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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:35:26 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:35:26 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10883-0.txt b/10883-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b8e2a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/10883-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10899 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10883 *** + +DIO'S ROME + + + +AN + +HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK + +DURING THE REIGNS OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA + +AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS + +AND ALEXANDER SEVERUS: + + +AND + +NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + +BY + + +HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting +Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + +FOURTH VOLUME + + +Extant Books 52-60 (B.C. 29-A.D. 54). + + +1905 + +PAFRAETS BOOK COMPANY TROY NEW YOKK + + + +VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Fifty-two +Book Fifty-three +Book Fifty-four +Book Fifty-five +Book Fifty-six +Book Fifty-seven +Book Fifty-eight +Book Fifty-nine +Book Sixty + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +52 + +VOL. 4-1 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome: + +How Cæsar formed a plan to lay aside his sovereignty (chapters 1-40). + +How he began to be called emperor (chapters 41-43). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Cæsar (5th) and +Sextus Apuleius. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + + +_(BOOK 52, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[-1-] My record has so far stated what the Romans both did and endured +for seven hundred and twenty-five years under the monarchy, as a +democracy, and beneath the rule of a few. After this they reverted to +nothing more nor less than a state of monarchy again, although Cæsar had +a plan to lay down his arms and entrust affairs to the senate and the +populace. He held a consultation on the subject with Agrippa and Mæcenas, +to whom he communicated all his secrets. Agrippa, first of the two, +answered him as follows:-- + +[-2-] "Be not surprised, Cæsar, if I try to turn your mind away from +monarchy, in spite of the fact that I might enjoy many advantages from it +if you held the place. If it were going to prove serviceable to you, I +should be thoroughly enthusiastic for it. But those who hold supreme +power are not in a like position with their friends: the latter without +incurring jealousy or danger reap all the benefits they please, whereas +jealousies and dangers are the lot of the former. I have thought it +right, as in other cases, to look forward not for my own interest but for +yours and the public's. Let us consider leisurely all the features of the +system of government and turn whichever way our reflection may direct us. +For it will not be asserted that we ought to choose it under any and all +circumstances, even if it be not advantageous. Otherwise we shall seem to +have been unable to bear good fortune and to have gone mad through our +successes, or else to have been aiming at it long since, to have used our +father and our devotion to him as a mere screen, to have put "the people +and the senate" forward as an excuse. Our object will seem to have been +not to free them from conspirators but to enslave them to ourselves. +Either supposition entails censure. Who would not be indignant to see +that we had spoken words of one tenor, but to ascertain that we had had +something different in mind? How much more would he hate us now than if +we had at the outset laid bare our desires and aimed straight at the +monarchy! It has come to be generally believed that to adopt some violent +course belongs somehow to the nature of man, even if it involves taking +an unfair advantage. Every person who excels in any business thinks it +right that he should enjoy more advantages than his inferior. If he meets +with a success he ascribes it to the force of his individual temperament, +and if he fails in anything he refers it to the workings of the +supernatural. A man, however, who tries to gain advancement by plots and +injuries is in the first place held to be crafty and crooked, malicious +and vicious: (and this I know you would allow no one to say or think +about you, even if you might rule the whole world by it): again, if he +succeeds, he is thought to have gained an unjust advantage, and if he +fails, to have met with merited misfortune. [-3-] This being so, any one +might reproach us quite as much, even if we had nothing of the sort in +mind at the beginning and were to begin to devise it only now. For to let +the situation get the better of us and not restrain ourselves and not +make a right use of the gifts of Fortune is much worse than for a man to +do wrong through ill-luck. The latter sort are often compelled by their +very disasters and in consideration of their own need of profit to behave +against their will in an irregular way: the others voluntarily abandon +self-control even if to do so is contrary to their own interests. And +when men neither have any love of simplicity in their souls nor are able +to show moderation in regard to the blessings bestowed upon them, how +could one expect that they would either rule well over others or behave +themselves uprightly in trouble? Let us make our decision on the basis +that we are in neither of the classes mentioned and do not desire to +act in any way unreasonably, but will choose whatever course after +deliberation appears to us best. I shall speak quite frankly, for I could +not for my part express myself in any other way, and I am aware that you +do not enjoy hearing lies mingled with flattery. + +[-4-] "Equality before the law has a pleasant name and its results are a +triumph of justice. If you take men who have received the same nature, +are of kindred race to one another, have been brought up under the same +institutions, have been trained in laws that are alike, and yield in +common the service of their bodies and of their minds to the same State, +is it not just that they should have all other things, too, in common? Is +it not best that they should secure no superior honors except as a result +of excellence? Equality of birth strives for equality of possessions, +and if it attains it is glad, but if it misses is displeased. And human +nature everywhere, because it is sprung from the gods and is to return to +the gods, gazes upward and is not content to be ruled forever by the +same person, nor will it endure to share in the toils, the dangers, the +expenditures, and be deprived of partnership in higher matters. Or, if +it is forced to submit to such conditions, it hates the power which has +applied coercion and if it obtains an opportunity takes vengeance on what +it hates. All men think they ought to rule, and for this reason submit to +being ruled in turn. They do not wish to be defrauded, and therefore do +not insist on defrauding others. They are pleased with honors bestowed by +their peers, and approve the penalties inflicted by their laws. If they +conduct their government on these lines, and believe that profits and the +opposite shall be shared in common, they wish no harm to happen to any +one of the citizens and devoutly hope that all good things may fall to +the lot of all of them. If one of them himself possesses any excellence, +he makes it known without hesitation, practices it enthusiastically, +and exhibits it very gladly: or, if he sees it in another, he readily +advances it, is eager to increase it, and honors it most brilliantly. On +the other hand if any one deteriorates, everybody hates him. If one meets +misfortune, everybody pities him. Each person regards the loss or shame +that such cause to be a common detriment to the city. + +[-5-] "This is the constitution of democracies. Under tyrannies exactly +the opposite conditions are found. It is useless to go at length into all +of the details, but the chief feature is that no one is willing to +seem to know or possess anything good, because the whole ruling power +generally becomes hostile to him in such a case. Every one else takes the +tyrant's behavior as a standard of life, and pursues whatever objects he +may hope to gain through him by taking advantage of his neighbor while +incurring no danger himself. Consequently the majority of the people have +an eye only to their own interests and hate all other citizens: they +esteem their neighbor's good fortune as a personal loss, and his +misfortunes as a personal gain. + +"Such being the state of the case, I do not see what could possibly +incite you to become sole ruler. Besides the fact that that system is +disagreeable to democracies, it would be far more unpleasant still to +yourself. You surely see how the City and its affairs are even now in a +state of turmoil. It is difficult, also, to overthrow our populace which +has lived during so many years in freedom, and difficult, since so many +enemies confront us round about, to reduce again to slavery the allies +and the subject nations, which from of old have been democratic +communities and were set free by our own selves. + +[-6-] "To begin first with the smallest matter, it will be requisite that +you procure a large supply of money from all sides. It is impossible +that our present revenues should suffice for the very expenses, and +particularly for the support of the soldiers. This need exists also in +democracies, for it is not possible to organize any government without +expense. But under such a system many give largely in addition to what +is required, and do it frequently, making it a matter of rivalry and +securing proper honors for their liberality. Or, if perchance there +are compulsory levies upon everybody, they endure it because they can +persuade themselves that it is wise and because they are contributing in +their own behalf. Under sovereignties they think that the ruling power +alone, to which they credit boundless wealth, should bear the expense: +they are very ready to search out the ruler's sources of income, but do +not make a similar careful calculation about the outgo. They are not +inclined to pay out anything extra personally and of their own free will, +nor will they hear of voluntary public contributions. The former course +no one would choose, because he would not readily admit that he was rich, +and it is not to the advantage of the ruler to have it happen. So liberal +a citizen would immediately acquire a reputation for patriotism among the +mass of the people, would become conceited, and cause a disturbance in +politics. On the other hand, a general levy weighs heavily upon them all +and chiefly because they endure the loss whereas others take the gain. In +democracies those who contribute money as a general rule also serve in +the army, so that in a way they get it back again. But in monarchies one +set of people usually farm, manufacture, carry on maritime enterprises, +engage in politics,--the principal pursuits by which fortunes are +secured,--and a different set are under arms and draw pay. + +"This single necessity, then, which is of such importance [-7-] will +cause you trouble. Here is another. It is by all means essential that +whoever from time to time commits a crime should pay some penalty. The +majority of men are not brought to reason by suggestion or by example, +but it is absolutely requisite to punish them by disenfranchisement, by +exile, and by death; and this often happens in so great an empire and in +so large a multitude of men, especially during a change of government. +Now if you appointed other men to judge these wrongdoers, they would +acquit them speedily, particularly all whom you may be thought to hate. +For judges secure a pretended authority when they act in any way contrary +to the wish of the ruling power. If, again, any are convicted, they will +believe they have been condemned on account of instructions for which +you are responsible. However, if you sit as judge yourself, you will be +compelled to chastise many of the peers,--and this is not favorable,--and +you will certainly be thought to be setting some of them right in anger +rather than in justice. No one believes that those who have the power to +use compulsion can execute judgment with justice, but everybody thinks +that out of shame they spread out a mere phantom and rough picture of +government in front of the truth, in order that under the legitimate +name of court they may fulfill their desire. This is what happens in +monarchies. In democracies, when any one is accused of committing a +private wrong, he is made defendant in a private suit before judges who +are his equals: or, if he is accused for a public crime, such a man has +empaneled a jury of his peers, whoever the lot shall designate. It is +easier for men to bear their decisions, since they do not think that any +verdict rendered is due to the power of the judge or has been wrung from +him as a favor.[1] + +[-8-] "Then again there are many, apart from any criminals, some priding +themselves on birth, others on wealth, others on something different, +in general not bad men, who are by nature opposed to the conception of +monarchy. If a ruler allows them to become strong, he cannot live in +safety, and if he undertakes to impose a check on them, he cannot do so +justly. What then shall he do with them? How shall he treat them? If you +root out their families, diminish their wealth, humble their pride, you +will lose the good-will of your subjects. How can it be otherwise, if no +one is permitted to be born nobly or to grow rich honestly or to become +strong, brave, or learned? But if you allow all the separate classes to +grow strong, you will not be able to deal with them easily. If you alone +were sufficient for carrying on politics and war well and opportunely, +and needed no assistant for any of them, it would be a different story. +As the case stands, however, it is quite essential for you to have many +helpers, since they must govern so large a world: and they all ought +to be both brave and prudent. Now if you hand over the legions and +the offices to such men, there will be danger that both you and your +government will be overthrown. It is not possible for a valuable man to +be produced without good sense, and he cannot acquire any great good +sense from servile practices. But again, if he becomes a man of sense, he +cannot fail to desire liberty and to hate all masters. If, on the other +hand, you entrust nothing to these men, but put affairs in charge of the +worthless and chance comers, you will very quickly incur the anger of the +first class, who think themselves distrusted, and you will very quickly +fail in the greatest enterprises. What good could an ignorant or low-born +person accomplish? What enemy would not hold him in contempt? What allies +would obey him? Who, even of the soldiers themselves, would not disdain +to be ruled by such a man? What evils are wont to result from such a +condition I do not need to describe to you, for you know them thoroughly. +I feel obliged to say only this, that if such an assistant did nothing +right, he would injure you far more than the enemy: if he did anything +satisfactorily, his lack of education would cause him to lose his head, +and he would be a terror to you. + +[-9-] "Such a question does not arise in democracies. The more men there +are who are wealthy and brave, so much the more do they vie with one +another and up-build the city. The latter uses them and is glad, unless +any one of them wishes to found a tyranny: him the citizens punish +severely. That this is so and that democracies are far superior to +monarchies the experience of Greece makes clear. As long as the people +had the monarchical government, they effected nothing of importance: but +when they began to live under the democratic system, they became most +renowned. It is shown also by the experience of other branches of +mankind. Those who are still conducting their governments under tyrannies +are always in slavery and always plotting against their rulers. But those +who have presidents for a year or some longer period continue to be both +free and independent. + +"Yet, why need we use foreign examples, when we have some of our own? We +Romans, ourselves, after trying a different social organization at first, +later, when we had gone through many bitter experiences, felt a desire +for liberty; and having secured it we attained our present eminence, +strong in no advantages save those that come from democracy, through +which the senate debated, the people ratified, the force under arms +showed zeal, and the commanders were fired with ambition. None of these +things could be done under a tyranny. For that reason, indeed, the +ancient Romans detested it so much as to impose a curse upon that form of +government. + +[-10-] "Aside from these considerations, if one is to speak about what is +disadvantageous for you personally, how could you endure the management +of so many interests by day and night alike? How could you hold out in +your enfeebled state? How could you participate in human enjoyments? +How could you be happy if deprived of them? What could cause you +real pleasure? When would you be free from biting grief? It is quite +inevitable that the man who holds so great an empire should reflect +deeply, be subject to many fears enjoy very little pleasure, but hear +and see, perform and suffer, always and everywhere, what is most +disagreeable. That is why, I think, both Greeks and some barbarians would +not accept government by a king when offered to them. + +"Knowing this beforehand, take good counsel before you enter upon such an +existence. For it is disgraceful, or rather impossible, after you have +once plunged into it to rise to the upper air again. Do not be deceived +by the greatness of the authority nor the abundance of possessions, nor +the mass of body-guards, nor the throng of courtiers. Men who have great +power have great troubles: those who have large possessions are obliged +to spend largely: the crowd of body-guards is gathered because of the +crowd of conspirators: and the flatterers would be more glad to destroy +than to save any one. Consequently, in view of these facts, no sensible +man would desire to become supreme ruler. [-11-] If the fact that such +rulers can enrich and preserve others and perform many other good deeds, +and that, by Jupiter, they may also outrage others and injure whomsoever +they please leads any one to think that tyranny is worth striving for, he +is utterly mistaken. I need not tell you that to live licentiously and to +do evil is base and hazardous and hated of both gods and men. You are not +that sort of man, and it is not for these reasons that you would choose +to be sole ruler. I have elected to speak now not of everything which one +might accomplish who handled affairs badly, but of what even the very +best are compelled to do and endure when they adopt the system. The other +point,--that one may bestow abundant favors,--is worthy of zeal, to be +sure: yet when this disposition is indulged in private capacity, it is +noble, august, glorious, and safe, whereas in monarchies it is first of +all not a sufficient offset to the other, more disagreeable matters, that +any one should choose monarchy for this especially when one is to grant +to others the benefit to be derived therefrom, and accept himself the +unpleasantness involved in the rest of the conduct of the office. + +[-12-] "In the next place, the matter is not simple, as people think. No +one could render assistance enough to satisfy all who need help. Those +who think they ought to receive some gift from the sovereign are +practically all mankind, even though no favors can at once be seen to be +due them. Every one naturally has his own approbation and wishes to enjoy +some benefit from him who is able to give. But the presents which can +be given them,--I mean honors and offices, and sometimes money,--can be +counted quite easily as compared with so great a multitude. This being +so, more hatred would fall to the monarch's lot from those who fail to +get what they want than friendship from such as obtain their desires. +The latter take what they regard as due to them and think there is no +particular reason for being very thankful to the one who gives it, since +they are getting no more than they expected. Moreover, they actually +shrink from such behavior for fear they may appear in the light +of persons undeserving of generous treatment. The others, who are +disappointed of their hopes, are grieved for two causes. First, they feel +that they are robbed of what belongs to them, for by nature all persons +think that everything which they desire is their own: second, they feel +as if they were finding themselves guilty of some wrong, if they show +resignation at not obtaining what they expect. The man who gives such +great gifts rightly of course investigates before all else each person's +worth: some he honors, others he neglects. As a result, then, of his +judgment, some are filled with pride and others with vexation by their +own consciousness of its correctness. If any one were to wish to guard +against this outcome and distribute his presents without system, he would +fail utterly. The base, being honored contrary to their deserts, would +become worse; for they would decide either that they were approved as +being good or, if not so, that they were courted as dangerous persons: +the excellent, on attaining no higher place than they, but held merely in +equal honor with the base, would be more indignant at their reduction to +the latter's level than the others would rejoice to be deemed valuable. +Accordingly, they would give up the practice of better principles and +strive to emulate less worthy men. Thus, even as a result of the very +honors, those who bestow them would reap no benefit and those who receive +them would become worse than before. So that this consideration, which +would please some persons most in the monarchical constitution, has been +proved to be a most difficult problem for you to deal with. + +[-13-] "Reflecting on these facts and the rest which I mentioned a little +earlier, be prudent while you may, and restore to the people the arms, +the provinces, the offices, and the funds. If you do it at once and +voluntarily, you will be the most famous of men and the most secure. But +if you wait for some force to be applied, perhaps you might suffer some +disaster together with ill repute. Here is evidence. Marius, Sulla, +Metellus, and Pompey at first, when they got control of affairs, refused +to become princes, and by this attitude escaped harm. Cinna, however, and +Strabo,[2] the second Marius, Sertorius, and Pompey himself at a later +date, through their desire for sovereignty perished miserably. It is hard +for this city which has been under a democracy for so many years and +rules so many human beings to be willing to be a slave to any one. You +have heard that the people banished Camillus when he used white horses +for his triumph: you have heard that they overthrew Scipio after +condemning him for some fraudulent procedure: you remember how they +behaved toward your father because they had some suspicion that he wanted +monarchy. Yet there have never been any better men than these. + +"Moreover, I do not advise you merely to relinquish dominion, but to +accomplish beforehand all that is advantageous for the public, and by +decrees and laws to settle definitely whatever business needs attention, +just as Sulla did. For even if some of his ordinances were subsequently +overthrown, yet the majority of them and the more important still hold +their ground. Do not say that even then some will indulge in factional +quarrels, or I may be tempted to say again that all the more the Romans +would not submit to a single ruler. If we were to review all the +calamities that might befall a nation, it would be most unreasonable for +us to fear dissensions which are the outgrowth of democracy rather then +the tyrannies which spring from monarchy. Regarding the terrible nature +of the latter I have not even undertaken to say a word. It has been my +wish not merely to inveigh against a proposition so capable of censure, +but to show you this,--that it is naturally such a régime that not even +the most excellent men....[3] + +[-14-] "They cannot easily persuade by frank argument men who possess +less power, or succeed in their enterprises, because their subjects are +not in accord with them. Hence, if you have any care at all of your +country, for whom you have fought so many wars, for whom you would gladly +surrender your life, attune her to greater moderation and order her +affairs with that in view. For the privilege of doing and saving +precisely what one pleases becomes in the case of sensible people, if you +examine it, a cause of prosperity to all: but in the case of the foolish, +a cause of disaster. Therefore he who confers authority upon such men is +holding out a sword to a child and a madman; but he who gives it to the +prudent, besides performing other services, preserves the objects of his +liberality themselves, though they may be unwilling. Therefore I ask you +not to be deceived by regarding fine-sounding names, but to look forward +to the results that spring from them, and so to put an end to the +insolence of the populace, and to impose the management of public affairs +upon yourself and the most excellent of the remainder of the community. +Then the most prudent may deliberate, those most qualified for generals +become commanders, and the strongest and most needy men serve as +soldiers and draw pay. In this way, all zealously discharging the duties +appertaining to their offices and paying without hesitation the debts +they owe one another, they will not be aware of their inferiority and +lack of certain advantages and will secure the real democracy and a safe +sort of freedom. The boasted "freedom" of the mob proves to be the most +bitter servitude of the best element and brings a common destruction upon +both. The other, which I advocate, honors responsible men everywhere and +bestows equal advantages upon all so far as they are worthy: thus it +renders prosperous all alike who possess it. [-15-] Do not think that I +am advising you to enslave the people and the senate and then play the +tyrant. This plan I should never dare to suggest nor you to execute. It +would, notwithstanding, be well and useful both for you and for the city +that you should yourself establish all proper laws with the approval of +the best men without any opposing talk or resistance on the part of the +masses, that you and your counselors should arrange the details of wars +according to your united wishes while all the rest straightway obey +orders, that the choice of officials should be in the power of the +cabinet to which you belong, and that the same men should also determine +honors and penalties. Then whatever pleases you after consulting the +Peers will be immediately a law, and wars against enemies may be waged +with secrecy and at an opportune time; those to whom a trust is committed +will be appointed because of excellence and not by lot and strife for +office; the good will be honored without jealousy and the bad punished +without opposition. Thus what was done would be accomplished in the best +way, not referred to the public, nor talked over openly, not committed to +packed committees, nor endangered by rivalry. We should reap the benefits +of the blessings that belong to us with enjoyment,[4] not entering upon +dangerous wars nor impious civil disputes. These two drawbacks are found +in every democracy: the more powerful, desiring first place and hiring +the weaker men, turn everything continually upside down. They have been +most frequent in our epoch and there is no other way save the one I +propose that will put a stop to them. The proof of my words is that +we have been warring abroad and fighting among ourselves for an +inconceivably long time: the cause is the multitude of men and the +magnitude of the interests at stake. The men are of all sorts in respect +to both race and nature and have the most diversified tempers and +desires. The interests have become so vast that it is very difficult to +attempt to administer them. [-16-] Witness to the truth of my words is +borne by our past. While we were but few, we had no important quarrel +with our neighbors, got along well with our government, and subjugated +almost all of Italy. But ever since we spread beyond the peninsula and +crossed to many foreign lands and islands, filling the whole sea and the +whole earth with our name and power, nothing good has been our lot. In +the first place we disputed in cliques at home and within our walls, and +later we exported this plague to the camps. Therefore our city, like a +great merchantman full of a crowd of every race borne without a pilot +these many years through rough water, rolls and shoots hither and thither +because it is without ballast. Do not, then, allow her to be longer +exposed to the tempest; for you see that she is waterlogged. And do not +let her split upon a reef[5]; for her timbers are rotten and will not be +able to hold out much longer. But since the gods have taken pity on this +land and have set you up as her arbiter and chief; do not betray your +country. Through you she has now revived a little: if you are faithful, +she may live with safety for ages to come. + +[-17-] "That I do right to urge you to be sole ruler of the people I +think you have long ere this been persuaded. If so, then be ready and +eager to assume the leadership of the State, or rather, do not let it +slip. For we are not deliberating about taking something, but about not +losing it and about running hazards in addition. Who will spare you if +you commit matters to the people as they were, and to some other man, +seeing that there are great numbers whom you have injured, all of whom, +or nearly all, will lay claim to the sovereignty? No one of them will +fail to wish to punish you for what you have done, or will care to have +you survive as a rival. There is evidence of this in the case of Pompey, +who, when he withdrew from his supremacy, became the victim of scorn and +of plots: he found himself unable to win back his place, and so perished. +Also Cæsar your father, who did this very same thing, was slain for his +trouble. Marius and Sulla would certainly have endured a like fate, had +they not died too soon. Indeed, some say that Sulla anticipated this +very end by making away with himself. Many of the provisions of his +constitution, at any rate, began to be abolished while he was still +alive. You, too, must expect to find that many Lepiduses, Sertoriuses, +Brutuses, Cassiuses will arise against you. + +[-18-] "Seeing these facts and reflecting on the other interests +involved, do not abandon yourself and your country, out of fear that you +may seem to some to be pursuing the office of set purpose. First of all, +even if any one does suspect it, the desire is not one repugnant to human +nature, and the danger from it is a noble danger. Second, is any one +unaware of the necessity under which you were led to take this action? +Hence, if there be any blame attached to it, one might most justly +censure your father's slayers therefor. For if they had not murdered him +in so unjust and pitiable a fashion, you would not have taken up arms, +would not have gathered your legions, would not have made a compact with +Antony and Lepidus, and would not have taken measures against those very +men. That you were right and were justified in doing all this no one is +unaware. If any slight errors have been committed, at least we cannot +safely make any further changes. Therefore for our own sakes and for that +of the city let us obey Fortune, who gives you the supremacy. Let us be +very thankful to her that she has not simply filled us with civil woes, +but has put the reorganization of the government in your hands. By paying +due reverence to her you may show all mankind that whereas others wrought +disturbance and injury, you are an upright man. + +"Do not, I beg you, fear the magnitude of the empire. The greater its +extent, the more are the preservative influences it possesses; also, to +guard anything is a long way easier than to acquire it. Toils and dangers +are needed to win over what belongs to others, but a little prudence +suffices to retain what is already yours. Moreover, do not be afraid +that you will not live quite safely in the midst of it and enjoy all the +blessings extant among men, if you are willing to arrange all the details +as I shall advise you. And do not think that I am making my appeal depart +from the subject in hand, if I shall speak at some length about the +project. I shall not do this merely to hear myself talk, but to the end +that you may be positively assured that it is both possible and easy, for +a man of sense at least, to govern well and without danger. + +[-19-] "I maintain, therefore, first of all that you ought to pick out +your friends in the senatorial body and then subject it to a sifting +process, because some who are not fit have become senators on account +of civil disputes: such of them as possess any excellence you ought to +retain, but the rest you should erase from the roll. Do not, however, get +rid of any man of worth, because of poverty, but give him the money that +he needs. In the place of those who have been dropped introduce the +noblest, the best, the richest men obtainable, selecting them not only +from Italy but from the allies and subject nations. In this way you will +not be employing many assistants and you will insure a correct attitude +on the part of the chief men from all the provinces. These districts, +having no renowned leader, will not be disposed to rebel, and their +prominent men will entertain affection for you because they have been +made sharers in your empire. + +"Take precisely these same measures in the case of the knights, by +enrolling in the equestrian class such as hold second place everywhere in +birth, excellence, and wealth. Register as many in both classes as may +please you, not troubling at all about their numbers. The more men of +repute you have as your associates, the more easily will you yourself +settle everything in case of need and persuade your subjects that you are +treating them not as slaves nor in any way as inferior to us, but are +sharing with them besides all the other blessings that belong to us the +chief magistracy also, that so they may be devoted to it as their own +possession. I am so far from assuming this to be a mistaken policy that I +say they ought all to be given a share in the government. Thus, having an +equal allotment in it, they might be faithful allies of ours, believing +that they inhabited one single city owned in common by all of us, +and this _really_ a city, and regarding fields and villages as their +individual property. But about this and what ought to be done so as not +to grant them absolutely everything, we shall reflect in greater detail +at another time. + +[-20-] "It is proper to put men on the roll of the knights at eighteen +years of age; for at that period of life physical condition is at its +best and suitability of temperament can be discerned. But for the +senate they should wait till they are twenty-five years old. Is it not +disgraceful and hazardous to entrust public business to men younger than +this, when we will commit none of our private affairs to any one before, +he has reached such an age? After they have served as quæstors and +ædiles, or tribunes, let them be prætors, when they have attained their +thirtieth birthday. These offices and that of consul are the only ones at +home which I maintain you ought to recognize; and that is for the sake of +remembrance of ancestral customs and in order not to seem to be changing +the constitution altogether. Do you, however, yourself choose all who are +to hold them and not put any of these offices longer in charge of the +rabble or the populace,--for they will surely quarrel,--nor in charge of +the senate, for its members will contend for the prize. Moreover, do +not keep up the ancient powers of these positions, for fear history +may repeat itself, but preserve the honor attached while abating the +influence to such an extent as will enable you to deprive each place of +none of its esteem but to forestall any desire of insubordination. This +can be done if you require the incumbents to stay in town, and do not +permit any of them to handle arms either during their period of office or +immediately afterward, but only after the lapse of some time, as much +as you think sufficient in each instance. In this way none of them will +rebel, because they become to an extent by their title masters of armies, +and their irritation will be assuaged by their faring as private citizens +for a time. Let these magistrates conduct such of the festivals as would +naturally belong to their office, and let them all individually try cases +save those of homicide, during their tenure of office in Rome. Courts +should also be made up of the senators and knights, but the final appeal +should be to the aforesaid officials. + +[-21-] "Let a præfectus urbi be appointed from the ranks of the prominent +men and from such as have previously passed through the necessary +offices. His duties should not be to govern when the consuls are +somewhere out of town, but to exercise at all times a general supervision +of the City's interests and to decide the cases referred to him by all +the other magistrates I mentioned, both those demanding final decision +and such as may be appealed, together with any that involve the death +penalty; and he must have authority in all of them that concern men both +in the City (except such as I shall name) and those dwelling outside to +the distance of seven hundred and fifty stades. + +"Still another magistrate ought to be chosen, himself also from a similar +class, to investigate and watch the matters of family, property, and +morals of senators and knights, alike of men and of the children and +wives belonging to them[6]. He should also set right such behavior as +properly entails no punishment, yet if neglected becomes the cause of +many great evils. The more important details he must report to you. This +duty ought to be assigned to some senator, and to the most distinguished +one after the præfectus urbi, rather than to one of the knights. He would +naturally receive his name from your authority as censor, (for you must +certainly be the dictator of the census), so that he might be called +sub-censor[7].--Let these two hold office for life, unless either of them +deteriorates in any way or becomes sick or superannuated. By reason of +the permanence of their positions they would do nothing dangerous, for +one would be entirely unarmed and the other would have but a few soldiers +and be acting for the most part under your eyes. By reason of their rank +they would shrink from coming into collision with any one and would be +afraid to do any act of violence, for they would foresee their retirement +to ordinary citizenship and the supremacy of others in their stead. Let +them also draw a certain salary, to compensate them for the time consumed +and to increase their reputation. This is the opinion I have to give you +in regard to these officials. + +"Let those who have been prætors hold some office among the subject +nations. Before they have been prætors I do not think they should have +this privilege. Let those who have not yet been prætors serve for one +or two terms as lieutenants to such persons as you may have designated. +Then, under these conditions, let them be consuls if they continue to +govern rightly, and after that let them take the greater positions of +command. [-22-] The following is the way I advise you to arrange it. +Divide up all of Italy which is over seven hundred and fifty stades from +the city and all the rest of the territory which owns our sway, both on +the continents and in the islands,--divide it up everywhere according to +races and nations; and pursue the same course with as many cities as are +important enough to be ruled by one man with full powers. Then establish +soldiers and a governor in each one and send out one of the ex-consuls to +take charge of all, and two of the ex-prætors. One of the latter, fresh +from the City, should have the care of private business and the supplying +of provisions: the other should be one of those who have had this +training, who will attend to the public interests of the cities and will +govern the soldiers, except in cases that concern disenfranchisement or +death. These must be referred only to the ex-consul who is governor, +except in regard to the centurions who are on the lists and to the +foremost private individuals in every place. Do not allow any other +person than yourself to punish either of these classes, so that they may +never be impelled by fear of any one else to take any action against you. +As for my proposition that the second of the ex-prætors should be put in +charge of the soldiers, it is subject to the following limitations. If +only a few are in service in foreign forts or in one native post, it is +well enough for this to be so. But if two citizen legions are wintering +in the same province (and more than this number I should not advise you +to trust to one commander), it will be necessary for the two ex-prætors +to superintend them, each having charge of one besides managing +the remaining political and private interests. Therefore, let the +ex-consul[8]... these matters and likewise on the cases, both those +subject to appeal and those already referred which are sent up to him +from[9] his prætors. And do not be surprised that I recommend to you to +divide Italy also into such sections. It is large and populous, and so +is incapable of being well managed by the governors at the capital. The +governor of any district ought to be always present and no duties should +be laid upon our city magistrates[10] that are impossible of fulfillment. + +[-23-] "Let all these men to whom affairs outside the city are committed +receive pay, the greater ones more, the inferior ones less, those of +medium importance a medium amount. They can not in a foreign land live +on their own resources nor as now stand an unlimited and uncalculated +expense. Let them govern not less than three years (unless any one of +them commits a crime), nor more than five. These limits are because +annual and short-time appointments after teaching persons what they +need to know send them back again before they can display any of their +knowledge: and, on the other hand, longer and more lasting positions fill +many with conceit and incline them to rebellion. Hence I think that +the greater posts of authority ought not to be given to persons +consecutively, without interval, for it makes no difference whether a man +is governor in the same province or in several in succession, if he holds +office longer than is proper. Appointees improve when a period of time is +allowed to elapse and they return home and live as ordinary citizens. + +"The senators, accordingly, I affirm ought to discharge these duties and +in the way described. [-24-] Of the knights the two best should command +the body-guard which protects you. To entrust it to one man is hazardous, +and to several is sure to breed turmoil. Let these prefects therefore be +two in number, in order that, if one of them suffers any bodily harm, you +may still not lack a person to guard you: and let them be appointed from +those who have been on many campaigns and have been active also in many +other capacities. Let them have command both of the Pretorians and of all +the remaining soldiers in Italy with such absolute power that they +may put to death such of them as do wrong, except in the case of the +centurions and any others who have been assigned to members of the senate +holding office. These should be tried by the senatorial magistrates +themselves, in order that the latter may have authority both to honor +and to chastise their dependents and so be able to count on their +unhesitating support. Over all the other soldiers in Italy those prefects +should have dominion (aided of course by lieutenants), and further over +the Cæsarians, both such as wait upon you and all the rest that are of +any value. These duties will be both fitting and sufficient for them to +discharge.[11] They should not have more labors laid upon them than they +will be able to dispose of effectively, that they may not be weighed down +by the press of work or find it impossible to see to everything. These +men ought to hold office for life like the præfectus urbi and the +sub-censor. Let some one else be appointed night watchman, and still +another commissioner of grain and of the other market produce, both of +these from the foremost knights after those mentioned and appointed to +hold their posts for a definite time like the magistrates elected from +the senatorial class. [-25-] The disposition of the funds, also,--of both +the people and the empire, I mean, whether in Rome or in the rest of +Italy or outside,--should be entirely in the hands of the knights. These +treasurers also, as well as all of the same class who have the management +of anything, should draw pay, some more and some less, with reference to +the dignity and magnitude of their employment. The reason is that it is +not possible for them, since they are poorer than the senators, to spend +their own means while engaged in no business in Rome. And then again, it +is neither possible nor advantageous for you that the same men should be +made masters of both the troops and the finances. Furthermore, it is well +that all the business of the empire should be transacted through a number +of agents, in order that many may receive the benefit of it and become +experienced in affairs. In this way your subjects, reaping a multiform +enjoyment from the public treasures, will be better disposed toward you, +and you will have an abundant supply of the best men on each occasion for +all necessary lines of work. One single knight with as many subordinates +(drawn from the knights and from your freedmen) as the needs of the case +demand, is sufficient for every separate form of business in the City and +for each province outside. You need to have these assistants along with +them in order that your service may contain a prize of excellence, and +that you may not lack persons from whom you may learn the truth even +contrary to the wishes of their superiors, in case there is anything +irregular happening. + +"If any one of the knights after passing through many forms of service +distinguishes himself enough to become a senator, his age ought not to +hinder him at all from being enrolled in the senate. Let some of those +even be registered who have held the post of company leaders in citizen +forces, unless it be one who has served in the rank and file; for it is +both a shame and a reproach to have on the list of the senate any of +these persons who have carried loaded panniers and charcoal baskets. But +in the case of such as were originally centurions there is nothing to +prevent the most distinguished of them from being advanced to a better +class. + +[-26-] "With regard to the senators and the knights this is my advice to +you. And, by Jupiter, I have this to say further. While they are still +children they should attend schools, and when they come out of childhood +into youth they should turn their minds to horses and arms and have paid +public teachers in each of these two departments. In this way from very +boyhood they will both learn and practice all that they must themselves +do on becoming men, and so they will prove far more serviceable to you +for every work. The best ruler, who is of any value, must not only +himself perform all his required tasks, but also look forward to see how +the rest shall become also as excellent as possible. And this name can be +yours, not if you allow them to do whatever they please and then censure +those who err, but if before any mistakes occur you teach them everything +which, when practiced, will render them more useful both to themselves +and to you. And afford nobody any excuse whatever, either wealth or +birth, or anything else that accompanies excellence, for affecting +indolence or effeminacy or any other behavior that is not genuine. Many +persons, fearing that on account of some such possession they may incur +jealousy or danger, do much that is unworthy of themselves, expecting +by such behavior to live in greater security. As a consequence they +commiserate themselves, believing themselves wronged in this very +particular, that they are not allowed to appear to live aright. Their +ruler also suffers a loss because he is deprived of the services of good +men, and suffers ill repute for the censure imposed upon them. Therefore +never permit this to be done, and have no fears that any one brought up +and educated as I propose will ever adopt a rebellious policy. Quite the +reverse; it is only the ignorant and licentious that you need suspect. +Such persons are easily influenced to behave most disgracefully and +abominably in absolutely every way first toward their own selves and next +toward other people. Those, however, who have been well brought up and +educated are purposed not to wrong any one and least of all him who cared +for their rearing and education. If any one, accordingly, shows himself +wicked and ungrateful, do not entrust him with any such position as will +enable him to effect any harm: if even so he rebels, let him be tried and +punished. Do not be afraid that any one will blame you for this, if you +carry out all my injunctions. For in taking vengeance on the wrongdoer +you will be guilty of no sin any more than the physician who burns and +cuts. All will pronounce the man justly treated, because after partaking +of the same rearing and education as the rest he plotted against +you.--This is the course of action I advise in the case of the senators +and knights. + +[-27-] "A standing army should be supported, drawn from the citizens, +the subject nations, and the allies, in one case more, in another less, +province by province, as the necessities of the case demand; and they +ought to be always under arms and make a practice of warfare continually. +They must have secured winter-quarters at the most opportune points, and +serve for a definite time, so that a certain period of active life may +remain for them before old age. For, separated so far as we are from the +frontiers of the empire, with enemies living near us on every side, we +should otherwise no longer be able to count on auxiliaries in the case of +emergencies. Again, if we allow all those of military age to have arms +and to practice warlike pursuits, quarrels and civil wars will always be +arising among them. However, if we prevent them from doing this and then +need their assistance at all in battle, we shall always have to face +danger with inexperienced and untrained soldiers at our back. For this +reason I submit the proposition that most of them live without arms +and away from forts; but that the hardiest and those most in need of a +livelihood be registered and kept in practice. They themselves will fight +better by devoting their leisure to this single business; and the rest +will the more easily farm, manage ships, and attend to the other pursuits +of peace, if they are not forced to be called out for service, but have +others to stand as their guardians. The most active and vigorous element, +that is, which is oftenest obliged to live by robbery, will be supported +without harming others, and all the rest of the population will lead a +life free from danger. + +[-28-] "From what source, then, will the money come for these warriors +and for the other expenses that will be found necessary? I shall make +this point clear, with only the short preliminary statement that even +were we under a democracy, we should in any case need money. We can not +survive without soldiers, and without pay none of them will serve. Hence +let us not feel downhearted in the belief that the compulsory collection +of money appertains only to monarchy, and let us not turn away from +the system for that reason, but conduct our deliberations with a full +knowledge of the fact that in any case it is necessary for us to obtain +funds, whatsoever form of government we may adopt. Consequently, I +maintain that you should first of all sell the goods which are in the +public treasury,--and I notice that these have become numerous on account +of the wars,--except a few which are exceedingly useful and necessary +to you: and you should loan all this money at some moderate rate of +interest. In this way the land will be worked, being delivered to men who +will cultivate it themselves, and the latter will obtain a starting-point +and so grow more prosperous, while the treasury will have a sufficient +and perpetual revenue. This amount should be computed together with all +the rest of the revenue that can be derived from the mines and with +certainty from any other source; and after that we ought to reckon on not +only the military service but everything else which contributes to the +successful life of a city, and further how much it will be necessary to +lay out in campaigns at short notice and other critical occurrences which +are wont to take place. Then, to make up the deficiency in income, we +ought to levy upon absolutely all instruments which produce any profit +for the men who possess them, and we should exact taxes from all whom we +rule. It is both just and proper that no one of them should be exempt +from taxation,--individual or people,--because they are destined to enjoy +the benefit of the taxes in common with the rest. We should set over them +tax-collectors in every case to manage the business, so that they may +levy from all sources of revenue everything that falls due during their +term of management. The following plan will render it easier for the +officers to gather the taxes and will be of no little service to those +who contribute them. I mean that they will bring in whatever they owe +in an appointed order and little by little, instead of remaining idle +a short time and then having the entire sum demanded of them in one +payment. + +[-29-] "I am not unaware that some of the incomes and taxes established +will be disliked. But I know this, too,--that if the peoples secure +immunity from any further abuse and believe in reality that they will be +contributing all of this for their own safety and for reaping subsidiary +benefits in abundance and that most of it will be obtained by no others +than men of their own district, some by governing, others by managing, +others by army service, they will be very grateful to you, giving as they +do a small portion of large possessions, the profits of which they enjoy +without oppression. Especially will this be true if they see that you +live temperately and spend nothing foolishly. Who, if he saw you very +economical of your own means and very lavish of the public funds, +would not willingly contribute, and deem your possession of wealth to +constitute his safety and prosperity? By these means a very large amount +of money would be on hand. + +[-30-] "The rest I urge you to arrange in the following way. Adorn this +city in the most expensive manner possible and add brilliance by every +form of festival. It is fitting that we who rule many people should +surpass all in everything, and such spectacles tend in a way to promote +respect on the part of our allies and alarm on the part of enemies. The +affairs of other nations you should order in this fashion. First, let the +various tribes have no power in any matter nor meet in assemblies at all. +They would decide nothing good and would always be creating more or less +turmoil. Hence I say that even our own populace ought not to gather at +court or for elections or for any other such meeting where any business +is to be transacted. Next, they should not indulge in numbers of houses +of great size and beyond what is necessary, and they should not expend +money upon many and all kinds of contests: so they will neither be worn +out by vain zeal nor become hostile through unreasonable rivalries. They +ought, however, to have certain festivals and spectacles, (apart from the +horse-race held among us), but not to such an extent that the treasury or +private estates will be injured, or any stranger be compelled to spend +anything whatever in their midst, or food for a lifetime be furnished +to all who have merely won in some contest. It is unreasonable that the +well-to-do should submit to compulsory expenditures outside their own +countries; and for the athletes the prizes for each event are sufficient. +This ruling does not apply to any one of them who might come out victor +in the Olympian or Pythian games, or some contest here at Rome.[12] Such +are the only persons who ought to be fed, and then the cities will not +exhaust themselves without avail nor anybody practice save those who have +a chance of winning, since one can follow some other pursuit that is +more advantageous both to one's self and to one's country. "This is my +decision about these matters.--Now to the horse-races which are held +without gymnastic contests, I think that no other city but ours should be +allowed to hold them, so that vast sums of money may not be dissipated +recklessly nor men go miserably frantic,--and most of all that the +soldiers may have a plentiful supply of the best horses. This, therefore, +I would forbid altogether, that those races should take place anywhere +else than here. The other amusements I have determined to moderate so +that all organizations should make the enjoyment of entertainments for +eye and ear inexpensive, and men thereby live more temperately and free +from discontent. + +"Let none of the foreigners employ their own coinage or weights or +measures, but let them all use ours. And they should send no embassy to +you, unless it involve a point for decision. Let them instead present to +their governor whatever they please and through him forward to you all +such requests of theirs as he may approve. In this way they will neither +spend anything nor effect their object by crooked practices, but receive +their answers at first hand without any expenditure or intrigue. + +[-31-] "Moreover, in respect to other matters, you would seem to be +ordering things in the best way if you should, in the first place, +introduce before the senate the embassies which come from the enemy and +from those under truce, both kings and peoples. For it is awe-inspiring +and impressive to let the senate appear to be master of all situations +and to exhibit many adversaries prepared for petitioners who are guilty +of double dealing. Next, have all the laws enacted by the senators, and +do not impose a single one upon all the people alike, except the decrees +of that body. In this way the dignity of the empire would be the more +confirmed and the decisions made in accordance with the laws would prove +indisputable and evident to all alike. Thirdly, it would be well in case +the senators who are serving in the city, their children or their wives, +are ever charged with any serious crime, so that a person convicted would +receive a penalty of disenfranchisement or exile or even death, that +you should set the situation before the senate, without any previous +condemnation, and commit to that body the entire decision at first hand +regarding it. Thus those guilty of any crime would be tried before all +their peers and punished without any ill-feeling against you. The rest, +seeing this, would improve in character for fear of being themselves +publicly apprehended. I am speaking here about those offences regarding +which laws are established, and judgments are rendered according to the +laws. + +"As for talk that some one has abused you or spoken in an unfitting way +about you, do not listen to any one who brings such an accusation nor +investigate it. It is disgraceful to believe that any one has wantonly +insulted you who are doing no wrong and benefiting all. Only those who +rule badly will credit these reports. Because of their own conscience +they surmise that the matter has been stated truthfully. It is a shame to +be angry at complaints for which, if true, one had better not have been +responsible, and about which, if false, one ought not to pretend to care. +Many in times past by angry behavior have caused more things and worse to +be said against them. This is my opinion about those accused of uttering +some insult. Your personality should be too strong and too lofty to be +assailed by any insolence, and you should never allow yourself to think +nor lead others into thinking that any person can be indecent toward you. +Thus they will think of you as of the gods, that you are sacrosanct. If +any one should be accused of plotting against you (such a thing might +happen), do not yourself sit as judge on a single detail of the case nor +reach any decision in advance,--for it is absurd that the same man should +be made both accuser and judge,--but take him to the senate and make him +plead his defence. If he be convicted, punish him, though moderating the +sentence so far as is feasible, in order that belief in his guilt may be +fostered. It is very difficult to make most men believe that any unarmed +person will plot against him who is armed. And the only way you could +gain credence would be by punishing him not in anger nor overwhelmingly, +if it be possible.--This is aside from the case of one who had an army +and should revolt directly against you. It is not fitting that such an +one be tried, but that he be chastised as an enemy. + +"In this way refer to the senate these matters and [-32-] most of the +highly important affairs that concern the commonwealth. Public interests +you must administer publicly. It is also an inbred trait of human nature +for individuals to delight in marks of esteem from a superior, which seem +to raise one to equality with him, and to approve everything which the +superior has determined after consulting them, as if it were their own +proposal, and to cherish it, as if it were their own choice. Consequently +I affirm that such business ought to be brought before the senate.--In +regard to most cases all those senators present ought equally to state +their opinions: but when one of their number is accused, not all of them +should do so, unless it be some one who is not yet a senator or is not +yet in the ranks of the ex-quæstors that is being tried. And, indeed, it +is absurd that one who has not yet been a tribune or an ædile should cast +a vote against such as have already filled these offices, or, by Jupiter, +that any one of the latter should vote against the ex-prætors or they +against the ex-consuls. Let the last named have authority to render a +decision in all cases, but the rest only in the cases of their peers and +their subordinates. + +[-33-] "You yourself must try in person the referred and the appealed +cases which come to you from the higher officials, from the procurators, +from the præfectus urbi, from the sub-censor, and the prefects, both the +commissioner of grain[13] and the night-watch.[14] No single one of them +should have such absolute powers of decision and such independence that a +case can not be appealed from him. You should be the judge, therefore +in these instances, and also when knights are concerned and properly +enrolled centurions and the foremost private citizens, if the trial +involves death or disenfranchisement. Let these be your business alone, +and for the reasons mentioned let no one else on his own responsibility +render a decision in them. You should always have associated with you +for discussion the most honored of the senators and of the knights, and +further certain others from the ranks of the ex-consuls and ex-prætors, +some at one time and some at another. In this association you will become +more accurately acquainted with their characters beforehand, and so be +able to put them to the right kind of employment, and they by coming in +contact with your habits and wishes will have them in mind on going out +to govern the provinces. Do not, however, openly ask their opinions when +a rather careful consideration is required, for fear that they, being +outside their accustomed sphere, may hesitate to speak freely; but let +them record their views on tablets. To these you alone should have +access, that they may become known to no one else, and then order the +writing to be immediately erased. In this way you may best get at each +man's exact opinion, when they believe that it can not be identified +among all the rest. + +"Moreover for the lawsuits, letters, and decrees of the cities, for the +consideration of the demands of individuals and everything else which +belongs to the administration of the empire you must have supporters and +assistants from among the knights. Everything will move along more easily +in this way, and you will neither err through want of fairness nor become +exhausted by doing everything yourself. Grant every one who wishes to +make any suggestion whatever to you the right of speaking freely and +fearlessly. If you approve what he says, it will be of great service: +and if you are not persuaded, it will do no harm. Those who obtain your +favorable judgment you should both praise and honor, since by their +devices you will receive glory: and those who fail of it you should never +dishonor or censure. It is proper to look at their intentions, and not to +find fault because their plans were unavailable. Guard against this same +mistake when war is concerned. Be not enraged at any one for involuntary +misfortune nor jealous of his good fortune, to the end that all may +zealously and gladly run risks for you, confident that if they make a +slip they will not be punished nor if successful become the objects of +intrigue. There are many who through fear of jealousy on the part of +those in power have chosen to meet reverses rather than to effect +anything. As a result they retained their safety, but the loss fell upon +their own heads. You, who are sure to reap the principal benefit from +both classes alike,--the inferior and the superior,--ought never to +choose to become nominally jealous of others, but really of yourself. + +[-34-] "Whatever you wish your subjects to think and do _you_ must +say and do. You can better educate them in this way than if you +should desire to terrify them by the severities of the laws. The former +course inspires emulation, the latter fear. And any one can more easily +imitate superior conduct, when he actually sees it in some life, than he +can guard against low behavior which he merely hears to be prohibited by +edict. Act in every way yourself with circumspection, not condoning any +mistakes of your own, for be well assured that all will straightway learn +everything you say and do. You will live as it were in a kind of theatre, +whose audience is the whole world: and it will not be possible for you to +escape detection if you commit the very smallest error. No act of yours +will ever be in private, but all of them will be performed in the midst +of many persons. And all the remainder of mankind somehow take the +greatest delight in being officious with respect to what is done by their +rulers. Hence, if they once ascertain that you are urging them to one +course and following a different one yourself, they will not fear your +threats, but will imitate your deeds. + +"Have an eye to the lives of others, but do not carry your investigations +unpleasantly close. Decide cases which are brought before you by +outsiders, but do not pretend to notice conduct that receives no +outspoken censure from any one, except irregularities not consonant with +public interest. The latter ought to be properly rebuked, even if no one +has aught to say against them. Other private failings you ought to know, +in order to avoid making a mistake some day by employing an assistant +unsuitable for a particular duty: do not, however, take individuals to +task. Their natures impel many persons to commit various violations of +the law. If you make an unsparing campaign against them, you might leave +scarcely one man unpunished. But if you humanely mingle consideration +with the strict command of the law, you may perhaps bring them to their +senses. For the law, though necessarily severe in its punishments, can +not always conquer nature. Some men, if permitted to think they are +unobserved, or if moderately admonished, improve, some through shame +at being discovered and others through fear of failure the next time. +Whereas when they are openly denounced and throw compunction to the +winds, or where they are chastised beyond measure, they overturn and +trample under foot all law and order and obey slavishly the impulses of +their nature. Therefore it is not easy to discipline all of them nor is +it fitting to allow some of them to continue publicly their outrageous +conduct. + +"This is the way I advise you to treat people's offences, except the very +desperate cases: and you should honor even beyond the deserts of the deed +whatever they do rightly. In this way you can best make them refrain from +baser conduct by kindliness and cause them to aim at what is better by +liberality. Have no dread that either money or other means of rewarding +those who do well will ever fail you. I think those deserving of good +treatment will prove far fewer than the rewards, since you are lord of so +much land and sea. And fear not that any who are benefited will commit +some act of ingratitude. Nothing so captivates and conciliates any one, +be he foreigner or be he foe, as freedom from wrongs and likewise kindly +treatment. + +[-35-] "This is the attitude which I urge you to assume toward others. +For your own part allow no extraordinary or overweening distinction to +be given you through word or deed by the senate or by anybody else. To +others honor which you confer lends adornment, but to your own self +nothing can be given that is greater than what you already have, and it +would arouse no little suspicion of failure in straightforwardness. None +of the ordinary people willingly approves of having any such distinction +voted to the man in power. As he receives everything of the kind +from himself, he not only obtains no praise for it but becomes a +laughing-stock instead. Any additional brilliance, then, you must create +for yourself by your good deeds. Never permit gold or silver images of +yourself to be made; they are not only costly, but they give rise to +plots and last but a brief time: you must build in the very hearts of +men others out of benefits conferred, which shall be both unalloyed and +undying. Again, do not ever allow a temple to be raised to yourself. +Large amounts of money are spent uselessly on such objects, which had +better be laid out upon necessary improvements. Great wealth is gathered +not so much by acquiring a great deal as by not spending a great deal. +Nor does a temple contribute anything to any one's glory. Excellence +raises many men to the level of the gods, but nobody ever yet was made a +god by show of hands. Hence if you are upright and rule well, the whole +earth will be your precinct, all cities your temple, all mankind your +statues. In their thoughts you will ever be enshrined and surrounded by +good repute. Those who administer their power in any other way are not +only not magnified by sites and edifices of worship, though these be +the choicest in all the cities, but erect for themselves therein mute +detractors which become trophies of their baseness, memorials of their +injustice. And the longer these last, the more steadfastly does the +ill-repute of such sovereigns abide. [-36-] Therefore if you desire to +become in very truth immortal, act in this way; and further, reverence +the Divine Power yourself everywhere in every way, following our fathers' +belief, and compel others to honor it. Those who introduce strange ideas +about it you should both hate and punish, not only for the sake of the +gods (because if a man despises them he will esteem naught else sacred) +but because such persons by bringing in new divinities persuade many to +adopt foreign principles of law. As a result conspiracies, factions, and +clubs arise which are far from desirable under a monarchy. Accordingly, +do not grant any atheist or charlatan the right to be at large. The art +of soothsaying is a necessary one and you should by all means appoint +some men to be diviners and augurs, to whom people can resort who desire +to consult them on any matter; but there ought to be no workers of magic +at all. Such men tell partly truth but mostly lies, and frequently +inspire many of their followers to rebel. The same thing is true of many +who pretend to be philosophers. Hence I urge you to be on your guard +against them. Do not, because you have come in contact with such +thoroughly admirable men as Areus and Athenodorus, think that all +the rest who say they are philosophers are like them. Some use this +profession as a screen to work untold harm to both populace and +individuals. + +[-37-] "Your spirit, then, because you have no desire for anything more +than you possess, ought to be most peaceful, whereas your equipment +should be most warlike, in order that no one ordinarily may either wish +or try to harm you, but if he should, that he may be punished easily and +instantly. For these and other reasons it is requisite for some persons +to keep their ears and eyes open to everything appertaining to your +position of authority, in order that you may not fail to notice anything +which needs guarding against or setting right. Remember, however, that +you must not trust merely to all they say, but investigate their words +carefully. There are many who, some through hatred of certain persons, +others out of desire for what they possess, or as a favor to some one, or +because they ask money and do not receive it, oppress others under the +pretext that the latter are rebellious or are guilty of harboring some +design or uttering some statement against the supreme ruler. Therefore it +is not right to pay immediate or ready attention to them, but to enquire +into absolutely everything. If you are slow in believing anybody, you +will suffer no great harm, but if you are hasty, you may make a mistake +which can not easily be repaired. + +"Now it is both right and necessary for you to honor the excellent both +among the freedmen and among the rest of your associates. This will +afford you great renown and security. They must, however not have any +extraordinary powers but all carefully moderate their conduct, that +so you may not be ill spoken of through them. For everything they do, +whether well or ill, will be accredited to you, and the estimate of +yourself to be made by all men will depend upon what you permit these +persons to do. + +"Do not, then, allow the influential either to make unjust gains or to +concern themselves with blackmail: and let no one be complained of for +'having influence', even if he is otherwise irreproachable. Defend the +masses vigorously when they are wronged and do not attend too easily to +accusations against them. Examine every deed on its merits, not being +suspicious of every one who is prominent nor believing every one who is +lower in the social scale. Those who are active and are the authors of +any useful device you must honor, but the idle or such as busy themselves +with petty foolishness you must hate. Thus your subjects will be inclined +to the former conduct because of the benefits attached and will refrain +from the latter on account of the penalties, and will become better +as individuals and more serviceable for your employment in the public +service. + +"It is an excellent achievement also to render private disputes as few as +possible and their settlement as rapid as may be. But it is best of all +to cut short the impetuosity of communities, and, if under guise of some +appeals to your sovereignty and safety and good fortune they undertake to +use force upon anybody or to undertake exploits or expenditures that are +beyond their power, not to permit it. You should abolish altogether their +enmities and rivalries among themselves and not authorize them to create +any empty titles or anything else which will breed differences between +them. All will readily obey you both in this and in every other matter, +private and public, if you never permit any one to transgress this rule. +Non-enforcement of laws makes null and void even wisely framed precepts. +Consequently you should not allow persons to ask for what you are not +accustomed to give. Try to compel them to avoid diligently this very +practice of petitioning for something prohibited. This is what I have to +say on that subject. + +[-38-] "I advise you never to make use of your authority against all the +citizens at once nor to deem it in any way curtailed if you do not do +absolutely everything that is within your power. But in proportion as you +are able to carry out all your wishes, you must be anxious to wish only +what is proper, make always a self-examination, to see whether what you +are doing is right or not, what conduct will cause people to love you, +and what not, in order that you may perform the one set of acts and avoid +the other. Do not admit the thought that you will sufficiently escape +the reputation of acting contrary to this rule, if only you hear no one +censuring you; and do not look for any one to be so mad as to reproach +you openly for anything. No one would do this, not even if he should be +violently wronged. Quite the reverse,--many are compelled in public to +praise their oppressors, and while engaged in opposition not to manifest +their wrath. The ruler must infer the disposition of people not from what +they say but from the way it is natural for them to feel. + +[-39-] "This and a similar policy is the one I wish you to pursue. I pass +over many matters because it is not feasible to speak of them all at one +time and within present limits. One suggestion therefore I will make to +sum up both previous remarks and whatever is lacking. If you yourself by +your own motion do whatever you would wish some one else who ruled you +to do, you will make no mistakes and will be always successful, and +consequently your life will be most pleasant and free from danger. How +can all fail to regard you and to love you as father and preserver, when +they see you are orderly, leading a good life, good at warfare, but a man +of peace: when you are not wanton, do not defraud: when you meet them +on a footing of equality, and do not yourself grow rich while demanding +money from others: are not yourself given to luxury while imposing +hardships upon others: are not yourself unbridled while reproving others: +when, instead, your life in every way without exception is precisely +like theirs? Be of good cheer, for you have in your own hands a great +safeguard by never wronging another. And believe me when I tell you that +you will never be the object of hatred or plots. Since this is so, you +must quite inevitably lead a pleasant life. What is pleasanter, what is +more conducive to prosperity, than to enjoy in a rightful way all the +blessings among men and to have the power of granting them to others? + +[-40-] "With this in mind, together with all the rest that I have told +you, heed my advice and let not that fortune slip which has chosen you +out of all and set you at the head of all. If you would choose the +substance of monarch but fear the name of 'kingdom' as accursed, then +refrain from taking possession of the latter and be satisfied to employ +merely the title of 'Cæsar.' If you need any further appellations, they +will give you that of _Imperator_, as they gave it to your father. They +will reverence you also by still another name, so that you may obtain all +the advantages of a kingdom without the disfavor that attaches to the +term itself." + +[-41-] Mæcenas thus brought his speech to an end. Cæsar thanked them both +heartily for their many ideas, the exhaustiveness of their exposition, +and their frankness. He rather inclined, however, to the proposition of +Mæcenas. Yet he did not immediately put into practice all of the other's +suggestions, for fear that he might meet with some setback if he wanted +to reform men in multitudes. So he made some changes for the better at +once and others later. He left some things also for those who should +come to the head of the State afterward to do, as might be found more +opportune in the progress of time. Agrippa coöperated with him in all his +projects quite zealously, in spite of having stated a contrary opinion, +just as if he had been the one to propose the plan. Cæsar did this and +what I have recorded earlier in the narrative in that year when he was +consul for the seventh time, and added the title of _Imperator_. I do not +refer to the title anciently granted some persons for victories,--this he +received many times before and many times later for his deeds themselves, +so that he had the name of imperator twenty-one times,--but to the other +one which signifies supreme power, just as they had voted to his father +Cæsar and to the children and descendants of the same. + +[-42-] After this he entered upon a censorship with Agrippa and besides +setting aright some other business he investigated the senate. Many +knights and many foot-soldiers, too, who did not deserve it were in the +senate as a result of the civil wars, so that the total of that body +amounted to a thousand. These he wished to remove, but did not himself +erase any of their names, urging them to become their own judges out of +the consciousness of their family and their life. So first he persuaded +fifty of them to retire voluntarily from the assemblage and then +compelled one hundred and forty others to imitate their example. He +disenfranchised none of them, but posted the names of the second +division. In the case of the first, because they had not delayed but had +straightway obeyed him, he remitted the reproach and their identity was +not made public. These accordingly returned willingly to private life. He +ousted Quintus Statilius, very much against the latter's will, from the +tribuneship to which he had been appointed. Some others he made senators, +and he counted among the ex-consuls two men of the senatorial class,--a +certain Cluvius and Gaius Furnius,--because they had been appointed +first, though certain others had taken possession of their offices +so that they were unable to become consuls. He added to the class of +patricians, the senate allowing him to do this because most of its +members had perished. No element is exhausted so fast in civil wars as +the nobility or is deemed to be so necessary for the continuance of +ancestral customs. In addition to the above measures he forbade all +persons in the senate to go outside of Italy, unless he himself should +order or permit any one of them to do so. This custom is still kept up at +the present day. Except that he may visit Sicily and Gallia Narbonensis +no senator is allowed to go anywhere out of the country. As these regions +are close at hand and the population is unarmed and peaceful, those who +have any possessions there have been granted the right to take trips to +them as often as they like, without asking leave.--Since also he saw that +many of the senators and of the others who had been devoted to Antony +still maintained an attitude of suspicion toward him, and as he was +afraid they might cause some uprising, he announced that all the letters +found in his rival's chest had been burned. Some of them as a matter of +fact had perished, but the majority of them he took pains to preserve and +did not even hesitate to use them later. + +[-43-] Besides these acts related he also settled Carthage anew, because +Lepidus had laid waste a part of it and for that reason he maintained +that the colonists' rights of settlement had been abrogated. He summoned +Antiochus of Commagene to appear before him because this prince had +treacherously slain an envoy despatched to Rome by his brother, who was +at variance with him. Cæsar brought him before the senate, where he was +condemned and the sentence of death imposed. Capreæ was also obtained +from the Neapolitans, to whom it had anciently belonged, in exchange for +other land. It lies not far from the mainland opposite Surrentum and is +good for nothing but has a name even now on account of Tiberius's sojourn +there.--These were the events of that period. + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: anagchastae] (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 2: The same Strabo who is mentioned in the early part of +chapter 28, Book Forty-four.] + +[Footnote 3: There is a gap here in the Greek text. The conclusion of +Agrippa'a speech is missing, as is also the earlier portion of Mæcenas's, +with some brief preface thereto. In the next chapter we are full in the +midst of the opposite argument,--in favor, namely, of the assumption of +supreme power by Octavius Cæsar.] + +[Footnote 4: Cobet prefers to read "fearlessly" (substituting [Greek: +hadeos] for [Greek: aedeos]).] + +[Footnote 5: Dio seems here to be imitating, in his phraseology, +Thukydides (VII, 25). The proper reading is [Greek: peri herma] (two +words), not [Greek: perierma] as in some of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 6: Dindorf's reading (Greek: _gunaichon te ton prosaechouson +autois_).] + +[Footnote 7: Compare Suetonius, _Augustus_, chapter 37. In practice there +were six of them,--three to nominate senators, and three to make a review +of the knights.] + +[Footnote 8: Here some words have evidently fallen out of the text.] + +[Footnote 9: Reading [Greek: hapo] with Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 10: Reading [Greek: archousi] (MSS. and Boissevain) instead of +[Greek: archomenois] (Xylander).] + +[Footnote 11: Adopting Boissevain's reading (Greek: diagein estai).] + +[Footnote 12: A reference particularly to the ludi Capitolini, founded by +Domitian.] + +[Footnote 13: Latin, _præfectus annonæ_.] + +[Footnote 14: Latin, _præfectus vigilum_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +53 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-third of Dio's Rome: + +How the temple of Apollo on the Palatine was consecrated (chapters 1, 2). + +How Cæsar delivered in the senate a speech as if retiring from the +sovereignty; and thereafter assigned to that body its proper provinces +(chapters 3-12). + +About the appointment of the governors sent to the provinces (chapters +13-15). + +How Cæsar was given the title of Augustus (chapter 16). + +About the names which the emperors assume (chapters 17-22). + +How the Sæpta were consecrated (chapters 23, 24). + +How Cæsar fought against Astures and Cantabri (chapter 25). + +How Gaul began to be governed Romans (chapter 26). + +How the Portico of Neptune and the Baths of Agrippa were dedicated +(chapter 27). + +How the Pantheon was dedicated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus was released from the obligation of obeying the laws +(chapter 28). + +How an expedition was made into Arabia Felix (chapters 29-33). + +Duration of time six years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated. + +Cæsar (VI), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (II). (B.C. 28 = a. u. 726.) + +Cæsar (VII), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (III). (B.C. 27 = a. u. 727.) + +Cæsar Augustus (VIII), T. Statilius T.F. Taurus (II). (B.C. 26 = a. u. +728.) + +Augustus (IX), M. lunius M.F. Silanus. (B.C. 25 = a. u. 729.) + +Augustus (X), C. Norbanus C.F.C.N. Flaccus. (B.C. 24 = a. u. 730.) + +Augustus (XI), Cn. Calpurnius Cn.F.Cn.N. Piso. (B.C. 23 = a. u. 731.) + + +_(BOOK 53, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 28 (_a. u._ 726)] + +[-1-] The following year Cæsar held office for the sixth time and did +everything according to the usage approved from very early times, +delivering to Agrippa his colleague the bundles of rods which belonged +to an incumbent of the consulship, while he himself used the others. On +completing his term he had the oath administered according to ancestral +custom. Whether he ever did this again I do not know. Agrippa he honored +exceedingly, even going so far as to give him his niece in marriage and +to provide him with a tent similar to his own whenever they went on a +campaign together; and the watchword was given by both of them. At that +particular time besides attending to the ordinary run of business he +finished the taking of the census, in which he was called _Princeps +Senatus_, as had been deemed proper under the real democracy. He further +completed and dedicated the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, the +precinct surrounding it, and the stores of books. And he celebrated in +company with Agrippa the festival in honor of the victory won at Actium, +which had been voted: in it he had the horse-race between boys and +between men of the nobility. This celebration every five years, as long +as it lasted, was in charge of the four priesthoods in succession,--I +mean the pontifices and augurs and the so-called septemviri and +quindecimviri. A gymnastic contest was also held at that time,--a wooden +stadium being built in the Campus Martius,--and there was an armed combat +of captives. This continued for several days without a break, in spite of +Cæsar's falling sick; for even so Agrippa filled his place. + +[-2-] Cæsar spent some of his private means upon the festivals, and when +money was needed for the public treasury he borrowed it and supplied the +want. For the management of this branch of the service he ordered two +annual magistrates to be chosen from among the ex-prætors. To the +populace he distributed a quadruple allowance of grain and made a present +of money to some of the senators. For many of them had grown so poor as +not to be willing to be even ædile on account of the great expenses. +Moreover the courts which belonged to the ædileship were to be assigned +to the prætors as had been the custom, the more important to the prætor +urbanus and the others to the prætor peregrinus. Again, he himself +appointed the prætor urbanus, as he often did subsequently. The pledges +deposited with the public treasury before the battle of Actium he +released, save any that involved house property, and burned the old +acknowledgments of those who owed the State anything. Egyptian rites +he did not admit within the pomerium, but paid great attention to +the temples of Egyptian deities. Such as had been built by private +individuals he ordered their children and descendants, if any survived, +to repair, and the rest he restored himself. He did not, however, +appropriate the credit for their building but allowed it to rest with +those who had originally constructed them. And since very many unlawful +and unjust ordinances had been passed during the internecine strifes and +in the wars, and particularly in the dual reign of Antony and Lepidus, he +abolished them all by one promulgation, setting his sixth consulship as +the limit of their existence. As he obtained approbation and praise for +this act he desired to exhibit another instance of magnanimity, that by +such a policy he might be honored the more and that his supremacy might +be voluntarily confirmed by the people, which would enable him to +avoid the appearance of having forced them against their will. As a +consequence, after apprising those senators with whom he was most +intimate of his designs, he entered the senatorial body in his seventh +consulship and read the following document. + +[B.C. 27 (_a. u._ 727)] + +[-3-] "I am sure that I shall seem to some of you, Conscript Fathers, to +have made an incredible choice. For what each one of my hearers would not +wish to do himself, he does not like to believe when another states it as +accomplished. This is chiefly because every one is jealous of every one +who surpasses him and is more or less inclined to distrust anything said +that is higher than his own standard.[1] Moreover I know this, that those +who make apparently untrustworthy statements not only persuade nobody but +further have the appearance of cheats. And, indeed, if it were a case of +announcing something that I was not intending to do immediately, I should +hesitate very much about making it public, for fear of obtaining some +unworthy charge against me instead of gratitude. But, as it is, when +the performance will follow the promise this very day, I feel entirely +confident not only of avoiding any shame for prevarication but of +surpassing all mankind in good repute. [-4-] You all see that I am so +situated that I could rule you perpetually. All the revolutionists either +have been disciplined and been made to halt or have had pity shown them +and so have come to their senses. My helpers have been made devoted by +a recompense of benefits and steadfast by a participation in the +government: therefore they do not desire any political innovations, and +if anything of the sort should take place, the men to assist me are even +more ready for it than the instigators of rebellion. My military is in +prime condition, we have good-will, strength, money, and allies, and +chiefest of all you and the people are so disposed toward me that you +would be quite willing to have me at your head. However, I will lead you +no longer, nor shall any one say that all the acts of my previous career +have been with the object of sole rulership. I give up the entire domain, +and I restore to you absolutely everything,--the arms, the laws, and the +provinces,--not only all those which you committed to me but also all +that I myself subsequently acquired for you. Thus by my deeds themselves +you may ascertain that I did not from the outset desire any position of +power, but wished in very truth to avenge my father cruelly murdered and +to extricate the city from great and continuous evils. [-5-] I would that +I had never taken charge of affairs even to the present extent. That is, +I would that the city had never needed me for any such purpose, but that +we of this age had from the outset lived in peace and harmony as our +fathers once did. But since an inflexible fate, as it seems, brought you +to a place where there was need even of me, though I was still young, +and I was put to the test, I was always ready to labor zealously at +everything even beyond what was expected of my years, so long as the +situation demanded my help, and I accomplished everything with good +fortune, even surpassing my powers. There was not one consideration out +of all that might be cited which could turn me from aiding you when you +were in danger, not toil or fear or threats of foes or prayers of friends +or the numbers of the confederates or the desperation of our adversaries. +I gave myself to you unsparingly for all the tasks that fell to our +lot, and my performances and sufferings you know. From it I myself have +derived no gain except that I caused my country to survive, but you are +both preserved and in your sober senses. Since, then, the gracious act +of Fortune has restored to you by my hands peace without treachery and +harmony without turmoil, receive back also liberty and democracy. +Take possession of the arms and the subject nations, and conduct the +government as has been your wont. + +[-6-] "You should not be surprised at my attitude when you see my right +conduct in other ways, my mildness and freedom from meddling, and reflect +moreover that I have never accepted any extraordinary privilege, beyond +what the majority might gain, though you have often voted many of them to +me. Do not, again, condemn me for folly because, when it is in my power +to rule over you and hold so great a sovereignty over this great world, I +am unwilling. Examining the merits of the situation I deem it most just +for you to manage your own affairs: examining the advantages, I regard it +as most advantageous to myself to be free from trouble, from jealousy, +from plots, and for you to conduct a free government with moderation and +love: examining where the glory lies (for the sake of which men often +choose to enter war and danger), will it not add most to my reputation +to resign so great a dominion? Will it not be most glorious to leave so +exalted a sovereignty and voluntarily become a plain citizen? So if any +one of you doubts that any one else could show true moderation in this +and bring himself to speak out, let him at all events believe me. For, +though I could recite many great benefits which have been conferred upon +you by me and by my father for which you would naturally love and honor +us above all the rest, I could say nothing greater and I should take +pride in nothing else more than this, that he would not accept the +monarchy which you strove to give him, and that I, holding it, lay it +aside. + +[-7-] "What need to set side by side his separate exploits,--the conquest +of Gaul, the subduing of Moesia, the subjugation of Egypt, the enslaving +of Pannonia? Or again Pharnaces, Juba, Phraates, the campaign against +the Britons, the crossing of the Rhine? Yet these are greater and more +important deeds than all our forefathers performed in all previous time. +Still, any of these accomplishments scarcely deserves a place beside my +present act, nor yet, indeed, does the fact that the civil wars, the +greatest and most diverse that have occurred in the history of man, we +fought to a successful finish, and that we made humane terms, overcoming +all who withstood us, as enemies, and saving alive all who yielded, as +friends; (so that if our city should ever again be fated to suffer from +disaffection, we might pray that the quarrel should follow this same +course). For that in spite of our possessing such great power and +standing at the summit of excellence and good fortune so that we might +govern you willing or unwilling, we should neither lose our heads nor +desire sole supremacy, but that instead he should reject it when offered +and I return it when given is a superhuman achievement. I speak in this +way not for idle boasting,--I should not have said it at all if I were +to derive any advantage whatever from it,--but in order that you may see +that whereas there are many public benefits to our credit and we have +in private many lofty titles, we take greatest pride in this, that what +others desire to gain even by doing violence to their neighbors we +surrender without any compulsion. + +[-8-] Who could be found more magnanimous than I (not to mention again +my father deceased) or whose conduct more godlike? With so many fine +soldiers at my back and citizens and allies (O Jupiter and Hercules!), +that love me, supreme over the entire sea within the Pillars of Hercules +except a very few tribes, possessing both cities and provinces on all the +continents, at a time when there is no longer any foreign enemy opposing +me and there is no disturbance at home, but you all are at peace, +harmonious and strong, and greatest of all are willingly obedient,--under +such conditions I voluntarily, of my own motion, resign so great a +dominion and alienate so vast a property. For if Horatius, Mucius, +Curtius, Regulus, the Decii wished to encounter danger and death with the +object of seeming to have done a great and noble deed, why should I not +even more desire to do this as a result of which I shall while alive +excel both them and all the rest of mankind in glory? No one of you +should think that whereas the ancient Romans pursued excellence and good +repute, all manliness has now become extinct in the city. Again, do not +entertain a suspicion that I wish to betray you and confide you to any +base fellows or expose you to mob rule, from which nothing good but all +the most terrible evils always result to mankind. Upon you, upon you, the +most excellent and prudent, I lay all public interests. The other course +I should never have followed, had it been necessary for me to die or even +to become monarch ten thousand times. This policy I adopt for my own +good and for that of the city. I myself have undergone both labors +and hardships and I can no longer hold out either in mind or in body. +Furthermore I foresee the jealousy and hatred which rises in the breasts +of some against the best men, and the plots which result from those +feelings; and for that reason I choose rather to be a private citizen +with glory than to be a monarch in danger. And the public business would +be managed much better if carried on publicly and by many people at once +than if it were dependent upon any one man. + +[-9-] "For these reasons, then, I supplicate and beseech all of you both +to commend my course and to coöperate heartily with me, reflecting upon +all that I have done for you in war and in government. You will be paying +me all the thanks due for it by allowing me now at last to lead a life of +quiet. Thus you will come to know that I understand not only how to rule +but to be ruled, and that all commands which I have laid upon others I +can endure to have laid upon me. I must surely expect to live in security +and to suffer no harm from any one by either deed or word, such is the +confidence (based upon the consciousness of my own rectitude) that I have +in your good-will. I may of course meet with some catastrophe, as happens +to many; for it is not possible for a man to please everybody, especially +when he has been involved in so great wars, some foreign and some civil, +and has had affairs of such magnitude entrusted to him: yet even so, I +am quite ready to choose to die as a private citizen before my appointed +time rather than to become immortal as a sole ruler. That very +circumstance will bring me fame,--that I not only murdered no one in +order to hold possession of the sovereignty but even died untimely in +order to avoid becoming monarch. The man who has dared to slay me will +certainly be punished by Heaven and by you, as took place in the case +of my father. He was declared to be equal to a god and obtained eternal +honors, whereas those who slew him perished, the evil men, in evil +plight. We could not become deathless, yet by living well and by dying +well we do in a sense gain this boon. Therefore I, who possess the first +requisite and hope to possess the second, return to you the arms and the +provinces, the revenues and the laws. I make only this final suggestion, +that you be not disheartened through fear of the magnitude of affairs or +the difficulty of handling them, nor neglect them in disdain, with the +idea that they can be easily managed. + +[-10-] "I have, indeed, no objection to suggesting to you in a summary +way what ought to be done in each of the leading categories. And what +are these suggestions? First, guard vigilantly the established laws and +change none of them. What remains fixed, though it be inferior, is more +advantageous than what is always subject to innovations, even though it +seem to be superior. Next, whatever injunctions these laws lay upon you +be careful to perform, and to refrain from whatever they forbid, and do +this scrupulously not only in word but also in deed, not only in public +but in private, that you may obtain not penalties but honors. The offices +both of peace and of war you should entrust to those who are each time +the most excellent and sensible, without jealousy of any persons, and +entering into rivalry not that this man or that man may reap some +advantage but that the city may be preserved and prosperous. Such men you +must honor but chastise those who show any different spirit in politics. +Make your private means public property of the city, and keep your hands +off public money as you would off your neighbors' goods. Keep careful +watch over what belongs to you but be not eager for that upon which you +can have no claim. Treat the allies and subject nations with neither +insolence nor rapacity, and neither wrong nor fear the enemy. Have your +arms always in hand, but do not use them against one another nor against +a peaceful population. Give the soldiers a sufficient support, so that +they may not on account of want desire anything which belongs to others. +Keep them together and discipline them, to prevent their doing any damage +through audacity. + +"But why need I make a long story by going into everything which it is +your duty to do? You may easily understand from this how the remaining +business must be conducted. I will close with this one remark. If you +conduct the government in this way, you will enjoy prosperity yourselves +and you will gratify me, who found you in the midst of wretched dishonor +and have rendered you such as you are. If you prove impotent to carry out +any single branch as you should, you will cause me regret and you will +cast the city again into many wars and great dangers." + +[-11-] While Cæsar was engaged in setting his decision before them, a +varied feeling took possession of the senators. A few of them knew his +real intention and as a result they kept applauding him enthusiastically. +Of the rest some were suspicious of what was said and others believed +in it, and therefore both marveled equally, the one class at his great +artifice and the other at the determination that he had reached. One side +was displeased at his involved scheming and the other at his change +of mind. For already there were some who detested the democratic +constitution as a breeder of factional difficulties, were pleased at the +change of government, and took delight in Cæsar. Consequently, though +the announcement affected different persons differently, their views in +regard to it were in each case the same. As for those who believed his +sentiments to be genuine, any who wished it could not rejoice because of +fear, nor the others lament because of hopes. And as many as disbelieved +it did not venture to accuse him and confute him, some because they were +afraid and others because they did not care to do so. Hence they all +either were compelled or pretended to believe him. As for praising him, +some did not have the courage and others were unwilling. Even in the +midst of his reading there were frequent shouts and afterward many more. +The senators begged that a monarchy be established, and directed all +their remarks to that end until (naturally) they forced him to assume the +reins of government. At once they saw to it that twice as much pay was +voted to the men who were to compose his body-guard as to the rest of the +soldiers, that this might incite the men to keep a careful watch of him. +Then he began to show a real interest in setting up a monarchy. + +[-12-] In this way he had his headship ratified by the senate and the +people. As he wished even so to appear to be democratic in principle, +he accepted all the care and superintendence of public business on the +ground that it required expert attention, but said that he should not +personally govern all the provinces and those that he did govern he +should not keep in his charge perpetually. The weaker ones, because +(as he said) they were peaceful and free from war, he gave over to the +senate. But the more powerful he held in possession because they were +slippery and dangerous and either had enemies in adjoining territory or +on their own account were able to cause a great uprising. His pretext was +that the senate should fearlessly gather the fruits of the finest portion +of the empire, while he himself had the labors and dangers: his real +purpose was that by this plan the senators be unarmed and unprepared for +battle, while he alone had arms and kept soldiers. Africa and Numidia, +Asia and Greece with Epirus, the Dalmatian and Macedonian territories, +Sicily, Crete, and Libya adjacent to Cyrene, Bithynia with the adjoining +Pontus, Sardinia and Baetica, were consequently held to belong to +the people and the senate. Cæsar's were--the remainder of Spain, the +neighborhood of Tarraco and Lusitania, all Gauls (the Narbonensian and +the Lugdunensian, the Aquitani and the Belgæ), both themselves and the +aliens among them. Some of the Celtae whom we call Germani had occupied +all the Belgic territory near the Rhine and caused it to be called +Germania, the upper part extending to the sources of the river and the +lower part reaching to the Ocean of Britain. These provinces, then, +and the so-called Hollow Syria, Phoenicia and Cilicia, Cyprus and the +Egyptians, fell at that time to Cæsar's share. Later he gave Cyprus and +Gaul adjacent to Narbo back to the people, and he himself took Dalmatia +instead. This was also done subsequently in the case of other provinces, +as the progress of my narrative will show. I have enumerated these in +such detail because now each one of them is ruled separately, whereas in +old times and for a long period the provinces were governed two and three +together. The others I have not mentioned because some of them were +acquired later, and the rest, even if they had been already subdued, were +not being governed by the Romans, but either were left to enjoy their own +laws or had been turned over to some kingdom or other. All of them that +after this came into the Roman empire were attached to the possessions +of the man temporarily in power.