours he had, while a youth, ignorantly seated himself upon +the imperial chair. This accident, taken with the rest, indicated +rulership to him in advance. + +[Sidenote:--4--] Upon attaining that condition he erected a heroum to +Pertinax and commanded that his name should be repeated in the course of +all prayers and of all oaths. A gold image of him was ordered brought into +the hippodrome on a car drawn by elephants and three gilded thrones for +him conveyed into the remaining theatres. His funeral, in spite of the +time elapsed since his death, took place as follows: + +In the Forum Romanum a wooden platform was constructed hard by the stone +one, upon which was set a building without walls but encompassed by +columns, with elaborate ivory and gold decoration. In it a couch of +similar material was placed, surrounded by heads of land and sea +creatures, and adorned with purple coverlets interwoven with gold. Upon it +had been laid a kind of wax image of Pertinax, arrayed in triumphal +attire. A well-formed boy was scaring the flies away from it with peacock +feathers, as though it were really a person sleeping. While it was lying +there in state, Severus, we senators, and our wives approached, clad in +mourning garb. [Footnote: Reading [Greek: penthikos] (Sylburgius, +Boissevain et al)..] The ladies sat in the porticos, and we under the open +sky. After this there came forward, first, statues of all the famous +ancient Romans, then choruses of boys and men, intoning a kind of mournful +hymn to Pertinax. Next were all the subject nations, represented by bronze +images, attired in native garb. And the guilds in the City itself,--those +of the lictors and the scribes and the heralds, and all others of the +sort,--followed on. Then came images of other men who were famous for some +deed or invention or brilliant trait. Behind them were the cavalry and +infantry in armor, the race-horses, and all the funeral offerings that the +emperor and we and our wives, together with distinguished knights and +peoples and the collegia of the city, had sent. They were accompanied by +an altar, entirely gilded, the beauty of which was enhanced by ivory and +Indic jewels. [Sidenote:--5--] When these had gone by, Severus mounted the +Platform of the Beaks and read a eulogy of Pertinax. We shouted our +approval many times in the midst of his discourse, partly praising and +partly bewailing Pertinax, but our cries were loudest when he had ceased. +Finally, as the couch was about to be moved, we all together uttered our +lamentations and all shed tears. Those who carried the bier from the +platform were the high priests and the officials who were completing their +term of office, as well as any that had been appointed for the ensuing +year. These gave it to certain knights to carry. The rank and file of us +went ahead of the bier, some beating our breasts and others playing on the +flute some dirge-like air; the emperor followed behind all, and in this +order we arrived at the Campus Martius. Here there had been built a pyre, +tower-shaped and triple pointed, adorned with ivory and gold together with +certain statues. On its very summit was lodged a gilded chariot that +Pertinax had been wont to drive. Into this the funeral offerings were cast +and the bier was placed in it, and next Severus and the relatives of +Pertinax kissed the image. Our monarch ascended a tribunal, while we the +senate, except officials, took our places on the benches, that with safety +and convenience alike we might view what went on. The magistrates and the +equestrian order, arrayed in a manner becoming their station, besides the +cavalry of the army and the infantry, passed in and out performing +intricate evolutions, both traditional and newly invented. Then at length +the consuls applied fire to the mound, which being done an eagle flew up +from it. In this way was immortality secured for Pertinax [who (although +bodies of men engaged in warfare usually turn out savage and those given +to peace cowardly) excelled equally in both departments, being an enemy to +dread, yet shrewd in the arts of peace. His boldness, wherein bravery +appears, he displayed towards foreigners and rebels, but his clemency, +wherewith is mingled justice, towards friends and the orderly elements of +society. When advanced to preside over the destinies of the world, he was +never ensnared by the increase of greatness so as to show himself in some +things more subservient and in others more haughty than was fitting. He +underwent no change from the beginning to the very end, but was august +without sullenness, gentle without humiliating lowliness, prudent, yet did +no injury, just without inquisitorial qualities, a close administrator +without stinginess, highminded, but devoid of boasts.] + +[Sidenote:--6--] Now Severus made a campaign against Niger. The latter was +an Italian, one of the knights, remarkable for nothing either very good or +very bad, so that one could either greatly praise or greatly censure him. +[Wherefore he had been assigned to Syria by Commodus.] He had as a +lieutenant, together with others, Aemilianus, who [by remaining neutral +and watching the course of events] was thought to surpass all the senators +of that day in understanding and in experience of affairs; for he had been +tested in many provinces. [These conditions and the fact that he was a +relative of Albinus had made him conceited.] + +[Sidenote:--7--] [Niger was not in general a well-balanced man and though +he had very great abilities still fell into error. But at this time he was +more than usually elated, so that he showed how much he liked those who +called him "the new Alexander"; and when one man asked, "Who gave you +permission to do this?" he pointed to his sword and rejoined, "This did." +When the war broke out Niger had gone to Byzantium and from that point +conducted a campaign against Perinthus. He was disturbed, however, by +unfavorable omens that came to his notice. An eagle perched upon a +military shrine and remained there till captured, in spite of attempts +to scare it away. Bees made wax around the military standards and about +his images most of all. For these reasons he retired to Byzantium.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 194 (a.u. 947)] Now Aemilianus while engaged in conflict +with some of the generals of Severus near Cyzicus was defeated by them and +slain. After this, between the narrows of Nicaea and Cius, they had a +great war of various forms. Some battled in close formation on the plains; +others occupied the hill-crests and hurled stones and javelins at their +opponents from the higher ground; still others got into boats and +discharged their bows at the enemy from the lake. At first the adherents +of Severus, under the direction of Candidus, were victorious; for they +found their advantage in the higher ground from which they fought. But the +moment Niger himself appeared a pursuit in turn was instituted by Niger's +men and victory was on their side. Then Candidus caught hold of the +standard bearers and turned them to face the enemy, upbraiding the +soldiers for their flight; at this his followers were ashamed, turned +back, and once more conquered those opposed to them. Indeed, they would +have destroyed them utterly, had not the city been near and the night a +dark one. + +The next event was a tremendous battle at Issus, near the +so-called Gates. In this contest Valerianus and Anullinus [Footnote: _P. +Cornelius Anullinus._] commanded the army of Severus, whereas Niger was +with his own ranks and marshaled them for war. This pass, the Cilician +"Gates", [Footnote: Compare Xenophon's _Anabasis_, I, 4, 4-5.] is so +named on account of its narrowness. On the one side rise precipitous +mountains, and on the other sheer cliffs descend to the sea. So Niger had +here made a camp on a strong hill, and he put in front heavy-armed +soldiers, next the javelin slingers and stone throwers, and behind all the +archers. His purpose was that the foremost might thrust back such as +assailed them in hand-to-hand conflict, while the others from a distance +might be able to bring their force into play over the heads of the others. +The detachment on the left and that on the right were defended by the +sea-crags and by the forest, which had no issue. This is the way in which +he arranged his army, and he stationed the beasts of burden close to it, +in order that none of them should be able to flee in case they should wish +it. Anullinus after making all this out placed in advance the heavier part +of his force and behind it his entire light-armed contingent, to the end +that the latter, though discharging their weapons from a distance might +still retard the progress of the enemy, while the solidity of the advance +guard rendered the upward passage safe for them. The cavalry he sent with +Valerianus, bidding him, so far as he could, go around the forest and +unexpectedly fall upon the troops of Niger from the rear. When they came +to close quarters, the soldiers of Sevents placed some of their shields in +front of them and held some above their heads, making a testudo, and in +this formation they approached the enemy. So the battle was a drawn one +for a long while, but eventually Niger's men got decidedly the advantage +both by their numbers and by the topography of the country. They would +have been entirely victorious, had not clouds gathered out of a clear sky +and a wind arisen from a perfect calm, while there were crashes of thunder +and sharp flashes of lightning and a violent rain beat in their faces. +This did not trouble Severus's troops because it was behind them, but +threw Niger's men into great confusion since it came right against them. +Most important of all, the opportune character of this occurrence infused +courage in the one side, which believed it was aided by Heaven, and fear +in the other, which felt that the supernatural was warring against them; +thus it made the former strong even beyond its own strength and terrified +the latter in spite of real power. Just as they were fleeing Valerianus +came in sight. Seeing him, they turned about, and after that, as Anullinus +beat them back, retreated once more. Then they wandered about, running +this way and that way, to see where they could break through. + +[Sidenote:--8--] It turned out that this was the greatest slaughter to +take place during the war in question. Two myriads of Niger's followers +perished utterly. The fact was indicated also by the priest's vision. +While Severus was in Pannonia, the priest of Jupiter saw in a vision a +black man force his way into the emperor's camps and meet his death by +superior numbers. And by turning the name of Niger into Greek people +recognized that he was the one meant by the "black" person mentioned. +Directly Antioch had been captured (not long after) Niger fled from it, +making the Euphrates his objective point, for he intended to seek refuge +among the barbarians. His pursuers, however, overtook him; he was taken +and had his head struck off. This head Severus sent to Byzantium and +caused to be reared on a cross, that the sight of it might incline the +Byzantines to his cause. The next