--This, then, was the division of the +provinces. + +[-13-] Wishing to lead the Romans still further away from the idea +that he looked upon himself as absolute monarch, Cæsar undertook the +government of the regions given him for ten years. In the course of this +time he promised to reduce them to quiet and he carried his playfulness +to the point of saying that if they should be sooner pacified, he would +deliver them sooner to the senate. Thereupon he first appointed the +senators themselves to govern both classes of provinces except Egypt. +This land alone, for the reasons mentioned, he assigned to the knight +previously named.[2] Next he ordained that the rulers of senatorial +provinces should be annual magistrates, elected by lot, unless any one +had the special privilege accorded to a large number of children or +marriage. They were to be sent out by the assembly of the senate as a +body, with no sword at their side nor wearing the military garb. The name +proconsul was to belong not only to the two ex-consuls but also to +the rest who had served as prætors or who at least held the rank of +ex-prætors. Both classes were to employ as many lictors as were usual in +the capital. He ordered further that they were to put on the insignia of +their office immediately on leaving the pomerium and were to wear them +continually until they should return. The heads of imperial provinces, on +the other hand, were to be chosen by himself and be his agents, and they +were to be named proprætors even if they were from the ranks of the +ex-consuls. Of these two names which had been extremely common under the +democracy he gave that of prætor to the class chosen by him because +from very early times war had been their care, and he called them also +proprætors: the name of consul he gave to the others, because their +duties were more peaceful, and called them in addition proconsuls. These +particular names of prætor and consul he continued in Italy, and spoke of +all officials outside as governing as their representatives. He caused +the class of his own choosing to employ the title of proprætor and to +hold office for as much longer than a year as should please him, wearing +the military costume and having a sword with which they are empowered to +punish soldiers. No one else, proconsul or proprætor or procurator, who +is not empowered to kill a soldier, has been given the privilege of +wearing a sword. It is permitted not only to senators but also to knights +who have this function. This is the condition of the case.--All the +proprætors alike employ six lictors: as many of them as do not belong to +the number of ex-consuls are named from this very number.[3] Both classes +alike assume the decorations of their position of authority when they +enter their appointed district and lay them aside immediately upon +finishing their term. + +[-14-] It is thus and on these conditions that governors from among the +ex-prætors and ex-consuls have been customarily sent to both kinds +of provinces. The emperor would send one of them on his mission +whithersoever and whenever he wished. Many while acting as prætors and +consuls secured the presidency of provinces, as sometimes happens at the +present day. In the case of the senate he privately gave Africa and Asia +to the ex-consuls and all the other districts to the ex-prætors. He +publicly forbade all the senators to cast lots for anybody until five +years after such a candidate had held office in the City. For a short +time all persons that fulfilled these requirements, even if they were +more numerous than the provinces, drew lots for them. Later, as some +of them did not govern well, this I appointment, too, reverted to the +emperor. Thus they also in a sense receive their position from him, and +he ordains that only a number equal to the number of provinces shall draw +lots, and that they shall be whatever men he pleases. Some emperors have +sent men of their own choosing there also, and have allowed certain of +them to hold office for more than a year: some have assigned certain +provinces to knights instead of to senators. + +These were the customs thus established at that time in regard to those +senators that were authorized to execute the death penalty upon their +subjects. Some who have not this authority are sent out to the provinces +called "provinces of the senate and the people",--namely, such quæstors +as the lot may designate and men who are co-assessors with those who hold +the actual authority. This would be the correct way to speak of these +associates, with reference not to the ordinary name but to their duties: +others call these also _presbeutai_, using the Greek term; about this +title enough has been said in the foregoing narrative. Each separate +official chooses his own assessors, the exprætors selecting one from +either their peers or their inferiors, and the ex-consuls three from +among those of equal rank, subject to the approval of the emperor. + +There were certain innovations made also in regard to these men, but +since they soon lapsed this is sufficient to say here. + +[-15-] This is the method followed in regard to the provinces of the +people. To the others, called provinces of the emperor, which have more +than one citizenlegion, lieutenants are sent chosen by the ruler himself, +generally from the ex-prætors but in some instances already from the +ex-quæstors or those who had held some office between the two. Those +positions, then, appertain to the senators. + +From among the knights the emperor himself despatches, some to the +citizen posts alone but others to foreign places (according to the +custom then instituted by [the same] Cæsar), the military tribunes, the +prospective senators and the remainder, concerning whose difference in +rank I have previously spoken in the narrative.[4] The procurators (a +name that we give to the men who collect the public revenues and spend +what is ordered) he sends to all the provinces alike, his own and the +people's, and some of these officers belong to the knights, others to the +freedmen. By way of exception the proconsuls levy the tribute upon +the people they govern. The emperor gives certain injunctions to the +procurators, the proconsuls, and the proprætors, in order that they may +proceed to their place of office on fixed conditions. Both this practice +and the giving of salary to them and to the remaining employees of the +government were made the custom at this period. In old times some by +contracting for work to be paid for from the public treasury furnished +themselves with everything needed for their office. It was only in the +days of Cæsar that these particular persons began to receive something +definite. This salary was not assigned to all of them in equal amounts, +but as need demands. The procurators get their very name, a dignified +one, from the amount of money given into their charge. The following laws +were laid down for all alike,--that they should not make up lists for +service or levy money beyond the amount appointed, unless the senate +should so vote or the emperor so order: also that when their successors +should arrive, they were immediately to leave the province and not to +delay on their return, but to be back within three months. + +[-16-] These matters were so ordained at that time,--or, at least, one +might say so. In reality Cæsar himself was destined to hold absolute +control of all of them for all time, because he commanded the soldiers +and was master of the money; nominally the public funds had been +separated from his own, but in fact he spent the former also as he saw +fit. + +When his decade had come to an end, there was voted him another five +years, then five more, after that ten, and again another ten, and a like +number the fifth time,[5] so that by a succession of ten-year periods he +continued monarch for life. Consequently the subsequent emperors, though +no longer appointed for a specified period but for their whole life at +once, nevertheless have been wont to hold a festival every ten years as +if then renewing their sovereignty once more: this is done even at the +present day. + +Cæsar had received many honors previously, when the matter of declining +the sovereignty and that regarding the division of the provinces were +under discussion. For the right to fasten the laurel in front of his +royal residence and to hang the oak-leaf crown above the doors was then +voted him to symbolize the fact that he was always victorious over +enemies and preserved the citizens. The royal building is called +Palatium, not because it was ever decreed that that should be its name, +but because Cæsar dwelt on the Palatine and had his headquarters there; +and his house secured some renown from the mount as a whole by reason +of the former habitation of Romulus there. Hence, even if the emperor +resides somewhere else, his dwelling retains the name of Palatium. + +When he had really completed the details of administration, the name +Augustus was finally applied to him by the senate and by the people. They +wanted to call him by some name of their own, and some proposed this, +while others chose that. Cæsar was exceedingly anxious to be called +Romulus, but when he perceived that this caused him to be suspected of +desiring the kingship, he no longer insisted on it but took the title of +Augustus, signifying that he was more than human. All most precious and +sacred objects are termed _augusta_. Therefore they saluted him also +in Greek as _sebastós_, meaning an _august_ person, from the verb +_sebazesthai_. [-17-] In this way all the power of the people and that of +the senate reverted to Augustus, and from his time there was a genuine +monarchy. Monarchy would be the truest name for it, no matter how much +two and three hold the power together. This name of monarch the Romans so +detested that they called their emperors neither dictators nor kings nor +anything of the sort. Yet since the management of the government devolves +upon them, it can not but be that they are kings. The offices that +commonly enjoy some legal sanction are even now maintained, except that +of censor. Still, everything is directed and carried out precisely as the +emperor at the time may wish. In order that they may appear to hold this +power not through force, but according to law, the rulers have taken +possession,--names and all,--of every position (save the dictatorship) +which under the democracy was of mighty influence among the citizens who +bestowed the power. They very frequently become consuls and are always +called proconsuls whenever they are outside the pomerium. The title of +imperator is invariably given not only to such as win victories but to +all the rest, to indicate the complete independence of their authority, +instead of the name "king" or "dictator." These particular names they +have never assumed since the terms first fell out of use in the Senate, +but they are confirmed in the prerogatives of these positions by the +appellation of imperator. By virtue of the titles mentioned they get the +right to make enrollments, to collect moneys, declare wars make peace, +rule foreign and native territory alike everywhere and always, even to +the extent of putting to death both knights and senators within the +pomerium, and all the other privileges once granted to the consuls and +other officials with full powers. By virtue of the office of censor they +investigate our lives and characters and take the census. Some they list +in the equestrian and senatorial class and others they erase from +the roll, as pleases them. By virtue of being consecrated in all the +priesthoods and furthermore having the right to give the majority of them +to others and from the fact that _one_ of the high priests (if there be +two or three holding office at once) is chosen from their number, they +are themselves also masters of holy and sacred things. The so-called +tribunician authority which the men of very greatest attainment used to +hold gives them the right to stop any measure brought up by some one +else, in case they do not join in approving it, and to be free from +personal abuse. Moreover if they are thought to be wronged in even the +slightest degree not merely by action but even by conversation they may +destroy the guilty party without a trial as one polluted. They do not +think it lawful to be tribune, because they belong altogether to the +patrician class, but they assume all the power of the tribuneship +undiminished from the period of its greatest extent; and thereby the +enumeration of the years they have held the office in question goes +forward on the assumption that they receive it year by year along with +the others who are successively tribunes. Thus by these names they have +secured these privileges in accordance with all the various usages of the +democracy, in order that they may appear to possess nothing that has not +been given them. + +[-18-] They have gained also another prerogative which was given to none +of the ancient Romans outright to apply to all cases, and it is through +this alone that it would be possible for them to hold the above offices +and any others besides. They are freed from the action of the laws, as +the very words in Latin indicate. That is, they are liberated from every +consideration of compulsion and are subjected to none of the written +ordinances. So by virtue of these democratic names they are clothed in +all the strength of the government and have all that appertains to kings +except the vulgar title. "Cæsar" or "Augustus" as a mode of address +confers upon them no distinct privilege of its own but shows in the one +case the continuance of their family and in the other the brilliance and +dignity of their position. The salutation "father" perhaps gives them a +certain authority over us which fathers once had over their children. It +was not used, however, for this purpose in the beginning, but for their +honor, and to admonish them to love their subjects as they would their +children, while the subjects were to respect them as they respect their +fathers. + +Such is the number and quality of the titles to which those in power +are accustomed according to the and according to what has now become +tradition. At present all of them are, as a rule, bestowed upon the +rulers at once, except the title of censor: to the earlier emperors they +were voted separately and from time to time. Some of the emperors took +the censorship in accordance with ancient custom and Domitian took it for +life. This is, however, no longer done at the present day. They possess +its powers and are not chosen for it and do not employ its name except in +the censuses. + +[-19-] Thus was the constitution made over at that time for the better +and in a way to provide greater security. It was doubtless absolutely +impossible for the people to be preserved under a democracy. Events after +this, however, can not be said to be similar to those preceding this +period. Formerly everything was referred to the senate and the people +even if it occurred at a distance; hence all learned of it and many +recorded it. Consequently the truth of happenings, no matter with how +much fear and gratitude and friendship and enmity toward any one they +were related, has been found at least In the works of those who wrote of +them and to a certain extent also in the public records. But after this +time business began to be transacted more often with concealment and +secrecy. Nowadays, even if anything is made public, it is distrusted +because it can not be proved. It is suspected that all speeches and acts +are to meet the wishes of the men at the time in power and of their +associates. As a result much that never occurs is noised abroad and +much that really happens is unknown. Nearly everything is reported in a +different form from what really takes place. Yet the magnitude of the +empire and the number of events render accuracy in regard to them most +difficult. In Rome there are many operations going on, and so in its +subject territory, as well as against hostile tribes, always and every +day, so to speak, clear information about which no one can easily get +except those actively concerned. There are great numbers who do not hear +at all of what has taken place. Hence all that follows which will require +mention I shall narrate as it has been published, whether it is so in +truth or is really somewhat different. In addition, however, my own +opinion so far as possible will be stated in matters where I have been +able to deduce something else than the common report from the many things +I have read or heard or seen. + +[-20-] Cæsar, as I have said, received the further designation of +Augustus, and a sign of no little moment in regard to him occurred that +very night. The Tiber overflowed and occupied all of Rome that was built +in the plain country so that it was submerged. From this the soothsayers +inferred that he would rise to great heights and keep the whole city +subservient. While different persons were rivals to show him excessive +honors, one Sextus Pacuvius, or, as others say, Apudius[6] surpassed them +all. In the open senate he consecrated himself to him after the fashion +of the Spaniards and advised the rest to do the same. When Augustus +hindered him he rushed out to the crowd standing near by, and (as he was +tribune) compelled them and next all the rest who were wandering about +through the streets and lanes to consecrate themselves; to Augustus. From +this episode we are wont even now to say in appeals to the sovereign +"we have consecrated ourselves to you." Pacuvius ordered all to offer +sacrifice for this occurrence and before the people he once said he +should make Augustus his inheritor on equal terms with his son. This was +not because he possessed anything much, but because he wished to get +more. And his desire was accomplished. + +[-21-] Augustus attended with considerable zeal to all the business of +the empire to make it appear that he had received it in accordance with +the wishes of all, and he also enacted many laws. (I need not go into +each one of them in detail except those which have a bearing upon my +history. This same course I shall follow in the case of later events, in +order not to become wearisome by introducing all such matters as not even +those who specialize on them most narrowly know with accuracy.) Not all +of these laws were enacted on his sole responsibility: some of them he +brought before the public in advance, in order that, if any featured +caused displeasure, he might learn it in time and correct them. He urged +that any one at all give him advice, if any one could think of anything +better. He accorded them full liberty of speech and some provisions he +actually did alter. Most important of all, he took as advisers for six +months the consuls or the consul (when he himself also held the office), +one of each of the other kinds of officials, and fifteen men chosen +by lot from the remainder of the senatorial body. Through them he was +accustomed to a certain extent to communicate to all the rest the +provisions of his laws. Some features he brought before the entire +senate. He deemed it better, however, to consider most of the laws and +the greater ones in company with a few persons at leisure, and acted +accordingly. Sometimes he tried cases with their assistance. The entire +senate by itself sat in judgment as formerly and transacted business with +occasional groups of envoys and heralds from both peoples and kings. +Furthermore the people and the plebs came together for the elections, but +nothing was done that would not please Cæsar. Some of those who were +to hold office he himself chose out and nominated and others he put, +according to ancient custom, in the power of the people and the plebs, +yet taking care that no unfit persons should be appointed, nor by +factious cliques nor by bribery. In this way he controlled the entire +empire. + +[-22-] I shall relate also in detail all his acts that need mentioning, +together with the names of the consuls under whom they were performed. +In the year previously named, seeing that the roads outside the wall had +become through neglect hard to traverse, he ordered different senators to +repair different ones at their own expense. He himself attended to the +Flaminian Way, since he was going to lead an army out by that route. +This operation was finished forthwith and images of him were accordingly +erected on arches on the bridge over the Tiber and at Ariminum. The other +roads were repaired later either at public expense (for none of the +senators liked to spend money on it) or by Augustus, as one may wish to +state. I can not distinguish their treasures in spite of the fact that +Augustus coined into money some silver statues of himself made by his +friends and by certain of the tribes, purposing thereby to make it appear +that all the expenditures which he said he made were from his own means. +Therefore I have no opinion to record as to whether a ruler at any +particular time took money from the public treasury or whether he ever +gave it himself. For both of these things were often done. Why should any +one list such things as either expenditures or donations, when the people +and the emperor are constantly making both the one and the other in +common? + +These were the acts of Augustus at that time. He also set out apparently +to make a campaign into Britain, but on coming to the provinces of Gaul +lingered there. For the Britons seemed likely to make terms with him +and Gallic affairs were still unsettled, as the civil wars had begun +immediately after their subjugation. He made a census of the people and +set in order their life and government. + +[ B.C. 26 (_a. u. 728_)] + +[-23-] From there he came to Spain and reduced that country also to +quiet. After this he became consul for the eighth time with Statilius +Taurus, and Agrippa dedicated the so-called for he had not promised to +repair any road. This edifice in the Campus Martius had been constructed +by Lepidus by the addition of porticos all about for the tribal +elections, and Agrippa adorned it with stone tablets and paintings, naming +it Julian, from Augustus. The builder incurred no jealousy for it but was +greatly honored both by Augustus himself and by all the rest of the +people. The reason is that he gave his master the most kindly, the most +distinguished, the most beneficial advice and coöperation, yet claimed +not even a small share of the consequent glory. He used the honors which +Cæsar gave not for personal gain or enjoyment but for the benefit of the +giver himself and of the public.--On the other hand Cornelius Gallus +was led to insolent behavior by honor. He talked a great deal of idle +nonsense against Augustus and was guilty of many sly reprehensible +actions. Throughout nearly all Egypt he set up images of himself and he +inscribed upon the pyramids a list of his achievements. For this he +was accused by Valerius Largus, his comrade and intimate, and was +disenfranchised by Augustus, so that he was prevented from living in the +emperor's provinces. After this took place others attacked him, and +brought many indictments against him. The senate unanimously voted that +he should be convicted in the courts, be deprived of his property, and be +exiled, that his possessions be given to Augustus, and that they should +sacrifice oxen. In overwhelming grief at this Gallus committed suicide +before the decrees took effect. [-24-] The false behavior of most men was +evidenced by this fact, that they now treated the man whom they once used +to flatter in such a way that they forced him to die by his own hand. +To Largus they showed devotion because his star was beginning to +rise,--though they were sure to vote the same measures against him, if +anything similar should ever occur in his case. Proculeius, however, felt +so toward him that on meeting him once he clapped his hand over his nose +and his mouth, thereby signifying to the bystanders that it was not safe +even to breathe in the man's presence. Another person, although unknown, +approached him with witnesses and asked if Largus recognized him. When +the one questioned said "no", he recorded his denial on a tablet, thus +making it beyond the power of the rascal to inform against a person at +least whom he had not previously known. + +Thus we see that most men emulate the exploits of others, though they be +evil, instead of guarding against their fate. So also at this time there +was Marcus Egnatius Rufus, who had been an ædile: the majority of his +deeds had been good, and with his own slaves and with some others that +were hired he lent aid to the houses that took fire during his year of +office. In return he received from the people the expenses incurred in +his position and by a suspension of the law was made prætor. Elated at +these marks of favor he despised Augustus so much as to record that he +(Rufus) had delivered the City unimpaired and entire to his successor. +All the foremost men, and Augustus himself most of all, became indignant +at this. He prepared therefore to teach the upstart a lesson in the near +future not to exalt his mind above the mass of men. For the time being +he issued an edict to the ædiles to see to it that no building took fire +and, if aught of the kind did happen, to extinguish the blaze. + +[-25-] In this same year also Polemon, who was king of Pontus, was +enrolled among the friends and allies of the Roman People; front seats +for the senators were provided in all the theatres of the emperor's whole +domain. Augustus, finding that the Britons would not come to terms, +wished to make an expedition into their country, but was detained by the +Salassi, who had revolted against him, and by the Cantabri and Astures, +who had been made hostile. The former dwell close under the Alps, as +has been herein stated,[7] whereas both of the latter tribes hold the +strongest region of the Pyrenees on the Spanish side and the plain which +is below it. For these reasons Augustus, now in his ninth consulship with +Marcus Silanus, sent Terentius Varro against the Salassi. + +[B.C. 25 (_a. u._ 729)] + +The latter invaded their territory at many points at once in order that +they might not unite and become harder to subdue, and had a very easy +time in conquering them because they attacked him only in small groups. +Having forced them to capitulate he demanded a fixed sum of money, +allowing it to be supposed that he would impose no other punishment. +After that he sent soldiers everywhere, apparently to attend to the +collection of the indemnity and arrested those of military age, whom he +sold under an agreement that none of them should be liberated within +twenty years. The best of their land was given to members of the +Pretorians and came to include a city called Augusta Prætoria.[8] +Augustus himself waged war upon the Astures and upon the Cantabri at +the same time. These refused to yield, because of confidence in their +position on the heights, and would not come to close quarters owing +to their inferior numbers and the fact that most of them were javelin +throwers, but they caused him much trouble, whenever he made any +movement, by always seizing the higher ground in advance and placing +ambuscades in depressions and in wooded spots. He found himself therefore +quite unable to cope with the difficulty, and having fallen ill from +weariness and worry retired to Tarraco, and there remained sick. Meantime +Gaius Antistius fought against them, accomplishing considerable, not +because he was a better general than Augustus, but because the barbarians +felt contempt for him and thus joined battle with the Romans and were +defeated. In this way he captured some points, and afterward Titus[9] +Carisius took Lancia, the principal fortress of the Astures, which had +been abandoned, and won to his side many towns. + +[-26-] At the conclusion of this war Augustus dismissed the more aged of +his soldiers and gave them a city to settle in Lusitania,--the so-called +Augusta Emerita. For those who were still of the military age he arranged +some spectacles right among the legions, through the agency of Tiberius +and Marcellus as ædiles. To Juba he gave portions of Gætulia in return +for the prince's ancestral domain (for the majority of the inhabitants +had been enrolled as members of the Roman polity), and also the +possessions of Bocchus and Bogud. On the death of Amyntas he did not +entrust the country to the children of the deceased but made it a part of +the subject territory. Thus Gaul together with Lycaonia obtained a Roman +governor. The regions of Pamphylia formerly assigned to Amyntas were +restored to their own district.--About this same time Marcus Vinicius +in making reprisals against the Celtæ, because they had arrested and +destroyed Romans who had entered their country to have friendly dealings +with them, himself gave the name of imperator to Augustus. For this and +for the other achievements of the time a triumph was voted to Cæsar; +but as he did not care to celebrate it, an arch bearing a trophy was +constructed in the Alps for his glory and authority was given him to wear +always on the first day of the year both the crown and the triumphal +garb. After these successes in the wars Augustus closed the precinct of +Janus, which had been opened because of the strife. + +[-27-] Meanwhile Agrippa had been beautifying the city at his own +expense. First, in honor of the naval victories he built over the +so-called _Portico of Neptune_ and lent it further brilliance by the +painting of the Argonauts. Secondly, he repaired the Laconian sudatorium. +He gave the name Laconian to the gymnasium because the Lacedæmonians had, +in those days, a greater reputation than anybody else for stripping +naked and exercising smeared with oil. Also, he completed the so-called +_Pantheon_. It has this name perhaps because it received the images +of many gods and among them the statues of Mars and Venus; but my own +opinion is that the name is due to its round shape, like the sky. Agrippa +desired to place Augustus also there and to take the designation of the +structure from his title. But, as his master would not accept either +honor, he placed in the temple itself a statue of the former Cæsar and in +the anteroom representations of Augustus and himself. This was done not +from any rivalry and ambition on Agrippa's part to make himself equal to +Augustus, but from his superabundant devotion to him and his perpetual +affection for the commonwealth; hence Augustus, so far from censuring +him for it, honored him the more. For, being unable through sickness +to superintend at that time the marriage of his daughter Julia and his +nephew Marcellus, he commissioned Agrippa to hold the festival in his +absence. And when the house on the Palatine hill, which had formerly been +Antony's but was later given to Agrippa and Messala, was burned down, +he made a grant of money to Messala and gave Agrippa equal rights of +domicile. The latter not unnaturally gained high distinction as a result +of this. And one Gaius Toranius also acquired a good reputation because +while tribune he brought his father, though some one's freedman, into the +theatre and made him sit beside him upon the tribune's bench. Publius +Servilius, too, made a name for himself because while prætor he caused to +be killed at a festival three hundred bears and other Libyan wild beasts +equal in number. + +[B.C. 24 (_a. u._ 730)] + +[-28-] Augustus now entered upon office for the tenth time with Gaius +Norbanus, and on the first day of the month the senate took oaths, +confirming his deeds. When he was announced as drawing near the city +(his sickness had delayed him), he promised to give the people a hundred +denarii each and issued instructions that the document concerning the +money should not be bulletined until the senate also should approve. +They had freed him from all compulsion of the laws to the end, as I have +stated,[10] that being really independent and possessed of full powers +over both himself and the laws he should follow all of them that he +wished and not follow any that he did not wish. This right was voted to +him while still absent. On his arrival in Rome there were various events +in honor of his preservation and return, and Marcellus was accorded the +right to be a senator of the class of ex-prætors and to be a candidate +for the consulship ten years earlier than was customary. Tiberius was +permitted in a similar fashion to be a candidate five years before the +age set for each office. The latter was at once appointed quæstor and +the former ædile. As the quæstors needed to serve in the provinces were +proving insufficient, all drew lots for the places who for ten years +previous had been named quæstors without the duties of the office. These, +then, were the occurrences in the City worthy of note that year. + +[-29-] As soon as Augustus had departed from Spain, leaving behind Lucius +Æmilius[11] as governor of it, the Cantabri and Astures made an uprising. +They sent to Æmilius before anything about it became known to him and +said they wished to give the army grain and some other presents. Then, +having secured a number of soldiers, who were presumably to carry the +supplies, they led them to suitable places and butchered them. Their +pleasure, however, did not last long. When their country had been +devastated and some forts burned and, chiefest of all, the hands of every +one that was caught were cut off, they were quickly subdued. While this +was going on, another new campaign had its beginning and end. It was +led by Ælius Gallus, governor of Egypt, against the so-called _Arabia +Felix_[12] of which Sabos was king. At first he encountered no one at +all, yet did not proceed without effort. The desert, the sun, and the +water (which had some peculiar nature), distressed them greatly so that +the majority of the army perished. The disease proved to be dissimilar +to any ordinary complaint, and fell upon the head, which it caused +to wither. This killed most of them at once, but in the case of the +survivors it descended to the legs, skipping all the intervening parts of +the body, and wrought injury to them. There was no remedy for it except +by both drinking and rubbing on olive oil mixed with wine. This was in +the power of only a few of them to do, for the country produces neither +of these articles and the men had not provided a large supply of them +beforehand. In the midst of this trouble the barbarians also fell upon +them. For a while the enemy were defeated whenever they joined battle and +lost some places: later, however, with the disease as an ally they won +back their own possessions and drove the survivors of the expedition out +of the country. These were the first of the Romans (and I think the only +ones) who traversed so much of this part of Arabia in warfare. They had +advanced as far as the so-named Athlula, a famous locality. + +[B.C. 23 (_a. u._ 731)] + +[-30-] Augustus was for the eleventh time consul with Calpurnius Piso, +when he fell so sick once more as to have no hope of saving his life. He +accordingly arranged everything in the idea that he was about to die, and +gathering about him the officials and the other foremost senators and +knights he appointed no successor, though they were expecting that +Marcellus would be preferred before all for the position. After +conversing briefly with them about public matters he gave Piso the list +of the forces and the public revenues written in a book, and handed his +ring to Agrippa. The emperor became unable to do even the very simplest +things, yet a certain Antonius Musas managed to restore him to health by +means of cold baths and cold drinks. For this he received a great deal +of money from both Augustus and the senate, as well as the right to wear +gold rings,--he was a freedman,--and secured exemption from taxes for +both himself and the members of his profession, not only those then +living but also those of coming generations. But he who assumed the +powers of Fortune and Fate was destined soon after to be well worsted. +Augustus had been saved in this manner: but Marcellus, falling sick not +much later, was treated in the same way by Musas and died. Augustus gave +him a public burial with the usual eulogies, placed him in the monument +which was being built, and honored his memory by calling the theatre, +the foundations of which had already been laid by the former Cæsar, the +Theatre of Marcellus. He ordered also that a gold image of the deceased, +a golden crown, and his chair of office be carried into the theatre at +the Ludi Romani and be placed in the midst of the officials having charge +of the function. This he did later. + +[-31-] After being restored to health on this occasion he brought his +will into the senate and wished to read it, by way of showing people that +he had left no successor to his position. He did not, however, read it, +for no one would permit that. Quite every one, however, was astonished +at him in that since he loved Marcellus as son-in-law and nephew yet he +failed to trust him with the monarchy but preferred Agrippa before him. +His regard for Marcellus had been shown by many honors, among them his +lending aid in carrying out the festival which the young man gave as +ædile; the brilliance of this occasion is shown by the fact that in +midsummer he sheltered the Forum by curtains overhead and introduced a +knight and a woman of note as dancers in the orchestra. But his final +attitude seemed to show that he was not yet confident of the youth's +judgment and that he either wanted the people to get back their liberty +or Agrippa to receive the leadership from them. He understood well that +Agrippa and the people were on the best of terms and he was unwilling to +appear to be delivering the supreme power with his own hands. [-32-] When +he recovered, therefore, and learned that Marcellus on this account was +not friendly toward Agrippa, he immediately despatched the latter to +Syria, so that no delay and desultory dispute might arise by their being +in the same place. Agrippa forthwith started from the City but did not +make his way to Syria, but, proceeding even more moderately than usual, +he sent his lieutenants there and himself lingered in Lesbos. + +Besides doing this Augustus appointed ten prætors, feeling that he did +not require any more. This number remained constant for several years. +Some of them were intended to fulfill the same duties as of yore and two +of them to have charge of the administration of the finances each year. +Having settled these details he resigned the consulship and went to +Albanum. He himself ever since the constitution had been arranged had +held office for the entire year, as had most of his colleagues, and he +wished now to interrupt this custom again, in order that as many as +possible might be consuls. His resignation took place outside the city to +prevent his being hindered in his purpose. + +For this act he received praise, as also because he chose to take his +place Lucius Sestius, who had always been an enthusiastic follower of +Brutus, had campaigned with the latter in all his wars, and even at this +time made mention of him, had his images, and delivered eulogies. So +far from disliking the friendly and faithful qualities of the man, the +emperor even honored him. + +The senate consequently voted that Augustus be tribune for life and that +he might bring forward at each meeting of the senate any business he +liked concerning any one matter, even if he should not be consul at +the time, and allowed him to hold the office of proconsul once for all +perpetually, so that he had neither to lay it down on entering the +pomerium nor to take it up again outside. The body also granted him more +power in subject territory than the several governors possessed. As a +result both he and subsequent emperors gained a certain legal right to +the use of the tribunican authority, in addition to their other powers. +But the actual name of tribune neither Augustus nor any other emperor has +held. + +[-33-] And it seems to me that he then acquired these rights as described +not from flattery but as a mark of real honor. In most ways he behaved +toward the Romans as if they were free citizens. For, when Tiridates in +person and envoys from Phraates arrived to settle their mutual disputes, +he introduced them to the senate. After this, when the decision of the +question had been entrusted to him by that body, he refused to surrender +Tiridates to Phraates, but sent back to him his son, whom Tiridates had +formerly received from the other and was keeping, on condition that the +captives and the military standards taken in the disasters of Crassus and +of Antony be returned. + +In this same year one of the inferior ædiles died and Gaius Calpurnius +succeeded him, in spite of having served previously as one of the +patrician ædiles. This is not mentioned as having occurred in the case of +any other man. During the Feriæ there were two præfecti urbi each day, +and one of them, who was not yet admitted to the standing of a youth, +nevertheless held office. + +Livia, however, was accused of having caused the death of Marcellus +because he had been preferred before her sons. This suspicion became +a matter of controversy both in that year and in the following, which +proved so unhealthful that great numbers perished during its progress. +And, as it usually happens that some sign occurs before such events, +so on this occasion a wolf had been caught in the city, fire and storm +damaged many buildings, and the Tiber, rising, washed away the wooden +bridge and rendered the city submerged for three days. + + +[Footnote 1: Following Dindorf's reading [Greek: hyper heauton].] + +[Footnote 2: A reference to Cornelius Gallus (see Book Fifty-one, chapter +17).] + +[Footnote 3: The expression to which Dio here refers is doubtless the +adjective _quinquefascalis_, found in inscriptional Latin. All the +editions from Xylander to Dindorf gave "six lictors", erroneously, as was +pointed out by Mommsen (_Romisches Staatsrecht_, 12, p. 369, note 4). +Boissevain is the first editor to make the correction. (See the latter +portion of chapter 17, Book Fifty-seven, which should be compared with +Tacitus, Annals, II, 47, 5.) + +The Greek language had a phrase [Greek: hae hexapelekus archae], +corresponding to the Latin _sexfascalis_, but no adjective [Greek: +pentapelekus], which would be the equivalent of _quinquefascalis_, is +reported in the lexicons.] + +[Footnote 4: Cp. Book Fifty-two, chapter 25.] + +[Footnote 5: Translating Boissevain's conjecture, [Greek: dela chahi +pempton isa], in place of a corruption in the text.] + +[Footnote 6: In view of the fact that _Sex. Pacuvius Taurus_ does not +come on the scene (as tribune of the plebs) till B.C. 9-7, it seems more +likely, as Boissevain remarks, that Apudius is the correct name of the +author of this piece of flattery.] + +[Footnote 7: Boissevain thinks that the passage indicated was probably in +Book Twenty-two (one of the lost portions of the work). Compare Fragment +LXXIV (1) in Volume VI of this translation.--Boissée suggested Book +Forty-nine, Chapter 34. There, too, the correspondence is not complete.] + +[Footnote 8: The modern _Aosta_.] + +[Footnote 9: Possibly this prænomen is an error for _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 10: Chapter 18 of this Book.] + +[Footnote 11: Another writer reports his name as _Lucius Lamia_.] + +[Footnote 12: The "prosperous" or fertile part of Arabia, as opposed to +_Arabia Deserta_ or _Petræa_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +54 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fourth of Dio's Rome: + +How road commissioners were appointed from among the ex-prætors (chapter +8). + +How grain commissioners were appointed from among the ex-prætors +(chapters 1 and 17). + +How Noricum was reduced (chapter 20). + +How Rhætia was reduced (chapter 22). + +How the Maritime Alps began to yield obedience to the Romans (chapter +24). + +How the theatre of Balbus was dedicated (chapter 25). + +How the theatre of Marcellus was dedicated (chapter 26). + +How Agrippa died and Augustus acquired the Chersonese (chapters 28, 29). + +How the Augustalia was instituted (chapter 34). + +Duration of time, 13 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +M. Claudius M. F. Marcellus Æserninus, L. Arruntius L.F. (B.C. 22 = a. u. +732.) + +M. Lollius M. F., Q. Æmilius M. F. Lepidus. (B.C. 21 = a. u. 733.) + +M. Apuleius Sex, F., P. Silius P. F. Nerva. (B.C. 20 = a. u. 734.) + +C. Sentius C. F. Saturninus, Q. Lucretius Q. F. Vispillo. (B.C. 19 = a. +u. 735.) + +Cn. Cornelius L. F., P. Cornelius P. F. Lentulus Marcellinus. (B.C. 18 = +a. u. 736.) + +C. Furnius C. F., C. Iunius C. F. Silanus. (B.C. 17 = a. u. 737.) + +L. Domitius Cn. F. Cn. N. Ahenobarbus, P. Cornelius P. F. P. N. Scipio. +(B.C. 16 = a. u. 738.) + +M. Livius L. F. Drusus Libo, L. Calpurnius L. F. Piso Frugi. (B.C. 15 = +a. u. 739.) + +M. Licinius M. F. Crassus, Cn. Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus. (B.C. 14 = a. +u. 740.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero, P. Quintilius Sex. F. Varus. (B.C. 13 = a. u. +741.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala Barbatus, P. Sulpicius P. F. Quirinus. (B.C. 12 += a. u. 742.) + +Paulus Fabius Q. F. Maximus, Q. Ælius Q. F. Tubero. (B.C. 11 = a. u. +743.) + +Iullus Antonius M. F., Africanus Q. Fabius Q. F. (B.C. 10 = a. u. 744.) + + +_(BOOK 54, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 22 (_a. u._ 732)] + +[-1-] The following year, during which Marcus Marcellus and Lucius +Arruntius were the consuls, the river caused another flood which +submerged the City, and many objects were struck by thunderbolts, among +them the statues in the Pantheon; and the spear even fell from the hand +of Augustus. The pestilence raged throughout Italy so that no one tilled +the land, and I think that the same was the case in foreign parts. The +Romans, therefore, reduced to dire straits by disease and by famine, +thought that this had happened to them for no other reason than that they +did not have Augustus for consul this time also. They accordingly wished +to elect him as dictator, and shutting the senate up within its halls +they forced it to vote this measure by threatening to burn down the +building. Next they took the twenty-four rods and accosted Augustus, +begging him both to be named dictator and to become commissioner of +grain, as Pompey had once been. He accepted the latter duty under +compulsion and ordered two men from among those who had served as prætors +five years or more previously, in every instance, to be chosen annually +to attend to the distribution of grain. As for the dictatorship, however, +he would not hear of it and went so far as to rend his clothing when +he found himself unable to restrain them in any other way, either by +reasoning or by prayer. As he already had authority and honor even beyond +that of dictators he did right to guard against the jealousy and hatred +which the title would arouse. [-2-] His course was the same when they +wished to elect him censor for life. Without entering upon the office +himself he immediately designated others as censors, namely Paulus +Æmilius Lepidus and Lucius Munatius Plancus, the latter a brother of that +Plancus who had been proscribed and the former a person who at that time +had himself been under sentence of death. These were the last private +citizens to hold the appointment, as was at once made manifest by the +men themselves. The platform on which they were intended to perform the +ceremonies pertaining to their position fell to the ground in pieces when +they had ascended it on the first day of their office. After that there +were no other censors appointed together, as they had been. Even at this +time Augustus in spite of their having been chosen took care of many +matters which properly belonged to them. Of the Public Messes he +abolished some altogether and reformed others so that greater temperance +prevailed. He committed the charge of all the festivals to the prætors, +commanding that an appropriation be given them from the public treasury. +Moreover he forbade them to spend from their own means on these occasions +more than they received from the other source, or to have armed combat +under any other conditions than if the senate should vote for it, and +even then there were to be not more than two such contests in each year +and they should consist of not more than one hundred and twenty men. To +the curule ædiles he entrusted the extinguishment of conflagrations, for +which purpose he granted them six hundred slave assistants. And since +knights and women of note had thus early appeared in the orchestra, he +forbade not only the children of senators, to whom the prohibition had +even previously extended, but also their grandchildren, who naturally +found a place in the equestrian class, to do anything of the sort again. +[-3-] In these ordinances he let both the substance and the name of the +lawgiver and emperor be seen. In other matters he was more moderate +and even came to the aid of some of his friends when their conduct was +subjected to official scrutiny. But a certain Marcus Primus was accused +of having made war upon the Odrysae, while he was governor of Macedonia, +who said at one time that he had done it with the approval of Augustus, +and again with that of Marcellus. The emperor thereupon came of his own +accord into the court and, when interrogated by the prætors as to whether +he had instructed the man to make war, entered a denial. The advocate +of Primus, Licinius Murena, in the course of some rather disrespectful +remarks that he made to him enquired: "What are you doing here!" and "Who +summoned you!" To this Augustus only replied: "The Public Good." For this +he received praise from sensible persons and was even given the right to +convene the senate as often as he pleased. Some of the others looked down +upon him. Indeed, not a few voted for the acquittal of Primus and others +united to form a plot against Cæsar. Fannius Cæpio was at the head of it, +though others had a share. Murena also was said, whether truly or by way +of calumny, to have been one of the conspirators, since he was insatiate +and unsparing in his outspokenness to all alike. These men did not appear +for trial in court but were convicted by default on the supposition that +they intended to flee; shortly after, however, they were put to death. +Murena found neither his brother Proculeius nor Mæcenas his sister's +husband of any avail, though they were the recipients of distinguished +honors from Augustus. And as some of the jurymen actually voted to acquit +these conspirators, the emperor made a law that votes should not be cast +secretly in cases by default and that the persons on trial must receive +a unanimous conviction. That he authorized these provisions not in anger +but as really conducive to the public good he gave overwhelming evidence. +Cæpio's father liberated one of his slaves who had accompanied his son on +his flight, because he had wished to defend the younger man when he met +his death; but a second slave who had betrayed him the father led through +the middle of the Forum with an inscription making known the reason why +he should be killed, and after that crucified him: yet at all this the +emperor showed no indignation. He would have allayed all the criticism +of those not pleased with the course of events, had he not allowed +sacrifices, as for some victory, to be both voted and offered. + +[-4-] It was at this period that he restored both Cyprus and Gallia +Narbonensis to the people as provinces no longer needing his +administration of martial law. + +Thus proconsuls began to be sent to these places also. He also dedicated +the temple of Jupiter Tonans, concerning which event these two traditions +survive,--that at the time thunder occurred during the ritual, and that +later Augustus had a dream, which I shall proceed to describe. He thought +that the throng had come to do reverence to the deity, partly attracted +by the novelty of his name and form and partly because he had been put in +place by Augustus, but chiefest of all because they encountered him first +when they ascended the Capitol; and he dreamed that Jupiter in the great +temple was angry because he was now reduced to second place, and that he +himself thereupon said to the offended god (as he reported the story) +that he had Tonans as an advance guard. When it became day he attached a +bell to the statue by way of confirming the vision. For those who guard +apartment houses by night carry a bell, in order to be able to signal the +inhabitants whenever they wish.--These events, then, took place at Rome. + +[-5-] About this same period the Cantabri and the Astures broke out into +war again. The action of the Astures was due to the haughtiness and +cruelty of Carisius. The Cantabri, on the other hand, took the field +because they learned that the other tribe was in revolt and because they +despised their governor, Gaius Furnius, since he had but lately arrived +and they conceived him to be unacquainted with conditions in their +territory. He did not, however, show himself that sort of man in action, +for both tribes were defeated and reduced to slavery by him, Carisius +even receiving help from him. Not many of the Cantabri were captured. As +they had no hope of freedom they did not choose to live, but some after +setting the forts on fire stabbed themselves, and others let themselves +be consumed with the works, while still others in the sight of all took +poison. Thus the most of them and the fiercest faction perished. As for +the Astures, as soon as they had been repulsed in a siege at some +point and had subsequently been beaten in battle, they made no further +resistance but were straightway subdued. + +About this same time the Ethiopians, who dwell beyond Egypt, advanced +as far as the city called Elephantine, with Candace as their leader, +ravaging the whole region that they traversed. On learning that Gaius[1] +Petronius, the governor of Egypt, was approaching and somewhere near, +they hastily retreated hoping to make good their escape. Overtaken on the +road, however, they suffered defeat and then drew him on into their own +country. There, too, he contended nobly and took among other cities +Napata, the royal residence of that tribe. This town was razed to the +ground and a garrison left at another post. For Petronius, not being able +to advance farther on account of the sand and the heat, nor to remain +conveniently on the spot with his entire army, withdrew, taking the most +of it with him. At that the Ethiopians attacked the garrisons, but he +again proceeded against them, rescued his own men, and compelled Candace +to make terms with him. + +[ B.C. 21 (_a. u._ 733)] + +[-6-] While this was going on Augustus went to Sicily in order to settle +the affairs of that island and of other countries as far as Syria. While +he was still there, the Roman populace fell to disputing over an election +of the consuls. This incident showed clearly that it was impossible for +them to be safe under a democracy, for with the little power that they +had over elections and in regard to offices, even, they began rioting. +The place of one of the consuls was being kept for Augustus and in this +way at the beginning of the year Marcus Lollius alone entered upon +office. As the emperor would not accept the place, Quintus Lepidus and +Lucius Silvanus became rival candidates and threw everything into such +turmoil that Augustus was invoked by those who still retained their +senses. He would not return, however, and sent them back when they came +to him, rebuking them and bidding them cast their votes during the +absence of both claimants. This did not promote peace any the more, but +they began to quarrel and dispute again vehemently, so that it was long +before Lepidus was chosen. Augustus was displeased at this, for he could +not spend all his time at Rome alone, and he did not dare to leave the +city without a head; seeking, therefore, for some one to set over it he +judged Agrippa to be most suitable for the purpose. And as he wished to +clothe him in some greater dignity than common, in order that this might +help him to govern the people more easily, he summoned him, compelled him +to divorce his wife (although she was Cæsar's own niece), and to marry +Julia, and forthwith sent him to Rome to attend both to the wedding and +to the administration of the City. This step is said to have been due +partly to the advice of Mæcenas, who in conversation with him upon these +very matters said: "You have made him so great that he should either +become your son-in-law or be killed."--Agrippa healed the sores which he +found still festering and repelled the advance of the Egyptian rites, +which were returning once more to the City, forbidding any one to perform +them even in the suburbs within eight half-stadia. A disturbance arose +regarding the election of the præfectus urbi--the one chosen on account +of the Feriæ--and he did not attempt to quell it, but they lived through +that year without that official. This was what _he_ accomplished. + +[-7-] Augustus after settling various affairs in Sicily and making +Syracuse together with certain other cities Roman colonies crossed over +into Greece. The Lacedæmonians he honored by giving them Cythera and +attending their Public Mess, because Livia, when she fled from Italy with +her husband and son, passed some time there. From the Athenians, as some +say, he took away Ægina and Eretria, the produce of which they were +enjoying, because they had espoused the cause of Antony. Moreover he +forbade them to make any one a citizen for money. It seemed to them that +what happened to the statue of Athena had tended to their misfortune. +Placed on the Acropolis facing the east it had turned about to the west +and spat blood. + +[ B.C. 20 (_a. u._ 734)] + +As for Augustus, after setting the Greek world in order, he sailed to +Samos, passed the winter there, and in the spring when Marcus Apuleius +and Publius Silius became consuls proceeded to Asia and gave his +attention to matters there and in Bithynia. Though these and the +foregoing provinces were regarded as belonging to the people, he did not +make light of them, but accorded them the very best of care, as if they +were his own. He instituted all reforms that seemed desirable and made a +present of money to some, while others he instructed to collect an amount +in excess of the tribute. The people of Cyzicus he reduced to slavery +because during an uprising they had flogged and put to death some Romans. +And when he reached Syria he took the same action in the case of the +people of Tyre and Sidon on account of their uprising. + +[-8-] Meanwhile Phraates, fearing that he might lead an expedition +against him because as yet none of the agreements had been carried out, +sent back to him the standards and all the captives, save a few who in +shame had destroyed themselves or by eluding detection had remained +in the country. Augustus received them with the appearance of having +conquered the Parthian in some war. He took great pride in the event, +saying that what had been lost in former battles he had recovered without +a struggle. Indeed, in honor of his success he both commanded sacrifices +to be voted and performed them, besides constructing a temple of Mars +Ultor on the Capitol, in imitation of Jupiter Feretrius, for the offering +up of the standards. Moreover he rode into the City on a charger and +was with an arch carrying a trophy. That was what was done later in +commemoration of the event. At this time he was chosen commissioner of +the highways round about Rome, set up the so-called golden milestone, +and assigned road-builders from the ranks of the ex-prætors, with two +lictors, to take care of the various streets. Julia also gave birth to a +child, who received the name Gaius; and a sacrifice of kine was permitted +forever upon his birthday. Now this was done, like everything else, +in pursuance of a decree: privately the ædiles had a horse-race and +slaughter of wild beasts on the birthday of Augustus.--These were the +occurrences in the City. + +[-9-] Augustus ordained that the subject territory should be managed +according to the customs of the Romans, but permitted allied countries to +be governed according to their own ancestral usage. He did not think it +desirable that there should be any additions to the former or that any +new regions should be acquired, but deemed it best for the people to +be thoroughly satisfied with what they already possessed; and he +communicated this opinion to the senate. Therefore he began no war at +this time, but gave out certain sovereignties,--to Iamblichus son of +Iamblichus his ancestral dominion over the Arabians, and to Tarcondimotus +son of Tarcondimotus the kingdom of Cilicia which his father held, except +a few coast districts. For these together with Lesser Armenia he granted +to Archelaus, because the Median king, who had previously ruled them, was +dead. To Herod he entrusted the tetrarchy of a certain Zenodorus and to +one Mithridates, though a mere lad, Commagene, since the king of it had +killed his father. And as the other Armenians had preferred charges +against Artaxes and had summoned his brother Tigranes, who was in Rome, +the emperor sent for Tiberius to cast the former out of his kingdom and +restore the latter to it once more. Nothing was accomplished, however, +worthy of the preparations he had made, for the Armenians slew Artaxes +before his arrival. Still, Tiberius assumed a lofty bearing as if he had +effected something by his own ability, and all the more when sacrifices +were voted in honor of the result. And he now began to have thoughts +about obtaining the monarchy when, as he was approaching Philippi, an +outcry was heard from the field of battle, as if coming from an army, and +fire of its own accord shot up from the altars founded by Antony upon the +ramparts. These things contributed to the exalted feelings of Tiberius. + +Augustus returned to Samos and once more passed the winter there. As a +recompense for his stay he awarded the islanders freedom, and he attended +to many kinds of business. Great numbers of embassies came to him, and +the Indi, who had previously opened negotiations about friendship, now +made terms, sending among other gifts tigers, which were then for the +first time seen by the Romans, as also, I think, by the Greeks. They +likewise presented to him a boy without shoulders (like the statues of +Hermes that we now see). Yet this creature in spite of his anatomy made +perfect use of his feet and hands: he would stretch a bow for them, shoot +missiles, and sound the trumpet,--how, I do not know; I merely record the +story. One of the Indi, Zarmarus, whether he belonged to the class of +sophists and was ambitious on this account or because he was old and was +following some immemorial custom, or because he wished to make a display +for Augustus and the Athenians (for it was there that he had obtained an +audience), chose to die; he was therefore initiated into the service of +the two goddesses,--although it was not the proper time, it is said, for +the ritual,[2]--through the influence of Augustus, and having become an +initiate he threw himself alive into the fire. + +[B.C. 19 (_a. u._ 735)] + +[-10-] The consul that[2] year was Gaius Sentius. When it was found +necessary that a colleague be appointed to hold office with him,--for +Augustus again refused to accept the post which was being saved for +him,--an uprising once more broke out in Rome and assassinations +occurred, so that the senators voted Sentius a guard. When he expressed +himself as opposed to using it, they sent envoys to Augustus, each with +two lictors. As soon as the emperor learned this and felt assured that +nothing but evil would come of it, he did not adopt an attitude like +his former one toward them but appointed consul from among the envoys +themselves Quintus Lucretius, though this man's name had been posted +among the proscribed, and he hastened to Rome himself. For this and his +other actions while absent from the city many honors of all sorts were +voted none of which he would accept, save the founding of a temple to +Fortuna Redux,[3] (this being the name they applied to her), and that the +day on which he arrived should be numbered among the thanksgiving days +and be called Augustalia. Since even then the magistrates and the rest +made preparations to go out to meet him, he entered the city by night; +and on the following day he gave Tiberius the rank of the ex-prætors and +allowed Drusus to become a candidate for offices five years earlier than +custom allowed. The quarrelsome behavior of the people during his absence +did not accord at all with their conduct, influenced by fear, when he was +present; he was accordingly invited and elected to be commissioner of +morals for five years, held the authority of the censors for the same +length of time and that of the consuls for life, being allowed to use the +twelve rods always and everywhere and to sit in the chair of office in +the midst of the consuls of any year. After voting these measures they +begged him to set right all these matters and to enact what laws he +liked. And whatever ordinances might be composed by him they called from +that very moment _leges Augustæ_ and desired to take an oath that they +would abide by them. He accepted their principal propositions, believing +them to be necessary, but absolved them from the requirement of an oath. +If they should vote for a measure that suited them, he knew well that +they would observe it even if they made no agreement to that effect. +Otherwise they would not pay any attention to it, even if they should +take ten thousand pledges to secure it.--Augustus did this. Of the ædiles +one voluntarily resigned his office by reason of poverty. + +[-11-] Agrippa on being sent at this time, as described from Sicily to +Rome, transacted whatever business was urgent and was later assigned to +the Gauls. The inhabitants there were at war among themselves and were +being harshly used by the Celtæ. After settling those troubles he went +over to Spain. For the Cantabri, who had been captured alive in the war +and had been sold, severally killed their masters, returned home, and +united many for a revolt. With the aid of these accessions they occupied +available sites, walled them about and concocted schemes against +the Roman garrisons. It was against this tribe that Agrippa led an +expedition, but he had some trouble also with the soldiers. Not a few of +them were too old, exhausted by the succession of wars, and in fear of +the Cantabri, whom they regarded as hard to subdue; and they consequently +would not obey him. However, by admonition, exhortation, and the hopes +that he held out[4] he soon made them yield obedience: in fighting the +Cantabri, on the other hand, he met with many failures. They had the +advantage of experience in affairs, since they had been slaves to the +Romans, and of despair of ever gaining safety again in case of capture. +Agrippa lost numbers of his soldiers and degraded numerous others because +they had been defeated; among other actions he prohibited a whole +division called the Augustan from being so named any longer; still, after +a long time he destroyed nearly all of the enemy who were of age for +warfare. He deprived the rest of their arms and made them go down from +the heights to the flat lands. Yet he made no communication about them to +the senate and did not accept the triumph although voted in accordance +with instructions from Augustus. In these matters he showed moderation, +as was his wont, and when asked once by the consul for an opinion in a +case concerning his brother he would not give it. At his own expense +he brought in the so-called Parthenian water-supply and named it the +Augustan. In this the emperor took so great delight that once when a +great scarcity of wine had arisen and persons were making a terrible +to-do about it, he declared that Agrippa had carefully seen to it that +they should never perish of thirst. + +[-12-]Such was the character of this man. Of the rest many both made a +triumph their object and celebrated it, not for rendering these same +services, but some for having arrested robbers and others for quieting +cities that were in a state of turmoil. For Augustus, at first at least, +bestowed these rewards lavishly upon some and honored a very great +number with public burials. Those persons, then, gained splendor by +these fêtes; but Agrippa was advanced by him to a position of comparative +independence. Augustus saw that the public business required strict +attention and feared that he might, as often happens in such cases, +become the victim of plots. + +[B.C. 18 (a. u. 736)] + +The breastplate which he often wore beneath his dress even on entering +the senate itself he expected would be of small and slight assistance to +him in that case. Therefore he himself first added five years to his term +as supreme ruler when the ten-year period had expired (this took place in +the consulship of Publius and Gnaeus Lentulus), and then he gave Agrippa +many rights almost equal to his own, together with the tribunician +authority for the same length of time. He then said that so many years +would suffice them. Not much later he obtained the remaining five +belonging to his imperial sovereignty, so that the number of years became +ten again. + +[-13-] When he had done this he next investigated the senatorial body. +The members seemed to him even now to be numerous and he saw +danger in so large a throng, while he felt a hatred for not only such as +were notorious for some baseness, but also those who were distinguished +for their flattery. And when no one, as previously, would resign willingly +nor wished alone to incur accusation, he himself selected the thirty best +men (a point which he confirmed by oath) and bade them after first taking +the same oath to choose and write down groups of five, outside of their +relatives, on tablets. After this he subjected the groups of five to a +casting of lots, with the arrangement that the one man in each who drew +a lot should himself be a senator, and enroll five others on the same +conditions. + +There would, of course, properly be thirty of those chosen by others and +by those who drew a lot. And since some of them were out of town others +drew as substitutes and attended to what should have been their duties. +At first this went on so for several days; but when some abuses crept +in, he no longer put the documents in the charge of the quaestors nor +submitted the groups of five to lot, but he himself read whatever +remained and he himself chose the members that were lacking: and thus six +hundred in all were appointed. [-14-]It had been his plan to make them +three hundred as in old times, and he thought he ought to be well +satisfied if he found so many of them worthy of the senate. But he +finally chose a list of six hundred because of the universal displeasure; +for it came out, by reason of the fact that those whose names would be +cancelled would be many more than those who remained in the body, that +greater fear of becoming private citizens prevailed among its members +than expectation of being senators. Not even here did the matter rest, +since some unsuitable persons were still enrolled. A certain Licinius +Regulus after this, indignant because his name had been erased whereas +his son and several others to whom he thought himself superior had been +counted in, rent his clothing in the very senate, laid bare his body, +enumerated his campaigns, and showed them his scars. And Articuleius +Pætus, one of the senators _in posse_, besought earnestly that he might +retire from his seat in the senate in place of his father, who had been +rejected. Augustus then made a new organization, getting rid of some and +choosing others in their place. Since even so the names of many had been +stricken out and some of them, as usually happens in such a case, charged +that they had been driven out unjustly, he immediately accorded them +the right to behold spectacles and join in festivals in common with the +senators, wearing the same garb, and he permitted them for the future to +stand for offices. Most of them came back in the course of time into +the senate: some few were left in an intermediate position, regarded as +belonging neither to the senate nor to the people. + +[-15-] After this many at once and many subsequently gained the +reputation, whether it was true or false, of plotting against both the +emperor and Agrippa. It is not possible for one outside of such matters +to have certain knowledge about them. Much of what a sovereign does by +way of punishment either personally or through the senate on the ground +that plots have been made against him is viewed with suspicion as +probably a display of wanton power, no matter how justly he may have +acted. For that reason my intention is to record in all matters of this +nature simply the regular version of the story, not busying myself with +aught beyond the public report, except in perfectly patent cases, nor +making any ulterior suggestions as to whether any act was just or unjust +or any statement true or false. Let this principle apply to everything +which I shall write after this. + +At the time Augustus executed a few: Lepidus he hated because his son +had been detected in a against him and had been punished, as well as for +other reasons; he did not, however, wish to kill him but kept insulting +him now in one way, now in another. He ordered Lepidus against his +will to come down from the country to the city and always took him to +gatherings, in order that the man might be subjected to the greatest +amount of jeering and insolence in view of the change from his former +power and dignity. He did not treat him in any way as worthy his +consideration, and at this time he afforded him, last of all the +ex-consuls, the chance of voting. To the rest he was wont to put the +question in the order that belonged to them, but of the ex-consuls he +used to make one first, another second, and third and fourth and so on as +he liked. This the consuls also did. Thus it was that he treated Lepidus. +And when Antistius Labeo enrolled the latter among the men who were to be +senators at the time the vote on this matter was taken, the emperor first +declared that he had perjured himself and threatened to take vengeance. +Thereupon the other replied: "Why, what harm have I done by keeping in +the senate one whom you even now still permit to be high priest?" This +answer quieted Augustus's anger, for though he had often, both privately +and publicly, been judged worthy of this priesthood, he did not deem +it right to take it while Lepidus lived. The reply of Antistius seemed, +indeed, to have been a rather happy one, as was the case once when there +was talk in the senate to the effect that they ought to take turns in +guarding Augustus; for he had said, not daring to speak in opposition nor +willing to agree: "As for me, I snore, and so can not sleep at the door +of his chamber." + +[-16-] Among the laws that Augustus enacted was one which provided that +those who to gain office bribed any person should be debarred from the +said office for five years. He laid heavier penalties upon the unmarried +men and women without husbands, and on the other hand offered prizes for +marriage and the procreation of children. And since among the nobility +there were far more males than females he allowed those who pleased, save +the senators, to marry freedwomen, and ordered that the offspring of such +a man should be deemed legitimate. + +At this period a clamor arose in the senate regarding the disorderly +conduct of the women and the young men, this being alleged as a reason +for the difficulty of persuading them to contract marriage; and when they +urged him to remedy this abuse also, meanwhile indulging in sarcasms +because he enjoyed the favors of many women, at first he made answer that +the most necessary restrictions had been laid down and that anything +further could not be defined in a similar fashion. Then, when he was +driven into a corner, he said: "You ought to admonish and command your +wives what you wish,--just as I myself do." When they heard that, they +plied him with questions all the more, wishing to learn the admonitions +which he said he gave Livia. Reluctantly thereupon he made a few remarks +about dress and about other adornment, about going out and modest +behavior on such occasions. He cared not at all that he did not make good +his words in fact. Something of the sort he had done also while censor. +They brought before him a young man who had married a woman after +seducing her, making the most violent accusations against him: Augustus +was at a loss what to do, not daring to overlook the affair nor yet to +administer any rebuke. After a very long time he heaved a deep sigh and +said: "The factional disputes have borne many terrible fruits: let us try +to forget them and give our attention to the future, to see that nothing +of the sort occurs again." + +Inasmuch, too, as certain infants were obtaining by betrothal the honors +of married couples, but did not accomplish the object in view, he ordered +that no betrothal should be valid where a person did not marry before two +years had passed. That is, any one betrothed must be certainly ten years +old in order to reap any benefit from it. Twelve full years, as I have +said, is required by custom for girls to reach the marriageable age. + +[-17-] Besides these separate enactments there was one instructing those +from time to time in office each to propose one of those who had been +prætors three years previously to attend to the distribution of the +grain, and providing that of that number the four who secured the lot +should give out grain in turn: and the præfectus urbi, appointed for the +Feriæ, was always to choose one of them. The Sibylline verses which had +become indistinct through lapse of time he ordered the priests to copy +out with their own hands in order that no one else should read them. He +allowed the offices to be thrown open to all such as had property worth +ten myriad denarii and were competent to hold office in accordance with +the law. This was the value which he at first set upon the senatorial +rank: later he raised it to twenty-five myriads. Upon some of those who +lived upright lives but possessed less than ten myriads in the first case +or twenty-five in the second he bestowed the amount lacking. Again, he +allowed those prætors who so desired to spend on the festivals besides +what was given them from the public treasury three times as much +again, so that even if some were vexed at the minuteness of his other +regulations yet by reason of this one and also because he brought +back from exile one Pylades, a dancer, driven out on account of civil +quarrels, they remembered them no longer. Hence Pylades is said to have +rejoined very cleverly when the emperor rebuked him for having quarreled +with Bathyllus, an artist in the same line and a relative of Mæcenas: "It +is to your advantage, Cæsar, that the populace should exhaust its energy +over us."--These were the occurrences of that year. + +[B.C. 17 (_a. u._ 737)] + +[-18-]In the consulship of Gaius Furnius and Gaius Silanus Agrippa again +announced the birth of a son named Lucius, and Augustus immediately +adopted him together with his brother Gaius, not waiting for them to +become men but appointing them that very moment successors to his office, +in order that less plots might be directed against him. The festival +of Honor and of Virtus he transferred to the days which are at present +theirs. Those that celebrated triumphs he commanded to erect out of the +spoils some public work to commemorate their deeds. The Sæcularia he +brought for the fifth time to a successful conclusion. The orators, he +ordered, were to give their services without pay, on pain of a fine of +quadruple the amount they might receive. Those whom the lot made jurymen +in any season he forbade to enter any person's house during that year. +And since members of the senate showed lack of interest in attending +meetings of that body, he increased the penalties for such as were late +without some good excuse. + +[B.C. 16 (_a. u._ 7386)] + +[-19-] Next he started for Gaul, during the consulship of Lucius Domitius +and Publius Scipio, making an excuse of the wars that had arisen in that +region. For since he had become disliked by many as a result of his +long stay in the capital and by inflicting penalties offended many who +committed some act contrary to the laws laid down, while he was compelled +in sparing many others to transgress his own enactments, he decided to +leave the country, somewhat after the manner of Solon. Some suspected +that he had gone away on account of Terentia, the wife of Mæcenas, and +intended, because there was much talk made about them in Rome, to join +her without any gossip during his trip abroad. So great was his passion +for her that he once had her enter a contest of beauty against Livia. + +Before starting he dedicated the temple of Quirinus, which he had built +up anew. By this I mean he had adorned it with seventy-six columns, equal +to the total number of years he had lived. This consequently caused some +to say that he had chosen the number purposely and not by mere chance. +After the consecration of this edifice he arranged through Tiberius and +Drusus for gladiatorial combats, permission having been granted them +by the senate. Then he committed to Taurus the management of the City +together with the rest of Italy,--for Agrippa had been despatched again +to Syria and he no longer looked with equal favor on Mæcenas because of +the latter's wife,--and taking Tiberius, though he was prætor, along, he +set out on his journey. Tiberius had become prætor in spite of holding +the honors of an ex-prætor, and his entire office by a decree was placed +in the hands of Drusus. The night following their departure the Hall +of Youth burned to the ground. This was not the only portent that had +occurred, for a wolf had rushed along the Sacred Way into the Forum, +tearing men to pieces, and at a distance from the Forum ants were very +plainly seen together in swarms; likewise a gleam all night long kept +shooting from the south toward the north. Prayers were therefore +offered for the safe return of Augustus. Meantime they celebrated the +quinquennial festival of his sovereignty, the expense being borne by +Agrippa; for the latter had been consecrated by his fellow priests to +be one of the quindecimviri to whom the oversight of the event fell in +regular succession. + +[-20-] There was much other confusion, too, during that period. The +Camunni and Vennones, Alpine tribes, flew to arms but were conquered and +subdued by Publius Silius. The Pannonians in company with the Norici +overran Istria, and after suffering damage at the hands of Silius and +his lieutenants the former came to terms again and were the cause of the +Norici falling into the same slavery. The uprisings in Dalmatia and +in Spain were in a short time quelled. Macedonia was ravaged by the +Dentheleti and the Scordisci. In Thrace somewhat earlier Marcus Lollius +while aiding Rhoemetalces, the uncle and guardian of the children of +Cotys, had subjugated the Bessi. Later Lucius Gallus conquered the +Sarmatæ in the same dispute and drove them back across the Ister. The +greatest, however, of the wars which at that time fell to the lot of the +Romans, which also had something to do, probably, with Augustus's leaving +the city, was against the Celtæ. + +The Sugambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri had first seized in their own +territory some of the Romans and had crucified them, after which they +crossed the Rhine and plundered Germania and Gaul. When the Roman cavalry +approached they laid an ambush and by taking to flight drew their +assailants to follow them; and though they fell in unexpectedly with +the Roman leader Lollius, they conquered even him. On ascertaining this +Augustus hastened against them but found no warfare to carry on. For the +barbarians, learning that Lollius was getting ready and that the emperor +was also heading an expedition, retired into their own territory and made +peace, giving hostages. + +[B.C. 15 (_a. u._ 739)] + +[-21-] On this account Augustus had no need of arms, but the demands of +various other business consumed the entire time of this year, as well as +of the next, in which Marcus Libo and Calpurnius Piso were consuls. +For much injury had been wrought by the Celtæ and much by a certain +Licinnius.[5] And of this, I think, the sea-monster had very plainly +given them warning beforehand. This creature, twenty feet broad and three +times as long and resembling a woman except for its head, had been washed +up on the land from the ocean. Now Licinnius was originally a Gaul but +was captured, brought among Romans, and made a slave to Cæsar, by whom he +was set free, and then by Augustus he had been made procurator of Gaul. +He had barbarian avarice and Roman haughtiness, and tried to overthrow +every person and thing deemed superior to himself and to annihilate +any power which temporarily appeared strong. It was his care to supply +himself with plenty of funds for the requirements of his ministry as well +as to secure a plenty for himself and for members of his family. His +abuses went so far that in some cases where the population paid tribute +by the month he made the months fourteen in number. He declared that this +month called December was really the tenth, and for that reason it was +necessary to count in also the two last months (of which he called one +Undecimber and the other Duodecimber), and to contribute the money that +was due for them. These quibbles brought him into danger. The Gauls +secured the ear of Augustus and made a terrible protest, so that the +emperor first shared their indignation and next begged them to be +patient. Of some of the extortions he said he was unaware and others +he affected not to believe. Some things he concealed, being ashamed of +having employed such a procurator. Licinnius however, by devising another +scheme was enabled to laugh to scorn absolutely all their efforts. When +found that Augustus was displeased with him and that he was likely to +be punished, he took the emperor into his house, and showing him many +treasures of silver and gold and many other valuables piled up in heaps, +he said: "I have gathered these purposely, master, for you and for the +rest of the Romans, to prevent the inhabitants from getting control of so +much money and therefore revolting. You see I have kept it all for you +and herewith give it to you." Thus the sophist was saved, by pretending +that he had sapped the strength of the barbarians to serve Augustus. + +[-22-] Drusus and Tiberius meanwhile were concerned with the following +undertakings. The Rhæti, who dwell between Noricum and Gaul, near the +Tridentine Alps close to Italy, overran a good part of the adjacent +territory of Gaul and carried plunder even out of Italy. Such of the +Romans or their allies as used the road going through their country met +with depredations. These actions of theirs were of course more or less +like those of any nation which has not accepted terms of peace, but +further they destroyed all the males among their captives, not only those +who were apparent but also the embryo ones in the wombs of women, the sex +of which they discovered by some divination. For these reasons Augustus +first sent Drusus against them: he joined battle with a detachment of +theirs that met him near the Tridentine mountains, and speedily had them +routed; for this exploit he received the honors belonging to prætors. +Later, when the tribe had been repulsed from Italy but still harassed +Gaul, the emperor despatched Tiberius in addition. Both of the leaders +then invaded the Rhætian country at many points at once,--the lieutenants +leading such divisions as they did not command personally,--and Tiberius +even crossed the lake[6] in boats. In this way, by encountering them +separately, the Roman commanders spread alarm and had no difficulty in +overcoming those who came near enough for fighting at any time, because +they had only to deal with scattered forces; the remainder, who had +become weaker and more despondent through such tactics, they captured. +And because the land had a large population of males and seemed ripe +for revolt, they deported most of those of military age, especially the +strongest, leaving behind only so many as would be sufficient to inhabit +the country but unable to make any uprising. + +[-23-] This same year Vedius Pollio died, a man who in general had done +nothing deserving notice, being the son of liberti, ranking as a knight, +without any achievement of consequence in his record; but he had become +exceedingly renowned for his wealth and his cruelty, so that he has +even won a place in history. Most of the things that he did it would be +wearisome to relate, but I may mention that he kept in tanks huge eels +trained to eat men, and was accustomed to throw to them the slaves that +he desired to put to death. Once, when he was entertaining Augustus, the +cupbearer shattered a crystal goblet, and without respect to the guest he +ordered that the fellow be thrown to the eels. Hereupon the boy fell on +his knees supplicating Augustus who at first tried to persuade Pollio not +to carry out his intentions. As his host would not yield the point the +emperor said: "Bring all the rest of the drinking vessels which are of +the same sort or any others of value that you may possess, for I want to +use them," and when they were brought he ordered them to be broken. The +master seeing this was of course vexed but could no longer be angry over +one cup, considering the great number of others that were ruined, and +could not punish his servant for what Augustus had done; therefore +reluctantly he took no action. That was the sort of person this Pollio +was, who died. He left various bequests to many different persons and to +Augustus a good share of his inheritance together with Pausilypum[7], a +place between Neapolis and Puteoli, with instructions that some public +work of great beauty should be erected. Augustus razed his house to the +foundation, on the pretext that it was necessary for the preparation of +the other structure, but really with the purpose that he should have no +monument in the city, and built a colonnade, inscribing on it the name +not of Pollio but of Livia. + +This he did later. At the time mentioned he founded a number of cities as +colonies in Gaul and in Spain and restored to the people of Cyzicus their +freedom. To the Paphians, who had suffered from an earthquake, he gave +money and allowed them, by a decree, to call their city Augusta. I have +recorded this, not because Augustus himself and the senators failed to +aid many other cities both before and after this, in case of similar +misfortunes,--if any one should attempt to mention them all, the task of +such a historian would be endless,--but my aim is to show that the senate +assigned names to cities as an honor and the latter did not, as is the +usual procedure now, compile for themselves (each separately) such lists +of names as they might choose. + +[B.C. 14 (_a. u._ 740)] + +[-24-] The next year Marcus Crassus and Gnæus Cornelius became consuls; +and the curule ædiles after resigning their office because they had +entered upon it under unfavorable auguries took it back again, contrary +to precedent, at another meeting of the assembly. The Portico of Paulus +was burned and the fire from it reached the temple of Vesta, so that the +sacred objects that this shrine contained were carried up to the Palatine +by all of the vestal virgins except the eldest (who had gone blind) +and were placed in the house of the priest of Jupiter. The portico was +afterward rebuilt, nominally by Æmilius, who was the representative of +the family that had formerly erected it, but really by Augustus and the +friends of Paulus. At this time the Pannonians revolted and were again +subdued, and the maritime Alps, inhabited by Ligurians called Cometæ and +still free even then, were reduced to a slave district. The revolt in the +Cimmerian Bosporus was also quelled. One Seribonius, who maintained +that he was a grandson of Mithridates and had received the kingdom from +Augustus after the death of Asander, married the latter's wife, +named Dynamis, who was the daughter of Pharnaces and a grandchild of +Mithridates, and obtaining the power committed to her by her husband got +control of Bosporus. Agrippa on being informed of this sent against him +Polemon, king of the Pontus near Cappadocia. He found Seribonius no +longer alive, for the people of Bosporus, learning of his ambitions, had +killed him beforehand, but when these resisted Polemon out of fear that +he might be allowed to reign over them, he engaged them in a set battle. +The victory was his, but he was unable to reduce them to order until +Agrippa came to Sinope, apparently with the intention of conducting +a campaign against them. At that they laid down their arms and were +delivered to Polemon. The woman Dynamis became his spouse,--of course +with the sanction of Augustus. For this outcome sacrifices were made in +the name of Agrippa, but he did not celebrate the triumph, though voted +to him. Nay, he did not so much as write the senate anything about what +had been accomplished. As a result subsequent conquerors, taking his +method as a law, no longer sent any word themselves to the legislative +body and did not accept the celebration of a triumph. For this reason no +one else among his peers (so I am inclined to think) was permitted to do +this, but they enjoyed merely the ornament of triumphal honors. + +[-25-] Augustus finally finished ordering everything in the Gauls, the +Germanias, and the Hispaniæ: upon special districts he spent a great +deal, and levied a great deal upon others, and to some he gave freedom +and citizenship, whereas from others he took them away. + +[B.C. 13 (_a. u._ 741)] + +He then left Drusus in Germania and himself returned to Rome in the +consulship of Tiberius and of Quintilius Varus. It chanced that the news +of his coming reached the city during those days when Cornelius +Balbus after dedicating the theatre now called by his name was giving +spectacles. At this he assumed great importance as if it were he that was +to bring Augustus back, though because of a flooding of the Tiber there +was so great a quantity of water in the theatre that no one could enter +it save in a boat; and Tiberius put the vote to Balbus first, as an +honor for his building the theatre. The senate convened and among other +decisions resolved to place an altar in the senate-chamber itself, to +commemorate the return of Augustus, and that criminals who approached +him as suppliants within the pomerium should be exempt from punishment. +However, he accepted neither of these honors and even escaped a reception +by the people on this occasion by being brought into the city under the +cover of night. This he did almost always whenever he had to go out to +the suburbs or anywhere else, both on his way out and on his way back, so +that nobody should annoy him. The following day he greeted the people on +the Palatine, ascended the Capitol, and taking off the laurel from +around his rods he placed it upon the knees of Jupiter. For that day he +furnished the people with baths and barbers free of charge. After this he +convened the senate and made no address himself by reason of hoarseness, +but gave the book to the quaestor to read which enumerated his +achievements and promulgated rules as to how many years the citizens +should serve in the army and how much money they should receive at the +end of their services in place of the land for which they were always +wont to ask. The object was that by being enlisted on certain specified +terms from the very start they should find in their treatment no excuse +for revolt. The number of years was for the Pretorians twelve and for the +rest sixteen; and the money to be distributed was less for some and more +for others. These measures caused the soldiers neither pleasure nor anger +for the time being, because they had neither obtained all they were +desiring nor yet lost everything. In the remainder of the population it +aroused confident hopes of not being deprived of their possessions in the +future. + +[-26-] His next action was to dedicate the theatre called after +Marcellus. In the festival held on this account the patrician children as +well as his grandson Gaius performed the "Troy" equestrian exercise, +and six hundred Libyan wild beasts were slaughtered. Iullus, the son +of Antony, who was prætor, celebrated the birthday of Augustus with +horse-races and slaughterlng of wild beasts, and entertained both him and +the senate (following a decree of that body) upon the Capitol. + +After this there was another reorganization of the senate. At first the +necessary value of their property had been limited to ten myriad denarii +because many of them had been deprived by the wars of their ancestral +estates. As time went on and men's possessions became larger, it was +advanced to twenty-five myriads, and no one was any longer found who +wanted to be senator. On the contrary, some children and grandchildren +of senators, of whom a part were really poor and another part had been +brought low through calamities suffered by their ancestors, not only +failed to lay claim to the senatorial dignity, but when already placed on +the list withdrew on oath. Therefore previous to this, while Augustus +was still out of the City, a decree had been passed that the so-called +viginti viri[8] should be appointed from the knights. Hence none of them +was any longed enrolled in the senate without having secured some one of +the other offices that lead to it.--These twenty men are a part of the +six-and-twenty.[9] Three of them have charge of capital cases at law. The +next three attend to the coinage of the money. Four act as commissioners +of the streets in the City. Ten are put over the courts that fall by lot +to the _Centumviri_. The two who were entrusted with the roads outside +the walls and the four who were sent to Campania had been abolished. The +senate had voted during the absence of Augustus another measure besides +this, namely that, since nobody could any longer be easily induced to +become a candidate for the tribuneship, they might appoint by lot some +who had been quæstors and were not yet forty years old. At this time the +emperor made a scrutiny of the whole body of citizens. Those of them who +were over thirty-five years of age he did not trouble, but those under +that age who had property of the requisite value he forced to become +senators, except in the case of cripples. Their bodies he viewed himself +but in regard to their property he accepted sworn statements, the men +themselves taking the oath (with others to corroborate their allegations) +and accounting for their lack of funds as well as for their habits of +life. + +[-27-] Nor did he, while observing such strictness in ordinary public +business, neglect the conduct of his own family. Indeed, he rebuked +Tiberius because he had seated Gaius beside him at the thanksgiving +festival which he gave in honor of the emperor's return: and he censured +the people for honoring him with applause and eulogies. On the death of +Lepidus he was appointed high priest and the senate consequently wished +to vote him certain honors;[10] but he declared that he would not accept +them, and when the senators became urgent he rose and left the gathering. +So that measure was not ratified, and he received no official residence, +but because it was absolutely essential that the high priest should live +on public ground he made a portion of his own dwelling public property. +The house of the rex sacrificulus, however, he gave to the vestal virgins +because it was separated merely by a wall from their apartments. + +Cornelius Sisenna was blamed for the conduct of his wife and stated in +the senate that he had married her with the knowledge and on the advice +of the emperor,--whereat Augustus grew exceedingly angry. He indulged in +no violence of word or action but hurried out of the senate-chamber and +then a little later came back again, choosing rather to do this (as he +said to his friends afterward), in spite of its not being right, than to +remain where he was and be compelled to do some harm. + +[B.C. 12 (_a. u._ 742)] + +[-28-] Meantime he bestowed upon Agrippa, who had come from Syria, the +great honor of the tribunician authority for another five years, and sent +him out to Pannonia, which was ready for war, allowing him greater powers +than officials outside of Italy ordinarily possessed. Agrippa made the +campaign though it already was winter: Marcus Valerius and Publius +Sulpicius were the consuls. As the Pannonians became terror stricken at +his approach and showed no further signs of uprising he returned, and on +reaching Campania fell sick. Augustus happened to be giving, under the +name of his children, contests of armed warriors at the Panathenaic +festival, and when he learned of Agrippa's condition he left the country. +Finding him dead, he conveyed his body to the capital and allowed it to +lie in state in the Forum. He also delivered the oration over the dead +man, with a curtain stretched in front of the corpse. Why he did this +I know not. Yet some have said it was because he was high priest, and +others because he was discharging the functions of censor. Both are +mistaken. A high priest is not forbidden to behold a corpse, nor yet +a censor, except when he is about to put the finishing touches to the +census. Then if he sees such an object before his purification, all his +work is rendered null and void. Besides this oration Augustus conducted +his funeral procession in the way that his own was later conducted. He +buried him in his own tomb, though the deceased had a lot of his own in +the Campus Martius. + +[-29-] Such was the end of Agrippa, who had in every way proved himself +clearly the noblest of the men of his day and used the friendship of +Augustus for the emperor's own greatest benefit and for that of the +commonwealth. So much as he surpassed others in excellence, to such an +extent did he voluntarily make himself lower than his patron. He employed +all his own skill and bravery for what would prove most profitable to +Augustus and expended all the honor and power received from him on +benefiting others. As a result he never became in the least troublesome +to Augustus nor the object of jealousy on the part of others. He helped +his friend organize the monarchy like one who was really in love with +the idea of supreme power and he won over the populace by his kindness, +showing himself most truly a friend of the people. At his death he left +them gardens and the bath-house called after his name, so that they +might bathe free of charge; and he gave Augustus certain lands for +this purpose. The latter not only rendered these public property, but +distributed to the people also a hundred denarii apiece, with the +explanation that Agrippa had ordered it. He had inherited most of the +deceased's property, among the articles of which was the Hellespontine +Chersonese, which had come I know not how into the possession of Agrippa. +The emperor felt his loss for a very long time and therefore caused the +populace to hold him in honor. A posthumous son born to him he called +Agrippa. However, he did not allow any of the citizens to omit any of +the ancestral customs (although none of the more prominent men wished to +present himself for the festivals) and he personally superintended the +gladiatorial combats. They were often given, too, in his absence.--This +demise of Agrippa was not only a private loss to his own household, but +a public loss to all the Romans, as was shown by the fact that portents +occurred on this occasion as great as were usually seen before the +most tremendous disasters. Owls gathered in the capital and a bolt of +lightning descended upon the house at Albanum, where the consuls reside +during the sacrifices.[11] The star called comet stood for several days +over the City and was finally dissolved into flashes of light. Many +buildings in the City were destroyed by fire, among them the tent of +Romulus, which was set ablaze by crows dropping upon it burning meat from +some altar.--These were the matters of interest connected with Agrippa. + +[-30-] After this Augustus was chosen supervisor and corrector of morals +for another five years,--this also he received for a limited period as he +had the monarchy,--and he ordered the senators to burn incense as often +as they had a sitting, and not to come to his residence: the first, that +they might show reverence to the gods, and the second, that they might +have no difficulty in convening. Inasmuch as very few became candidates +for the tribuneship on account of its power having been abolished, he +made a law that magistrates should each nominate one of the knights who +possessed not less than twenty-five myriads; the people should then +choose from these the number lacking, and if the men desired to be +senators afterward, well and good; otherwise they should return again to +the rank of knights. + +The province of Asia also stood very greatly in need of some assistance +on account of earthquakes, and he therefore paid into the public treasury +from his own resources their annual tribute and assigned them a governor +for two years chosen by lot and not arbitrarily selected. + +Apuleius and Mæcenas were at one time bitterly reviled in some court of +adultery, not because they had themselves behaved wantonly but because +they had actively aided the man on trial; thereupon Augustus entered the +courtroom and sat in the prætor's chair: he did nothing violent, but +simply forbade the accuser to insult his relatives or friends, and then +rose and left the place. For this action and others the senators honored +him with statues, paid for by private subscription, and by giving +bachelors and spinsters the right to behold spectacles with other people +and to attend banquets on his birthday. Neither of these privileges was +previously permitted them. + +[-31-] When now Agrippa, whom he loved for his excellence and not +through any compulsion, had died, the emperor found that he needed an +assistant in the public business, one who would far surpass the rest in +both honor and power, who might manage everything opportunely and be free +from envy and plots. Therefore he reluctantly chose Tiberius, for his own +grandsons were at this time still minors. He caused him also to divorce +his wife, though she was a daughter of Agrippa by another marriage and +had one child an infant and was soon to give birth to another; and having +betrothed Julia to him he sent him out against the Pannonians. This +people had for a time been quiet, fearing Agrippa, but now after his +death they revolted. Tiberius subdued them, having ravaged considerable +of their territory and done much injury to its inhabitants; he had as +enthusiastic allies the Scordisci, who were neighbors of theirs and +similarly equipped. He took away their arms and sold for export most of +the male population that was of age. For these achievements the senate +voted him a triumph, but Augustus did not allow him to hold it, granting +him instead the triumphal honors. + +[-32-] Drusus had this same experience. The Sugambri and their allies, +owing to the absence of Augustus and the fact that the Gauls were restive +under the yoke of slavery, had become hostile, and he therefore occupied +the subject territory before them, sending for the foremost men on the +pretext of the festival which they celebrate even now about the altar of +Augustus at Lugdunum. Also he observed the Celtae crossing the Rhine +and drove them back. Next he crossed over to the land of the Usipetes +opposite the very island of the Batavi, and from there marched along the +river to the Sugambri country, devastating vast stretches. He sailed +along the Rhine to the ocean, conciliated the Frisii, and traversing the +lake invaded Chaucis, where he ran in danger, as his boats were left high +and dry at the ebb-tide of the ocean. He was saved at this time by the +Frisii (who joined his expedition with infantry), and withdrew, for it +was now winter. + +[B.C. 11(_a. u._ 743)] + +Coming to Rome he was made aedile[12]in the consulship of Quintus Aelius +and Paulus Fabius, though he had already prætor's honors. + +[-33-] At the opening of the spring he set out again to the war, crossed +the Rhine, and subjugated the Usipetes. He bridged the Lupia, invaded the +country of the Sugambri and advanced through it into Cheruscis, as far as +the Visurgis. He was able to do this because the Sugambri in anger at the +Chatti, the only tribe among their neighbors that had refused to join +their alliance, had made a campaign of the whole population against them. +Drusus took this opportunity to traverse their country unnoticed. And he +would nave crossed also the Visurgis, had not provisions grown scarce and +the their country, and though beaten at first vanquished them in turn and +ravaged both that land and the territory of adjacent tribes which had +taken part in the uprising. Immediately he reduced all of them to +subjugation, gaining control of some with their consent, terrifying +others into reluctant submission, and engaging in pitched battles with +others. Later, when some of them rebelled, he again enslaved them. And +for this thanksgivings and triumphal honors were accorded him. + +[-35-] While these events were occurring Augustus took a census, +reckoning in all the property that belonged to him, as an individual +might do, and also making a list of the senate. As he saw that many were +not always present at the meetings he ordered that even less than four +hundred might constitute a quorum for passing decrees. Previously that +had been the minimum number for ratifying any measure. The senate and the +people again contributed money to be spent on images of himself, but he +would erect no such likeness, and only set up representations of the +Public Health, of Concord, and of Peace. The citizens were always +collecting money for statues to him, on the slightest excuse; and at last +they ceased paying it privately, as before, but would come to him on the +first day of the year and give, some more, some less. He, after adding as +much or more again, would return it, not only to the senators but to +all the rest. I have also heard the story that on one day of the year, +following some oracle or dream, he would assume the guise of a beggar and +would accept money from those who passed. This, whether trustworthy or +not, is a prevailing tradition. + +That year he gave Julia in marriage to Tiberius, and his sister Octavia +dying, he caused her body to lie in state in the hero-shrine of Julius; +on this occasion, too, he had a curtain over the corpse. He himself +delivered there the funeral speech and Drusus, having changed his +senatorial dress, had a place on the platform, for the mourning was a +public affair. Her body was carried in procession by her sons-in-law: not +all the honors voted to her were accepted by Augustus. + +At this same time the first priest of Jupiter since [-36-] Merula was +appointed; and the quaestors were ordered to pay careful heed to the +decrees passed from time to time, because the tribunes and the ædiles, +who had previously been entrusted with this business, transacted it +through their assistants, and as a result some mistakes and confusion +took place. + +It was voted, moreover, that the temple of Janus Geminus, which was open, +should be closed, on the assumption that wars had ceased. + +[B.C. 10 (_a. u._ 744)] + +It was not closed, however, for the Dacians crossing the Ister on the ice +took the crops of Pannonia as booty, and the Dalmatians revolted at the +imposition of taxes. Against the latter Tiberius was sent from Gaul, +whither he had gone in company with Augustus, and he restored order. The +nations of the Celtæ, and especially the Chatti, were partly weakened +and partly subdued by Drusus; the tribe mentioned had gone to join the +Sugambri, having abandoned their own country, which the Romans had given +them to dwell in. The emperor delayed in Lugdunis, where he could keep a +sharp watch on affairs, as it was so near the Celtæ. The victors returned +to Rome with Augustus, assumed whatever dignities had been voted them by +the senate, and performed such other duties as belonged to them.--These +events took place in the consulship of Iullus and Fabius Maximus. + + +[Footnote 1: Pliny (Natural History VI, 181) calls him _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 2: Readings and punctuation from Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 3: Augustus returned to Rome October twelfth, and the temple in +question was consecrated December fifteenth.] + +[Footnote 4: Boissevain here amends to [Greek: 'epelpisas]] + +[Footnote 5: In the matter of the spelling of this name the weight of +authority prefers _Licinus_. Dio's form is less correct.] + +[Footnote 6: I. e., the _lacus Venetus_.] + +[Footnote 7: This eminence with its villa appropriately bore the Greek +title _Pausilypon_ (Grief's Surcease), a compound word like our modern +names _Heartsease_, _Sans Souci_, etc. It is the modern "Hill of +Posilipo."] + +[Footnote 8: English, _Twenty Men_; their regular title.] + +[Footnote 9: Latin, _Viginti Sex Viri_.] + +[Footnote 10: The words "certain honors" are supplied on the suggestion +of Boissevain. Boissée and others, who surmise that the text here +contains a lacuna] + +[Footnote 11: I. e., at the time of the Feriæ.] + +[Footnote 12: The reading [Greek: agoranomos] is generally preferred here +to [Greek: asotunmos]] + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +55 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +How Drusus died (chapters 1, 2). + +How the Precinct of Livia was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Campus Agrippae was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Diribitorium was consecrated (chapter 8). + +How Tiberius retired to Rome (chapter 11). + +How the Forum of Augustus was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How the Temple of Mars therein was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How Lucius Cæsar and Gaius Cæsar died (chapters 11, 12). + +How Augustus adopted Tiberius (chapter 13). + +How Livia urged Augustus to rule more mercifully (chapters 14-22). + +About the legions and how men were appointed to manage the military fund +(chapters 23-25). + +How the night-watchmen[1] were appointed (chapter 26). + +How Tiberius fought against the Dalmatians and Pannonians (chapters +28-34). + +Duration of time, 17 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Nero Claudius Tib. F. Drusus, T. Quinctius T. F. Crispinus. (B.C. 9 = a. +u. 745.) + +C. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Asinius C. F. Gallus. (B.C. 8 = a. u. +746.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero (II), Cn. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso. (B.C. 7 = a. +u. 747.) + +Decimus Laelius Decimi F. Balbus, C. Antistius C. F. Veter. (B.C. 6 = a. +u. 748.) + +Augustus (XII), L. Cornelius P. F. Sulla. (B.C. 5 = a. u. 749.) + +C. Calvisius C. F. Sabinus (II), L. Passienus Rufus (B.C. 4 = a. u. 750.) + +L. Cornelius L. F. Lentulus, M. Valerius M. F. Messalla [or] Messalinus. +(B.C. 3 = a. u. 751.) + +Augustus (XIII), M. Plautius M. F. Silvanus. (B.C. 2 = a. u. 752.) + +Cossus Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus, L. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso (B.C. 1 = a. +u. 753.) + +C. Cæsar Augusti F., L. Æmilius L. F. Paulus. (A.D. 1 = a. u. 754.) + +P. Vinicius [or Minucius] M. F., P. Alfenus [or Alfenius] P.F. Varus. +(A.D. 2 = a. u. 755.) + +L. Ælius L. F. Lamia, M. Servilius M.F. (A.D. 3 = a. u. 756.) + +Sextus Ælius Q. F. Catus, C. Sentius C.F. Saturninus. (A.D. 4 = a. u. +757.) + +L. Valerius Potiti F. Messala Valesus, Cn. Cornelius L. F. Cinna Magnus. +(A.D. 5 = a. u. 758.) + +M. Æmilius L.F. Lepidus, L Arruntius L.F. (A.D. 6 = a. u. 759) + +Aul. Licinius Aul. F. Nerva Silianus, Q. Cæcilius Q.F. Metellus Creticus. +(A.D. 7 = a. u. 760.) + +M. Furius M. F. Camillus, Sex. Nonius L.F. Quintilianus. (A.D. 8 = a. u. +761.) + + +_(BOOK 55, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 9 (_a. u._ 745)] + +[-1-] The following year Drusus became consul with Titus Crispinus, +and omens occurred that were not favorable to him. Many buildings were +destroyed by storm and thunderbolts, among them many temples: even that +of Jupiter Capitolinus and the temple annexed to it were injured. He, +however, paid no attention to this and invaded the country of the Chatti, +advancing as far as Suebia, conquering the territory traversed not +without hardship and vanquishing the troops that assailed him not without +bloodshed. From there he marched to Cheruscis and crossing the Visurgis +proceeded as far as the Albis, pillaging the entire district. This Albis +rises in the Vandaliscan mountains and empties in a great flood into the +ocean this side of the Arctic Sea. Drusus undertook to cross it, but +failing in the attempt set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman taller +than mankind confronted him and said: "Whither are thou hastening, +insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt see all this region. +Depart. For thee the end of labor and of life is already at hand." It is +strange to think that any such voice should have come to a person's ears +from the apparition, yet I can not discredit the tale, for he at once +retired. And as he was returning in haste he died on the way of some +disease, before he reached the Rhine. Proof of the story seems to me to +lie in the fact that at the time of his death wolves prowled and yelped +about the camp and two youths were seen riding through the middle of the +ramparts. A kind of lamentation in a woman's voice was also heard, and +there were shooting stars in the sky. These are the noteworthy points. +[-2-] Augustus, soon learning that he was sick (for he was not far off), +sent Tiberius to him with speed. The latter found him still breathing +and on his death carried his body to Rome, causing the centurions and +military tribunes to convey him over the first stage,--as far as the +winter quarters of the army,--and from there the foremost men of each +city. When the deceased was laid in state in the Forum a double funeral +oration was delivered. Tiberius eulogized him there and Augustus in the +Flaminian hippodrome. Since the latter had been abroad on a campaign it +was impious for him to do otherwise than perform the fitting rites in +honor of the exploits of Drusus at the very entrance of the pomerium. The +body was carried to the Campus Martius by the knights, both those who +belonged strictly to the equestrian order and those, as well, who were +of senatorial family.[2] Then, after being given to the flames, it was +deposited in the monument of Augustus. He and his children received the +title of Germanicus and honors in the way of both images and an arch, +besides obtaining a cenotaph close to the Rhine itself. + +Tiberius, while Drusus was still alive, had overcome the Dalmatians and +Pannonians, who were again a little restless, had celebrated a triumph on +horseback, and had banqueted the people, a part on the Capitol and a +part in many other places. At this time also Livia and Julia together +entertained the women. Same festivities were being made ready for Drusus +The Feriæ were to be held a second time on this account so that he might +celebrate his triumph on the same occasion, but his untimely death upset +the plans. As a consolation to Livia images were awarded her and she was +enrolled among the mothers of three children. For upon such men or women +as are not granted so many offspring by Heaven, or at least upon some of +them, a law emanating formerly from the senate but now from the emperor +bestows the dignities belonging to parents of three children. In this way +they are not subject to the reproaches for childlessness and may receive +all but a few of the prizes for fecundity. Not only men but gods enjoy +the privilege, to the end that, if any one dying leaves them anything, +they may take possession of it. These are the facts of the matter. + +[-3-] Augustus ordered that the sittings of the senate should be held on +specified days. Previously there had been no real system about them, and +some members on that account were often late; therefore he appointed two +regular monthly councils, so that those whom the law summoned should be +under compulsion to attend; and in order that no other excuse for their +absence should be within their power he commanded that no court or other +meeting which required their attention should be held at that time. He +made provision with respect to the number necessary for ratifying decrees +under each separate category, to put it briefly; and he increased the +fines imposed upon those who without good excuse were not present at the +gatherings. Inasmuch as many such offences had generally gone unpunished +owing to the large number of those who had incurred penalties, he +commanded that if many should do this, they should draw lots, and every +fifth one to draw a lot should be held liable to punishment.--The names +of all the senators he had recorded on a white tablet and conspicuously +posted. From the beginning made by him this is now annually done. _His_ +intention in doing it was to make it absolutely necessary for them to +come together. Sometimes, by some accident, not so many might assemble as +a special case demanded. This would be known, because except on such days +as the emperor himself might be present the number of those in attendance +was both at this time and later carefully ascertained, and with a great +degree of accuracy. Under these circumstances they would deliberate and +their decision would be recorded, but it was not final, was not ratified: +instead, _auctoritas_ was declared, in order that their _will_ might be +evident,--for such is the force of this word. To translate the term into +Greek by a single expression is not possible. This same custom prevailed +in case they ever assembled through haste in an irregular place, or on a +day that was not fitting, or without a legal summons, or if because +of the opposition of tribunes a decree could not be passed, but their +opinion was not to be concealed. Later, ratification was granted +according to ancestral precedent to the resolution in question, and the +latter obtained the name of _senatus consultum_. This method, strictly +observed for an extremely long period by the men of old time, has in a +already become null and void,--as also the prerogative of the prætors. +For the latter were indignant that they might bring no proposition before +the senate although they ranked above the tribunes in dignity and they +received from Augustus the right of doing so, but in the course of time +it was taken away from them again. + +[-4-] These and other laws which he at this time enacted he inscribed on +white tablets and submitted to the senate before taking any final action +with regard to them; and he allowed the senators to read, each one, the +articles separately, his object being that if any provision did not +please them, or if they could suggest anything better, they might speak. +He was very desirous of being democratic, and once, when one of the +companions of his campaigns asked him to aid him in the capacity of +advocate, at first he pretended to be busy and bade one of his friends +serve as advocate; when, however, the petitioner grew angry and said: +"but as often as you needed my assistance, I did not send somebody else +to you in place of myself, but in person I encountered dangers everywhere +in your behalf," the emperor then entered the courtroom and pled his +cause. He also stood by a friend of his who was defendant in a suit, +having first communicated this very purpose to the senate: he saved the +friend but was so far from being angry at his accuser, although the +latter spoke most bluntly, that when he had to undergo a scrutiny +regarding his morals the emperor acquitted him, saying that his bluntness +was a necessary thing on account of the out-and-out baseness of the mass +of mankind. Augustus, indeed, punished others who were reported to be +conspiring against their sovereign. He had quæstors hold office in the +coast districts near the City and in certain other parts of Italy; and +this he did for several years. Yet at this time he was unwilling, as I +have remarked, [3] to enter the city on account of Drusus's death. + +[B.C. 8 _(a. u. 746)_] + +[-5-] But the next year, in which Asinius Gallus and Graius Marcius were +consuls, he came back and carried the laurel, contrary to custom, into +the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. No festival did he celebrate over his +achievements, thinking that he had lost far more in the death of Drusus +than he had gained by the victories. The consuls carried out the program +usual on such occasions and set some of the captives to fighting with one +another. Later, when they and the rest of the officials were accused of +having been appointed by means of some bribery, he did not investigate +the case but pretended not even to know of it. He did not like to visit +punishment on any of them or to pardon them if they were convicted. But +from office seekers he demanded before the elections a deposit of money +as a guarantee that they would resort to no such methods, on pain of +forfeiting what they had paid in. This course all approved.--As it was +not permissible for a slave to be tortured for evidence against his +master, he ordered that, as often as the necessity for such a course +should arise, the slave should be sold either to the State or to him, in +order that being now the property of some one else than the man on trial +he might be examined. Some found fault with this, because the law was to +be invalidated by the change of masters; but others declared it to be +necessary, because many under the previous arrangement united to take +advantage of the loophole offered and to get the offices. + +[-6-] Augustus, after this, although, as he said, he was minded to lay +aside the supreme power, since the second ten-year period had run out, +resumed it again with a show of reluctance and made a campaign against +the Celtæ. He himself remained behind on Roman territory, but Tiberius +crossed the Rhine. The barbarians in dread of him, all except the +Sugambri, made overtures for peace, but they did not obtain their request +at this time,--for Augustus refused to conclude a truce with them if they +lacked the Sugambri,--nor did they later. To be sure, the Sugambri, too, +sent envoys, but they failed completely to accomplish anything: on the +contrary, all of them, a numerous and distinguished band, met an untimely +end. Augustus arrested them and placed them in various cities: they took +this very much amiss and committed suicide. The tribes then were +quiet for a time, but later they amply requited the Romans for the +calamity.--Besides doing this Augustus granted money to the soldiers, not +as to victors, though he himself had taken the name of imperator and had +given it to Tiberius, but because this was the first time that they had +Gaius appearing in the exercises with them. He advanced Tiberius to the +position of imperator in place of Drusus, and besides exalting him with +that title appointed him consul once more. According to the ancient +custom he had a written notice bulletined for the public benefit before +Tiberius entered upon the office, and he furthermore accorded him the +solemnity of a triumph. Augustus himself did not wish to hold it, but +obtained the privilege of a horse-race perpetually upon his birthday. He +enlarged the pomerium and renamed the month called Sextilis, Augustus. +The people generally wanted September to be so named, because he had been +born in it, but he preferred the other month, in which he had first been +appointed consul and had conquered in many great battles. It was in these +things that he took pride. + +[-7-] The death of Mæcenas caused him grief. He had enjoyed many kind +services at his hands, for which reason he had entrusted him, though but +a knight, with the care of the City for a long time, but especially +was his ministry of use when the emperor's passion became nearly +uncontrollable. Mæcenas was then able to banish his anger and to lead him +into a gentler frame of mind. Here is an instance. Mæcenas once found +his patron holding court, and seeing that would undoubtedly condemn many +persons to death, he undertook to push through the bystanders and +get Finding this impossible, he wrote on a tablet: "Pray desist now, +executioner." Making as if it contained something different, he threw it +into the lap of Augustus, and the latter imposed no death sentences but +immediately rose and left. The emperor was not displeased at such hints +but rather glad of them, because whatever excess of anger he felt by +reason of his own nature and the press of affairs he was able to tone +down with the aid of his friend's frank advice.--This also is a very +great proof of Mæcenas's excellence, that he made himself liked by +Augustus, in spite of resisting his projects, and pleased all the people. +Though he had tremendous influence with the emperor, so that he could +bestow offices and honors upon many men, he did not lose his head but +continued to the end of his life in the equestrian class. For all these +reasons Augustus missed him greatly, and he was affected by the fact that +his minister, though irritated about his own wife, had left him as his +heir and had put all his property, save a very small amount, in his hands +to give to his friends or not, as he saw fit. Such was the character of +Mæcenas and such his treatment of Augustus. He was the first to construct +a swimming pool of warm water in the city and the first to devise signs +for letters, to facilitate speed,--a system which, through Aquila [4] a +freedman, he taught to a number. + +[B.C. 7 (_a. u._ 747)] + +[-8-] Tiberius on the first day that he began the consulship with Gnæus +Piso convened the senate in the Octavium, because it was outside the +pomerium. After assigning himself the duty of repairing the temple of +Concord, in order that he might inscribe upon it his own name and that of +Drusus, he held his triumph, and in company with his mother dedicated the +so-called Precinct of Livia. He himself entertained the senate on the +Capitol, and she the women privately. Not much later, as there was some +disturbance in Germany, he took the field. The festival held in honor of +the return of Augustus was managed by Gaius together with Piso, in his +place. The Campus Agrippæ (except the portico) and the Diribitorium +Augustus himself made public property. The latter was the largest house +ever constructed under a single roof; now the whole top of it has been +taken off because it could not be put together solidly again, and the +edifice stands wide open to the sky. Agrippa had left it still in the +process of building, and it was completed at this time. The portico +in the plain, which Polla his sister (who had also decorated the +race-courses) was making, was not yet finished. Meantime funeral combats +in honor of Agrippa were given, all except Augustus wearing dark clothing +and even his sons the same, and there were both duels and contests of +groups; they were held in the Sæpta out of honor to Agrippa and because +many of the structures surrounding the Forum had been burned. The blame +for the fire was laid upon the debtor class and they were suspected of +having set it with the purpose of having some of their debts remitted +when they appeared to have lost considerable. They obtained nothing, +however. The lanes at this time were provided with certain supervisors +from among the people, whom we call road commissioners[5] They were +allowed to use official dress and two lictors just in the places where +they had jurisdiction and on certain days, and they were given charge of +the body of slaves which previously had accompanied the ædiles to save +buildings that were set afire,--an arrangement still continued to the +present day. They, together with the tribunes and prætors, were by lot +appointed to have charge of the entire city, which was divided into +fourteen wards.--These were all the events of that year, for nothing +worthy of mention happened in Germany. + +[B.C. 6 (_a. u._ 748)] + +[-9-] The year following, which marked the consulship of Gaius Antistius +and Lælius Balbus, Augustus was displeased to see that Gaius and Lucius, +who were being brought up in the lap of sovereignty, did not carefully +imitate his ways. They not only lived too luxuriously, but showed +unseemly audacity. Lucius once entered the theatre by himself and became +the center of attraction of the whole population; some merely let +him engross their thoughts and others openly paid court to him. This +treatment made him more arrogant, and among his other doings he proposed +for consul Gaius, who was not yet a iuvenis. His father, however, +expressed the earnest wish that no such complication of circumstances +might arise as once occurred in his own case,--that any one younger than +twenty should be consul. When the people still remained urgent he then +said that a man ought to receive this office at time when he would not be +liable to error himself and could resist the passions of the populace. +After that he gave Gaius a priesthood, with the right of attendance in +the senate and of beholding spectacles and sitting at banquets with that +body. And wishing in some way [6] to rebuke them still more severely he +bestowed upon Tiberius the tribunician authority for five years, and +assigned to him Armenia, which was becoming estranged since the death of +Tigranes. The result was that he was soon at odds with the people and +Tiberius, though without effecting anything. The people felt that they +had been slighted, and Tiberius feared their anger. He was, however, soon +sent to Rhodes on the pretext that he needed some education; and he +took not even his entire retinue, to say nothing of others, that so his +appearance and his deeds might drop out of their minds. [The trip he made +as a private person except in so far as he compelled the Parians to +sell him the statue of Vesta, that it might be placed in the temple of +Concord. When he reached the island he neither behaved at all nor spoke +in an overweening way.--This is the truest reason for his foreign +journey.] There is also a story current that he did this on account of +his wife Julia, because he could no longer endure her; at any rate she +was left behind at Rome. [Others have said that he was angry at not +having been designated Cæsar. Others still, that he was driven out by +Augustus, being accused of plotting against the latter's children. But +that his departure was not for the sake of education nor because he was +displeased at the decrees passed became plain from many of his subsequent +actions, and especially through his immediately opening his will at that +time, and reading it to his mother and to Augustus. But all possible +conjectures were made.] + +[B.C. 5 (_a. u._ 749)] + + The following year Augustus in the course of his twelfth consulship + placed Gaius among the iuvenes and at the same time brought him + before the senate, declared him Princeps luventutis, and allowed + him to become cavalry commander. + + * * * * * + + [B.C. 2 (_a. u._ 752)] + + And after the elapse of a year Lucius also obtained all the honors + that had been granted to his brother Gaius. On an occasion when the + populace had gathered and were asking that some reforms be instituted, + when, indeed, they had sent for this purpose the tribunes to Augustus, + Lucius came and deliberated with them about their demands; and at + this all were pleased. + +[-10-]Augustus limited the number of the populace to be supplied with +grain, something previously left vague, to twenty myriads, and, as some +say, he gave each one sixty denarii.. .. to Mars, and that he himself and +his grandsons, as often as they pleased, and those who were passing +from the classification of children and were being registered among +the iuvenes, should invariably resort thither; that magistrates being +despatched to offices abroad should make that their starting-point; that +the senate should there declare their votes in regard to the granting +of triumphs and the victors celebrating them should devote to this Mars +their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who might +obtain triumphal honors should have their likenesses in bronze erected +in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were +ever recovered, they should be placed in the temple; that a festival of +the god should be celebrated near the Scalæ by the persons successively +occupying the office of præfectus alae; that a nail should be driven for +his glory by those acting as censors; that senators have the right to +undertake the work of furnishing the horses that were to compete in the +equestrian contest, as well as the general care of the temple, precisely +as had been provided by law in the case of Apollo and in the case of +Jupiter Capitolinus. + +These matters settled, Augustus dedicated that spacious hall: yet to +Gaius and to Lucius he gave once and for all powers to officiate at all +similar consecrations, on the strength of a kind of consular authority +(founded on precedent) that they were to use. They, too, directed the +horse-race on this occasion, and their brother Agrippa took part with +the children of the leading families in the so-called "Troy" equestrian +games. Two hundred and sixty lions were slaughtered in the hippodrome. +There was a gladiatorial combat in the Sæpta, and a naval battle of +"Persians" and "Athenians" was given on the spot, where even at the +present day some relics of it are still exhibited. The above were the +names applied to the parties engaged, and the Athenians, as of old, came +out victorious. + +In the course of the spectacle he let water into the Flaminian Hippodrome +and thirty-six crocodiles were there cut in pieces. However, Augustus did +not serve as consul every day continuously, but after holding office a +little while he gave the title of the consulship to another. + +These were the exercises in honor of Mars. To Augustus himself a sacred +contest was offered in Neapolis, the Campanian city, nominally because he +had helped it rise when it was prostrated by earthquake and by fire, +but in reality because the inhabitants, alone of their neighbors, were +enthusiastic over Greek customs; and he also received the title of +Father, with, binding force (for previously he was merely spoken of by +that name and no decree had been passed). Moreover, it was now that for +the first time he appointed two pretorian prefects, Quintus Ostorius +Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper. This term "prefect" is the word which +I, too, shall use solely to designate the commanders of any body, since +it has won its way into general currency. Likewise Pylades the dancer +conducted certain games, not performing any manual labor in connection +with them (since he was now a man of advanced age) but employing the +insignia of office and authorizing the necessary expenditures. Similarly +the prætor Quintus Crispinus conducted games (though I need lay no +emphasis on that point) and under his management knights and women of +families not unknown to fame were brought into the orchestra. But of all +this Augustus made no account; his daughter Julia, however, proved so +dissolute that she held revels and drinking bouts by night in the +Forum and on the very rostra. When at last he found this out, he was +exceedingly enraged. He had guessed before that she did not lead a right +life, but refused to believe it. For those who hold supreme power are +acquainted with anything better than with their own affairs. Their own +deeds do not go undetected by their associates, but they are not fully +aware of the latter's. In this instance [when he learned what was going +on], he gave way to such violent rage that he could not keep the matter +to himself, but communicated it to the senate. As a result she was +banished to the island of Pandateria, near Campania, and her mother +Scribonia voluntarily was the companion of her voyage. Of the men who +enjoyed her favors Iullus Antonius, on the ground that his conduct was +prompted by designs upon the monarchy, was put to death, along with +others, [prominent persons]. The remainder were banished to islands. +[And since there was a tribune among them he was not tried till he had +completed his term of office.] Many other women, too, were accused of +similar behavior, but the emperor would not permit all the suits: he set +a definite time and forbade investigation of what had occurred previous +to that. In the case of his daughter he would show no mercy, urging that +he would rather have been Phoebe's father than hers, but the rest he +spared. Now Phoebe been a freedwoman of Julia's and the companion of her +undertakings, and had already caused her own death. For this Augustus +praised her. + + [B.C. 1 (_a. u._ 753)] + + Gaius' captaincy of the legions on the Ister was a peaceful period. + He fought no war, not because there was none but because he cultivated + ruling in quiet and safety, and the dangers were assigned to others. + +The revolt of the Armenians and the Parthians' coöperation with them kept +Augustus sorrowful, and he was at a loss to know what to do. His age +rendered him incapable of campaigning, Tiberius (as stated) had already +withdrawn, he could not venture to send any other influential man, +and Gaius and Lucius were, as it happened, young and inexperienced in +affairs. Still, under the prod of necessity, he chose Gaius, gave him +the proconsular authority and a wife (an act intended to increase his +dignity) and assigned advisers to him. Gaius set out and was everywhere +received with marks of distinction, occupying as he did the position of +the emperor's grandson,--one might almost say son,--and Tiberius went +to Chios and paid him court to rid himself of suspicion. He humiliated +himself and groveled at the feet not only of Gaius but of all the +latter's associates. On his return to Syria, after no great successes +won, he was wounded. + +[When the barbarians heard of the campaign of Gaius, Phrataces sent to +Augustus men to explain what had occurred and asked to get back his +brothers on condition of accepting peace. + +[A.D. 1 (_a. u._ 754)] + +The emperor's reply, addressed simply to "Phrataces," without the title +of king, directed him to lay aside the royal name and withdraw from +Armenia. The Parthian, however, instead of being cowed at this, wrote +back in a generally supercilious tone, calling himself "king of kings," +but the other only "Cæsar."--Tigranes did not at once send any envoys, +but when Artabazus somewhat later fell sick and died he despatched a +letter, not writing the name "king" in it, and asked Augustus for the +kingdom. Influenced by these considerations and in fear, likewise, of war +with the Parthians, the emperor accepted the gifts and bade him go with +good hopes to meet Gaius in Syria.] + +[-10a-(_Boissevain_)] ... other party from Egypt that campaigned against +them they repulsed, and did not yield till a tribune from the pretorian +guard was sent against them. He in progress of time checked their +incursions, and for a long period no senator governed the cities in this +region. + +Coincident with these troubles there was a new movement on the part of +the Celtæ. Some time earlier Domitius, while still governing the regions +adjacent to the Ister, had intercepted the Hermunduri (a tribe that for +some unknown reason had left their native land and were wandering about +in search of a different country), and he had settled them in a portion +of Marcomania; next, encountering no opposition, he had crossed the +Albis, cemented friendship with the barbarians on the other side, and +set up an altar to Augustus to commemorate the event. Just now he +had transferred his position to the Rhine, where, in pursuance of an +intention to have his subordinates restore certain Cheruscian exiles, he +had met with misfortune and had caused the other barbarians likewise to +concieve a contempt for the Romans. This was, however, the extent of his +operations during the year in question, for because of the Parthian war +impending no chastisement was visited upon the rebels immediately. + +Nevertheless the war with the Parthians did not materialize. Phrataces +heard that Gaius was in Syria, equipped with consular powers, and was +furthermore uneasy about home interests in which even previously he had +failed to discern a friendly feeling; hence he hastened to effect a +reconciliation, secured on the proviso that he himself should depart from +Armenia and his brothers remain over seas. + +[A.D. 2(_a. u._ 755)] + +Now the Armenians fell into conflict with the Romans the following year, +in which Publius Vinicius and Publius Varus were consuls. The restraining +influence of the fact that Tigranes had perished in some barbarian war +and that Erato had resigned the sovereignty was nullified as soon as they +were delivered to a Mede, Ariobarzanes, who had once come to the Romans +in company with Tiridates. They accomplished nothing worthy of note save +that a leader named Addon,[7] who was occupying Artagira, induced Gaius +to come close up to the wall, pretending that he would reveal to him some +secrets of the Parthian king, and then wounded him. In the consequent +siege he maintained a prolonged resistance. When he was at last +overthrown, not only Augustus but Gaius, too, assumed the title of +imperator, and Armenia passed into the control of Ariobarzanes. Soon +after the latter died, and his son Artabazus received it as the gift of +Augustus and the senate. Gaius fell ill from the wound, and though he +was not in any way robust and the condition of his health had, in fact, +injured his mind, he now grew still more feeble. At length he begged +leave to retire to private life, and it was his wish to take up his abode +somewhere in Syria. Augustus, in the depth of grief, communicated his +desire to the senate, and urged him to come at any rate to Italy and +then do what he pleased. So Gaius resigned at once all the duties of his +office and took a coastwise trading vessel to Lycia, where, at Limyra, +he breathed his last. Prior to his demise the spark of Lucius's life had +also paled. (He, too, was being given practice in many places, sent now +here, now there; and he was wont to read personally the letters of Gaius +before the senate, so often as he was present.) His death was due to a +sudden illness. In connection with both these cases, therefore, suspicion +rested upon Livia, and particularly because the return of Tiberius +from Rhodes to Rome occurred at this time. [-11-] As for him he was so +extremely well versed in the art of divination by the stars, having with +him Thrasyllus, who was a past master of all astrology, that he had +understood accurately what was fated both for himself and for them. And +the story goes that once in Rhodes he was about to push Thrasyllus from +the walls, because the latter was the only one aware of all he had in +mind; observing, however, that his intended victim looked gloomy, he +asked him why his face was overcast. When the other replied that he +suspected some danger, he was surprised [8] and gave up his murderous +designs. Thrasyllus had such a clear knowledge of all things that when +he descried approaching afar off the boat which brought to Tiberius the +message from his mother and Augustus to return to Rome, he told him in +advance what news it would bring. + +[-12-] The bodies of Lucius and of Gaius were brought to Rome by the +military tribunes and by the chief men of each city. The targes and the +golden spears which they had received from the knights on entering the +class of iuvenes were set up in the senate-house. + +Augustus was once called "master" by the people, but he not only forbade +that any one should use this form of address to him but took very good +care in every way to enforce his command. + +[A.D. 3 (_a. u._ 756)] + +When his third ten-year period had been accomplished, he then accepted +the rulership for the fourth time,--of course under compulsion! He had +become milder through age and more hesitating in regard to offending any +of the senators and now wished to have no differences with any of them. + + For lending for three years to such as needed it fifteen hundred + myriads of denarii, without interest, he was praised and reverenced + by all. + +Once, when a fire destroyed the palace, and many persons offered him +large amounts, he would take nothing except an aureus from the various +peoples and a denarius from single individuals. The name _aureus_, which +I give here, is a local term for a piece of money worth twenty-five +denarii.[9] Some of the Greeks also, whose books we read for acquiring +a pure Attic style, give it this name. When Augustus had restored his +dwelling he made all of it public property, either because of the +contributions made by the people or because he was high priest and wished +to live in a building both private and public. + +[-13-] The people urged Augustus very strongly to rescind the sentence of +exile passed upon his daughter, but he answered that fire would mix with +water before she should be brought back. And the populace did throw a +good deal of fire into the Tiber. For the time being they accomplished +nothing, but later they brought such pressure to bear that she was at +last moved from the island to the mainland. + + And later the outbreak of war with the Celtæ found Augustus worn + out in body (by reason of old age and sickness) and incapable of taking + the field. Yielding, then, partly to the requirements of the situation + and partly to the persuasions of Julia[10] (who had already been restored + from banishment) +he both adopted Tiberius and sent him out[11] against the Celtæ, granting +him the tribunician authority for ten years. + +[A.D. 4 (_a. u._ 757)] + +Yet suspecting that he might lose his head and fearing a possible +insurrection he adopted for him also his nephew Germanicus, though +Tiberius himself had a son. After this he took courage, and feeling that +he had successors and supporters, he became desirous to organize the +senate once more. So he nominated the ten senators whom he most honored +and appointed three of them, selected by lot, to be scrutinizers. There +were not many, however, who either imposed sentence on themselves +beforehand,--permission being given them to do so, just as +previously,--or were retired against their will. + +This business, then, was managed by others. The emperor himself took a +census of the inhabitants of Italy possessing property valued at not less +than five myriad denarii. The weaker citizens and those dwelling outside +of Italy he did not compel to undergo the taking of a census, for he +feared that they might be disturbed and show insubordination of some +sort. And in order that he might not seem to be acting in the capacity +of censor (for the reason I mentioned before) [12] he assumed proconsular +powers for the purpose of completing the census and accomplishing the +purification. And inasmuch as many of the young men of the senatorial +class and of the equestrian, as well, had grown poor though not at fault +for it themselves, he made up to most of them the required amount of +property, and in the case of some eighty increased it to thirty myriads. + +[A.D. 4 ( _a. u._ 757) ] + +Since, also, many were giving unrestricted emancipation to their slaves, +he directed what age the manumitter and likewise the person to be +liberated by him must have reached: moreover, what regulations people +in general, and the former masters, should observe toward those made +freedmen. + +[-14-] While he was thus occupied plots were formed against him, and +notably one by Gnæus Cornelius, a son of the daughter of Pompey the +Great. For some time the emperor was a prey to great perplexity not +wishing to kill the men,--for he saw that no greater safety would be +his by their destruction,--nor yet to let them go, for fear this might +attract others to conspire against him. While he was in a dilemma as to +what he should do and could not be free from anxiety by day nor from +terror by night, Livia one day said to him:-- + +"What is this, husband? Why is it you do not sleep!" + +"Wife," answered Augustus, "who could be even to the slightest degree +free from care, that has so many enemies and is so constantly the object +of plots of one set of men or another? Do you not see how many are +attacking both me and our sovereignty? The vengeance meted out to those +found guilty does not retard them: quite the contrary, as if they were +pressing forward to do some noble action the rest also hasten to perish +similarly." + +Livia, hearing this, said: "That you should be the object of plots is not +remarkable, nor is it contrary to human nature. Having so large an empire +you must do many things and naturally you cause grief to not a few +people. A ruler can not please all: on the contrary, even an exceedingly +upright sovereign must inevitably make foes of many persons. For those +who wish to be unjust are many more than those who act justly, and their +desires it is impossible to satisfy. Even among such as possess a certain +excellence some yearn for many great rewards which they can not obtain +and some chafe because they are inferior to others: so both of them find +fault with the ruler. From this you can see that it is impossible to +avoid evil, and furthermore that of all the attacks made none is upon you +but all upon your position of supremacy. If you were a private citizen, +no one would willingly do you any harm unless he had previously received +some injury. But for the supremacy and for the good things that it +contains all yearn, and those who occupy any post of influence far more +than their inferiors. It is the nature of wicked men, who have very +little sense, to do so. It is implanted in their dispositions, just like +anything else, and it is impossible by either persuasion or compulsion to +remove such a bent from some of them. There is no law or fear stronger +than natural tendencies. Reflect on this and do not take the offences of +others so hard, but keep yourself and your supremacy carefully guarded, +that we may hold it safely not by virtue of inflicting severe punishments +but by means of strict watchfulness." + +[-15-] To this Augustus replied: "Wife, I too know that nothing great is +ever free from envy and plots,--least of all sole power. We should be +peers of the gods if we did not have troubles and cares and fears beyond +all private individuals. But to me it is also a source of grief that this +is inevitably so and that no cure for it can be found." + +"Yet," said Livia, "since some men are so constituted as to want to do +wrong in any event, let us guard against them. We have many soldiers who +protect us,--some marshaled against foreign foes and others about your +person,--and a large retinue, so that by their help we may live safely +both at home and abroad." + +"I do not need," said Augustus, interrupting, "to state that many men on +many occasions have perished at the hands of their immediate associates. +For in addition to other disadvantages this, too, is a most distressing +thing in monarchies, that we fear not only enemies (like other people) +but also our friends. Many more rulers have been plotted against by such +persons than by those who had nothing to do with them. This is to be +expected, since the inner circle is with the potentate day and night, +exercising and eating, and he has to take food and drink that they have +prepared. Moreover, against acknowledged enemies you can array these very +men, but against the latter themselves there is no one else to employ as +an ally. To us, therefore, the whole time through, solitude is dreadful, +company dreadful: to be unguarded is terrifying, but most terrifying are +the guards themselves: enemies are difficult to deal with, but still +greater difficulties are presented by our friends. They must all be +called friends, whether they are such or not, but even if one should find +them most reliable, even so one may not trust one's self in their company +with a clear, carefree, unsuspecting heart. This, then, and the fact +that it is requisite to take measures of defence against ordinary +conspirators, make the situation overwhelmingly dreadful. For to be +always compelled to be inflicting punishment and chastisement upon +somebody is highly repugnant to men of character." + +[-16-] "You are right," answered Livia, "and I have some advice to give +you,--at least, if you prove willing to receive it and willing not to +censure me that, woman as I am, I dare to make suggestions to you which +no one else, even of your most intimate friends, would venture. And this +is not through any lack of knowledge on their part, but because they are +not bold enough to speak." + +"Say on," rejoined Augustus, "and let us have it." + +"I will tell you," continued Livia, "without hesitation, because I share +your comforts and adversities, and while you are safe I myself hold +dominion day by day, whereas if you come to any harm (which Heaven +forbid!) I shall perish with you. Well, then, human nature persuades some +to sin under any conditions, and there is no device for controlling +it when it has once started toward any goal. What seems good to +persons,--not to rehearse the vices of the masses,--at once induces very +many of them to do wrong. [-17-] The boast of birth and pride of wealth, +greatness of honor, audacity founded on bravery, and conceit due to +authority, bring shipwreck to not a few. There is no making nobility +ignoble, bravery cowardly, or prudence foolish: it is impossible. Nor, +again, is it to curtail men's abundance or to strike down ambitions where +conduct has been correct: that is iniquitous. That he who is on the +defensive and anticipates others' movements should incur injury and ill +repute is inevitable. Come, let us change our policy and spare some of +them. To me it seems far more feasible to set things right by kindness +than by harshness. Not only are those who grant pardon loved by the +objects of their clemency, who strive to repay the favor, but all others +both respect and reverence them and will not readily endure to see harm +done to them. Sovereigns, however, who maintain an inexorable anger not +only are hated by those who have aught to fear, but cause uneasiness to +all the rest. As a result, men plot against them to avoid meeting an +untimely fate. Do you not notice that physicians very rarely have +recourse to cutting and burning, wishing to avoid aggravating a person's +disease, but in the majority of cases soothe and cure by means of +fomentations and mild drugs? Do not think that because those ailments +have to do with the body and these with the mind that they are +essentially different. Very many experiences of the body are similar in +a way to what goes on in the souls of men, no matter how bodiless the +latter may be. The soul contracts under the influence of fear and expands +under that of wrath. Pain humiliates men and audacity puffs them up. The +correspondences then are very close and therefore both kinds of trouble +need treatments which are much alike. A gentle speech uttered to a man +causes all his unruliness to subside, just as a harsh one provokes to +anger even an easy-going person. The granting of pardon melts the most +audacious, just as punishment irritates the most mild. Acts of violence +inflame all men in every instance, even though such measures may be +thoroughly just, but considerate treatment mollifies them. Hence +one would more readily brave great dangers through persuasion and +voluntarily, than under compulsion. Such is the inherent, unalterable +quality of both methods of behavior that even among brute beasts that +have no mind many of the strongest and fiercest are domesticated by +petting and are subdued by coaxing, whereas many of the most cowardly and +weak are made unmanageable and maddened by cruelties and terrors. + +[-18-] "I am not saying that we must spare absolutely all wrongdoers, for +we must cut out of the way the daredevil and busybody, the man of +evil nature and evil devices, who gives himself up to an unyielding, +persistent baseness, just as we treat parts of the body that are quite +incurable. But of the rest, who err through youth or ignorance or +a misunderstanding or some other chance, some purposely and others +unwillingly, it is proper to admonish some with words, to bring others to +their senses by threats, and to handle still others with moderation in +some different way, precisely as in other [matters] ... all men impose +upon some greater and upon others lesser punishments. So far as these +persons are concerned you may employ moderation without danger, +inflicting upon some the penalty of banishment, upon others that of loss +of political rights, upon still others a money fine. You may also place +some of them in country districts or in certain cities. + +"In the past a few have been brought to their senses by missing what they +hoped for, by failing to secure what they aimed at. A degradation in +seats[13] and factional disputes involving disgrace, as well as being +injured or terrified before they could make a move, has improved not a +few. Yet one well born and courageous would prefer to die rather than to +have any such experience. As a result, vengeance would become not easier +for the plotters but more difficult, and we should be able to live in +safety, since not a word could be said against us. At present we are +thought to kill many through anger,[14] many because of a desire for +their money, others through fear of their bravery, and a great many +others on account of jealousy of their excellence. No one will readily +believe that a person possessing so great an authority and power can +seriously be the object of the plots of any unarmed individual. Some talk +as above and others say that we hear a great many lies and foolishly pay +heed to many of them, believing them true. They assert that those who spy +into and overhear doubtful matters concoct many falsehoods, some being +influenced by enmity, others by wrath, some because they can get money +from their foes, others because they can get no money from the same +persons, and further, that they report not only the fact of certain +persons having committed suspicious actions or intending to commit them, +but also how A said so-and-so, and B hearing it was silent, how one man +laughed and somebody else wept. + +[-19-] "I could cite innumerable other details of like nature which, +no matter how true they were, are no business for free men to concern +themselves about or report to you. If they went unnoticed, they would do +you no harm, but when heard they might irritate you even against your +will: and that ought by no means to happen, especially in a ruler of the +people. Now many believe that from this cause large numbers unjustly +perish, some without a trial and others by some unwarranted condemnation +of a court. They will not admit that the evidence given or statements +made under torture or any similar proof against them is genuine. This is +the sort of talk, though some of it may not be just, which is reported in +the case of practically all so put to death. And you ought, Augustus, +to be free not only from injustice but from the appearance of it. It is +sufficient for a private individual to avoid irregular conduct, but it +behooves a ruler to incur not even the suspicion of it. You are the +leader of human beings, not of beasts, and the only way you can make +them really friendly to you is by persuading them by every means +and constantly, without a break, that you will wrong no one either +voluntarily or involuntarily. A man can be forced to fear another but he +has to be persuaded to love him: and he is to be persuaded by the good +treatment he himself receives and the benefits he sees conferred on +others. The person, however, who suspects that somebody has perished +unjustly both fears that he may some day meet the same fate and is +compelled to hate the one responsible for the deed. And to be hated by +one's subjects is (besides containing no element of good) exceedingly +unprofitable. The general mass of people feel that ordinary individuals +must defend themselves against all who wrong them in any way or else be +despised and consequently oppressed: but rulers, they think, ought to +prosecute those who wrong the State but endure those who are thought +to commit offences against them privately; rulers can not be harmed by +disdain or assault, because they have many guardians to protect them. + +[-20-] "When I hear this and turn my attention to this I feel inclined to +tell you outright to put no one to death for any such reason. Places of +supremacy are established for the preservation of subjects, to prevent +them from being injured either by one another or by foreign tribes: +such places are not, by Jupiter, for the purpose of allowing the rulers +themselves to hard their subjects. It is most glorious to be able not to +destroy most of the citizens but to save them all, if possible. It is +right to educate them by laws and, favours and admonitions, that they may +be right-minded and further to watch and guard them, so that even if they +wish to do wrong they may not be able. And if there is anything ailing, +we must cure and correct it in some way, in order that there may be no +entire loss. To endure the offences of the multitude is a task requiring +great prudence and force: if any one should simply punish all of them as +they deserve, before he knew it he would have destroyed the majority of +mankind. For these reasons, then, I give you my opinion to the effect +that you should not inflict the death penalty for any such error, but +bring the men to their senses in some other way, so that they will not +again do anything dangerous. What crime could a man commit shut up on +an island, or in the country, or in some city, not only destitute of a +throng of servants and money, but under guard, if it be necessary? If the +enemy were anywhere near here or some alien force had dominion over this +sea so that one of the prisoners might escape to them and do us some +harm, or if, again, there were strong cities in Italy with fortifications +and weapons, so that if a man seized them he might become a menace to us, +that would be a different story. But all towns in this neighborhood are +unarmed and lacking any walls that would serve in war, and the enemy is +removed from them by vast distances; a long stretch of sea, and a journey +by land including mountains and rivers hard to cross lie between them and +us. + +Why, then, should one fear this man or that man, defenceless, private +citizens, here in the middle of your empire and enclosed by your armed +forces? I can not see how any one could conceive such a notion or how the +maddest madman could accomplish anything. + +[-21-] "With these premises, therefore, let us give the idea a trial. The +discontented will soon themselves change their ways and bring about an +improvement in others. You notice that Cornelius is both of good birth +and renowned. This matter has to be reasoned out in a human fashion. The +sword can not effect everything for you; it would be a great blessing if +it could bring some men to their senses and persuade them or even compel +them to love any one with genuine affection: but, instead, it will +destroy the body of one man and alienate the minds of the rest. People +do not become more attached to any one because of the vengeance they see +meted out to others, but they become more hostile through the influence +of their own fears. That is one side of the picture. On the other hand, +those who obtain pardon for any crime and repent are ashamed to wrong +their benefactors again, but render them much service in return, hoping +to receive much more again for it. When a man is saved by some one who +has been wronged, he thinks that his rescuer, if fairly treated, will +go to any lengths to aid him. Heed me, therefore, dearest, and make a +change. Then all your other acts that have caused displeasure will +appear to have been due to necessity. In conducting so great a city from +democracy into monarchy it is impossible to make the transfer without +bloodshed. But if you follow your old policy, you will be thought to have +done these unpleasant things intentionally." + +[-22-] Augustus heeded these suggestions of Livia and released all those +against whom charges were pending, admonishing some of them orally; +Cornelius he even appointed consul. Later he so conciliated both him and +the other men that no one else again really plotted against him or had +the reputation of so doing. Livia had had most to do with saving the life +of Cornelius, yet she was destined to be held responsible for the death +of Augustus. + +[A.D. 5 (a. u. 758)] + +At this time, in the consulship of Cornelius and Valerius Messala, +earthquakes of ill omen occurred and the Tiber tore away the bridge so +that the City was under water for seven days. There was an eclipse of the +sun, and famine set in. This same year Agrippa was enrolled among the +iuvenes, but obtained none of the same privileges as his brother. The +senators attended the horse-races separately and the knights also +separately from the remainder of the populace, as is done nowadays. And +since the noblest families did not show themselves inclined to give their +daughters for the service of Vesta, a law was passed that the daughters +of freedmen might likewise be consecrated. Many contended for the honor, +and so they drew lots in the senate in the presence of their fathers; no +priestess, however, was appointed from this class. + +[-23-] The soldiers were displeased at the small size of the prizes for +the wars that had taken place at this period and no one was willing to +carry arms for longer than the specified term of his service. It was +therefore voted that five thousand denarii be given to members of the +pretorian guard when they had ended sixteen, and three thousand to +the other soldiers when they had completed twenty years' service. +Twenty-three legions were being supported at that time, or, as others +say, twenty-five, of citizen soldiers. Only nineteen of them now remain. +The Second (Augusta) is the one that winters in Upper Britain. Of the +Third there are three divisions,--the Gallic, in Phoenicia; the Cyrenaic, +in Arabia; the Augustan, in Numidia. The Fourth. (Scythian) is in Syria, +the Fifth (Macedonian), in Dacia. The Sixth is divided into two parts, of +which the one (Victrix) is in Lower Britain, and the other (Ferrata) is +in Judæa. The soldiers of the Seventh, generally called Claudians, are in +Upper Moesia. Those of the Eighth, Augustans, are in Upper Germany. Those +of the Tenth are both in Upper Pannonia (Legio Gemina) and in Judaea. +The Eleventh, in Lower Moesia, is the Claudian. This name two legions +received from Claudius because they had not fought against him in the +insurrection of Camillus. The Twelfth (Fulminata) is in Cappadocia: the +Thirteenth (Gemina) in Dacia: the Fourteenth (Gemina) in Upper Pannonia: +the Fifteenth (Apollinaris) in Cappadocia. The Twentieth, called both +Valeria and Victrix, is also in Upper Britain. These, I believe, together +with those that have the title of the Twenty second[15] and winter in +Upper Germany Augustus took in charge and kept; and this I say in spite +of the fact that they are by no means called Valerians by all and do +not themselves use the title any longer. These are preserved from the +Augustan legions. Of the rest some have been scattered altogether and +others were mixed in with different legions by Augustus himself and by +the other emperors, from which circumstance they are thought to have been +called Gemina. + +[-24-] Now that I have once been brought into a discussion of the +legions, I shall speak of the forces as they are at present according +to the disposition made by subsequent emperors: in this way any one who +desires to learn anything about them may do so easily, finding all his +information written in one place. Nero organized the First legion, called +the Italian, and now wintering in Lower Moesia; Galba, the First legion, +called Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Seventh (Gemina), which is in +Spain; Vespasian, the Second, Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Fourth +(the Flavian) in Syria; Domitian, the First (Minervia), in Lower Germany; +Trajan, the Second (the Egyptian), and the Thirtieth (Germanic), which he +also named after himself. Marcus Antoninus organized the Second, which +is in Noricum, and the Third, in Rhætia; these are also called Italian: +Severus the Parthian legions, i. e., the First and the Third in +Mesopotamia and between them the Second, the one in Italy. + +This is at present the number of legions which are enrolled in the +service, exclusive of the cohortes urbanæ and the pretorian guard. +At that time, in the days of Augustus, those I mentioned were being +supported, whether twenty-three or twenty-five altogether; and then there +was some allied force, whatever the size, of infantry and cavalry and +sailors. I can not state the exact figures. The body-guards, ten thousand +in all, were divided into ten portions, and the six thousand warders of +the city into four portions, and there were picked foreign horsemen +to whom the name Batavians is applied (from the island Batavia in the +Rhine), because the Batavians are noted for superiority in horsemanship. +I can not, however, state their exact number any more than that of the +evocati. He began to reckon in the latter from the time that he called +the warriors who had previously supported his father to arms again +against Antony; and he retained control of them. They constitute even now +a special corps and carry rods, like the centurions. + +For the distribution mentioned he needed money and therefore introduced +a motion into the senate to the effect that a definite permanent fund be +created, in order that without troubling any private citizen they might +obtain abundant support and rewards from the proposed appropriation. +The means for such a fund was accordingly sought.--As no one showed a +willingness to become ædile, some from the ranks of ex-quæstors and +ex-tribunes were compelled by lot to take the office. This happened +frequently at other times. + +[A.D. 6 (_a. u._ 759)] + +[-25-] After this, in the consulship of Æmilius Lepidus and Lucius +Arruntius, when no source for the fund was found that suited anybody, but +quite everybody felt dejected because such an attempt was being made, +Augustus in the name of himself and of Tiberius put money into +the treasury, which he called the ærarium militare. Some of the +ex-prætors--such as drew the lots--he instructed to administer it for +three years, employing two lictors apiece and such further assistance as +was fitting. This was done by successive officials for a number of years. +At present they are chosen by whoever is emperor and they go about +without lictors. Augustus himself made some further contributions and +promised to do this annually, and he accepted offers from kings and +certain peoples. From private individuals, though a number were ready +and glad to give (as they said), he would take nothing. But as all this +proved very slight in comparison with the large amount spent, and there +was need of some inexhaustible supply, he ordered each one of the +senators to devise means by himself, to write his plan in a book, and +give it to him to look over. This was not because he had no plan of his +own, but because he was most anxious to persuade them to choose the +one that he wished. Various men proposed various courses, but he would +approve none of them: instead, he arranged for five per cent. of the +inheritances and bequests which should be left by deceased persons +(except in the case of very near relations or poor families); he +pretended that he had found this tax suggestion in Cæsar's memoirs. It +was a method that had been introduced once before, but had been later +abolished and was now introduced anew. In this way he increased the +revenues. The expenditures made by three men of consular rank, whom +the lot designated, he partly made smaller and partly did away with +altogether. + +[-26-] This was not the only source of trouble to the Romans: there was +also a severe famine. As a consequence, the gladiators and the slaves +offered for sale were removed to a distance of over seven hundred and +fifty stadia, Augustus and others dismissed the greater part of their +retinue, there was a cessation of lawsuits, and senators were permitted +to leave the city and go where they pleased. In order to prevent any +hindrance to decrees from this last measure it was ordered that all those +framed by as many as happened to attend meetings should be binding. +Moreover, ex-consuls were appointed to take charge of grain and bread +supplies, so as to have a stated quantity sold to each person. Those who +were recipients of public bounty had as much added to their supply gratis +by Augustus as they might obtain at any time. When even that did not +suffice, he forbade the citizens to hold any public festivals on his +birthday. + +Since also at this time many parts of the City fell a prey to fire, he +formed a company of freedmen in seven divisions to render assistance on +such occasions, and appointed a knight as their leader, thinking soon +to disband them. He did not do this, however. Having ascertained by +experience that the aid they gave was most valuable and necessary, he +kept them. The night-watchmen exist to the present day, subject to +special regulations, and those in the service are selected not from the +freedmen only any longer but from on the rest of the classes as well. +They have barracks in the city and draw pay from the public treasury. + +[-27-] The multitude, under the burden of the famine and the tax and the +losses sustained by fire, were ill at ease. They discussed openly many +schemes of insurrection and by night scattered pamphlets more still: this +move was said to be traceable to a certain Publius Rufus, but others were +suspected of it. Rufus could not have originated or have taken an +active part in it; therefore it was thought that others who aimed at a +revolution were making an illicit use of his name. An investigation +of the affair was resolved upon and rewards for information offered. +Information accordingly came in and the city as a result was stirred up. +This lasted till the scarcity of grain subsided, when gladiatorial games +in honor of Drusus were given by Germanicus Cæsar and Tiberius Claudius +Nero, his sons. [In the course of them an elephant vanquished a +rhinoceros and a knight distinguished for his wealth fought as a +gladiator.] The people were encouraged by this honor shown to the memory +of Drusus and by Tiberius's dedication of the temple of the Dioscuri, +upon which he inscribed not only his name but also that of Drusus. +Himself he called Claudianus instead of Claudius, because of his adoption +into the family of Augustus. He continued to direct operations against +the enemy and visited the City constantly whenever opportunity offered; +this was partly on account of various kinds of business but chiefly owing +to fear that Augustus might promote somebody else during his absence. +These were the events in the City that year. + +In Achæa the governor died in the middle of his term and directions were +given to his quæstor and to his assessor (whom, as I have said,[16] we +call legatus) that the latter should administer the government as far as +the isthmus, and the former the rest of it. Herod [17] of Palestine, who +was accused by his brothers of some wrongdoing, was banished beyond the +Alps and his portion of the Palestinian domain reverted to the State. +[Augustus suffered from old age and infirmity, so that he could not +transact business for all that needed his aid: some cases he reviewed and +tried with his counselors, sitting upon the tribunal on the Palatine; +the embassies which came from the various nations and princes he put in +charge of three ex-consuls, under the arrangement that any one of them +individually might listen to such an embassy and return an answer, except +in cases where it was necessary for himself and the senate to render a +decision besides.] + +[-28-] During this same period also many wars took place. Pirates overran +many quarters, so that Sardinia had no senatorial governor for some +years, but was in charge of soldiers with knights for commanders. Not a +few cities rebelled, with the result that for two years the same persons +held office in the same provinces of the People, and were personally +appointed instead of being chosen by lot. The provinces of Cæsar were +in general so arranged that men should govern in the same places for +a considerable time. However, I shall not go into all these matters +minutely. Many things not worthy of record happened in individual +instances, and no one would be benefited by the exact details. I shall +mention simply the events worth remembering, and very briefly, save those +of greatest importance. + +The Isaurians began marauding expeditions and kept on till they faced +grim war, but were finally subdued. The Gætuli, discontented with their +king, Juba, and at the same time feeling themselves slighted because not +governed by the Romans, rose against him: they ravaged the neighboring +territory and killed even many of the Romans who made a campaign against +them. In fine, they gained so great an ascendancy that Cornelius Cossus, +who reduced them, received triumphal honors and title for it. While +these troubles were in progress expeditions against the Celtæ were being +conducted by various leaders, and notably by Tiberius. He advanced first +to the river Visurgis and subsequently as far as the Albis, but nothing +of any moment was accomplished then, although not only Augustus but also +Tiberius was dubbed imperator for it, and Gaius Sentius, governor +of Germany, received triumphal honors. The Celtæ were so afraid of their +foes that they made a truce with him not merely once but twice. And the +reason that peace was again granted them, in spite of their having broken +it so soon, was that the affairs of the Dalmatians and Pannonians, who +had begun a rebellion on a large scale, needed vigilant attention. + +[-29-] The Dalmatians, smarting under the levies of tribute, had for some +time previous kept quiet even against their will. But, at the same time +that Tiberius made his second campaign against the Celtæ, Valerius +Messalinus, the governor of Dalmatia and Pannonia, was himself despatched +to the front with Tiberius, taking most of his army; they, too, were +ordered to send a contingent and on coming together for this purpose had +a chance to see the flower of their fighting force. After that there was +no more delay, but urged on particularly by one Bato, a Dæsidiatian, at +first a few revolted and worsted the Romans that came against them, and +this success then led others to rebel. Next, the Breuci, a Pannonian +tribe, put another leader named Bato at their head and marched against +Sirmium and the Romans in the town. This they did not capture: Cæcina +Severus, the governor of Moesia close by, he heard of their uprising +marched rapidly upon them, and joining battle with them near the river +Dravus vanquished their army. Hoping to renew the struggle soon, since +many of the Romans also had fallen, they turned to summon their allies, +and collected as many as they could. Meanwhile the Dalmatian Bato had +made a descent upon Salonæ, and being himself grievously wounded with a +stone accomplished nothing, but sent some others, who wrought havoc along +the whole sea-coast as far as Apollonia. There, in spite of his +defeat, his representatives won a slight battle against the Romans who +encountered them. + +[-30-] Tiberius ascertaining this feared they might invade Italy and so +returned from Celtica: he sent Messalinus ahead and himself followed with +the rest of the army. Bato learned of their approach and though not yet +well went to meet Messalinus. He proved the latter's superior in open +conflict but was afterward conquered by an ambuscade. Thereupon he went +to Bato the Breucan, and making common cause with him in the war occupied +a mountain named Alma. Here they were defeated in a slight skirmish by +Rhoemetalces the Thracian, despatched in advance against them by Severus, +but resisted Severus himself vigorously. Later Severus withdrew to +Moesia because the Dacians and the Sauromatæ were ravaging it, and while +Tiberius and Messalinus were tarrying in Siscia the Dalmatians overran +their allied territory and likewise caused many to revolt. Although +Tiberius approached them, they would engage in no open battle with him +but kept moving from one place to another, devastating a great deal of +ground. Owing to their knowledge of the country and the lightness of +their equipment they could easily go wherever they pleased. When winter +set in, they did much greater damage by invading Macedonia again. +Rhoemetalces and his brother Rhascuporis got the better of this force in +battle. + +[A.D. 7 (_a. u._ 760)] + +The rest did not stay in their territory while it was being ravaged +(this was principally later, in the consulship of Cæcilius Metellus and +Lincinius Silanus), but took refuge on the heights, from which they made +descents whenever they saw a chance. + +[-31-] When Augustus learned this he began to be suspicious of Tiberius, +for he thought the latter might have overcome them soon but was delaying +purposely so that he might be under arms as long as possible, with war +for an excuse. The emperor therefore sent Germanicus, though he was then +quæstor, and gave him soldiers not only from the free born citizens but +from the freedmen, some of whom were slaves that he had taken from both +men and women, in return for their value, with food for six months, +and had set free. This was not the only measure he took in view of the +necessities of the war: he also postponed the review of the knights, +which was wont to occur in the Forum. And he vowed to conduct the Great +Games [18] because a woman had cut some letters on her arm and had +practiced some kind of divination. He knew well, to be sure, that she had +not been possessed by some divine power, but had done it intentionally. +Inasmuch, however, as the populace were terribly wrought up over the wars +and the famine (which had now set in once more), he, too, affected +to believe what was said and did anything that would lead to the +encouragement of the multitude as a matter of course. In view of the +stringency in the grain supply he again appointed two grain commissioners +from among the ex-consuls, together with lictors. As there was need +of further money for operations against the enemy and the support of +night-watchmen, he introduced the tax of two per cent. on the sale of +slaves, and he ordered that the money delivered from the public treasury +to the prætors who gave armed combats should no longer be expended. + +[-32-]The reason that he sent Germanicus and not Agrippa to take the +field was that the latter possessed a servile nature and spent most of +his time fishing, wherefore he also used to call himself Neptune. He used +to give way to violent anger and slandered Julia as a stepmother, while +upon Augustus he heaped abundant reproaches in the matter of his paternal +inheritance. When he could not be made to moderate his conduct he was +banished and his property was given to the ærarium militare: he himself +was put ashore on Planasia, the island near Corsica.--These were the +events in the City. + +Germanicus reached Pannonia, where armies from various points were +shortly to assemble; the Batos watched for Severus, who was approaching +from Moesia, and fell upon him unexpectedly, while he was encamped near +the Volcæan marshes. The pickets outside the ramparts they frightened +and hurled back within it, but as the men inside stood their ground, the +attacking party was defeated. After this the Romans divided, in order +that many detachments might overrun the country in separate places at one +time. Most of them did nothing worthy of note during this enterprise, +but Germanicus conquered in battle and badly demoralized the Mæzei, a +Dalmatian tribe.--These were the results of that year. + +[A.D. 8 (_a. u._ 761)] + +[-33-] In the consulship of Marcus Furius with Sextus Nonius the +Dalmatians and Pannonians decided they would like to make peace because +they were in distress primarily from famine and then from disease that +followed it, due to their using grasses of various sorts and roots for +food. They did not attempt, however to open any negotiations, being +restrained by those who had no hope of preservation at the hands of the +Romans. So even as they were they still resisted. And one Scenobardus, +who had feigned a readiness to change sides, and had had dealings on this +very business with Manius Ennius, commander of the garrison in Siscia, +declaring that he was ready to desert, became afraid that he might be +injured ere his project was complete, and [19] ... + + _The Po, which they call the monarch of rivers that cleave the soil of + Italy, known by the name Eridanus, had its waters let into a very + broad excavation, on the command of the emperor Augustus. A seventh + division of the channel of this river flows through the center of the + state, affording at its mouth a most satisfactory harbor, and was + formerly believed (my authority is Dio) to be an entirely safe anchorage + for a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships._ (From the Latin of + Jordan.) + + When the famine at last had subsided, he conducted a horse-race in + the name of Germanicus, who was son of Drusus, and in the name of + his brother. On this occasion an elephant fought a rhinoceros, and a + knight who had once held a prominent position on account of + wealth contended in single combat. + + And he found himself sinking under the burden of old age and + physical weakness, so that he could not transact business with all the + persons that needed his services, he delivered to three ex-consuls the + care of the embassies that were constantly arriving from peoples and + kings; each one of these officials separately was empowered to give any + such delegation a hearing and to transmit an answer to them, save in + such cases as he and the senate needed to pass upon finally. Other + questions continued to be investigated and decided by the emperor himself + with the help of his cabinet. + +[-34-] ... however, among the first, but among the last he declared, in +order that everybody might be permitted to hold an individual opinion, +and no one of them be obliged to abandon his own ideas because he felt +it obligatory to agree with his sovereign; and he would often help the +magistrates try cases. Also, as often as the consulting judges held +different views, his vote was reckoned only as equal to that of any one +else. It was at this time that Augustus allowed the senate to try the +majority of cases without his being present, and he no longer frequented +the assemblies of the people. Instead, he had the previous year +personally appointed all who were to hold office, because there were +factional outbreaks: this year and those following he merely posted a +kind of bulletin and made known to the plebs and to the people what +persons he favored. Yet he had so much strength for managing hostile +campaigns that he journeyed to Ariminum in order that he might be able to +give from close at hand all necessary advice in regard to the Dalmatians +and Pannonians. Prayers were offered at his departure and sacrifices upon +his return, as if he had come back from some hostile territory. This was +what was done in Rome. + +Meantime Bato the Breucan, who had betrayed Pinnes and received the +governorship of the Breuci as reward for this, was captured by the other +Bato, and perished. The Breucan had been a little suspicious of his +subject tribes and went around to each of the garrisons to demand +hostages: the other, learning of this habit, lay in wait for him, +conquered him in battle, and shut him up within the fortifications. Later +his defeated rival was given up by those in the place, and he took him +and led him before the army, whereupon the man was condemned to death +and sentence executed without delay. After this event numbers of the +Pannonians rose in revolt. Silvanus led a campaign in person, conquered +the Breucans, and won the allegiance of some of the rest without a +struggle. Bato seeing this gave up all hope of Pannonia, but stationed +garrisons at the passes leading to Dalmatia and ravaged the country. +Then the remainder of the Pannonians, especially as their country was +suffering harm from Silvanus, made terms. Only certain nests of brigands, +who in so great a disturbance could naturally do damage for a long time, +held out. Tins practically always happens in the case of all enemies, and +is especially characteristic of the tribes in question. These localities +were reduced by other persons. + + +[Footnote 1: Lat. _custodes vigilum_.] + +[Footnote 2: Cp. Ovid, _Tristia_, IV, 10, vv. 7 and 8.] + +[Footnote 3: See Chapter 2.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare Reifferscheid's _Suetoni Reliquice_, page 136.] + +[Footnote 5: Or _Curatores Viarum_.] + +[Footnote 6: Between this point and ... "to Mars" two leaves are missing +in the codex Marcianus. The gap is filled in the usual makeshift fashion +by Xiphilinus and Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 7: The ancients seem rather uncertain about this personage's +name, for Velleius Paterculus gives _Adduus_, and Florus _Donnes_. The +modern reader may take his choice of the three, and the layman is as +likely to be right as the expert] + +[Footnote 8: Between this point and the words "he both adopted Tiberius," +etc., in chapter 13, two leaves of the codex Marcianus are lacking. +Of the missing portion Xiphilinus and Zonaras supply perhaps +three-sevenths.] + +[Footnote 9: These are the words of Xiphilinus. Zonaras presents an +alternate possibility (X, 36) as follows: "Among the Greeks, Dio says, +the coin called _aureus_ has twenty drachmæ (denarii) as its regular rate +of exchange."] + +[Footnote 10: It seems rather likely that Zonaras has become confused, +and that he should have said "Livia."] + +[Footnote 11: Verb supplied by Xylander.] + +[Footnote 12: Possibly a reference to the opening of Book Fifty-four. +(Boissée.)] + +[Footnote 13: Compare Xenophon, _Cyropædia_, VIII, 4, 5.] + +[Footnote 14: The three words after "kill" are on the basis of a +suggestion made by Boissevain. The MS. has a gap of some fifteen +letters.] + +[Footnote 15: Emendation by Mommsen.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Book Fifty-three, chapter 14.] + +[Footnote 17: His true name was Archelaus.] + +[Footnote 18: Cp. Suetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 23.] + +[Footnote 19: At this point in the codex Marcianus four leaves have been +lost.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +56 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Augustus addressed those having children and afterward the childless +and unmarried, and what rules he laid down to apply to them (chapters +1-10). + +How Quintilius Varus was defeated by the Celtæ and perished (chapters +18-24). + +How the Temple of Concord was consecrated (chapter 25). + +How the Portico of Livia was consecrated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus passed away (chapters 29-47). + +Duration of time, six years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +Q. Sulpicius Q.F. Camerinus, C. Poppæus Q.F. Sabinus. (A.D. 9 = a. u. +762.) + +P. Cornelius P.F. Dolabella, C. Iunius C.F. Silanus. (A.D. 10 = a. u. +763.) + +M. Æmilius Q.F. Lepidus, T. Statilius T.F. Taurus. (A.D. 11 = a. u. 764.) + +Germanicus Cæsaris F. Cæsar, C. Fonteius C.F. Capito. (A.D. 12 = a. u. +765.) + +L. Munatius L.F. Plancus, C. Silius C.F. Cæcina Largus. (A.D. 13 = a. u. +766.) + +Sextus Pompeius Sexti F., Sex. Apuleius Sex. F. (A.D. 14 = a. u. 767.) + + +_( BOOK 56, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 9 (_a. u._ 762)] + +[-1-] Tiberius returned to Rome after the winter when Quintus Sulpicius +and Gaius Sabinus were consuls. Augustus went out into the suburbs to +meet him, accompanied him to the Sæpta, and there from a platform greeted +the people. Next he performed the ceremonies proper on such an occasion +and had the consuls give triumphal spectacles. And since the knights on +this occasion with great vigor sought for the repeal of the law regarding +the unmarried and the childless, he assembled in one place in the Forum +the unmarried men of this number and in another those who were married or +had children. Seeing that the latter were much fewer in number than the +former he was filled with grief and addressed them to the following +effect: + +[-2-] "Though you are but few all together, in comparison with the great +throng that inhabits this city, and are far behind the others, who are +unwilling to fulfill their duties at all, yet for this reason I praise +you the more and I am heartily grateful that you have shown yourselves +obedient and are helping to replenish the fatherland. It is by lives so +conducted that the Romans of later days will become a mighty multitude. +We were at first a mere handful, but when We had recourse to marriage and +begot children we came to surpass all mankind not only in manliness but +in populousness. This we must remember and console the mortal element of +our being with an endless succession of generations like torches. Thus +the one gap which separates us from divine happiness may through relays +of men be filled by immortality. It was for this cause most of all that +that first and greatest god who fashioned us divided the race of mortals +in twain, rendering one half of it male and the other female, and added +love and the compulsion of their intercourse together, making their +association fruitful, that by the young continually born he might in +a way render mortality eternal. Even of the gods themselves some are +believed to be male, the rest female: and the tradition prevails that +some have begotten others and certain ones have been born of others. So, +even among them, who need no such device, marriage and child-begetting +have been approved as noble. [-3-] You have done right, then, to imitate +the gods and right to emulate your fathers, that, just as they begot you, +you may also bring others into the world. Just as you deem them and +name them ancestors, others will regard you and address you in similar +fashion. The undertakings which they nobly achieved and handed down to +you with glory you will hand on to others. The possessions which they +acquired and left to you will leave to others sprung from your own loins. +Surely the best of all things is a woman who is temperate, domestic, +a good house-keeper, a rearer of children; one to gladden you when in +health, to tend you when sick; to be your partner in good fortune, to +console you in misfortune; to restrain the frenzied nature of the youth +and to temper the superannuated severity of the old man. Is it not a +delight to acknowledge a child bearing the nature of both, to nurture and +educate it, a physical image and a spiritual image, so that in its growth +you yourself live again? Is it not most blessed on departing from life to +leave behind a successor to and inheritor of one's substance and family, +something that is one's own, sprung from one's self? And to have only +one's human part waste away, but to live through the child as successor? +We need not be in the hands of aliens, as in war, nor perish utterly, as +in war. These are the private advantages that accrue to those who marry +and beget children: but for the State, for whose sake we ought to do many +things that are even distasteful to us, how excellent and how necessary +it is, if cities and peoples are to exist, if you are to rule others and +others are to obey you, that there should be a multitude of men to till +the earth in peace and quiet, to make voyages, practice arts, follow +handicrafts, men who in war will protect what we already have with the +greater zeal because of family ties and will replace those that fall by +others. Therefore, men,--for you alone may properly be called men,--and +fathers,--for you are worthy to hold this title like myself,--I love you +and I praise you for this, I am glad of the prizes I have already offered +and I will glorify you still more besides by honors and offices. Thus +you may yourselves reap great benefits and leave them to your children +undiminished. I shall now descend to speak to the rest, who have not done +like you, and whose lot will therefore be directly the opposite: you will +thus learn not only from words but by facts even more how far you excel +them." + +[-4-] After this speech he made presents to some of them at once and +promised to make others: he then went over to the other throng, to whom +he addressed these words: + +"A strange experience has been mine, O--What shall I call you?--Men? But +you do not perform the offices of men.--Citizens? But so far as you are +concerned the city is perishing.--Romans? But you are undertaking to do +away with this name.