move of Severus was to mete out justice +to those who had belonged to Niger's party. [Of the cities and individuals +he chastised some and rewarded others. He executed no Roman senator, but +deprived most of them of their property and confined them on islands. He +was merciless in his search for money. Among other measures he exacted +four times the amount that any individuals or peoples had given to Niger, +whether they had done so voluntarily or under compulsion. He himself +doubtless perceived the injustice of it,] [Footnote: The MS. text is +faulty, and the translation, ventured independently, corresponds +approximately to a suggestion by van Herwerden in Boissevain's edition.] +but as he required great sums, he paid no attention to the common talk. + +[Sidenote:--9--] Cassius Clemens, a senator, while on trial before Severus +himself, did not hide the truth but spoke with such frankness as the +following report will show: + +"I," he said, "was acquainted with neither you nor Niger, but as I found +myself in his part of the world, I accepted the situation heartily, not +with the idea of being hostile to you but with the purpose of deposing +Julianus. I have, then, committed no wrong in this, since I labored +originally for the same ends as you, nor should I be censured for failing +to desert the master whom I had once secured by the will of Heaven and for +not transferring my allegiance to you. You would not yourself have liked +to have your intimate circle and fellow judges here betray your cause and +go over to him. Examine therefore not our bodies nor our names but the +events themselves. For in every point in which you condemn us you will be +passing sentence upon yourself and your associates. However secure you may +be from conviction in any suit or by any court finding, still, in the +report of men, of which an eternal memory shall survive, you will be +represented as making against yourself the same charges as have led to +punishment [Footnote: Supplying, with Reiske, [Greek: soi [Lacuna] +kolasthaenai].] in the case of others."--Severus admired this man for his +frankness and allowed him to keep half his property. + +[Many who had never even seen Niger and had not cooperated with him were +victims of abuse on the charge that they had been members of his party.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 195 (a.u. 948)] [Sidenote:--10--] The Byzantines performed +many remarkable deeds both during the life and after the death of Niger. +This city is favorably located with reference both to the continents and +to the sea that lies between them, and is strongly intrenched by the +nature of its position as well as by that of the Bosporus. The town sits +on high ground extending into the sea. The latter, rushing down from the +Pontus with the speed of a mountain torrent assails the headland and in +part is diverted to the right, forming there the bay and harbors. But the +greater part of the water passes on with great energy past the city itself +toward the Propontis. Moreover, the place had walls that were very strong. +Their face was constructed of thick squared stones, fastened together by +bronze plates, and the inner side of it had been strengthened with mounds +and buildings so that the whole seemed to be one thick wall and the top of +it formed a circuit betraying no flaws and easy to guard. Many large +towers occupied an exposed position outside it, with windows set close +together on every side so that those assaulting the fortification in a +circle would be cut off between them. Being built at a short distance from +the wall and not in a regular line, but one here and another there over a +rather crooked route, they were sure to command both sides of any +attacking party. Of the entire circuit the part on the land side reached a +great height so as to repel any who came that way: the portion next to the +sea was lower. There, the rocks on which it had been reared and the +dangerous character of the Bosporus were effective allies. The harbors +within the wall had both been closed with chains and their breakwaters +carried towers projecting far out on each side, making approach impossible +for the enemy. And, in fine, the Bosporus was of the greatest aid to the +citizens. It was quite inevitable that once any person became entangled in +its current he should willy-nilly be cast up on the land. This was a +feature quite satisfactory to friends, but impossible for foes to deal +with. + +[Sidenote:--11--] It was thus that Byzantium had been fortified. The +engines, besides, the whole length of the wall, were of the most varied +description. In one place they threw rocks and wooden beams upon parties +approaching and in another they discharged stones and missiles and spears +against such as stood at a distance. Hence over a considerable extent of +territory no one could draw near them without danger. Still others had +hooks, which they would let down suddenly and shortly after draw up boats +and machines. Priscus, a fellow-citizen of mine, had designed most of +them, and this fact both caused him to incur the death penalty and saved +his life. For Severus, on learning his proficiency, prevented his being +executed. Subsequently he employed him on various missions, among others +at the siege of Hatra, and his contrivances were the only ones not burned +by the barbarians. He also furnished the Byzantines with five hundred +boats, mostly of one bank, but some of two banks, and equipped with beaks. +A few of them were provided with rudders at both ends, stern and prow, and +had a double quota of pilots and sailors in order that they might both +attack and retire without turning around and damage their opponents while +sailing back as well as while sailing forward. + +[Sidenote:--12--] Many, therefore, were the exploits and sufferings of the +Byzantines, since for the entire space of three years they were besieged +by the armaments of practically the whole world. A few of their +experiences will be mentioned that seem almost marvelous. They captured, +by making an opportune attack, some boats that sailed by and captured also +some of the triremes that were in their opponents' roadstead. This they +did by having divers cut their anchors under water, after which they drove +nails into the ship's bottom and with cords attached thereto and running +from friendly territory they would draw the vessel towards them. Hence one +might see the ships approaching shore by themselves, with no oarsman nor +wind to urge them forward. There were cases in which merchants purposely +allowed themselves to be captured by the Byzantines, though pretending +unwillingness, and after selling their wares for a huge price made their +escape by sea. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 196 (a.u. 949)] When all the supplies in the town had been +exhausted and the people had been set fairly in a strait with regard to +both their situation and the expectations that might be founded upon it, +at first, although beset by great difficulties (because they were cut off +from all outside resources), they nevertheless continued to resist; and to +make ships they used lumber taken from the houses and braided ropes of the +hair of their women. Whenever any troops assaulted the wall, they would +hurl upon them stones from the theatres, bronze horses, and whole statues +of bronze. When even their normal food supply began to fail them, they +proceeded to soak and eat hides. Then these, too, were used up, and the +majority, having waited for rough water and a squall so that no one might +man a ship to oppose them, sailed out with the determination either to +perish or to secure provender. They assailed the countryside without +warning and plundered every quarter indiscriminately. Those left behind +committed a monstrous deed; for when they grew very faint, they turned +against and devoured one another. + +[Sidenote:--13--] This was the condition of the men in the city. The rest, +when they had laden their boats with more than the latter could bear, set +sail after waiting this time also for a great storm. They did not succeed, +however, in making any use of it. The Romans, noticing [Sidenote: A.D. 196 +a.u. 949] that their vessels were overheavy and depressed almost to the +water's edge, put out against them. They assailed the company, which was +scattered about as wind and flood chose to dispose them, and really +engaged in nothing like a naval contest but crushed the enemy's boats +mercilessly, striking many with their boat-hooks, ripping up many with +their beaks, and actually capsizing some by their mere onset. The victims +were unable to do anything, however much they might have wished it: and +when they attempted to flee in any direction either they would be sunk by +force of the wind, which encountered them with the utmost violence, or +else they would be overtaken by the enemy and destroyed. The inhabitants +of Byzantium, as they watched this, for a time called unceasingly upon the +gods and kept uttering now one shout and now another at the various +events, according as each one was affected by the spectacle or the +disaster enacted before his eyes. But when they saw their friends +perishing all together, the united throng sent up a chorus of groans and +wailings, and thereafter they mourned for the rest of the day and the +whole night. The entire number of wrecks proved so great that some drifted +upon the islands and the Asiatic coast, and the defeat became known by +these relics before it was reported. The next day the Byzantines had the +horror increased even above what it had been. For, when the surf had +subsided, the whole sea in the vicinity of Byzantium was covered with +corpses and wrecks with blood, and many of the remains were cast up on +shore, with the result that the catastrophe, now seen in its details, +appeared even worse than when in process of consummation. + +[Sidenote:--14--] The Byzantines straightway, though against their will, +surrendered their city. The Romans executed all the soldiers and +magistrates except the pugilist who had greatly aided the Byzantines and +injured the Romans. He perished also, for in order to make the soldiers +angry enough to destroy him he immediately hit one with his fist and with +a leap gave another a violent kick. + +Severus was so pleased at the capture of Byzantium that to his soldiers in +Mesopotamia (where he was at this time) he said unreservedly: "We have +taken Byzantium, too!" He deprived the city of its independence and of its +civil rank, and made it tributary, confiscating the property of the +citizens. He granted the town and its territory to the Perinthians, and +the latter, treating it after the manner of a village, committed +innumerable outrages. So far he seemed in a way to be justified in what he +did. His demolition of the walls of the city grieved the inhabitants no +more than did the loss of that reputation which the appearance of the +walls had caused them to enjoy; and incidentally he had abolished a strong +Roman outpost and base of operations against the barbarians from the +Pontus and Asia. I was one that viewed the walls after they had fallen, +and a person would have judged that they had been taken by some other +people than the Romans. I had also seen them standing and had heard them +"speak." There were seven towers extending from the Thracian gates to the +sea. If a man approached any of these but the first, it was silent; but if +he shouted a few words at that one or threw a stone at it, it not only +echoed and spoke itself but caused the second to do the same thing. In +this way the sound passed through them all alike, and they did not +interrupt one another, but all in their proper turn, one receiving the +impulse from the one before it, took up the echo and the voice and sent it +on. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +76 + +Severus's war against the Osrhoeni, Adiabeni, and Arabians (chapters 1-3). + +Severus's war against Albinus Caesar (chapters 4, 5). + +How Albinus was vanquished by Severus and perished (chapters 6, 7). + +The arrogance of Severus after his victory (chapters 7, 8). + +Severus's Parthian expedition (chapter 9). + +How he besieged the Atreni, but found his endeavors fruitless (chapters +10-12). + +How he started for Egypt: and about the source of the Nile (chapter 13). + +About the power and tyrannous conduct of Plautianus (chapters 14-16). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Scapula Tertullus, Tineius Clemens, (A.D. 195 = a.u. 948 = Third of +Severus, from the Calends of June). + +C. Domitius Dexter (II), L. Valerius Messala Priscus. (A.D. 196 = a.u. 949 += Fourth of Severus). + +Ap. Claudius Lateranus, Rufinus. (A.D. 197 = a.u. 950 = Fifth of Severus). + +Ti. Saturninus, C. Gallus. (A.D. 198 = a.u. 951 = Sixth of Severus). + +P. Cornelius Anullinus, M. Aufidius Fronto. (A.D. 199 = a.u. 952 = Seventh +of Severus). + +Ti. Claudius Severus, C. Aufidius Victorinus. (A.D. 200 = a.u. 953 = +Eighth of Severus). + +L. Annius Fabianus, M. Nonius Mucianus. (A.D. 201 = a.u. 954 = Ninth of +Severus). + +L. Septimius Severus Aug. (III), M. Aurel. Antoninus Aug. (A.D. 202 = a.u. +955 = Tenth of Severus). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 195 (a.u. 948)] [Sidenote:--1--] Of such a nature were the +walls of Byzantium. During the progress of this siege Severus out of a +desire for fame had made a campaign against the barbarians,--the Osrhoeni, +the Adiabeni, and the Arabians. [The Osrhoeni and Adiabeni having revolted +were besieging Nisibis: defeated by Severus they sent an embassy to him +after the death of Niger, not to beg his clemency as wrongdoers but to +demand reciprocal favors, pretending to have brought about the outcome for +his benefit. It was for his sake, they said, that they had destroyed the +soldiers who belonged to Niger's party. Indeed, they sent a few gifts to +him and promised to restore the captives and whatever spoils were left. +However, they were not willing either to abandon the walled towns they had +captured or to accept the imposition of tributes, but they desired those +in existence to be lifted from the country. It was this that led to the +war just mentioned.] + +[Sidenote:--2--] When he had crossed the Euphrates and invaded hostile +territory, where the country was destitute of water and at this summer +season had become especially parched, he came dangerously near losing +great numbers of soldiers. Wearied as they were by their tramping and the +hot sun, clouds of dust that they encountered harrassed them greatly, so +that they could no longer walk nor yet speak, but only utter the word +"Water, water!" When [moisture] appeared, on account of [its] strangeness +it attracted no more attention than if it had not been found, till Severus +called for a cup, and having filled it with water drank it down in full +view of all. Upon this some others likewise drank and were invigorated. +Soon after Severus entered Nisibis and himself waited there, but +despatched Lateranus and Candidus and Laetus severally among the +aforementioned barbarians. These upon attaining their goals proceeded to +lay waste the land of the barbarians and to capture their cities. While +Severus was greatly priding himself upon this achievement and feeling that +he surpassed all mankind in both understanding and bravery, a most +unexpected event took place. One Claudius, a robber, who overran Judaea +and Syria and was sought for in consequence with great hue and cry, came +to him one day with horsemen, like some military tribune, and saluted and +kissed him. The visitor was not discovered at the time nor was he later +arrested. [And the Arabians, because none of their neighbors was willing +to aid them, sent an embassy a second time to Severus making quite +reasonable propositions. Still, they did not obtain what they wanted, +inasmuch as they had not come in person.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 196 (a.u. 949)] [Sidenote:--3--] The Scythians, too, were +in fighting humor, when at this juncture during a deliberation of theirs +thunder and lightning-flashes with rain suddenly broke over them, and +thunderbolts began to fall, killing their three foremost men. This caused +them to hesitate. + +Severus again made three divisions of his army, and giving one to Laetus, +one to Anullinus, and one to Probus, sent them out against ARCHE [Lacuna]; +[Footnote: The MS. is corrupt. Adiabene, Atrene and Arbelitis have all +been suggested as the district to which Dio actually referred here.] and +they, invading it in three divisions, subdued it not without trouble. +Severus bestowed some dignity upon Nisibis and entrusted the city to the +care of a knight. He declared he had won a mighty territory and had +rendered it a bulwark of Syria. It is shown, on the contrary, by the facts +themselves that the place is responsible for our constant wars as well as +for great expenditures. It yields very little and uses up vast sums. And +having extended our borders to include men who are neighbors of the Medes +and Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, +fighting over those peoples. + +[Sidenote:--4--] Before Severus had had time to recover breath from his +conflicts with the barbarians he found a civil war on his hands with +Albinus, his Caesar. Severus after getting Niger out of the way was still +not giving him the rank of Caesar and had ordered other details in that +quarter as he pleased; and Albinus aspired to the preeminence of emperor. +[Footnote: Omitting [Greek: autou] (as Dindorf).] While the whole world +was moved by this state of affairs we senators kept quiet, at least so +many of us as inclining openly neither to one man nor the other yet shared +their dangers and hopes. But the populace could not restrain itself and +showed its grief in the most violent fashion. It was at the last +horse-race before the Saturnalia, and a countless throng of people flocked +to it. I too was present at the spectacle because the consul was a friend +of mine and I heard distinctly everything that was said,--a fact which +renders me able to write a little about it. + +It came about in this way. There had gathered (as I said) more people than +could be computed and they had watched the chariots contesting in six +divisions (which had been the way also in Oleander's time), applauding no +one in any manner, as was the custom. When these races had ceased and the +charioteers were about to begin another event, then they suddenly enjoined +silence upon one another and all clapped their hands simultaneously, +shouting, besides, and entreating good fortune for the public welfare. +They first said this, and afterward, applying the terms "Queen" and +"Immortal" to Rome, they roared: "How long are we to suffer such +experiences?" and "Until when must we be at war?" And after making a few +other remarks of this kind they finally cried out: "That's all there is to +it!" and turned their attention to the equestrian contest. In all of this +they were surely inspired by some divine afflation. For not otherwise +could so many myriads of men have started to utter the same shouts at the +same time like some carefully trained chorus or have spoken the words +without mistake just as if they had practiced them. + +This manifestation caused us still greater disturbance as did also the +fact that so great a fire was of a sudden seen by night in the air toward +the north that some thought that the whole city and others that the sky +itself was burning. But the most remarkable fact I have to chronicle is +that in clear weather a fine silvery rain descended upon the forum of +Augustus, I did not see it in the air, but noticed it after it had fallen, +and with it I silverplated some small bronze coins. These retained the +same appearance for three days: on the fourth all the substance rubbed +upon them had disappeared. + +[Sidenote:--5--] A certain Numerianus, who taught children their letters, +started from Rome for Galatia with I know not what object, and by +pretending to be a Roman senator sent by Severus to gather an army he +collected at first just a small force by means of which he destroyed a few +of Albinus's cavalry, whereupon he unblushingly made some further promises +in behalf of Severus. Severus heard of this and thinking that he was +really one of the senators sent him a message of praise and bade him +acquire still greater power. The man did acquire greater power and gave +many remarkable exhibitions of ability besides obtaining seventeen hundred +and fifty myriads of denarii, which he forwarded to Severus. After the +latter's victory Numerianus came to him, making no concealment, and did +not ask to become in very truth a senator. Indeed, though he might have +been exalted by great honors and wealth, he did not choose to accept them, +but passed the remainder of his life in some country place, receiving from +the emperor some small allowance for his daily subsistence. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 197 (a.u. 950)] [Sidenote:--6--] The struggle between +Severus and Albinus near Lugdunum is now to be described. At the outset +there were a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers on each side. Both +leaders took part in the war, since it was a race for life and death, +though Severus had previously not been present at any important battle. +Albinus excelled in rank and in education, but his adversary was superior +in warfare and was a skillful commander. It happened that in a former +battle Albinus had conquered Lupus, one of the generals of Severus, and +had destroyed many of the soldiers attending him. The present conflict +took many shapes and turns. The left wing of Albinus was beaten and sought +refuge behind the rampart, whereupon Severus 's soldiers in their pursuit +burst into the enclosure with them, slaughtered their opponents and +plundered their tents. Meantime the soldiers of Albinus arrayed on the +right wing, who had trenches hidden in front of them and pits in the earth +covered over only on the surface, approached as far as these snares and +hurled javelins from a distance. They did not go very far but turned back +as if frightened, with the purpose of drawing their foes into pursuit. +This actually took place. Severus's men, nettled by their brief charge and +despising them for their retreat after so short an advance, rushed upon +them without a thought that the whole intervening space could not be +easily traversed. When they reached the trenches they were involved in a +fearful catastrophe. The men in the front ranks as soon as the surface +covering broke through fell into the excavations and those immediately +behind stumbled over them, slipped, and likewise fell. The rest crowded +back in terror, their retreat being so sudden that they themselves lost +their footing, upset those in the rear, and pushed them into a deep +ravine. Of course there was a terrible slaughter of these soldiers as well +as of those who had fallen into the trenches, horses and men perishing in +one wild mass. In the midst of this tumult the warriors between the ravine +and the trenches were annihilated by showers of stones and arrows. + +Severus seeing this came to their assistance with the Pretorians, but this +step proved of so little benefit that he came near causing the ruin of the +Pretorians and himself ran some risk through the loss of a horse. When he +saw all his men in flight, he tore off his riding cloak and drawing his +sword rushed among the fugitives, hoping either that they would be ashamed +and turn back or that he might himself perish with them. Some did stop +when they saw him in such an attitude, and turned back. Brought in this +way face to face with the men close behind them they cut down not a few of +them, thinking them to be followers of Albinus, and routed all their +pursuers. At this moment the cavalry under Laetus came up from the side +and decided the rest of the issue for them. Laetus, so long as the +struggle was close, remained inactive, hoping that both parties would be +destroyed and that whatever soldiers were left on both sides would give +him supreme authority. When, however, he saw Severus's party getting the +upper hand, he contributed to the result. So it was that Severus +conquered. + +[Sidenote:--7--] Roman power had suffered a severe blow, since the numbers +that fell on each side were beyond reckoning. Many even of the victors +deplored the disaster, for the entire plain was seen to be covered with +the bodies of men and horses. Some of them lay there exhausted by many +wounds, others thoroughly mangled, and still others unwounded but buried +under heaps. Weapons had been tossed about and blood flowed in streams, +even swelling the rivers. Albinus took refuge in a house located near the +Rhone, but when he saw all its environs guarded, he slew himself. I am not +telling what Severus wrote about it, but what actually took place. The +emperor after inspecting his body and feasting his eyes upon it to the +full while he let his tongue indulge in appropriate utterances, ordered +it,--all but the head,--to be cast out, and that he sent to Rome to be +exposed on a cross. As he showed clearly by this action that he was very +far from being an excellent ruler, he alarmed even more than before the +populace and us by the commands which he issued. Now that he had +vanquished all forces under arms he poured out upon the unarmed all the +wrath he had nourished against them during the previous period. He +terrified us most of all by declaring himself the son of Marcus and +brother of Commodus; and to Commodus, whom but recently he was wont to +abuse, he gave heroic honors. [Sidenote:--8--] While reading before the +senate a speech in which he praised the severity and cruelty of Sulla and +Marius and Augustus as rather the safer course, and deprecated the +clemency of Pompey and Caesar because it had proved their ruin, he +introduced a defence of Commodus, and inveighed against the senate for +dishonoring him unjustly though the majority of their own body lived even +worse lives. "For if", said he, "this is abominable, that he with his own +hands should have killed beasts, yet at Ostia yesterday or the day before +one of your number, an old man that had been consul, indulged publicly in +play with a prostitute who imitated a leopard. 'He fought as a gladiator,' +do you say? By Jupiter, does none of you fight as gladiator? If not, how +is it and for what purpose that some persons have bought his shields and +the famous golden helmets?" At the conclusion of this reading he released +thirty-five prisoners charged with having taken Albinus's side and behaved +toward them as if they had incurred no charge at all. They were among the +foremost members of the senate. He condemned to death twenty-nine men, as +one of whom was reckoned Sulpicianus, the father-in-law of Pertinax. + +All pretended to sympathize with Severus but were confuted as often as a +sudden piece of news arrived, not being able to conceal the sentiments +hidden in their hearts. When off their guard they started at reports which +happened to assail their ears without warning. In such ways, as well as +through facial expression and habits of behavior, the feelings of every +one of them became manifest. Some also by an excess of affectation only +betrayed their attitude the more. + +[Sidenote: LXXIV, 9, 5] Severus endeavored in the case of those who were +receiving vengeance at his hands [Lacuna] [Footnote: Some words appear to +have fallen out at this point (so Dindorf).] to employ Erucius Clarus +[Footnote: _C. Iulius Erucius Clarus Vibianus_.] as informer +against them, that he might both put the man in an unpleasant position and +be thought to have more fully justified conviction in view of his +witness's family and reputation. He promised Clarus to grant him safety +and immunity. But when the latter chose rather to die than to make any +such revelations, he turned to Julianus and persuaded him to play the +part. For this willingness he released him in so far as not to kill nor +disenfranchise him; but he carefully verified all his statements by +tortures and regarded as of no value his existing reputation. + +[Sidenote: LXXV, 5] [In Britain at this period, because the Caledonians +did not abide by their promises but made preparations to aid the +Maeatians, and because Severus at the time was attending to the war +abroad, Lupus was compelled to purchase peace for the Maeatians at a high +figure, and recovered some few captives.] + +[Sidenote: A.D. 198 (a.u. 951)] [Sidenote:--9--] The next thing Severus +did was to make a campaign against the Parthians. While he was busied with +civil wars, they had been free from molestation and had thus been able by +an expedition in full force to capture Mesopotamia. They also came very +near reducing Nisbis, and would have done so, had not Laetus, who was +besieged there, preserved the place. Though previously noted for other +political and private and public excellences, in peace as well as in wars, +he derived even greater glory from this exploit. Severus on reaching the +aforesaid Nisibis encountered an enormous boar. With its charge it killed +a horseman who, trusting to his own strength, attempted to run it down, +and it was with difficulty stopped and killed by many soldiers,--thirty +being the number required to stop it; the beast was then conveyed to +Severus. + +The Parthians did not wait for him but retired homeward. (Their leader was +Vologaesus, whose brother was accompanying Severus). Hence Severus +equipped boats on the Euphrates and reached him partly by marching, partly +by sailing. The newly constructed vessels were exceedingly manageable and +well appointed, for the forest along the Euphrates and those regions in +general afforded the emperor an abundant supply of timber. Thus he soon +had seized Seleucia and Babylon, both of which had been abandoned. +Subsequently he captured Ctesiphon and permitted his soldiers to plunder +the whole town, causing a great slaughter of men and taking nearly ten +myriads alive. However, he did not pursue Vologaesus nor yet occupy +Ctesiphon, but as if the sole purpose of his campaign had been to plunder +it, he thereupon departed. This action was due partly to lack of +acquaintance with the country and partly to dearth of provisions. His +return was made by a different route, because the wood and fodder found on +the previous route had been exhausted. Some of his soldiers made their +retreat by land along the Tigris, following the stream toward its source, +and some on boats. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 199(?)] [Sidenote:--10--] Next, Severus crossed +Mesopotamia and made an attempt on Hatra, which was not far off, but +accomplished nothing. In fact, even the engines were burned, many soldiers +perished, and vast numbers were wounded. Therefore Severus retired from +the place and shifted his quarters. While he was at war, he also put to +death two distinguished men. The first was Julius Crispus, a tribune of +the Pretorians. The cause of his execution was that indignant at the +damage done by the war he had casually uttered a verse of the poet Maro, +in which one of the soldiers fighting on the side of Turnus against Aeneas +bewails his lot and says: "To enable Turnus to marry Lavinia we are +meanwhile perishing, without heed being paid to us." [Footnote: Two and a +half lines beginning with verse 371 in Book Eleven of Virgil's Aeneid.] +Severus made Valerius, the soldier who had accused him, tribune in his +place. The other whom he killed was Laetus, and the reason was that Laetus +was proud and was beloved by the soldiers. They often said they would not +march, unless Laetus would lead them. The responsibility for this murder, +for which he had no clear reason save jealousy, he fastened upon the +soldiers, making it appear that they had ventured upon the act contrary to +his will. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 200(?)] [Sidenote:--11--] After laying in a large store of +food and preparing many engines he in person again led an attack upon +Hatra. He deemed it a disgrace, now that other points had been subdued, +that this one alone, occupying a central position, should continue to +resist. And he lost a large amount of money and all his engines except +those of Priscus, as I stated earlier, [Footnote: Compare Book +Seventy-four, chapter 11.] besides many soldiers. Numbers were annihilated +in foraging expeditions, as the barbarian cavalry (I mean that of the +Arabians) kept everywhere assailing them with precision and violence. The +archery of the Atreni, too, was effective over a very long range. Some +missiles they hurled from engines, striking many of Severus's men-at-arms, +for they discharged two missiles in one and the same shot and there were +also many hands and many arrows to inflict injury. They did their +assailants the utmost damage, however, when the latter approached the +wall, and in an even greater degree after they had broken down a little of +it. Then they threw at them among other things the bituminous naphtha of +which I wrote above [Footnote: Compare the beginning of Book Thirty-six +(supplied from Xiphilinus).] and set fire to the engines and all the +soldiers that were struck with it. Severus observed proceedings from a +lofty tribunal. [Sidenote:--12--] A portion of the outer circuit had +fallen in one place and all the soldiers were eager to force their way +inside the remainder, when Severus checked them from doing so by giving +orders that the signal for retreat be sounded clearly on all sides. The +fame of the place was great, since it contained enormous offerings to the +Sun God and vast stores of valuables; and he expected that the Arabians +would voluntarily come to terms in order to avoid being forcibly captured +and enslaved. When, after letting one day elapse, no one made any formal +proposition to him, he commanded the soldiers again to assault the wall, +though it had been built up in the night. The Europeans who had the power +to accomplish something were so angry that not one of them would any +longer obey him, and some others, Syrians, compelled to go to the assault +in their stead, were miserably destroyed. Thus Heaven, that rescued the +city, caused Severus to recall the soldiers that could have entered it, +and in turn when he later wished to take it caused the soldiers to prevent +him from doing so. The situation placed Severus in such a dilemma that +when some one of his followers promised him that, if he would give him +only five hundred and fifty of the Europeans, he would get possession of +the city without any risk to the rest, the emperor said within hearing of +all: "And where can I get so many soldiers?" (referring to the +disobedience of the soldiers). + +[Sidenote: A.D. 200 (a.u. 953)] [Sidenote:--13--] Having prosecuted the +siege for twenty days he next came to Palestine and sacrificed to the +spirit of Pompey: and into [upper] Egypt [he sailed along the Nile and +viewed the whole country, with some small exceptions. For instance, he was +unable to pass the frontier of Ethiopia on account of pestilence.] And he +made a search of everything, including what was very carefully hidden, for +he was the sort of man to leave nothing, human or divine, uninvestigated. +Following this tendency he drew from practically all their hiding places +all the books that he could find containing anything secret, and he closed +the monument of Alexander, to the end that no one should either behold his +body any more or read what was written in these books. + +This was what he did. For myself, there is no need that I should write in +general about Egypt, but what I know about the Nile through verifying +statements from many sources I am bound to mention. It clearly rises in +Mount Atlas. This lies in Macennitis, close to the Western ocean itself, +and towers far above all mountains, wherefore the poets have called it +"Pillar of the Sky." No one ever ascended its summits nor saw its topmost +peaks. Hence it is always covered with snow, which in summer time sends +down great quantities of water. The whole country about its base is in +general marshy, but at this season becomes even more so, with the result +that it swells the size of the Nile at harvest time. This is the river's +source, as is evidenced by the crocodiles and other beasts that are born +alike on both sides of it. Let no one be surprised that we have made +pronouncements unknown to the ancient Greeks. The Macennitae live near +lower Mauretania and many of the people who go on campaigns there also +visit Atlas. It is thus that the matter stands. + +[Sidenote:--14--] Plautianus, who enjoyed the special favor of Severus and +had the authority of prefect, besides possessing the fullest and greatest +influence on earth, had put to death many men of renown and his own +peers [Lacuna] [After killing Aemilius Saturninus he took away all the +most important prerogatives belonging to the minor officers of the +Pretorians, his subordinates, in order that none of them might be so +elated by his position of eminence as to lie in wait for the captaincy of +the body-guards. Already it was his wish to be not simply the only but a +perpetual prefect.] He wanted everything, asked everything from everybody, +and got everything. He left no province and no city unplundered, but +sacked and gathered everything from all sides. All sent a great deal more +to him than they did to Severus. Finally he sent centurions and stole +tiger-striped horses sacred [Footnote: Supplying [Greek: therous] (Reiske's +conjecture).] to the Sun God from the island in the Red Sea. This mere +statement, I think, must instantly make plain all his officiousness and +greediness. Yet, on second thought, I will add one thing more. At home he +castrated one hundred nobly born Roman citizens, though none of us knew of +it until after he was dead. From this fact one may comprehend the extent +alike of his lawlessness and of his authority. He castrated not merely +boys or youths, but grown men, some of whom had wives; his object was that +Plautilla his daughter (whom Antoninus afterward married) should be waited +upon entirely by eunuchs [and also have them to give her instruction in +music and other branches of art. So we beheld the same persons eunuchs and +men, fathers and impotent, gelded and bearded. In view of this one might +not improperly declare that Plautianus had power beyond all men, over even +the emperors themselves. For one thing, his portrait statues were not only +far more numerous but also larger than theirs, and this not simply in +outside cities but in Rome itself, and they were at this time reared not +merely by individuals but by no less a body than the senate itself. All +the soldiers and the senators took oaths by his Fortune and all publicly +offered prayer for his preservation. + +[Sidenote:--15--] The person principally responsible for this state of +affairs was Severus himself. He yielded to Plautianus in all matters to +such a degree that the latter occupied the position of emperor and he +himself that of prefect. In short, the man knew absolutely everything that +Severus said and did, but not a person was acquainted with any of +Plautianus's secrets. The emperor made advances to his daughter on behalf +of his own son, passing by many other maidens of high rank. He appointed +him consul and virtually showed an anxiety to have him for successor in +the imperial office. Indeed, once he did say in a letter: "I love the man +so much that I pray to die before he does."] + +[Lacuna] so that [Lacuna] some one actually dared to write to him as to a +fourth Caesar. + +Though many decrees in his honor were passed by the senate he accepted +only a few of them, saying to the senators: "It is through your hearts +that you show your love for me, not through your decrees." + +At temporary stopping-places he endured seeing him located in superior +quarters and enjoying better and more abundant food than he. Hence in +Nicaea (my native country) when he once wanted a hammer-fish, large +specimens of which are found in the lake, he sent to Plautianus to get it. +So if he thought at all of doing aught to diminish this minister's +leadership, yet the opposite party, which contained far greater and more +brilliant members, saw to it that any such plan was frustrated. On one +occasion Severus went to visit him, when he had fallen sick at Tyana, and +the soldiers attached to Plautianus would not allow the visitor's escort +to enter with him. Moreover, the person who arranged cases to be pled +before Severus was once ordered by the latter in a moment of leisure to +bring forward some case or other, whereupon the fellow refused, saying: "I +can not do this, unless Plautianus bid me." So greatly did Plautianus have +the mastery in every way over the emperor that he [frequently treated] +Julia Augusta [in an outrageous way,--for he detested her cordially,--and] +was always abusing [her violently] to Severus, and conducted +investigations against her as well as tortures of noble women. For this +reason she began to study philosophy and passed her days in the company of +learned men.--As for Plautianus, he proved himself the most licentious of +men, for he would go to banquets and vomit meantime, inasmuch as the mass +of foods and wine that he swallowed made it impossible for him to digest +anything. And whereas he made use of lads and girls in perfectly notorious +fashion, he would not permit his own wife to see or be seen by any person +whomsoever, not even by Severus or Julia [to say nothing of others]. + +[Sidenote:--16--] At this period there took place also a gymnastic +[Footnote: Reading [Greek: gymnikon] for [Greek: gynaikon], which is +possibly corrupt.] contest, at which so great a multitude assembled under +compulsion that we wondered how the race-course could hold them all. And +in this contest Alamanni [Footnote: Reading [Greek: Alamannai] for [Greek: +alomenai], which is undoubtedly corrupt.] women fought most ferociously, +with the result that jokes were made about other ladies, who were very +distinguished. Therefore, from this time on every woman, no matter what +her origin, was prohibited from fighting in the arena. + +On one occasion a good many images of Plautianus were made (what happened +is worth relating) and Severus, being displeased at their number, melted +down some of them. As a consequence a rumor penetrated the cities to the +effect that the prefect had been overthrown and had perished. So some of +them demolished his images,--an act for which they were afterward +punished. Among these was the governor of Sardinia, Racius Constans, a +very famous man, whom I have mentioned, however, for a particular reason. +The orator who accused Constans had made this statement in addition to +others: "Sooner may the sky collapse than Plautianus suffer any harm at +the hands of Severus, and with greater cause might any one believe even +that report, were any story of the sort circulated." Now, though the +orator made this declaration, and though moreover Severus himself volubly +affirmed it to us, who were helping him try the case, and stated "it is +impossible for Plautianus to come to any harm at my hands," still, this +very Plautianus did not live the year out, but was slain and all his +images destroyed.--Previous to this a vast sea-monster had come ashore in +the harbor named for Augustus, and had been captured. A representation of +him, taken into the hunting-theatre, admitted fifty bears in its interior. +Again, for many days a comet star had been seen in Rome and was said to +portend nothing favorable. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY +77 + +Festivities on account of Severus's decennial, the marriage of Antoninus +and victories (chapter 1). + +Death of Plautianus (chapters 2-4). + +The friends and children of Plautianus are persecuted by Severus (chapters +5-9). + +About Bulla Felix, a noble brigand (chapter 10). + +Severus's campaign in Britain: an account of the Britons (chapters 11, +12). + +After traversing the whole of Britain Severus makes peace (chapter 13). + +How Antoninus desired to slay his father (chapter 14). + +Death of Severus Augustus and a summary view of his life (chapters 15-17). + + +DURATION OF TIME. + +L. Septimius Severus Aug. (III), M. Aur. Antoninus Aug. (A.D. 202 = a.u. +955 = Tenth of Severus, from the Calends of June). + +P. Septimius Geta, Fulvius Plautianus (II). (A.D. 203 = a.u. 956 = +Eleventh of Severus). + +L. Fabius Septimius Cilo (II), L. Flavius Libo. (A.D. 204 = a.u. 957 = +Twelfth of Severus). + +M. Aur. Antoninus Aug. (II), P. Septimius Geta Caesar. (A.D. 205 = a.u. +958 = Thirteenth of Severus). + +Nummius Albinus, Fulv. Aemilianus. (A.D. 206 = a.u. 959 = Fourteenth of +Severus). + +Aper, Maximus. (A.D. 207 = a.u. 960 = Fifteenth of Severus). + +M. Aur. Antoninus Aug. (III), P. Septim. Geta Caesar (II). (A.D. 208 = +a.u. 961 = Sixteenth of Severus). + +Civica Pompeianus, Lollianus Avitus. (A.D. 209 = a.u. 962 = Seventeenth of +Severus). + +M. Acilius Faustinus, Triarius Rufinus. (A.D. 210 = a.u. 963 = Eighteenth +of Severus). + +Q. Epid. Ruf. Lollianus Gentianus, Pomponius Bassus. (A.D. 211 = a.u. 964 += Nineteenth of Severus, to Feb. 4th). + + +[Sidenote: A.D. 202 (a.u. 955)] [Sidenote:--1--] Severus to celebrate the +first decade of his reign presented to the entire populace accustomed to +receive dole and to the soldiers of the pretorian guard gold pieces equal +in number to the years of his sovereignty. He took the greatest delight in +this achievement, and, as a matter of fact, no one had ever before given +so much to whole masses of people. Upon this gift five hundred myriads of +denarii were expended. Another event was the marriage between Antoninus, +son of Severus, and Plautilla, the daughter of Plautianus. The latter gave +as much for his daughter's dowry as would have sufficed for fifty women of +royal rank. We saw the gifts as they were being carried through the Forum +into the palace. We were banqueted, likewise, in the meantime, partly in +royal and partly in barbarian fashion on whatever is regularly eaten +cooked or raw, and we received other animal food also alive. At this time, +too, there occurred all sorts of spectacles in honor of Severus's return, +the completion of his first decade, and his victories. At these spectacles +sixty wild boars of Plautianus upon a given signal began a combat with one +another, and there were slain (besides many other beasts) an elephant and +a crocotta. [Footnote: Hesychius says of this beast merely that it is a +quadruped of Aethiopia. Strabo calls it a cross between wolf and dog. +Pliny (Natural History, VIII, 21 (30)) gives the following description: + + "Crocottas are apparently the offspring of dog and wolf; they crush all + their food with their teeth and forthwith gulp it down to be assimilated + by the belly." + +Again, of the Leucrocotta: + + "A most destructive beast about the size of an ass, with legs of a deer, + the neck, tail and breast of a lion, a badger's head, cloven hoof, mouth + slit to the ears, and, in place of teeth, a solid line of bone." + +Also, in VIII, 30 (45), he says: + + "The lioness of Ethiopia by copulation with a hyaena brings forth the + crocotta." + +Capitolinus (Life of Antoninus Pius, 10, 9) remarks that the first +Antoninus had exhibited the animal in Rome. Further, see Aelian, VII, 22.] +The last named animal is of Indian origin, and was then for the first +time, so far as I am aware, introduced into Rome. It has the skin of lion +and tiger mingled and the appearance of those animals, as also of the wolf +and fox, curiously blended. The entire cage in the theatre had been so +constructed as to resemble a boat in form, so that it would both receive +and discharge four hundred beasts at once, [Footnote: These cages were +often made in various odd shapes and opened automatically. Compare the +closing sentences of the preceding book.] and then, as it suddenly fell +apart, there came rushing up bears, lionesses, panthers, lions, ostriches, +wild asses, bisons (this is a kind of cattle of foreign species and +appearance),--the result being that altogether seven hundred wild and tame +beasts at once were seen running about and were slaughtered. For, to +correspond with the duration of the festival, seven days, the number of +animals was also seven times one hundred. + +[Sidenote:--2--] On Mount Vesuvius a great gush of fire burst out and +there were bellowings mighty enough to be heard in Capua, where I live +whenever I am in Italy. This place I have selected for various reasons, +chief of which is its quiet, that enables me to get leisure from city +affairs and to write on this compilation. As a result of the Vesuvian +phenomena it was believed that there would be a change in the political +status of Plautianus. In very truth Plautianus had grown great and more +than great, so that even the populace at the hippodrome exclaimed: "Why do +you tremble? Why are you pale? You possess more than the three." They did +not say this to his face, of course, but differently. And by "three" they +indicated Severus and his sons, Antoninus and Geta. Plautianus's pallor +and his trembling were in fact due to the life that he lived, the hopes +that he hoped, and the fears that he feared. Still, for a time most of +this eluded Severus's individual notice, or else he knew it but pretended +the opposite. When, however, his brother Geta on his deathbed revealed to +him the whole attitude of Plautianus,--for Geta hated the prefect and now +no longer feared him,--the emperor set up a bronze statue of his brother +in the Forum and no longer held his minister in equal honor; indeed, the +latter was stripped of most of his power. Hence [Sidenote: A.D. 203 (a.u. +956)] Plautianus became violently enraged, and whereas he had formerly +hated Antoninus for slighting his daughter, he was now especially +indignant, feeling that his son-in-law was responsible for his present +disgrace, and began to behave more harshly toward him. [Sidenote:--3--] +For these reasons Antoninus became both disgusted with his wife (who was a +most shameless creature), and offended at her father himself, because the +latter kept meddling in all his undertakings and rebuking him for +everything that he did. Conceiving a desire to be rid of the man in some +way or other he accordingly had Euodus, his nurse, persuade a certain +centurion, Saturninus, and two others of similar rank to bring him word +that Plautianus had ordered some ten centurions, to whose number they also +belonged, to kill both Severus and Antoninus; and they read a certain +writing which they pretended to have received bearing upon this very +matter. This was done as a surprise at the observances held in the palace +in honor of the heroes, at a time when the spectacle had ceased and dinner +was about to be served. That fact was largely instrumental in showing the +story to be a fabrication. Plautianus would never have dared to impose +such a bidding upon ten centurions at once, certainly not in Rome, +certainly not in the palace, nor on that day, nor at that hour; much less +would he have written it. Nevertheless, Severus believed the information +trustworthy because he had the night before seen in a dream Albinus alive +and plotting against him. [Sidenote:--4--] In haste, therefore, he +summoned Plautianus, as if upon some other business. The latter hurried so +(or rather, Heaven so indicated to him approaching disaster) that the +mules that were carrying him fell in the palace yard. And when he sought +to enter, the porters in charge of the bolts admitted him alone inside and +would permit no one to enter with him, just as he himself had done in the +case of Severus at Tyana. He grew a little suspicious at this and became +terrified; as he had, however, no pretext for withdrawing, he went in. +Severus conversed with him very mildly: "Why have you seen fit to do this! +For what reason have you wished to kill us?" He gave him opportunity to +speak and prepared to listen to his defence. + +In the midst of the accused's denial and surprise at what was said, +Antoninus rushed up, took away his sword, and struck him with his fist. He +was ready to put an end to Plautianus with his own hand after the latter +said: "You wanted to get the start of me in any killing!" Being prevented, +however, by his father, Antoninus ordered one of his attendants to slay +Plautianus. Somebody plucked out a few hairs from his chin and carried +them to Julia and Plautilla (who were together) before they had heard a +word of the affair, and said: "Behold your Plautianus!" This speech +aroused grief in one and joy in the other. + +Thus the man who had possessed the greatest influence of all my +contemporaries, so that everybody both feared and trembled before him more +than before the very emperors, [Footnote: Reading [Greek: autokratoron] +(emendation of H. Stephanus).] the man who had hung poised upon greater +hopes than they, was slain by his son-in-law and thrown from the top of +the palace into some street. Later, at the order of Severus, he was taken +up and buried. + +[Sidenote:--5--] Severus next called a meeting of the senate in the +senate-house. He uttered no accusation against Plautianus, but himself +deplored the weakness of human nature, which was not able to endure +excessive honors, and blamed himself that he had so honored and loved the +man. Those, however, who had informed him of the victim's plot he bade +tell us everything; but first he expelled from the senate-chamber some +whose presence was not necessary, and by revealing nothing to them +intimated that he did not altogether trust them. + +Many were brought into danger by the Plautianus episode and some actually +lost their lives. But Coeranus was accustomed to declare (what most people +are given to pretending with reference to the fortunate) that he was his +associate. As often as these friends of the prefect were wont to be called +in before the others desiring to greet the great man, it was his custom to +accompany them as far as the bars. So he did not share his secrets, but +remained in the space midway, giving Plautianus the impression that he was +outside and those outside the idea that he was within. This caused him to +be the object of greater suspicion,--a feeling which was strengthened by +the fact that Plautianus once in a dream saw fishes issue from the Tiber +and fall at his feet, whereupon he declared that Coeranus should rule the +land and water. This man, after being confined to an island for seven +years, was later recalled, was the first Egyptian to be enrolled in the +senate, and became consul, like Pompey, without holding any previous +office. Caecilius Agricola, however, numbered among the deceased's +foremost flatterers and second to no man on earth in rascality and +licentiousness, was sentenced to death. He went home, and after drinking +his fill of chilled wine, shattered the cup which had cost him five +myriads, and cutting his veins fell dead upon the fragments. +[Sidenote:--6--] As for Saturninus and Euodus, they were honored at the +time but were later executed by Antoninus. While we were engaged in voting +eulogies to Euodus, Severus restrained us by saying: "It is disgraceful +that in one of your decrees there should be inscribed such a statement +respecting a man that is a Caesarian." It was not the only instance of +such an attitude, but he also refused to allow all the other imperial +freedmen either to be insolent or to swagger; for this he was commended. +The senate once, while chanting his praises, uttered without reserve no +less a sentiment than this: "All do all things well since you rule well!" + +Plautilla and Plautius, the children of Plautianus, were temporarily +allowed to live, being banished to Lipara; but in the reign of Antoninus +they were destroyed, though