--Well, at any rate, whoever you are and by whatever +name you delight to be called, mine has been an unexpected experience. +For, though I am always doing everything to promote an increase of +population among you and am now about to rebuke you, I grieve to see that +you are numerous. I could rather wish that those others to whom I have +just spoken were so many than to see you as many as you are; or, still +better, to see you mustered with them,--or at least not to know how +things stand. It is you who without pausing to reflect on the foresight +of the gods or the care of your forefathers are bent upon annihilating +your whole race and making it in truth mortal, upon destroying and ending +the whole Roman nation. What seed of human beings would be left, if all +the remainder of mankind should do the same as you? You are their leaders +and may rightly bear the responsibility for universal destruction. Or, +even if no others emulate you, will you not be justly hated for the very +reason that you overlook what no one else would overlook, and neglect +what no one else would neglect? You are introducing customs and +practices, which, if imitated, would lead to the annihilation of all, +and, if hated, would end in your own punishment. We do not spare +murderers because all persons do not murder, nor do we let temple-robbers +go because not everybody robs temples: but anybody who is convicted of +committing any forbidden act is chastised for the very reason that he +alone, or as one of a small group, does such things as no one else would +do. [-5-] Yet if one should name over the greatest offences, there is +none to compare with that which is now being committed by you, and this +statement holds true not only if you examine crime for crime but if you +compare all of them together with this single one of yours. You have +incurred blood guiltiness by not begetting those who ought to be your +descendants; you are sacrilegious in putting an end to the names and +honors of your ancestors; you are impious in abolishing your families, +which were instituted by the gods, and destroying the greatest of +offerings to them,--the human being,--and by overthrowing in this way +their rites and their temples. Moreover, by causing the downfall of the +government you are disobedient to the laws, and you even betray your +country by rendering her barren and childless: nay more, you lay her even +with the dust by making her destitute of inhabitants. A city consists of +human beings, not of houses or porticos or fora empty of men. Think what +rage would justly seize the great Romulus, the founder of our race, if he +could reflect on the circumstances of his own birth, and then upon +your attitude,--refusing to get children even by lawful marriages! How +wrathful would the Romans who were his followers be when they considered +that they themselves even seized foreign girls, but you are not satisfied +with those of your own race. They actually had children even by their +enemies: you will not beget them even of women with undisputed standing +in the State. How incensed would Curtius be, who endured to die that +the married men might not be sundered from their wives: how indignant +Hersilia, the attendant of her daughter, who instituted for us all the +rites of marriage. Our fathers fought the Sabines to obtain marriages and +made peace through the intercession of their wives and children; they +administered oaths and made sundry treaties for this very purpose: you +are bringing all that labor to naught. Why is it? Do you desire to live +forever apart from women, as the vestal virgins live apart from men? +Then you should be punished like them if you break out into any act of +lewdness. + +[-6-] "I know that my words to you appear bitter and harsh. But, first of +all, reflect that physicians, too, treat many patients by burning when +they can not recover health in any other way. In the second place, it is +not my wish or my pleasure to speak them; and hence it is that I have +this further reproach to bring against you, that you have provoked me to +this discourse. If you dislike what I say, do not continue the conduct +for which you are inevitably reprimanded. If my speech wounds any of you, +how much more do your acts wound both me and all the rest of the Romans. +If you vexed in very truth, make a change, that so I may praise and +reward you. You yourselves are aware that I am not irritable by nature +and that I have done, subject to human limitations, all the acts proper +for a good lawgiver. Never in old times was any one permitted to neglect +marriage and the rearing of children, but from the very outset, at the +first establishment of the government, strict laws were passed regarding +them: since then many decrees have been issued by both the senate and the +people, which it would be superfluous to enumerate. I have increased the +penalties for the disobedient in order that through fear of becoming +liable to them you may be brought to your senses. To those that obey I +have offered more numerous and greater prizes than are given for any +other display of excellence, that if for no other reason at least by +this one you may be persuaded to marry and beget children. Yet you, not +striving for any of the recompenses nor fearing any of the penalties, +have despised all these measures, have trodden them all under foot, as +if you were not even inhabitants of the city. You declare you have taken +upon yourselves this free and continent life, without wives and without +children. You are no different from robbers or the most savage [-7-] +beasts. It is not your delight in a solitary existence that leads you +to live without wives. There is not one of you who either eats alone +or sleeps alone, but you want to have opportunity for wantonness and +licentiousness. Yet I have allowed you to court girls still tender and +not yet of age for marriage, in order that having the name of intendant +bridegrooms you may lead a domestic life. And those not in the senatorial +class I have permitted to wed freedwomen, so that if any one through +passion or some inclination should be disposed to such a proceeding he +might go about it lawfully. I have not limited you rigidly to this, even, +but at first gave you three whole years in which to make preparations, +and later two. Yet not even so, by threatening or urging or postponing or +entreating, have I accomplished anything. You see for yourselves how much +larger a mass you constitute than the married men, when you ought by this +time to have furnished us with as many more children, or rather with +several times your number. How otherwise shall families continue? How can +the commonwealth be preserved if we neither marry nor produce children? +Surely you are not expecting some to spring up from the earth to succeed +to your goods and to public affairs, as myths describe. It is neither +pleasing to Heaven nor creditable that our race should cease and the +name of Romans meet extinguishment in us, and the city be given up to +foreigners,--Greek or even barbarians. We liberate slaves chiefly for the +purpose of making out of them as many citizens as possible; we give our +allies a share in the government that our numbers may increase: yet you, +Romans of the original stock, including Quintii, Valerii, Iulli, are +eager that your families and names at once shall perish with you. + +[-8-] "I am thoroughly ashamed that I have been led to speak in such a +fashion. Have done with your madness, then, and reflect now if not before +that with many dying all the time by disease and many in the wars it is +impossible for the city to maintain itself unless the multitude in it is +constantly reinforced by those who are ever and anon being born. Let no +one of you think that I am ignorant of the many disagreeable and painful +features that belong to marriage and child-rearing. But bear in mind that +we possess nothing at all good with which some bane is not mingled, and +that in our most abundant and greatest blessings there reside the most +abundant and greatest woes. If you decline to accept the latter, do +not strive to obtain the former. Practically all who possess any real +excellence and pleasure are obliged to work before its enjoyment, to work +at the time, and to work afterward. Why should I lengthen my speech by +going into each one of them in detail? Therefore even if there are +some unpleasant features connected with marriage and the begetting of +children, set over against them the better elements: you will find them +more numerous and more vital. For, in addition to all the other blessings +that naturally inhere in this state of life, the prizes offered by +law--an infinitesimal portion of which determines many to undergo +death--might induce anybody to obey me. And is it not a disgrace that for +rewards which influence others to give up their own lives you should be +unwilling either to marry wives or to rear children? + +[-9-] "Therefore, fellow-citizens (for I believe that I have now +persuaded you both to hold fast to the name of citizens and to secure the +additional title of men and fathers), I have administered this rebuke +reluctantly but of necessity, not as your foe nor as one hating you, but +rather loving you and wishing to obtain many others like you,--as one +wishing you to guard lawful hearths, with houses full of descendants, +that we may approach the gods together with wives and children, and +associate with one another standing on an equality in whatever we possess +and harvesting equally the hopes to which it gives rise. How could I +call myself a good ruler over you if I should endure seeing you becoming +constantly fewer? How could I any longer be rightfully named your father, +if you rear no children? Therefore, if you really have a regard for me +and have given me this title not out of flattery but as an honor, desire +yourselves to become men and fathers. Thus you may yourselves share this +title and also render me well named." + +[-10-] Such were his words to both groups at that time. After this he +increased the rewards for those having children and by penalties made a +still wider difference between the married and those without wives. He +further allowed each of them a year in which persons who obeyed him might +render themselves non-liable by yielding obedience. Contrary to the +Voconian Law, according to which no woman could inherit any property +over two and a half myriads in value, he gave women permission to become +inheritors of any amount. He also granted the vestal virgins all the +benefits enjoyed by women who had children. Later the Pappian and Poppæan +Law was framed by Marcus Pappius Mutilus and by Quintus Poppæus Secundus, +who were then consuls for a portion of the year. It turned out that both +of them had not only no children but not even wives. From this very fact +the need of the law was discernible.--These were the events in Rome. + +[-11-] Germanicus meanwhile had captured among other posts in Dalmatia +also Splonum, in spite of the fact that it occupied a naturally strong +position, was well protected by walls, and had a huge number of +defenders. Consequently he was unable to accomplish aught with engines +or by assaults, yet he took it as a result of the following coincidence. +Pusio, a Celtic horseman, discharged a stone against the wall which so +shook the superstructure that it immediately fell and dragged down the +man who was leaning upon it. At this the rest were terrified, and in fear +left the wall to ascend the acropolis. Subsequently they surrendered both +it and themselves. + +The Romans under Germanicus having reached Rætinium, a city of Dalmatia, +fared rather badly. Their opponents, forced back by the numbers, could +not resist them and therefore placed fire in a circle about themselves +and threw it into the buildings near by, devising a way to keep it surely +from blazing up at once and to make it go unnoticed for a long time. The +enemy after doing this retired to the heights. The Romans, unaware of +their action, followed hard after them expecting to find no work at all +in pillaging extensively. Thus they got inside of the circle of fire and +with their minds directed upon the enemy saw nothing of it until they +were encompassed by it on all sides. Then they found themselves in +imminent danger, being pelted by men from above and injured by fire from +without. They could neither safely stay where they were nor break their +way out without danger. If they stood out of range of the missiles they +were consumed by the fire, or if they jumped away from the flame they +were destroyed by the hurlers of missiles. Some were caught in narrow +places and perished by both at once, wounded on one side and burned on +the other. The majority of those who entered the circle met their fate in +this way. Some few by casting corpses into the very flame and making a +passage over them as over bridges managed to escape. The fire gained +such headway that not even those on the acropolis could stay there, but +abandoned it in the night and hid themselves in subterranean chambers. + +[-12-] These were the operations at that point.--Seretium, which Tiberius +had once besieged but not captured, was subdued, and after this some +other towns were more easily won. But since the remainder even under +these conditions offered resistance and the war kept lengthening out and +famine came in its train, especially in Italy, Augustus sent Tiberius +again into Dalmatia. He saw that the soldiers were not for enduring +further delay and were anxious to end the war in some way eyen if it +involved danger; therefore, fearing that if they remained in one place +together they might revolt, he divided them into three parts. One he +assigned to Silvanus and one to Marcus Lepidus; with the remainder he +marched with Germanicus against Bato. Without difficulty the two former +overcame those arrayed in battle opposite them. Tiberius himself went +wandering off through practically the entire country, as Bato appeared +first at one point and then at another: finally, Bato took refuge in Fort +Andetrium, located close to Salonæ, and Tiberius, who besieged him, +found himself in sore straits. The garrison had the protection of +fortifications built upon a well guarded rock, difficult of access, +encircled by deep ravines through which torrents roared, and the men had +all necessary provisions, part of which they had previously stored there, +while a part they were still bringing from the mountains, which were +in their hands. Moreover, by ambuscades they interfered with the Roman +provision trains. Hence Tiberius, though supposed to be besieging them, +was himself placed in the position of a besieged force. + +[-13-] He was in a dilemma and could not find any plan to pursue: +the siege was proving fruitless and dangerous and a retreat appeared +disgraceful. This led to an uproar on the part of the soldiers, who +raised so great an outcry that the enemy, who were encamped in the +shelter of the wall, were terrified and retreated. As a consequence, +being partly angry and partly pleased, he called them together and +administered some rebukes and some admonition. He displayed no rashness +nor yet did he withdraw, but remained quietly on the spot until Bato, +despairing of victory, sent a herald to ask terms. This act was due to +the subjugation of all but a few of the other tribes and the fact that +the force which Bato had was inferior to the one then opposing it. He +could not persuade the rest to ask a truce and so abandoned them, nor did +he again assist one of them, though he received many requests for aid. +Tiberius consequently conceived a contempt for those still left in the +fortress and thinking that he could conquer them without loss paid no +further heed to the nature of the country but proceeded straight up the +cliff. Since there was no level ground and the enemy would not come down +against them, he himself took his seat on a platform in full view in +order to watch the engagement (for this would cause his soldiers to +contend more vigorously), and to render opportune assistance, should +there be any need of it. He kept a part of the army, inasmuch as he had a +great plenty of men, for this very purpose. The rest, drawn up in a dense +square, at first proceeded at a walk; later they were separated by the +steepness and unevenness of the mountain (which was full of gullies and +at many points cut up into ravines), and some ascended more quickly, +others more slowly. [-14-] Seeing this, the Dalmatians marshaled outside +the wall, at the top of the steep, and hurled down quantities of stones +upon them, throwing some from slings, and rolling down others. Others +set in motion wheels, others whole wagons full of rocks, others circular +chests manufactured in some way peculiar to the country and packed with +stones. All these things coming down with great noise kept striking in +different quarters, as if discharged from a sling, and separated the +Romans from one another even more than before and crushed them. Others by +discharging either missiles or spears knocked many of them down. At this +juncture much rivalry developed on the part of the warriors, one side +endeavoring to ascend and conquer the heights, the other to repulse them +and hurl them back. There was great excitement also on the part of the +rest, who watched the action from the walls, and on the part of those +about Tiberius. Each side as a body and also individually encouraged its +own men, trying to lend strength to such as showed zeal and chiding those +that anywhere gave way. Those whose voices could be heard above the rest +were invoking the gods, both parties praying for the protection of +their warriors for the time being, and one side calling for freedom +for themselves in the future, and the other for peace. Under these +circumstances the Romans would certainly have risked their lives in vain, +having to contend against two things at once,--the nature of the +country and the lines of their antagonists,--had not Tiberius by sudden +reinforcements prevented them from taking to flight and disturbed the +enemy from another quarter by means of other soldiers who went about and +ascended the incline a considerable distance off. As a result, the enemy +were routed and could not even enter the fortifications, but scattered +up the mountain sides, first casting off their armor so as to be lightly +equipped. Their pursuers followed them at every point, for they were +exceedingly anxious to end the war and did not want them to unite again +and cause trouble. So they discovered the most of them hiding in the +forests and killed them like beasts, after which they took possession +of the men in the fort, who capitulated. To these Tiberius assured the +rights which had been agreed upon and some others. + +[-15-] Germanicus now turned to meet his adversaries, for many deserters +who were in their ranks prevented a peaceful settlement. He succeeded in +enslaving a place called Arduba, but could not do it with his own force, +though the latter was far greater than his opponents' army. The town had +been powerfully strengthened and a river with a strong current surrounded +its foundations except for a small space. But the deserters had a dispute +with the inhabitants, because the latter were anxious for peace, and came +to blows with them. The assailants had the coöperation of the women in +the town, for these contrary to the judgment of the men desired liberty, +and were ready to suffer any fate whatever sooner than slavery: there was +consequently a great battle, the deserters were beaten and surrendered, +and some of them made their escape. The women caught up their children, +and some threw themselves into the fire, others hurled themselves down +into the river. In this way that post was taken and others near it +voluntarily came to an understanding with Germanicus. He, after effecting +this, went back to Tiberius, and Postumius[1] completed the subjugation +of the remaining sections. [-16-] Upon this, Bato sent his son Sceuas +to Tiberius, promising to surrender himself and all his followers if he +could obtain protection. When he had received a pledge he came by night +into his conqueror's camp and was on the following day led before the +latter who was seated on a platform. Bato asked nothing for himself, even +holding his head forward to await the stroke, but in behalf of the rest +he made a long defence. Being again asked by Tiberius: "Why has it +pleased you to revolt and to war against us so long a time?" he made the +same answer as before: "You are responsible for this; for you send as +guardians over your flocks not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." + +In this way, then, the war was ended once more, after many men and much +money had been consumed. The legions supported for it were very numerous, +whereas the spoils taken were exceedingly meagre. [-17-] On this occasion +also Germanicus announced the victory, in honor of which Augustus and +Tiberius were allowed to bear the name imperator and to celebrate a +triumph; and they received still other honors, as well as two arches +bearing trophies, in Pannonia. These, at least, were all of many +distinctions voted that Augustus would accept. Germanicus received +triumphal honors (which belonged likewise to the other commanders) and +prætorial honors, the right of casting his vote immediately after the +ex-consuls and of obtaining the consulship earlier than custom allowed. +Drusus, the son of Tiberius, although he had not participated in the +war, was voted permission to attend the sittings of the senate before he +became a member of that body, and when he should become quæstor to cast +his vote before the exprætors. + +[-18-] Scarcely had these resolutions been passed when terrible news that +arrived from Germany prevented them from holding any festivals. At that +same period the following events had taken place in Celtica. The Romans +had a hold on parts of it,--not the whole region, but just places +that happened to have been subdued, so that the fact has not received +historical notice,--and soldiers of theirs were used to wintering there +and cities were being founded. The barbarians were adapting themselves +to Roman ways, were taking up the custom of markets, and were holding +peaceful meetings. They had not, however, forgotten their ancestral +habits, their native manners, the life of independence, or the authority +given by arms. Hence, while they were unlearning them gradually and +imperceptibly, with careful watching, they were not disturbed by the +changed conditions of existence, and they were becoming different without +knowing it. Finally, Quintilius Varus received the command of Germany and +in the discharge of his office strove, in administering the affairs of +the people, to introduce more widespread changes among them. He treated +them in general as if they were already slaves, levying money upon them +as he had upon subject nations. This they were not inclined to endure, +for the prominent men longed for their former ascendency and the masses +preferred their accustomed constitution to foreign domination. They did +not openly revolt, since they saw there were many Roman soldiers near +the Rhine and many in their own territory; but they received Varus, +pretending they would execute all his commands, and took him far away +from the Rhine into Cheruscis near the Visurgis. There by behaving in a +most peaceful and friendly manner they led him to believe that they could +be trusted to live submissively without soldiers. [-19-] Consequently he +did not keep his legions together as was proper in an enemy's country, +and many of the men he distributed to helpless communities who asked it, +for the supposed purpose of guarding certain localities, or arresting +robbers, or escorting provision trains. Those deepest in the conspiracy +and the leaders of the plot and of the war, among others Armenius and +Segimerus, were his constant companions and often entertained him. He, +accordingly, became confident and expecting no harm not only refused to +believe all such as suspected the truth and advised him to be on his +guard, but even rebuked them on the ground that they were needlessly +disturbed and slandered his friends. Then there came an uprising, first +of those dwelling at a distance from him, purposely contrived, that Varus +should march against them and be easier overcome while on his journey +through what he deemed a friendly country, and that he might not at once +know that all were his enemies and guard himself against all of them. It +turned out precisely so. They escorted him on his setting out, and begged +to be excused from attendance[2] in order to gather auxiliaries (as they +said), after which they would quickly come to his assistance. So then +they took charge of forces already in waiting, and after killing the +different bodies of soldiers for whom they had previously asked they +encountered him in the midst of forests by this time hard to traverse. +There they showed themselves as enemies instead of subjects and wrought +many deeds of fearful injury. [-20-] The mountains had an uneven surface +broken by ravines, and the trees, standing close together, were extremely +tall. Hence the Romans even before the enemy assaulted them were having +hard work in felling, road making, and bridging places that required it. +They had with them many wagons and many beasts of burden as in a time of +peace. Not a few children and women and a large body of servants were +following them,--another reason for their advancing in scattered groups. +Meanwhile a great rain and wind came up that separated them still +farther, while the ground, being slippery where there were roots and +logs, made walking very difficult for them, and the top branches of +trees, which kept breaking off and falling down, caused confusion. While +the Romans were in such perplexity as this the barbarians suddenly +encompassed them from all sides at once, coming through the thickest part +of the underbrush, since they were acquainted with the paths. At first +they hurled from a distance; then as no one defended himself but many +were wounded, they approached closer to them. The Romans were in no order +but going along helter-skelter among the wagons and the unarmed, and so, +not being able to form readily in a body, and being fewer at every point +than their assailants, they suffered greatly and offered no resistance +at all. [-21-] Accordingly, they encamped on the spot, after securing +a suitable place so far as that was possible on a wooded mountain, and +afterward they either burned or abandoned the majority of their wagons +and everything else that was not absolutely necessary for them. The next +day they advanced in better order, with the aim of reaching open country; +but they did not gain it without loss. From there they went forward and +plunged into the woods again, defending themselves against the attacks, +but endured no inconsiderable reverses in this very operation. For +whereas they were marshaled in a narrow place in order that cavalry +and heavy-armed men in a mass might run down their foes, they had many +collisions with one another and with the trees. Dawn of the fourth day +broke as they were advancing and again a violent downpour and mighty wind +attacked them, which would not allow them to go forward or even to stand +securely, and actually deprived them of the use of their weapons. They +could not manage successfully their arrows or their javelins or, indeed, +their shields (which were soaked through). The enemy, however, being for +the most part lightly equipped and with power to approach and retire +freely, suffered less from the effects of the storm. _Their_ numbers, +moreover, increased, as numbers of those who had at first wavered joined +them particularly for the sake of plunder, and so they could more easily +encircle and strike down the Romans, who were already few, many having +perished in the previous battles. Varus, therefore, and the most eminent +of the other leaders, fearing that they might either be taken alive or be +killed by their bitterest foes,--for they had been wounded,--dared do a +deed which was frightful but not to be avoided: they killed themselves. + +[-22-] When this news was spread, none of the rest, even if he had +strength still left, defended himself longer. Some imitated their leader; +others, throwing aside their arms, allowed who pleased to slay them. To +flee was impossible, however one might wish it. Every man and horse, +therefore, was cut down without resistance, and the[3] ... + + And the barbarians occupied all the strongholds save one, delay over + which prevented them from either crossing the Rhine or invading Gaul. + Yet they found themselves unable to reduce this particular fort because + they did not understand the conduct of sieges and because the Romans + employed numerous archers, who repeatedly repulsed them and from + first to last destroyed a large proportion of the attacking party. + + Later they learned that the Romans had posted a guard at the Rhine + and that Tiberius was approaching with an imposing force of fighters. + Therefore most of the barbarians retired from the fortress, and the + detachment still left there withdrew some distance away, so as not to + be damaged by sudden sallies of the men inside; and they kept watch + of the roads, hoping to capture the garrison through scarcity of food + supplies. The Romans within, so long as they had abundance of sustenance, + remained where they were awaiting relief. But when no one + came to their assistance and they were likewise a prey to hunger, they + watched for a stormy night and issued forth--the soldiers were but + fed, the unarmed many,--and + +they passed the first and second guard of their adversaries, but when +they reached the third they were detected; for on account of fatigue and +fear, and the darkness and cold, the women and children kept calling to +the men of fighting age to come back. They would all have perished or +been captured, had not the barbarians been so busily occupied with +seizing the plunder. This gave an opportunity for many of the most hardy +to get some distance off, and the trumpeters with them by sounding the +signal for a double quick march caused the enemy to think (for night +was coming on and they could not be seen) that they had been sent from +Asprenas. Therefore the foe ceased their pursuit, and Asprenas on +learning what was taking place rendered them assistance in reality. Some +of the captives were later ransomed by their relatives and returned, +for this was permitted on condition that the ransoming party should be +outside of Italy at the time.--But this was only afterward. [-23-] At the +time, when Augustus heard of the disaster to Varus, he rent his clothing +(as some assert) and mourned greatly over the lost soldiers as also over +the fear inspired by the Germans and the Gauls. His grief was especially +keen because he expected that they would march upon Italy and upon Rome +itself. There were no citizens of military age worth mentioning that +were left and the allied forces that were of any value had been ruined. +Nevertheless he made preparations as well as he could in view of the +circumstances: and when no one of the proper age for warfare showed a +willingness to be enrolled, he instituted a drawing of lots and deprived +of his property every fifth man to draw of those not yet thirty-five +years old and every tenth man among those who were older, besides +disenfranchising them. Finally, as very many paid no heed to him even +then, he put some to death. He chose by lot as many as he could of those +who had already finished their service and of the freedmen, and having +enrolled them sent them at once in haste with Tiberius into Germany. And +as there were in Rome a number of Gauls and Celtæ, sojourning there for +various purposes, and some of them serving in the pretorian guard, he +feared that they might commit some act of insurrection: therefore he sent +such as were in his guard off to the islands and ordered the unarmed +class to leave the city. + +[-24-] This was the way be busied himself at that time, and none of the +usual business went on nor were the festivals celebrated. After this, +when he heard that some of the soldiers had been saved, that the +Germanies were garrisoned and the enemy did not dare to come down even to +the Rhine, he ceased to be excited and stopped to consider the matter. +A catastrophe so great and prostrating as this, it seemed to him, could +have been due to nothing else than the wrath of some Divinity: moreover, +by reason of the portents which took place both before the defeat and +afterward he was greatly inclined to suspect some miraculous working. The +temple of Mars in the field of the same name had been struck by lightning +and many locusts that flew into the very city were devoured by swallows; +the peaks of the Alps seemed to totter toward one another and to send up +three fiery columns; the sky in many places appeared ablaze and at the +same time numerous comet stars came to view; spears darting from the +north seemed to be falling upon the Roman camp; bees formed their combs +about Roman altars; a statue of Victory which was in Germany, facing +hostile territory, turned about toward Italy; and once an aimless battle +and conflict of the soldiers occurred about the eagles in the camps, as +if the barbarians had fallen upon them. + +For these reasons, then, and also because ... [4] + + [A.D. 10 (_a. u._ 763)] + + Tiberius did not see fit to cross the Rhine, but kept quiet, watching + to see that the barbarians should not do so. The latter, however, + knowing him to be present, did not venture to cross either. + + Germanicus was endeared to the populace for many causes, but particularly + because he interceded for various persons, and this quite as + much in the presence of Augustus himself as before other justices. Now + there was a court to try a quæstor who was charged with murder, + and, as Germanicus was going to be his advocate, his accuser became + alarmed lest he might consequently meet with defeat before those + judges in whose presence such cases were wont to be tried, and he + desired to have Augustus preside. Yet his efforts were vain, for he + did not win his case. + + ... holding [it] after his prætorship. + +[A.D. 11 (_a. u._ 764)] + +[-25-]But in the following season the temple of Concord was dedicated by +Tiberius and both his name and that of Drusus, his dead brother, were +inscribed upon it. In the consulship of Marcus Æmilius with Statilius +Taurus Tiberius and Germanicus acting as proconsul invaded Celtica and +overran some parts of it. They did not conquer, however, in any battle +(since no one came to close quarters with them), and did not reduce +any tribe. For in their fear of falling victims to a new disaster they +advanced not far beyond the Rhine, but after remaining there until late +autumn and celebrating the birthday of Augustus, on which they held a +kind of horse-race under the direction of the centurions, they returned. + +At Rome Drusus Cæsar, the son of Tiberius, became quæstor, and sixteen +prætors held office because that number became candidates for the +position and Augustus, mindful of his condition, was unwilling to +offend any of them. The same did not hold true, however, of the years +immediately following, but the number remained twelve for a long period. +Besides these proceedings the seers were forbidden to prophesy in private +to any one, or regarding death even if there should be others with +them. Yet in this matter Augustus had no personal feeling, so that by a +bulletin he even published to all the conjunction of stars under which +he had been born. In addition to forbidding the above he proclaimed to +subject states that they should grant no honors to any one assigned to +govern them either during his term of office or within sixty days after +he had departed. For some governors by arranging for testimonials and +eulogies from their subjects were doing much harm. Three senators, as +before, transacted business with the embassies, and the knights,--a fact +which might cause surprise,--were allowed to fight as gladiators. The +reason was that some persisted in disregarding the disenfranchisement +stated as a penalty for such conduct. And as there proved to be no use in +forbidding it and the participants seemed to require a greater punishment +before they would be turned aside from this course, they were given +permission to do as they liked. In this way they incurred death instead +of disenfranchisement, for they fought more than ever, and especially +because their contests were centers of attraction, so that even Augustus +became a spectator in company with the prætors who superintended games. + +[A.D. 12 (_a. u._ 765)] + +[-26-] Germanicus soon after received the office of consul, though he had +not even been prætor, and held it actually throughout the whole year, not +because of fitness but as a number of others held office at that time. +The consul did nothing worthy of note save that at this time, too, he +acted as advocate in suits, since his colleague Gaius Capito counted as +a mere figurehead. Augustus, because he was growing old, wrote a letter +commending Germanicus to the senate and the latter to Tiberius: the +manuscript was not read by him in person, for he was unable to make +himself heard, but by Germanicus, as usual. After that he asked them, +making the Celtic war his excuse, not to come to greet him at home nor to +be angry if he did not continue to eat with them. For generally, as often +as they had a sitting, in the Forum and sometimes in the senate-house +itself, they saluted him when he entered and again when he left; and it +had already happened that, when he was sitting and sometimes lying down +in the Palatium, not only the senate but the knights and many of the +populace greeted him. [-27-] All this time he continued to attend to his +business as before. He allowed the knights to become candidates for the +tribuneship. And learning that vituperative books concerning certain men +were being written, he ordered a search for them. Those that he found in +the city he had burned by the ædiles and those outside by the officials +who might be in charge, and he visited punishment upon some of the +composers. As there were many exiles who were either carrying on their +occupations outsides of the places to which they had been banished or +living too luxuriously in the proper places, he forbade that any one who +had been debarred from fire and water should stay either on the mainland +or on any of the islands distant less than four hundred stadia from the +mainland. Only he made an exception of Cos, Rhodes, Samos[5], and Lesbos, +for what reason I know not. He enjoined upon them also that they should +not cross the seas to any other point and should not possess more than +one ship of burden having a capacity of one thousand amphoræ, and two +driven by oars; that they should not employ more than twenty slaves or +freedmen; that they should not hold property above twelve and a half +myriads; and he threatened to take vengeance upon them for any violation +as well as upon all others who should in any way assist them in violating +these ordinances. These are the laws, as fully as is necessary for our +history, that he laid down. + +A festival extraordinary was conducted by the dancers and horse-breeders. +The Feast of Mars, because the Tiber had previously occupied the +hipprodrome, was this time held in the forum of Augustus and honored by a +kind of horse-race and by the slaughter of wild beasts. It was celebrated +a second time, as custom decreed, and Germanicus on that occasion killed +two hundred lions in the hippodrome. The so-called portico of Julia was +built in honor of Gaius and Lucius, the Cæsars, and was at that time +dedicated. + +[A.D. 13 (_a. u._ 766)] + +[-28-] When Lucius Munatius and Gaius Silius had been registered as +consuls Augustus reluctantly accepted the fifth decennial presidency of +the State and gave Tiberius again the tribunician authority. To Drusus, +the latter's son, he granted permission to stand for the consulship a +third year, still without having held the prætorship; and for himself +he asked twenty annual counselors because of his old age, which did not +permit him to visit the senate any longer save rarely. Previously fifteen +were attached to him for six months. It was further voted that any +measure should have authority, as satisfactory to the whole senate, which +should after deliberation be resolved upon by him in conjunction with +Tiberius and with the consuls of the year, with the men appointed for +deliberation and his grandchildren (the adopted ones, of course) and the +others that he might on any occasion call upon for advice. Gaining by the +decree those powers (which in reality he had in any case) he transacted +most of the is necessary business, though sometimes lying down. Now +as nearly all felt oppressed by the five per cent tax and a political +convulsion seemed likely, he sent document to the senate bidding its +members seek some other means of income. This he did not in the intention +of abolishing the tax but in order that when no other appeared to them +preferable they might though reluctantly ratify it without declaiming +against him He also ordered Germanicus and Drusus not to make any +official statement about it, for fear that if they expressed an opinion +persons would suspect that this had been done by his orders and choose +that plan without further investigation. There was much discussion and +some schemes were submitted to Augustus in writing. When he found by them +that the senators were ready to endure any form of tax rather than that +in force, he changed it to a levy upon fields and houses. And without +telling how great it would be or in what way imposed, he immediately sent +men in different directions to make a list of the possessions both of +individuals and of towns. His object was that they should fear losses on +a large scale and so be content to pay the five per cent. This actually +happened, and so it was that Augustus settled the difficulty. + +[-29-] At the spectacle of the Augustalia [6] which occurred on his +birthday a madman seated himself in the chair which was dedicated to +Julius Cæsar, and taking his crown put it on. This happening disturbed +everybody, for it seemed to have some bearing upon Augustus, as, indeed, +proved true. + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +For the following year, when Sextus Apuleius and Sextus Pompeius were +consuls, Augustus set out for Campania and after superintending the games +at Naples soon passed away in Nola. Omens had appeared to him, not few by +any means nor difficult to interpret, that pointed to this end. The sun +suffered a total eclipse and most of the sky seemed to be on fire. The +forms of glowing logs appeared falling from it and bloody comet stars +were seen. When a senate-meeting had been announced on account of his +sickness in order that they might offer prayers, the senate-house was +found closed and an owl sitting upon it hooted. A thunderbolt fell upon +his image standing on the Capitol and erased the first letter of the name +of Cæsar. This led the seers to declare that on the hundredth day +after that he should attain to some heavenly condition. They made this +deduction from the fact that the letter mentioned signifies "hundred" +among the Latins and all the rest of the name means "god" among the +Etruscans. These signs appeared while he was still alive. Men of later +times called attention to the case of the consuls and of Servius +Sulpicius Galba. The former officials were in some way related to +Augustus, and Galba, who afterward came to power, was at this time on the +very first day of the year enrolled among the iuvenes. Since he was the +first of the Romans to become sovereign after the race of Augustus had +passed away, it gave occasion to some to say that this coincidence had +not been due to mere accident, but had been brought about by some divine +counsel. + +[-30-] So Augustus fell sick and died. Livia incurred some suspicion +regarding the manner of his death, inasmuch as he had secretly sailed +over to the island to meet Agrippa and thought to reconcile everything in +a way satisfactory to all. She was afraid, some say, that Augustus would +bring him back to make him sovereign, and so smeared with poison some +figs that were still on trees from which Augustus was wont to gather +fruit with his own hands. So she ate the ones that had not been smeared, +and pointed out the poisoned ones to him. From this or from some other +cause he became ill and sending for his associates he told them all his +wishes, finally adding: "Rome was clay when I took it in hand: I leave it +to you stone." In this he had reference not entirely to the appearance +of its buildings, but also to the strength of the empire. By asking +some applause from them as to comic actors at the close of some mime he +ridiculed most tellingly the whole life of man. + +Thus on the nineteenth day of August, the day on which he first became +consul, he passed away, having lived seventy-five years, ten months, and +twenty-six days. He had been born on the twenty-third of September. He +reigned as monarch, from the time he conquered at Actium, forty-four +years lacking thirteen days. [-31-] His death, however, was not +immediately made public. Livia, fearing that as Tiberius was still in +Dalmatia there might be some uprising, concealed the fact until the +latter arrived. This is the statement made in the larger number of +histories and the more trustworthy ones. There are some who have affirmed +that Tiberius was present during the emperor's illness and received some +injunctions from him.--The body of Augustus was carried from Nola by +the foremost men of each city in succession. When it came near Rome the +knights took it in charge and conveyed it by night into the city. On the +following day there was a senate-meeting, and to it the majority came +wearing the equestrian costume, but the officials the senatorial, except +for the purple-bordered togas. Tiberius and Drusus his son wore dark +clothing made in everyday fashion. They, too, offered incense but made +no use of a flute player. Most of the members sat in their accustomed +places, but the consuls below, one on the prætors' bench and one on +the tribunes'. After this Tiberius was absolved for having touched +the corpse,--a forbidden act,--and for having escorted it on its way, +although the ... + +[-32-] + + ... his will Drusus took from the virgin priestesses of Vesta, with + whom it had been deposited, and carried it into the senate. Those who + had sealed it viewed the impressions, and then it was read in hearing + of the senate. + + ... one Polybius of Cæsar's household read his will, as it was not proper +for a senator to read anything of the sort. It showed that two-thirds +of the inheritance had been left to Tiberius and the rest to Livia,--at +least this is one report. In order that she, too, might have the benefit +of his property he had asked permission of the senate to leave her +so much, since it was contrary to law. These two were mentioned as +inheritors. He ordered many objects and sums of money to be given to many +different persons, both relatives of his and those joined by no ties of +kindred, not only to senators and knights but also to kings; for the +people there were a thousand myriads and for the soldiers two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece to the Pretorians, half that amount to the city +force, and to the remainder of the native soldiery seventy-five each. +Moreover, in the case of children, of whose fathers he had been the heir +while they were still small, he enjoined that everything, together with +income, should be given back to them when they became men: this was, +indeed his custom while in life. Whenever he inherited the estate of any +one who had offspring, he never neglected to give it all to the man's +children, immediately if they were already adults, and later if it were +otherwise. Though he took such an attitude toward other people's children +he did not restore his daughter from exile, though he deemed her worthy +of gifts; and he forbade her being buried in his own tomb.--So much was +learned from the will. + +[-33-] Four books were then brought in and Drusus read them. In the first +were written details pertaining to his funeral; in the second all the +works which he had done, which he commanded to be inscribed aloft upon +bronze columns to be set around his heroum; the third contained +an account of military matters, of the revenues and of the public +expenditures, the amount of money in the treasuries, and everything else +of the sort having a bearing upon the administration; and the fourth had +injunctions and orders for Tiberius and for the public. Among these last +was a command that they should not liberate many slaves and should thus +avoid filing the city with a variegated rabble. He also exhorted them +not to enroll large numbers as citizens, in order that there might be a +distinct difference between themselves and subject nations; to deliver +the control of public business to all who had ability both to understand +and to act, and never to let it depend on any one person; in this way no +one would set his mind on a tyranny nor would the State go to pieces if +one fell. He advised them to be satisfied with present possessions +and under no conditions to wish to increase the empire to any greater +dimensions. It would be hard to guard, he said, and this would lead to +danger of their losing what was already theirs. This principle he had +himself really always followed not only in speech but also in action. +For, whereas he might have made great acquisitions of barbarian +territory, he had not wished to do so.--These were his injunctions. + +[-34-] Then came his funeral. There was a couch made of ivory and gold +and adorned with robes of purple mixed with gold. In it his body was +hidden, in a kind of box down below: a wax image of him in triumphal +garb was displayed. This one was borne from the Palatium by the officials +for the following year, and another of gold from the senate-house, and +still another upon a triumphal chariot. Behind these came the images of +his ancestors and of his deceased relatives (except of Cæsar, because he +had been enrolled among the heroes), and those of other Romans who had +been prominent in any way, beginning with Romulus himself. An image of +Pompey the Great was also seen, and all the nations he had acquired, each +represented by a likeness which bore some local characteristic, were +carried in procession. After these followed all the remaining objects +mentioned above. When the couch had been placed in view upon the orators' +platform, Drusus read something from that place: and from the other, the +rostra of the Julian shrine, Tiberius delivered the following public +oration over the deceased, according to a decree:-- + +[-35-] "What needed to be said privately by relatives over the divine +Augustus Drusus has spoken. But since the senate has wisely deemed him +worthy of some kind of public utterance, I know that the speech was +fittingly entrusted to me. To whom more justly than to me, his child and +successor, could be the task of praising him be confided? It is not my +privilege, however, to be gladdened by the thought that my ability must +prove no whit inferior to your desires in the matter and to his worth. +Indeed, if I were to speak among strangers, I should be greatly alarmed +lest in following my speech they should believe his deeds to be no better +than I describe them. As it is, I am encouraged by the thought that my +words will be directed to you who know all of them thoroughly, have +experienced them all, and for that reason have deemed him worthy of these +very praises. You will judge of his excellence not from what I may say +but from what you yourselves know, and you will assist my discourse, +making good what is deficient by your memory of events. So that in this +way his eulogy will become a public one, given by all, as I, like the +head of some chorus, indicate the chief points and you come in with the +remainder of the refrain. I am certainly not afraid that you will hold me +guilty of weakness because I am unable to meet your desires nor that you +will be jealous to see his excellence going beyond your reach. Who does +not understand the fact that not all mankind assembled in one place could +worthily sound his praises? And you all voluntarily make way for him to +triumph, not envious to think that not one of you could equal him, but +rejoicing in his surpassing greatness. The greater he looms up before +you, the more greatly will you feel yourselves benefited, so that envy +will not be bred in you by your inferiority to him but awe from the +advantages you have received at his hands. + +[-36-] "I shall begin at the point where he also began to enter politics, +that is, from his earliest manhood. This, indeed, is one of the greatest +achievements of Augustus,--that when he had just emerged from boyhood and +was entering upon the state of youth, he paid attention to education +so long as public affairs were well managed by the famous Cæsar, the +demi-god: when after the conspiracy against the latter the whole +commonwealth was thrown into confusion, he at the same time amply avenged +his father and rendered a much needed aid to you, not fearing the +multitude of his enemies nor dreading the greatness of the business nor +hesitating through his own immaturity. Yet what deed like this can be +cited of Alexander of Macedon or our Romulus, who have the reputation of +having done something brilliant when very young? But these I shall pass +over, lest from merely comparing them with him and bringing them up,--and +that among you who are acquainted with him no less than I,--I may be +thought to be diminishing the greatness of Augustus. If I am to do this +sort of thing, I should be justified only if I looked at his deeds beside +those of Hercules: yet even then I should fail of my effect, inasmuch as +the latter killed only serpents when he was a child, a stag and a +boar when he was a man,--oh, yes, and by Jupiter a lion also, though +reluctantly and in obedience to a command; whereas our hero voluntarily +made wars and enacted laws not among beasts but among men, carefully +preserved the commonwealth, and himself gained brilliance. It was for +this that you chose him prætor and appointed him consul at that age when +some are unwilling even to serve in the army. + +[-37-] "This was the beginning of political life for Augustus, and it is +the beginning of my speech about him. Soon after, seeing that the +largest and best portion both of the people and of the senate was in +accord with him, but that Lepidus and Antony, Sextus, Brutus, and Cassius +were employing rebels, he feared that the city might become involved in +many wars,--civil wars,--at once, and be so torn asunder and exhausted as +not to be able to revive in any fashion; and so he manipulated them very +cleverly and to the greatest public good. He attached himself to the +strong ones, who were menacing the very city, and with them fought the +others till he made an end of them: when these were out of the way he in +turn freed us from the former. He chose against his will to surrender a +few to their wrath so that he might save the majority, and he chose to +assume a friendly attitude toward them individually so as not to have to +fight with them all at once. From this he derived no individual gain but +aided us all most evidently. Why should one speak at length to enumerate +his deeds in the wars both at home and abroad? Consider especially that +the former ought never to have occurred at all and that the latter by the +conquests gained show their advantages better than any words, moreover +that they largely depended upon chance, that the successes were obtained +with the aid of many citizens and many allies so that these deserve the +credit equally with him, and finally that the achievements might possibly +be compared with those of some others. These, accordingly, I shall put +aside. You can behold and read them inscribed in letters and characters +in many places. I shall speak only of the works which belong to Augustus +himself, which have never been performed by any other man, and have not +only caused our city to survive from many dangers of a sorts but have +rendered it more prosperous and powerful. The mention of them will confer +upon him a unique glory and will afford the elder among you an innocent +pleasure while giving the younger men an exact instruction in the +character and constitution of the government. + +[-38-] "This Augustus, then, whom you deemed worthy of this title for the +very reasons just cited, as soon as he had freed himself from the civil +wars after acting and enduring (not in a way that pleased himself) +as Heaven approved, first of all preserved the lives of most of his +opponents, who were survivors of the army, and thus he in no way imitated +Sulla, called the Fortunate. Not to give you a list of all of them, who +does not know about Sosius, about Scaurus the brother of Sextus, and +particularly about Lepidus, who lived so long a time after his defeat and +continued to be high priest his whole life through? Next he honored his +companions in conflict with many great gifts, but did not allow them to +act in any arrogant way or to be wanton. You know thoroughly among others +in this category both Mæcenas and Agrippa, so that there is no need of my +enumerating the names. Augustus had two qualities, too, which were never +united in any one else. Some conquerors, I know, have spared their +enemies and others have refused to allow their companions to give way +to license. But both sorts of behavior at once, continually without any +exception, were never found in the same man. Here is evidence. Sulla and +Marius treated as enemies even the children of those who fought against +them. Why need I cite the other less important men? Pompey and Cæsar were +in general guiltless of this conduct, but permitted their friends to do +not a few things that were contrary to their own principles. But this +man had each of the two virtues so fused and intermingled that to his +adversaries he made defeat look like victory and to his comrades he +showed a happiness in excellence. + +[-39-] "After doing this and quieting by kindness all that remained of +factional disputes and imposing temperance by his benefits upon the +victorious military, he might as a result of this and the weapons and the +money at his command have been indisputably the sole lord of everything, +as, indeed, he had been made by the very course of events. Yet he +refused, and like a good physician, who takes in hand a disease-ridden +body and heals it, he restored everything to you after making it well. +And to what this action amounted you can best realize from the fact that +our fathers spoke in praise of Pompey and Metellus, who was formerly +prominent, because they voluntarily disbanded the forces with which they +had been engaged in war. Now if they, who had but a small force and a +merely temporary one and besides saw opponents who would not allow them +to do otherwise,--if they received praise for doing this,--how could one +speak fittingly of the magnanimity of Augustus? He held all your forces, +however great, he was master of all your funds, vast in amount, had no +one to fear or suspect: but whereas he might have ruled alone with the +approval of all, he would not accept such a course, but laid the arms, +the provinces, the money at your feet. Wherefore you with wise insistence +and proper prudence would not have it nor allow him to retire to private +life; you knew well that democracy would never accommodate itself to such +tremendous interests, but that the superintendence of a single person +would most surely preserve them, and so refused what was nominally +independence but really factional discord. And making choice of him, whom +you had proved worthy by his very deeds, you compelled him to stand at +your head for a time at least. When you had in this way tested him even +more than before, you finally forced him a second, a third, a fourth, and +a fifth time to remain as manager of public affairs. [-40-] It was +only natural. Who would not choose to be safe without trouble, to +be prosperous without danger, to enjoy unsparingly the blessings of +government and not to be disturbed by cares for its maintenance? Who was +there that could rule even his private possessions better than Augustus, +to say nothing of the goods of so many human beings? He accepted the +trying and hostile provinces for his own portion to guard and preserve, +but restored to you all such others as were peaceful and free from +danger. Though he supported such a large standing army to fight in your +behalf, he let the soldiers be troublesome to none of his own countrymen +but rendered them to outsiders most terrifying guardians, to the people +at home unarmed and unwarlike. The senators in places of authority +were not deprived of appeal to the lot, but prizes for excellence were +furnished them in addition. He did not destroy the power of the ballot in +their decisions and he guaranteed safety in free speech as well. Cases +difficult to decide he transferred from the people to the searching +justice of the courts, but preserved to the popular body the dignity of +the elections and trained citizens in these to seek a means of honor, not +of strife. He even cut away the ambitious greed of office seekers and put +a regard for reputation in its place. His own money, which he increased +by legitimate methods, he spent for public needs: for the public funds he +cared as if they were his own, while he refrained from touching them, as +belonging to others. He saw that all public works that were falling to +decay were repaired, and deprived no one connected with their renovation +of the glory attaching: many structures he built anew (some in his own +name, some in that of another), or else gave others charge of erecting +them. Consequently, his gaze was directed toward public utility and +privately he grudged no one the fame to be derived from public service. +Wantonness among his own kin he recompensed relentlessly, but the +offences of others he treated with humaneness. Those who had traits of +excellence he allowed to come as near as they could to his own standard, +and with the conduct of such as lived otherwise he did not concern +himself minutely. Among those who conspired against him he invoked +justice upon only those whose lives were of no profit even to themselves. +The rest he placed in such a position that for a great while they could +obtain no excuse either true or false for attacking him. It is nothing +surprising that he was occasionally the object of conspiracies, for +even the gods do not please all alike. The excellence of good rulers +is discernible not in the villainies of others but in their own good +behavior. + +[-41-] "I have spoken, Quirites, of his greatest and most striking +characteristics in a rather summary way. For if one should desire to +enumerate all of his great points individually, it would need many days. +Furthermore, I know that though you will have heard so few facts from me, +they will lead you to remember for yourselves everything else, and it +will seem almost as if I had spoken that too. In the rest that I have +said about him I have not been speaking in a spirit of vainglory [7], nor +has that been your state of mind in listening; but I intended that his +many noble achievements might obtain an ever memorable glory in your +souls. Who would not feel inclined to make mention of his senators?--how +without giving offence he removed the scum that had come to the surface +from the factions, how by this very act he exalted the remainder, +magnified it by increasing the property requirement, and enriched it by +grants of money; how he voted on an equality with the senators and +had their help in making changes; how he communicated to them all the +greatest and most important matters either in the meeting-place or else +at his house, whither he called different members at different times +because of his age and bodily infirmity. Who would not like to cite the +condition of the rest of the Romans, before whom he set public works, +money, games, festivals, amnesty, an abundance of food, safety not only +from the enemy and evildoers but even from the acts of Heaven, nor such +alone as befall by day, but by night as well? Or, again, the allies?--how +he made their freedom free from danger and their alliance to involve +no loss. Or the subject nations?--how no one of them was treated with +insolence or abuse. How can one forget a man who was in private life +poor, in public life rich, saving in his own case but liberal of +expenditures for others?--one who even endured all toil and danger for +you but would not submit to your escorting him when he went forth on any +expedition or to your meeting him when he returned: one who on festivals +admitted even the populace to his home, but on other days greeted even +the senate only in its chambers? How could one forget the number and +precision as well of his laws, which contained for the wronged an +all-sufficient consolation and for the wrongdoers a not inhuman +punishment? Or his rewards offered to those who married and had children? +Or the prizes given to the soldiers without disadvantage to any +other person? Then there is the fact of his being satisfied with our +possessions once for all acquired by the will of Destiny, and his refusal +to subjugate additional territory. For while imagining that we bore a +wider sway we might meantime lose all we had. You recall how he always +shared the joys and sorrows, the jests and earnestness of his intimate +friends, and allowed absolutely all who could make any useful suggestion +to feel free to speak; how he praised those who spoke the truth and hated +flatterers; how he bestowed upon many large sums from his own means, and +how when aught was bequeathed to him by men with children he restored it +all to those children. What oblivion is dark enough to bury all this? It +was for this, therefore, I say, that you naturally made him your head and +a father of the people, that you decked him with many marks of esteem and +numerous consulships and finally declared him a hero and published him +as immortal. Hence we ought not either to mourn for him, but to give his +body back now in due time to Nature, and to glorify his spirit, as that +of a god, forever." + +[-42-] This was what Tiberius read. Directly after, the same men as +before took up the couch and carried it through the triumphal gateway, +according to the senate's decree. There were present and took part in +carrying him out the senate and the equestrian class, the women of his +family, and the pretorian guard; and nearly everybody else in the city +was in attendance. When the body had been placed on the pyre in the +Campus Martius, all the priests marched about it first; and then the +knights, all the magistrates and others, and the heavy-armed force for +garrison duty ran around it; and they cast upon it all the triumphal +decorations which any of them had ever received from him for any deed of +valor. Next the centurions took torches, conformably to a decree of the +senate, and kindled the fire from beneath. So it was consumed, and an +eagle released from it flew aloft appearing to bear his spirit into +heaven. When this had been accomplished most of those present departed; +but Livia remained on the spot for five days in company with the most +prominent knights, and gathered his bones, which she placed in the +monument. + +The show of grief required by law was prolonged [-43-] only for a few +days by the men, but by the women, according to a decree, for a whole +year. Real grief not in the hearts of many at the time, but later felt by +all the citizens. Augustus had been accessible to all and was accustomed +to aid many persons in the matter of money. He used to bestow honors +scrupulously upon his friends and delighted exceedingly to have them +speak frankly. One instance, in addition to what has been told, occurred +in the case of Athenodorus. The latter was once brought into his room in +a covered litter, as if it were some woman, and leaping from it sword in +hand asked: "Aren't you afraid that some one may come in this way +and kill you?" Instead of being angry Augustus thanked him for his +suggestion. + +The people consequently were wont to recall these traits of his, and how +he did not get blindly enraged at those who injured him as well as how +he kept faith with even such as were unworthy of it. There was a robber +named Corocotta, who flourished in Spain, and the emperor was in the +first place so angry at him that he offered twenty-five myriads to the +man that captured him alive. Later the robber came to him of his own +accord, and he not only did him no harm but made him richer by the amount +of money mentioned. Hence the Romans missed him mightily for these +reasons as well as because by mingling monarchy with democracy he +preserved their freedom for them and secured orderliness and security, so +that their lives, free from the audacities of democracy, free from the +wantonness of tyrannies, were cast in a liberty of moderation and under a +monarchy without terrors; they were subjects of royalty, yet not slaves, +and democratic citizens without discord. [-44-] If any of them remembered +his former deeds in the course of the civil wars, they laid them to the +pressure of circumstances, and they thought it fair to look for his real +disposition, which had given him undisputed authority. This offered, in +truth, a mighty contrast. Any one who goes carefully into each of his +separate actions will find this true. In regard to the mass of them I +must record curtly that he stopped all factional disputes, transformed +the government in a way to give it power, and strengthened it greatly. +Therefore if any deed of violence is encountered,--as is often bound to +happen when the face of a situation shifts unexpectedly,--one might more +justly blame the circumstances themselves than him. + +Not the smallest factor in his glory was the length of his reign. The +majority of those that had lived under a democracy and the more powerful +had time to die. Those who were left, knowing nothing of that form of +government and having been reared entirely or mostly under existing +conditions, were not only not displeased with them,--they had become so +familiar,--but took delight in them, for they saw that these were better +and more free from terror than others of which they heard. + +[-45-] Though the people knew this during his life they nevertheless +realized it more fully after his decease. Human nature is so constituted +that in good fortune it does not perceive its prosperity so fully as it +misses it when evil days arrive. This was the case then in regard to +Augustus. When they found his successor Tiberius not the same sort of +man they longed for the previous emperor. Persons with their wits about +them had some immediate evidence of the change in the constitution. +The consul Pompeius, who went out to meet the men bearing the body of +Augustus, received a blow in the leg and had to be carried back with the +body. An owl sat over the senate-house again at the very first sitting of +the senate after his death and uttered many ill-omened cries. The two men +differed so from each other that some suspected that Augustus with full +knowledge of Tiberius's character had purposely appointed him for +successor to the end that he himself might have greater glory. This +began to be rumored at a later date. + +[-46-] At this time they declared Augustus immortal and assigned to him +attendants and sacred rites, making Livia (who was already called Julia +and Augusta) his priestess. Permission was granted Livia to employ a +lictor during the services. And she bestowed upon a certain Numerius +Atticus, a senatorial exprætor, twenty-five myriads because he swore that +he had seen Augustus ascending into heaven after the manner described in +the cases of Proclus and of Romulus. A heroüm voted by the senate and +built by Livia and Tiberius was erected to the dead emperor in Rome, +and others at many different points, sometimes with the consent of the +nations concerned and sometimes without their consent. Also the house at +Nola, where he passed away, was dedicated to him as a precinct. While the +heroüm was being built in Rome, they placed a golden image of him upon a +couch in the temple of Mars, and to this they paid all the honors that +they were afterward to give to his statue. Other votes in regard to +him were that his image should not be borne in procession at any one's +funeral and the consuls should celebrate his birthday with games no less +than that of Mars[8] the tribunes, as being sacrosanct, were to manage +the Augustalia. These officials conducted everything as had been the +custom, wearing the triumphal costume at the horse-race; they did not, +however, ascend the chariot. Besides this Livia held a private festival +in his honor for three days in the Palatium, and this is continued to the +present day by whoever is emperor. + +[-47-] This was the extent of the decrees passed in memory of Augustus +nominally by the senate but really by Tiberius and Livia. Various men +made various motions and they decided that Tiberius should receive +written proposals from them and pick out whatever he chose. I have added +the name of Livia because she took a share in the proceedings, as though +she had full power. + +Meantime the populace was plunged in tumult because at the Augustalia one +of the dancers would not enter the theatre for the stipulated pay. They +did not cease their disturbances until the tribunes convened the senate +without delay and begged that body to allow them to spend something more +than the legal amount.--Here ends my account of Augustus. + + +[Footnote 1: Undoubtedly _C. Vibius_ POSTUMUS is the person meant.] + +[Footnote 2: Reading [Greek: paremenoi] (Boissevain, following the MS.).] + +[Footnote 3: A leaf is here missing in the codex Marcianus. Of the +portion lost Zonaras supplies about one quarter.] + +[Footnote 4: Another leaf of the codex Marcianus is here lacking, leaving +a gap of which Zonaras and an Excerpt of de Valois supply a sixth or +more.] + +[Footnote 5: A conjecture of Boissevain's. The MS. has "Sardinia." (See +Mnemosyne, N.S. XIII, p. 329.)] + +[Footnote 6: Dio here appears to confuse the festival of Augustus's +Birthday (September 23d) with that of the Augustalia proper, which was +celebrated October third to twelfth. The opening of chapter 34, Book +Fifty-four, might lead one to think, however, that he had accustomed +himself to use the phrase "which are still celebrated" to listing the +latter from the former.] + +[Footnote 7: This sentence in the MS. is faulty. Oddey and Bekker +supplied words for the necessary sense.] + +[Footnote 8: Compare Roscher, II, column 2399.]; + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +57 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +About Tiberius (chapter I ff.). How Cappadocia began to be governed by +Romans (chapter 17). How Germanicus Cæsar died (chapter 18). How Drusus +Cæsar died (chapter 22). + +Duration of time, 11 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Drusus Cæsar Tiberi F., C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus (A.D. 15 = a. u. 768 = +Second of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +T. Statilius T. F. Sisenna Taurus, L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (A.D. 16 = +a. u. 769 = Third of Tiberius.) + +C. Cæcilius C. F. Nepos [or] Rufus, L. Pomponius L. F. Flaccus. (A.D. 17 += a. u. 770 = Fourth of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Cæsar Augusti F. (III), Germanicus Cæsar Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 18 = a. +u. 771 = Fifth of Tiberius.) + +M. Iunius M. F. Silanus, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus or Balbus. (A.D. 19 = +a. u. 772 = Sixth of Tiberius.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala, M. Aurelius M. F. Cotta. (A.D. 20 = a. u. 773 += Seventh of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Cæsar Augusti F. (IV), Drusus Iulius Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 21 = a. u. +774 = Eighth of Tiberius.) + +Decimus Haterius C. F. Agrippa, C. Sulpicius Serg. F. Galba. (A.D. 22 = +a. u. 775 = Ninth of Tiberius.) + +C. Asinius C. F. Pollio, C. Antistius C. F. Vetus. (A.D. 23 = a. u. 776 = +Tenth of Tiberius.) + +Sergius Cornelius Sergi F. Cethego, L. Visellius L. F. Varro. (A.D. 24 = +a. u. 777 = Eleventh of Tiberius.) + +M. [or C.] Asinius [M. or] C. F. Agrippa, Cossus Cornelius Cossi F. +Lentulus. (A.D. 25 = a. u. 778 = Twelfth of Tiberius.) + + +_(BOOK 57 BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +[-1-] Tiberius was a patrician of good education, but he had a most +peculiar nature. He never let what he desired appear in his talk, and +about what he said he wished he usually cared nothing at all. Thus his +words indicated just the opposite of his real purpose: be denied any +interest in what he longed for and urged the claims of what he hated. He +would exhibit anger over matters that were very far from arousing his +rage and made a show of affability where he was most vexed. He would pity +those whom he severely punished and retain a grudge against those whom he +pardoned. Sometimes he would regard his dearest foe as his nearest friend +and again he would act toward his most intimate companion as if the +latter were thoroughly hostile. In general, he thought it bad policy +for the independent sovereign to reveal his state of mind; this was the +source, he said, of great failures, but by the opposite course even more +successes, and greater, were attained. If he had merely followed this +method without complications, he would have had no protection against +such as had come to know him; they would have taken everything by +contraries and would have deemed his saying that he did not wish +something to be equivalent to his ardently desiring it, and that he was +eager for something equivalent to his not being concerned about it. It +happened, however, that he became angry if any one gave evidence of +understanding him. Many were those he put to death for no other offence +than having comprehended him. It was a dangerous matter, then, to fail to +understand him--for many were ruined by approving what he said instead of +what he wished,--but still more dangerous to understand him. Such persons +were suspected of discovering his practice and being consequently +displeased with it. Practically the only sort of man that could maintain +himself,--and such a person is rarely found,--was one who did not +misunderstand his nature yet did not subject it to uncomfortable +exposure. Under these conditions men would not be deceived by believing +him nor be hated for revealing their comprehension of his policy. For he +gave plenty of trouble both to any one who opposed what he said and to +any one who favored it. As he was really anxious for one thing to be +done but wanted to appear to desire something different, he invariably +regarded those who took either side as his opponents and therefore was +hostile to the one class because of his real feelings, and to the other +for the sake of appearances. + +[-2-] It was due to this characteristic that, as emperor, he sent a +dispatch straight from Nola to the legions and provinces declaring that +he was emperor. This name, which was voted him along with the rest, he +would not accept, and though taking the portion of Augustus he would not +adopt this title of his. At a time when he was already surrounded by the +body-guards he asked the senate to help him escape suffering any violence +at the burial of the emperor's body. He was afraid some men might snatch +it up and burn it in the Forum, as they had that of Cæsar. When somebody +thereupon as a compliment voted that he be given a guard, as if he had +none, he saw through the man's flattery and answered: "The soldiers are +not mine but the public's." Besides doing this he administered in fact +all the business of the empire, meanwhile declaring that he wanted none +of it. At first he said he should give it all up on account of his +age,--fifty-six,--and his near-sightedness (although he saw extremely +well in the dark, his eyes in the daylight were very weak). Later he +asked for some associates and colleagues, though not to take charge of +the whole domain at once, as in an oligarchy, but he divided it into +three parts, one of which he should retain himself and yield the +remaining two to others. One of these portions consisted of Rome and +the rest of Italy, the second of the legions, the third of the subject +peoples outside. Though he became very urgent, most of the senators +still opposed him and begged him to govern the entire realm. But Asinius +Gallus, who employed the frank speech of old days more than was good for +him, replied: "Choose whichever part you wish." Tiberius rejoined: "How +is it feasible for the same man both to make the division and to choose?" +Gallus, perceiving into what a plight he had fallen, framed his words to +flatter him, interrupting to the effect that: "I not setting before you +the idea of your having a third but the impossibility of the empire's +being divided." In fact, however, he did not mollify Tiberius, but after +first undergoing many dire sufferings was subsequently murdered. For +Gallus had married the former wife of the new ruler and claimed Drusus as +his son, and consequently there had been hatred between them before this. + +[-3-] Tiberius acted in this way at that time chiefly because it was his +nature and he had determined upon that policy, but partly also because +he was suspicious of the Pannonian and Germanic legions and feared +Germanicus, the ruler of the Germany of that day and a favorite of +theirs. He had previously made sure of the soldiers in Italy by means of +the oaths established by Augustus; but as he was suspicious of the others +he waited for either possible outcome, intending to save himself by +retiring to private life in case the legions should revolt and prevail. +For this reason he often feigned sickness and remained at home, so as not +to be compelled to say or do anything definite. I have even heard that +when it began to be said that Livia against the will of Augustus had kept +the empire for him, he took such action[1] that he might appear to have +received it not from her (with whom he was on very bad terms), but under +compulsion from the senators through surpassing them in excellence. Again +I have heard that when he saw that people were cool toward him he waited +and delayed in order that they in the hope of his voluntarily resigning +the empire might no adopt rebellious measures until he had secured an +unshakable control of the government. Still, I do not record these +stories as the true causes of his delay, but rather his usual disposition +and the disturbance among the soldiers. He sent some one from Nola and +had Agrippa killed at once. Yet he declared this had not been done by +his orders and he threatened the perpetrator of the deed. Instead of +punishing him, however, he allowed men to invent versions of the affair +some to the effect that Augustus had put him out of the way just before +his death, others that the centurion who was guarding him slew him on his +own responsibility for some revolutionary dealings, others that Livia and +not Tiberius had ordered his death. + +[-4-] This rival, then, he had removed from the scene immediately, but +there remained Germanicus, whom he feared mightily. The soldiers in +Pannonia had risen as soon as they learned of the demise of Augustus. +They gathered in one fort and having strengthened it they took many steps +toward rebellion. Among other things they attempted to kill their leader, +Junius Blæsus, and arrested and tortured his slaves. In general, what +they wanted was to have the period of service extend over not more than +sixteen years, and they demanded that they should receive a denarius per +day and be given at once his prizes that were in the camp. In case they +did not obtain their demands they threatened to make the province revolt +and to march upon Rome. Indeed, they were at this time with difficulty +won over by the persuasions of Blæsus to send envoys to Tiberius at Rome +in regard to these matters. For they hoped during this change in +the government to accomplish the utmost of their desires either by +frightening the emperor into it or by giving the power to some one else. +Subsequently, when Drusus came upon them with the Pretorians, they were +thrown into tumult once more because no definite answer was returned +them. Some of his followers they wounded and they put a guard around him +in the night to prevent his escape. Noticing, however, an eclipse of the +moon occurring they felt their boldness begin to waver so that they +did no further harm to this detachment and despatched envoys again to +Tiberius. Meantime a great storm came up, and when on this account every +one had retired to his own quarters, the most audacious soldiers were +destroyed, some in one manner, some in another, by Drusus and his +associates in his own tent, whither he had summoned them on some +unsignifying pretext. The rest were restored to good standing on +condition of surrendering for punishment those responsible for the +uprising. In this way this division became quiet. + +[-5-] The warriors in Germany, however, where many had been assembled +on account of the war, would not hear of moderation, since they saw that +Germanicus was both a Cæsar and far superior to Tiberius, but proclaiming +publicly the above facts they heaped abuse upon Tiberius and saluted +Germanicus as emperor. When after much pleading he found himself unable +to reduce them to order, finally he drew his sword as if to despatch +himself. They cried out upon him in horror, and one of them proffering +his own sword said: "Take this; this is sharper." Germanicus, seeing +to what lengths the matter had gone, did not venture to kill himself, +particularly as he had reason to believe that they would persist in their +uprising none the less. Therefore he composed a letter purporting to have +been sent from Tiberius, gave them twice the gift bequeathed them by +Augustus,--pretending it was the emperor who did this,--and released +those who were beyond the age of service. Most of them belonged to the +city troops which Augustus had gathered as an extra force after the +disaster to Varus. As a result, they ceased for the time being their +seditious behavior. Later on came senators as envoys from Tiberius, to +whom the latter had secretly communicated only so much as he wished +Germanicus to know. He felt quite sure that they would tell him the +emperor's plans in their entirety, and accordingly did not care that +either they or Germanicus should trouble themselves about anything +further; the instructions delivered were supposed to comprise everything. +Now when these men had arrived and the soldiers learned about the trick +Germanicus had played, a suspicion sprang up that the presence of the +senators meant the overthrow of their leader's measures, and this led to +new turmoil. The men-at-arms almost killed some of the envoys and to the +point of seizing Germanicus's wife Agrippina (daughter of Agrippa and +Julia, the daughter of Augustus) and his son, both of whom had been +sent by him to some place for refuge. The boy was called Gaius Caligula +because, being brought up for the most part in the camp he wore the +military shoes instead of those usual at the capital. At the request of +Germanicus they released to him Agrippina, who was pregnant but they +retained possession of Gaius. Yet on this occasion too, as they +accomplished nothing, they after a time grew quiet. In fact, they +experienced such a revulsion of sentiment that of their own accord they +arrested the boldest of their number: and some they killed privately, the +rest they brought before a gathering; and then, according to the wish of +the majority, [-6-] they executed some and released others. Germanicus +being still afraid that they would make another uprising invaded the +enemy's country and there spent some time, giving them plenty of work and +abundant food,--the fruit of others' labor. + +Thus, though he might have obtained the imperial power,--for he found +favor in the sight of absolutely all the Romans as well as their +subjects,--he declined the honor. For this Tiberius praised him and sent +many pleasing messages both to him and to Agrippina: he was not, however, +pleased with his rival's progress but feared him all the more because he +had won the attachment of the legions. Tiberius assumed that he did not +feel as he appeared to do, from his own consciousness of saying one thing +and doing another. Hence he was suspicious of Germanicus and further +suspicious of his wife, who was possessed of an ambition appropriate to +her lofty lineage. Yet he displayed no sign of irritation toward them, +but delivered many eulogies of Germanicus in the senate and proposed +sacrifices to be offered in honor of his achievements as he did in the +case of Drusus. Also he bestowed upon the soldiers in Pannonia the same +privileges as Germanicus had given. For the future, however, he refused +to release members of the service outside of Italy until they had served +the twenty years. + +[-7-] Now when no further news of a revolutionary nature came, but all +parts of the Roman world began to yield a steady acquiescence to his +leadership, he no longer practiced dissimulation regarding the acceptance +of sovereign power, and managed the empire, so long as Germanicus lived, +in the way I am about to describe. He did little or nothing, that is, on +his own responsibility, but brought even the smallest matters before the +senate and communicated them to that body. In the Forum a platform had +been erected on which he sat in public to transact business, and he +always gathered about him advisers, after the manner of Augustus. +Moreover, he did not take any step of consequence without making it known +to the rest. He stated his own opinion openly and not only granted every +one the right to oppose it freely in speech, but sometimes even endured +to have some vote directly against it. Often he would cast a vote +himself. Drusus did this, like the rest, now voting first and again after +some others. The emperor would sometimes remain silent and sometimes give +his opinion first, or after a few others, or even last; in some cases he +would speak out directly, but generally (to avoid appearing to have cut +short their freedom of speech), he would say: "If I were to give my views +I should propose this or that." This had equal influence with the other +method, only those who came after were not prevented by him from stating +what appeared good to them. But frequently he would outline one plan and +those who came after him would prefer something different; occasionally +they even prevailed. Yet for all that he harbored anger against no +one. He held court himself, as I have stated, but he also attended +the magistrates' courts, both when summoned by them and without an +invitation. These officials he allowed to sit in their own places: he +himself took his seat on the bench located opposite them and as presiding +officer made any remarks that seemed to him pertinent. + +[-8-] In all other matters, too, he behaved in this same way. He would +not allow himself to be called "master" by the freedmen, nor "imperator" +except by the soldiers; the title of _Pater Patriæ_ he put away from him +entirely: that of _Augustus_ he did not assume (for he never permitted +the question to be put to vote), but endured to hear it spoken and to +read it when written. Moreover, when he sent messages to any kings he +would regularly include this title in his letter. In general he spoke +of himself as Cæsar, sometimes as Germanicus (from the exploits of +Germanicus), and _Princeps Senatus_, according to ancient usage. Often he +used to say: "My position is that of master of the slaves, imperator of +the soldiers, and first citizen among the rest." He would pray, whenever +it happened that he was so engaged, that he might live and rule so long +a time as should be to the advantage of the public. And he was so +democratic in all circumstances alike that on his birthday he did not +permit any unusual demonstrations, and he did not give people the right +to swear by his Fortune nor did he prosecute any one who after swearing +by it incurred the charge of perjury. In short, he would not (at first, +at least) sanction in his own case the carrying out of the custom which +has obtained as a matter of course on the first day of the year, down to +the present, in honor of Augustus, of all rulers that came after him of +whom we make any account, and of such as nowadays succeed to imperial +privileges,--namely, the ratification under oath of what they have done +and of what they shall do by citizens alive during the particular year +in question. Yet in the case of the measures of Augustus he both +administered the oath to others and took it himself. In order to render +his attitude more striking, he would let the first day of the month go +by, not entering the senate nor showing himself at all in the City on +that day, but spending the time in some suburb; then later he would come +in and take pledges separately. This was part of the reason that he +remained somewhere outside on the first days of the month, but he was +also anxious to avoid disturbing any of the inhabitants, who were +concerned with the new offices and the festival, and to avoid taking +money from them. He did not even commend Augustus for his behavior in +this respect because it brought about great dissatisfaction and a great +expenditure in order to return favors. [-9-] Not only in this way were his +actions democratic, but no precinct was set apart for him either by his +own choice or in any other way,--that is to say at this time. Nor was any +one allowed to set up an image of him. Without delay he expressly forbade +any city or individual to do this. To this refusal he attached the phrase +"unless I grant permission "; but he added: "I will not grant it." Least +of all did he assume to have been insulted or to have been impiously +treated by any one. (Men were already calling such a procedure impiety, +and were bringing many suits based on that ground.) He would not hear of +any such indictment being brought for his own benefit, though he paid +tribute to the majesty of Augustus in this matter also. At first he would +not punish even such as had incurred charges for their actions in regard +to his predecessor, and some against whom complaint was made of their +having perjured themselves by the Fortune of Augustus he released. As +time went on, however, he put a very great number to death. + +[-10-] Not only did he magnify Augustus as above stated, but in giving +the finishing touches to the buildings of which Augustus had laid the +foundations (though not bringing them to completion) he inscribed the +first emperor's name; the latter's statues and heroä, likewise, whether +those that the provinces or those that individuals were erecting he +partly consecrated himself and partly assigned to some member of the +pontifices. This plan of inscribing the builder's name he carried out not +only in the case of the actual monuments of Augustus himself, but equally +in the case of all such as needed any repair. He put in good condition +all buildings that had fallen to decay (not constructing anything new at +all himself, except the temple of Augustus), and appropriated none of +them, but restored to all of them the same names, names of the original +builders. While expending extremely little for himself he laid out +very great sums for the common good, either building over or adorning +practically all the public works. He assisted many cities and individuals +and enriched numerous senators who were poor and on that account were no +longer willing to be members of the senate. However, he did not do this +promiscuously and even expunged the names of some for licentiousness and +of others for poverty when they could give no adequate reason for it. +Every gift that was bestowed upon any persons was counted out directly in +his presence. For since in the days of Augustus the officials who made +the presentation were wont to deduct large sums for their own use, he +took the greatest care that this should not happen during his reign. All +the expenditures, moreover, he made from the regular sources of income. +He killed no one for his money, did not confiscate (at this time) any +one's property, nor collect any funds by abuses. Indeed, when Aemilius +Rectus once sent him from Egypt, of which he was governor, more money +than was required, he sent him a message, saying: "To shear my sheep and +not to shave them to the skin is what I desire." + +[-11-] Furthermore he was extremely easy of access and ready to grant +an audience. The senators he bade greet him all at once and so avoid +jostling one another. In fine, he showed himself so considerate that +once, when the leaders of the Rhodians sent him some communication and +failed to write at the foot of the letter this customary formula about +offering their prayers for his welfare, he summoned them in haste as +if he intended to do them some harm, but on their arrival instead of +administering any serious rebuke had them subscribe what was lacking and +then sent them away. The temporary officials he honored as he would have +done in a democracy, even rising from his seat at the approach of the +consuls. Whenever he entertained them at dinner he would in the first +place receive them at the door when they entered, and secondly escort +them on their way when they departed. In case he was at any time being +carried anywhere in his litter, he would not allow even one of the +knights who was prominent to accompany him, still less a senator. On the +occasion of festivals or so often as anything similar was going to +afford the people leisure, he would go the evening before to one of the +Cæsarians who lived near the places where there was sure to be a large +crowd and there pass the night. His object was to make it possible for +the people to meet him with a minimum of formality and fatigue. The +equestrian contests he would often watch in person from the house of some +freedman. He attended the spectacles very frequently in order to do +honor to those who gave them as well as to ensure the orderliness of the +multitude and to seem to take an interest in their celebration. Really he +did not care in the least about anything of the kind, nor did he have the +reputation of being enthusiastic in these matters. In every way he was so +fair and equal that when the populace once desired that a certain dancer +be set free he would not approve the proposal until the man's master had +been persuaded and received the value of his chattel. His intercourse +with his companions was like that between private individuals: he helped +them when they were sued and joined them in the ceremony of sacrifice; he +visited them when they were sick, taking no guard into the room with him; +over one of them who died he himself delivered the funeral oration. + +[-12-] Moreover, he bade his mother behave in a similar manner, so far +as it was proper for her to do so, partly that she might imitate him and +partly to prevent her becoming overproud. She occupied a position of +great prominence, far above all women of former time, so that she could +at any time receive the senate and such of the people as so wished to +greet her in her house. This was also inscribed in the public records. +The letters of Tiberius bore for a time her name also and were written by +both with equal authority. Except that she never ventured to enter the +senate or the camps or the public assemblies she undertook to man age +everything like a sole ruler. In the time of Augustus she had had great +influence and she declared that it was she who made Tiberius emperor. +Consequently she was not satisfied to rule on equal terms with him, but +wished to assert a superiority over him. In this way many measures out of +the ordinary were introduced and many persons voted that she should be +called Mother of her Country, many others that she should he termed +Parent. Others proposed that Tiberius should receive his name from her, +that just as the Greeks were called by their father's name so he should +be called by his mother's. This vexed him and he neither ratified the +honors voted her (save a very few) nor allowed her any further unusual +freedom of action. For instance, she had once dedicated in her house +an image to Augustus and in honor of the event wished to entertain the +senate and the knights together with their wives, but he would not grant +her permission to carry out any part of this program until the senate had +voted it, and not even then to receive the men at dinner. Instead, he +entertained the latter and she attended to the women. Finally, he removed +her entirely from the public sphere, allowing her to direct affairs +within doors; then, as she was troublesome even in this capacity, he +proceeded to absent himself from the City and avoided her in every way +possible. It was chiefly on her account that he removed to Capreae.--This +is the tradition that obtains about Livia. + +[-13-] Now Tiberius began to treat more harshly those accused of any +crime and became at enmity with his son Drusus, who was most licentious +and cruel (as is evidenced by the fact that the sharpest kind of swords +was called Drusian after him); him he often censured both privately and +publicly. Once he said to him outright in the Presence of many witnesses: +"While I live you shall perform no act of violence or insolence, and +if you venture to do any such thing, you shall be cut off from the +possibility after I am dead." For during some time the emperor continued +to live a very temperate life and allowed no one else to indulge in +licentiousness but punished numbers for it. Yet once when the senators +evinced a desire to have a penalty imposed by law upon those guilty of +lewd living he would make no such ruling, explaining that it is better to +correct them privately in some way or other instead of laying them open +to a public punishment. Under existing conditions, he said, there was a +chance of bringing some of them to moderation through fear of disgrace, +and they might endeavor to escape discovery; but if the law should once +be overcome by nature, no one would pay any further heed to it. Not a +few men also were wearing quantities of purple clothing (though this had +formerly been forbidden); of these no one was either rebuked or fined: +but when a rain came up on a certain festival the emperor put on a dark +woolen cloak. After this none of them dared any longer to assume any +different kind of garb. + +This is the way he behaved under all conditions so long as Germanicus +lived. Subsequent to that event he changed many of his ways. Perhaps he +had been minded from the first as he later appeared to feel, and had been +merely shamming as long as Germanicus existed because he saw that he +was lying in wait for the leadership; or perhaps he was excellent by +nature but drifted into vice when he was deprived of his rival. [-14-] I +shall notice also separate events,--all those, at least that deserve +mention,--each in its proper place. + +[A.D. 15 (_a. u._ 768)] + +In the consulship of Drusus his son and of Gaius Norbanus he presented +to the people the bequests made by Augustus: this was after some one had +approached a corpse that was being carried out through the Forum for +burial and bending down had whispered something in its ear; when the +spectators asked what he had said, he stated that he had commissioned +the dead to tell Augustus that they had got nothing as yet. This man the +emperor immediately despatched, in order (as he jokingly said) that he +might carry his own message to Augustus; with the rest he settled after a +little, distributing sixty-five denarii apiece. Some say this payment was +made the previous year. + +At this time certain knights desired to enter a championship contest in +the games which Drusus had arranged for his own celebration and that of +Germanicus; Tiberius did not view their combat, and when one of them was +killed he forbade the other to fight as a gladiator again. Still other +conflicts took place in connection with the horse-race that was in honor +of Augustus's birthday; indeed, a few beasts were slain. So things went +on for a number of years. + +At this time, too, Crete, its governor being dead, was attached to the +quaestorship and to the quaestor's assistant for the future. Since, also, +many of those to whom the provinces had been allotted lingered in Rome +and in the remainder of Italy for a long time, so that those who had held +the office before them delayed, contrary to precedent, Tiberius commanded +that they should take their departure by the first day of June. Meanwhile +his grandson by Drusus died, but he neglected none of his customary +duties; it was his settled conviction that a governor of men ought not to +give up care of the common weal by reason of private misfortunes, and he +confirmed the rest in their purpose not to jeopardize the interests of +the living because of the dead. + +The river Tiber now proceeded to occupy a large portion of the City, +so that there was an inundation. Most people regarded this also as a +prodigy, like the great earthquakes which shook down a portion of the +wall, and like the frequent fall of thunderbolts, which made wine leak +even from pails that were sound. The emperor, however, thinking that it +was due to the great number of springs, appointed five senators, chosen +by lot, to constitute a permanent board to look after the river, to the +end that it should not give out in summer nor become over full in winter, +but flow evenly so far as possible all the time. These were the measures +of Tiberius. + +As for Drusus, he performed the duties pertaining to the consulship along +with his colleague as any private citizen might have done. Being left +heir to someone's estate he assisted in carrying out the funeral. Yet +he was so prone to anger that he inflicted blows upon a distinguished +knight, and for this exploit he obtained the surname of Castor. [2] And +he showed himself such a hard drinker that one night, when he was forced +to lend aid with the Pretorians to some people whose property was on +fire, he commanded, at their request for water, to pour it out hot for +them. He was so fond of dancers that this class raised a tumult and would +not be brought to order by the laws which Tiberius had introduced to +apply to them. + +[A.D. 16 (_a. u._ 769)] + +[-15-] These were the events of that period. Now when Statilius Taurus +was consul with Lucius Libo, Tiberius forbade any man to wear silk +clothing and likewise to use gold ornaments, except for sacred +ceremonies. As some were at a loss to know whether it were forbidden them +also to possess silver ornaments which had some gold inlaid, he wished +to issue some decree about this too, but he refused to let the word +_emblaema_, since it was a Greek term, be inserted in the original +document. Yet he could find no native word that would describe such +inlaid work. + +This was the position he took in that matter. Now there was a centurion +who wished to give some evidence before the senate in Greek, and he would +not allow it. Yet he was wont to hear many suits that were argued there +in that language and to investigate many himself. Besides his unusual +behavior in this respect he failed to pass sentence on Lucius Scribonius +Libo, a young noble suspected of revolutionary designs, so long as the +latter was well; but upon his falling sick he had him brought into the +senate in a covered litter (such as the wives of senators use) to be +condemned to death. + +A slight delay ensued and Libo committed suicide, whereupon the emperor +passed judgment upon his behavior, though he was dead, gave his money to +the accusers, and had sacrifices voted for his overthrow, not only for +his own sake, but for the sake of Augustus and of the latter's father +Julius, as had occasionally been decreed in past times. + +Though he took such action in the case of this man, he administered no +rebuke at all to Vibius Rufus, who used Cæsar's chair (the one on which +the latter was always accustomed to sit and on which he was slain). Rufus +did this regularly, besides having Cicero's wife as his consort, and +prided himself on both achievements, evidently thinking that he would +become an orator by means of the wife or a Cæsar by means of the chair. +For this, as I have stated, he received no censure; indeed, he became +consul. + +Tiberius was, moreover, forever in the company of Thrasyllus and made +some use of the mantic art every day, becoming himself so proficient in +the study that when he was once bidden in a dream to give money to a +certain person, he comprehended that a deceitful spirit had been called +up before him and he put the man to death. Likewise, in the case of +all the rest of the astrologers and magicians and those who practiced +divination in any other way whatever, he had the foreigners executed +and banished all such citizens as still at that time after the previous +decree, by which it had been forbidden to engage in any such business in +the City, were accused in court of employing the art. + +To such of them as obeyed immunity had been granted. In fact, all the +citizens would have been acquitted even contrary to his wish, had not +a certain tribune prevented it. Here one could catch a glimpse of the +democratic constitution, inasmuch as the senate, approving the course +of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, overcame Drusus and Tiberius and was itself +subdued by the tribune. + +[-16-] These affairs were settled in this way. Certain men who had been +quaestors the previous year were sent out to the provinces, since those +who were quaestors at the time proved too few for them. This was done +again and again, as often as it was found necessary. + +Many of the public documents had either perished utterly or had faded +during the lapse of time. Three senators were therefore elected to copy +off what was extant and to look up the rest.--Assistance was given in +several conflagrations not only by Tiberius but also by Livia. + +The same year a certain Clemens, who had been a slave of Agrippa and +resembled him to a certain extent, pretended to be he. He went to Gaul +and won the attachment of many there, and later of many in Italy. Finally +he marched upon Rome with the avowed intention of recovering the dominion +of his grandfather. Many of the inhabitants of the city were thrown into +confusion at this, and not a few joined his cause. Tiberius, however, got +him in his hands by a clever device and through the agency of certain +persons who pretended to sympathize with the upstart. Then he tortured +the prisoner in order to learn something about his fellow conspirators, +but when the victim uttered not a word the emperor asked him:" How did +you get to be Agrippa?" And he replied: "In the same way as you got to be +Cæsar." + +[A.D. 17 (a. u. 770)] + +[-17-] The following year Gaius Cæcilius and Lucius Flaccus received the +title of consuls. And when some brought Tiberius money after the first +of the month, he would not accept it and published a kind of document +regarding this very point, in which he used a word that was not Latin. +After thinking it over by night he sent for all those who had accurate +knowledge of such matters, for he was extremely anxious to have his +diction irreproachable. Thereupon a certain Ateius Capito declared: "Even +if no one has previously used this expression, yet because of you we +shall all enumerate it among the primitive usages," but was interrupted +by one Marcellus,[3] who said: "You, being Cæsar, can extend Roman +government over men, but not over words." And the emperor did the man no +harm for this, in spite of the excessive frankness of his speech. + +He had a grudge, however, against Archelaus. the king of Cappadocia, +because the latter had first become his suppliant to the extent of +employing him as advocate when this monarch in the time of Augustus had +been accused by his people, and had subsequently slighted him on the +occasion of a visit to Rhodes, but had paid court to Gaius, who also went +to Asia. Therefore he summoned him on the charge of rebellious behavior +and delivered him up to the votes of the senate. (The king was not only +well stricken in years, but a great sufferer from gout, and was moreover +believed to be demented.) As a matter of fact he had been incommoded +previously by loss of mind to the extent of having a guardian placed over +his domain by Augustus; but at that time he was no longer weak-witted and +was merely feigning, in the hope of saving himself by this expedient +if by no other. He would now have been executed, had not some one in +testifying against him stated that he had once said: "When I get back +home, I will show him what sort of sinews I possess." A shout of laughter +went up at this, for the man was not only unable to stand, but could +not even assume a sitting posture, and so Tiberius gave up his plan of +putting him to death. The condition of the prince was so serious that +he was carried into the senate in a covered litter. For since it was +customary even for men, whenever one of them came there feeling ill, to +be carried in a reclining position, Tiberius took advantage of the method +on this occasion, too. (And the invalid spoke a few words, bending +forward from the litter.) So it was that the life of Archelaus was +temporarily saved, but he died shortly afterward in some other way. After +this Cappadocia reverted to the Romans and was put in charge of a knight. + +To the cities in Asia which had been damaged by the earthquake an +ex-prætor was assigned with five lictors. Considerable money therefore +was diverted from the revenues and considerable was given by Tiberius +personally. For whereas he refrained scrupulously from the possessions of +others,--so long at least as he practiced virtue at all,--and would not +even accept the inheritances which were left to him by testators having +relatives, he spent vast sums both upon the cities and upon private +individuals. He would not hear of any honor or praise for these +acts.--Embassies that came from foreign cities or nations he never +dealt with alone, but caused a number of others to participate in the +deliberations, and especially such as had once governed these peoples. + +[-18-] Now Germanicus, having acquired a reputation for his campaign +against the Celtae, advanced as far as the ocean, inflicted an +overwhelming defeat upon the barbarians, collected and buried the bones +of those who had fallen under Varus, and won back the military standards. + + His wife Julia was not recalled from the banishment to which for + unchastity her father Augustus had condemned her; nay, he even put + her under lock and key till wretchedness and starvation caused her + death. + +[A.D. 17 or 18] + +The senate urged upon Tiberius the request that the month of November, on +the sixteenth of which he had been born, should be called Tiberius; to +which he responded: "What will you do, if there arise thirteen Cæsars?" + +[A.D. 19 (_a. u._ 772)] + +Later, when Marcus Junius and Lucius Norbanus came to office, a portent +of some magnitude occurred on the very first day of the month, and it +doubtless had a bearing on the fate of Germanicus. Norbanus the consul +had always been devoted to the trumpet, and as he had practiced +assiduously in this pursuit he wished on this occasion also to play the +instrument just about dawn, when many persons were already near his house +This proceeding threw them all without exception into confusion, just as +if the consul had imparted to them some warlike signal; and they were +also disturbed by the falling of the statue of Janus. Their calm was +further ruffled by an oracle, reputed to be a Sibylline utterance, which +would not fit any other period of the city's history, but pointed to that +very time. It declared: + + "After thrice three hundred revolving years have been numbered, Civil + strife shall consume the Romans,--and the Sybaritan Folly." ... + +Tiberius denounced these verses as false and made an investigation of all +the books containing any prophecies. Some he rejected as worthless and +others he admitted as genuine. + + As there had been a large influx of Jews into Rome and they were + converting many of the native inhabitants to their principles he + expelled the great majority of them. + +At the death of Germanicus Tiberius and Livia were thoroughly pleased, +but everybody else was mightily afflicted. He was a man who possessed the +most striking physical beauty and likewise the noblest of spirits. Both +in education and in strength he was conspicuous [and whereas he was the +bravest of the brave against the enemy, he was the mildest of the mild to +his friend. Though as a Cæsar he had extreme power he kept his ambitions +on the same plane as weaker men. He in no wise conducted himself +oppressively toward his subjects] or with jealousy toward Drusus or in +any way to deserve censure toward Tiberius. [In brief, he belonged to the +few men of all time who have neither sinned against the fortune allotted +to them nor been destroyed by it.] + +Although on several occasions he might [with the free consent not only +of the soldiers but of the people and senate as well] have obtained the +imperial power, he refused to do so. His death occurred in Antioch as the +result of a plot formed by Piso and Plancina. Bones of men buried in the +house where he dwelt and sheets of lead containing certain curses along +with his name were found while he yet breathed. + +[A.D. 20 (_a u._ 773)] + +Piso was brought before the senate by Tiberius himself on the charge of +having murdered Germanicus, but succeeded in securing a postponement and +committed suicide. + + Germanicus left three sons, whom Augustus in his testament denominated + Cæsars. The eldest of these, Nero, at that time had his name + placed among the number of the iuvenes. + +[-19-] Tiberius, who had hitherto been the author of manifold meritorious +works and had made but few errors, now, when he ceased to have a rival in +view, changed to precisely the reverse of his previous conduct, which had +included many excellent deeds. Among other ways in which his rule became +cruel he pushed to the bitter end the trials for maiestas, in cases where +complaint was made against any one for committing any improper act or +uttering any improper speech not only against Augustus but against +Tiberius personally and against his mother. + + And towards those suspected of plotting against him he was inexorable. + + Tiberius was stern in his chastisement of persons accused of an + offence. He would remark as follows: "Nobody willingly submits to + be ruled, but a man is driven into it reluctantly. Not only do subjects + like to refuse obedience, but, more than that, they enjoy plotting + against their rulers. And he would accept accusers indiscriminately: a + slave might denounce a master or a son a father. + + Indeed, by indicating to certain persons his wish for the death of + certain others he brought about the destruction of the latter through + the medium of the former, and there was no secrecy about these + transactions. + +Not only were slaves tortured to make them testify against their own +masters, but freedmen and citizens as well. Such as accused or offered +testimony against persons divided by lot the property of those convicted +and received in addition both offices and honors. In the case of many he +took care to ascertain the day and the hour that they had been born and +on the basis of their character and fortune thus investigated would +put them to death. If he discovered any qualities of haughtiness and +aspiration to power in any one, he despatched him whether or no. Yet so +much did he investigate and understand what was fated for each of the +prominent men that on meeting Galba (subsequently emperor), when the +latter had betrothed a wife, he remarked: "You also shall taste of the +sovereignty." He spared him, as I conjecture, because this was settled as +his fate; but, as he explained it himself, because Galba would reign only +in old age and long after his death. + +[Tiberius also found some pretexts for assassinations. The death of +Germanicus led to the destruction of many others on the ground that they +were pleased at it.] + +The man who coöperated with him and helped him in all his undertakings +with the utmost zeal was Lucius Aelius Sejanus, a son of Strabo, and +formerly a favorite of Marcus Gabius Apicius,--that Apicius who so +surpassed all mankind in voluptuous living that when he had once desired +to learn how much he had already spent and how much he still had, +on finding that two hundred and fifty myriads were left him became +grief-stricken, feeling that he was destined to die of hunger, and took +his own life. This Sejanus, accordingly, at one time shared his father's +command of the Pretorians. After his father had been sent to Egypt, and +he obtained entire control, he made the force more compact in many ways, +gathering within one fortification the cohorts, which had been separate +and apart from one another like those of the night guardsmen. In this way +the entire body could receive the orders speedily and they were a source +of terror to all, because they were within one fortification. This was +the man whom Tiberius, because of the similarity of their characters, +took as his helper, elevating him to prætorial honors, which had never +yet been accorded to any of his peers; and he made him his adviser and +assistant in all matters. [In fine, he changed so much after the death +of Germanicus that whereas previously he was highly praised, he now +attracted even greater wonder.] + +[A.D.21 (a. u. 774)] + +[-20-] When Tiberius began to hold the consular office in company with +Drusus, men immediately began to prophecy destruction for Drusus from +this very circumstance. For there is not a man who was ever consul with +Tiberius that did not meet a violent death, but in the first place there +was Quintilius Varus, and next Gnæus Piso, and then Germanicus himself, +who perished violently and miserably. The emperor was evidently doomed +to cause such ruin throughout his life: Drusus, his colleague at this +time, and Sejanus, who subsequently participated in the office, also +came to grief. + +While Tiberius was out of town, Gaius Lutorius Priscus,[4] a knight, who +took great pride in his poetic talents and had composed a notable funeral +oration over Germanicus for which he had received considerable money, was +charged with having composed a poem upon Drusus also, during the latter's +illness. For this he was tried in the senate, condemned and put to death. +Now Tiberius was vexed, not because the man had been punished, but +because the senators had inflicted death upon any one without his +approval. He therefore rebuked them and ordered a decree to be issued to +the effect that no person condemned by them be executed within ten days, +nor the document applying to his case be made public before the same +time. This was to ensure the possibility of his learning their decrees +in advance even while absent and of rendering a final decision on such +matters. + +[A.D. 22 (_a. u._ 775)] + +[-21-] After this, when his consulship had expired, he came to Rome and +prevented the consuls from acting as advocates to certain persons by +saying: "If I were consul, I should not do this." + +One of the prætors was accused of having uttered some impious word or +having committed some impious act against him, whereupon the man left the +senate and taking off his robe of office returned, demanding as a private +citizen to have the complaint lodged at once. At this the emperor showed +great grief and molested him no further. + +[A.D. 23 (_a. u._ 776)] + +The dancers he drove out of Rome and would allow them no place in which +to practice their profession, because they kept debauching the women and +stirring up tumults. + +He honored many men, and numbers of those who died, with statues and +public funerals. A bronze statue of Sejanus was erected in the theatre +during the life of the model. As a result, numerous images of this +minister were made by many persons and many encomiuma were spoken both in +the assembly and in the senate. The consuls themselves, besides the other +prominent citizens, regularly had recourse to his house just at dawn, and +communicated to him both all the private requests that any of them wished +to make of Tiberius and the public business which had to be taken up. +In brief, henceforth nothing of the kind was considered without his +knowledge. + +About this time one of the largest porticos in Rome began to lean to one +side and was set upright in a remarkable way by a certain architect +whose name no one knows, because Tiberius, jealous of his wonderful +achievement, would not permit it to be entered in the records. This +architect, accordingly, however he was called after strengthening the +foundations all about, so that they could not move out of position, and +surrounding all the rest of the arcade with thick fleeces and cloths, +ran ropes all over it and through it and by the pushing of many men and +machines brought it once more into its previous position. At the time +Tiberius both admired him and felt envious of him; for the former reason +he honored him with a present of money and for the latter he expelled +him from the city. Later, the exile approached him to make supplication +during the course of which he purposely let fall a crystal goblet, which +fell apart somehow or was broken, and then by passing his hands over +it showed it straightway intact; for this the suppliant hoped to have +obtained pardon, but instead the emperor put him to death. + +[-22-] Drusus, son of Tiberius, perished by poison. Sejanus, puffed up +by power and rank, in addition to his other overweening behavior finally +turned against Drusus and once struck him a blow with his fist. As this +gave the assailant reason to fear both Drusus and Tiberius, and inasmuch +as he felt sure that, if he could get the young man out of the way, he +could handle the elder very easily, he administered poison to the former +through the agency of those in attendance upon him and of Drusus's wife, +whom some name Livilla. [5] Sejanus was her paramour.--The guilt was +imputed to Tiberius because he altered none of his accustomed habits +either during the illness of Drusus or at his death and would not allow +others to alter theirs. But the story is not credible. This was his +regular behavior, as a matter of principle, in every case alike, +and furthermore he was attached to his son, the only one he had and +legitimate. Those that engineered his death he punished, some at once and +some later. At the time he entered the senate, delivered the appropriate +eulogy over his child, and departed homeward. + + Thus perished Sejanus's victim. Tiberius took his way to the + senate-house, where he lamented him publicly, put Nero and Drusus + (children of Germanicus) in charge of the senate, and exposed the body + of Drusus upon the rostra; and Nero, being his son-in-law, pronounced + an eulogy over him. This man's death proved a cause of death to many + persons, who were taxed with being pleased at his demise. Among the + large number of people who lost their lives was Agrippina, together + with her children, the youngest excepted. Sejanus had incensed + Tiberius greatly against her, anticipating that, when she and her + children were disposed of, he might have for his spouse Livia, wife of + Drusus, for whom he entertained a passion, and might wield supreme + power, since no successor would be found for Tiberius. The latter + detested his nephew as a bastard. Many others also did he banish or + destroy for different and ever different causes, for the most part + fictitious. + +Tiberius forbade those debarred from fire and water to make any will,--a +custom still observed. Ælius Saturninus he brought before the senate for +trial on the charge of having recited some improper verses about him, and +the culprit having been found guilty was hurled from the Capitol. [-23-]I +might narrate many other such occurrences, if I were to go into all in +detail. But the general statement may suffice that many were slain by him +for such offences. And also this,--that he investigated carefully, case by +case, all the slighting remarks that any persons were accused of uttering +against him and then called himself all the ill names that other men +invented. Even if a person made some statement secretly and to a single +companion, he would publish this too, and actually had it entered on the +official records. Often he falsely added, from his own consciousness of +defects, what no one had even said as really spoken, in order that it +might be thought he had juster cause for his wrath. Consequently it came +to pass that he himself committed against himself all those outrages for +which he was wont to chastise other people on the ground of impiety; and +he likewise became subject to no little ridicule. For, if persons denied +having spoken certain phrases, he, by asserting and taking oath that it +had been said, wronged himself with greater show of reality. For this +reason some suspected that he was bereft of his senses. Yet he was not +generally believed to be insane simply for this behavior. All other +business he managed in a way quite beyond criticism. For instance, he +appointed a guardian over a certain senator that lived licentiously, as +he might have done for a child. Again, he brought Capito, procurator of +Asia, before the senate, and, after charging him with using soldiers and +acting in some other ways as if he had supreme command, he banished him. +In those days officials administering the imperial funds were allowed +to do nothing more than to levy the customary tribute, and they were +compelled, in the case of disputes, to stand trial in the Forum and +according to the laws, on an equal footing with private persons.--So +great were the contrasts in Tiberius's conduct. + +[A.D. 24 (_a. u._ 777)] + +[-24-] When the ten years of his office had expired, he did not ask any +vote for its resumption, for he had no wish to receive it piecemeal, as +Augustus had done. The decennial festival, however, was held. + +[A.D. 25 (_a. u._ 778)] + +Cremutius Cordus was forced to lay violent hands upon himself, because he +had come into collision with Sejanus. He was at the gates of old age and +had lived most irreproachably, so much so that no sufficient complaint +could be found against him and he was tried for the history which he +had long before composed regarding the deeds of Augustus and the latter +himself had read. The ground of censure was that he had praised Cassius +and Brutus and had attacked the people and the senate. Of Cæsar and +Augustus he had spoken no ill, but at the same time had shown no +excessive respect for them. This was the complaint against him, and this +it was that caused his death as well as the burning of his works,--those +found in the city at this time being destroyed by the ædiles, and those +abroad by the officials of each place. Later they were published again, +for his daughter Marcia in particular, as well as others, had hidden +copies, and they attracted much greater attention by reason of the +unhappy end of Cordus. + +About this time Tiberius exhibited to the senators his pretorian cohort +in the act of exercising, as if they were ignorant of his power; his +purpose was to make them more afraid of him, when they saw his defenders +so many and so strong. + +Besides these events of the time that seem worthy to chronicle in a +history, the people of Cyzicus were once more deprived of their freedom +because they had imprisoned certain Romans and because they had not +completed the heroüm to Augustus that they had begun to build.--And the +emperor would certainly have put to death the man who sold the emperor's +statue along with his house and was brought to trial for the act, had not +the consul asked the ruler himself to give his vote first. Being ashamed +to appear partial to himself, he cast his ballot for acquittal. + +Also a senator, Lentulus, an excellent man naturally and now far advanced +in old age, was accused by some one of having plotted against the +emperor. Lentulus was present and burst out laughing. At this an uproar +arose in the senate, which was calmed by Tiberius saying: "I am no longer +worthy to live, if Lentulus, too, hates me." + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: epratten] (Boissevain) in place of the MS. +[Greek: eplatten].] + +[Footnote: 2: This was the name of a celebrated gladiator of the time. +(Compare Horace, Epistles, I, 18, 19.)] + +[Footnote 3: This is M. Pomponius Marcellus.] + +[Footnote 4: Reported elsewhere as _Clutorius_ or _Cluturius Priscus_. +The error may probably be referred to Dio as well as to Xiphilus, through +whom this particular chapter comes. (See Dessau, Prosop. Imp. Rom., I, +p.425)] + +[Footnote 5: The version of Zonaras says: "whom some record as Julia, +others as Livia." Inscriptions give her name as either _Claudia Livia_ or +_Livilla_. From these two pieces of evidence Boissevain with customary +acumen concludes that Dio's original words were probably: "whom some name +Livilla, and others Livia."] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +58 + +Tiberius withdraws to Capreæ: Sabinus loses his life through the +treachery of Latiarius (chapter 1). + +About the death of Livia (chapter 2). + +Gallus is condemned to consume away by a slow death (chapter 3). + +Sejanus, puffed up by excessive honors, is put to death together with his +household and friends by the artifice of Tiberius (chapters 4-19). + +The method of selecting magistrates and of holding comitia (chapter 20). + +The lustfulness of Tiberius, his cruelty towards his own family and +others, and likewise his greed (chapters 21-25). + +About Artabanus, the Parthian King, and about Armenia (chapter 26). + +About the death of Thrasyllus (chapter 27). + +About the death of Tiberius (chapter 28). + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Cn. Lentulus Gætulicus, C. Calvisius Sabinus. (A.D. 26 = a. u. 779 = +Thirteenth of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +M. Licinius Crassus, L. Calpurnius Piso. (A.D. 27 = a. u. 780 = +Fourteenth of Tiberius.) + +App. Iunius Silanus, P. Silius Nerva. (A.D. 28 = a. u. 781 = Fifteenth of +Tiberius.) + +L. Rubellius Geminus, C. Fufius Geminus. (A.D. 29 = a. u. 782 = Sixteenth +of Tiberius.) + +M. Vinicius Quartinus, L. Cassius Longinus. (A.D. 30 = a. u. 783 = +Seventeenth of Tiberius.) + +Tiberius Aug. (V), L. Ælius Seianus. (A.D. 31 = a. u. 784 = Eighteenth of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Furius Camillus Scribonianus. (A.D. 32 = a. u. +785 = Nineteenth of Tiberius.) + +Serv. Sulpicius Galba, L. Cornelius Sulla, (A.D. 33 = a. u. 786 = +Twentieth of Tiberius.) + +L. Vitellius, Paulus Fabius Persicus. (A.D. 34 = a. u. 787 = Twenty-first +of Tiberius.) + +C. Cestius Gallus, M. Servilius Nonianus. (A.D. 35 = a. u. 788 = +Twenty-second of Tiberius.) + +Sex. Papinius, Q. Plautius. (A.D. 36 = a. u. 789 = Twenty-third of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Acerronius Proculus, C. Pontius Nigrinus. (A.D. 37 = a. u. 790 = +Twenty-fourth of Tiberius, to March 26th.) + + +_(BOOK 57, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 26 (_a. u._ 779)] + +[-1-] He went away about this time from Rome and never returned to the +city at all, though he was ever on the point of doing so and kept sending +messages to that effect. + +[A.D. 27 (_a. u._ 780)] + + Much calamity could be laid by the Romans at his door, since + he wasted the lives of men alike for public service and for + private whim, as when he decided to expel the hunting + spectacles from the city. Consequently some persons attempted + to carry them on in the country outside and perished in the + ruins of their theatres, which had been loosely + constructed of rude planks. + +[A.D. 28 (_a. u._ 781)] + +It was now, too, that a certain Latiarius, a companion of Sabinus (one of +the most prominent men at Rome) and also in favor with Sejanus, concealed +senators in the ceiling of the apartment where his friend lived and led +Sabinus into conversation. By throwing out some of his usual remarks he +induced the other also to speak out freely all that he had in his mind. +It is the practice of such as wish to play the sycophant to take the lead +in some kind of abuse and to disclose some secret, intending that their +victim either for listening to them or for saying something similar may +find himself liable to indictment. To the sycophants, since they do it +with a purpose, freedom of speech involves no danger. They are regarded +as speaking so not because their words express their real sentiments but +because they wish to convict others. Their victims, however, are punished +for the smallest syllable out of the ordinary that they may utter. This +also happened in the present case. Sabinus was put in prison that very +day and subsequently perished without trial. His body was flung down the +Scalæ Gemoniæ and cast into the river. The affair was made more tragic by +the behavior of a dog of Sabinus that went with him to his cell, was +by him at his death, and at the end was thrown into the river with +him.--Such was the nature of this event. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 29 (_a. u._ 782)] + +[-2-] During this same period Livia also passed away at the age of +eighty-six. Tiberius paid her no visits while she was ill and did not +personally attend to her laying out. In fact, he made no arrangements at +all in her honor save the public funeral and images and some other small +matters of no importance. As for her being deified, he forbade that +absolutely. The senate, however, did not content itself with voting +merely the measures which he had ordained, but enjoined upon the women +mourning for her during the entire year, although it approved the course +of Tiberius in not abandoning even at this time the conduct of public +business. Furthermore they voted her an arch (as had never been done in +the case of any other woman), because she had preserved not a few of +them, had reared many children belonging to citizens, and had helped +find husbands for numerous girls,--for all of which acts some called her +Mother of her Country. She was buried in the mausoleum of Augustus. + +Tiberius would not pay a single one of her bequests to anybody. + +Among the many excellent utterances of hers that are related is one +concerned with the occasion when some men that were naked met her and on +that account fell under sentence of execution; she saved their lives by +saying that to chaste women such persons were no whit different from +statues. When some one asked her how and by what course of action she had +obtained such an influence over Augustus, she answered that it was by +being scrupulously chaste herself, doing willingly whatever pleased him, +not meddling with any of his business, and particularly by pretending +neither to hear of nor notice the favorites that were the objects of his +passion. Such was the character of Livia. The arch voted to her, however, +was not built for the reason that Tiberius promised to construct it +at his own expense. For, as he disliked to annul the decree by direct +command, he made it void in this way, by not allowing the work to be +undertaken out of the public funds nor attending to it himself. + +[A.D. 29 or 30] + +Sejanus was rising to still greater heights. It was voted that his +birthday should be publicly observed, and the mass of statues which the +senate and the equestrian order, the tribes and the foremost citizens set +up, would have passed any one's power to count. Separate envoys were sent +to both these "rulers" by the senate as well as the knights and also by +the people, who selected them from their own tribunes and aediles. For +both of them alike they offered prayers and sacrifices and they took +oaths by their Fortunes. + +[A.D. 30 (a. u. 783)] + +[-3-] Gallus, who married the wife of Tiberius and spoke his mind +regarding the empire, was the next object of the emperor's attack, for +which the right moment had been carefully selected. [Whether he really +believed that Sejanus would be emperor or whether it was out of fear of +Tiberius, he paid court to the former. It may indeed, have been a kind +of plot, to make the minister irksome to Tiberius and so accomplish his +ruin: but at any rate Gallus transacted the greater and more important +part of his business with him and made efforts to be one of the envoys. +Therefore the emperor sent a report about him to the senate, making among +other statements one to the effect that this man was jealous of his +friendship for Sejanus, although Gallus himself treated Syriacus as an +intimate friend. He did not make this known to Gallus, entertaining him +most hospitably instead.] Hence something most unusual befell him that +never happened to any one else. On the very same day he was banqueted at +the house of Tiberius, pledging him in the cup of friendship, and was +condemned before the senate. Indeed, a prætor was sent to imprison him +and lead him away for punishment. Yet Tiberius, though he had acted so, +did not permit his victim to die, in spite of the latter's wish for death +as soon as he learned the decree. Instead, he bade Gallus (in order to +make his lot still more dismal) to be of good cheer and instructed the +senate[1] that he should be guarded without bonds until the emperor +should reach the City; his object, as I said, was to make the prisoner +suffer for the longest possible time both from deprivation of his civic +rights and from terror. So it turned out. He was kept under the eyes of +the consuls of each year except when Tiberius held the office, in that +case he was guarded by the prætors, not to prevent his escape, but to +prevent his death. He had no companion or servant as associate, spoke to +no one, saw no one, except when he was compelled to take food. And what +he got was of such a quality and amount as neither to afford him any +pleasure or strength nor yet to allow him to die. This was the worst +feature of it. Tiberius did the same thing in the case of many others. +For instance, he had imprisoned one of his companions, and when there was +later talk about executing him, he said: "I have not yet made my peace +with him." Some one else, again, he had tortured very severely, and then +on ascertaining that the victim had been unjustly accused he had him +killed with all speed, remarking that he had been too terribly outraged +to find any satisfaction in living. Syriacus, who had neither committed +nor been charged with any wrong, but was renowned for his education, was +slain merely for the reason that Tiberius said he was a friend of Gallus. +[Sejanus brought false accusation also against Drusus, through the medium +of his wife. For, by maintaining illicit relations with practically all +the wives of the distinguished men, he learned what their husbands said +and did, and further made them his assistants by promises of marriage. +Now when Tiberius without discussion sent Drusus to Rome, Sejanus, +fearing that his position might be injured, persuaded Cassius [2] to busy +himself against him.] + +After exalting Sejanus to a high pinnacle of glory and making him a +member of his family by the alliance with Julia, daughter of Drusus, +Tiberius later killed him. + +[-4-] Now Sejanus was growing greater and more formidable all the time, +and his progress made the senators and the rest look up to him as if he +were actually emperor and esteem Tiberius lightly. When Tiberius learned +this, he did not regard the matter as a trivial one, fearing, indeed, +that they would hail his rival as emperor outright, and he did not +neglect it. Yet he did nothing openly, for Sejanus had won the entire +pretorian guard thoroughly to his own side and had gained the favor of +the senators partly by benefits, partly by implanting hopes, and partly +by intimidation. He had made all the attendants on Tiberius so entirely +his friends that absolutely everything the emperor did was at once +reported to him, whereas of what he did not a word reached Tiberius's +ears. Hence the latter appeared content to follow where Sejanus led, +appointed him consul, and termed him Sharer of his Cares, repeating often +the phrase "My Sejanus," and publishing the same by writing it to the +senate and the people. Men took this behavior as sincere and were +deceived, and so set up bronze statues all about to both alike, wrote +their names together in bulletins, and brought into the theatres gilded +chairs for both. Finally it was voted that they should together be made +consuls every four years and that a body of citizens should go out to +meet both alike whenever they entered Rome. In the end they sacrificed to +the images of Sejanus as to those of Tiberius. This was the way matters +stood with Sejanus. Now among the rest many famous men met an ill fate, +of whom was also Gaius Fufius Geminus. Being accused of the crime of +maiestas against Tiberius he took his will into the senate-chamber and +read it, showing that he had left his inheritance in equal portions to +his children and to his sovereign. As he was charged with weakness he +went home before any vote was reached. When he learned that the quæstor +had arrived to attend to his execution, he wounded himself and displaying +the wound to the official exclaimed: "Report to the senate that it is +thus one dies who is a man." Likewise, his wife, Mutilia Prisca, against +whom some complaint was made, made her way into the senate and there +stabbed herself with a dagger, which she had brought in secretly. + +Next he destroyed Mutilia and her husband together with two daughters on +account of her friendship for his mother. + +In the days of Tiberius all who accused any persons regularly received +money and large allotments both from the victims' property and from the +public treasury in addition to various honors. There were cases where +certain men who impudently threw others into a panic or recklessly passed +the death sentence upon them obtained in the one instance statues and +in the other triumphal honors. Hence several citizens who were really +illustrious and conquered the right to some such distinction would not +assume it out of reluctance to let any period of their lives betray even +a superficial similarity to the careers of those scoundrels. + +Tiberius, feigning sickness, sent Sejanus on to Rome with the assurance +that he should follow. He declared that in this separation a part of his +own body and soul was wrenched away from him: shedding tears he embraced +and kissed him, and Sejanus naturally was thereat the more elated. + +[A.D. 31 (a u. 784)] + +[-5-] By this time Sejanus was so imposing both in his haughtiness of +mind and in his immensity of power that, to make a long matter short, he +seemed to be the emperor and Tiberius a kind of island potentate because +the latter spent all his days in the island called Capreæ. Then there was +rivalry and jostling about the great man's doors from the fear not merely +that a person might fail to be observed by his patron but that he might +appear among the last: for all the words and gestures, particularly of +those in front, were carefully watched. People who hold a prominent +position as the result of native worth are not given at all to seeking +signs of friendship from others, and in case anything of the sort is seen +to be wanting on the part of these others the persons in question are not +provoked, inasmuch as they have an innate consciousness that they are not +being looked down upon. Any, however, that hold an artificial rank are +extremely jealous of all such attentions, feeling them to be necessary to +render their position complete. If they fail to obtain them then they +are as irritated as if slander were being pronounced against them and as +angry as if they were the recipients of positive insult. Consequently +the world is more scrupulous in the case of such persons than (one might +almost say) in the case of emperors themselves. To the latter it is +ascribed as a virtue to pardon any one if an error is committed; but in +the self-made persons that course appears to argue an inherent weakness, +whereas to attack and to exact vengeance is thought to furnish proof of +great power. + +One morning, the first of the month, when all were gathered at Sejanus's +house, the couch placed in the small room where he received broke into +infinitesimal fragments under the weight of the throng seated upon it; +and, as he was leaving the house, a weasel darted through the midst of +them. After he had sacrificed on the Capitol and was now coming down to +the Forum, his servants that acted as body-guard turned aside along +the road leading to the prison, because the crowd prevented them from +escorting him, and as they descended the steps down which condemned +criminals were commonly cast they slipped and fell. Subsequently he took +the auspices and not one bird of good omen appeared, but crows flew and +cawed about him and then flew off all together to the jail, where they +alighted. + +[-6-] These prodigies neither Sejanus nor any one else laid to heart. +For, in view of the way things stood, not even if some god had plainly +foretold that so great a change would take place in a short time, would +any one have believed it. They swore by his Fortune as if they would +never be weary, and hailed him colleague of Tiberius, making this phrase +refer not to the consulship but to the supreme power. Tiberius was no +longer uninformed of aught that concerned his minister. He racked his +brains to see in what manner he might kill him, but, not finding any way +in which he might do this openly and safely, he treated both the man +himself and all the rest in a remarkable fashion, so as to gain an +accurate knowledge of their feeling. He sent many despatches of all kinds +regarding himself to Sejanus and to the senate incessantly, saying at one +time that he was poorly and just at the point of death, and again that +he was in exceedingly good health and would reach Rome directly. Now he +would strongly approve Sejanus and again vehemently denounce him. Some of +his companions he would honor to show his regard for him, and others he +would dishonor. Thus Sejanus, filled in turn with extreme elation +and extreme fear, was always in a flutter. He could not decide to be +terrified and for that reason attempt a revolution, inasmuch as he was +being honored, nor yet to become bold enough to attempt some desperate +venture inasmuch as he was frequently abased. Moreover, all the rest of +the people were getting to feel dubious, because they heard alternately +and at short intervals the most contrary reports, because they could no +longer justify themselves in either admiring or despising Sejanus, and +because they were wondering about Tiberius, thinking first that he was +going to die and then that his arrival was imminent. + +[-7-] Sejanus was disturbed by all this, and a great deal more by the +fact that from one of his statues at first a mass of smoke ascended in a +burst, and then, when the head was taken off to enable investigators to +see what was going on, a huge serpent darted up. Another head at once +replaced the former, and accordingly he was on the point of sacrificing +to himself (for sacrificing to himself was a regular part of his +program), when a rope was discovered coiled around the statue's neck. +Also a figure of Fortuna, made (as is said) in the time of Tullius, an +early king of Rome,--one which Sejanus at this time kept at his house and +took great pride in,--he saw turn away while he was sacrificing in +person ... and later others who had gone out in their company.[3] Most +men were suspicious of these circumstances, but since they did not know +the mind of Tiberius and further took into consideration the latter's +caprice and the unstable condition of affairs, they were divided in +sentiment. Privately they kept a sharp eye on their own safety, but +publicly they paid court to him, among other reasons because Tiberius +had joined to [him][4] as priests both Sejanus and his son. Moreover, they +had given him the proconsular authority and had likewise voted that word +be sent to all such as were consuls from year to year to emulate him in +their office. So Tiberius had honored him with the priesthoods, but he +did not send for him: instead, when his minister requested that he might +go to Campania, pleading as an excuse that his fiancée was ill, the +emperor directed him to stay where he was, giving as a reason that he +would himself arrive in Rome in almost no time. + +[-8-] As a result, then, of this, Sejanus was again gradually alienated +and his vexation was increased by the fact that Tiberius appointed Gaius +priest with the imperial commendation and gave some hints to the effect +that he should make the new appointee his successor in the empire. The +angry favorite would have begun rebellious measures, especially as the +soldiers were ready to obey him in everything, had he not perceived that +the populace was hugely pleased at what was said in regard to Gaius, +out of reverence for the memory of Germanicus his father. Sejanus had +previously thought that these persons, too, were on his side, and now, +finding them enthusiastic for Gaius, he became dejected. He felt sorry +that he had not shown open revolt during his consulship. The rest were +strongly influenced against him by the course of events [5] as also by +Tiberius's action in releasing soon after an enemy of Sejanus, chosen ten +years before to govern Spain and just now being tried on certain charges. +Because of Sejanus the emperor also granted temporary immunity from +such suits to such others as were going to govern any provinces or to +administer any similar public business. And in writing to the senate +about the death of Nero he used simply the name Sejanus, with no phrases +added as had been his custom. Moreover, he forbade offering sacrifice to +any human being (because sacrifice was often offered to this man) and +the introduction of any business looking to his own honor (because many +honorary measures were being passed for his rival's benefit). He had +forbidden this practice still earlier, but now, on account of Sejanus, he +renewed his injunction. For naturally, if he allowed nothing of the +sort to be done in his own case, he would not permit it in the case of +another. + +[-9-] In view of all this, the people began to look down on Sejanus more +and more, to the point of drawing aside at his approach and leaving him +alone,--and that openly, without pretence of concealment. When Tiberius +learned of it, his courage revived: he felt that he should have the +coöperation of the people and the senate, and accordingly began an attack +upon his enemy. First, in order to take him off his guard to the fullest +possible extent, be spread a report that he would give him the office of +tribune. Then he despatched a communication against him to the senate by +the hands of Nævius Sertorius Macro, whom he had privately appointed to +command the body-guards and had instructed as to precisely what must be +done. The latter came by night into Rome as if on some different errand +and made known his message to Memmius Regulus, then consul (his colleague +sided with Sejanus), and to Græcinius Laco, commander of the night watch. +At dawn Macro ascended the Palatine, where there was to be a session of +the senate in the temple of Apollo. Encountering Sejanus, who had not yet +gone in, he saw that he was troubled at Tiberius's having sent him no +message, and encouraged him, telling him aside and in confidence that he +was bringing him the tribunician authority. Sejanus, overjoyed at +this, hastened to the senate-chamber. Macro sent away to the camp the +Pretorians that commonly surrounded the minister and the senate, after +revealing to them his right as leader to do so and declaring that he +brought documents from Tiberius that bestowed gifts upon them. Around +the temple he stationed the night watch in their stead, went in himself, +delivered his letter to the consuls, and went out before a word was read. +He then put Laco in charge of guard duty at that point, and himself +hurried to the camp to prevent any uprising. + +[-10-] Meanwhile the letter was read. It was a long one and contained +no wholesale denunciations of Sejanus but first some indifferent +matters, then a slight censure of his conduct, then something else, and +after that some further objection to him. At the close it said that two +senators that were very intimate with him must be punished and that +he himself must be kept guarded. Tiberius did not give them orders +outright to put him to death, not because such was not his desire, but +because he feared that some disturbance might be the result of it. But +since, as he said, he could not take the journey safely, he had sent for +one of the consuls. + +This was all that the composition disclosed. During the reading many +diverse utterances and expressions of countenance were observable. First, +before the people heard the letter, they were engaged in lauding the +man, whom they supposed to be on the point of receiving the tribunician +authority. They shouted their approval realizing in anticipation all +their hopes and making a demonstration to show that they would concur in +granting him honor. When, however, nothing of the sort was discovered, +but they kept hearing just the reverse of what they expected, they fell +into confusion and subsequently into deep dejection. Some of those seated +near him even withdrew. They now no longer cared to share the same seat +with the man whom previously they were anxious to claim as friend. Then +prætors and tribunes began to surround him to prevent his causing any +uproar by rushing out,--which he certainly would have done, if he had +been startled at the outset by any general tirade. As it was, he paid no +great heed to what was read from time to time, thinking it a slight +matter, a single charge, and hoping that nothing further, or at any rate +nothing serious in regard to him had been made a matter of comment. So +he let the time slip by and remained where he was. + +Meantime Regulus called him forward, but he paid no attention, not out +of contempt,--for he had already been humbled,--but because he was +unaccustomed to hearing any command given him. But when the consul +shouted at him a second and a third time, at the same time stretching out +his arm and saying: "Sejanus, come here!" he enquired blankly: "Are you +calling _me_?" So at last he stood up, and Laco, who had entered, +took his stand beside him. When finally the reading of the letter was +finished, all with one voice both denounced him and uttered threats, some +because they had been wronged, others through fear, some to disguise +their friendship for him and others out of joy at his downfall. Regulus +did not give all of them, however, a chance to vote, nor did he put the +question to any one regarding the man's death, for fear there should be +come opposition and a consequent disturbance; for Sejanus had numerous +relatives and friends. Hence, after asking one person's opinion and +obtaining a supporting vote in favor of imprisonment, he conducted +the former favorite out of the senate-chamber, and in company with the +other officials and with Laco led him down to the prison. + +[-11-] Then might one have obtained a clear and searching +insight into the weakness of man, so that self-conceit would have been +never again, under any conditions possible. Him whom at dawn they had +escorted to the senate-halls as one superior to themselves they were now +dragging to a cell as if no better than the worst. On him whom they once +deemed worthy of crowns they now heaped bonds. Him whom they were wont to +protect as a master they now guarded like a runaway slave, and +uncovered while he wore a headdress. Him whom they had adorned with the +purple-bordered toga they struck in the face. Whom they were wont to +adore and sacrifice to as to a god they were now leading to execution. +The crowd also assailed him, reproaching him violently for the lives he +had destroyed and jeering loudly at what had been hoped of him. All of +his images they hurled down, beat down, and pulled down, seeming to +feel that they were maltreating the man himself, and he thus became a +spectator of what he was destined to suffer. For the moment he was merely +cast into prison; but not much later,--that very day, in fact,--the +senate assembled in the temple of Concord not far from his cell, and +seeing the attitude of the populace and that none of the Pretorians was +near by it condemned him to death. On these orders he was executed and +his body cast down the Scalæ Gemoniæ, where the rabble abused it for +three whole days and afterward threw it into the river. His children +were put to death by special decree, the girl (whom he had betrothed +to the son of Claudius) having been first outraged by the public +executioner on the principle that it was unlawful for a virgin to meet +death in prison. His wife Apicata was not condemned, to be sure, but +on learning that her children were dead and after seeing their bodies +on the Stairs she withdrew and composed a statement regarding the +death of Drusus, directed against Livilla, the latter's wife, who had +been the cause of a quarrel between herself and her husband, resulting +in their separation. This document she forwarded to Tiberius and then +committed suicide. Thus the statement came to the hands of Tiberius, +and when he had obtained proof of the information he put to death +Livilla and all others therein mentioned. I have, indeed, heard that he +spared her out of regard for her mother Antonia, and that Antonia +herself voluntarily destroyed her daughter by starving her. At any +rate, that was later. + +[-12-] At this time a great uproar ensued in the City. The +populace slew any one it saw of those who had possessed great influence +with Sejanus and relying on him had committed acts of insolence. +The soldiers, too, in irritation because they had been suspected of +friendliness toward Sejanus and because the nightwatchmen had been +preferred before them in the confidence of the emperor, proceeded to +burn and plunder,--and this in spite of the fact that all officials were +guarding the entire city in accordance with the injunction of Tiberius. + +Not even the senate was quiet, but such members of it as had paid court +to Sejanus were greatly disturbed by dread of reprisals; and those who +had accused or borne witness against any persons were filled with fear +by the prevailing suspicion that they had destroyed their victims out of +regard for the minister instead of for Tiberius. Very small indeed +was the courageous element, which was unhampered by these terrors and +expected that Tiberius would become milder. For as usually happens, they +laid the responsibility for their previous misfortunes upon the dead man +and charged the emperor with few or none of them. Of the most of this +unjust treatment, they said, he had been ignorant, and he had been forced +into the rest against his will. Privately this was the disposition of +the various classes; publicly they voted, as if they had cast off some +tyranny, not to hold any mourning over the deceased and to have a statue +of Liberty erected in the Forum; also a festival was to be celebrated +under the auspices of all the magistrates and priests,--as had never +before occurred; and the day on which he died was to be made renowned +by annual horse-races and slaughters of wild beasts, directed by those +appointed to the four priesthoods and by the members of the Sodality of +Augustus. This, too, had never before been done. To celebrate the ruin of +the man whom they by the excess and novelty of their honors had led to +destruction they voted solemnities that were not customary even for the +gods. They comprehended so clearly that it was chiefly these honors +which had bereft him of his senses that they at once forbade explicitly +the giving of excessive marks of esteem to any one, as also the taking +of oaths in the name of any one other than the emperor. Yet though +they passed such votes, as if under a divine inspiration, they began +shortly after to fawn upon Macro and Laco. They gave them great sums +of money and to Laco the honors of ex-quaestors, while to Macro they +extended the honors of ex-prætors. Similarly[6] they allowed them +also to view spectacles in their company and to wear the toga +praetextata at the ludi votivi. The men did not accept these privileges, +however, for the recent example served as a deterrent. Nor would +Tiberius take any honor bestowed, though many were voted him, chief +among them being that he should begin from this time to be termed Father +of his Country and that his birthday should be marked by ten equestrian +contests and a senatorial banquet. Indeed, he gave notice anew that no +one should introduce any such motion.--These were the events happening in +the capital. + +[-13-] Tiberius for a time had certainly been in great fear +that Sejanus would occupy the City and sail against him, and so he had +prepared boats, to the end that, if anything of the sort should come to +pass, he might escape. He had commanded Macro,--or so some say,--if there +should be any uprising to bring Drusus before the senate and the people +and appoint him emperor. + +When he learned that his enemy was dead, he rejoiced, as was natural, yet +would not receive the embassy sent to congratulate him, though many +members of the senate and many of the knights and of the populace had +been despatched, as before. Indeed he even rebuffed the consul Regulus, +who had always been devoted to his interests and had come in accordance +with the emperor's own commands to see about his being conveyed in +safety to the City. + +[-14-] Thus perished Sejanus, who had attained greater power +than those who obtained his office before or after him (save Plautianus). +His relatives, his associates, and all the rest who had paid court to +him and had moved that honors be granted him were brought to trial. The +majority of them were convicted for the acts that had previously made +them objects of envy; and their fellow-citizens condemned them for the +measures which they themselves had previously voted. Numbers of men who +had been tried on various charges and acquitted were again accused and +convicted on the ground that they had been saved the first time as a +favor to the deceased. Accordingly, if no other complaint could be +brought against a person, the statement that he had been a friend of +Sejanus served to convict him,--as if, forsooth, Tiberius himself had not +been friendly with him, and caused others to become interested for his +sake. Among those who laid information in this way were the men who were +wont to pay court to Sejanus. Inasmuch as they knew thoroughly those who +were in the same position, they had no great trouble either in finding +them out or securing their conviction. So they, expecting to save +themselves by doing this, and to obtain honors and money besides, +accused others or else bore witness against them. But it proved that none +of their hopes was realized. They found themselves liable to the same +charges on which they had prosecuted others, and partly as a result of +them and partly on account of the general detestation of traitors perished +along with their companions. [-15-] Of those against whom charges were +brought many were present in person to hear their accusation and make +their defence, and some employed great frankness in so doing. Still, the +majority made away with themselves prior to their conviction. They did +this chiefly to avoid suffering insult and outrage. (For all who had +incurred any such charge, senators as well as knights, women as well as +men, were crowded together into the prison. After their condemnation +some underwent the penalty there and others were hurled from the +Capitol by the tribunes or the consuls. The bodies of all of them were +cast into the Forum and subsequently were thrown into the river.) But +their object was partly that their children might inherit their property. +Very few estates of such as voluntarily took themselves off before their +trial were confiscated, Tiberius in this way inviting men to become their +own murderers, that he might avoid the reputation of having killed +them; as if it were not far more fearful to compel a man to die by his +own hand than to deliver him to the executioner. [-16-] Most of the +estates of such as failed to die in this way were confiscated, only a +little or nothing at all even being given to their accusers. For he was +now giving far more[7] accurate attention to money. After this Tiberius +increased to one per cent. a tax which was already one-half of one +per cent. and proceeded to accept every inheritance left to him. And +in fact nearly every one left him something,--even those who made +away with themselves,--as they had to Sejanus while the latter lived. + +Also, with that same intention which had led him not to take possession +of the wealth of those who perished voluntarily, he made the senate +sponsor for every official summons, to the end that he might be free +from blame himself (for so he thought) and the senate pass sentence upon +itself as a wrongdoer.[8] By this means people came to be thoroughly +aware, during the time that they were being destroyed through one +another's agency, that their former troubles had emanated no more from +Sejanus than from Tiberius. For not only were the accusers of various +persons brought to trial, but those who had condemned them were in turn +sentenced. So it was that Tiberius spared no one, but kept using up +all the citizens one against another; no firm friendships existed any +longer[9]; but the unjust and the guiltless, the fearful and the fearless +stood on the same footing as regarded the investigation made into the +complaints about Sejanus. At length he saw fit to propose a kind of +amnesty for the sufferers, and so he gave permission to those who wished +to go into mourning for the deceased; and in addition he forbade that any +one should in any way be hindered from showing this respect to the memory +of any person,--for such prohibitory votes were frequently passed. Yet he +did not in fact confirm this edict, but after a brief space he punished +numbers on account of Sejanus and on other complaints: they were +generally charged with having outraged and murdered their nearest female +relatives. + +[A.D. 32(_a. u._ 785)] + +[-17-] Such was the state of affairs at this time, and there was not a +soul that could deny that he would be glad to feast on the emperor's +flesh. Now the next year, when Gnæus Domitius and Camillus Scribonianus +became consuls, a very laughable thing happened. It had now long been the +custom for the members of the senate on the first of the year to take the +oath not man by man, but for one (as I have stated)[10] to take the oath +for them and the rest to express their acquiescence. This time, however, +they did not do so, but of their own motion, without any compulsion, they +were separately and individually pledged, as though this would make them +any more regardful of their oath. Previously for many years the emperor +had allowed matters to go on without a single person's swearing +allegiance to his acts of government: this I have mentioned. [11]--At +this time also there occurred something else still more laughable. + +[-18-] They voted that he should select as many of their number as he +liked and should employ twenty of them,--whomsoever the lot should +designate,--as guards with daggers as often as he entered the +senate-chamber. Of course, as the exterior of the building was watched by +the soldiers and no private citizen could come inside, their resolution +that a guard be given him amounted to a precaution against no one but +themselves, thus indicating that they were hostile. Naturally Tiberius +expressed his obligations to them and thanked them for their good +intentions, but he rejected their offer as being too much out of the +ordinary. He was not so simple as to give swords to the very men whom he +hated and by whom he was hated. Yet, as a result of this very measure +he began to grow suspicious of them,--for every act in contravention +of sincerity which one undertakes for the purpose of flattery breeds +suspicion,--and bidding a long adieu to their decrees he began to +honor the Pretorians both by addresses and with money, in spite of his +knowledge that they had been on the side of Sejanus, so that he might +find them more disposed to be employed against the senators. On occasion, +to be sure, he in turn commended the latter, when they voted that +funds from the public treasury be bestowed on the guardsmen. He kept +alternately deceiving the one party by his talk and winning over the +other party by his acts in a most effective way. For instance, Junius +Gallic had moved that a spectacle be provided in the meeting place of +the knights for those of the body-guard who had finished their term of +service: Tiberius did not merely banish him when the man was brought up +on this very charge of giving an impression that he was persuading the +soldiers to show good-will to the government rather than to the emperor; +no, but when he found that Junius was setting sail for Lesbos he deprived +him of a safe and comfortable existence there and delivered him to the +custody of the magistrates, as he had once done with Gallus. And in order +to assure the two classes still more fully how he felt toward both of +them he not long after asked the senate that Macro and some military +tribunes be deemed sufficient to conduct him to the senate-chamber. He +had no need of those persons, for he had no idea of ever entering the +city again, but what he wanted was to display his hatred of the senators +and show the latter the friendliness of the soldiers. The senators +actually granted this request. However, they attached to the decree a +clause that the escort should be searched on entering to make sure that +no one had a dagger hidden beneath his arm.--This resolution was passed +in the following year. + +[-19-] At this time he spared among some others who had been intimate +with Sejanus Lucius Cæsianus,[12] a prætor, and Marcus Terentius, a +knight. He overlooked the behavior of the former, who at the Floralia to +ridicule Tiberius had had everything up to midnight done by baldheaded +men (because the emperor himself was also baldheaded) and had furnished +light to those leaving the theatre by the hands of five thousand boys +with shaven pates. Tiberius was so far from becoming angry at him that +he pretended not to have heard about it at all, though all baldheaded +persons were from then on called Caesiani, after this man. Terentius he +spared because when on trial for his friendship with Sejanus he not only +did not deny it but affirmed that he had worked for him and paid court to +him to the greatest possible extent for the reason that the minister was +so highly honored by Tiberius himself. "Consequently," he said, "if the +emperor did rightly in having such a friend, neither have I done any +wrong: and if my sovereign, who knows all things accurately, erred, what +wonder is it that I shared his deception? Our duty is to cherish all whom +he honors without concerning ourselves overmuch about the kind of men +they are, but making one thing determine our friendship for them,--the +fact that they please the emperor." The senate for these reasons +acquitted him and in addition rebuked his accusers. Tiberius concurred +with them. When Piso, the praefectus urbi, died, he honored him with a +public funeral,--a distinction granted also to others. In his place he +chose Lucius Lamia, whom he had long ago put in charge of Syria[13] and +was keeping at Rome. He took similar action, too, in the case of many +others, really caring nothing at all for them, but making an outward show +of honoring them.--Meantime Vitrasius Pollio, governor of Egypt died, and +he entrusted the province for a time to one Hiberus, a Cæsarian. + +[A.D. 33 (_a. u._ 786)] + +[-20-] Now of the consuls Domitius held office the whole year +through,--for he was husband of Agrippina, the daughter of +Germanicus,--but the rest adapted themselves to the whims of Tiberius. +Some he elevated for a longer time and some for a shorter: some he +stopped before the end of their appointed term and others he allowed +to hold office beyond the limits designated. Not infrequently he would +appoint a man for an entire year and then depose him, setting up another +and still another in his place. Sometimes, after choosing certain +substitutes for third place, he would then have others become consuls +before them in the place of still others. These irregularities in the +case of the consuls occurred through practically his entire reign. Of the +candidates for the other offices he selected as many as he wished and +sent their names to the senate, recommending some to that body,--and +these were chosen, by acclamation,--but making others depend upon their +own claims or the assent of the senate or the decision of the lot. After +that, in order to follow out ancient precedent, such as belonged to +the people and the plebs went before one of these two bodies and were +announced: this is the same practice that is followed at present, +intended to produce at least an appearance of valid election. In case +there was ever a deficiency of candidates or they became involved in +irreconcilable strife, a smaller number was chosen.--The following year, +in which Servius Galba (that later became emperor) and Lucius Cornelius +held the consular title, fifteen prætors held office. This went on for +many years, so that sometimes sixteen and sometimes one or two less were +chosen. + +[-21-] The next move of Tiberius was to approach the capital and sojourn +in its environs; he did not, however, go within the walls, although +he was but thirty stades distant, so that he bestowed in marriage the +remaining daughters of Germanicus and also Julia, the daughter of Drusus. +Hence the city did not make a festival of their marriages, but everything +went on as usual: the senators met and decided judicial cases. For +Tiberius made an important point of their assembling as often as he would +have convened them, and insisted on their not arriving later or departing +earlier than the time fixed. He sent to the consuls many injunctions on +this head and once ordered certain statements to be read aloud by them. +He behaved in the same way in regard to certain other matters (just as if +he could not write directly to the senate!). To that body he sent in not +only the documents given him by the informers but also the confessions +under torture which Macro obtained, so that nothing was left in the hands +of the senators save the vote of condemnation. About this time, however, +a certain Vibullius Agrippa, a knight, swallowed poison from a ring and +died in the senate-house itself, and Nerva, who could no longer endure +the emperor's society, starved himself to death, his chief reason for +doing so being that Tiberius had reaffirmed the laws on contracts, +enacted by Cæsar, which were sure to result in great loss of confidence +and upheaval; and although his chief repeatedly urged him to utter +some word,[14] he refused to answer. These events seemed to make some +impression on the emperor and he modified the situation, so far as it +pertained to loans, by giving two thousand five hundred myriads to the +public treasury under the arrangement that this money could be lent out +by the senatorial party without interest for three years to such as +desired it. He further commanded that the most notorious of those who had +steadily acted as accusers should be put to death on one day. And when a +man who belonged to the centurions wished to lodge information against +some one, he forbade that any person who had served in the army should do +so, although he allowed the privilege to knights and senators. + +[-22-] There is no denying that he received praise for his behavior in +these matters, and most of all because he would not accept a number of +honors that were voted to him for it. But the sensual orgies which he +carried on shamelessly with the individuals of highest rank, male and +female alike, caused ill to be spoken of him. For example, there was the +case of his friend Sextus Marius. Imperial favor had made this man so +rich and so powerful that when he was once at odds with a neighbor he +invited him to dine for two successive days. On the first he razed his +guest's dwelling entirely to the ground and on the next he rebuilt it on +a larger scale and in more elaborate style. The victim of his treatment +declared his ignorance of the perpetrators, whereupon Marius admitted +being responsible for both occurrences and added significantly: "This +shows you that I have both the knowledge and the power to repel attacks +and also to requite a kindness." This friend, then, who had sent his +daughter, a strikingly beautiful girl, to a place of refuge to prevent +her being outraged by Tiberius, was charged with having criminal +relations with her and for that reason destroyed both his daughter and +himself. All this covered the emperor with disgrace, and his connection +with the death of Drusus and Agrippina gave him a reputation for cruelty. +Men had been thinking all along that the whole of the previous action +against these two was due to Sejanus, and had been hoping that now their +lives would be spared; so, when they learned that they had been actually +murdered, they were exceedingly grieved, partly for the reasons mentioned +and partly because, so far from depositing their bones in the imperial +tomb, Tiberius ordered their remains to be hidden so carefully in the +earth that they might never be found. In addition to Agrippina, Munatia +Plancina was slain. Previous to this time, though he hated her (not on +account of Germanicus but for another reason), he yet allowed her to live +to prevent Agrippina from rejoicing at her death. + +[-23-] Besides doing this he appointed Gaius quaestor, though not of +first rank, promising him, however, that he would advance him to the +other office five years earlier than was customary. At the same time he +requested the senate not to make the young man conceited by numerous or +extraordinary honors, for fear the latter might go astray in one way or +another. He had, indeed, a descendant in the person of Tiberius, but him +he disregarded both on account of age (he was a mere child as yet) and +on account of the prevailing suspicion that this boy was not the son of +Drusus. He therefore clove to Gaius as the most eligible candidate for +sole ruler, especially as he felt sure that Tiberius would live but a +short time and would be murdered by that very man. There was no detail +of the character of Gaius of which he was in ignorance; indeed, he once +remarked to his successor, who was quarreling with Tiberius: "You will +kill him, and others will kill you." The emperor knew of no one else that +suited him so entirely, and at the same time he was well aware that the +man would be a thorough knave; yet the story obtains that he was glad to +give him the empire in order that his own crimes might find concealment +in the enormity of Gaius's offences and that the largest and the noblest +portion of what was left of the senate might perish after him. At all +events he is said to have often uttered the ancient saying: + + "When I am dead, let fire o'erwhelm the earth."[15] + +Often, also, he declared Priam fortunate, because that king involved his +country and his throne in his own utter ruin. These records about him are +given a semblance of reality by what took place in those days. Such a +multitude of the senators and of others lost their lives that out of +the officials chosen by lot the ex-prætors held the governorship of the +provinces for three years and the ex-consuls for six, owing to the lack +of persons to succeed them. And what name could one properly give to the +elected magistrates, whom from the first he allowed to hold office for an +unusually long time? + +Now among those who died at this time was also Gallus. Tiberius himself +said that only then (and scarcely even so) did he become reconciled with +him. Thus it was that contrary to the usual custom he inflicted upon some +life as a punishment and bestowed upon others death as a kindness. + +[A.D. 34 (_a. u._ 787)] + +[-24-] The twentieth year of the emperor's reign now came in, and he +himself though he sojourned in the vicinity of Albanum and Tusculum did +not enter the City; the consuls, Lucius Vitellius and Fabius Persicus, +celebrated the second ten-year period. The senators so termed it in +preference to "twenty-year period" to signify that they were granting +him the leadership of the State again, as had been done in the case +of Augustus. Punishment overtook them at the same time that they were +celebrating the appropriate festival. This time none of those accused +was acquitted, but all were convicted,--the majority from documents +contributed by Tiberius and the statements under torture obtained by +Macro, the rest by what these two suspected they were planning. It was +rumored that the real reason why Tiberius did not come to Rome was to +avoid being disgraced while present by the sentences of condemnation. +Among various persons who perished either at the hands of the +executioners or by their own acts was Pomponius Labeo. He, who had once +governed Moesia for eight years after his prætorship, was, with his wife, +indicted for receiving bribes and voluntarily destroyed both her and +himself. Mamercus AEmilius Scaurus, on the other hand, who had never +governed anybody nor received bribes, was convicted because of a tragedy +and fell a victim to a worse fate than any he had depicted. Atreus was +the name of the composition, and in the manner of Euripides[16] it +advised some one of the subjects of that monarch to endure the folly of +the ruling prince. Tiberius, when he heard of it, declared that the verse +had been composed against him at this juncture and that "Atreus" was +merely a pretence used on account of that monarch's bloodthirstiness. +And adding quietly "I will have him play the part of Ajax," he brought +pressure to bear to make him commit suicide. The above was not the +accusation made against him; instead, he was charged with having kept up +a _liaison_ with Livilla. Many others had been punished on her account, +some with good reason and some as the result of blackmail. + +[-25-] While matters at Rome were in this condition, the subject +territory was not quiet either. The very moment a certain youth who +declared he was Drusus appeared in the region of Greece and Ionia, the +cities both received him enthusiastically and supported his cause. He +would have proceeded to Syria and taken possession of the legions, had +not some one recognized him and putting an end to his success taken him +to Tiberius. + +[A.D. 35 (_a. u._ 788)] After this Gaius Gallus and Marcus Servilius +became consuls. Tiberius was at Antium holding fête in honor of the +nuptials of Gaius. Not even for such a purpose would he enter Rome, +because of the case of one Fulcinius Trio. The latter, who had been a +friend of Sejanus but had stood high in the favor of Tiberius on account +of his readiness at blackmail, was, when accused, delivered up for +punishment; and through fear he slew himself beforehand after abusing +roundly both the emperor and Macro in his testament. His children did not +dare to publish it, but Tiberius, learning what had been written, ordered +it to be presented before the senate. Little did he trouble himself +about such matters. Sometimes he would voluntarily give to the public +denunciations of his conduct that were being kept secret, as another man +would eulogies. Indeed, he took all that Drusus had uttered in distress +and misfortune, and this, too, he sent in to the senate.--So much, then, +for the death of Trio. Poppaeus Sabinus, who had governed both the Mysias +and Macedonia besides during almost all the reign of Tiberius up to this +time, withdrew from life with the greatest good-will before any charge +could be brought against him. He was succeeded by Regulus with equal +authority. For, according to some reports, Macedonia and Achaea were both +assigned to the new ruler without lots being cast for them. + +[A.D. 36 (_a. u._ 789)] + +[-26-] About the same period Artabanus the Parthian after the death of +Artaxias bestowed Armenia upon his son Arsaces. When no vengeance fell +upon him from Tiberius for this move, he made an attempt upon Cappadocia +and treated the Parthians, too, rather haughtily. Consequently some +revolted from him and went on an embassy to Tiberius, asking a king for +themselves from among those serving as hostages. He sent them at once +Phraates, son of Phraates, and at the death of the latter (which occurred +on the way) Tiridates, who was himself also of the royal race. To insure +his securing the throne as easily as possible the emperor wrote orders to +Mithridates the Iberian to invade Armenia, so that Artabanus should leave +home and assist his son. Things turned out as planned, but the reign of +Tiridates lasted only a short time, for Artabanus got the Scythians on +his side and had no great difficulty in expelling him. So much for the +Parthian affairs.--Armenia fell into the hands of Mithridates, son of +Mithridates the Iberian, of course, and a brother of Pharasmanes, who +became king of the Iberians after him.--When Sextus Papinius became +consul with Quintus Plautius, the Tiber inundated a large part of the +City so that it remained under water, and a much more extensive section +in the vicinity of the hippodrome and the Aventine was devastated by +fire. In view of these disasters Tiberius gave two thousand five hundred +myriads to those who had suffered any loss. + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +And if Egyptian affairs also touch Roman interests at all, it might be +mentioned that that year the phoenix was seen. All these events were +thought to foreshadow the death of Tiberius. Thrasyllus died at this very +time and the emperor himself in the following spring, in the consulship +of Gnaeus Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus. It chanced that Macro had +plotted against Domitius and numerous others and had devised complaints +and tortures against them. Not all that were accused, however, were put +to death, because Thrasyllus handled Tiberius very cleverly. Concerning +himself he stated very accurately both the day and the hour in which he +should die, but he falsely declared that the emperor would live ten more +years, in order that the latter, feeling he had a moderately long time to +live, might be in no hurry to kill them. The issue justified the plan. +Thinking that it would be possible for him later to do whatever he liked +at his leisure, he made no haste in any way and showed no anger when the +senate, in consideration of the opposition to the tortures expressed by +the magistrates, postponed the sentencing of the prisoners. Yet pitiable +scenes were not wanting. One woman wounded herself, was carried into +the senate and from there to prison, where she died. Lucius Arruntius, +distinguished both for his age and for his education, destroyed himself +voluntarily when Tiberius was already sick and was not thought likely to +recover. The man was aware of the evil character of Gaius and desired to +depart before he should taste of it, saying: "I can not in my old +age become the slave of a new master like him." Still others were +saved,--some who had actually been condemned but were not permitted to +die before the expiration of ten days, and others because their trial was +again put off when the judges learned that Tiberius was seriously ailing. + +[-28-] He passed away at Misenum before he could learn anything of this. +He had been sick for a considerable time, but expecting to live, as +Thrasyllus had foretold, he neither consulted physicians nor changed his +way of life; wasting away gradually as he was, in old age and subject to +a sickness that was not severe, he would often all but expire and then +recover strength again. These changes would cause Gaius and the rest +first great pleasure, when they thought he was going to die, and then +great fear, when they thought he would live. His successor, therefore, +fearing that his health might actually be restored, refused his requests +for anything to eat, on the ground that he would be injured, and +pretending that he needed warmth wrapped many thick cloths about him. In +this way he smothered him, with a certain amount of help, to be sure, +from Macro. The latter, as Tiberius was already seriously ill, was paying +his court to the young man, particularly as he had before this succeeded +in making him fall in love with his own wife, Ennia Thrasylla. Tiberius +suspecting this had once said: "You understand well when to abandon the +setting, and hasten to the rising sun." + +So Tiberius, who possessed the most varied virtues, the most varied +vices, and followed each set in turn as if the other did not exist, +passed away in this fashion on the twenty-sixth day of March.[17] He had +lived seventy-seven years, four months, nine days, of which he had spent +as ruler twenty-two years, seven months and seven days. A public funeral +was accorded him and a eulogy, delivered by Gaius. + + +[Footnote 1: Supplying here (as did Sylburgius, to fill a gap in the +sense) ... [GREEK: echeleuse chahi tae boulae]....] + +[Footnote 2: The consul of A.D. 30, either _C. Cassius Longinus_ or his +brother _L. Cassius Longinus_.] + +[Footnote 3: A gap in the MS. exists, as indicated.] + +[Footnote 4: A corrupt reading for which no wholly satisfactory +substitute has been offered.] + +[Footnote 5: The predicate of this clause has fallen out in the MS., and +the restoration is on lines suggested by Bekker.] + +[Footnote 6: Reading (with Mommsen) [Greek: outo] for [Greek: auto].] + +[Footnote 7: Reading [Greek: aedae polu] (Stephanus, Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 8: Using Boissevain's reading [Greek: adikousaes] (from Reiske) +in preference to the MS. [Greek: diadikousaes].] + +[Footnote 9: A small gap. The text filled and context amended by Kuiper.] + +[Footnote 10: Evidently the previous reference was in a passage now lost, +between Bk. 57, ch. 17, sect. 8, and Bk. 58, ch. 7, sect. 2 of the Codex +Marcianus (Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 11: Compare Book Fifty-seven, chapter eight.] + +[Footnote 12: Cæsianus and Cæsiani are conjectures of Boissevain, the MS. +being corrupt. The person meant is _L. Apronius Cæsianus_ (consul A.D. +39).] + +[Footnote 13: A correction of Casaubon's for "the army" (MS.), which +seems senseless.] + +[Footnote 14: The phrase yields no particular sense and is probably +corrupt, but a correction is not easy. "To state his reasons" has been +suggested; and a very slight change in the Greek produces "to eat +something" another conjecture.] + +[Footnote 15: Probably from the _Bellerophon_ of Euripides.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Euripides, Phoenician Maidens, verse 393.] + +[Footnote 17: Dio is in error. The date was really about ten days +earlier.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +59 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +About Gaius Cæsar, called also Caligula (chapters 1-6). How the Heroüm +of Augustus was sanctified (chapter 7). How the Mauritanias began to be +governed by Romans (chapter 25). How Gaius Cæsar died (chapters 29, 30). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gnæus Acerronius and +Pontius Nigrinus, together with three additional years, in which there +were the following magistrates here enumerated. + +M. Aquilius C. F. Iulianus, and P. Nonius M. F. Asprenas. (A.D. 38 = a. +u. 791 = Second of Gaius.) + +C. Cæsar Germanicus (II), L. Apronius L. F. Cæsianus. (A.D. 39 = a. u. +792 = Third of Gaius, from March 26th.) + +C. Cæsar (III). (A.D. 40 = a. u. 793 = Fourth of Gaius.) + +C. Cæsar (IV), Cn. Sentius Cn. F. Saturninus. (A.D. 41 = a. u. 794 = +Fifth of Gaius, to Jan. 24th.) + +This last year is not counted, because most of the events in it are +recorded in the sixtieth book. + + +_(BOOK 59, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +[-1-] This, then, is the tradition about Tiberius. His successor was +Gaius, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who was known also, as I have +stated, by the nicknames of Germanicus and Caligula. Tiberius had left +the empire partly in charge of his grandson Tiberius; but Gaius had his +will carried to the senate by Macro and caused it to be declared null +and void by the consuls and the rest (with whom he had made previous +arrangements) on the ground that the author of the document had not been +of sound mind. This was evidenced by his allowing a mere boy to rule +them, who had not yet the right even to enter the senate. Thus did Gaius +at this time separate the lad from imperial office, and later in spite of +having adopted him he slew him. Of no avail was the fact that Tiberius in +his testament, still extant, had written the same words over in a number +of ways, as if this would lend them some force, nor yet that all of it +had been at this time read aloud by Macro before the senatorial body. For +no injunction can have weight against the intentional misunderstanding or +the power of one's successors. Tiberius suffered the same treatment he +had accorded to his mother's wishes, save that he discharged none of the +obligations imposed by her will in the case of any person, whereas all +his bequests were paid to all the beneficiaries, save to his grandson. +This, of course, made it perfectly plain that the whole fault found with +the will had been invented on account of the lad. Gaius need not have +published it, since he was not unacquainted with the contents, but +inasmuch as many knew what was in it and it seemed likely that he himself +on the one hand or the senate on the other would be blamed for its +suppression, he chose rather to have the latter body overthrow it than to +conceal the document. + +[-2-] At the same time by paying all the bequests of the dead emperor, as +if they were his own, to every one concerned he gained among the many a +certain reputation for nobility of character. In company with the senate +he inspected the Pretorians while they were busy with exercises and +distributed to them the two hundred and fifty denarii apiece that had +been bequeathed, and he added as a gift as many more. To the people he +paid the one thousand one hundred and twenty-five myriads (this was the +amount bequeathed to them) and in addition the sixty denarii per man +which they had failed to receive on the occasion of his enrollment among +the iuvenes,--this with interest amounting to fifteen denarii more. He +also settled the bequests to the citizen force, to the night-watchmen, to +those of the regular army outside Italy, and to any other army of native +Romans in the smaller forts,--that is, the citizens proper received one +hundred twenty-five denarii each, and all the rest seventy-five. + +He behaved in this same way also in regard to Livia's will, executing all +the provisions of it. If he had spent the rest of his money with equal +propriety, he would nave been thought prudent and munificent. Sometimes, +through fear of the people and the soldiers, he did so act, but it +was mostly through whims. At such times he discharged not only the +obligations of Tiberius but those of his great-grandmother, and debts +owing to private individuals as well as to others. As it was, he lavished +boundless sums upon dancers (whose recall he at once effected), upon +horses, upon gladiators and everything of that sort; and so in an +inconceivably short time he had exhausted the treasures, which had grown +so great, and at the same time convicted himself of having done it +through a sort of easy-going temper and indecision. He had found +accumulated five myriad myriads, seven thousand five hundred denarii, or +(according to others) eight myriad myriads, two thousand five hundred, +and yet could not keep any part of it to the third year, but actually in +the second season fell in need of a great deal besides. + +[-3-] He went through the same process of deterioration, too, in almost +all other respects. At first he seemed a most democratic person and would +send no letters either to the people or to the senate nor assume any of +the titles of sovereignty; yet he became most dictatorial, so that he +took in one day all those honors which Augustus had with difficulty +secured, voted one by one, during the long extent of his reign, some of +which Tiberius had refused to accept at all. He postponed nothing except +the title of _Father_, and that he acquired after no long time. Though +he had proved himself the most libidinous of men, had seduced one +woman already betrothed and had dragged others from their husbands, he +afterward hated them all save one. And he would certainly have detested +her, had he lived any longer. Toward his mother, his sisters, and his +grandmother Antonia he conducted himself in the most dutiful manner +possible. The last named he immediately saluted as Augusta and appointed +her priestess of Augustus, giving her at once all the privileges +pertaining to the vestal virgins. To his sisters he assigned these honors +of the vestal virgins, the right to witness horse-races in the same +section of seats with him, and the right to have uttered in their behalf +as well the prayers which were annually offered by the magistrates and +the priests for his welfare and that of the State, and the oaths of +allegiance sworn to his empire. He set sail himself and with his own +hands collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his +brothers that had died: wearing the purple-bordered toga and attended +by some lictors, as at a triumph, he deposited these in the monument +of Augustus. All measures voted against them he canceled, all who had +plotted against them he chastised, and recalled such as were in exile on +their account.--Now, though he had done all this, he showed himself +the most impious of men in the case both of his grandmother and of his +sisters. The former, because she had rebuked him for something, he forced +to seek death by her own hand; and after ravishing all his sisters he +shut two of them up on an island: the third had previously died. Again in +the matter of Tiberius (whom he also termed "grandfather"), he asked that +he might receive from the senate the same honors as Augustus; but these +were not immediately voted, for the senators could not endure to honor +that tyrant, nor did they make bold to dishonor him because they were +not yet clearly acquainted with the character of their young lord, and +consequently postponed everything until the latter should be present: +so then Gaius bestowed upon him no mark of notice other than a public +funeral, after bringing the body into the City by night and having it +laid out at daybreak. And though he did make a speech over it, he did +not say so much in praise of Tiberius as he did to remind the people of +Augustus and Germanicus, comparing himself meanwhile with them. + +[-4-] Gaius inevitably went so by contraries in every matter that he not +only emulated but even surpassed his predecessor's licentiousness and +bloodthirstiness, for which he had censured him; but of the qualities he +had praised in him he imitated not one. Though he had been the first to +insult him, the first to abuse him, so that others thinking to please +him in this way made use of rather heedless freedom of speech, he later +lauded and magnified Tiberius, going to the point of punishing some for +what they had said. These, as enemies of the former emperor, he hated for +their injurious remarks, and he hated equally those who in way praised +Tiberius, as being the latter's friends. + +Though he had put an end to complaints arising from maiestas, he made +these the cause of many persons' downfall. Though according to his own +account he dismissed the anger that he felt toward those who had united +against his father and his mother and his brothers (and burned their +letters), he yet put to death great numbers of them on the basis of +evidence contained in such documents. He did, to be sure, really destroy +some papers, but not those which held definite incontrovertible proof; of +these he made copies. Besides, though he at first forbade any one to set +up his images, he went on to manufacture the statues himself. Whereas +once he requested the annulment of a decree that sacrifice should be +offered to his Fortune, and had this action of his inscribed on a tablet, +he afterward ordered temples and sacrifices to be prepared for him as for +some god. He delighted by turns in vast throngs of men and in solitude; +he grew angry if requests were preferred, or if they were not preferred. +He would start out on enterprises with the greatest amount of dash, and +then carry them through in the most sluggish manner. He both spent money +most unsparingly and showed a thoroughly sordid spirit in exacting it. He +was alike irritated and pleased both at those who flattered him and at +those who spoke their own minds. Many who were guilty of great crimes +he neglected to punish and many who had done no wrong he ruthlessly +slaughtered. Among his associates he made some the recipients of +excessive adulation and others of excessive insult. Consequently, no one +knew either what to say or how to act toward him, but all who met with +success obtained it as the result of chance rather than of rational +calculation. + +[-5-] That was the kind of emperor into whose hands the Romans had now +fallen. Hence the deeds of Tiberius, though they were felt to have been +most grievous, were still as far superior to those of Gaius as the deeds +of Augustus were to those of his successor. For Tiberius always held the +power in his own hands and used other people to help him carry out +his wishes: Gaius, on the other hand, was ruled by charioteers and by +gladiators; he was the slave of dancers and other theatrical performers. +Indeed, he always kept Apelles, the most famous of the tragedians of that +day, with him even in public. Thus he by himself and they by themselves +did without let or hindrance all that such persons when given power would +naturally dare to do. Everything that could help theatrical productions +he arranged and settled on the slightest pretext in the most expensive +manner, and compelled prætors and consuls to do the same, so that almost +every day some performance of the kind was sure to be given. Originally +he was but a spectator and listener at these and would take sides for and +against various performers like one of the mob; and sometimes, if he were +irritated at his opponents, he would not visit the spectacle. But as time +went on he came to imitate and contend in many events, driving chariots, +fighting duels, giving exhibitions of dancing, and acting in tragedy. +This became his regular practice. And one night he urgently summoned +the leaders of the senate as if to some important deliberation and then +danced before them. + +[-6-] Now in that year that Tiberius died and Gaius entered upon office +in his stead he first began to show great deference to the senators on an +occasion when knights were present at the meeting and also some of the +populace. He promised to share his power with them and do whatever would +please them, calling himself meanwhile their son and nursling. He was +then twenty-five years old, lacking five months, four days. After this he +freed those who were in prison, among whom was Quintus Pomponius, who for +seven whole years after his consulship had been kept in a cell suffering +abuse. Gaius did away with the complaints for maiestas, on account of +which he saw that most of the prisoners were suffering, and heaped up (or +so he pretended) and burned the documents pertaining to their cases that +Tiberius had left behind. He also declared: "I have done this, that +no matter how much I might wish to bear malice toward any one; for my +mother's and my brothers' sake, I might still be unable to punish him." +For this he was commended because it was expected that _he_ at all events +would speak the truth; by reason of his youth it was not thought possible +that he could be guilty of duplicity in thought or speech. And he still +further increased their hopes by ordering that the celebration of the +Saturnalia extend over five days, and by taking from each of those +enjoying an allowance of grain only an as instead of the denarius which +they were wont to give an emperor for the manufacture of images. + +It was voted that he should at once become consul by the removal of +Proculus and Nigrinus, who were holding office at the time, and that he +should thereafter be consul annually. However, he did not accept the +offer, but instead waited until the two officials completed the six +months' term for which they had been appointed, and then became consul +himself, taking his uncle Claudius as a colleague. The latter, who had +previously been ranked among the knights and after the death of Tiberius +had been sent as an envoy to Gaius in behalf of that order, now for the +first time after living forty-six years became both consul and senator at +once. The behavior of Gaius in these matters appeared satisfactory and +to his actions corresponded the speech which he delivered in the +senate-house on entering upon his consulship. In it he denounced Tiberius +for each of the crimes of which he was commonly accused and made many +announcements about his own line of conduct; and the senate, fearing +that he might change, issued a decree that his statements should be read +annually. + +[-7-] Soon after, clad in the triumphal garb, he dedicated the heroüm of +Augustus. Boys of the noblest families, both of whose parents had to be +living, together with maidens similarly circumstanced, sang the hymn, +and the senators with their wives as well as the people were banqueted. +Entertainments of all sorts were given. There were exhibitions involving +music, and horseraces took place on two days,--twenty heats the first +day and forty [1] more the second, because the former was the emperor's +birthday and the latter that of Augustus. He had a similar number of +events on many other occasions, as seemed good to him. Hitherto not more +than ten[2] events had been usual, but this time he finished four hundred +bears together with an equal number of beasts from Libya. The boys of +noble birth performed "Troy" on horseback, and six horses drew the +triumphal car on which he was borne. This was an innovation. + +In the races he did not give the signals to the charioteers in person, +but viewed the spectacle from a front seat with his brothers and his +fellow-priests of the Augustan order. He was always greatly displeased +if any one was absent from the theatre or left in the middle of the +performance, and so, in order that no one might have an excuse for +not attending, he postponed all lawsuits and suspended all periods of +mourning. Thus, women bereft of their husbands were allowed to marry even +before the appointed time, unless, indeed, they were pregnant. In order +to enable people to come without formality and to save them the trouble +of greeting him (for previously those who met the emperor on the streets +always saluted him), he forbade any one's doing this again. Those who +chose might come barefoot to the spectacles. It had been from very +ancient times the custom for persons to do this who held court in the +summer; the practice had been frequently followed by Augustus at the +summer festivals but had been abandoned by Tiberius. + +It was at this period that the senators first began sitting upon cushions +instead of the bare boards, and that they were allowed to wear caps to +the theatre, Thessalian fashion, to avoid distress from the sun's rays. +And whenever the sun was particularly severe, they used instead of the +theatre the Diribitorium, which was furnished with benches.--This was +what Gaius did in his consulship, which he held two months and twelve +days. The remainder of the six months' term he surrendered to the men +previously appointed for it. [-8-] It was after this that he fell sick, +but instead of dying himself he managed to cause the death of Tiberius, +who had been registered among the iuvenes, had been given the title of +Princeps Iuventutis, and finally had been adopted into his family.