they had been existing in great fear and +wretchedness and though their life was not even blessed by a goodly store +of necessities. + +[Sidenote:--7--] The sons of Severus, Antoninus and Greta, felt as if they +had got rid of a pedagogue in Plautianus, and their conduct was from this +time on irresponsible. They outraged women and abused boys, they embezzled +moneys and made friends of the gladiators and charioteers, emulating each +other in the similarity of their deeds and full of strife in their +respective rivalries. If one attached himself to any cause, the other +would be sure to choose the opposite side. Finally, they were pitted +against each other in some kind of exercise with teams of ponies and drove +with such fierce opposition that Antoninus fell out of the two-wheeled car +and broke his leg. [During his son's sickness that followed this accident +Severus neglected not one of his duties, but held court and managed all +affairs pertaining to his office. For this he was praised. But he was +blamed for murdering Plautianus Quintillus. [Footnote: This person's name +is properly _M. Plautius Quintillus_.] He executed also many of the +senators, some of whom had been accused before him, and made their defence +and had been convicted. But Quintillus,] a man of noblest birth, for a +long term of years counted among the foremost members of the senate, +standing at the gates of old age, one who lived in the country, interfered +in no one's business and did naught amiss, nevertheless became the prey of +sycophants and was put out of the way. As he was near death he called for +his funeral garments, which he had long since kept in readiness. On seeing +that they had fallen to pieces through lapse of time, he said: "Why did we +delay this!" And as he perfumed the place with burning incense, he +remarked: "I offer the same prayer as Servianus offered over Hadrian." +[Footnote: Compare Book Sixty-nine, chapter 17.]--Besides his death there +were also gladiatorial contests, in which among other features ten tigers +were slaughtered at once. + +[Sidenote:--8--] After this came the _denouement_ of the Apronianus +affair,--a startling story even in the hearing. He incurred censure +because his nurse is said to have seen once in a vision that he should +enjoy sovereignty, and because he was believed to employ some magic to +this end. He was condemned while absent in his governorship of Asia. When +the evidence taken in his case was read to us, there was found written +there this statement,--that one person in charge of the investigation had +enquired who had told the dream and who had heard it, and that the man +interrogated had said among other things: "I saw a certain baldheaded +senator taking a peep there." On hearing this we all became +terror-stricken, for neither had the man spoken nor Severus written any +one's name. In their state of panic even those who had never visited the +house of Apronianus, and not only the baldheaded but those whose foreheads +were indifferently bare grew afraid. No one felt easy save those who had +unusually thick hair. We all looked around at such men, and a whisper ran +about: "It's so-and-so. No, it's so-and-so." I will not conceal how I was +then affected, however absurd it may be. I felt with my hand to see +whether I had any hair on my head; and a number of others behaved in the +very same way. We were very careful to direct our gaze upon baldish +persons as if we could thereby divert our own danger upon them. This we +did until it was further read that the particular baldhead in question +wore a purple toga. When this statement came out, we turned our eyes upon +Baebius Marcellinus. He had been aedile at the time and was extremely +bald. So he stood up and coming forward said: "He will certainly be able +to point me out, if he has seen me." We commended this speech, the +informer was brought in while the senator stood by, and for a long time +was silent, looking about for the man to point out. Finally, following the +direction of an almost imperceptible nod that somebody gave, he said that +this was he. + +[Sidenote:--9--] Thus was Marcellinus convicted of a baldhead's peeping, +[Footnote: The phrase [Greek: phalakrou parakupseos] has a humorous ring +to it, and I am inclined to believe, especially considering the situation, +that Dio had in his mind while writing this the familiar proverb [Greek: +honou parakupseos], a famous response given by a careless ass-driver, +whose animal being several rods in advance of its lagging master had stuck +its head into an open doorway and thereby scattered the nucleus of a +promising aviary. The fellow was haled to court to answer to a charge of +contributory negligence and when some bystander asked him for what misdeed +he had been brought to that place, he rejoined with a great air of injured +innocence: "For an ass's peeping!"] and bewailing his fate he was +conducted out of the senate-house. When he had passed through the Forum, +he refused to advance farther, but right where he was took leave of his +children, four in number, and uttered this most affecting speech: "There +is only one thing that I am sorry for, children; it is that I must leave +you behind alive." Then he had his head cut off before Severus learned +even that he had been condemned. + +Just vengeance, however, befell Pollenius Sebennus, who had preferred the +charge that caused his death. He was delivered by Sabinus to the Norici, +for whom he had shown scant consideration during his governorship of them, +and went through a most disgraceful experience. We saw him stretched on +the ground, pleading piteously, and had he not obtained mercy, thanks to +his uncle Auspex, [Footnote: _A. Pollenius Auspex_.] he would have +perished pitiably. This Auspex was the cleverest imaginable man for jokes +and chit-chat, for despising all mankind, gratifying his friends, and +making reprisals upon his enemy. Many bitter and witty epigrams of his +spoken to various people are reported, and many to Severus himself. Here +is one of the latter. When the emperor was enrolled in the family of +Marcus, Auspex said: "I congratulate you, Caesar, upon having found a +father." This implied that up to this time his obscure origin had made him +as good as fatherless. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 206-7(?)] [Sidenote:--10--] It was at this period that one +Bulla, an Italian, established a robber band of about six hundred men and +for two years continued to plunder Italy under the very noses of the +emperors and of so great bodies of soldiers. Pursuit was instituted by +numerous persons, and Severus emulously followed his trail, but the fellow +was never really seen when seen, never found when found, never apprehended +when caught. This was due to his great bribes and his cleverness. He got +wind of everybody that was setting out from Rome and everybody that was +putting into port at Brundusium, learning who and how many they were, and +what and how much they had with them. His general method was to take a +part of what they had and then let them go at once. Artisans, however, he +detained for a time and after making use of their skill dismissed them +with something extra as a present. Once two of his robbers had been +captured and were to be given to beasts, whereupon the chief paid a visit +to the keeper of the prison, pretending that he was the governor of his +native place (?) and needed some such men, and in this way he secured and +saved them. Again, he approached the centurion who was charged with +abolishing brigandage and in disguise accused his own self; he further +promised, if the centurion would accompany him, to deliver the robber to +him. So, pretending that he was leading him to Felix (this was another +name of the chief), he brought him to a hill-encompassed spot, suitable +for ambuscade, and easily seized him. Later he assumed the garb of a +magistrate, ascended the tribunal, and having called the centurion caused +his head to be shaved, and said: "Take this message to your masters: 'Feed +your slaves, if you want to make an end of brigandage.'" Bulla had, +indeed, a very great number of Caesarians, some who had been poorly paid +and some who had gone absolutely without pay. + +Severus, informed of these events one at a time, was moved to anger to +think that while having other men win victory in warfare in Britain, he +himself in Italy had proved no match for a robber. At last he despatched a +tribune from his body-guard with many horsemen and threatened him with +terrible punishments if he should not bring the culprit alive. Then this +commander ascertained that the chief was maintaining relations of intimacy +with the wife of another, and through the agency of her husband persuaded +her on promise of immunity to cooperate with them. As a result the elusive +leader was arrested while asleep in a cave. Papinianus the prefect asked +him: "For what reason did you become a robber?" The other rejoined: "For +what reason are you a prefect?" And thereafter by solemn proclamation he +was given to beasts. His robber band broke up, for the entire strength of +the six hundred lay in him. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 208 (a.u. 961)] [Sidenote:--11--] Severus, seeing that his +children were departing from their accustomed modes of life and that his +legions were becoming enervated by idleness, set out on a campaign against +Britain, though he knew that he should not return. He knew this chiefly +from the stars under which he had been born, for he had them painted upon +the ceilings of the two halls in the palace where he was wont to hold +court. Thus they were visible to all, save the portion which +"regarded-the-hour" when he first saw the light (i.e., his horo-scope). +This he had not engraved in the same way in both the rooms.