[3] The +complaint brought against the lad was that he had prayed and expected +that Gaius might die. This charge proved the destruction of many others, +too. The same ruler who gave to Antiochus son of Antiochus the district +of Commagene, which his father had held, and likewise the coast districts +of Cilicia, and had freed Agrippa (grandson of Herod, who had been +imprisoned by Tiberius), and had put him in charge of his grandfather's +domain, not only deprived Agrippa's brother (or else his son) of his +paternal fortune but furthermore had him murdered, without making any +communication about him to the senate. Later he took similar action in a +number of other cases. + +Now the young Tiberius perished on suspicion of having utilized the +emperor's illness as an occasion for conspiracy. On the other hand, there +were Publius Afranius Potitus, a plebeian, who in a burst of foolish +servility had promised not only of his own free will but under oath that +he would give his life to have Gaius recover, and a certain Atanius +Secundus, a knight, who announced that in the event of a favorable +outcome he would fight as a gladiator. These, instead of the money which +they hoped to receive from him in return for offering to die in exchange +for his life, were compelled to keep their promises so as not to +perjure themselves. That was the cause of these men's death. Again, his +father-in-law Marcus Silanus, though he had made no promise and taken +no oath, nevertheless, because his virtue and his relationship made him +displeasing to the emperor and subjected him to extreme insults, for +this reason committed suicide. Tiberius had held him in such honor as to +refuse always to try a case that was appealed from his jurisdiction and +to refer all such disputes back to him again. But Gaius abused him in +every way and had such a high opinion of him that he called him "the +golden sheep." Now Silanus on account of his age and his reputation was +accorded by all the consuls the honor of casting his vote first; and to +prevent his doing so any longer Gaius had abolished the custom of having +some of the ex-consuls vote first or second according to the pleasure of +those who put the vote. He arranged that such persons should cast their +votes on the same footing as the rest and in the same order as they had +held the office. Moreover, he put aside his victim's daughter to marry +Cornelia Orestilla, whom he had actually seized during the marriage +festival which she was celebrating with her betrothed, Gaius Calpurnius +Piso. Before two months had elapsed he banished both of them on the +ground that they had carnal knowledge of each other. He allowed Piso to +take with him ten slaves, and then when the latter asked for more he +let him employ as many as he liked, saying: "You will have just so many +soldiers." + +[A.D. 38 (_a. u._ 791)] + +[-9-] The next year Marcus Julianus and Publius Nonius, regularly +appointed, became consuls. Oaths pertaining to the acts of Tiberius were +not introduced and for this reason are not used nowadays either. No +one numbers Tiberius among the emperors in the list of members of his +house.[4] But in regard to Augustus and Gaius they took the oaths which +had regularly been the custom and others to the effect that they would +hold Gaius and his sisters in greater respect than themselves and their +children, and they offered prayers for all of them alike. + +On the very first day of the new year one Machaon, a slave, climbed upon +the couch of Jupiter Capitolinus and after uttering from that place many +dire prophecies killed a little dog which he had brought in with him and +slew himself. + +The following good deeds must be set down to the credit of Gaius. He +published, as Augustus had done, all the accounts of public funds, which +had not been made known during the time Tiberius was out of the city. He +helped the soldiers extinguish a conflagration and assisted those who +suffered loss by it. As the equestrian order pined from lack of men he +summoned the foremost men from every office, even abroad, and enrolled +them with due regard to their relatives and their wealth. Some of them he +allowed to wear the senatorial costume occasionally even before they had +held any office through which we enter the senate, on the strength of +their hopes to secure admission to that body. Previously it would seem +that only those who had been born in the senatorial order were allowed to +do this. These deeds caused pleasure to all. But this action in restoring +the elections to the populus and the plebs, rescinding the decisions of +Tiberius about these matters, and in abolishing the one per cent. +tax, and again in scattering at some gymnastic contest tickets and +distributing very large gifts to such as secured them,--these actions, +though they delighted the lower classes, grieved the sensible, who +reflected that even if the offices fell once more into the hands of the +general public, still, in case the existing funds should be exhausted and +private sources of income fail, many dreadful disasters would result. + +[-10-] The performances of his next to be enumerated elicited the censure +of all without distinction. He caused very great numbers of men to fight +as gladiators, forcing them to contend both separately and in groups, +drawn up in a kind of military formation: he requested permission from +the senate to do this, and again,--something quite contrary to the spirit +of the enacted law that he might do whatsoever he pleased,--he asked +leave to put to death a number of persons, among them twenty-six knights, +some of whom had already devoured their living, while others had merely +practiced gladiatorial combat. It was not the number of those who +perished that was so bad (though it was bad enough) but his frenzied +delight in their slaughter and his never satisfied gazing at the scene of +blood. The same trait of cruelty led him once, when there was a shortage +of condemned criminals to be given to the beasts, to order some of the +mob that stood near the benches to be seized and thrown to them. And to +prevent the possibility of their making an outcry or attacking him orally +he had their tongues cut out first of all. One of the prominent knights, +too, he compelled to fight in single combat on the charge of insult +offered to his mother Agrippina, and when the man proved victorious +handed him over to the accusers and had him slain. The same person's +father, though guilty of no wrong, he confined in a cage (as he had +confined numerous others), and there put an end to him.--These contests +he at first conducted in the Sæpta, after excavating [5] the entire site +and filling it with water, to enable him to bring in one ship. Later he +transferred his operations to another place, where he tore down a large +number of massive buildings and set up benches. The theatre of Taurus +he held in contempt. All this behavior, expenditures and murders alike, +subjected him to criticism. + +He was further blamed for compelling Macro together with Ennia to cause +their own death, remembering neither the latter's affection nor the +former's benefits, which had gained for him among other advantages the +sole possession of the empire. The fact that he had appointed Macro to +govern Egypt had not the slightest influence. He even involved him in +a scandal (of which the greatest share belonged to Gaius himself), by +bringing against him besides all the rest a complaint that he had played +the pander. Before long many others were condemned and executed, and +some were executed prior to their conviction. Nominally they suffered on +account of some wrong done to his parents or his brothers or the rest who +had perished with those relatives as an excuse, but really on account +of their property. For the treasury had been exhausted and he had no +resources. Such persons were convicted by witnesses against them and by +the documents which he once declared he had burned. Again, the disease +which had attacked him the previous year and the death of his sister +Drusilla brought about the ruin of others, since,--to omit graver +cases,--whoever had entertained or had greeted any one or had bathed on +the days in question incurred punishment. + +[-11-] The nominal spouse of Drusilla was Marcus Lepidus, at once the +favorite and lover of the emperor, but Gaius also treated her as a +concubine. When her death occurred at this time, her husband delivered +the eulogy but it was her brother who accorded her a public funeral. The +Pretorians with their commander and the equestrian order by itself +ran about the pyre [6] and the boys of noble birth performed the Troy +exercise about her tomb; all the honors that had been given to Livia were +voted to her, and it was further decreed that she should be declared +immortal, that a figure in gold representing her be set up in the +senate-house, and that in the temple of Venus in the Forum there should +be dedicated with equal honors a statue of her as large as that of the +goddess. Moreover, a separate shrine should be built for her and twenty +priests [7] not only men but also women should do her honor. Women, as +often as they gave testimony, should swear by her and on her birthday a +festival equal to the Megalensia should be celebrated and the senate and +the knights should hold a banquet. She straightway received the name +Panthea and was declared worthy of divine honors in all the cities. A +certain Livius Geminus, a senator, stated on oath, invoking destruction +upon himself and his children if he spoke falsely, that he had seen her +ascending into heaven and holding converse with the gods; and he called +all the other gods and Panthea herself to witness. For his declaration he +received twenty-five myriads. Besides all this Gaius showed her honor in +not having the festivals which were then due to take place celebrated +either at their appointed time (except as mere formalities) or at any +later date. All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed +pleasure at anything, as being grieved, or behaved as if they were +glad.[9] They were charged with malice either in failing to mourn her +(this was disrespect to her as a mortal) or in bewailing her (this was +disrespect to her as a goddess). One single occurrence gives the key to +all the transactions of that time. The emperor charged with impiety and +put to death a man who had sold warm water. [-12-] Having allowed a few +days to elapse he married Lollia Paulina and he compelled no less a +person than her husband, Memmius Regulus, to betroth her to him so that +he might not break the law in taking her without a betrothal. But almost +in a trice he had driven her away, too. + +Meantime he granted to Soaimus the land of the Arabian Ituræans, to Cotys +Lesser Armenia and later parts of Arabia, to Rhoemetalces the possessions +of Cotys, and to Polemon son of Polemon his ancestral domain,--all these +upon the vote of the senate. The ceremony took place in the Forum, where +he sat upon the rostra in a chair between the consuls; some say he used +silken awnings. Soon after he caught sight of a lot of mud in an alley +and ordered that it be cast into the toga of Flavius Vespasian, who was +ædile at the time and had charge of keeping alleys clean. This event was +regarded at the moment as of no particular importance, but later, when +Vespasian, who took charge of a state in confusion and turmoil, had +reduced the same to order, it seemed to have been due to some divine +prompting and to have signified that Gaius had entrusted the city to him +unconditionally for its amelioration. + +[A.D. 39 (_a. u._ 792)] + +[-13-] He now became consul again, and though he prevented the priest +of Jupiter from taking the oath in the senate (for at this time they +regularly did so privately, as in the days of Tiberius), he himself both +when he entered upon office and when he relinquished it took the oath +like the rest upon the rostra, which had been made larger than before. +Thirty days was the duration of his tenure (whereas he let his colleague +Lucius Apronius hold office for six months), and his successor was +Sanguinius Maximus, præfectus urbi. During this and the following period +numbers of the foremost men perished in fulfillment of a sentence of +condemnation (for many who had been released from prison were punished +for the very reasons that had led to their imprisonment by Tiberius), +and many others in gladiatorial combats. There was nothing happening but +slaughter. The emperor no longer made any concessions to the populace, +opposing instead absolutely everything it wished, and consequently the +people, too, resisted all his desires. The talk and actions usual at such +a juncture with an angry ruler on one side and a hostile folk on the +other were plainly in evidence. The contest between them, however, was +not an equal one. The people could do nothing outside of discussion and +showing their feelings by their demeanor, whereas Gaius dragged many of +his opponents away while they were witnessing performances at the theatre +and arrested many more after they had left the building. The chief causes +for his rage were first that they did not show enthusiasm in attending; +he made his appearance at a different hour on different occasions, +sometimes not till nightfall, and they were worn out waiting for him: +second, that they did not always applaud the performances that pleased +him and sometimes even showed favor to objects of his dislike. Again, it +vexed him mightily to have them cry out in their efforts to extol him: +"Young Augustus!" He felt that he was not being congratulated upon being +emperor while so young, but was being censured for holding at his age +so great a domain. His regular conduct was as described. Once he said +threateningly to the whole people: "How I wish you had one neck!" At +another time, when he was showing some of his usual irritation, the +populace in displeasure ceased to notice the spectacle, and turned +against the informers, and with loud shouts demanded their surrender. +Gaius, indignant, vouchsafed them no answer, but committing to others +the conduct of the games withdrew into Campania. Later he returned to +celebrate the birthday of Drusilla, brought into the hippodrome on a +wagon her statue drawn by[10] elephants and gave the people a free show +for two days. The first day, besides the equestrian contests, he had five +hundred bears slaughtered, and on the second a like number of Libyan +beasts was used up. Athletes struggled in the pancratium at many +different points in the city. The populace was feasted and presents were +given to the senators and their wives. + + * * * * * + +[-14-] At the same time that he authorized these murders, apparently +because he was so very poor, he devised another kind of transaction. He +took the surviving combatants and sold them at an excessive valuation to +the consuls, the prætors, and the rest, meeting with acquiescence from +some and compelling others, who objected strenuously, to carry out his +wishes at the horse-races; and most of all he imposed upon the ones +especially selected by lot for this purpose, for he had ordered that two +prætors, just as it might happen, should be allotted to take charge of +the gladiatorial games. He himself sat on the auctioneer's platform and +kept outbidding them. Many also came from outside to bid against +them, particularly because he allowed such as wished to employ a +greater number of gladiators than the law permitted and because he +often had recourse to them himself. So people bought them for large +sums, some through need of the men, others thinking they should +gratify him, and the largest number (in case they were reputed to be +property-holders) out of a wish to avail themselves of this pretext for +spending some of their substance and thus by becoming poorer save +their lives. + +Yet, in spite of this action of his, he afterward put out of the way by +poison the best and most famous of these slaves. He did the same also in +the case of rival horses and charioteers, being greatly devoted to the +party that wore the frog green and from this color was called the Party +of the Leek. Even now the place where the chariots practiced is called +Galanum. One of the horses, that he named Incitatus, he invited to +dinner, offered him golden barley, and drank his health in wine from gold +goblets. He took oaths by the same beast's Guardian Spirit and Presiding +Fortune and promised besides that he would appoint him consul. This he +would certainly have done, too, if he had lived longer. + +[-15-] Now formerly for the purpose of providing funds it had been voted +that all those persons who had wished to leave anything to Tiberius +and were alive should at their death bestow the same upon Gaius. The +publication of a decree was deemed necessary to prevent its seeming that +he could break the laws in securing by inheritance such gifts; for he +had at the time neither wife nor children. But at the time of which I am +speaking he proceeded to levy for himself without any vote absolutely all +the property of men who had served among the centurions and had after the +triumph which his father celebrated left it to somebody other than the +emperor. When not even this sufficed, he hit upon the following third +means of raising money. There was a senator, Gnæus Domitius Corbulo, +who had noticed that the roads during the reign of Tiberius were in bad +condition and was always nagging the road commissioners about it and +furthermore kept making a nuisance of himself before the senate regarding +the matter. Gaius took him as a confederate and through him attacked +all those, alive or dead, who had ever been road commissioners and had +received money for repairing the highways. He fined both them and the men +who had secured any contracts from them, on the pretence that they had +spent nothing. For this help Corbulo was at the time made consul, +but later, in the reign of Claudius, he was accused and his conduct +investigated. Claudius made no further demands for any sums still owing +and after collecting what had been paid in, partly from the treasury and +partly from Corbulo, he returned it to the persons who had been fined. +All that was later. At this time these unfortunates one by one and +practically everybody else in the City were, as one might say, despoiled. +Of those who possessed anything there was no one,--not a man nor a +woman,--who got off scot free. Though he allowed some of the more elderly +persons to live, yet by calling them his fathers, grandfathers, mothers, +and grandmothers, he got revenue from them during their lifetime and +inherited their property when they died. + +[-16-] Up to this time he was always speaking ill of Tiberius before +everybody, and so far from rebuking others who criticised him privately +or publicly he enjoyed their language. But now he entered the +senate-house and eulogized his predecessor at length, besides severely +rebuking the senate and the people, saying that they did wrong in finding +fault with him. "I may do even this," he said, "in my capacity as +emperor, but you are not only unjust but also guilty of impiety[11] to +take such an attitude toward one who ruled you." Thereupon he considered +separately the case of each man who had lost his life and showed to his +own satisfaction that the senators had been responsible for the death of +most of them; some, he alleged, they had killed by accusation, some by +damning evidence, and all by sentence of condemnation. This he proved +by having some freedmen read it from those very documents which he once +declared he had burned. And he told them besides: "In case Tiberius +really did do wrong, you ought not to have honored him while he lived, +and at any rate, by Jupiter, you ought not to repudiate what you often +said and voted. But you both behaved toward him with fickleness and again +after filling Sejanus with conceit and spoiling him you put him to death, +and therefore I ought not either to expect any decent treatment from +you." After some such remarks he represented in his speech Tiberius +himself as saying to him: "All this that you have said has been good and +true. Therefore have no affection nor mercy for any one of them. They all +hate you: they all pray for your death. They will murder you if they can. +Hence do not stop to consider what acts of yours will please them and +heed none of their talk. Rather, have regard to your own pleasure and +safety solely, since that has the most just claim. In this way you +will suffer no harm and will enjoy all supremest pleasures. You will, +moreover, be honored by them whether they so desire or not. If you follow +a different course, it will be useless, and beyond an empty reputation +you will gain no advantage, but become the victim of plots and perish +ingloriously. No man living is ruled of his own free will, but the +element which is kept in fear, whatever its size, waits upon the stronger +element, whereas if it attains to courage, it always wreaks vengeance +upon the other, which has now become the weaker." + +At the close of this address Gaius reintroduced the complaints for +maiestas, ordered his commands to be inscribed upon a bronze tablet and +rushing hastily from the senate-house proceeded the same day to the +suburbs of the capital. The senate and the people were filled with great +fear as they thought of the denunciations against Tiberius, which they +had often uttered, and of the many surprises his speech had had in store +for them. Temporarily their alarm and dejection prevented them from +saying a word or transacting any business. Next day they assembled again, +praised Gaius unstintedly as a most sincere and pious ruler, and thanked +him profusely that they had not perished like others. Accordingly, +they voted annually to sacrifice cattle to the Spirit of Kindness that +animated him both on the anniversary of the day he had read this matter +just mentioned and on those belonging to the Palatium[12]: on such +occasions his image in gold was to be conducted to the Capitol and hymns +sung in its honor by the boys of noblest birth. They granted him also +the right to celebrate a lesser triumph, as though he had defeated some +enemies. This was what they voted at that meeting: later they added to it +extensively on almost every pretext. + +[-17-] Gaius took no heed of the celebration mentioned; it seemed to him +to be no great thing to drive a horse on land: but he had a desire to +ride horseback through the sea in a way, by bridging over the water +between Puteoli and Bauli. This locality is opposite the City, twenty-six +stades distant. Boats for the bridge were partly brought together and +partly built new for the purpose. For the number it had proved possible +to collect in a brief space of time was insufficient, although all +feasible vessels had been gathered, and it was principally this fact that +caused a serious famine in Italy and Rome. In joining these boats not +merely a passageway was constructed but resting places and waiting rooms +were built along in it, and these had running water fit for drinking. +When it was ready, he put on the breastplate of Alexander (or so he +said), and over it a purple silk chlamys, containing much gold and many +precious stones from India. He furthermore girt on a sword, took a +shield, and donned a garland of oak leaves. Next he offered sacrifice +to Neptune and some other gods and to Envy (in order, he said, that no +jealousy might attend him), and entered the passage from the end at +Bauli, taking with him great numbers of armed horsemen and foot soldiers; +and he made a fierce dash into the city as if he were after some enemies. +There he rested the following day, as though seeking respite from battle, +and wearing a gold-spangled tunic he returned on a chariot over the same +bridge. He was drawn by race-horses that were most competent to gain +victories. A long train of what was apparently spoils accompanied him, +among them Darius, one of the Arsacidæ, belonging to the group of +Parthians then serving as hostages. His friends and associates in +beflowered robes followed him on vehicles, as did the army and the rest +of the throng, which was decked out according to individual taste. Of +course, in the midst of such a campaign and after so magnificent a +victory he had to deliver a bit of an harangue: so he ascended a platform +which had likewise been erected at about the center of the bridge. First +he extolled himself as one who had undertaken a great enterprise; next +he praised the soldiers as men exhausted by the dangers they had faced, +adding the significant statement that they had traversed the sea on foot. +For this gallantry he gave them money and afterward for the rest of the +day and all through the night they enjoyed a banquet,--he on the bridge, +as though some island, and they at anchor on other boats. Light in +abundance shone upon them from the place itself and abundant light +besides from the mountains. For since the place was crescent-shaped, fire +was exhibited from all sides, as might be done in a theatre, so that no +one could notice the darkness. It was his wish to make the night day, as +he had made the sea land. When he had become full to excess of food and +strong drink, he threw numbers of his companions off the bridge into the +sea and sank many of the rest by making a circuitous attack upon them in +boats that had rams. Some perished, but the majority though drunk managed +to save themselves. The reason was that the sea showed itself extremely +smooth and tranquil both while the bridge was being put together and +while the other events were taking place. This, too, caused the emperor +some elation, and he said that even Neptune was afraid of him. As for +Darius and Xerxes, he made all manner of fun of them, inasmuch as he had +bridged over a far vaster expanse of sea than they. + +[-18-] The final episode in the career of that bridge, which I shall now +relate, proved another source of death to many. Inasmuch as the emperor +had exhausted his revenues in the construction he fell to plotting against +many more persons because of their property. He presided at trials both +privately and in company with the entire senate. That body also tried +some cases by itself, yet it had not full powers and there were many +appeals from its decisions. The decisions of the senate were merely +made public, but when any men were condemned by Gaius their names were +bulletined, as though he feared they might not learn their fate. These +met their punishment some in prison and others by being hurled from the +Capitoline. Still others killed themselves beforehand. There was no +safety even for such as left the country, but many of them, too, lost +their lives either on the road or while in banishment It is not worth +while to burden my readers unduly by going into the details of most of +these cases, but I may stop to notice Calvisius Sabinus, one of the +foremost men in the senate. He had recently come from governing Pannonia, +and he and his wife Cornelia were both indicted. The charge against +her was that she had visited some military posts and had watched some +soldiers practicing. These two did not stand trial but despatched +themselves before the time set. The same is to be recorded of Titius +Rufus, against whom a complaint was lodged that he had said the senate +had one thing in their minds but uttered something different. Also one +Junius Priscus, a prætor, was accused on various charges, but his death +was really due to the supposition that he was wealthy. Gaius, on learning +that he possessed nothing worth causing his death for, made this +remarkable statement: "He fooled me and perished uselessly when he might +as well have lived." + +[-19-] Among these men put on trial at this time Domitius Afer +encountered danger from an unexpected source and secured his preservation +in a still more remarkable way. Gaius was incensed against him (if for no +other reason) because in the reign of Tiberius he had accused a woman who +was related to the emperor's mother Agrippina. Later the woman had met +Afer and as she saw that out of embarrassment he stood aside from her +path she called to him and said (referring to the matter): "Never mind, +Domitius: it wasn't you, but Agamemnon, that caused me these troubles." +[13] Just about this time Afer had set up an image of the emperor and had +placed upon it an inscription showing that Gaius in his twenty-seventh +year was already consul for the second time. This vexed the latter, who +felt that undue notice was being given to his youth and his transgression +of the law. So for this action, for which Afer had looked to be honored, +he brought him before the senate and read a long speech against him. +Gaius always maintained that he surpassed all living orators, and knowing +that his adversary was an extremely gifted speaker he strove on this +occasion to excel him. He would certainly have put Afer to death, if the +latter had entered into the least competition with him. As it was, +the man made no answer or defence, but pretended to be astonished and +overcome by the cleverness of Gaius, and repeating the accusation point +by point he praised it as though he were some listener and not on trial. +When opportunity was given him to speak, he took to supplicating and +bewailing his lot; finally he threw himself on the earth and lying there +prostrate he besought his accuser, apparently fearing him as an orator +rather than as Cæsar. In this way the latter when he saw and heard what I +have described was melted, for he thought that he had really overwhelmed +Domitius by the eloquence of his address. For this reason, then, and on +account of Callistus the freedman, whom he was wont to honor and whose +favor Domitius had courted, he ceased his anger. And when Callistus later +blamed him for having accused the man in the first place, the emperor +answered: "It would not have been right for me to hide such a speech." +So Domitius was saved by being convicted of no longer being a skillful +speaker. + +On the other hand Lucius Annæus Seneca, who was superior in wisdom to all +the Romans of his day and to many other great men, came very near being +ruined, though he had done no wrong and there was no suspicion of such +a thing, but just because he pled a case well in the senate while his +sovereign was present. Gaius ordered him to be put to death, but let +him go because he believed what one of his female associates said, that +Seneca had a bad case of consumption and would die before a great while. + +[-20-] Directly he appointed Domitius consul and removed those who held +the office at the time: this he did because they had not proclaimed a +thanksgiving on the occasion of his birthday (the prætors had held a +horse-race and had slaughtered some beasts, but that happened every year) +whereas they had celebrated a festival to commemorate the victory of +Augustus over Antony. In order to find an accusation against them he +chose to figure as a descendant of Antony rather than of Augustus. He had +beforehand told those who shared his secrets that whichever the consuls +did they would certainly get into trouble, whether they offered sacrifice +as a mark of joy over Antony's disaster or whether they went without +sacrificing on such an occasion as the victory of Augustus. It was for +these reasons, then, that he summarily dismissed these officials and +broke to pieces their fasces. One of them took it so much to heart that +he killed himself. + +Domitius was chosen as the emperor's colleague nominally by the people +but actually by Gaius himself. The latter had, to be sure, restored +the elections to the populace, but they had become rather lax in the +performance of their duties because for a long time now they had enjoyed +none of the privileges of freemen; and as a rule no more office-seekers +presented themselves than were needed to fill vacant places, or if ever +there was an excessive number the outcome had been all arranged among +themselves. Thus the appearance of a democracy was preserved but none of +the proper results was secured; and this led Gaius himself to abolish the +elections again. After this things went on precisely as in the reign of +Tiberius. Sometimes fifteen prætors were chosen and again one more or +less, as it might happen. + +Such was the action he took regarding the elections. In general he +maintained a malignant and suspicious attitude toward quite everything +that went on, as witness his banishing Carrina Secundus the orator +because the latter had delivered in a gymnasium a speech against tyrants. +Also, when Lucius Piso, son of Plancina and Gnaeus Piso, chanced to +become governor of Africa, the emperor feared that pride might lead him +to revolt, particularly since he was to have a large force made up of +both citizens and foreigners. Hence the province was divided in two and +the military force together with the Nomads in the immediate vicinity was +assigned to a different official. That arrangement lasts to this day. + +[-21-] Gaius had now spent practically all the money in Rome and the rest +of Italy, gathered from every source from which he could in any way get +it, and as no resource that was of any value or practicable could be +found there, his expenses became a source of great annoyance to him. +Therefore he set out for Gaul, declaring hostilities against the Celtae +on the ground that they were showing some uneasiness, but in reality his +purpose was to get money from that region and Spain, where wealth was +also abundant. However, he did not make an outright declaration of his +destination, but went first to one of the suburbs and then suddenly +started on his journey, taking with him many dancers, gladiators, horses, +women, and the rest of the rout. When he reached the section he had in +view he did no damage to any of the enemy;--as soon as he had proceeded +a short distance beyond the Rhine he turned back, and next he started +apparently to conduct a campaign against Britain, but turned back from +the ocean's edge, showing no little vexation at his lieutenants because +they won some slight success;--among the subject peoples, however, and +among the allies and the citizens he wrought the greatest imaginable +havoc. In the first place he despoiled property holders on any and every +excuse, and second, individuals and cities brought him "voluntarily" +large gifts. He kept on murdering victims, alleging that some were +rebelling and others conspiring. The general complaint against them all +was that they were rich. The fact that he attended to the selling of +their possessions in person enabled him to obtain far greater sums than +would otherwise have been the case. Everybody was compelled to buy them, +under all sorts of conditions and for much more than their value, for the +reasons I have mentioned. Accordingly, he sent also for the finest and +most precious heirlooms of the government and auctioned them off, selling +with them the fame of the persons who had once used them. He would make +some comment on each one, such as "This belonged to my father," "this to +my mother," "this to my grandfather," "this to my great-grandfather," +"this Egyptian piece belonged to Antony--became a prize of Augustus." +Meantime he incidentally showed the necessity of selling them, so that no +one dared to appear to be indigent, and he sold with each article some +valuable association. + +[-22-] In spite of all this he did not secure any surplus. He kept up his +expenditures both for the objects that regularly interested him, +producing some spectacles at Lugdunum, and also for the army. For the +number of soldiers he had gathered amounted to twenty myriads, or, as +some say, to twenty-five myriads. Seven times was he named imperator by +them (just as pleased him), though he had won no battle and slain no +enemy. To be sure, he did once by a ruse seize and make prisoners a few +of the latter, but it was his own people whom he wasted most, striking +some of them down individually and butchering others _en masse_. Once he +saw a crowd either of prisoners or some other persons and gave orders (in +the cant phrase) that they should all be slain from baldhead to baldhead. +Another time he was playing dice and, finding that he had no money, +called for the census of the Gauls and ordered the wealthiest of them to +be put to death. Then he returned to his fellow gamblers and said: "Here +you are playing for a few denarii, while I have collected nearly fifteen +thousand myriads." So these men perished without consideration. Indeed, +one of them, Julius Sacerdos, who was fairly well off but not so +extremely wealthy as naturally to become the object of attack, +nevertheless fell a victim because of a similarity of names. This shows +how carelessly everything went. + +Others who perished I need not cite by name, simply mentioning enough +to satisfy the requirements of my record. One, then, that he killed was +Gastulicus Lentulus, a man of good reputation in every way, who had been +governor of Germany for ten years; his death was due to the fact that the +soldiers liked him. Another that he murdered was Lepidus, that lover and +favorite of his, husband of Drusilla, the man who together with Gaius had +maintained criminal relations with the emperor's other sisters Agrippina +and Julia, the man whom he had permitted to stand for office five years +earlier than the laws allowed, whom he also declared he should leave +to succeed him as emperor. To celebrate the event he gave the soldiers +money, as though he had worsted some hostile force, and sent three +daggers to Mars the Avenger in Rome. His sisters for their connection +with Lepidus he deported to the Portian islands, having first written +to the senate a great deal of outrageous and brutal comment upon them. +Agrippina was given the victim's bones in a jar and ordered to keep it in +her bosom throughout the entire journey and bring it back to Rome again. +Also, since many honors had been voted to these women on the emperor's +account, the emperor forbade any distinction being awarded to any of his +relatives again. + +[-23-] He sent to the senate at the time a report of the matter as if he +had escaped some great plot, for he was always pretending to be in danger +and to be leading a miserable existence. The senators on being apprised +of the facts passed several complimentary votes and granted him a lesser +triumph; they sent envoys to announce this, some of whom were chosen by +lot, but Claudius by election. That also displeased the emperor to such +an extent that he again forbade anything approaching praise or honor +being given to his relatives. He felt, too, that he had not been honored +as he deserved, and indeed he never made any account of the honors +granted him. It irritated him to have small distinctions voted, since +that implied a slight, and greater distinctions irritated him because +then he was deprived of the possibility of winning still higher prizes. +He did not wish it to seem that anything that brought him honors was in +the senators' power,--that would make them stronger than he,--nor again +that they should have the right to grant such a thing to him, as if they +had power and he was inferior to them. For this reason he ofttimes found +fault with various gifts, on the ground that they did not increase his +splendor but rather diminished his power. Being of this mind he used to +become angry at those who did him honor if in any case it seemed that +they had voted him less than he deserved. So capricious was he that no +one could easily suit him. + +Accordingly, for the reasons mentioned he would not receive all of those +ambassadors, affecting to mistrust that they were spies, but chose out +a few and sent the rest back before they reached Gaul. Those that he +admitted to his presence were not accorded any august reception; indeed, +he would have killed Claudius, had he not entertained a contempt for him, +since the latter partly by nature and partly with intention gave the +impression of great stupidity. Others were again sent, more in number +(for he had complained among other points of the smallness of the first +embassy), and they made the announcement that many marks of distinction +had been voted to him: these he received gladly, even going out to meet +them, for which action he received fresh honors at their hands. This, +however, was somewhat later. + +At the time under discussion Gaius divorced Paulina on the pretext that +she was barren, but really because he had had enough of her, and married +Milonia Cæsonia. She had formerly been his mistress, but now as she was +pregnant he chose to make her his wife and have her bear him a child a +month later. The people of Rome were disturbed by this behavior and were +still further disturbed because a number of trials were hanging over +their heads as a result of the friendship they had shown for his sisters +and for the men who had been murdered: even some ædiles and prætors were +compelled to resign their offices and stand trial.--Meantime they also +suffered from the excessive heat. This grew so extremely severe that +curtains were stretched across the Forum.--Among the men exiled at this +time Ofonius Tigillinus was banished on the charge of having had a +_liaison_ with Agrippina. + +[-24-] All this, however, did not distress the people so much as their +expectation that the cruelty and licentiousness of Gaius would go to +still greater lengths. They were particularly troubled on ascertaining +that King Agrippa and King Antiochus were with him, like two +tyrant-trainers. + +[A.D. 40 (_a. u._ 793)] + +As a consequence, while he was consul for the third time no tribune nor +prætor dared to convene the senate. For he had no colleague; though this, +as some think, was not intentional, but the regular appointee died and no +one else in so short a period of time as was available could be brought +forward in the comitia to fill his place. Moreover, the prætors who +attend to the affairs of the consuls, whenever the latter are out of +town, ought to have administered all business pending. But at this +period, in order not to appear to have acted for the emperor, they +performed none of their duties. The senators in a body ascended the +Capitoline, offered their sacrifices, and did obeisance to the chair +of Gaius located in the temple. Furthermore, according to a custom +prevailing in the time of Augustus, they deposited money, [14] making a +show of giving it to the emperor himself. Their practice was similar also +in the following year. At the time of the events just narrated they came +together in the senate-house after these proceedings, without any person +having convened them, but accomplished nothing, wasting the whole day in +laudations of Gaius and prayers in his behalf. Since they had no love +for him nor any wish that he should survive, they simulated both these +feelings to all the greater extent, as if hoping in this way to disguise +their real sentiments. On the third day devoted to prayers they came +together in response to an announcement of a meeting made by all the +prætors in a written notice: still, they transacted no business on this +day nor again on the next until on the twelfth day word was brought that +Gaius had resigned his office. Then at last the men who had been elected +for subsequent service succeeded to the position and administered the +business that fell to them. It was voted among other measures that the +same honors should be given to the birthdays of Tiberius and of Drusilla +as to that of Augustus. The actor folk also celebrated a festival, +provided a spectacle, and set up and dedicated images of Gaius and +Drusilla.--This was in accordance with a letter of Gaius. Whenever he +wished any business brought up he communicated in writing a small portion +of it to all the senators, but most of it to the consuls, and then +sometimes ordered this to be read in the senate.--So much for the +transactions of the senate. + +[-25-] Meanwhile Gaius sent for Ptolemæus, the son of Juba, and on +ascertaining that he was wealthy put him to death and a number of others +with him. Also when he reached the ocean and was to all appearances about +to conduct a campaign in Britain and had drawn up all the soldiers on the +beach, he embarked on the triremes but after putting out a little from +the land he sailed back again. Next he took his seat on a high platform +and gave his soldiers the watchword as if for battle, while the +trumpeters urged them on. All of a sudden, however, he ordered them to +gather the shells. Having secured these "spoils" (you see he needed booty +for the celebration of his triumph) he became immensely elated, assuming +that he had enslaved the ocean itself; and he gave his soldiers many +presents. The shells he took back to Rome for the purpose of exhibiting +the spoils to the people there as well. The senate did not see how it +could remain inactive in the face of this procedure, inasmuch as it +learned he was in an exalted frame of mind, nor yet again how it could +praise him. For, when anybody bestows great praise or extraordinary +honors for a small success or none at all, that person becomes suspected +of making a mock and jest of the affair. Still, for all that, when +Gaius entered the City he came very near devoting the whole senate to +destruction because it had not voted him divine honors. But he contented +himself with assembling the populace, upon whom he showered from a raised +position quantities of silver and gold. Many perished in the effort to +seize it; for, as some say, he had mixed small knife-blades in with the +coin. + + As a result of his adulteries he repeatedly received the titles of + imperator and Germanicus and Britannicus no less than if he had subdued + Gaul and Britain entire. + + Since this was his manner of life, he was destined inevitably to be + plotted against. He was on the lookout for an attack and arrested + Anicius Cerealius and his son Sextus Papinius, whom he put to the + torture. And inasmuch as the former would not utter a word, he + persuaded Papinius (by promising him safety and immunity) to denounce + certain persons (whether truly or falsely); he then straightway + put to death both Cerealius and the rest before his very eyes. + There was a Betilienus Bassus whom he had ordered killed, and + he compelled Capito, the man's father, to be present at his son's + execution, though Capito was not guilty of any crime and had received + no court summons. When the father enquired if he would allow him + to shut his eyes, Gaius ordered him to be slain likewise. He, finding + himself in danger, pretended to have been one of the plotters and + promised that he would disclose the names of all the rest; and he + named the companions of Gaius and those who abetted his licentiousness + and cruelty. He would have brought destruction upon many persons, + had he not by laying further information against the prefects, and + Callistus and Cæsonia, aroused distrust. So he was put to death, but + this very act paved the way for the ruin of Gaius. For the emperor + privately summoned the prefects and Callistus and said to them: + "I am but one and you are three; and I am defenceless, whereas + you are armed: hence, if you hate and desire to kill me, slay me at + once." The general consequences were that he came to regard himself + as an object of hatred, and believing that they were vexed at his + behavior he harbored suspicion against them and wore a sword at his + side when in the City; and to forestall any harmony of action on their + part he attempted to embroil them one with another by pretending to + make a confidant of each one separately and talking to him about the + rest until they obtained a notion of his designs and left him a prey + to the conspirators. + + The same emperor ordered the senate to convene and affected to + grant its members amnesty, saying that there were only a very few + against whom he still retained his anger. This expression doubled the + anxiety of each one of them, for everybody was thinking of himself. + +[-26-] Another person, named Protogenes, assisted the emperor in all his +projects, and carried continually on his person two books, of which he +called the one "sword" and the other "dagger." This Protogenes once +entered the senate as if on some indifferent business and when all, as +was to be expected, saluted and greeted him, he darted a kind of sinister +glance at Scribonius Proculus and said: "Do you, too, greet me, though +you hate the emperor so?" On hearing this all those present surrounded +their fellow senator and tore him to pieces and voted [some festivals +to Gains as also] that the emperor should have a high platform in the +senate-house to prevent any one's approaching him, besides enjoying the +use of a military guard even there. [They resolved further that his +statues should be guarded. + +Pleased at this Gaius laid aside his anger toward them and with a buoyant +spirit promised them some money. Pomponius, who was said to have plotted +against him, he released, inasmuch as he had been betrayed by a friend. +And, as the man's mistress when tortured would not utter a word, he did +her no further harm and even gave her an honorary gift of money. Gaius +was praised for this partly through fear and partly sincerely, and] as +some called him hero and others god, he fairly went out of his head. Even +before this he was in the habit of demanding that he be given superhuman +regard and said that he had intercourse with the Moon Goddess and was +crowned by Victory. He also pretended to be Jupiter and took this as a +pretext for having carnal knowledge of various women, especially his +sisters. Again he would often figure as [Neptune, because he had bridged +so great an expanse of sea, or perhaps as] Juno and Diana and Venus. +[He would impersonate Hercules, Bacchus, Apollo, and all the other +divinities, not merely males but also females.] As fast as he changed the +names he would assume all the rest of the attributes that belonged to +them, [so that he might seem to resemble them]. Now he would be seen in +feminine guise, holding a wine-cup and thyrsus, again with masculine +trappings he would carry a club and lion-skin: [or perhaps a helmet +and shield]. He would make up first with smooth chin and later on as a +bearded man. Sometimes he wielded a trident and on other occasions he +brandished the thunderbolt. He would array himself like a maiden equipped +for [hunting or] war, and after a brief interval would come forth as a +woman. Thus he could make changes with careful attention to details by +the variety of his dress and by what he attached to or threw over it, and +he was anxious to appear to be anything rather than a human being [and +an emperor]. Once a certain Gaul, espying him on a, high platform +transacting business in the guise of Jupiter, laughed aloud. Gaius +called to him and asked: "What do I seem to you to be?" And the other +answered--I shall tell his exact words--: "A big pack of foolishness." Yet +the man met no dire fate, for he was a shoemaker. Persons of such rank as +Gaius can bear the frankness of the common herd more easily than that of +those who hold high position.--Now this was the attire he would +assume whenever he pretended to be some god; and there were suitable +supplications, prayers, and sacrifices offered to it. [-27-] Otherwise, +he usually appeared in public in silk and triumphal dress. Very few were +those whom he would kiss. To most of the senators even he extended his +hand or foot for homage. Consequently the men who were kissed by him +thanked him for it even in the senate, though all might see him kissing +dancers every day. [And these divine honors paid him came not only from +the many, accustomed at all times to flatter, but from those who really +pretended to be something.] + +Take the case of Lucius Vitellius, not of low birth nor without sense, a +man who, on the contrary, had become famous by his governorship of Syria. +In addition to his other brilliant exploits as an official he spoiled +a plot of Artabanus in that region. He encountered the latter, who had +suffered no punishment for Armenia, already close to the Euphrates and +terrified him by his sudden appearance. He then induced him to come to +a conference and finally compelled him to sacrifice to the images of +Augustus and Gaius. Furthermore he made a peace with him that was +advantageous for the Romans and secured his children as hostages. This +Vitellius, then, was summoned by Gaius to be put to death. The complaint +against him was the same as the Parthians had against their king whom +they expelled. Jealousy made him the object of hatred, and fear the +object of plots. [For every power stronger than himself Gaius entertained +hatred, and he was suspicious of whatever was successful, feeling sure +that it would ultimately attack him.] But Vitellius saved his life by +somehow presenting himself in such a way as to appear of less importance +than his reputation would lead one to expect. He fell at the emperor's +feet shedding tears of lamentation, all the time saluting him frequently +as divine and paying him worship; at last he vowed that should he survive +he would sacrifice to Gaius. By this behavior he so mollified the +offended monarch and won his good-will that he not only managed to +survive but came to be regarded as one of his lord's most intimate +friends. On one occasion Gaius declared he was enjoying converse with the +Moon Goddess, and when he asked Vitellius if he could see the goddess +with him, the other kept his eyes fixed on the ground, as if overcome by +amazement. In a half whisper he answered: "Only you gods, master, may +behold one another."--So Vitellius from these beginnings, later came to +surpass all others in adulation. + +[-28-] [Gaius gave orders that in Miletus of the province of Asia a +certain tract of land should be set apart for his worship. His avowed +reason for choosing this city was that Diana had preempted Ephesus, +Augustus Pergamum, and Tiberius Smyrna. The truth of the matter, however, +was that he had conceived a desire to appropriate to his own use the +large and extremely beautiful temple which the Milesians were building to +Apollo. Thereupon he went to still greater lengths and built actually in +Rome itself one temple of his own that was accorded him by vote of the +senate, and another at his private expense on the Capitoline.] He also +planned a kind of dwelling on the Capitol, in order, as he said, that he +might live in the same house with Jupiter. However, he disdained taking +second place in this union of households and found fault with the god for +occupying the Capitol before him: accordingly, he hastened to construct +another temple on the Palatine and by way of a statue for it thought he +should like to change that of Olympian Jove so as to resemble himself. +This he found impossible, for the boat built to bring it was shattered by +thunderbolts, and loud laughter was plainly heard as often as any persons +approached the pedestal to take hold of it. So after hurling threats at +the obdurate image he set up a new one of himself.--The temple of the +Dioscuri in the Roman Forum he cut in two and made through it an approach +to the Palatine running right between the statues, to the end (these +were at all events his words) that he might have the Dioscuri for +gate-keepers. Assuming the name of Dialius [15] he attached Cæsonia his +wife, Claudius, and other persons who were very wealthy to his service as +priests, receiving from each one two hundred and fifty myriads for this +honor. He also consecrated himself to his own service and appointed his +horse a fellow-priest. Dainty and expensive birds were daily sacrificed +to him; he had a contrivance by which he defied the thunder with +answering peals and could send return flashes when it lightened. Likewise +whenever a bolt fell, he would in turn hurl a javelin at a rock, +repeating each time the words of Homer: "Either lift me or I will thee." +[16] [When thirty days after her marriage Cæsonia brought forth a +little daughter, he pretended that this, too, had come about through +supernatural means and gave himself airs on the fact that in so few days +after becoming a husband he was a father. He gave the child the name of +Drusilla, and taking her up to the Capitol placed her on the knees of +Jupiter, with the implication that she was his child, and put her in +charge of Minerva to be suckled.] This god, then, this Jupiter,--[he +was called by the latter name so much that it even found its way into +documents,--at the same time that all this took place was collecting +money in most shameful and most frightful ways.] One may, to be sure, +[leave out of account the wares and the taverns, the brothels [17] and +the courts, the artisans and the wage-earning slaves] and other such +sources from [every single one of] which he gathered funds; but how can +one escape mentioning the rooms set apart in the very palace and +the wives of the foremost men as well as the children of the most +aristocratic families that he shut up in these rooms and foully abused, +sparing absolutely no one in his greed for such victims, meeting with no +resistance from some [who wished to avoid showing any displeasure] but +seizing others quite against their will? [Yet these proceedings did not +displease the mob very much, but they rather delighted with him in his +licentiousness and in the fact that] he also would throw himself on the +heap of gold and silver collected from these persons and roll in it. +[When, however, after enacting severe laws in regard to the taxes he +inscribed them in exceedingly small letters on a tablet which he then +hung up aloft so as to make sure that it should be read as little as +possible and that many through ignorance of what was bidden or forbidden +should make themselves liable to the penalties thereof, the people +straightway ran together excitedly into the hippodrome and raised fierce +shouts.] + +Once the people had come together in the hippodrome and were objecting +to his conduct, and he had them cut down by the soldiers. In this way he +imposed silence upon them all. + +[A.D. 41 (a. u. 794)] + +[-29-] As he continued to show insanity in every way, a plot was formed +against him by Cassius Chairea and Cornelius Sabinus, though they were +holding tribuneships in his pretorian guard. A number were in the +conspiracy and privy to what was being done, among whom were Callistus +and the prefect. + +Practically all of his courtiers were interested, both in their own +behalf and for the common good. Any who did not take part in the +conspiracy still refused to reveal it, though they knew of it and were +glad to see a plot formed against him. + +But the men who actually killed Gaius were those mentioned. It is worth +noting, besides, that Chairea was an old-fashioned sort of man and had a +private cause for anger. Gaius was in the habit of nicknaming him "sissy" +(though he was the hardiest of men) and whenever it came the turn of +Chairea to command would give him some such watchword as "yearning" or +"Venus." Again, an oracle had a short time before warned Gaius to beware +of Cassius. The former, supposing that it had reference to Gaius Cassius, +governor of Asia at the time, because he was a descendant of that Cassius +who had slain Cæsar, had him brought as a prisoner. The person whose +future conduct the divinity was really indicating to the emperor, +however, was this Cassius Chairea. Likewise a certain Egyptian, +Apollonius, foretold in his native land what happened to him. For this +speech he was sent to Rome and was brought before the emperor the day on +which the latter was destined to die; his punishment was postponed till a +little later, and in this way his life was saved. + +The deed was done as follows: Gaius was celebrating a festival in the +palace and was attending to the production of a spectacle. In the course +of this he was himself both eating and drinking and was feasting the rest +of the company. Pomponius Secundus, consul at the time, was taking his +fill of the food as he sat by the emperor's feet, and at the same time +kept continually bending over to shower kisses upon them. Gaius himself +decided that he wanted to dance and act as a tragedian. The followers of +Chairea could endure it no longer. As he went out of the theatre to see +the boys of most noble lineage whom he had imported from Greece and Ionia +to sing the hymn composed in his honor, the conspirators wounded him, +then intercepted him in a narrow passage and killed him. When he fell to +the ground none of those present would keep his hands off him but they +all savagely stabbed the lifeless corpse again and again. Some chewed +pieces of his flesh. His wife and daughter were immediately slain. + +So Gaius, who accomplished all these exploits in three years, nine +months, and twenty-eight days, learned by actual experience that he was +not a god. + + Now he was openly spurned by those who had been accustomed to + do him reverence even when absent. His blood was spilled by persons + who were wont to speak and to write of him as "Jove" and "god." + His statues and his images were dragged from their pedestals, for the + people in particular retained a lively remembrance of the distress they + had endured. + + All the soldiers in the Germanic division raised an outcry and their + remonstrance extended to the point of indulging in slaughter. + +Those who stood by remembered the words once spoken by him to the +populace: "How I wish you had but one neck!" and made it plain to him +that it was he who had but one neck, whereas they had many hands. And +when the pretorian guard, filled with consternation, began running about +and demanding who had slain Gaius, Valerius Asiaticus, an ex-consul, took +a remarkable mode of bringing them to their senses, in that he climbed +up to a conspicuous place and cried out: "I only wish I had killed him!" +This alarmed them so that they stopped their outcry. + + All such persons as in any way acknowledged the authority of the + senate obeyed their oaths and became once more quiet.--While the + overthrow of Gaius was thus being accomplished, the consuls Sentius + and Secundus forthwith transferred the funds from the treasure-chambers + to the Capitol. They stationed most of the senators and + plenty of soldiers as guards over it to prevent any plundering being + done by the populace. So these men in company with the prefects + and the circle of Sabinus and Chairea deliberated as to what should + be done. + + +[Footnote 1: Emended by Boissevain from the "four" of the MS.] + +[Footnote 2: Boissevain restores the MS. "ten" in place of the "twelve" +of Robert Estienne.] + +[Footnote 3: Compare Suetonius, Life of Gaius, chapter 15.] + +[Footnote 4: This sentence is unintelligible and doubtless the MS. is +corrupt. No editor has offered a wholly satisfactory emendation, though +by comparing Book Sixty, chapter 4, the sense would seem to require: "no +one, in taking the oath, mentions the name of Tiberius in the number of +the emperors."] + +[Footnote 5: Reading (with Boissevain) [Greek: exoruxas] for [Greek: +dioruxas].] + +[Footnote 6: This predicate is supplied on the suggestion of Boissevain. +In the MS. an evident gap of a few words exists.] + +[Footnote 7: Adopting the emendation of Bücheler, [Greek: ieraes +eichosin].] + +[Footnote 9: Boissevain remarks that this sentence may be interpreted to +mean "All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed pleasure +at [decrees passed in her honor], as being grieved [at her death], or +behaved as if they were glad [that she had become a goddess]," but adds +that the text is open to suspicion.] + +[Footnote: 10 Reading [Greek: up] (a suggestion of Boissevain's) in place +of [Greek: hép] Compare Book Sixty-one, chapter 16.] + +[Footnote 11: Inserting with Bekker [Greek: alla chai asebeite.]] + +[Footnote 12: This expression is obscure. Fabricius thought it contained +a reference to the Palatine Games, and Boissevain queries whether we +should read "at the _spectacles_ belonging to the Palatium."] + +[Footnote 13: This is a quotation of the speech made by Achilles to the +heralds whom Agamemnon despatches to the hero's hut in pursuance of the +threat previously uttered that he (Agamemnon) will take Briseis, favorite +of Achilles, in lieu of Chryseis, surrendered to her father. (From +Homer's Iliad, Book I, verse 335.)] + +[Footnote 14: Sc. "in it"? (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 15: According to Boissevain, this is very probably a MS. error +for _Jupiter Latiaris_.] + +[Footnote 16: From Homer's Iliad, Book Twenty-three, verse 724.] + +[Footnote 17: Reading (with Reiske) pornas for ornas] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +60 + +Claudius is made emperor: his faults and excellencies (chapters 1-7). + +He restores their kingdoms to Antiochus, to both the Mithridates, to +Agrippa, to Herod, and enlarges the size of the same (chapter 8). + +The Chatti, Chauci, Mauri are overcome (chapters 8, 9). + +Certain regulations: the harbor of Ostia: Lake Fucinus to empty into the +Tiber (chapters 10-13). + +Assassinations instituted: crimes of Messalina and the freedmen (chapters +14-18). + +Britain is partially subdued (chapters 19-23). + +Certain regulations: outrages of Messalina: the causes of her demise +(chapters 24-31). + +Agrippina is wed: she at once enacts the role of a Messalina: at length +she murders Claudius (chapters 32-35). + +These events occurred during the remainder of the consulship of C. Cæsar +(4th) and Cn. Sentius Saturninus, together with 13 other years in which +the following held the consulship. + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (II), C. Cæcina Largus. (A.D. 42 = a. u. 795 = Second +of Claudius, from Jan. 24th.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (III), L. Vitellius (II). (A.D. 43 = a. u. 796 = +Third of Claudius.) + +L. Quinctius Crispinus (II), M. Statilius Taurus. (A.D. 44 = a. u. 797 = +Fourth of Claudius.) + +M. Vinicius (II), T. Statilius Taurus Corvinus. (A.D. 45 = a. u. 798 = +Fifth of Claudius.) + +Valerius Asiaticus (II), M. Iunius Silanus. (A.D. 46 = a. u. 799 = Sixth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (IV), L. Vitellius (III). (A.D. 47 = a. u. 800 = +Seventh of Claudius.) + +A. Vitellius, L. Vipsanius. (A.D. 48 = a. u. 801 = Eighth of Claudius.) + +C. Pompeius Longinus Gallus, Q. Veranius. (A.D. 49 = a. u. 802 = Ninth of +Claudius.) + +C. Antistius Vetus, M. Suillius Nervilianus. (A.D. 50 = a. u. 803 = Tenth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (V), Ser. Cornelius Orfitus. (A.D. 51 = a. u. 804 = +Eleventh of Claudius.) + +Cornelius Sulla Faustus, L. Salvius Otho Titianus. (A.D. 52 = a. u. 805 = +Twelfth of Claudius.) + +Dec. Iunius Silanus Torquatus, Q. Haterius Antoninus. (A.D. 53 = a. u. +806 = Thirteenth of Claudius.) + +M. Asinius Marcellus, Manius Acilius Aviola. (A.D. 54 = a. u. 807 = +Fourteenth of Claudius--to October 13th.) + + +_(BOOK 60, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 41 (_a. u._ 794)] + +[-1-] When Gaius perished in the manner described, the consuls despatched +guards to every quarter of the city and gathered the senate on the +Capitol, where many diverse opinions were uttered. Some favored a +democracy, some a monarchy; some were for choosing this man, and others +that. Therefore they spent the rest of the day and the whole night +without accomplishing anything. Meanwhile some soldiers who had entered +the palace for the purpose of making spoil of something or other found +Claudius hidden away in a dark corner. He was attending Gaius when the +latter came out of the theatre, and at this time through fear of the +confusion had crouched down out of the way. At first, the men thinking +that he was some one else and perhaps had something worth taking dragged +him out. Afterwards, on recognizing him, they hailed him as emperor and +conducted him to the camp. Then in company with their comrades they +delivered to him the entire power of government, inasmuch as he was of +the imperial race and was regarded as suitable. In spite of his shrinking +and remonstrance the more he attempted to avoid the honor and to resist +the more did the soldiers in turn insist upon not accepting an emperor +from others but upon their own right to establish such a sovereign over +the entire world. Hence, with a show of reluctance, he yielded. The +consuls for a time sent tribunes and others forbidding him to assume any +such authority and to submit to the jurisdiction of the people and the +senate and the laws; but, when their attendant soldiers left them in the +lurch, then finally they too yielded and voted him all the remaining +privileges pertaining to sole rulership. + +[-2-] So it was that Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, the son of +Drusus child of Livia, obtained the imperial power without having been +previously tested at all in any position of authority, save only that he +had been consul. He was fifty years of age. In mental development he was +by no means inferior, having been through a sufficient education to do +a little history writing, but physically he was frail, and his head and +hands shook a little. Hence his voice was also faltering and he did not +himself read all the measures that he introduced before the senate but +would give them to the quæstor to read,--though at first, at least, +he was regularly present. Whatever he did read in person he generally +recited sitting down. He was the first of the Romans, too, to employ a +covered chair,--which has led to the present custom which prescribes that +not only the emperors be carried in chairs but we ex-consuls, as well. +Before this time, Augustus, Tiberius, and some others used to be carried +sometimes in litters such as women even at the present day affect. These +infirmities, however, were not the cause of nearly so much trouble to +him as were the freedmen and women with whom he associated; for more +conspicuously than any of his peers he was ruled by slaves and by women. +From a child he had been reared with careful nursing and in the midst of +terror and had for that reason feigned simplicity to a greater extent +than was really true this fact he himself admitted in the senate: and as +he had lived for a long time with his grandmother Livia and for another +long period with his mother Antonia and again with liberti, and moreover +had had several amours with women, he had acquired no qualities becoming +a freeman, but although ruler of all the Romans and their subjects he was +himself nothing more nor less than a slave. They would take advantage of +him particularly when he was inclined to drink and sexual intercourse, +for in both these directions he was quite insatiable and on such +occasions was exceedingly easy to master. Moreover, he was afflicted by +cowardice, which frequently roused in him so great alarm that he could +not calculate anything as he ought. They anticipated this failing of his, +too, and it was no inconsiderable help toward getting the better of him. +By frightening him half to death they would reap great benefits, and in +other people they inspired so much fear that--to give an epitome of the +situation--once when a number were on the same day invited to dinner by +Claudius and again by his dependents, the guests neglected him on +some indifferent pretext and presented themselves at the feast of his +companions. + +[-3-] Though, generally speaking, he was the sort of character described, +still he performed not a few valuable services whenever he was free from +the influences mentioned and was master of himself. I shall take up his +acts in detail. + +All honors voted to him he immediately accepted, except the title +"Father," and this he afterward took: yet he did not at once enter the +senate, but delayed as late as the thirtieth day. The fact that he had +seen Gaius perish as he did and now learned that some other candidates, +presumably superior to himself, had been proposed for emperor by the +senatorial body made him a little timid. Therefore he exercised great +caution at all points and caused all men and women who approached him to +be searched, for fear they might have a dagger. At banquets he made sure +there were some soldiers present,--a custom which, set by him, continues +to this day. That of invariable search was brought to an end by +Vespasian. He put to death Chairea and some others in spite of his +pleasure at the death of Gaius. In other words he looked far ahead to +ensure his own safety, and was not so much grateful to the man for having +by his deed enabled him to get the empire as he was displeased at the +idea of any one assassinating an emperor. He acted in this matter not as +an avenger of Gaius but as one who had caught a person plotting against +himself. As a sequel to this murder Sabinus also died by his own hand, +not choosing to survive after his comrade had been executed. + +As for all other citizens who had openly shown their eagerness for +a democracy or had been regarded as eligible for the supreme power. +Claudius so far from bearing malice toward them gave them honors and +offices. In plainer terms than any ruler that ever lived he promised +them immunity,--therein imitating the example of the Athenians,[1] as +he said,--and it was no mere promise, but he afforded it in fact. He +abolished complaints of maiestas alike for things written and things +done and punished no one on any such charge for either earlier or later +offences. He invented no complaint for the sake of persecuting those who +had wronged or insulted him when he was a private citizen; and there were +many who had done this, particularly as he was deemed of no importance, +and to please either Tiberius or Gaius. If, however, he found them guilty +of some other crime, he would take vengeance on them also for their +former abuse. [-4-] The taxes introduced in the reign of Gaius and +whatever other measures had led to denunciation of the latter's acts were +done away with by Claudius, not all at once but as opportunity offered. +He also brought back such persons as Gaius had unjustly exiled,---among +others the latter's sisters Agrippina and Julia,--and restored to them, +their property. Of those imprisoned,--and a very great number were in +this predicament,--he liberated such as were suffering for maiestas or +any similar complaints, but real criminals he punished. + +He investigated the cases very carefully, in order that those who had +committed crimes should not be released on account of the victims of +blackmail, nor yet the latter be ruined on account of the former. Nearly +every day either in company with the entire senate or alone he would sit +on a platform trying cases, generally in the Forum, but occasionally +elsewhere. In fact, he renewed the custom of having men sit as his +colleagues, which had been abandoned ever since Tiberius withdrew to the +island. Very often he joined the consuls and the prætors and especially +those having charge of the finances in their investigations, and some few +matters he turned over entirely to the various courts. He destroyed the +poisons (which were found in great variety among the effects of Gaius); +and the books of Protogenes (who was put to death) together with the +documents which Gaius pretended to have burned but which were actually +found in the imperial archives he showed to the senators and gave them to +the latter, to the very men who had written them, no less than to those +against whom they had been written, to read: afterward he burned them up. +Yet, when the senate manifested a desire to dishonor Gaius, he personally +prevented such a measure from being voted, but on his own responsibility +caused all of his predecessor's images to disappear by night. Hence the +name of Gaius does not occur in the list of emperors whom we mention +in oaths and prayers any more than that of Tiberius. Neither of them, +however, suffered any official disgrace. + +[-5-] Accordingly, the unjust institutions set up by Gaius and by others +on his account Claudius overturned. To Drusus his father and Antonia +his mother he offered horse-races on their birthdays, putting off to +different days the festivals which would occur on the same dates, in +order that there should not be two celebrations at once. His grandmother +Livia was not only honored by equestrian contests, but was deified, and +he set up a statue to her in the temple of Augustus, charging the vestal +virgins with the duty of offering sacrifice in proper form. He also +ordered that women should use her name in taking oaths. + +Though he paid such reverence to his ancestors, he himself would accept +nothing beyond the names pertaining to his office. On the first day of +August, to be sure,--his birthday,--there were equestrian contests, but +not on his account: it was because the temple of Mars had been dedicated +on that day, which had consequently been distinguished thereafter by +annual contests. + +Beside moderation in this respect he further forbade any one's worshiping +him or offering him any sacrifice; he checked the many excessive +acclamations accorded him; and he accepted only one image,--of +silver,--and two statues, of bronze and stone, that had been voted to +him at the start. All such expenditures, he declared, were useless and +furthermore inflicted great loss and great annoyance upon the city. All +the temples and all the rest of the public works had been filled with +statues and votive offerings, so that he said he should have to make it +a matter of thought what to do with them. He forbade the prætors' giving +gladiatorial games and ordained that any one else who superintended them +in any place whatsoever should not allow to be written or reported the +statement that such games were being held for the emperor's preservation. +He became so used to settling all these matters by considering the merits +of each case rather than according to the dictates of custom that he +adopted the same attitude toward other departments of life. For instance, +when this year he betrothed one of his daughters to Lucius Junius Silanus +and gave the other in marriage to Gnæus Pompeius Magnus, he did nothing +out of the common to commemorate the occasion, but attended the courts +in person on those days and convened the senate as usual. He ordered his +sons-in-law temporarily to hold office among the viginti viri, and later +to act as prefects of the city at the Feriæ. After a long interval he +gave them the right to stand for the other offices five years sooner than +was customary. + +Gaius had despoiled this Pompeius of his title _Magnus_ and came very +near killing him because he was so named. Yet out of contempt for him, +since he was still but a boy, he did not go to such extremes, and merely +abolished the offending epithet, saying that it was not safe for any one +to be called Magnus. Claudius now restored to him this title and gave him +his daughter to wife. + +[-6-] These were certainly commendable actions. In addition, when at one +time in the senate the consuls came down from their seats to talk with +him, he rose in turn and went to meet them. In Naples he lived entirely +like a private citizen. He and his associates while there adopted the +Greek manner of life invariably; at the musical entertainments he would +wear cloak and military boots, and at the gymnastic exercises a purple +robe and golden crown. His action, moreover, in regard to money was +remarkable, for he forbade any one to bring him contributions, as had +been customary in the reigns of Augustus and of Gaius, and he refused +to allow any person to name him as heir if such person possessed any +relatives whatever. Indeed, the funds that had been confiscated by +government order during the period of Tiberius and Gaius he gave back +either to the victims themselves, if they still survived, or otherwise to +their children. + +It had been the custom[2] that if any slightest detail were carried out +contrary to precedent on the occasion of the games these should be given +over again, as I have stated. But since such occasions were frequent, +occurring a third, fourth, fifth, and sometimes tenth time, and this +partly by accident but generally by intention on the part of those +benefited by these happenings, he enacted a law that on only one day +should the equestrian contests take place a second time; in fact, +however, he usually abrogated this privilege also. The schemers +henceforth easily avoided falling into irregularities, as they gained +very little by so doing. + +In the matter of the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by +reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a +tumult to bar them from the City, he decided not to drive them out, but +ordered them to follow that mode of life prescribed by their ancestral +custom and not to assemble in numbers.--The clubs instituted by Gaius he +disbanded.--Also, seeing that there was no use in forbidding the populace +to do certain things unless their daily life should be reorganized, +he abolished the taverns where they were wont to gather and drink and +commanded that no dressed meat nor warm water[3] should be sold. Some who +disobeyed this ordinance were punished. + +He restored to the various cities the statues which Gaius was in the +habit of requiring them to send, restored also to the Dioscuri +their temple and to Pompey the right of naming the theatre. On the +stage-building of the latter he inscribed also the name of Tiberius, +because that emperor had rebuilt the structure when it was burned. His +own name he had chiseled there likewise (not because he had reared it +but because he had dedicated it), but on no other part of the edifice. +Likewise he did not wear the triumphal garb the entire time of the games, +though permission was voted to him, but appeared in it merely to +offer sacrifice; the rest of the festival he superintended in the +purple-bordered garment. + +[-7-] He introduced in the orchestra among others knights and women who +were his peers, who had been accustomed in the reign of Gaius so to +appear regularly. The reason was not that he liked their performance, +but that he wanted a proof of their past behavior. Certainly none of them +was again marshaled on the stage during the era of Claudius. The Pyrrhic +dance, which the boys sent for by Gaius were practicing, they were +allowed to perform once, were honored with citizenship for it, and were +then dismissed. Others, in turn, chosen from among the retinue, then gave +exhibitions.--This was what took place in theatrical circles. + +In the hippodrome twelve camels and horses had one contest, and three +hundred bears together with an equal number of Libyan beasts were +slaughtered. Previous to this time the different classes in attendance +had watched the spectacle each from its own special location,--senators, +knights, and populace; thus it had come to be a regular practice, yet no +definite positions had been assigned to them. [-8-] It was at this time +that Claudius marked off the space which still belongs to the senate, +and furthermore he allowed those senators who chose to view the sights +somewhere else and even in citizen's dress. After this he banqueted the +senators and their wives, the knights, and likewise the tribes. + +Next he restored Commagene to Antiochus, for Gaius, though he had himself +given him the district, had taken it away again; and Mithridates the +Iberian, whom Gaius had summoned only to imprison, he sent home again to +resume his sovereignty. To another Mithridates, a lineal descendant of +Mithridates the Great, he granted Bosporus, giving to Polemon some land +in Cilicia in place of it. He enlarged the domain of Agrippa of Palestine +(who, happening to be in Rome, had helped him become emperor), and +bestowed on him consular honors. To the latter's brother Herod he gave +pretorial dignities and some authority. They were allowed to enter the +senate and to express their thanks to him in Greek.--Now these were the +acts of Claudius himself, and they were lauded by all. + +But certain other deeds were done at this time of an entirely different +nature by his freedmen and by his wife, Valeria Messalina. She became +enraged at her niece Julia because the latter neither paid her honor nor +flattered her; and she was also jealous because the girl was extremely +beautiful and had been the only one to enjoy the favor of Claudius +several times. Accordingly, she had her banished by bringing against her +among other complaints that of adultery (for which Annius Seneca was also +exiled) and after a while she succeeded in procuring Julia's death. As +for the freedmen, it was they who persuaded Claudius to accept triumphal +honors for his deeds in Mauretania, though he had not been successful and +had not yet attained imperial power when the end of the war came. This +same year, however, Sulpicius Galba overcame the Chatti, and Publius +Gabinius conquered the Cauchi[4] beside winning fame in other ways; for +instance, he recovered a military eagle, the only one left among the +enemy from the catastrophe of Varus. Through the exploits of both of +these men Claudius received a title of imperator that had some foundation +in fact. + +[A.D. 42 (_a. u._ 795)] + +[-9-] The next year the same Moors were again subdued in fighting with +him. Suetonius Paulinus, one of the ex-prætors, overran their country +as far as the Atlantic. Gnæus Hosidius Geta, one of the peers, making a +subsequent campaign, advanced at once against their general Salabus and +conquered him two separate times. And when the latter after leaving a few +soldiers near the frontier to hold back any who might pursue took refuge +in the sandy part of the country, Geta ventured to follow him. First +stationing a part of his army opposite the hostile detachment that was +awaiting him he provided himself with as much water as was feasible, and +pushed forward. When this supply gave out and no more could be found, +he was caught in an exceedingly unpleasant position. The barbarians, +especially since through habit they can endure thirst an exceedingly long +time, and through knowledge of the country can always get _some_ water, +had no trouble in maintaining themselves. The Romans, for the opposite +reasons, found it impossible to advance and difficult to withdraw. While +Geta was in a dilemma as to what he should do, one of the natives who was +at peace with the invaders persuaded him to make use of incantations and +enchantments, telling him that as a result of such procedure abundant +water had frequently been granted them. No sooner had he taken this +advice than so much rain burst from heaven as to allay the soldiers' +thirst entirely, beside scaring the enemy, who thought the gods were +assisting the Roman. Consequently they came to terms voluntarily and +ended their warfare.--After these events Claudius divided the Moors who +were in subjection into two districts, namely, the country about Tengis +and that about Cæsarea, these cities giving their names to the whole +region; and he appointed two knights as governors. At this same period +certain parts of Numidia also were involved in warfare by neighboring +barbarians, and when the latter had been conquered returned to a state of +repose. + +[-10-] The office of consul Claudius held in conjunction with Gaius +Largus. He allowed the latter to continue consul for a whole year, but as +for himself he remained a magistrate only two months at this time. He had +the rest swear to the deeds of Augustus, and was himself sworn, but in +regard to his own deeds he allowed no such procedure on the part of any +one. On leaving the office he took the oath again, like other people. +This was always his practice, every time he was consul. + +About this period certain speeches of Augustus and Tiberius were being +read according to decree on the first of the month, and when they had +kept the senators busy till evening he ended the reading, declaring that +it was sufficient for them to be engraved on tablets. + +Some prætors who were entrusted with the administration of the funds +having incurred charges, he did not take legal measures against them, but +made the rounds of those who sold goods and let buildings, and corrected +whatever he deemed to be abuses. This he did also on numerous other +occasions.--There were likewise peculiarities in the appointment of the +prætors, for their number was now fourteen or eighteen or somewhere +between, just as it happened.--Beside this action with reference to the +finances he established a board of three ex-prætors to collect debts +owing the government, granting them lictors and the usual force of +assistants. + +[-11-] On the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of +abundant provisions not only for that particular crisis, but for all +succeeding time. Practically all food used by the Romans was imported, +and yet the region near the mouth of the Tiber had no safe landing-places +nor suitable harbors, so that their mastery of the sea was rendered +useless. Save for such staples as were brought in during their season +and stored in warehouses nothing from abroad could be had in the winter +season; and if any one risked a voyage, he was almost sure to meet with +disaster. Being cognizant of these facts Claudius undertook to build +a harbor and would not be turned aside, though the architects on his +enquiring how great the expense would be replied: "You don't want to do +this." So sure were they that the great disbursements necessary would +cause him to rein in his ambition if he should learn beforehand the exact +amount. He, however, desired a work worthy of the dignity and greatness +of Rome, and he brought it to a successful conclusion. In the first place +he excavated a very considerable piece of land, constructed quays on all +sides of it, and let the sea into it. Next in the sea itself he heaped +huge mounds on both sides of the entrance to this place,--mounds that +enclosed a large body of water. Between these breakwaters he reared an +island and planted on it a tower with a beacon light.--This harbor, then, +still so called in local parlance, was created by him at this period. He +had another project to make an outlet into the Liris from Lake Fucina, in +the Marsian country, to the end that the land around it might be tilled +and the river be rendered more navigable. But the expenditure was all to +no purpose. + +He made a number of laws, most of which I have no need to mention; but +here are some of the regulations that he introduced. He had the governors +who were chosen by lot set out before the first day of April; for it was +their habit to delay a long time in the City. And he would not +permit those chosen by election to express any thanks to him in the +senate,--this had been a kind of custom with them,--but he said: "These +persons ought not to thank me, as if they were so eager for office, but I +them, because they cheerfully help me bear the burden of government: +and if they acquit themselves well in office, I shall praise them still +more." Such men as by reason of insufficient means were not able to be +senators he allowed to ask permission to retire, and he admitted some +of the knights to tribuneships: the rest of them, without exception, he +forced to attend the senate as often as notice was sent them. He was +so severe upon those who were remiss in this matter that some killed +themselves. + +[-12-] In other respects he was sociable and considerate in his dealings +with them. He would visit them when sick and be a partner in their +merrymakings. A certain tribune beat a slave of his in public, but +Claudius did the offender himself no harm, only depriving him of his +assistants, and these he restored not long afterward. Another of his +slaves was sent to the Forum and severely scourged, because he had +insulted a prominent man. In the senate the emperor would himself +regularly rise in case the rest had been standing for a long time. On +account of his ill health, as I related, he frequently remained seated +and read his advice, if asked for it. He allowed Lucius Sulla to sit on +the prætors' bench because this man, being unable by reason of age to +hear anything from his own seat, had stood up. The day on which a year +previous he had been declared emperor he did nothing unusual, except to +give the Pretorians twenty-five denarii, and this he continued to do +every year thereafter. Some of the prætors, however, of their own free +will and not by any decree publicly celebrated that day and also the +birthday of Messalina. Not all of them did this, but as many as chose. +This shows what freedom they had. You may see how really moderate +Claudius was in all such matters from the fact that when a son was born +to him,--called at that time Claudius Tiberius Germanicus but later also +_Britannicus_,--he did not make the occasion in any way conspicuous and +would not allow him to be named Augustus nor Messalina Augusta. + +[-13-]He was constantly arranging gladiatorial games, taking a degree of +pleasure in them that aroused criticism. Very few beasts were destroyed, +but a great many human beings, some of whom fought with one another +whereas others were devoured by animals. The emperor hated vehemently +the freed slaves who in the reigns of Tiberius and Gaius had conspired +against their masters, as well as those who extorted blackmail from +people or had borne false witness against any persons. The majority of +these he got rid of in the manner mentioned, though some of them he +punished by other methods. A great many he delivered up to the vengeance +of their masters. So great did the number become of those who died a +public death that the statue of Augustus, erected on the scene, was +turned to face in another direction, both to prevent its being thought +that _he_ was viewing the slaughter and to avoid having the statue +always covered up. For this act Claudius was well laughed at when people +reflected how he sated himself with the sights that he did not think +proper for even the inanimate bronze to behold. It might be noted +particularly that he used to delight greatly even at lunch time in +watching those who were incidentally cut down in the middle of the +spectacle. Yet a lion that had been trained to eat men and on this +account greatly pleased the crowd he ordered killed on the principle +that it was not fitting for Romans to gaze on such a sight. He received +abundant praise, however, for appearing in the people's midst at the +spectacle, for giving them all they wanted, and for his employing a +herald so very little and announcing most events by notices written on +boards. + +[-14-] After he had become accustomed, then, to feast his fill on blood +and slaughter, he had recourse more readily to other kinds of killings. +The Cæsarians and Messalina were really responsible for this. Whenever +they desired to obtain any one's death, they would terrify him, with the +result that they would be allowed to do everything they chose. Often, +when in a moment of sudden alarm his momentary terror had led him to +order some one's death, afterward, when he recovered and came to his +senses, he would search for the man and on learning what had happened +would be grieved and repent. He began this series of slaughters with +Gaius Appius Silanus. This man, who was of very noble family and at the +time was governor of Spain, he had sent for, pretending that he wanted to +see him about something, had married him to Messalina's mother, and had +for some time held him in honor among his dearest and closest friends. +Then he suddenly killed him. The reason was that Silanus had offended +Messalina, the most abandoned and lustful of women, in refusing to lie +with her, and by the slight shown the empress had alienated Narcissus, +the emperor's freedman. As they had no true charge to bring against him, +nor even one that would be believed, Narcissus invented a dream in which +he declared he had seen Claudius murdered by the hand of Silanus. So just +before dawn, while the emperor was still in bed, he came all of a tremble +to tell him the dream, and Messalina by expatiating on it made it worse. +Thus Silanus perished just because of a vision. + +[-15-] After the latter's death the Romans at once lost confidence in +Claudius, and Annius Vinicianus with some others formed a plot against +him. The chief conspirator had been one of those proposed at the death of +Gaius for the imperial office, and it was partly fear inspired by this +fact that caused him to rebel. As he possessed no considerable force, +however, he sent to Furius Camillus Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia, +who had a large body of native and foreign troops. Camillus, who was +inclined to the project of his own accord, was induced to revolt at the +same time, particularly because he had been spoken of for emperor. When +so much had been accomplished, many senators and knights joined the ranks +of Annius. They did him no good, however,[5] for the soldiers, because +Camillus proffered them the name of _populus_ and promised that he would +restore to them their ancient freedom, suspected that they should have +troubles and changes of government again and would therefore no longer +obey him. Then in terror he fled from them, and coming to the island Issa +he there met a voluntary death. Claudius for a time was quite cowed +with fear and was ready at a demand from Camillus to withdraw from his +sovereignty voluntarily. Later he recovered courage and rewarded his +soldiers among other methods by having the citizen legions (the seventh +and the eleventh) named the Claudian, and the Faithful, and the Pious, +by the senate itself. Then he made reprisals upon those who had plotted +against him and on this charge put many to death, among them a prætor, +who first had to resign his office. Numbers, of whom Vinicianus was one, +committed suicide, for Messalina and Narcissus and all the latter's +fellow freedmen seized this opportunity to wreak their direst vengeance. +They employed slaves and liberti, for instance, and informers against +their own masters. These masters and others of undoubted nobility, +foreigners and citizens alike, not only plebeians, but some of the +knights and senators, were put to the torture in spite of the fact that +Claudius at the very beginning of his reign had sworn not to torture any +free citizen. + +[-16-] Many men therefore at this time and many women incurred +punishment. Some of the latter met their fate right in the prison, and +when they were to die were actually led in chains upon a scaffold, like +captives, and their bodies like those of others were thrown down the +Scalæ Gemoniæ. Of those who were executed outside the prison only +the heads were exhibited in that place. Some of the most guilty, +nevertheless, either through favoritism or by the use of money saved +their necks with the help of Messalina and of the Cæsarians following +Narcissus. All the children of those who perished were granted immunity +and some received money. Trials were held in the senate-house in the +presence of Claudius, his prefects, and his freedmen. With a consul on +each side he made his report to the senators while seated upon a chair +of state or on a bench. Next he himself went to his accustomed seat and +chairs were set for his escort. This same program was followed also at +the other most important functions. + +It was at this time that a certain Galæsus, a freedman of Camillus, was +brought into the senate and talked with the utmost frankness on a variety +of subjects. The following remark of his is worth instancing. Narcissus +had taken the floor and said to him: "What would you have done, Galæsus, +if Camillus had become monarch?" He replied: "I should have stood behind +him and said nothing." So he became famous for this speech, and Arria +for something quite different. The latter, who was wife of Cæcina Pætus, +refused to live after he had been put to death, although, being on very +intimate terms with Messalina, she might have occupied a position of some +honor. Moreover, when her husband showed cowardice, she strengthened his +resolution. She took the sword and gave herself a wound, then handed it +to him, saying: "See, Pætus, I feel no pain."--These two persons, then, +were accorded praise, for by reason of the long succession of woes +matters had now come to such a pass that excellence no longer meant +anything else than dying nobly. + +The attitude of Claudius in bringing destruction upon them and others is +indicated by his forever giving to the soldiers as a watchword this verse +about its being necessary "In one's first anger to ward off the foe." [6] +He kept throwing out many other hints of that sort in Greek both to them +and to the senate, with the result that those who could understand any +of them laughed at him. These were some of the happenings of that +period.--And the tribunes at the death of one of their number themselves +convened the senate for the purpose of appointing a tribune to succeed +him,--this in spite of the fact that the consuls were accessible. + +[A.D. 43 (_a. u._ 796)] + +[-17-] When Claudius now became consul again,--it was the third time,--he +put an end to many sacrifices and many feast days. For, as the greater +part of the year was given up to them, no small damage was done to public +business. Beside curtailing the number of these he retrenched in all the +other ways that he could. What had been given away by Gaius without any +justice or reason he demanded back from the recipients; but he gave back +to the road commissioners all that his predecessor had exacted in fines +on account of Corbulo. Moreover, he gave notice to magistrates chosen by +lot, since they were even now slow about leaving the City, that they must +commence their journey before the middle of April came. He reduced to +servitude the Lycians, who rising in revolt had slain some Romans, and +merged them in the prefecture of Pamphylia. During the investigation, +which was conducted in the senate-house, he put a question in the Latin +tongue to one of the envoys who had originally been a Lycian but had been +made a Roman. As the man did not understand what was said, he took away +his citizenship, saying that it was not proper for a person to be a Roman +who had no knowledge of Roman speech. A great many other persons unworthy +of citizenship were excluded from its privileges, whereas he granted it +to some quite without restrictions, either individuals or large bodies of +men. And inasmuch as practically everywhere Romans were esteemed above +foreigners, many sought the franchise by personal application to the +emperor and many bought it from Messalina and the Cæsarians. For this +reason, though the right was at first bartered only for great sums, it +later was so cheapened by the facility with which it could be obtained +that it came to be said that if a person only gave a man some broken +glassware he might become a citizen. + +This behavior, then, subjected the emperor to no end of jests, but he +received praise for such actions as the following. Many persons were all +the time becoming objects of blackmail, some because they did not use +Claudius's proper title and others because they were going to leave him +nothing when they died,--the blackmailers asserting that it was necessary +for those who obtained citizenship from him to do both of these things. +The emperor now stepped in and forbade that any one should be called +to account for such negligence.--Now Messalina and his freedmen kept +offering for sale and peddling out not merely the franchise, and military +posts, and positions as procurator, and governmental offices, but +everything in general to such an extent that all necessaries grew +scarce[7]; and Claudius was forced to muster the populace on the Campus +Martius and there from a platform to ordain what the prices of wares +should be. + +Claudius himself wearing a chlamys gave a contest of armed men at the +camp. His son's birthday was observed voluntarily by the prætors with +a kind of spectacle that they produced and with dinners. This was once +afterward repeated, too,--at least by all of them that chose. + +[-18-] Meanwhile Messalina was exhibiting her own licentious tendencies +and was forcing the other women of her circle to show themselves equally +unchaste. Many of them she caused to commit adultery in the very palace, +while their husbands were present and observed what took place. Such men +she loved and cherished, and crowned with honors and offices: but others, +who would not submit to this humiliation, she hated and brought to +destruction in every possible way. These deeds, however, though of such +a character and carried on so openly, for a long while never came to the +notice of Claudius. Messalina gave him some attractive housemaids +for bedfellows and intercepted those who were able to afford him any +information,--some by kindness and some by punishments. Thus, at this +period, she succeeded in putting out of the way Catonius Justus, captain +of the pretorian guard, before he could carry out his intention of +telling the emperor something about these doings. And becoming jealous +of Julia, daughter of Drusus son of Tiberius, and later wife of Nero +Germanicus, just as she had been of the other Julia, she compassed her +death.--It was about then, also, that one of the knights on the charge of +having conspired against Claudius was hurled down, the Capitoline by the +tribunes and the consuls. + +[-19-] At the same time that these events were happening in the City +Aulus Plautius, a senator of great renown, made a campaign against +Britain. The cause was that a certain Bericus, who had been ejected from +the island during a revolution, had persuaded Claudius to send a body of +troops there. This Plautius after he was made general had difficulty in +leading his army beyond Gaul. The soldiers objected, on the ground that +their operations were to take place outside the limits of the known +world, and would not yield him obedience until the arrival of Narcissus, +sent by Claudius, who mounted the tribunal of Plautius and tried to +address them. This made them more irritated than ever and they would not +allow the newcomer to say a word, but all suddenly shouted together the +well-known phrase: "Ho! Ho! the Saturnalia!" (For at the festival of +Saturn slaves celebrate the occasion by donning their masters' dress.) +After this they at once followed Plautius voluntarily, but their delay +had brought the expedition late in the season. Three divisions were made, +in order that they might not be hindered in advancing (as might happen +to a single force), and some of them in their voyage across became +discouraged because they were buffeted into a backward course, whereas +others acquired confidence from the fact that a flash of light starting +from the east shot across to the west, the direction in which they were +sailing. So they came to anchor on the shore of the island and found no +one to oppose them. The Britons as a result of their inquiries had not +expected that they would come and had therefore not assembled beforehand. +Nor even at this time would they come into closer conflict with the +invaders, but took refuge in the swamps and in the forests, hoping to +exhaust their opponents in some other way, so that the latter as in +the days of Julius Cæsar would sail back empty-handed. [-20-] Plautius +accordingly had considerable trouble in searching for them.--They were +not free and independent but were parceled out among various kings.--When +at last he did find them, he conquered first Caratacus and next +Togodumnus, children of Cynobelinus, who was dead. After the flight of +those kings he attached by treaty a portion of the Bodunni, ruled by a +nation of the Catuellani. Leaving a garrison there he advanced farther. +On reaching a certain river, which the barbarians thought the Romans +would not be able to cross without a bridge,--a conviction which led them +to encamp in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank,--he sent ahead +Celtæ who were accustomed to swim easily in full armor across the most +turbulent streams. These fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, but instead +of shooting at any of the men confined themselves to wounding the horses +that drew their chariots and consequently in the confusion not even the +mounted warriors could save themselves. Plautius sent across also Fiavius +Vespasian, who afterward obtained the imperial office, and his brother +Sabinus, a lieutenant of his. So they likewise got over the river in some +way and killed numbers of the foe, who were not aware of their approach. +The survivors, however, did not take to flight, and on the next day +joined issue with them again. The two forces were rather evenly matched +until Gnæus Hosidius Geta, at the risk of being captured, managed to +conquer the barbarians in such a way that he received triumphal honors +without having ever been consul. + +Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it +empties into the ocean and the latter's flood-tide forms a lake. This +they crossed easily because they knew where the firm ground in this +locality and the easy passages were; but the Romans in following them up +came to grief at this spot. However, when the Celtæ swam across again and +some others had traversed a bridge a little way up stream, they assailed +the barbarians from many sides at once and cut down large numbers of +them. In pursuing the remainder incautiously they got into swamps from +which it was not easy to make one's way out, and in this way lost many +men. + +[-21-] Shortly after Togodumnus perished, but the Britons so far from +yielding stood together all the more closely to avenge his death. Because +of this fact and his previous mishap Plautius became alarmed, and instead +of advancing farther proceeded to guard what he had already gained and +sent for Claudius. He had been notified to do this in case he met with +any particularly stubborn resistance, and a large reinforcement for the +army, consisting partly of elephants, had been assembled in advance. + +When the message reached him, Claudius entrusted domestic affairs +(including the management of the soldiers) to his colleague Vitellius, +whom he had caused to become consul like himself for the entire six +months' period, and started himself on the expedition. He sailed down the +river to Ostia, and from there followed the coast to Massilia. Thence +advancing partly by land and partly along the water courses he came to +the ocean and crossed over to Britain, where he joined the legions that +were waiting for him near the Thames. Taking charge of these he crossed +the stream, and encountering the barbarians, who had gathered at his +approach, he defeated them in a pitched battle and captured Camulodunum, +the capital of Cynobelinus. Next he extended his authority over numerous +tribes, in some cases by treaty, in others by force, and was frequently, +contrary to precedent, saluted as imperator. The usual practice is that +no single person may receive this title more than once from one and the +same war. He deprived those he conquered of their arms and assigned them +to the attention of Plautius, bidding him to subjugate the regions that +were left. Claudius himself now hastened back to Rome, sending ahead the +news of the victory by his sons-in-law, Magnus and Silanus. + +[-22-] The senate on learning of his achievement gave him the title of +Britannicus and allowed him to celebrate a triumph. + +[A.D. 44 (_a. u._ 796)] + +They voted also that there should be an animal festival commemorating the +event and that an arch bearing a trophy should be erected in the City and +a second in Gaul, because it was from that district that he had set sail +in crossing over to Britain. They bestowed on his son the same honorific +title as upon him, so that Claudius was known in a way as Britannicus +Proper. Messalina was granted the same privilege of front seats as Livia +had enjoyed and also the use of the carpentum. These were the honors +bestowed upon the imperial family. + +The memory of Gaius disgusted the senators so much that they resolved +that all the bronze coinage which had his image stamped upon it should +be melted down. Though this was done, yet the bronze was converted to no +better use, for Messalina made statues of Mnester the dancer out of it. +Inasmuch as the latter had once been on intimate terms with Gaius, +she made this offering as a mark of gratitude for his consenting to a +_liaison_ with her. She had been madly enamored of him, and when she +found herself unable in any way either by promises or by frightening him +to persuade him to have intercourse with her, she had a talk with +her husband and asked him that the man might be forced to obey her, +pretending that she wanted his help for some different purpose. Claudius +accordingly told him to do whatsoever he should be ordered by Messalina. +On these terms he agreed to enjoy her, alleging that he had been +commanded to do so by her husband. Messalina adopted this same method +with numerous other men, and committed adultery feigning that Claudius +knew what was taking place and countenanced her unchastity. + +[-23-] Portions of Britain, then, were captured at this time in the +manner described. After this, during the second consulship of Gaius +Crispus and the first of Titus Statilius, Claudius came to Rome at the +end of a six months' absence from the city (of which time he had spent +only sixteen days in Britain) and celebrated his triumph. In this he +followed the well-established precedents, even to the extent of ascending +the steps of the Capitol on his knees, with his sons-in-law supporting +him on each side. He granted to the senators taking part with him in the +procession triumphal honors, and this not merely to the ex-consuls ... +for he was accustomed to do that most lavishly on other occasions and +with the slightest excuse. Upon Rufrius Pollio the prefect he bestowed an +image and a seat in the senatorial body as often as he would enter that +assembly with him. And to avoid having it thought that he was making any +innovation, he declared that Augustus had done this in the case of a +certain Valerius, a Ligurian. He also increased the dignity of Laco +(formerly præfectus vigilum but now procurator of the Gauls) by this same +mark of esteem and in addition by the honors belonging to ex-consuls. + +Having finished this business he held the festival following the triumph +and assumed for the occasion some of the consular authority. It took +place in both the theatres at once. In the course of the spectacle he +would frequently absent himself while others superintended it in his +place. He had announced as many horse-races as could find place in a +day, but they amounted to not more than ten altogether. For between the +separate courses bears were slaughtered and athletes struggled. Boys sent +for from Asia also executed the Pyrrhic dance. The performers in the +theatre gave, with the consent of the senate, another festival likewise +intended to commemorate the victory. All this was done on account of +the successes in Britain, and to the end that other nations might more +readily capitulate it was voted that all the agreements which Claudius or +the lieutenants representing him should make with any peoples should be +binding, the same as if sanctioned by the senate and the people. + +[-24-] Achæa and Macedonia, which ever since Tiberius became emperor had +belonged to elected governors, Claudius now returned to the choice by +lot. And abolishing the office of "prætor charged with the administration +of funds" he put the business in the hands of quæstors as it had been of +old; and these were not annual magistrates, as was the case with them +previously and with the prætors subsequently, but the same two men +attended to their duties for three entire years. Some of these secured a +prætorship immediately afterward and others drew a salary the amount of +which depended on the impression of efficiency they had created while in +office. + +The quæstors, then, were given charge of the treasury in place of +governorships in Italy outside of the City; for he did away with all of +the latter. To compensate the prætors he entrusted to their care several +kinds of judicial cases which the consuls were previously accustomed to +try. Those serving as soldiers, since by law they could not have wives, +were granted the privileges of married men. Marcus Julius Cottius +received an increase in his ancestral domain (which included the Alps +named after him) and was now for the first time called king. The Rhodians +were deprived of their liberty because they had impaled certain Romans. +And Umbonius Silio, governor of Bætica, was summoned and ejected from the +senate because he had sent so little grain to the soldiers then serving +in Mauretania. At least, this was the accusation brought against him. In +reality it was not so at all, but his treatment was due to his having +offended some of the freedmen. So he brought together all his furniture, +considerable in amount and very beautiful, in the auction room as if he +were going to call for bids on all of it: but he sold only his senatorial +dress. By this he showed that he had received no deadly blow and could +enjoy life as a private citizen.--Beside these events of the time +the weekly market was transferred to a different day because of some +religious rites. That happened, too, on many other occasions. + +[A.D. 45 _(a. u._ 798)] + +[-25-] following year Marcus Vinicius for the second and Statilius +Corvinus for the first time entered upon the office of consul. Claudius +himself took all the customary oaths in detail, but prevented the rest +from taking oath separately. Accordingly, as in earlier times, one man +who was a prætor and second who was a tribune and one each of the other +officials repeated the oaths for those of the same grade. This custom was +followed for several years. + +Now since the City was becoming filled with numbers of images,--for those +who wished might without restrictions appear in public in a painting or +in bronze or stone,--he had most of those already existing set somewhere +else and for the future forbade that any private citizen be allowed to +follow the practice, unless the senate should grant permission or except +he had built or repaired some public work. Such persons and their +relatives might have their likenesses set up in the places in question. + +Having banished the governor of a certain province for venality the +emperor confiscated to public uses all the extra funds that the man had +gathered in office. Again, to prevent these persons eluding those who +wished to bring them to trial, he would give to nobody one office +immediately after another. This had been the custom in earlier days also, +to the end that any one without difficulty might institute a suit against +them in the intervening period; indeed, those whose terms had expired and +who were granted leave of absence from the City might not even take these +absences in succession, since it was intended that, if officials should +be guilty of any irregularity, they should not gain the further benefit +of escaping investigation by either continuous office or continuous +absence. The custom had, however, fallen out of use. So carefully did +Claudius guard against both possibilities that he would not without out +some delay allow even an official who was his colleague to be chosen by +lot for the governorship of a province that would naturally belong to +him. Still, he allowed some of them to govern for two years and sometimes +he would send elected magistrates. Persons who preferred a request to +leave Italy for a time were given permission by Claudius himself without +action of the senate; yet, in order to appear to be doing it under some +form of law, he ordered that a decree to the effect be issued. Votes +of this sort were also passed the following year. At the time under +consideration he arranged the votive festival which he had promised in +commemoration of his campaign. To the populace supported by public dole +he gave seventy-five denarii in every case and in some cases more, so +that for a few it amounted to three hundred twelve and a half. He did +not, however, distribute all of it in person, but his sons-in-law also +took part, because the distribution lasted several days and he was +anxious to use them in holding court. + +In the case of the Saturnalia he put back the fifth day which had been +appointed by Gaius but was later abolished. [-26-] and inasmuch as the +sun was to undergo an eclipse on his birthday, he feared that some +disturbance might result,--for already certain other portents had +occurred,--and therefore he gave notice beforehand not only that there +would be an eclipse and when and for how long, but also the reasons for +which this would necessarily take place. They are as follows: + +The moon, which revolves lower down than the sun (or so it is believed), +either directly below him or perhaps with Mercury and likewise Venus +intervening, has a longitudinal movement just like him, and a higher and +lower movement just like him, but furthermore a latitudinal movement such +as nowhere belongs to the sun under any circumstances. When, therefore, +she gets in a direct line with him over our heads and passes under his +blaze, then she obscures his beams that extend toward the earth, for +some to a greater, for some to a less degree, but does not conceal his +presence for even the briefest moment. For since the sun has a light of +his own he can never surrender it, and consequently, when the moon is +not directly in people's way so as to throw a shadow over him, he always +appears entire. + +This, then, is what happens to the sun and it was made public by Claudius +at the time mentioned. With regard to the moon, however,--for it is not +irrelevant to speak of lunar phenomena also, since once I have broached +this subject,--as often as she gets directly opposite the sun (and she +only takes such a position with reference to him at full moon, whereas +he takes it with reference to her at the season of new moon), a conical +shadow falls upon the earth. This occurs whenever in her motion to and +from us her revolution takes her between the sun and the earth; then she +is deprived of the sun's light and appears by herself just as she really +is. Such are the conditions of the case. + +[A.D. 46 (a. u. 799)] + +[-27-] At the close of that year Valerius Asiaticus for the second time +and also Marcus Silanus became consuls. The latter held office for the +period for which he was elected. Asiaticus, however, though elected to +serve for the whole year (as was done in other cases), failed to do so +and resigned voluntarily. Some others had done this, though mostly by +reason of poverty. The expenses connected with the horse-races had +greatly increased, for generally there was a series of twenty-four +contests. But Asiaticus withdrew simply by reason of his wealth, which +also proved his destruction. Inasmuch as he was extremely well-to-do and +by being consul a second time had aroused the dislike and jealousy of +many, he desired in a way to overthrow himself, feeling that by so +doing he would be less likely to encounter danger. Still he was +deceived.--Vinicius, on the other hand, suffered no harm from Claudius, +for though he was an illustrious man he managed by keeping quiet and +minding his own business to preserve his life; but he perished by poison +administered by Messalina. She suspected that he had killed his wife +Julia and was angry because he refused to have intercourse with her. He +was duly accorded a public funeral and eulogies,--an honor which had been +granted to many. + +Asinius Gallus, half-brother of Drusus by the same mother, conspired +against Claudius but instead of being put to death was banished. The +reason perhaps was that he made ready no army and collected no funds in +advance but was emboldened merely by his extreme folly, which led him to +think that the Romans would submit to having him rule them on account +of his family. But the chief cause was that he was a very small and +unshapely person and was therefore held in contempt, incurring ridicule +rather than danger. + +[-28-]The people were truly loud in praise of Claudius for his +moderation, and also, by Jupiter, at the fact that he showed displeasure +when a certain man sought the aid of the tribunes against the person who +had freed him, asking and securing thus a helper in his cause. Both the +man in question and those associated with him in the proceedings were +punished; and the emperor further forbade rendering assistance to persons +in this way against their former masters, on pain of being deprived of +the right to bring suit against others. Per contra, people were vexed at +seeing him so much the slave of his wife and freedmen. This feeling was +especially marked on an occasion when Claudius himself and all the rest +were anxious to kill Sabinus (former governor of the Celtæ in the reign +of Gains) in a gladiatorial fight, but the latter approached Messalina +and she saved him. They were also irritated at her having withdrawn +Mnester from the theatre and keeping him with her. But whenever any talk +about his not dancing sprang up among the people, Claudius would appear +surprised and make various apologies, taking oath that he was not at his +house. The populace, believing him to be really ignorant of what was +going on, was grieved to think that he alone was not cognizant of what +was being done in the imperial apartments,--behavior so conspicuous +that news of it had already traveled to the enemy. They were unwilling, +however, to reveal to him the state of affairs, partly through awe of +Messalina and partly to spare Mnester. For he pleased the people as much +by his skill as he did the empress by his beauty. With his abilities in +dancing he combined great cleverness of repartee, so that once when the +crowd with mighty enthusiasm begged him to perform a famous pantomime, he +dared to come to the front of the stage and say: + + "To do this, friends, I may not try; + Orestes' bedfellow am I." + +This, then, was the relation of Claudius to these matters. + +As the number of lawsuits was now beyond reckoning and persons summoned +would now no longer put in an appearance because they expected to be +defeated, he gave written notice that by a given day he should decide the +case against them, by default, so that they would lose it even if absent. +And there was no deviation from this rule. + + Mithridates king of the Iberians[8] undertook to rebel and was engaged + in preparations for a war against the Romans. His mother, + however, opposed him and since she could not win him over by persuasion, + determined to take to flight: he then became anxious to conceal + his project, and so, while himself continuing preparations, he sent + his brother Cotys on an embassy to convey a friendly message to + Claudius. But Cotys proved a treacherous ambassador and told the + emperor all, and he was made king of Iberia in place of Mithridates. + +[A.D. 47, (a. u. 800)] + +[-29-]The following year, the eight hundredth anniversary of the founding +of the city of Rome, Claudius became consul for the fourth and Lucius +Vitellius for the third time. Claudius now ejected some members of +the senate, the majority of whom were not sorry to be driven out but +willingly stood aside on account of their poverty. Likewise he brought +in a number to fill their places. Among these he summoned with haste +one Surdinius Gallus, qualified to be a senator, who had emigrated to +Carthage, and said to him: "I will bind you with golden fetters." Gallus, +therefore, fettered by his rank, remained at home. + +Although Claudius visited dire punishment upon the freedmen of others, in +case he caught them in any crime, he was very lenient with his own. One +day an actor in the theatre uttered this well-worn saying: + + "A knave who prospers scarce can be endured,"[9] + +whereupon the whole assemblage looked at Polybius, the emperor's +freedman. He, undismayed, shouted out: "The same poet, however, says:-- + + 'Who once were goatherds now have royal power.'" [9] + +and suffered no harm for his behavior. + +Information was laid that some persons were plotting against Claudius, +but in the majority of instances he paid no attention, saying: "It +doesn't do to adopt the same defensive tactics against a flea as against +a beast of prey." Asiaticus, however, was tried before him and came very +near being acquitted. He entered a general denial, declaring: "I have +no knowledge of nor acquaintance with any of these persons who are +testifying against me." Then the soldier who stated he had been an +associate of his, being asked which one Asiaticus was, pointed out a +baldheaded man that happened to be standing near him. Baldness was the +only thing of which he was sure about Asiaticus. This event occasioned +much laughter and Claudius was on the point of freeing him, when +Vitellius to please Messalina made the statement that he had been sent +for by the prisoner, who requested the privilege of deciding the manner +of death to be visited upon him. Hearing this, Claudius believed that on +account of a guilty conscience Asiaticus had really condemned himself and +accordingly had him executed. + +Among many others who were calumniated by Messalina he put to death +Asiaticus and likewise Magnus, his son-in-law. Asiaticus had property, +and the family of Magnus as well as his close relationship were irksome. +Of course, they were nominally convicted on different charges from these. + +This year a new island, not large, made its appearance by the side of the +island Thera. + +Claudius, monarch of the Romans, published a law to the effect that no +senator might journey above seven mile-posts from the City without the +monarch's express orders.[10] + +Moreover, since many persons would afford their sick slaves no care, +but drove them out of their houses, a law was passed that all slaves +surviving such an experience should be free. + +He also prohibited anybody's driving through the City [sic] seated in a +vehicle.[11] + +[-30-]Vespasian in Britain had been hemmed in by the barbarians and was +in danger of annihilation, but his son Titus becoming alarmed about his +father managed by unusual daring to break through the enclosing line; he +then pursued and destroyed the fleeing enemy. Plautius for his skillful +handling of the war with Britain and his successes in it both received +praise from Claudius and obtained an ovation. [In the course of the armed +combat of gladiators many foreign freedmen and British captives fought. +The number of men receiving their finishing blow in this part of the +spectacle was large, and he took pride in the fact.] + +Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo as prætor in Celtica organized the forces and +damaged among other barbarians the Cauchi, as they are commonly called. +While in the midst of the enemy's country he was recalled by Claudius, +who on ascertaining his valor and his discipline would not allow him to +climb to any greater heights. Corbulo learning this turned back, giving +vent only to the following exclamation:--"How fortunate were those who +became prætors in the days of old!" He implied that the latter had been +permitted to exhibit their prowess without danger whereas his progress +had been blocked by the emperor on account of jealousy. Yet even so he +obtained a triumph. Being again entrusted with an army he trained it no +less thoroughly, and as the nations were at peace he had the men dig +a trench all the way across from the Rhine to the Meuse, as much as a +hundred and seventy stadia long, the purpose of which was to prevent the +rivers flowing back and causing inundations at the flood tide of the +ocean. + +[A.D. 48 (a. u. 801)] + +When a grandson was borne to him by his daughter Antonia (whom, after the +death of Magnus, he had given in marriage to Cornelius Faustus Sulla, +brother of Messalina), he had the good sense not to allow any decree to +be passed in honor of the occasion. + +Messalina and her freedmen swelled with importance. There were three of +the latter in particular who divided the ruling power among themselves: +Callistus, who had been given charge of the records of value; Narcissus, +who presided over the letters and hence wore a dagger at his belt; and +Pallas, to whom the administration of funds had been entrusted. + +[-31-] Messalina, as if it did not satisfy her to play the adulteress and +harlot,--for besides her usual shameful behavior she sometimes carried +on a regular brothel in the palace, serving as a prostitute herself and +compelling women of highest rank to do the same,--now conceived a desire +to have many husbands, that is, with the legal title. [And she would have +entered upon a legal contract with all those who enjoyed her favors, had +she not been detected and destroyed in her very first attempt. For a time +all the Cæesarians were on good terms with her and everything they did +was with one mind. But when she slandered and killed Polybius, after +herself making repeated advances to him, they no longer trusted her. As a +result, deserted by their good-will, she perished.] She registered Gaius +Silius [son of the Silius slain by Tiberius] as her husband, celebrated +the marriage in costly fashion, bestowed a royal residence upon him, and +gathered in it all the most valuable of Claudius's heirlooms. Finally she +declared him consul. Now all this though [even previously] heard and seen +by everybody [else] continued to escape the notice of Claudius. So when +he went down to Ostia to inspect the grain supply, and she was left +behind in Rome on the pretext of being ill, she got up a banquet of no +little renown and carried on a most licentious revel. Then Narcissus, +having got Claudius alone, conveyed to him through the medium of +concubines information of all that was taking place. [And by frightening +him with the idea that Messalina was going to kill him also and set up +Silius as emperor in his place, he persuaded him to arrest and torture +several persons.] The moment this was done the emperor hastened back in +person to the city; and entering just as he was he put to death Mnester +with many others and then slew Messalina [after she had retreated into +the gardens of Asiaticus, which more than anything else were the cause of +her ruin.] + +[A.D. 48-54] + +After her Claudius destroyed also his own slave for insulting one of the +prominent men. + +[A.D. 49 (a. u. 802)] + +After a little he married his niece Agrippina, mother of Domitius, who +was surnamed Nero. She had beauty and had been in the habit of consulting +him constantly and being in his company alone because he was her uncle, +though she was rather more free in her conduct toward him than would +properly become a niece. [And for this reason he executed Silanus, +feeling that he was plotting against him.] [Yet Silanus was regarded as +an upright man and was honored by Claudius to the extent of receiving +triumphal honors while still a boy, being betrothed to the emperor's +daughter Octavia, and becoming prætor long before the age ordained. He +was allowed to give the festival that fell to his lot at the expense of +Claudius, and during it the latter asked some favors of him as if he were +himself the mere head of some party[12] and uttered any shouts that he +saw other people wished him to utter. Yet in spite of all this Claudius +had become such a slave to the women that on their account he killed both +his sons-in-law.] + + On the heels of this occurrence Vitellius came forward in the senate with + a declaration that the good of the State required Claudius to marry. He + indicated Agrippina as a suitable person in this emergency and suggested + that they force him to the marriage. Then the senators rose and came + to Claudius and "compelled" him to marry. They also passed a decree + permitting Romans to wed their nieces, a union formerly prohibited. + +[-32-] As soon as Agrippina had become settled in the palace, she gained +complete control of Claudius; for she possessed in an unusual degree the +quality of _savoir faire_. Likewise she won the devotion of all those who +were at all fond of him, partly by fear and partly by benefits conferred. +[At length she caused his son Britannicus to be brought up as if he +were no relation of the emperor. The other child, who had betrothed the +daughter of Sejanus, was dead. She made Domitius at this time son-in-law +of Claudius and later actually had him adopted. She accomplished these +ends partly by causing the freedmen to persuade Claudius and partly by +seeing to it beforehand that the senate, the populace, and the soldiers +should always concur to favor her demands. This son Agrippina] was +training for the assumption of imperial office and was having educated +under Seneca. She gathered for him an inconceivable amount of wealth, +omitting not one of the most humble and least influential citizens in her +search for money, paying court to every one who was in the least degree +well-off and murdering many for this very reason. In addition, she +destroyed out of jealousy some of the foremost women and put to death +Lollia Paulina because the latter had cherished some hope of being +married to Claudius. As she did not recognize the woman's head when it +was brought to her, she opened with her own hand the mouth and inspected +the teeth, which had certain peculiarities. + + Mithridates, king of the Iberians; was defeated in a conflict with + a Roman army. Despairing of his life he begged that a hearing be + granted him to show cause why he should not be summarily executed + or led in the procession of triumph. This right having been accorded + him Claudius received him in Rome, standing on a tribunal, and addressed + threatening language to him. The king throughout replied + in an unabashed manner and concluded his remarks with "I was not + carried to you, but made the journey: if you doubt it, release me and + try to find me." + +[-33-] She [sc. Agrippina] quickly became a second Messalina, and chiefly +because she obtained from the senate among other honors the right to use +the carpentum at festivals. + +[A.D. 50 (a. u. 803)] + + Subsequently Claudius applied to Agrippina the additional title of + _Augusta_. + +When Claudius had adopted her son Nero and had made him his son-in-law +(by disowning his daughter and introducing her into another family so +that he might not have the name of uniting brother and sister), a mighty +portent occurred. All that day the sky seemed to be on fire. + + Agrippina banished also Calpurnia, one of the most distinguished + ladies in the land, or perhaps even caused her death (as one version + of the story reports), because Claudius had admired and commended + her beauty. + + [A.D. 51 (a. u. 804)] + + When Nero (for this is the name for him that has won its way into + favor) was registered among the iuvenes, the day that he was registered + the Divine Power shook the earth for long distances and by + night struck terror to the hearts of all men without exception. + +[-32-] [While Nero was growing up, Britannicus received neither honor nor +care. Agrippina, indeed, either drove away or killed those who showed any +zeal in his behalf. Sosibius, to whom his bringing up and education +had been entrusted, she caused to be slain on the pretext that he was +plotting against Nero. After that she delivered the boy to the charge of +persons who suited her and did him all the harm she could. She would not +let him visit his father nor appear before the people, but kept him in a +kind of imprisonment, though without bonds.] + +Dio, 61st Book: "Since the prefects Crispinus and Lusius Veta would not +yield to her in every matter, she ousted them from office." + +[A.D. 51-52] + +[-33-] [No one attempted any kind of reprisal upon Agrippina, for, to be +brief, she had more power than Claudius himself and gave greetings in +public to those who desired it. This fact was entered on the records.] + + She possessed all powers, since she dominated Claudius and had + made sure of the devotion of Narcissus and Pallas. (Callistus, after + rising to great heights of influence, was dead.) + + [A.D. 52 (a. u. 805)] + + The astrologers were banished from the entire expanse of Italy, and + their disciples were punished. + + Carnetacus, a barbarian chieftain who was captured and brought to + Rome and received his pardon at the hands of Claudius, then, after + his liberation, wandered about the city; and on beholding its brilliance + and its size he exclaimed: "Can you, who own these things and things + like them, still yearn for our miserable tents?" + +Claudius conceived a wish to have a naval battle in a certain lake[13]; +so, after building a wooden wall around it and setting up benches, +he gathered an enormous multitude. Claudius and Nero were arrayed in +military costume. Agrippina wore a beautiful chlamys woven with gold, and +the rest of the people whatever pleased their fancy. Those who were to +take part in this sea-fight were condemned criminals, and each side had +fifty ships, one party being called Rhodians and the other Sicilians. +First they drew close together and after uniting at one spot they +addressed Claudius in this fashion: "Salve, imperator, morituri +salutamus."[14] Since this afforded them no salvation and they were still +ordered to fight, they used simple smashing tactics and took very good +care not to harm each other. This went on until they were cut down by +outside force. [Somewhat later the Fucinian Lake caved in and Narcissus +was severely criticised for it. He presided over the undertaking, and +it was thought that after spending a great deal less than he had +received[15] he had then purposely contrived the collapse, in order that +his villainy might go undetected.] + +[A.D. 52-53] + +About Narcissus there is a story of how openly, he used to make sport of +Claudius. One day when the latter was holding court the Bithynians raised +a great outcry against Junius Cilo, their governor, because, as +they asserted, he had taken very considerable bribes. Claudius not +understanding on account of their noise asked the bystanders what they +were saying. Thereupon, instead of telling him the truth, Narcissus said: +"They are expressing their gratitude to Junius." Claudius, believing him, +rejoined: "Why, he shall have charge of them two years more!" + +Agrippina often attended her husband in public, when he was transacting +ordinary business, or when he was hearing ambassadors; she sat upon a +separate platform. This was surely one of the most remarkable sights of +the time. + +On one occasion when a certain orator, Julius Gallicus, was pleading a +case, Claudius grew vexed and ordered that he be cast into the Tiber, +near the banks of which he chanced to be holding court. Domitius Afer, +who as an advocate had the greatest ability of his contemporaries, made +a very neat joke on this. A man whom Gallicus had disappointed came to +Domitius for assistance, whereupon the latter said to him: "And who told +you I could swim better than he can?" + + Later Claudius fell sick, and Nero entered the senate to promise a + horse-race in case Claudius should regain his health. Agrippina was + leaving no stone unturned to make him popular with the masses and to + cause him to be regarded as the only natural successor to the imperial + throne. Hence it was that she selected the equestrian contest, on which + they doted especially, for Nero to promise in the event of Claudius's + recovery (an outcome against which she sincerely prayed).--Again, after + instigating a riot over the sale of bread she persuaded Claudius to make + known to the populace by public bulletin and to write to the senate + that, if he should die, Nero was fully capable of administering public + interests. In consequence of this he became a power and his name was on + everybody's lips, whereas in regard to Britannicus numbers did not know + of his existence and all others regarded him as idiotic and epileptic; + for this was the declaration that Agrippina gave out.--Well, Claudius + became convalescent and Nero conducted the horse-race in a sumptuous + manner; now, too, he married Octavia, a new circumstance to cause him a + feeling of manly dignity. + + [A.D. 53-54] + + Nothing seemed to satisfy Agrippina, though all rights + which Livia had possessed were bestowed upon her also and a number of + additional honors had been decreed. She, wielding equal power with + Claudius, desired to have his title outright; and once, when a blaze had + spread over the city to a considerable distance, she accompanied him in + the work of rescue. + + [A.D. 54 (a. u. 807)] + +[-34-] Claudius was irritated by Agrippina's actions, of which he now +began to become aware, and sought to find his son Britannicus. The boy, +however, was purposely kept out of his sight by the empress most of the +time, for she was doing everything conceivable to secure the right of +succession for Nero, since he was her own son by her former husband +Domitius. Claudius, who displayed his affection whenever he met +Britannicus, was not disposed to endure her behavior and made +preparations to put an end to her power, to register his son among the +iuvenes, and appoint him as heir to the empire. + +This news alarmed Agrippina, who decided to anticipate the emperor's +project by poisoning him. Since, however, by reason of the great quantity +of wine he was forever drinking and his general habits of life, which all +emperors adopt for their protection, he could not easily be harmed, she +sent for a drug-woman named Lucusta, a recent captive renowned for the +desired skill, and obtaining from her a poison whose effect was sure she +put it in one of the vegetables called[16] mushrooms. Then she herself +ate of the others in the dish but made her husband eat the one which had +the poison; for it was the largest and finest of them. The victim of this +plot was carried out of the banquet apparently quite overcome by strong +drink, but that had happened many times before. During the night the +poison took effect and he passed away, without having been able to say +or hear a word. It was the thirteenth of October, and he had lived +sixty-three years, two months, and thirteen days, having been emperor +thirteen years, eight months and twenty days. Agrippina's rapid vengeance +had been aided by the fact that before her attempt she had despatched +Narcissus to Campania, feigning that he needed to take the waters there +for his gout. Had he been present, she would never have done the deed, +such extreme care did he take of his master. His death followed hard upon +that of Claudius, and he left behind him a reputation for power unequaled +by any man of that age. His property amounted to more than ten thousand +myriads, and cities and kings were dependent upon him. Even when he was +on the point of being slain, he managed to execute a brilliant coup. He +had charge of the correspondence of Claudius and had in his possession +letters containing secret information against Agrippina and others: all +of these he burned before his death. + + And he was slain beside the tomb of Messalina,--a coincidence + manifestly intended by chance, to satisfy her vengeance. + +[-35-] In such fashion did Claudius meet his end. It seemed that +indications of this event were given in advance by the comet star, which +was seen over a wide expanse of territory, by the shower of blood, by the +bolt that descended upon the standards of the Pretorians, by the +opening of its own accord of the temple of Jupiter Victor, by the +swarming of bees in the camp, and by the fact that one representative of +each political office died. The emperor received the state burial and +all the other honors obtained by Augustus. Agrippina and Nero feigned +sorrow for the man whom they had killed, and elevated to heaven him +whom they had carried out in a state of collapse from the banquet. On +this point Lucius Junius Gallic, brother of Seneca, was the author of a +most witty saying. Seneca himself had composed a work that he called +Gourdification,--a word made on the analogy of "deification"; and his +brother is credited with expressing a great deal in one short sentence. +For whereas the public executioners were accustomed to drag the bodies +of those killed in prison to the Forum with large hooks, and thence +hauled them to the river, he said that Claudius must have been raised to +heaven with a hook. Nero has also left us a remark not unworthy of +record. He declared mushrooms to be the food of the gods, because +Claudius by means of a mushroom had become a god. + + +[Footnote:1 A reference to Book Forty-four, chapter 26 (the Return of the +"Party of the Peiræus").] + +[Footnote 2: Adopting Canter's emendation. [Greek: eithismenou] for the +unintelligible [Greek: ois men oute] of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 3: The drinking of warm water ranked among the ancients as a +luxurious practice. (Compare the end of chapter 14, Book Fifty-seven, and +the end of chapter 11, Book Fifty-nine.)] + +[Footnote 4: An emendation by Leunclavius, based on Suetonius, Life of +Claudius, chapter 24 (fin.).] + +[Footnote 5: A small gap in the MS. is here filled according to Oddey.] + +[Footnote 6: A line of Homer's occurring in the Iliad once (XXIV, 369) +and in the Odyssey twice (XVI, 72, and XXI, 133).] + +[Footnote 7: Because monopolies of selling them had been conceded for +huge sums to avaricious tradesmen.] + +[Footnote 8: This is an error. Mithridates of Bosporus is the person +actually meant.] + +[Footnotes 9: These two quotations are to be found in Kock (_Fragmenta +Comicorum Græcorum_) Vol. III, p. 499. They are Nos. 487 and 488 of +the [Greek: Adespota Opoteras]. Kock sees no reason for assigning them +specifically to the New Comedy (as Meineke has done).] + +[Footnote 10: For a further discussion of this isolated statement (from +Suidas) see Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, III, p. 912, note 1.] + +[Footnote 11: From an examination of Suetonius, Life of Claudius, chapter +25, it seems likely that Dio wrote "cities" (plural), referring to all +the Italian towns.] + +[Footnote 12: "Of charioteers" is undoubtedly the sense.] + +[Footnote 13: The same _locus Fucinus_ that is presently mentioned +again.] + +[Footnote 14: "Hail, emperor, we about to die salute thee."] + +[Footnote 15: This verb is a mere conjecture by one of the editors. The +MS. reading, "he had hoped," is, of course, corrupt.] + +[Footnote 16: Dio probably says "called" here because the Greek word he +uses for "mushrooms" has many other meanings, such as snuff of a wick, +scab, knob, etc.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. 4, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10883 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9441406 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #10883 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10883) diff --git a/old/10883-8.txt b/old/10883-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..67eedb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10883-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11320 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. 4, by Cassius Dio + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dio's Rome, Vol. 4 + An Historical Narrative Originally Composed in Greek During the + Reigns of Septimius Severus, Geta and Caracalla, Macrinus, + Elagabalus and Alexander Severus: And Now Presented in English Form + +Author: Cassius Dio + +Release Date: January 31, 2004 [EBook #10883] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +DIO'S ROME + + + +AN + +HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK + +DURING THE REIGNS OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA + +AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS + +AND ALEXANDER SEVERUS: + + +AND + +NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + +BY + + +HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting +Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + +FOURTH VOLUME + + +Extant Books 52-60 (B.C. 29-A.D. 54). + + +1905 + +PAFRAETS BOOK COMPANY TROY NEW YOKK + + + +VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Fifty-two +Book Fifty-three +Book Fifty-four +Book Fifty-five +Book Fifty-six +Book Fifty-seven +Book Fifty-eight +Book Fifty-nine +Book Sixty + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +52 + +VOL. 4-1 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome: + +How Cæsar formed a plan to lay aside his sovereignty (chapters 1-40). + +How he began to be called emperor (chapters 41-43). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Cæsar (5th) and +Sextus Apuleius. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + + +_(BOOK 52, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[-1-] My record has so far stated what the Romans both did and endured +for seven hundred and twenty-five years under the monarchy, as a +democracy, and beneath the rule of a few. After this they reverted to +nothing more nor less than a state of monarchy again, although Cæsar had +a plan to lay down his arms and entrust affairs to the senate and the +populace. He held a consultation on the subject with Agrippa and Mæcenas, +to whom he communicated all his secrets. Agrippa, first of the two, +answered him as follows:-- + +[-2-] "Be not surprised, Cæsar, if I try to turn your mind away from +monarchy, in spite of the fact that I might enjoy many advantages from it +if you held the place. If it were going to prove serviceable to you, I +should be thoroughly enthusiastic for it. But those who hold supreme +power are not in a like position with their friends: the latter without +incurring jealousy or danger reap all the benefits they please, whereas +jealousies and dangers are the lot of the former. I have thought it +right, as in other cases, to look forward not for my own interest but for +yours and the public's. Let us consider leisurely all the features of the +system of government and turn whichever way our reflection may direct us. +For it will not be asserted that we ought to choose it under any and all +circumstances, even if it be not advantageous. Otherwise we shall seem to +have been unable to bear good fortune and to have gone mad through our +successes, or else to have been aiming at it long since, to have used our +father and our devotion to him as a mere screen, to have put "the people +and the senate" forward as an excuse. Our object will seem to have been +not to free them from conspirators but to enslave them to ourselves. +Either supposition entails censure. Who would not be indignant to see +that we had spoken words of one tenor, but to ascertain that we had had +something different in mind? How much more would he hate us now than if +we had at the outset laid bare our desires and aimed straight at the +monarchy! It has come to be generally believed that to adopt some violent +course belongs somehow to the nature of man, even if it involves taking +an unfair advantage. Every person who excels in any business thinks it +right that he should enjoy more advantages than his inferior. If he meets +with a success he ascribes it to the force of his individual temperament, +and if he fails in anything he refers it to the workings of the +supernatural. A man, however, who tries to gain advancement by plots and +injuries is in the first place held to be crafty and crooked, malicious +and vicious: (and this I know you would allow no one to say or think +about you, even if you might rule the whole world by it): again, if he +succeeds, he is thought to have gained an unjust advantage, and if he +fails, to have met with merited misfortune. [-3-] This being so, any one +might reproach us quite as much, even if we had nothing of the sort in +mind at the beginning and were to begin to devise it only now. For to let +the situation get the better of us and not restrain ourselves and not +make a right use of the gifts of Fortune is much worse than for a man to +do wrong through ill-luck. The latter sort are often compelled by their +very disasters and in consideration of their own need of profit to behave +against their will in an irregular way: the others voluntarily abandon +self-control even if to do so is contrary to their own interests. And +when men neither have any love of simplicity in their souls nor are able +to show moderation in regard to the blessings bestowed upon them, how +could one expect that they would either rule well over others or behave +themselves uprightly in trouble? Let us make our decision on the basis +that we are in neither of the classes mentioned and do not desire to +act in any way unreasonably, but will choose whatever course after +deliberation appears to us best. I shall speak quite frankly, for I could +not for my part express myself in any other way, and I am aware that you +do not enjoy hearing lies mingled with flattery. + +[-4-] "Equality before the law has a pleasant name and its results are a +triumph of justice. If you take men who have received the same nature, +are of kindred race to one another, have been brought up under the same +institutions, have been trained in laws that are alike, and yield in +common the service of their bodies and of their minds to the same State, +is it not just that they should have all other things, too, in common? Is +it not best that they should secure no superior honors except as a result +of excellence? Equality of birth strives for equality of possessions, +and if it attains it is glad, but if it misses is displeased. And human +nature everywhere, because it is sprung from the gods and is to return to +the gods, gazes upward and is not content to be ruled forever by the +same person, nor will it endure to share in the toils, the dangers, the +expenditures, and be deprived of partnership in higher matters. Or, if +it is forced to submit to such conditions, it hates the power which has +applied coercion and if it obtains an opportunity takes vengeance on what +it hates. All men think they ought to rule, and for this reason submit to +being ruled in turn. They do not wish to be defrauded, and therefore do +not insist on defrauding others. They are pleased with honors bestowed by +their peers, and approve the penalties inflicted by their laws. If they +conduct their government on these lines, and believe that profits and the +opposite shall be shared in common, they wish no harm to happen to any +one of the citizens and devoutly hope that all good things may fall to +the lot of all of them. If one of them himself possesses any excellence, +he makes it known without hesitation, practices it enthusiastically, +and exhibits it very gladly: or, if he sees it in another, he readily +advances it, is eager to increase it, and honors it most brilliantly. On +the other hand if any one deteriorates, everybody hates him. If one meets +misfortune, everybody pities him. Each person regards the loss or shame +that such cause to be a common detriment to the city. + +[-5-] "This is the constitution of democracies. Under tyrannies exactly +the opposite conditions are found. It is useless to go at length into all +of the details, but the chief feature is that no one is willing to +seem to know or possess anything good, because the whole ruling power +generally becomes hostile to him in such a case. Every one else takes the +tyrant's behavior as a standard of life, and pursues whatever objects he +may hope to gain through him by taking advantage of his neighbor while +incurring no danger himself. Consequently the majority of the people have +an eye only to their own interests and hate all other citizens: they +esteem their neighbor's good fortune as a personal loss, and his +misfortunes as a personal gain. + +"Such being the state of the case, I do not see what could possibly +incite you to become sole ruler. Besides the fact that that system is +disagreeable to democracies, it would be far more unpleasant still to +yourself. You surely see how the City and its affairs are even now in a +state of turmoil. It is difficult, also, to overthrow our populace which +has lived during so many years in freedom, and difficult, since so many +enemies confront us round about, to reduce again to slavery the allies +and the subject nations, which from of old have been democratic +communities and were set free by our own selves. + +[-6-] "To begin first with the smallest matter, it will be requisite that +you procure a large supply of money from all sides. It is impossible +that our present revenues should suffice for the very expenses, and +particularly for the support of the soldiers. This need exists also in +democracies, for it is not possible to organize any government without +expense. But under such a system many give largely in addition to what +is required, and do it frequently, making it a matter of rivalry and +securing proper honors for their liberality. Or, if perchance there +are compulsory levies upon everybody, they endure it because they can +persuade themselves that it is wise and because they are contributing in +their own behalf. Under sovereignties they think that the ruling power +alone, to which they credit boundless wealth, should bear the expense: +they are very ready to search out the ruler's sources of income, but do +not make a similar careful calculation about the outgo. They are not +inclined to pay out anything extra personally and of their own free will, +nor will they hear of voluntary public contributions. The former course +no one would choose, because he would not readily admit that he was rich, +and it is not to the advantage of the ruler to have it happen. So liberal +a citizen would immediately acquire a reputation for patriotism among the +mass of the people, would become conceited, and cause a disturbance in +politics. On the other hand, a general levy weighs heavily upon them all +and chiefly because they endure the loss whereas others take the gain. In +democracies those who contribute money as a general rule also serve in +the army, so that in a way they get it back again. But in monarchies one +set of people usually farm, manufacture, carry on maritime enterprises, +engage in politics,--the principal pursuits by which fortunes are +secured,--and a different set are under arms and draw pay. + +"This single necessity, then, which is of such importance [-7-] will +cause you trouble. Here is another. It is by all means essential that +whoever from time to time commits a crime should pay some penalty. The +majority of men are not brought to reason by suggestion or by example, +but it is absolutely requisite to punish them by disenfranchisement, by +exile, and by death; and this often happens in so great an empire and in +so large a multitude of men, especially during a change of government. +Now if you appointed other men to judge these wrongdoers, they would +acquit them speedily, particularly all whom you may be thought to hate. +For judges secure a pretended authority when they act in any way contrary +to the wish of the ruling power. If, again, any are convicted, they will +believe they have been condemned on account of instructions for which +you are responsible. However, if you sit as judge yourself, you will be +compelled to chastise many of the peers,--and this is not favorable,--and +you will certainly be thought to be setting some of them right in anger +rather than in justice. No one believes that those who have the power to +use compulsion can execute judgment with justice, but everybody thinks +that out of shame they spread out a mere phantom and rough picture of +government in front of the truth, in order that under the legitimate +name of court they may fulfill their desire. This is what happens in +monarchies. In democracies, when any one is accused of committing a +private wrong, he is made defendant in a private suit before judges who +are his equals: or, if he is accused for a public crime, such a man has +empaneled a jury of his peers, whoever the lot shall designate. It is +easier for men to bear their decisions, since they do not think that any +verdict rendered is due to the power of the judge or has been wrung from +him as a favor.[1] + +[-8-] "Then again there are many, apart from any criminals, some priding +themselves on birth, others on wealth, others on something different, +in general not bad men, who are by nature opposed to the conception of +monarchy. If a ruler allows them to become strong, he cannot live in +safety, and if he undertakes to impose a check on them, he cannot do so +justly. What then shall he do with them? How shall he treat them? If you +root out their families, diminish their wealth, humble their pride, you +will lose the good-will of your subjects. How can it be otherwise, if no +one is permitted to be born nobly or to grow rich honestly or to become +strong, brave, or learned? But if you allow all the separate classes to +grow strong, you will not be able to deal with them easily. If you alone +were sufficient for carrying on politics and war well and opportunely, +and needed no assistant for any of them, it would be a different story. +As the case stands, however, it is quite essential for you to have many +helpers, since they must govern so large a world: and they all ought +to be both brave and prudent. Now if you hand over the legions and +the offices to such men, there will be danger that both you and your +government will be overthrown. It is not possible for a valuable man to +be produced without good sense, and he cannot acquire any great good +sense from servile practices. But again, if he becomes a man of sense, he +cannot fail to desire liberty and to hate all masters. If, on the other +hand, you entrust nothing to these men, but put affairs in charge of the +worthless and chance comers, you will very quickly incur the anger of the +first class, who think themselves distrusted, and you will very quickly +fail in the greatest enterprises. What good could an ignorant or low-born +person accomplish? What enemy would not hold him in contempt? What allies +would obey him? Who, even of the soldiers themselves, would not disdain +to be ruled by such a man? What evils are wont to result from such a +condition I do not need to describe to you, for you know them thoroughly. +I feel obliged to say only this, that if such an assistant did nothing +right, he would injure you far more than the enemy: if he did anything +satisfactorily, his lack of education would cause him to lose his head, +and he would be a terror to you. + +[-9-] "Such a question does not arise in democracies. The more men there +are who are wealthy and brave, so much the more do they vie with one +another and up-build the city. The latter uses them and is glad, unless +any one of them wishes to found a tyranny: him the citizens punish +severely. That this is so and that democracies are far superior to +monarchies the experience of Greece makes clear. As long as the people +had the monarchical government, they effected nothing of importance: but +when they began to live under the democratic system, they became most +renowned. It is shown also by the experience of other branches of +mankind. Those who are still conducting their governments under tyrannies +are always in slavery and always plotting against their rulers. But those +who have presidents for a year or some longer period continue to be both +free and independent. + +"Yet, why need we use foreign examples, when we have some of our own? We +Romans, ourselves, after trying a different social organization at first, +later, when we had gone through many bitter experiences, felt a desire +for liberty; and having secured it we attained our present eminence, +strong in no advantages save those that come from democracy, through +which the senate debated, the people ratified, the force under arms +showed zeal, and the commanders were fired with ambition. None of these +things could be done under a tyranny. For that reason, indeed, the +ancient Romans detested it so much as to impose a curse upon that form of +government. + +[-10-] "Aside from these considerations, if one is to speak about what is +disadvantageous for you personally, how could you endure the management +of so many interests by day and night alike? How could you hold out in +your enfeebled state? How could you participate in human enjoyments? +How could you be happy if deprived of them? What could cause you +real pleasure? When would you be free from biting grief? It is quite +inevitable that the man who holds so great an empire should reflect +deeply, be subject to many fears enjoy very little pleasure, but hear +and see, perform and suffer, always and everywhere, what is most +disagreeable. That is why, I think, both Greeks and some barbarians would +not accept government by a king when offered to them. + +"Knowing this beforehand, take good counsel before you enter upon such an +existence. For it is disgraceful, or rather impossible, after you have +once plunged into it to rise to the upper air again. Do not be deceived +by the greatness of the authority nor the abundance of possessions, nor +the mass of body-guards, nor the throng of courtiers. Men who have great +power have great troubles: those who have large possessions are obliged +to spend largely: the crowd of body-guards is gathered because of the +crowd of conspirators: and the flatterers would be more glad to destroy +than to save any one. Consequently, in view of these facts, no sensible +man would desire to become supreme ruler. [-11-] If the fact that such +rulers can enrich and preserve others and perform many other good deeds, +and that, by Jupiter, they may also outrage others and injure whomsoever +they please leads any one to think that tyranny is worth striving for, he +is utterly mistaken. I need not tell you that to live licentiously and to +do evil is base and hazardous and hated of both gods and men. You are not +that sort of man, and it is not for these reasons that you would choose +to be sole ruler. I have elected to speak now not of everything which one +might accomplish who handled affairs badly, but of what even the very +best are compelled to do and endure when they adopt the system. The other +point,--that one may bestow abundant favors,--is worthy of zeal, to be +sure: yet when this disposition is indulged in private capacity, it is +noble, august, glorious, and safe, whereas in monarchies it is first of +all not a sufficient offset to the other, more disagreeable matters, that +any one should choose monarchy for this especially when one is to grant +to others the benefit to be derived therefrom, and accept himself the +unpleasantness involved in the rest of the conduct of the office. + +[-12-] "In the next place, the matter is not simple, as people think. No +one could render assistance enough to satisfy all who need help. Those +who think they ought to receive some gift from the sovereign are +practically all mankind, even though no favors can at once be seen to be +due them. Every one naturally has his own approbation and wishes to enjoy +some benefit from him who is able to give. But the presents which can +be given them,--I mean honors and offices, and sometimes money,--can be +counted quite easily as compared with so great a multitude. This being +so, more hatred would fall to the monarch's lot from those who fail to +get what they want than friendship from such as obtain their desires. +The latter take what they regard as due to them and think there is no +particular reason for being very thankful to the one who gives it, since +they are getting no more than they expected. Moreover, they actually +shrink from such behavior for fear they may appear in the light +of persons undeserving of generous treatment. The others, who are +disappointed of their hopes, are grieved for two causes. First, they feel +that they are robbed of what belongs to them, for by nature all persons +think that everything which they desire is their own: second, they feel +as if they were finding themselves guilty of some wrong, if they show +resignation at not obtaining what they expect. The man who gives such +great gifts rightly of course investigates before all else each person's +worth: some he honors, others he neglects. As a result, then, of his +judgment, some are filled with pride and others with vexation by their +own consciousness of its correctness. If any one were to wish to guard +against this outcome and distribute his presents without system, he would +fail utterly. The base, being honored contrary to their deserts, would +become worse; for they would decide either that they were approved as +being good or, if not so, that they were courted as dangerous persons: +the excellent, on attaining no higher place than they, but held merely in +equal honor with the base, would be more indignant at their reduction to +the latter's level than the others would rejoice to be deemed valuable. +Accordingly, they would give up the practice of better principles and +strive to emulate less worthy men. Thus, even as a result of the very +honors, those who bestow them would reap no benefit and those who receive +them would become worse than before. So that this consideration, which +would please some persons most in the monarchical constitution, has been +proved to be a most difficult problem for you to deal with. + +[-13-] "Reflecting on these facts and the rest which I mentioned a little +earlier, be prudent while you may, and restore to the people the arms, +the provinces, the offices, and the funds. If you do it at once and +voluntarily, you will be the most famous of men and the most secure. But +if you wait for some force to be applied, perhaps you might suffer some +disaster together with ill repute. Here is evidence. Marius, Sulla, +Metellus, and Pompey at first, when they got control of affairs, refused +to become princes, and by this attitude escaped harm. Cinna, however, and +Strabo,[2] the second Marius, Sertorius, and Pompey himself at a later +date, through their desire for sovereignty perished miserably. It is hard +for this city which has been under a democracy for so many years and +rules so many human beings to be willing to be a slave to any one. You +have heard that the people banished Camillus when he used white horses +for his triumph: you have heard that they overthrew Scipio after +condemning him for some fraudulent procedure: you remember how they +behaved toward your father because they had some suspicion that he wanted +monarchy. Yet there have never been any better men than these. + +"Moreover, I do not advise you merely to relinquish dominion, but to +accomplish beforehand all that is advantageous for the public, and by +decrees and laws to settle definitely whatever business needs attention, +just as Sulla did. For even if some of his ordinances were subsequently +overthrown, yet the majority of them and the more important still hold +their ground. Do not say that even then some will indulge in factional +quarrels, or I may be tempted to say again that all the more the Romans +would not submit to a single ruler. If we were to review all the +calamities that might befall a nation, it would be most unreasonable for +us to fear dissensions which are the outgrowth of democracy rather then +the tyrannies which spring from monarchy. Regarding the terrible nature +of the latter I have not even undertaken to say a word. It has been my +wish not merely to inveigh against a proposition so capable of censure, +but to show you this,--that it is naturally such a régime that not even +the most excellent men....[3] + +[-14-] "They cannot easily persuade by frank argument men who possess +less power, or succeed in their enterprises, because their subjects are +not in accord with them. Hence, if you have any care at all of your +country, for whom you have fought so many wars, for whom you would gladly +surrender your life, attune her to greater moderation and order her +affairs with that in view. For the privilege of doing and saving +precisely what one pleases becomes in the case of sensible people, if you +examine it, a cause of prosperity to all: but in the case of the foolish, +a cause of disaster. Therefore he who confers authority upon such men is +holding out a sword to a child and a madman; but he who gives it to the +prudent, besides performing other services, preserves the objects of his +liberality themselves, though they may be unwilling. Therefore I ask you +not to be deceived by regarding fine-sounding names, but to look forward +to the results that spring from them, and so to put an end to the +insolence of the populace, and to impose the management of public affairs +upon yourself and the most excellent of the remainder of the community. +Then the most prudent may deliberate, those most qualified for generals +become commanders, and the strongest and most needy men serve as +soldiers and draw pay. In this way, all zealously discharging the duties +appertaining to their offices and paying without hesitation the debts +they owe one another, they will not be aware of their inferiority and +lack of certain advantages and will secure the real democracy and a safe +sort of freedom. The boasted "freedom" of the mob proves to be the most +bitter servitude of the best element and brings a common destruction upon +both. The other, which I advocate, honors responsible men everywhere and +bestows equal advantages upon all so far as they are worthy: thus it +renders prosperous all alike who possess it. [-15-] Do not think that I +am advising you to enslave the people and the senate and then play the +tyrant. This plan I should never dare to suggest nor you to execute. It +would, notwithstanding, be well and useful both for you and for the city +that you should yourself establish all proper laws with the approval of +the best men without any opposing talk or resistance on the part of the +masses, that you and your counselors should arrange the details of wars +according to your united wishes while all the rest straightway obey +orders, that the choice of officials should be in the power of the +cabinet to which you belong, and that the same men should also determine +honors and penalties. Then whatever pleases you after consulting the +Peers will be immediately a law, and wars against enemies may be waged +with secrecy and at an opportune time; those to whom a trust is committed +will be appointed because of excellence and not by lot and strife for +office; the good will be honored without jealousy and the bad punished +without opposition. Thus what was done would be accomplished in the best +way, not referred to the public, nor talked over openly, not committed to +packed committees, nor endangered by rivalry. We should reap the benefits +of the blessings that belong to us with enjoyment,[4] not entering upon +dangerous wars nor impious civil disputes. These two drawbacks are found +in every democracy: the more powerful, desiring first place and hiring +the weaker men, turn everything continually upside down. They have been +most frequent in our epoch and there is no other way save the one I +propose that will put a stop to them. The proof of my words is that +we have been warring abroad and fighting among ourselves for an +inconceivably long time: the cause is the multitude of men and the +magnitude of the interests at stake. The men are of all sorts in respect +to both race and nature and have the most diversified tempers and +desires. The interests have become so vast that it is very difficult to +attempt to administer them. [-16-] Witness to the truth of my words is +borne by our past. While we were but few, we had no important quarrel +with our neighbors, got along well with our government, and subjugated +almost all of Italy. But ever since we spread beyond the peninsula and +crossed to many foreign lands and islands, filling the whole sea and the +whole earth with our name and power, nothing good has been our lot. In +the first place we disputed in cliques at home and within our walls, and +later we exported this plague to the camps. Therefore our city, like a +great merchantman full of a crowd of every race borne without a pilot +these many years through rough water, rolls and shoots hither and thither +because it is without ballast. Do not, then, allow her to be longer +exposed to the tempest; for you see that she is waterlogged. And do not +let her split upon a reef[5]; for her timbers are rotten and will not be +able to hold out much longer. But since the gods have taken pity on this +land and have set you up as her arbiter and chief; do not betray your +country. Through you she has now revived a little: if you are faithful, +she may live with safety for ages to come. + +[-17-] "That I do right to urge you to be sole ruler of the people I +think you have long ere this been persuaded. If so, then be ready and +eager to assume the leadership of the State, or rather, do not let it +slip. For we are not deliberating about taking something, but about not +losing it and about running hazards in addition. Who will spare you if +you commit matters to the people as they were, and to some other man, +seeing that there are great numbers whom you have injured, all of whom, +or nearly all, will lay claim to the sovereignty? No one of them will +fail to wish to punish you for what you have done, or will care to have +you survive as a rival. There is evidence of this in the case of Pompey, +who, when he withdrew from his supremacy, became the victim of scorn and +of plots: he found himself unable to win back his place, and so perished. +Also Cæsar your father, who did this very same thing, was slain for his +trouble. Marius and Sulla would certainly have endured a like fate, had +they not died too soon. Indeed, some say that Sulla anticipated this +very end by making away with himself. Many of the provisions of his +constitution, at any rate, began to be abolished while he was still +alive. You, too, must expect to find that many Lepiduses, Sertoriuses, +Brutuses, Cassiuses will arise against you. + +[-18-] "Seeing these facts and reflecting on the other interests +involved, do not abandon yourself and your country, out of fear that you +may seem to some to be pursuing the office of set purpose. First of all, +even if any one does suspect it, the desire is not one repugnant to human +nature, and the danger from it is a noble danger. Second, is any one +unaware of the necessity under which you were led to take this action? +Hence, if there be any blame attached to it, one might most justly +censure your father's slayers therefor. For if they had not murdered him +in so unjust and pitiable a fashion, you would not have taken up arms, +would not have gathered your legions, would not have made a compact with +Antony and Lepidus, and would not have taken measures against those very +men. That you were right and were justified in doing all this no one is +unaware. If any slight errors have been committed, at least we cannot +safely make any further changes. Therefore for our own sakes and for that +of the city let us obey Fortune, who gives you the supremacy. Let us be +very thankful to her that she has not simply filled us with civil woes, +but has put the reorganization of the government in your hands. By paying +due reverence to her you may show all mankind that whereas others wrought +disturbance and injury, you are an upright man. + +"Do not, I beg you, fear the magnitude of the empire. The greater its +extent, the more are the preservative influences it possesses; also, to +guard anything is a long way easier than to acquire it. Toils and dangers +are needed to win over what belongs to others, but a little prudence +suffices to retain what is already yours. Moreover, do not be afraid +that you will not live quite safely in the midst of it and enjoy all the +blessings extant among men, if you are willing to arrange all the details +as I shall advise you. And do not think that I am making my appeal depart +from the subject in hand, if I shall speak at some length about the +project. I shall not do this merely to hear myself talk, but to the end +that you may be positively assured that it is both possible and easy, for +a man of sense at least, to govern well and without danger. + +[-19-] "I maintain, therefore, first of all that you ought to pick out +your friends in the senatorial body and then subject it to a sifting +process, because some who are not fit have become senators on account +of civil disputes: such of them as possess any excellence you ought to +retain, but the rest you should erase from the roll. Do not, however, get +rid of any man of worth, because of poverty, but give him the money that +he needs. In the place of those who have been dropped introduce the +noblest, the best, the richest men obtainable, selecting them not only +from Italy but from the allies and subject nations. In this way you will +not be employing many assistants and you will insure a correct attitude +on the part of the chief men from all the provinces. These districts, +having no renowned leader, will not be disposed to rebel, and their +prominent men will entertain affection for you because they have been +made sharers in your empire. + +"Take precisely these same measures in the case of the knights, by +enrolling in the equestrian class such as hold second place everywhere in +birth, excellence, and wealth. Register as many in both classes as may +please you, not troubling at all about their numbers. The more men of +repute you have as your associates, the more easily will you yourself +settle everything in case of need and persuade your subjects that you are +treating them not as slaves nor in any way as inferior to us, but are +sharing with them besides all the other blessings that belong to us the +chief magistracy also, that so they may be devoted to it as their own +possession. I am so far from assuming this to be a mistaken policy that I +say they ought all to be given a share in the government. Thus, having an +equal allotment in it, they might be faithful allies of ours, believing +that they inhabited one single city owned in common by all of us, +and this _really_ a city, and regarding fields and villages as their +individual property. But about this and what ought to be done so as not +to grant them absolutely everything, we shall reflect in greater detail +at another time. + +[-20-] "It is proper to put men on the roll of the knights at eighteen +years of age; for at that period of life physical condition is at its +best and suitability of temperament can be discerned. But for the +senate they should wait till they are twenty-five years old. Is it not +disgraceful and hazardous to entrust public business to men younger than +this, when we will commit none of our private affairs to any one before, +he has reached such an age? After they have served as quæstors and +ædiles, or tribunes, let them be prætors, when they have attained their +thirtieth birthday. These offices and that of consul are the only ones at +home which I maintain you ought to recognize; and that is for the sake of +remembrance of ancestral customs and in order not to seem to be changing +the constitution altogether. Do you, however, yourself choose all who are +to hold them and not put any of these offices longer in charge of the +rabble or the populace,--for they will surely quarrel,--nor in charge of +the senate, for its members will contend for the prize. Moreover, do +not keep up the ancient powers of these positions, for fear history +may repeat itself, but preserve the honor attached while abating the +influence to such an extent as will enable you to deprive each place of +none of its esteem but to forestall any desire of insubordination. This +can be done if you require the incumbents to stay in town, and do not +permit any of them to handle arms either during their period of office or +immediately afterward, but only after the lapse of some time, as much +as you think sufficient in each instance. In this way none of them will +rebel, because they become to an extent by their title masters of armies, +and their irritation will be assuaged by their faring as private citizens +for a time. Let these magistrates conduct such of the festivals as would +naturally belong to their office, and let them all individually try cases +save those of homicide, during their tenure of office in Rome. Courts +should also be made up of the senators and knights, but the final appeal +should be to the aforesaid officials. + +[-21-] "Let a præfectus urbi be appointed from the ranks of the prominent +men and from such as have previously passed through the necessary +offices. His duties should not be to govern when the consuls are +somewhere out of town, but to exercise at all times a general supervision +of the City's interests and to decide the cases referred to him by all +the other magistrates I mentioned, both those demanding final decision +and such as may be appealed, together with any that involve the death +penalty; and he must have authority in all of them that concern men both +in the City (except such as I shall name) and those dwelling outside to +the distance of seven hundred and fifty stades. + +"Still another magistrate ought to be chosen, himself also from a similar +class, to investigate and watch the matters of family, property, and +morals of senators and knights, alike of men and of the children and +wives belonging to them[6]. He should also set right such behavior as +properly entails no punishment, yet if neglected becomes the cause of +many great evils. The more important details he must report to you. This +duty ought to be assigned to some senator, and to the most distinguished +one after the præfectus urbi, rather than to one of the knights. He would +naturally receive his name from your authority as censor, (for you must +certainly be the dictator of the census), so that he might be called +sub-censor[7].--Let these two hold office for life, unless either of them +deteriorates in any way or becomes sick or superannuated. By reason of +the permanence of their positions they would do nothing dangerous, for +one would be entirely unarmed and the other would have but a few soldiers +and be acting for the most part under your eyes. By reason of their rank +they would shrink from coming into collision with any one and would be +afraid to do any act of violence, for they would foresee their retirement +to ordinary citizenship and the supremacy of others in their stead. Let +them also draw a certain salary, to compensate them for the time consumed +and to increase their reputation. This is the opinion I have to give you +in regard to these officials. + +"Let those who have been prætors hold some office among the subject +nations. Before they have been prætors I do not think they should have +this privilege. Let those who have not yet been prætors serve for one +or two terms as lieutenants to such persons as you may have designated. +Then, under these conditions, let them be consuls if they continue to +govern rightly, and after that let them take the greater positions of +command. [-22-] The following is the way I advise you to arrange it. +Divide up all of Italy which is over seven hundred and fifty stades from +the city and all the rest of the territory which owns our sway, both on +the continents and in the islands,--divide it up everywhere according to +races and nations; and pursue the same course with as many cities as are +important enough to be ruled by one man with full powers. Then establish +soldiers and a governor in each one and send out one of the ex-consuls to +take charge of all, and two of the ex-prætors. One of the latter, fresh +from the City, should have the care of private business and the supplying +of provisions: the other should be one of those who have had this +training, who will attend to the public interests of the cities and will +govern the soldiers, except in cases that concern disenfranchisement or +death. These must be referred only to the ex-consul who is governor, +except in regard to the centurions who are on the lists and to the +foremost private individuals in every place. Do not allow any other +person than yourself to punish either of these classes, so that they may +never be impelled by fear of any one else to take any action against you. +As for my proposition that the second of the ex-prætors should be put in +charge of the soldiers, it is subject to the following limitations. If +only a few are in service in foreign forts or in one native post, it is +well enough for this to be so. But if two citizen legions are wintering +in the same province (and more than this number I should not advise you +to trust to one commander), it will be necessary for the two ex-prætors +to superintend them, each having charge of one besides managing +the remaining political and private interests. Therefore, let the +ex-consul[8]... these matters and likewise on the cases, both those +subject to appeal and those already referred which are sent up to him +from[9] his prætors. And do not be surprised that I recommend to you to +divide Italy also into such sections. It is large and populous, and so +is incapable of being well managed by the governors at the capital. The +governor of any district ought to be always present and no duties should +be laid upon our city magistrates[10] that are impossible of fulfillment. + +[-23-] "Let all these men to whom affairs outside the city are committed +receive pay, the greater ones more, the inferior ones less, those of +medium importance a medium amount. They can not in a foreign land live +on their own resources nor as now stand an unlimited and uncalculated +expense. Let them govern not less than three years (unless any one of +them commits a crime), nor more than five. These limits are because +annual and short-time appointments after teaching persons what they +need to know send them back again before they can display any of their +knowledge: and, on the other hand, longer and more lasting positions fill +many with conceit and incline them to rebellion. Hence I think that +the greater posts of authority ought not to be given to persons +consecutively, without interval, for it makes no difference whether a man +is governor in the same province or in several in succession, if he holds +office longer than is proper. Appointees improve when a period of time is +allowed to elapse and they return home and live as ordinary citizens. + +"The senators, accordingly, I affirm ought to discharge these duties and +in the way described. [-24-] Of the knights the two best should command +the body-guard which protects you. To entrust it to one man is hazardous, +and to several is sure to breed turmoil. Let these prefects therefore be +two in number, in order that, if one of them suffers any bodily harm, you +may still not lack a person to guard you: and let them be appointed from +those who have been on many campaigns and have been active also in many +other capacities. Let them have command both of the Pretorians and of all +the remaining soldiers in Italy with such absolute power that they +may put to death such of them as do wrong, except in the case of the +centurions and any others who have been assigned to members of the senate +holding office. These should be tried by the senatorial magistrates +themselves, in order that the latter may have authority both to honor +and to chastise their dependents and so be able to count on their +unhesitating support. Over all the other soldiers in Italy those prefects +should have dominion (aided of course by lieutenants), and further over +the Cæsarians, both such as wait upon you and all the rest that are of +any value. These duties will be both fitting and sufficient for them to +discharge.[11] They should not have more labors laid upon them than they +will be able to dispose of effectively, that they may not be weighed down +by the press of work or find it impossible to see to everything. These +men ought to hold office for life like the præfectus urbi and the +sub-censor. Let some one else be appointed night watchman, and still +another commissioner of grain and of the other market produce, both of +these from the foremost knights after those mentioned and appointed to +hold their posts for a definite time like the magistrates elected from +the senatorial class. [-25-] The disposition of the funds, also,--of both +the people and the empire, I mean, whether in Rome or in the rest of +Italy or outside,--should be entirely in the hands of the knights. These +treasurers also, as well as all of the same class who have the management +of anything, should draw pay, some more and some less, with reference to +the dignity and magnitude of their employment. The reason is that it is +not possible for them, since they are poorer than the senators, to spend +their own means while engaged in no business in Rome. And then again, it +is neither possible nor advantageous for you that the same men should be +made masters of both the troops and the finances. Furthermore, it is well +that all the business of the empire should be transacted through a number +of agents, in order that many may receive the benefit of it and become +experienced in affairs. In this way your subjects, reaping a multiform +enjoyment from the public treasures, will be better disposed toward you, +and you will have an abundant supply of the best men on each occasion for +all necessary lines of work. One single knight with as many subordinates +(drawn from the knights and from your freedmen) as the needs of the case +demand, is sufficient for every separate form of business in the City and +for each province outside. You need to have these assistants along with +them in order that your service may contain a prize of excellence, and +that you may not lack persons from whom you may learn the truth even +contrary to the wishes of their superiors, in case there is anything +irregular happening. + +"If any one of the knights after passing through many forms of service +distinguishes himself enough to become a senator, his age ought not to +hinder him at all from being enrolled in the senate. Let some of those +even be registered who have held the post of company leaders in citizen +forces, unless it be one who has served in the rank and file; for it is +both a shame and a reproach to have on the list of the senate any of +these persons who have carried loaded panniers and charcoal baskets. But +in the case of such as were originally centurions there is nothing to +prevent the most distinguished of them from being advanced to a better +class. + +[-26-] "With regard to the senators and the knights this is my advice to +you. And, by Jupiter, I have this to say further. While they are still +children they should attend schools, and when they come out of childhood +into youth they should turn their minds to horses and arms and have paid +public teachers in each of these two departments. In this way from very +boyhood they will both learn and practice all that they must themselves +do on becoming men, and so they will prove far more serviceable to you +for every work. The best ruler, who is of any value, must not only +himself perform all his required tasks, but also look forward to see how +the rest shall become also as excellent as possible. And this name can be +yours, not if you allow them to do whatever they please and then censure +those who err, but if before any mistakes occur you teach them everything +which, when practiced, will render them more useful both to themselves +and to you. And afford nobody any excuse whatever, either wealth or +birth, or anything else that accompanies excellence, for affecting +indolence or effeminacy or any other behavior that is not genuine. Many +persons, fearing that on account of some such possession they may incur +jealousy or danger, do much that is unworthy of themselves, expecting +by such behavior to live in greater security. As a consequence they +commiserate themselves, believing themselves wronged in this very +particular, that they are not allowed to appear to live aright. Their +ruler also suffers a loss because he is deprived of the services of good +men, and suffers ill repute for the censure imposed upon them. Therefore +never permit this to be done, and have no fears that any one brought up +and educated as I propose will ever adopt a rebellious policy. Quite the +reverse; it is only the ignorant and licentious that you need suspect. +Such persons are easily influenced to behave most disgracefully and +abominably in absolutely every way first toward their own selves and next +toward other people. Those, however, who have been well brought up and +educated are purposed not to wrong any one and least of all him who cared +for their rearing and education. If any one, accordingly, shows himself +wicked and ungrateful, do not entrust him with any such position as will +enable him to effect any harm: if even so he rebels, let him be tried and +punished. Do not be afraid that any one will blame you for this, if you +carry out all my injunctions. For in taking vengeance on the wrongdoer +you will be guilty of no sin any more than the physician who burns and +cuts. All will pronounce the man justly treated, because after partaking +of the same rearing and education as the rest he plotted against +you.--This is the course of action I advise in the case of the senators +and knights. + +[-27-] "A standing army should be supported, drawn from the citizens, +the subject nations, and the allies, in one case more, in another less, +province by province, as the necessities of the case demand; and they +ought to be always under arms and make a practice of warfare continually. +They must have secured winter-quarters at the most opportune points, and +serve for a definite time, so that a certain period of active life may +remain for them before old age. For, separated so far as we are from the +frontiers of the empire, with enemies living near us on every side, we +should otherwise no longer be able to count on auxiliaries in the case of +emergencies. Again, if we allow all those of military age to have arms +and to practice warlike pursuits, quarrels and civil wars will always be +arising among them. However, if we prevent them from doing this and then +need their assistance at all in battle, we shall always have to face +danger with inexperienced and untrained soldiers at our back. For this +reason I submit the proposition that most of them live without arms +and away from forts; but that the hardiest and those most in need of a +livelihood be registered and kept in practice. They themselves will fight +better by devoting their leisure to this single business; and the rest +will the more easily farm, manage ships, and attend to the other pursuits +of peace, if they are not forced to be called out for service, but have +others to stand as their guardians. The most active and vigorous element, +that is, which is oftenest obliged to live by robbery, will be supported +without harming others, and all the rest of the population will lead a +life free from danger. + +[-28-] "From what source, then, will the money come for these warriors +and for the other expenses that will be found necessary? I shall make +this point clear, with only the short preliminary statement that even +were we under a democracy, we should in any case need money. We can not +survive without soldiers, and without pay none of them will serve. Hence +let us not feel downhearted in the belief that the compulsory collection +of money appertains only to monarchy, and let us not turn away from +the system for that reason, but conduct our deliberations with a full +knowledge of the fact that in any case it is necessary for us to obtain +funds, whatsoever form of government we may adopt. Consequently, I +maintain that you should first of all sell the goods which are in the +public treasury,--and I notice that these have become numerous on account +of the wars,--except a few which are exceedingly useful and necessary +to you: and you should loan all this money at some moderate rate of +interest. In this way the land will be worked, being delivered to men who +will cultivate it themselves, and the latter will obtain a starting-point +and so grow more prosperous, while the treasury will have a sufficient +and perpetual revenue. This amount should be computed together with all +the rest of the revenue that can be derived from the mines and with +certainty from any other source; and after that we ought to reckon on not +only the military service but everything else which contributes to the +successful life of a city, and further how much it will be necessary to +lay out in campaigns at short notice and other critical occurrences which +are wont to take place. Then, to make up the deficiency in income, we +ought to levy upon absolutely all instruments which produce any profit +for the men who possess them, and we should exact taxes from all whom we +rule. It is both just and proper that no one of them should be exempt +from taxation,--individual or people,--because they are destined to enjoy +the benefit of the taxes in common with the rest. We should set over them +tax-collectors in every case to manage the business, so that they may +levy from all sources of revenue everything that falls due during their +term of management. The following plan will render it easier for the +officers to gather the taxes and will be of no little service to those +who contribute them. I mean that they will bring in whatever they owe +in an appointed order and little by little, instead of remaining idle +a short time and then having the entire sum demanded of them in one +payment. + +[-29-] "I am not unaware that some of the incomes and taxes established +will be disliked. But I know this, too,--that if the peoples secure +immunity from any further abuse and believe in reality that they will be +contributing all of this for their own safety and for reaping subsidiary +benefits in abundance and that most of it will be obtained by no others +than men of their own district, some by governing, others by managing, +others by army service, they will be very grateful to you, giving as they +do a small portion of large possessions, the profits of which they enjoy +without oppression. Especially will this be true if they see that you +live temperately and spend nothing foolishly. Who, if he saw you very +economical of your own means and very lavish of the public funds, +would not willingly contribute, and deem your possession of wealth to +constitute his safety and prosperity? By these means a very large amount +of money would be on hand. + +[-30-] "The rest I urge you to arrange in the following way. Adorn this +city in the most expensive manner possible and add brilliance by every +form of festival. It is fitting that we who rule many people should +surpass all in everything, and such spectacles tend in a way to promote +respect on the part of our allies and alarm on the part of enemies. The +affairs of other nations you should order in this fashion. First, let the +various tribes have no power in any matter nor meet in assemblies at all. +They would decide nothing good and would always be creating more or less +turmoil. Hence I say that even our own populace ought not to gather at +court or for elections or for any other such meeting where any business +is to be transacted. Next, they should not indulge in numbers of houses +of great size and beyond what is necessary, and they should not expend +money upon many and all kinds of contests: so they will neither be worn +out by vain zeal nor become hostile through unreasonable rivalries. They +ought, however, to have certain festivals and spectacles, (apart from the +horse-race held among us), but not to such an extent that the treasury or +private estates will be injured, or any stranger be compelled to spend +anything whatever in their midst, or food for a lifetime be furnished +to all who have merely won in some contest. It is unreasonable that the +well-to-do should submit to compulsory expenditures outside their own +countries; and for the athletes the prizes for each event are sufficient. +This ruling does not apply to any one of them who might come out victor +in the Olympian or Pythian games, or some contest here at Rome.[12] Such +are the only persons who ought to be fed, and then the cities will not +exhaust themselves without avail nor anybody practice save those who have +a chance of winning, since one can follow some other pursuit that is +more advantageous both to one's self and to one's country. "This is my +decision about these matters.--Now to the horse-races which are held +without gymnastic contests, I think that no other city but ours should be +allowed to hold them, so that vast sums of money may not be dissipated +recklessly nor men go miserably frantic,--and most of all that the +soldiers may have a plentiful supply of the best horses. This, therefore, +I would forbid altogether, that those races should take place anywhere +else than here. The other amusements I have determined to moderate so +that all organizations should make the enjoyment of entertainments for +eye and ear inexpensive, and men thereby live more temperately and free +from discontent. + +"Let none of the foreigners employ their own coinage or weights or +measures, but let them all use ours. And they should send no embassy to +you, unless it involve a point for decision. Let them instead present to +their governor whatever they please and through him forward to you all +such requests of theirs as he may approve. In this way they will neither +spend anything nor effect their object by crooked practices, but receive +their answers at first hand without any expenditure or intrigue. + +[-31-] "Moreover, in respect to other matters, you would seem to be +ordering things in the best way if you should, in the first place, +introduce before the senate the embassies which come from the enemy and +from those under truce, both kings and peoples. For it is awe-inspiring +and impressive to let the senate appear to be master of all situations +and to exhibit many adversaries prepared for petitioners who are guilty +of double dealing. Next, have all the laws enacted by the senators, and +do not impose a single one upon all the people alike, except the decrees +of that body. In this way the dignity of the empire would be the more +confirmed and the decisions made in accordance with the laws would prove +indisputable and evident to all alike. Thirdly, it would be well in case +the senators who are serving in the city, their children or their wives, +are ever charged with any serious crime, so that a person convicted would +receive a penalty of disenfranchisement or exile or even death, that +you should set the situation before the senate, without any previous +condemnation, and commit to that body the entire decision at first hand +regarding it. Thus those guilty of any crime would be tried before all +their peers and punished without any ill-feeling against you. The rest, +seeing this, would improve in character for fear of being themselves +publicly apprehended. I am speaking here about those offences regarding +which laws are established, and judgments are rendered according to the +laws. + +"As for talk that some one has abused you or spoken in an unfitting way +about you, do not listen to any one who brings such an accusation nor +investigate it. It is disgraceful to believe that any one has wantonly +insulted you who are doing no wrong and benefiting all. Only those who +rule badly will credit these reports. Because of their own conscience +they surmise that the matter has been stated truthfully. It is a shame to +be angry at complaints for which, if true, one had better not have been +responsible, and about which, if false, one ought not to pretend to care. +Many in times past by angry behavior have caused more things and worse to +be said against them. This is my opinion about those accused of uttering +some insult. Your personality should be too strong and too lofty to be +assailed by any insolence, and you should never allow yourself to think +nor lead others into thinking that any person can be indecent toward you. +Thus they will think of you as of the gods, that you are sacrosanct. If +any one should be accused of plotting against you (such a thing might +happen), do not yourself sit as judge on a single detail of the case nor +reach any decision in advance,--for it is absurd that the same man should +be made both accuser and judge,--but take him to the senate and make him +plead his defence. If he be convicted, punish him, though moderating the +sentence so far as is feasible, in order that belief in his guilt may be +fostered. It is very difficult to make most men believe that any unarmed +person will plot against him who is armed. And the only way you could +gain credence would be by punishing him not in anger nor overwhelmingly, +if it be possible.