--He knew it +also by the report of the seers. And a thunderbolt struck a statue of his +standing near the gates through which he intended to march out and looking +off along the road leading to his destination, and it had erased three +letters from his name. For this reason, [Footnote: The significance of +this happening is explained as follows. Taking the Greek form of Severus, +namely [Greek: SEBAEROS] and erasing the first three letters you have left +[Greek: AEROS]= [Greek: AEROS]=heros, "hero." When a thunderbolt +substitutes the word "hero" for the emperor's name, the supposition +naturally arises that the ruler will soon be numbered among the heroes, +that is, that he will cease to exist as a mortal man.] as the seers +indicated, he did not come back again but departed from life two years +after this. He took with him very great sums of money. + +[Sidenote:--12--] There are two principal races of the Britons,--the +Caledonians and the Maeatians. The titles of the rest have all been +reduced to these two. The Maeatians live near the cross wall which cuts +the island in two, and the Caledonians are behind them. Both inhabit wild +and waterless mountains, desolate and swampy plains, holding no walls, nor +cities, nor tilled fields, but living by pasturage and hunting and a few +fruit trees. The fish, which are inexhaustible and past computing for +multitude, they do not taste. They dwell coatless and shoeless in tents, +possess their women in common, and rear all the offspring as a community. +Their form of government is mostly democratic and they are very fond of +plundering. + +Consequently they choose their boldest spirits as leaders. They go into +battle on chariots with small, swift horses. There are also infantry, very +quick at running and very firm in standing their ground. Their weapons are +shield and short spear, with a bronze apple attached to the end of the +ground-spike, so that when the instrument is shaken it may clash and +inspire the enemy with terror. They also have daggers. They can endure +hunger and cold and any kind of wretchedness. They plunge into the swamps +and exist there for many days with only their heads above water, and in +the forests they support themselves upon bark and roots and in all +[Footnote: The reading is a little doubtful. Possibly "in such cases" ( +[Greek: para tauta]). (Boissevain).] cases they have ready a kind of food +of which a piece the size of a bean when eaten prevents them from being +either hungry or thirsty. Of such a nature is the island of Britain, and +such are the inhabitants that the enemy's country has. For it is an +island, and the fact (as I have stated) [Footnote: Compare Book +Thirty-nine, chapter 50, which, in turn, refers to Book Sixty-six, chapter +20.] was clearly proved at this time. The length of it is seven thousand +one hundred and thirty-two stades. Its greatest breadth is two thousand +three hundred and ten, and its least is three hundred. [Sidenote:--13--] +Of all this we hold a little less than a half. So Severus, desiring to +subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. While traversing the +territory he had untold trouble in cutting down the forests, reducing the +levels of heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers. He +fought no battle and beheld no adversary in battle array. The enemy +purposely put sheep and cattle in front of them for the soldiers to seize, +in order that the latter might be deceived for a longer time and wear +themselves out. The Romans received great damage from the streams and were +made objects of attack when they were scattered. Afterward, being unable +to walk, they were slain by their own friends to avoid capture, so that +nearly as many as fifty thousand died. + +But the emperor did not desist till he had approached the extremity of the +island. Here he observed very accurately to how slight a degree the sun +declined below the horizon [Footnote: Compare Tacitus, _Agricola_, +chapter 12 (two sentences, Dierum [Lacuna] affirmant).] and the length of +days and nights both summer and winter. Thus having been conveyed through +practically the whole of the hostile region,--for he was really conveyed +in a covered chair most of the way on account of his weakness,--he +returned to [Sidenote: A.D. 210 (a.u. 963)] friendly territory, first +forcing the Britons to come to terms on condition that he should abandon a +good part of their territory. + +[Sidenote:--14--] Antoninus also disturbed him and involved him in vain +worry by his intemperate life, by his evident intention to murder his +brother if the chance should present itself, and finally by plotting +against his own father. Once he leaped suddenly out of his quarters, +shouting and bawling and feigning to have been wronged by Castor. This man +was the best of the Caesarians attending upon Severus, had been trusted +with his opinions, and had been assigned the duties of chamberlain. +Certain soldiers with whom previous arrangements had been made hereupon +gathered and joined the outcry; but they were checked in short order, as +Severus himself appeared on the scene and punished the more unruly among +them. + +On another occasion both were riding to meet the Caledonians for the +purpose of receiving them and holding a conference about a truce, and +Antoninus undertook to kill his father outright with his own hand. They +were going along on their horses, for Severus, although his feet were +rather shrunken [Footnote: Reading [Greek: hypotetaekos] (suggestion of +Boissevain, who does not regard Naber's emendation, Mnemosyne, XVI, p. +113, as feasible).] by an ailment, nevertheless was on horseback himself +and the rest of the army was following: the enemy's force, too, was +likewise a spectator. At this juncture, in the midst of the silence and +order, Antoninus reined up his horse and drew his sword, apparently +intending to strike his father in the back. Seeing this, the other +horsemen in the detachment raised a cry of alarm, which scared the son, so +that he did nothing further. Severus turned at their shout and saw the +sword; however, he uttered not a syllable but ascended the tribunal, +finished what he had to do, and returned to the general's tent. Then he +called his son and Papinianus and Castor, ordered a sword to be placed +within easy reach, and upbraided the youth for having dared to do such a +thing at all and especially for having been on the point of committing so +great a crime in the presence of all the allies and the enemy. Finally he +said: "Now if you desire to slay me and have done, put an end to me here. +You are strong: I am an old man and prostrate. If you have no objection to +this, but shrink from becoming my actual murderer, there stands by your +side Papinianus the prefect, whom you may order to put me out of the way. +He will certainly do anything that you command, since you are emperor." +Though he spoke in this fashion, he still did the plotter no harm, in +spite of the fact that he had often blamed Marcus for not ending the life +of Commodus and that he had himself often threatened his son with this +treatment. Such words, however, were invariably spoken in a fit of anger: +on this occasion he allowed his love of offspring to get the better of his +love of country; yet in doing so he simply betrayed his other child, for +he well knew what would happen. + +[Sidenote:--15--] Upon another revolt of the inhabitants of the island he +summoned the soldiers and bade them invade the rebels' country, killing +whomsoever they should encounter. He added these verses: + + "Let none escape utter destruction At our hands. Yea, whatso is found in + the womb of the mother, Child unborn though it be, let it not escape + utter destruction!" [Footnote: Homer's Iliad, VI, verse 57, with a + slight change at the end.] + +When this had been done and the Caledonians as well as the Maeatians +revolted, he proceeded with preparations to make war upon them in person. +While he was thus engaged his sickness carried him off on the fourth of +February. [Sidenote: A.D. 211 (a.u. 964)] Antoninus, it is said, +contributed something to the result. Before he closed his eyes he is +reputed to have spoken these words to his children (I shall use the exact +phraseology without embellishment): "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, +scorn everybody else." After this his body arrayed in military garb was +placed upon a pyre, and as a mark of honor the soldiers and his children +ran about it. Those present who had any military gifts threw them upon it +and the sons applied the fire. Later his bones were put in a jar of purple +stone, conveyed to Rome, and deposited in the tomb of the Antonines. It is +said that Severus sent for the jar a little before his death and after +feeling it over remarked: "Thou shalt hold a man that the world could not +hold." + +[Sidenote:--16--] He was slow-moulded but strong, though he eventually +grew very weak from gout: mentally he was very keen and very firm. He +wished for more education than he got and for this reason he was sagacious +rather than a good talker. Toward friends not forgetful, to enemies most +oppressive, he was capable of everything that he desired to accomplish but +careless of everything said about him. Hence he gathered money from every +source (save that he killed no one to get it) [and met all necessary +expenditures quite ungrudgingly. He restored very many of the ancient +buildings and inscribed upon them his own name to signify that he had +repaired them so as to be new structures, and from his private funds. Also +he spent a great deal uselessly upon renovating and repairing other +places], erecting, for instance, to Bacchus and Hercules a temple of huge +size. Yet, though his expenses were enormous, he left behind not merely a +few myriad denarii, easily reckoned, but a great many. Again, he rebuked +such persons as were not chaste, even going to the extent of enacting +certain laws in regard to adultery, with the result that there were any +number of prosecutions for that offence. When consul I once found three +thousand entered on the docket. But inasmuch as very few persons appeared +to conduct their cases, he too ceased to trouble his head about it. +Apropos of this, a quite witty remark is reported of the wife of +Argentocoxus, a Caledonian, to Julia Augusta, when the latter after the +treaty was joking her about the free intercourse of her sex in Britain +with men. Thereupon the foreigner asserted: "We fulfill the necessities of +nature in a much better way than you Roman women. We have dealings openly +with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by +the vilest." This is what the British woman said. + +[Sidenote:--17--] The following is the style of life that Severus led in +time of peace. He was sure to be doing something before dawn, while it was +still night, and after this he would go to walk, telling and hearing of +the interests of the empire. Then he held court, and separately (unless +there were some great festival); and indeed, he did this very well. Those +on trial were allowed plenty of water [Footnote: The water-clock again. +Compare Book Seventy-one, chapter 6.] and he granted us, his coadjutors, +full liberty to speak.--He continued to preside till noonday. After that +he went riding as much as he could. Next he took some kind of exercise and +a bath. He then consumed a not meagre lunch, either by himself or with his +children. Next, as a rule, he enjoyed a nap. Later he rose, attended to +his remaining duties of administration, and while walking about occupied +himself with discussions of both Greek and Latin lore. Then, toward +evening, he would bathe again and dine with his attendants. Very seldom +did he have any outsider to dinner and only on days when it was quite +unavoidable did he arrange expensive banquets.--He lived sixty-five years, +nine months, and twenty-five days, for he was born on the eleventh of +April. Of this he had ruled seventeen years, eight months and three days. +In fine, he showed himself so active that even expiring he gasped: "Come, +give it to us, if we have anything to do!" + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 +(A.D. 54-211), by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOLUME V. *** + +***** This file should be named 10890.txt or 10890.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/8/9/10890/ + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Ben Courtney and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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