--This is aside from the case of one who had an army +and should revolt directly against you. It is not fitting that such an +one be tried, but that he be chastised as an enemy. + +"In this way refer to the senate these matters and [-32-] most of the +highly important affairs that concern the commonwealth. Public interests +you must administer publicly. It is also an inbred trait of human nature +for individuals to delight in marks of esteem from a superior, which seem +to raise one to equality with him, and to approve everything which the +superior has determined after consulting them, as if it were their own +proposal, and to cherish it, as if it were their own choice. Consequently +I affirm that such business ought to be brought before the senate.--In +regard to most cases all those senators present ought equally to state +their opinions: but when one of their number is accused, not all of them +should do so, unless it be some one who is not yet a senator or is not +yet in the ranks of the ex-quæstors that is being tried. And, indeed, it +is absurd that one who has not yet been a tribune or an ædile should cast +a vote against such as have already filled these offices, or, by Jupiter, +that any one of the latter should vote against the ex-prætors or they +against the ex-consuls. Let the last named have authority to render a +decision in all cases, but the rest only in the cases of their peers and +their subordinates. + +[-33-] "You yourself must try in person the referred and the appealed +cases which come to you from the higher officials, from the procurators, +from the præfectus urbi, from the sub-censor, and the prefects, both the +commissioner of grain[13] and the night-watch.[14] No single one of them +should have such absolute powers of decision and such independence that a +case can not be appealed from him. You should be the judge, therefore +in these instances, and also when knights are concerned and properly +enrolled centurions and the foremost private citizens, if the trial +involves death or disenfranchisement. Let these be your business alone, +and for the reasons mentioned let no one else on his own responsibility +render a decision in them. You should always have associated with you +for discussion the most honored of the senators and of the knights, and +further certain others from the ranks of the ex-consuls and ex-prætors, +some at one time and some at another. In this association you will become +more accurately acquainted with their characters beforehand, and so be +able to put them to the right kind of employment, and they by coming in +contact with your habits and wishes will have them in mind on going out +to govern the provinces. Do not, however, openly ask their opinions when +a rather careful consideration is required, for fear that they, being +outside their accustomed sphere, may hesitate to speak freely; but let +them record their views on tablets. To these you alone should have +access, that they may become known to no one else, and then order the +writing to be immediately erased. In this way you may best get at each +man's exact opinion, when they believe that it can not be identified +among all the rest. + +"Moreover for the lawsuits, letters, and decrees of the cities, for the +consideration of the demands of individuals and everything else which +belongs to the administration of the empire you must have supporters and +assistants from among the knights. Everything will move along more easily +in this way, and you will neither err through want of fairness nor become +exhausted by doing everything yourself. Grant every one who wishes to +make any suggestion whatever to you the right of speaking freely and +fearlessly. If you approve what he says, it will be of great service: +and if you are not persuaded, it will do no harm. Those who obtain your +favorable judgment you should both praise and honor, since by their +devices you will receive glory: and those who fail of it you should never +dishonor or censure. It is proper to look at their intentions, and not to +find fault because their plans were unavailable. Guard against this same +mistake when war is concerned. Be not enraged at any one for involuntary +misfortune nor jealous of his good fortune, to the end that all may +zealously and gladly run risks for you, confident that if they make a +slip they will not be punished nor if successful become the objects of +intrigue. There are many who through fear of jealousy on the part of +those in power have chosen to meet reverses rather than to effect +anything. As a result they retained their safety, but the loss fell upon +their own heads. You, who are sure to reap the principal benefit from +both classes alike,--the inferior and the superior,--ought never to +choose to become nominally jealous of others, but really of yourself. + +[-34-] "Whatever you wish your subjects to think and do _you_ must +say and do. You can better educate them in this way than if you +should desire to terrify them by the severities of the laws. The former +course inspires emulation, the latter fear. And any one can more easily +imitate superior conduct, when he actually sees it in some life, than he +can guard against low behavior which he merely hears to be prohibited by +edict. Act in every way yourself with circumspection, not condoning any +mistakes of your own, for be well assured that all will straightway learn +everything you say and do. You will live as it were in a kind of theatre, +whose audience is the whole world: and it will not be possible for you to +escape detection if you commit the very smallest error. No act of yours +will ever be in private, but all of them will be performed in the midst +of many persons. And all the remainder of mankind somehow take the +greatest delight in being officious with respect to what is done by their +rulers. Hence, if they once ascertain that you are urging them to one +course and following a different one yourself, they will not fear your +threats, but will imitate your deeds. + +"Have an eye to the lives of others, but do not carry your investigations +unpleasantly close. Decide cases which are brought before you by +outsiders, but do not pretend to notice conduct that receives no +outspoken censure from any one, except irregularities not consonant with +public interest. The latter ought to be properly rebuked, even if no one +has aught to say against them. Other private failings you ought to know, +in order to avoid making a mistake some day by employing an assistant +unsuitable for a particular duty: do not, however, take individuals to +task. Their natures impel many persons to commit various violations of +the law. If you make an unsparing campaign against them, you might leave +scarcely one man unpunished. But if you humanely mingle consideration +with the strict command of the law, you may perhaps bring them to their +senses. For the law, though necessarily severe in its punishments, can +not always conquer nature. Some men, if permitted to think they are +unobserved, or if moderately admonished, improve, some through shame +at being discovered and others through fear of failure the next time. +Whereas when they are openly denounced and throw compunction to the +winds, or where they are chastised beyond measure, they overturn and +trample under foot all law and order and obey slavishly the impulses of +their nature. Therefore it is not easy to discipline all of them nor is +it fitting to allow some of them to continue publicly their outrageous +conduct. + +"This is the way I advise you to treat people's offences, except the very +desperate cases: and you should honor even beyond the deserts of the deed +whatever they do rightly. In this way you can best make them refrain from +baser conduct by kindliness and cause them to aim at what is better by +liberality. Have no dread that either money or other means of rewarding +those who do well will ever fail you. I think those deserving of good +treatment will prove far fewer than the rewards, since you are lord of so +much land and sea. And fear not that any who are benefited will commit +some act of ingratitude. Nothing so captivates and conciliates any one, +be he foreigner or be he foe, as freedom from wrongs and likewise kindly +treatment. + +[-35-] "This is the attitude which I urge you to assume toward others. +For your own part allow no extraordinary or overweening distinction to +be given you through word or deed by the senate or by anybody else. To +others honor which you confer lends adornment, but to your own self +nothing can be given that is greater than what you already have, and it +would arouse no little suspicion of failure in straightforwardness. None +of the ordinary people willingly approves of having any such distinction +voted to the man in power. As he receives everything of the kind +from himself, he not only obtains no praise for it but becomes a +laughing-stock instead. Any additional brilliance, then, you must create +for yourself by your good deeds. Never permit gold or silver images of +yourself to be made; they are not only costly, but they give rise to +plots and last but a brief time: you must build in the very hearts of +men others out of benefits conferred, which shall be both unalloyed and +undying. Again, do not ever allow a temple to be raised to yourself. +Large amounts of money are spent uselessly on such objects, which had +better be laid out upon necessary improvements. Great wealth is gathered +not so much by acquiring a great deal as by not spending a great deal. +Nor does a temple contribute anything to any one's glory. Excellence +raises many men to the level of the gods, but nobody ever yet was made a +god by show of hands. Hence if you are upright and rule well, the whole +earth will be your precinct, all cities your temple, all mankind your +statues. In their thoughts you will ever be enshrined and surrounded by +good repute. Those who administer their power in any other way are not +only not magnified by sites and edifices of worship, though these be +the choicest in all the cities, but erect for themselves therein mute +detractors which become trophies of their baseness, memorials of their +injustice. And the longer these last, the more steadfastly does the +ill-repute of such sovereigns abide. [-36-] Therefore if you desire to +become in very truth immortal, act in this way; and further, reverence +the Divine Power yourself everywhere in every way, following our fathers' +belief, and compel others to honor it. Those who introduce strange ideas +about it you should both hate and punish, not only for the sake of the +gods (because if a man despises them he will esteem naught else sacred) +but because such persons by bringing in new divinities persuade many to +adopt foreign principles of law. As a result conspiracies, factions, and +clubs arise which are far from desirable under a monarchy. Accordingly, +do not grant any atheist or charlatan the right to be at large. The art +of soothsaying is a necessary one and you should by all means appoint +some men to be diviners and augurs, to whom people can resort who desire +to consult them on any matter; but there ought to be no workers of magic +at all. Such men tell partly truth but mostly lies, and frequently +inspire many of their followers to rebel. The same thing is true of many +who pretend to be philosophers. Hence I urge you to be on your guard +against them. Do not, because you have come in contact with such +thoroughly admirable men as Areus and Athenodorus, think that all +the rest who say they are philosophers are like them. Some use this +profession as a screen to work untold harm to both populace and +individuals. + +[-37-] "Your spirit, then, because you have no desire for anything more +than you possess, ought to be most peaceful, whereas your equipment +should be most warlike, in order that no one ordinarily may either wish +or try to harm you, but if he should, that he may be punished easily and +instantly. For these and other reasons it is requisite for some persons +to keep their ears and eyes open to everything appertaining to your +position of authority, in order that you may not fail to notice anything +which needs guarding against or setting right. Remember, however, that +you must not trust merely to all they say, but investigate their words +carefully. There are many who, some through hatred of certain persons, +others out of desire for what they possess, or as a favor to some one, or +because they ask money and do not receive it, oppress others under the +pretext that the latter are rebellious or are guilty of harboring some +design or uttering some statement against the supreme ruler. Therefore it +is not right to pay immediate or ready attention to them, but to enquire +into absolutely everything. If you are slow in believing anybody, you +will suffer no great harm, but if you are hasty, you may make a mistake +which can not easily be repaired. + +"Now it is both right and necessary for you to honor the excellent both +among the freedmen and among the rest of your associates. This will +afford you great renown and security. They must, however not have any +extraordinary powers but all carefully moderate their conduct, that +so you may not be ill spoken of through them. For everything they do, +whether well or ill, will be accredited to you, and the estimate of +yourself to be made by all men will depend upon what you permit these +persons to do. + +"Do not, then, allow the influential either to make unjust gains or to +concern themselves with blackmail: and let no one be complained of for +'having influence', even if he is otherwise irreproachable. Defend the +masses vigorously when they are wronged and do not attend too easily to +accusations against them. Examine every deed on its merits, not being +suspicious of every one who is prominent nor believing every one who is +lower in the social scale. Those who are active and are the authors of +any useful device you must honor, but the idle or such as busy themselves +with petty foolishness you must hate. Thus your subjects will be inclined +to the former conduct because of the benefits attached and will refrain +from the latter on account of the penalties, and will become better +as individuals and more serviceable for your employment in the public +service. + +"It is an excellent achievement also to render private disputes as few as +possible and their settlement as rapid as may be. But it is best of all +to cut short the impetuosity of communities, and, if under guise of some +appeals to your sovereignty and safety and good fortune they undertake to +use force upon anybody or to undertake exploits or expenditures that are +beyond their power, not to permit it. You should abolish altogether their +enmities and rivalries among themselves and not authorize them to create +any empty titles or anything else which will breed differences between +them. All will readily obey you both in this and in every other matter, +private and public, if you never permit any one to transgress this rule. +Non-enforcement of laws makes null and void even wisely framed precepts. +Consequently you should not allow persons to ask for what you are not +accustomed to give. Try to compel them to avoid diligently this very +practice of petitioning for something prohibited. This is what I have to +say on that subject. + +[-38-] "I advise you never to make use of your authority against all the +citizens at once nor to deem it in any way curtailed if you do not do +absolutely everything that is within your power. But in proportion as you +are able to carry out all your wishes, you must be anxious to wish only +what is proper, make always a self-examination, to see whether what you +are doing is right or not, what conduct will cause people to love you, +and what not, in order that you may perform the one set of acts and avoid +the other. Do not admit the thought that you will sufficiently escape +the reputation of acting contrary to this rule, if only you hear no one +censuring you; and do not look for any one to be so mad as to reproach +you openly for anything. No one would do this, not even if he should be +violently wronged. Quite the reverse,--many are compelled in public to +praise their oppressors, and while engaged in opposition not to manifest +their wrath. The ruler must infer the disposition of people not from what +they say but from the way it is natural for them to feel. + +[-39-] "This and a similar policy is the one I wish you to pursue. I pass +over many matters because it is not feasible to speak of them all at one +time and within present limits. One suggestion therefore I will make to +sum up both previous remarks and whatever is lacking. If you yourself by +your own motion do whatever you would wish some one else who ruled you +to do, you will make no mistakes and will be always successful, and +consequently your life will be most pleasant and free from danger. How +can all fail to regard you and to love you as father and preserver, when +they see you are orderly, leading a good life, good at warfare, but a man +of peace: when you are not wanton, do not defraud: when you meet them +on a footing of equality, and do not yourself grow rich while demanding +money from others: are not yourself given to luxury while imposing +hardships upon others: are not yourself unbridled while reproving others: +when, instead, your life in every way without exception is precisely +like theirs? Be of good cheer, for you have in your own hands a great +safeguard by never wronging another. And believe me when I tell you that +you will never be the object of hatred or plots. Since this is so, you +must quite inevitably lead a pleasant life. What is pleasanter, what is +more conducive to prosperity, than to enjoy in a rightful way all the +blessings among men and to have the power of granting them to others? + +[-40-] "With this in mind, together with all the rest that I have told +you, heed my advice and let not that fortune slip which has chosen you +out of all and set you at the head of all. If you would choose the +substance of monarch but fear the name of 'kingdom' as accursed, then +refrain from taking possession of the latter and be satisfied to employ +merely the title of 'Cæsar.' If you need any further appellations, they +will give you that of _Imperator_, as they gave it to your father. They +will reverence you also by still another name, so that you may obtain all +the advantages of a kingdom without the disfavor that attaches to the +term itself." + +[-41-] Mæcenas thus brought his speech to an end. Cæsar thanked them both +heartily for their many ideas, the exhaustiveness of their exposition, +and their frankness. He rather inclined, however, to the proposition of +Mæcenas. Yet he did not immediately put into practice all of the other's +suggestions, for fear that he might meet with some setback if he wanted +to reform men in multitudes. So he made some changes for the better at +once and others later. He left some things also for those who should +come to the head of the State afterward to do, as might be found more +opportune in the progress of time. Agrippa coöperated with him in all his +projects quite zealously, in spite of having stated a contrary opinion, +just as if he had been the one to propose the plan. Cæsar did this and +what I have recorded earlier in the narrative in that year when he was +consul for the seventh time, and added the title of _Imperator_. I do not +refer to the title anciently granted some persons for victories,--this he +received many times before and many times later for his deeds themselves, +so that he had the name of imperator twenty-one times,--but to the other +one which signifies supreme power, just as they had voted to his father +Cæsar and to the children and descendants of the same. + +[-42-] After this he entered upon a censorship with Agrippa and besides +setting aright some other business he investigated the senate. Many +knights and many foot-soldiers, too, who did not deserve it were in the +senate as a result of the civil wars, so that the total of that body +amounted to a thousand. These he wished to remove, but did not himself +erase any of their names, urging them to become their own judges out of +the consciousness of their family and their life. So first he persuaded +fifty of them to retire voluntarily from the assemblage and then +compelled one hundred and forty others to imitate their example. He +disenfranchised none of them, but posted the names of the second +division. In the case of the first, because they had not delayed but had +straightway obeyed him, he remitted the reproach and their identity was +not made public. These accordingly returned willingly to private life. He +ousted Quintus Statilius, very much against the latter's will, from the +tribuneship to which he had been appointed. Some others he made senators, +and he counted among the ex-consuls two men of the senatorial class,--a +certain Cluvius and Gaius Furnius,--because they had been appointed +first, though certain others had taken possession of their offices +so that they were unable to become consuls. He added to the class of +patricians, the senate allowing him to do this because most of its +members had perished. No element is exhausted so fast in civil wars as +the nobility or is deemed to be so necessary for the continuance of +ancestral customs. In addition to the above measures he forbade all +persons in the senate to go outside of Italy, unless he himself should +order or permit any one of them to do so. This custom is still kept up at +the present day. Except that he may visit Sicily and Gallia Narbonensis +no senator is allowed to go anywhere out of the country. As these regions +are close at hand and the population is unarmed and peaceful, those who +have any possessions there have been granted the right to take trips to +them as often as they like, without asking leave.--Since also he saw that +many of the senators and of the others who had been devoted to Antony +still maintained an attitude of suspicion toward him, and as he was +afraid they might cause some uprising, he announced that all the letters +found in his rival's chest had been burned. Some of them as a matter of +fact had perished, but the majority of them he took pains to preserve and +did not even hesitate to use them later. + +[-43-] Besides these acts related he also settled Carthage anew, because +Lepidus had laid waste a part of it and for that reason he maintained +that the colonists' rights of settlement had been abrogated. He summoned +Antiochus of Commagene to appear before him because this prince had +treacherously slain an envoy despatched to Rome by his brother, who was +at variance with him. Cæsar brought him before the senate, where he was +condemned and the sentence of death imposed. Capreæ was also obtained +from the Neapolitans, to whom it had anciently belonged, in exchange for +other land. It lies not far from the mainland opposite Surrentum and is +good for nothing but has a name even now on account of Tiberius's sojourn +there.--These were the events of that period. + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: anagchastae] (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 2: The same Strabo who is mentioned in the early part of +chapter 28, Book Forty-four.] + +[Footnote 3: There is a gap here in the Greek text. The conclusion of +Agrippa'a speech is missing, as is also the earlier portion of Mæcenas's, +with some brief preface thereto. In the next chapter we are full in the +midst of the opposite argument,--in favor, namely, of the assumption of +supreme power by Octavius Cæsar.] + +[Footnote 4: Cobet prefers to read "fearlessly" (substituting [Greek: +hadeos] for [Greek: aedeos]).] + +[Footnote 5: Dio seems here to be imitating, in his phraseology, +Thukydides (VII, 25). The proper reading is [Greek: peri herma] (two +words), not [Greek: perierma] as in some of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 6: Dindorf's reading (Greek: _gunaichon te ton prosaechouson +autois_).] + +[Footnote 7: Compare Suetonius, _Augustus_, chapter 37. In practice there +were six of them,--three to nominate senators, and three to make a review +of the knights.] + +[Footnote 8: Here some words have evidently fallen out of the text.] + +[Footnote 9: Reading [Greek: hapo] with Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 10: Reading [Greek: archousi] (MSS. and Boissevain) instead of +[Greek: archomenois] (Xylander).] + +[Footnote 11: Adopting Boissevain's reading (Greek: diagein estai).] + +[Footnote 12: A reference particularly to the ludi Capitolini, founded by +Domitian.] + +[Footnote 13: Latin, _præfectus annonæ_.] + +[Footnote 14: Latin, _præfectus vigilum_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +53 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-third of Dio's Rome: + +How the temple of Apollo on the Palatine was consecrated (chapters 1, 2). + +How Cæsar delivered in the senate a speech as if retiring from the +sovereignty; and thereafter assigned to that body its proper provinces +(chapters 3-12). + +About the appointment of the governors sent to the provinces (chapters +13-15). + +How Cæsar was given the title of Augustus (chapter 16). + +About the names which the emperors assume (chapters 17-22). + +How the Sæpta were consecrated (chapters 23, 24). + +How Cæsar fought against Astures and Cantabri (chapter 25). + +How Gaul began to be governed Romans (chapter 26). + +How the Portico of Neptune and the Baths of Agrippa were dedicated +(chapter 27). + +How the Pantheon was dedicated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus was released from the obligation of obeying the laws +(chapter 28). + +How an expedition was made into Arabia Felix (chapters 29-33). + +Duration of time six years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated. + +Cæsar (VI), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (II). (B.C. 28 = a. u. 726.) + +Cæsar (VII), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (III). (B.C. 27 = a. u. 727.) + +Cæsar Augustus (VIII), T. Statilius T.F. Taurus (II). (B.C. 26 = a. u. +728.) + +Augustus (IX), M. lunius M.F. Silanus. (B.C. 25 = a. u. 729.) + +Augustus (X), C. Norbanus C.F.C.N. Flaccus. (B.C. 24 = a. u. 730.) + +Augustus (XI), Cn. Calpurnius Cn.F.Cn.N. Piso. (B.C. 23 = a. u. 731.) + + +_(BOOK 53, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 28 (_a. u._ 726)] + +[-1-] The following year Cæsar held office for the sixth time and did +everything according to the usage approved from very early times, +delivering to Agrippa his colleague the bundles of rods which belonged +to an incumbent of the consulship, while he himself used the others. On +completing his term he had the oath administered according to ancestral +custom. Whether he ever did this again I do not know. Agrippa he honored +exceedingly, even going so far as to give him his niece in marriage and +to provide him with a tent similar to his own whenever they went on a +campaign together; and the watchword was given by both of them. At that +particular time besides attending to the ordinary run of business he +finished the taking of the census, in which he was called _Princeps +Senatus_, as had been deemed proper under the real democracy. He further +completed and dedicated the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, the +precinct surrounding it, and the stores of books. And he celebrated in +company with Agrippa the festival in honor of the victory won at Actium, +which had been voted: in it he had the horse-race between boys and +between men of the nobility. This celebration every five years, as long +as it lasted, was in charge of the four priesthoods in succession,--I +mean the pontifices and augurs and the so-called septemviri and +quindecimviri. A gymnastic contest was also held at that time,--a wooden +stadium being built in the Campus Martius,--and there was an armed combat +of captives. This continued for several days without a break, in spite of +Cæsar's falling sick; for even so Agrippa filled his place. + +[-2-] Cæsar spent some of his private means upon the festivals, and when +money was needed for the public treasury he borrowed it and supplied the +want. For the management of this branch of the service he ordered two +annual magistrates to be chosen from among the ex-prætors. To the +populace he distributed a quadruple allowance of grain and made a present +of money to some of the senators. For many of them had grown so poor as +not to be willing to be even ædile on account of the great expenses. +Moreover the courts which belonged to the ædileship were to be assigned +to the prætors as had been the custom, the more important to the prætor +urbanus and the others to the prætor peregrinus. Again, he himself +appointed the prætor urbanus, as he often did subsequently. The pledges +deposited with the public treasury before the battle of Actium he +released, save any that involved house property, and burned the old +acknowledgments of those who owed the State anything. Egyptian rites +he did not admit within the pomerium, but paid great attention to +the temples of Egyptian deities. Such as had been built by private +individuals he ordered their children and descendants, if any survived, +to repair, and the rest he restored himself. He did not, however, +appropriate the credit for their building but allowed it to rest with +those who had originally constructed them. And since very many unlawful +and unjust ordinances had been passed during the internecine strifes and +in the wars, and particularly in the dual reign of Antony and Lepidus, he +abolished them all by one promulgation, setting his sixth consulship as +the limit of their existence. As he obtained approbation and praise for +this act he desired to exhibit another instance of magnanimity, that by +such a policy he might be honored the more and that his supremacy might +be voluntarily confirmed by the people, which would enable him to +avoid the appearance of having forced them against their will. As a +consequence, after apprising those senators with whom he was most +intimate of his designs, he entered the senatorial body in his seventh +consulship and read the following document. + +[B.C. 27 (_a. u._ 727)] + +[-3-] "I am sure that I shall seem to some of you, Conscript Fathers, to +have made an incredible choice. For what each one of my hearers would not +wish to do himself, he does not like to believe when another states it as +accomplished. This is chiefly because every one is jealous of every one +who surpasses him and is more or less inclined to distrust anything said +that is higher than his own standard.[1] Moreover I know this, that those +who make apparently untrustworthy statements not only persuade nobody but +further have the appearance of cheats. And, indeed, if it were a case of +announcing something that I was not intending to do immediately, I should +hesitate very much about making it public, for fear of obtaining some +unworthy charge against me instead of gratitude. But, as it is, when +the performance will follow the promise this very day, I feel entirely +confident not only of avoiding any shame for prevarication but of +surpassing all mankind in good repute. [-4-] You all see that I am so +situated that I could rule you perpetually. All the revolutionists either +have been disciplined and been made to halt or have had pity shown them +and so have come to their senses. My helpers have been made devoted by +a recompense of benefits and steadfast by a participation in the +government: therefore they do not desire any political innovations, and +if anything of the sort should take place, the men to assist me are even +more ready for it than the instigators of rebellion. My military is in +prime condition, we have good-will, strength, money, and allies, and +chiefest of all you and the people are so disposed toward me that you +would be quite willing to have me at your head. However, I will lead you +no longer, nor shall any one say that all the acts of my previous career +have been with the object of sole rulership. I give up the entire domain, +and I restore to you absolutely everything,--the arms, the laws, and the +provinces,--not only all those which you committed to me but also all +that I myself subsequently acquired for you. Thus by my deeds themselves +you may ascertain that I did not from the outset desire any position of +power, but wished in very truth to avenge my father cruelly murdered and +to extricate the city from great and continuous evils. [-5-] I would that +I had never taken charge of affairs even to the present extent. That is, +I would that the city had never needed me for any such purpose, but that +we of this age had from the outset lived in peace and harmony as our +fathers once did. But since an inflexible fate, as it seems, brought you +to a place where there was need even of me, though I was still young, +and I was put to the test, I was always ready to labor zealously at +everything even beyond what was expected of my years, so long as the +situation demanded my help, and I accomplished everything with good +fortune, even surpassing my powers. There was not one consideration out +of all that might be cited which could turn me from aiding you when you +were in danger, not toil or fear or threats of foes or prayers of friends +or the numbers of the confederates or the desperation of our adversaries. +I gave myself to you unsparingly for all the tasks that fell to our +lot, and my performances and sufferings you know. From it I myself have +derived no gain except that I caused my country to survive, but you are +both preserved and in your sober senses. Since, then, the gracious act +of Fortune has restored to you by my hands peace without treachery and +harmony without turmoil, receive back also liberty and democracy. +Take possession of the arms and the subject nations, and conduct the +government as has been your wont. + +[-6-] "You should not be surprised at my attitude when you see my right +conduct in other ways, my mildness and freedom from meddling, and reflect +moreover that I have never accepted any extraordinary privilege, beyond +what the majority might gain, though you have often voted many of them to +me. Do not, again, condemn me for folly because, when it is in my power +to rule over you and hold so great a sovereignty over this great world, I +am unwilling. Examining the merits of the situation I deem it most just +for you to manage your own affairs: examining the advantages, I regard it +as most advantageous to myself to be free from trouble, from jealousy, +from plots, and for you to conduct a free government with moderation and +love: examining where the glory lies (for the sake of which men often +choose to enter war and danger), will it not add most to my reputation +to resign so great a dominion? Will it not be most glorious to leave so +exalted a sovereignty and voluntarily become a plain citizen? So if any +one of you doubts that any one else could show true moderation in this +and bring himself to speak out, let him at all events believe me. For, +though I could recite many great benefits which have been conferred upon +you by me and by my father for which you would naturally love and honor +us above all the rest, I could say nothing greater and I should take +pride in nothing else more than this, that he would not accept the +monarchy which you strove to give him, and that I, holding it, lay it +aside. + +[-7-] "What need to set side by side his separate exploits,--the conquest +of Gaul, the subduing of Moesia, the subjugation of Egypt, the enslaving +of Pannonia? Or again Pharnaces, Juba, Phraates, the campaign against +the Britons, the crossing of the Rhine? Yet these are greater and more +important deeds than all our forefathers performed in all previous time. +Still, any of these accomplishments scarcely deserves a place beside my +present act, nor yet, indeed, does the fact that the civil wars, the +greatest and most diverse that have occurred in the history of man, we +fought to a successful finish, and that we made humane terms, overcoming +all who withstood us, as enemies, and saving alive all who yielded, as +friends; (so that if our city should ever again be fated to suffer from +disaffection, we might pray that the quarrel should follow this same +course). For that in spite of our possessing such great power and +standing at the summit of excellence and good fortune so that we might +govern you willing or unwilling, we should neither lose our heads nor +desire sole supremacy, but that instead he should reject it when offered +and I return it when given is a superhuman achievement. I speak in this +way not for idle boasting,--I should not have said it at all if I were +to derive any advantage whatever from it,--but in order that you may see +that whereas there are many public benefits to our credit and we have +in private many lofty titles, we take greatest pride in this, that what +others desire to gain even by doing violence to their neighbors we +surrender without any compulsion. + +[-8-] Who could be found more magnanimous than I (not to mention again +my father deceased) or whose conduct more godlike? With so many fine +soldiers at my back and citizens and allies (O Jupiter and Hercules!), +that love me, supreme over the entire sea within the Pillars of Hercules +except a very few tribes, possessing both cities and provinces on all the +continents, at a time when there is no longer any foreign enemy opposing +me and there is no disturbance at home, but you all are at peace, +harmonious and strong, and greatest of all are willingly obedient,--under +such conditions I voluntarily, of my own motion, resign so great a +dominion and alienate so vast a property. For if Horatius, Mucius, +Curtius, Regulus, the Decii wished to encounter danger and death with the +object of seeming to have done a great and noble deed, why should I not +even more desire to do this as a result of which I shall while alive +excel both them and all the rest of mankind in glory? No one of you +should think that whereas the ancient Romans pursued excellence and good +repute, all manliness has now become extinct in the city. Again, do not +entertain a suspicion that I wish to betray you and confide you to any +base fellows or expose you to mob rule, from which nothing good but all +the most terrible evils always result to mankind. Upon you, upon you, the +most excellent and prudent, I lay all public interests. The other course +I should never have followed, had it been necessary for me to die or even +to become monarch ten thousand times. This policy I adopt for my own +good and for that of the city. I myself have undergone both labors +and hardships and I can no longer hold out either in mind or in body. +Furthermore I foresee the jealousy and hatred which rises in the breasts +of some against the best men, and the plots which result from those +feelings; and for that reason I choose rather to be a private citizen +with glory than to be a monarch in danger. And the public business would +be managed much better if carried on publicly and by many people at once +than if it were dependent upon any one man. + +[-9-] "For these reasons, then, I supplicate and beseech all of you both +to commend my course and to coöperate heartily with me, reflecting upon +all that I have done for you in war and in government. You will be paying +me all the thanks due for it by allowing me now at last to lead a life of +quiet. Thus you will come to know that I understand not only how to rule +but to be ruled, and that all commands which I have laid upon others I +can endure to have laid upon me. I must surely expect to live in security +and to suffer no harm from any one by either deed or word, such is the +confidence (based upon the consciousness of my own rectitude) that I have +in your good-will. I may of course meet with some catastrophe, as happens +to many; for it is not possible for a man to please everybody, especially +when he has been involved in so great wars, some foreign and some civil, +and has had affairs of such magnitude entrusted to him: yet even so, I +am quite ready to choose to die as a private citizen before my appointed +time rather than to become immortal as a sole ruler. That very +circumstance will bring me fame,--that I not only murdered no one in +order to hold possession of the sovereignty but even died untimely in +order to avoid becoming monarch. The man who has dared to slay me will +certainly be punished by Heaven and by you, as took place in the case +of my father. He was declared to be equal to a god and obtained eternal +honors, whereas those who slew him perished, the evil men, in evil +plight. We could not become deathless, yet by living well and by dying +well we do in a sense gain this boon. Therefore I, who possess the first +requisite and hope to possess the second, return to you the arms and the +provinces, the revenues and the laws. I make only this final suggestion, +that you be not disheartened through fear of the magnitude of affairs or +the difficulty of handling them, nor neglect them in disdain, with the +idea that they can be easily managed. + +[-10-] "I have, indeed, no objection to suggesting to you in a summary +way what ought to be done in each of the leading categories. And what +are these suggestions? First, guard vigilantly the established laws and +change none of them. What remains fixed, though it be inferior, is more +advantageous than what is always subject to innovations, even though it +seem to be superior. Next, whatever injunctions these laws lay upon you +be careful to perform, and to refrain from whatever they forbid, and do +this scrupulously not only in word but also in deed, not only in public +but in private, that you may obtain not penalties but honors. The offices +both of peace and of war you should entrust to those who are each time +the most excellent and sensible, without jealousy of any persons, and +entering into rivalry not that this man or that man may reap some +advantage but that the city may be preserved and prosperous. Such men you +must honor but chastise those who show any different spirit in politics. +Make your private means public property of the city, and keep your hands +off public money as you would off your neighbors' goods. Keep careful +watch over what belongs to you but be not eager for that upon which you +can have no claim. Treat the allies and subject nations with neither +insolence nor rapacity, and neither wrong nor fear the enemy. Have your +arms always in hand, but do not use them against one another nor against +a peaceful population. Give the soldiers a sufficient support, so that +they may not on account of want desire anything which belongs to others. +Keep them together and discipline them, to prevent their doing any damage +through audacity. + +"But why need I make a long story by going into everything which it is +your duty to do? You may easily understand from this how the remaining +business must be conducted. I will close with this one remark. If you +conduct the government in this way, you will enjoy prosperity yourselves +and you will gratify me, who found you in the midst of wretched dishonor +and have rendered you such as you are. If you prove impotent to carry out +any single branch as you should, you will cause me regret and you will +cast the city again into many wars and great dangers." + +[-11-] While Cæsar was engaged in setting his decision before them, a +varied feeling took possession of the senators. A few of them knew his +real intention and as a result they kept applauding him enthusiastically. +Of the rest some were suspicious of what was said and others believed +in it, and therefore both marveled equally, the one class at his great +artifice and the other at the determination that he had reached. One side +was displeased at his involved scheming and the other at his change +of mind. For already there were some who detested the democratic +constitution as a breeder of factional difficulties, were pleased at the +change of government, and took delight in Cæsar. Consequently, though +the announcement affected different persons differently, their views in +regard to it were in each case the same. As for those who believed his +sentiments to be genuine, any who wished it could not rejoice because of +fear, nor the others lament because of hopes. And as many as disbelieved +it did not venture to accuse him and confute him, some because they were +afraid and others because they did not care to do so. Hence they all +either were compelled or pretended to believe him. As for praising him, +some did not have the courage and others were unwilling. Even in the +midst of his reading there were frequent shouts and afterward many more. +The senators begged that a monarchy be established, and directed all +their remarks to that end until (naturally) they forced him to assume the +reins of government. At once they saw to it that twice as much pay was +voted to the men who were to compose his body-guard as to the rest of the +soldiers, that this might incite the men to keep a careful watch of him. +Then he began to show a real interest in setting up a monarchy. + +[-12-] In this way he had his headship ratified by the senate and the +people. As he wished even so to appear to be democratic in principle, +he accepted all the care and superintendence of public business on the +ground that it required expert attention, but said that he should not +personally govern all the provinces and those that he did govern he +should not keep in his charge perpetually. The weaker ones, because +(as he said) they were peaceful and free from war, he gave over to the +senate. But the more powerful he held in possession because they were +slippery and dangerous and either had enemies in adjoining territory or +on their own account were able to cause a great uprising. His pretext was +that the senate should fearlessly gather the fruits of the finest portion +of the empire, while he himself had the labors and dangers: his real +purpose was that by this plan the senators be unarmed and unprepared for +battle, while he alone had arms and kept soldiers. Africa and Numidia, +Asia and Greece with Epirus, the Dalmatian and Macedonian territories, +Sicily, Crete, and Libya adjacent to Cyrene, Bithynia with the adjoining +Pontus, Sardinia and Baetica, were consequently held to belong to +the people and the senate. Cæsar's were--the remainder of Spain, the +neighborhood of Tarraco and Lusitania, all Gauls (the Narbonensian and +the Lugdunensian, the Aquitani and the Belgæ), both themselves and the +aliens among them. Some of the Celtae whom we call Germani had occupied +all the Belgic territory near the Rhine and caused it to be called +Germania, the upper part extending to the sources of the river and the +lower part reaching to the Ocean of Britain. These provinces, then, +and the so-called Hollow Syria, Phoenicia and Cilicia, Cyprus and the +Egyptians, fell at that time to Cæsar's share. Later he gave Cyprus and +Gaul adjacent to Narbo back to the people, and he himself took Dalmatia +instead. This was also done subsequently in the case of other provinces, +as the progress of my narrative will show. I have enumerated these in +such detail because now each one of them is ruled separately, whereas in +old times and for a long period the provinces were governed two and three +together. The others I have not mentioned because some of them were +acquired later, and the rest, even if they had been already subdued, were +not being governed by the Romans, but either were left to enjoy their own +laws or had been turned over to some kingdom or other. All of them that +after this came into the Roman empire were attached to the possessions +of the man temporarily in power.--This, then, was the division of the +provinces. + +[-13-] Wishing to lead the Romans still further away from the idea +that he looked upon himself as absolute monarch, Cæsar undertook the +government of the regions given him for ten years. In the course of this +time he promised to reduce them to quiet and he carried his playfulness +to the point of saying that if they should be sooner pacified, he would +deliver them sooner to the senate. Thereupon he first appointed the +senators themselves to govern both classes of provinces except Egypt. +This land alone, for the reasons mentioned, he assigned to the knight +previously named.[2] Next he ordained that the rulers of senatorial +provinces should be annual magistrates, elected by lot, unless any one +had the special privilege accorded to a large number of children or +marriage. They were to be sent out by the assembly of the senate as a +body, with no sword at their side nor wearing the military garb. The name +proconsul was to belong not only to the two ex-consuls but also to +the rest who had served as prætors or who at least held the rank of +ex-prætors. Both classes were to employ as many lictors as were usual in +the capital. He ordered further that they were to put on the insignia of +their office immediately on leaving the pomerium and were to wear them +continually until they should return. The heads of imperial provinces, on +the other hand, were to be chosen by himself and be his agents, and they +were to be named proprætors even if they were from the ranks of the +ex-consuls. Of these two names which had been extremely common under the +democracy he gave that of prætor to the class chosen by him because +from very early times war had been their care, and he called them also +proprætors: the name of consul he gave to the others, because their +duties were more peaceful, and called them in addition proconsuls. These +particular names of prætor and consul he continued in Italy, and spoke of +all officials outside as governing as their representatives. He caused +the class of his own choosing to employ the title of proprætor and to +hold office for as much longer than a year as should please him, wearing +the military costume and having a sword with which they are empowered to +punish soldiers. No one else, proconsul or proprætor or procurator, who +is not empowered to kill a soldier, has been given the privilege of +wearing a sword. It is permitted not only to senators but also to knights +who have this function. This is the condition of the case.--All the +proprætors alike employ six lictors: as many of them as do not belong to +the number of ex-consuls are named from this very number.[3] Both classes +alike assume the decorations of their position of authority when they +enter their appointed district and lay them aside immediately upon +finishing their term. + +[-14-] It is thus and on these conditions that governors from among the +ex-prætors and ex-consuls have been customarily sent to both kinds +of provinces. The emperor would send one of them on his mission +whithersoever and whenever he wished. Many while acting as prætors and +consuls secured the presidency of provinces, as sometimes happens at the +present day. In the case of the senate he privately gave Africa and Asia +to the ex-consuls and all the other districts to the ex-prætors. He +publicly forbade all the senators to cast lots for anybody until five +years after such a candidate had held office in the City. For a short +time all persons that fulfilled these requirements, even if they were +more numerous than the provinces, drew lots for them. Later, as some +of them did not govern well, this I appointment, too, reverted to the +emperor. Thus they also in a sense receive their position from him, and +he ordains that only a number equal to the number of provinces shall draw +lots, and that they shall be whatever men he pleases. Some emperors have +sent men of their own choosing there also, and have allowed certain of +them to hold office for more than a year: some have assigned certain +provinces to knights instead of to senators. + +These were the customs thus established at that time in regard to those +senators that were authorized to execute the death penalty upon their +subjects. Some who have not this authority are sent out to the provinces +called "provinces of the senate and the people",--namely, such quæstors +as the lot may designate and men who are co-assessors with those who hold +the actual authority. This would be the correct way to speak of these +associates, with reference not to the ordinary name but to their duties: +others call these also _presbeutai_, using the Greek term; about this +title enough has been said in the foregoing narrative. Each separate +official chooses his own assessors, the exprætors selecting one from +either their peers or their inferiors, and the ex-consuls three from +among those of equal rank, subject to the approval of the emperor. + +There were certain innovations made also in regard to these men, but +since they soon lapsed this is sufficient to say here. + +[-15-] This is the method followed in regard to the provinces of the +people. To the others, called provinces of the emperor, which have more +than one citizenlegion, lieutenants are sent chosen by the ruler himself, +generally from the ex-prætors but in some instances already from the +ex-quæstors or those who had held some office between the two. Those +positions, then, appertain to the senators. + +From among the knights the emperor himself despatches, some to the +citizen posts alone but others to foreign places (according to the +custom then instituted by [the same] Cæsar), the military tribunes, the +prospective senators and the remainder, concerning whose difference in +rank I have previously spoken in the narrative.[4] The procurators (a +name that we give to the men who collect the public revenues and spend +what is ordered) he sends to all the provinces alike, his own and the +people's, and some of these officers belong to the knights, others to the +freedmen. By way of exception the proconsuls levy the tribute upon +the people they govern. The emperor gives certain injunctions to the +procurators, the proconsuls, and the proprætors, in order that they may +proceed to their place of office on fixed conditions. Both this practice +and the giving of salary to them and to the remaining employees of the +government were made the custom at this period. In old times some by +contracting for work to be paid for from the public treasury furnished +themselves with everything needed for their office. It was only in the +days of Cæsar that these particular persons began to receive something +definite. This salary was not assigned to all of them in equal amounts, +but as need demands. The procurators get their very name, a dignified +one, from the amount of money given into their charge. The following laws +were laid down for all alike,--that they should not make up lists for +service or levy money beyond the amount appointed, unless the senate +should so vote or the emperor so order: also that when their successors +should arrive, they were immediately to leave the province and not to +delay on their return, but to be back within three months. + +[-16-] These matters were so ordained at that time,--or, at least, one +might say so. In reality Cæsar himself was destined to hold absolute +control of all of them for all time, because he commanded the soldiers +and was master of the money; nominally the public funds had been +separated from his own, but in fact he spent the former also as he saw +fit. + +When his decade had come to an end, there was voted him another five +years, then five more, after that ten, and again another ten, and a like +number the fifth time,[5] so that by a succession of ten-year periods he +continued monarch for life. Consequently the subsequent emperors, though +no longer appointed for a specified period but for their whole life at +once, nevertheless have been wont to hold a festival every ten years as +if then renewing their sovereignty once more: this is done even at the +present day. + +Cæsar had received many honors previously, when the matter of declining +the sovereignty and that regarding the division of the provinces were +under discussion. For the right to fasten the laurel in front of his +royal residence and to hang the oak-leaf crown above the doors was then +voted him to symbolize the fact that he was always victorious over +enemies and preserved the citizens. The royal building is called +Palatium, not because it was ever decreed that that should be its name, +but because Cæsar dwelt on the Palatine and had his headquarters there; +and his house secured some renown from the mount as a whole by reason +of the former habitation of Romulus there. Hence, even if the emperor +resides somewhere else, his dwelling retains the name of Palatium. + +When he had really completed the details of administration, the name +Augustus was finally applied to him by the senate and by the people. They +wanted to call him by some name of their own, and some proposed this, +while others chose that. Cæsar was exceedingly anxious to be called +Romulus, but when he perceived that this caused him to be suspected of +desiring the kingship, he no longer insisted on it but took the title of +Augustus, signifying that he was more than human. All most precious and +sacred objects are termed _augusta_. Therefore they saluted him also +in Greek as _sebastós_, meaning an _august_ person, from the verb +_sebazesthai_. [-17-] In this way all the power of the people and that of +the senate reverted to Augustus, and from his time there was a genuine +monarchy. Monarchy would be the truest name for it, no matter how much +two and three hold the power together. This name of monarch the Romans so +detested that they called their emperors neither dictators nor kings nor +anything of the sort. Yet since the management of the government devolves +upon them, it can not but be that they are kings. The offices that +commonly enjoy some legal sanction are even now maintained, except that +of censor. Still, everything is directed and carried out precisely as the +emperor at the time may wish. In order that they may appear to hold this +power not through force, but according to law, the rulers have taken +possession,--names and all,--of every position (save the dictatorship) +which under the democracy was of mighty influence among the citizens who +bestowed the power. They very frequently become consuls and are always +called proconsuls whenever they are outside the pomerium. The title of +imperator is invariably given not only to such as win victories but to +all the rest, to indicate the complete independence of their authority, +instead of the name "king" or "dictator." These particular names they +have never assumed since the terms first fell out of use in the Senate, +but they are confirmed in the prerogatives of these positions by the +appellation of imperator. By virtue of the titles mentioned they get the +right to make enrollments, to collect moneys, declare wars make peace, +rule foreign and native territory alike everywhere and always, even to +the extent of putting to death both knights and senators within the +pomerium, and all the other privileges once granted to the consuls and +other officials with full powers. By virtue of the office of censor they +investigate our lives and characters and take the census. Some they list +in the equestrian and senatorial class and others they erase from +the roll, as pleases them. By virtue of being consecrated in all the +priesthoods and furthermore having the right to give the majority of them +to others and from the fact that _one_ of the high priests (if there be +two or three holding office at once) is chosen from their number, they +are themselves also masters of holy and sacred things. The so-called +tribunician authority which the men of very greatest attainment used to +hold gives them the right to stop any measure brought up by some one +else, in case they do not join in approving it, and to be free from +personal abuse. Moreover if they are thought to be wronged in even the +slightest degree not merely by action but even by conversation they may +destroy the guilty party without a trial as one polluted. They do not +think it lawful to be tribune, because they belong altogether to the +patrician class, but they assume all the power of the tribuneship +undiminished from the period of its greatest extent; and thereby the +enumeration of the years they have held the office in question goes +forward on the assumption that they receive it year by year along with +the others who are successively tribunes. Thus by these names they have +secured these privileges in accordance with all the various usages of the +democracy, in order that they may appear to possess nothing that has not +been given them. + +[-18-] They have gained also another prerogative which was given to none +of the ancient Romans outright to apply to all cases, and it is through +this alone that it would be possible for them to hold the above offices +and any others besides. They are freed from the action of the laws, as +the very words in Latin indicate. That is, they are liberated from every +consideration of compulsion and are subjected to none of the written +ordinances. So by virtue of these democratic names they are clothed in +all the strength of the government and have all that appertains to kings +except the vulgar title. "Cæsar" or "Augustus" as a mode of address +confers upon them no distinct privilege of its own but shows in the one +case the continuance of their family and in the other the brilliance and +dignity of their position. The salutation "father" perhaps gives them a +certain authority over us which fathers once had over their children. It +was not used, however, for this purpose in the beginning, but for their +honor, and to admonish them to love their subjects as they would their +children, while the subjects were to respect them as they respect their +fathers. + +Such is the number and quality of the titles to which those in power +are accustomed according to the and according to what has now become +tradition. At present all of them are, as a rule, bestowed upon the +rulers at once, except the title of censor: to the earlier emperors they +were voted separately and from time to time. Some of the emperors took +the censorship in accordance with ancient custom and Domitian took it for +life. This is, however, no longer done at the present day. They possess +its powers and are not chosen for it and do not employ its name except in +the censuses. + +[-19-] Thus was the constitution made over at that time for the better +and in a way to provide greater security. It was doubtless absolutely +impossible for the people to be preserved under a democracy. Events after +this, however, can not be said to be similar to those preceding this +period. Formerly everything was referred to the senate and the people +even if it occurred at a distance; hence all learned of it and many +recorded it. Consequently the truth of happenings, no matter with how +much fear and gratitude and friendship and enmity toward any one they +were related, has been found at least In the works of those who wrote of +them and to a certain extent also in the public records. But after this +time business began to be transacted more often with concealment and +secrecy. Nowadays, even if anything is made public, it is distrusted +because it can not be proved. It is suspected that all speeches and acts +are to meet the wishes of the men at the time in power and of their +associates. As a result much that never occurs is noised abroad and +much that really happens is unknown. Nearly everything is reported in a +different form from what really takes place. Yet the magnitude of the +empire and the number of events render accuracy in regard to them most +difficult. In Rome there are many operations going on, and so in its +subject territory, as well as against hostile tribes, always and every +day, so to speak, clear information about which no one can easily get +except those actively concerned. There are great numbers who do not hear +at all of what has taken place. Hence all that follows which will require +mention I shall narrate as it has been published, whether it is so in +truth or is really somewhat different. In addition, however, my own +opinion so far as possible will be stated in matters where I have been +able to deduce something else than the common report from the many things +I have read or heard or seen. + +[-20-] Cæsar, as I have said, received the further designation of +Augustus, and a sign of no little moment in regard to him occurred that +very night. The Tiber overflowed and occupied all of Rome that was built +in the plain country so that it was submerged. From this the soothsayers +inferred that he would rise to great heights and keep the whole city +subservient. While different persons were rivals to show him excessive +honors, one Sextus Pacuvius, or, as others say, Apudius[6] surpassed them +all. In the open senate he consecrated himself to him after the fashion +of the Spaniards and advised the rest to do the same. When Augustus +hindered him he rushed out to the crowd standing near by, and (as he was +tribune) compelled them and next all the rest who were wandering about +through the streets and lanes to consecrate themselves; to Augustus. From +this episode we are wont even now to say in appeals to the sovereign +"we have consecrated ourselves to you." Pacuvius ordered all to offer +sacrifice for this occurrence and before the people he once said he +should make Augustus his inheritor on equal terms with his son. This was +not because he possessed anything much, but because he wished to get +more. And his desire was accomplished. + +[-21-] Augustus attended with considerable zeal to all the business of +the empire to make it appear that he had received it in accordance with +the wishes of all, and he also enacted many laws. (I need not go into +each one of them in detail except those which have a bearing upon my +history. This same course I shall follow in the case of later events, in +order not to become wearisome by introducing all such matters as not even +those who specialize on them most narrowly know with accuracy.) Not all +of these laws were enacted on his sole responsibility: some of them he +brought before the public in advance, in order that, if any featured +caused displeasure, he might learn it in time and correct them. He urged +that any one at all give him advice, if any one could think of anything +better. He accorded them full liberty of speech and some provisions he +actually did alter. Most important of all, he took as advisers for six +months the consuls or the consul (when he himself also held the office), +one of each of the other kinds of officials, and fifteen men chosen +by lot from the remainder of the senatorial body. Through them he was +accustomed to a certain extent to communicate to all the rest the +provisions of his laws. Some features he brought before the entire +senate. He deemed it better, however, to consider most of the laws and +the greater ones in company with a few persons at leisure, and acted +accordingly. Sometimes he tried cases with their assistance. The entire +senate by itself sat in judgment as formerly and transacted business with +occasional groups of envoys and heralds from both peoples and kings. +Furthermore the people and the plebs came together for the elections, but +nothing was done that would not please Cæsar. Some of those who were +to hold office he himself chose out and nominated and others he put, +according to ancient custom, in the power of the people and the plebs, +yet taking care that no unfit persons should be appointed, nor by +factious cliques nor by bribery. In this way he controlled the entire +empire. + +[-22-] I shall relate also in detail all his acts that need mentioning, +together with the names of the consuls under whom they were performed. +In the year previously named, seeing that the roads outside the wall had +become through neglect hard to traverse, he ordered different senators to +repair different ones at their own expense. He himself attended to the +Flaminian Way, since he was going to lead an army out by that route. +This operation was finished forthwith and images of him were accordingly +erected on arches on the bridge over the Tiber and at Ariminum. The other +roads were repaired later either at public expense (for none of the +senators liked to spend money on it) or by Augustus, as one may wish to +state. I can not distinguish their treasures in spite of the fact that +Augustus coined into money some silver statues of himself made by his +friends and by certain of the tribes, purposing thereby to make it appear +that all the expenditures which he said he made were from his own means. +Therefore I have no opinion to record as to whether a ruler at any +particular time took money from the public treasury or whether he ever +gave it himself. For both of these things were often done. Why should any +one list such things as either expenditures or donations, when the people +and the emperor are constantly making both the one and the other in +common? + +These were the acts of Augustus at that time. He also set out apparently +to make a campaign into Britain, but on coming to the provinces of Gaul +lingered there. For the Britons seemed likely to make terms with him +and Gallic affairs were still unsettled, as the civil wars had begun +immediately after their subjugation. He made a census of the people and +set in order their life and government. + +[ B.C. 26 (_a. u. 728_)] + +[-23-] From there he came to Spain and reduced that country also to +quiet. After this he became consul for the eighth time with Statilius +Taurus, and Agrippa dedicated the so-called for he had not promised to +repair any road. This edifice in the Campus Martius had been constructed +by Lepidus by the addition of porticos all about for the tribal +elections, and Agrippa adorned it with stone tablets and paintings, naming +it Julian, from Augustus. The builder incurred no jealousy for it but was +greatly honored both by Augustus himself and by all the rest of the +people. The reason is that he gave his master the most kindly, the most +distinguished, the most beneficial advice and coöperation, yet claimed +not even a small share of the consequent glory. He used the honors which +Cæsar gave not for personal gain or enjoyment but for the benefit of the +giver himself and of the public.--On the other hand Cornelius Gallus +was led to insolent behavior by honor. He talked a great deal of idle +nonsense against Augustus and was guilty of many sly reprehensible +actions. Throughout nearly all Egypt he set up images of himself and he +inscribed upon the pyramids a list of his achievements. For this he +was accused by Valerius Largus, his comrade and intimate, and was +disenfranchised by Augustus, so that he was prevented from living in the +emperor's provinces. After this took place others attacked him, and +brought many indictments against him. The senate unanimously voted that +he should be convicted in the courts, be deprived of his property, and be +exiled, that his possessions be given to Augustus, and that they should +sacrifice oxen. In overwhelming grief at this Gallus committed suicide +before the decrees took effect. [-24-] The false behavior of most men was +evidenced by this fact, that they now treated the man whom they once used +to flatter in such a way that they forced him to die by his own hand. +To Largus they showed devotion because his star was beginning to +rise,--though they were sure to vote the same measures against him, if +anything similar should ever occur in his case. Proculeius, however, felt +so toward him that on meeting him once he clapped his hand over his nose +and his mouth, thereby signifying to the bystanders that it was not safe +even to breathe in the man's presence. Another person, although unknown, +approached him with witnesses and asked if Largus recognized him. When +the one questioned said "no", he recorded his denial on a tablet, thus +making it beyond the power of the rascal to inform against a person at +least whom he had not previously known. + +Thus we see that most men emulate the exploits of others, though they be +evil, instead of guarding against their fate. So also at this time there +was Marcus Egnatius Rufus, who had been an ædile: the majority of his +deeds had been good, and with his own slaves and with some others that +were hired he lent aid to the houses that took fire during his year of +office. In return he received from the people the expenses incurred in +his position and by a suspension of the law was made prætor. Elated at +these marks of favor he despised Augustus so much as to record that he +(Rufus) had delivered the City unimpaired and entire to his successor. +All the foremost men, and Augustus himself most of all, became indignant +at this. He prepared therefore to teach the upstart a lesson in the near +future not to exalt his mind above the mass of men. For the time being +he issued an edict to the ædiles to see to it that no building took fire +and, if aught of the kind did happen, to extinguish the blaze. + +[-25-] In this same year also Polemon, who was king of Pontus, was +enrolled among the friends and allies of the Roman People; front seats +for the senators were provided in all the theatres of the emperor's whole +domain. Augustus, finding that the Britons would not come to terms, +wished to make an expedition into their country, but was detained by the +Salassi, who had revolted against him, and by the Cantabri and Astures, +who had been made hostile. The former dwell close under the Alps, as +has been herein stated,[7] whereas both of the latter tribes hold the +strongest region of the Pyrenees on the Spanish side and the plain which +is below it. For these reasons Augustus, now in his ninth consulship with +Marcus Silanus, sent Terentius Varro against the Salassi. + +[B.C. 25 (_a. u._ 729)] + +The latter invaded their territory at many points at once in order that +they might not unite and become harder to subdue, and had a very easy +time in conquering them because they attacked him only in small groups. +Having forced them to capitulate he demanded a fixed sum of money, +allowing it to be supposed that he would impose no other punishment. +After that he sent soldiers everywhere, apparently to attend to the +collection of the indemnity and arrested those of military age, whom he +sold under an agreement that none of them should be liberated within +twenty years. The best of their land was given to members of the +Pretorians and came to include a city called Augusta Prætoria.[8] +Augustus himself waged war upon the Astures and upon the Cantabri at +the same time. These refused to yield, because of confidence in their +position on the heights, and would not come to close quarters owing +to their inferior numbers and the fact that most of them were javelin +throwers, but they caused him much trouble, whenever he made any +movement, by always seizing the higher ground in advance and placing +ambuscades in depressions and in wooded spots. He found himself therefore +quite unable to cope with the difficulty, and having fallen ill from +weariness and worry retired to Tarraco, and there remained sick. Meantime +Gaius Antistius fought against them, accomplishing considerable, not +because he was a better general than Augustus, but because the barbarians +felt contempt for him and thus joined battle with the Romans and were +defeated. In this way he captured some points, and afterward Titus[9] +Carisius took Lancia, the principal fortress of the Astures, which had +been abandoned, and won to his side many towns. + +[-26-] At the conclusion of this war Augustus dismissed the more aged of +his soldiers and gave them a city to settle in Lusitania,--the so-called +Augusta Emerita. For those who were still of the military age he arranged +some spectacles right among the legions, through the agency of Tiberius +and Marcellus as ædiles. To Juba he gave portions of Gætulia in return +for the prince's ancestral domain (for the majority of the inhabitants +had been enrolled as members of the Roman polity), and also the +possessions of Bocchus and Bogud. On the death of Amyntas he did not +entrust the country to the children of the deceased but made it a part of +the subject territory. Thus Gaul together with Lycaonia obtained a Roman +governor. The regions of Pamphylia formerly assigned to Amyntas were +restored to their own district.--About this same time Marcus Vinicius +in making reprisals against the Celtæ, because they had arrested and +destroyed Romans who had entered their country to have friendly dealings +with them, himself gave the name of imperator to Augustus. For this and +for the other achievements of the time a triumph was voted to Cæsar; +but as he did not care to celebrate it, an arch bearing a trophy was +constructed in the Alps for his glory and authority was given him to wear +always on the first day of the year both the crown and the triumphal +garb. After these successes in the wars Augustus closed the precinct of +Janus, which had been opened because of the strife. + +[-27-] Meanwhile Agrippa had been beautifying the city at his own +expense. First, in honor of the naval victories he built over the +so-called _Portico of Neptune_ and lent it further brilliance by the +painting of the Argonauts. Secondly, he repaired the Laconian sudatorium. +He gave the name Laconian to the gymnasium because the Lacedæmonians had, +in those days, a greater reputation than anybody else for stripping +naked and exercising smeared with oil. Also, he completed the so-called +_Pantheon_. It has this name perhaps because it received the images +of many gods and among them the statues of Mars and Venus; but my own +opinion is that the name is due to its round shape, like the sky. Agrippa +desired to place Augustus also there and to take the designation of the +structure from his title. But, as his master would not accept either +honor, he placed in the temple itself a statue of the former Cæsar and in +the anteroom representations of Augustus and himself. This was done not +from any rivalry and ambition on Agrippa's part to make himself equal to +Augustus, but from his superabundant devotion to him and his perpetual +affection for the commonwealth; hence Augustus, so far from censuring +him for it, honored him the more. For, being unable through sickness +to superintend at that time the marriage of his daughter Julia and his +nephew Marcellus, he commissioned Agrippa to hold the festival in his +absence. And when the house on the Palatine hill, which had formerly been +Antony's but was later given to Agrippa and Messala, was burned down, +he made a grant of money to Messala and gave Agrippa equal rights of +domicile. The latter not unnaturally gained high distinction as a result +of this. And one Gaius Toranius also acquired a good reputation because +while tribune he brought his father, though some one's freedman, into the +theatre and made him sit beside him upon the tribune's bench. Publius +Servilius, too, made a name for himself because while prætor he caused to +be killed at a festival three hundred bears and other Libyan wild beasts +equal in number. + +[B.C. 24 (_a. u._ 730)] + +[-28-] Augustus now entered upon office for the tenth time with Gaius +Norbanus, and on the first day of the month the senate took oaths, +confirming his deeds. When he was announced as drawing near the city +(his sickness had delayed him), he promised to give the people a hundred +denarii each and issued instructions that the document concerning the +money should not be bulletined until the senate also should approve. +They had freed him from all compulsion of the laws to the end, as I have +stated,[10] that being really independent and possessed of full powers +over both himself and the laws he should follow all of them that he +wished and not follow any that he did not wish. This right was voted to +him while still absent. On his arrival in Rome there were various events +in honor of his preservation and return, and Marcellus was accorded the +right to be a senator of the class of ex-prætors and to be a candidate +for the consulship ten years earlier than was customary. Tiberius was +permitted in a similar fashion to be a candidate five years before the +age set for each office. The latter was at once appointed quæstor and +the former ædile. As the quæstors needed to serve in the provinces were +proving insufficient, all drew lots for the places who for ten years +previous had been named quæstors without the duties of the office. These, +then, were the occurrences in the City worthy of note that year. + +[-29-] As soon as Augustus had departed from Spain, leaving behind Lucius +Æmilius[11] as governor of it, the Cantabri and Astures made an uprising. +They sent to Æmilius before anything about it became known to him and +said they wished to give the army grain and some other presents. Then, +having secured a number of soldiers, who were presumably to carry the +supplies, they led them to suitable places and butchered them. Their +pleasure, however, did not last long. When their country had been +devastated and some forts burned and, chiefest of all, the hands of every +one that was caught were cut off, they were quickly subdued. While this +was going on, another new campaign had its beginning and end. It was +led by Ælius Gallus, governor of Egypt, against the so-called _Arabia +Felix_[12] of which Sabos was king. At first he encountered no one at +all, yet did not proceed without effort. The desert, the sun, and the +water (which had some peculiar nature), distressed them greatly so that +the majority of the army perished. The disease proved to be dissimilar +to any ordinary complaint, and fell upon the head, which it caused +to wither. This killed most of them at once, but in the case of the +survivors it descended to the legs, skipping all the intervening parts of +the body, and wrought injury to them. There was no remedy for it except +by both drinking and rubbing on olive oil mixed with wine. This was in +the power of only a few of them to do, for the country produces neither +of these articles and the men had not provided a large supply of them +beforehand. In the midst of this trouble the barbarians also fell upon +them. For a while the enemy were defeated whenever they joined battle and +lost some places: later, however, with the disease as an ally they won +back their own possessions and drove the survivors of the expedition out +of the country. These were the first of the Romans (and I think the only +ones) who traversed so much of this part of Arabia in warfare. They had +advanced as far as the so-named Athlula, a famous locality. + +[B.C. 23 (_a. u._ 731)] + +[-30-] Augustus was for the eleventh time consul with Calpurnius Piso, +when he fell so sick once more as to have no hope of saving his life. He +accordingly arranged everything in the idea that he was about to die, and +gathering about him the officials and the other foremost senators and +knights he appointed no successor, though they were expecting that +Marcellus would be preferred before all for the position. After +conversing briefly with them about public matters he gave Piso the list +of the forces and the public revenues written in a book, and handed his +ring to Agrippa. The emperor became unable to do even the very simplest +things, yet a certain Antonius Musas managed to restore him to health by +means of cold baths and cold drinks. For this he received a great deal +of money from both Augustus and the senate, as well as the right to wear +gold rings,--he was a freedman,--and secured exemption from taxes for +both himself and the members of his profession, not only those then +living but also those of coming generations. But he who assumed the +powers of Fortune and Fate was destined soon after to be well worsted. +Augustus had been saved in this manner: but Marcellus, falling sick not +much later, was treated in the same way by Musas and died. Augustus gave +him a public burial with the usual eulogies, placed him in the monument +which was being built, and honored his memory by calling the theatre, +the foundations of which had already been laid by the former Cæsar, the +Theatre of Marcellus. He ordered also that a gold image of the deceased, +a golden crown, and his chair of office be carried into the theatre at +the Ludi Romani and be placed in the midst of the officials having charge +of the function. This he did later. + +[-31-] After being restored to health on this occasion he brought his +will into the senate and wished to read it, by way of showing people that +he had left no successor to his position. He did not, however, read it, +for no one would permit that. Quite every one, however, was astonished +at him in that since he loved Marcellus as son-in-law and nephew yet he +failed to trust him with the monarchy but preferred Agrippa before him. +His regard for Marcellus had been shown by many honors, among them his +lending aid in carrying out the festival which the young man gave as +ædile; the brilliance of this occasion is shown by the fact that in +midsummer he sheltered the Forum by curtains overhead and introduced a +knight and a woman of note as dancers in the orchestra. But his final +attitude seemed to show that he was not yet confident of the youth's +judgment and that he either wanted the people to get back their liberty +or Agrippa to receive the leadership from them. He understood well that +Agrippa and the people were on the best of terms and he was unwilling to +appear to be delivering the supreme power with his own hands. [-32-] When +he recovered, therefore, and learned that Marcellus on this account was +not friendly toward Agrippa, he immediately despatched the latter to +Syria, so that no delay and desultory dispute might arise by their being +in the same place. Agrippa forthwith started from the City but did not +make his way to Syria, but, proceeding even more moderately than usual, +he sent his lieutenants there and himself lingered in Lesbos. + +Besides doing this Augustus appointed ten prætors, feeling that he did +not require any more. This number remained constant for several years. +Some of them were intended to fulfill the same duties as of yore and two +of them to have charge of the administration of the finances each year. +Having settled these details he resigned the consulship and went to +Albanum. He himself ever since the constitution had been arranged had +held office for the entire year, as had most of his colleagues, and he +wished now to interrupt this custom again, in order that as many as +possible might be consuls. His resignation took place outside the city to +prevent his being hindered in his purpose. + +For this act he received praise, as also because he chose to take his +place Lucius Sestius, who had always been an enthusiastic follower of +Brutus, had campaigned with the latter in all his wars, and even at this +time made mention of him, had his images, and delivered eulogies. So +far from disliking the friendly and faithful qualities of the man, the +emperor even honored him. + +The senate consequently voted that Augustus be tribune for life and that +he might bring forward at each meeting of the senate any business he +liked concerning any one matter, even if he should not be consul at +the time, and allowed him to hold the office of proconsul once for all +perpetually, so that he had neither to lay it down on entering the +pomerium nor to take it up again outside. The body also granted him more +power in subject territory than the several governors possessed. As a +result both he and subsequent emperors gained a certain legal right to +the use of the tribunican authority, in addition to their other powers. +But the actual name of tribune neither Augustus nor any other emperor has +held. + +[-33-] And it seems to me that he then acquired these rights as described +not from flattery but as a mark of real honor. In most ways he behaved +toward the Romans as if they were free citizens. For, when Tiridates in +person and envoys from Phraates arrived to settle their mutual disputes, +he introduced them to the senate. After this, when the decision of the +question had been entrusted to him by that body, he refused to surrender +Tiridates to Phraates, but sent back to him his son, whom Tiridates had +formerly received from the other and was keeping, on condition that the +captives and the military standards taken in the disasters of Crassus and +of Antony be returned. + +In this same year one of the inferior ædiles died and Gaius Calpurnius +succeeded him, in spite of having served previously as one of the +patrician ædiles. This is not mentioned as having occurred in the case of +any other man. During the Feriæ there were two præfecti urbi each day, +and one of them, who was not yet admitted to the standing of a youth, +nevertheless held office. + +Livia, however, was accused of having caused the death of Marcellus +because he had been preferred before her sons. This suspicion became +a matter of controversy both in that year and in the following, which +proved so unhealthful that great numbers perished during its progress. +And, as it usually happens that some sign occurs before such events, +so on this occasion a wolf had been caught in the city, fire and storm +damaged many buildings, and the Tiber, rising, washed away the wooden +bridge and rendered the city submerged for three days. + + +[Footnote 1: Following Dindorf's reading [Greek: hyper heauton].] + +[Footnote 2: A reference to Cornelius Gallus (see Book Fifty-one, chapter +17).] + +[Footnote 3: The expression to which Dio here refers is doubtless the +adjective _quinquefascalis_, found in inscriptional Latin. All the +editions from Xylander to Dindorf gave "six lictors", erroneously, as was +pointed out by Mommsen (_Romisches Staatsrecht_, 12, p. 369, note 4). +Boissevain is the first editor to make the correction. (See the latter +portion of chapter 17, Book Fifty-seven, which should be compared with +Tacitus, Annals, II, 47, 5.) + +The Greek language had a phrase [Greek: hae hexapelekus archae], +corresponding to the Latin _sexfascalis_, but no adjective [Greek: +pentapelekus], which would be the equivalent of _quinquefascalis_, is +reported in the lexicons.] + +[Footnote 4: Cp. Book Fifty-two, chapter 25.] + +[Footnote 5: Translating Boissevain's conjecture, [Greek: dela chahi +pempton isa], in place of a corruption in the text.] + +[Footnote 6: In view of the fact that _Sex. Pacuvius Taurus_ does not +come on the scene (as tribune of the plebs) till B.C. 9-7, it seems more +likely, as Boissevain remarks, that Apudius is the correct name of the +author of this piece of flattery.] + +[Footnote 7: Boissevain thinks that the passage indicated was probably in +Book Twenty-two (one of the lost portions of the work). Compare Fragment +LXXIV (1) in Volume VI of this translation.--Boissée suggested Book +Forty-nine, Chapter 34. There, too, the correspondence is not complete.] + +[Footnote 8: The modern _Aosta_.] + +[Footnote 9: Possibly this prænomen is an error for _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 10: Chapter 18 of this Book.] + +[Footnote 11: Another writer reports his name as _Lucius Lamia_.] + +[Footnote 12: The "prosperous" or fertile part of Arabia, as opposed to +_Arabia Deserta_ or _Petræa_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +54 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fourth of Dio's Rome: + +How road commissioners were appointed from among the ex-prætors (chapter +8). + +How grain commissioners were appointed from among the ex-prætors +(chapters 1 and 17). + +How Noricum was reduced (chapter 20). + +How Rhætia was reduced (chapter 22). + +How the Maritime Alps began to yield obedience to the Romans (chapter +24). + +How the theatre of Balbus was dedicated (chapter 25). + +How the theatre of Marcellus was dedicated (chapter 26). + +How Agrippa died and Augustus acquired the Chersonese (chapters 28, 29). + +How the Augustalia was instituted (chapter 34). + +Duration of time, 13 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +M. Claudius M. F. Marcellus Æserninus, L. Arruntius L.F. (B.C. 22 = a. u. +732.) + +M. Lollius M. F., Q. Æmilius M. F. Lepidus. (B.C. 21 = a. u. 733.) + +M. Apuleius Sex, F., P. Silius P. F. Nerva. (B.C. 20 = a. u. 734.) + +C. Sentius C. F. Saturninus, Q. Lucretius Q. F. Vispillo. (B.C. 19 = a. +u. 735.) + +Cn. Cornelius L. F., P. Cornelius P. F. Lentulus Marcellinus. (B.C. 18 = +a. u. 736.) + +C. Furnius C. F., C. Iunius C. F. Silanus. (B.C. 17 = a. u. 737.) + +L. Domitius Cn. F. Cn. N. Ahenobarbus, P. Cornelius P. F. P. N. Scipio. +(B.C. 16 = a. u. 738.) + +M. Livius L. F. Drusus Libo, L. Calpurnius L. F. Piso Frugi. (B.C. 15 = +a. u. 739.) + +M. Licinius M. F. Crassus, Cn. Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus. (B.C. 14 = a. +u. 740.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero, P. Quintilius Sex. F. Varus. (B.C. 13 = a. u. +741.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala Barbatus, P. Sulpicius P. F. Quirinus. (B.C. 12 += a. u. 742.) + +Paulus Fabius Q. F. Maximus, Q. Ælius Q. F. Tubero. (B.C. 11 = a. u. +743.) + +Iullus Antonius M. F., Africanus Q. Fabius Q. F. (B.C. 10 = a. u. 744.) + + +_(BOOK 54, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 22 (_a. u._ 732)] + +[-1-] The following year, during which Marcus Marcellus and Lucius +Arruntius were the consuls, the river caused another flood which +submerged the City, and many objects were struck by thunderbolts, among +them the statues in the Pantheon; and the spear even fell from the hand +of Augustus. The pestilence raged throughout Italy so that no one tilled +the land, and I think that the same was the case in foreign parts. The +Romans, therefore, reduced to dire straits by disease and by famine, +thought that this had happened to them for no other reason than that they +did not have Augustus for consul this time also. They accordingly wished +to elect him as dictator, and shutting the senate up within its halls +they forced it to vote this measure by threatening to burn down the +building. Next they took the twenty-four rods and accosted Augustus, +begging him both to be named dictator and to become commissioner of +grain, as Pompey had once been. He accepted the latter duty under +compulsion and ordered two men from among those who had served as prætors +five years or more previously, in every instance, to be chosen annually +to attend to the distribution of grain. As for the dictatorship, however, +he would not hear of it and went so far as to rend his clothing when +he found himself unable to restrain them in any other way, either by +reasoning or by prayer. As he already had authority and honor even beyond +that of dictators he did right to guard against the jealousy and hatred +which the title would arouse. [-2-] His course was the same when they +wished to elect him censor for life. Without entering upon the office +himself he immediately designated others as censors, namely Paulus +Æmilius Lepidus and Lucius Munatius Plancus, the latter a brother of that +Plancus who had been proscribed and the former a person who at that time +had himself been under sentence of death. These were the last private +citizens to hold the appointment, as was at once made manifest by the +men themselves. The platform on which they were intended to perform the +ceremonies pertaining to their position fell to the ground in pieces when +they had ascended it on the first day of their office. After that there +were no other censors appointed together, as they had been. Even at this +time Augustus in spite of their having been chosen took care of many +matters which properly belonged to them. Of the Public Messes he +abolished some altogether and reformed others so that greater temperance +prevailed. He committed the charge of all the festivals to the prætors, +commanding that an appropriation be given them from the public treasury. +Moreover he forbade them to spend from their own means on these occasions +more than they received from the other source, or to have armed combat +under any other conditions than if the senate should vote for it, and +even then there were to be not more than two such contests in each year +and they should consist of not more than one hundred and twenty men. To +the curule ædiles he entrusted the extinguishment of conflagrations, for +which purpose he granted them six hundred slave assistants. And since +knights and women of note had thus early appeared in the orchestra, he +forbade not only the children of senators, to whom the prohibition had +even previously extended, but also their grandchildren, who naturally +found a place in the equestrian class, to do anything of the sort again. +[-3-] In these ordinances he let both the substance and the name of the +lawgiver and emperor be seen. In other matters he was more moderate +and even came to the aid of some of his friends when their conduct was +subjected to official scrutiny. But a certain Marcus Primus was accused +of having made war upon the Odrysae, while he was governor of Macedonia, +who said at one time that he had done it with the approval of Augustus, +and again with that of Marcellus. The emperor thereupon came of his own +accord into the court and, when interrogated by the prætors as to whether +he had instructed the man to make war, entered a denial. The advocate +of Primus, Licinius Murena, in the course of some rather disrespectful +remarks that he made to him enquired: "What are you doing here!" and "Who +summoned you!" To this Augustus only replied: "The Public Good." For this +he received praise from sensible persons and was even given the right to +convene the senate as often as he pleased. Some of the others looked down +upon him. Indeed, not a few voted for the acquittal of Primus and others +united to form a plot against Cæsar. Fannius Cæpio was at the head of it, +though others had a share. Murena also was said, whether truly or by way +of calumny, to have been one of the conspirators, since he was insatiate +and unsparing in his outspokenness to all alike. These men did not appear +for trial in court but were convicted by default on the supposition that +they intended to flee; shortly after, however, they were put to death. +Murena found neither his brother Proculeius nor Mæcenas his sister's +husband of any avail, though they were the recipients of distinguished +honors from Augustus. And as some of the jurymen actually voted to acquit +these conspirators, the emperor made a law that votes should not be cast +secretly in cases by default and that the persons on trial must receive +a unanimous conviction. That he authorized these provisions not in anger +but as really conducive to the public good he gave overwhelming evidence. +Cæpio's father liberated one of his slaves who had accompanied his son on +his flight, because he had wished to defend the younger man when he met +his death; but a second slave who had betrayed him the father led through +the middle of the Forum with an inscription making known the reason why +he should be killed, and after that crucified him: yet at all this the +emperor showed no indignation. He would have allayed all the criticism +of those not pleased with the course of events, had he not allowed +sacrifices, as for some victory, to be both voted and offered. + +[-4-] It was at this period that he restored both Cyprus and Gallia +Narbonensis to the people as provinces no longer needing his +administration of martial law. + +Thus proconsuls began to be sent to these places also. He also dedicated +the temple of Jupiter Tonans, concerning which event these two traditions +survive,--that at the time thunder occurred during the ritual, and that +later Augustus had a dream, which I shall proceed to describe. He thought +that the throng had come to do reverence to the deity, partly attracted +by the novelty of his name and form and partly because he had been put in +place by Augustus, but chiefest of all because they encountered him first +when they ascended the Capitol; and he dreamed that Jupiter in the great +temple was angry because he was now reduced to second place, and that he +himself thereupon said to the offended god (as he reported the story) +that he had Tonans as an advance guard. When it became day he attached a +bell to the statue by way of confirming the vision. For those who guard +apartment houses by night carry a bell, in order to be able to signal the +inhabitants whenever they wish.--These events, then, took place at Rome. + +[-5-] About this same period the Cantabri and the Astures broke out into +war again. The action of the Astures was due to the haughtiness and +cruelty of Carisius. The Cantabri, on the other hand, took the field +because they learned that the other tribe was in revolt and because they +despised their governor, Gaius Furnius, since he had but lately arrived +and they conceived him to be unacquainted with conditions in their +territory. He did not, however, show himself that sort of man in action, +for both tribes were defeated and reduced to slavery by him, Carisius +even receiving help from him. Not many of the Cantabri were captured. As +they had no hope of freedom they did not choose to live, but some after +setting the forts on fire stabbed themselves, and others let themselves +be consumed with the works, while still others in the sight of all took +poison. Thus the most of them and the fiercest faction perished. As for +the Astures, as soon as they had been repulsed in a siege at some +point and had subsequently been beaten in battle, they made no further +resistance but were straightway subdued. + +About this same time the Ethiopians, who dwell beyond Egypt, advanced +as far as the city called Elephantine, with Candace as their leader, +ravaging the whole region that they traversed. On learning that Gaius[1] +Petronius, the governor of Egypt, was approaching and somewhere near, +they hastily retreated hoping to make good their escape. Overtaken on the +road, however, they suffered defeat and then drew him on into their own +country. There, too, he contended nobly and took among other cities +Napata, the royal residence of that tribe. This town was razed to the +ground and a garrison left at another post. For Petronius, not being able +to advance farther on account of the sand and the heat, nor to remain +conveniently on the spot with his entire army, withdrew, taking the most +of it with him. At that the Ethiopians attacked the garrisons, but he +again proceeded against them, rescued his own men, and compelled Candace +to make terms with him. + +[ B.C. 21 (_a. u._ 733)] + +[-6-] While this was going on Augustus went to Sicily in order to settle +the affairs of that island and of other countries as far as Syria. While +he was still there, the Roman populace fell to disputing over an election +of the consuls. This incident showed clearly that it was impossible for +them to be safe under a democracy, for with the little power that they +had over elections and in regard to offices, even, they began rioting. +The place of one of the consuls was being kept for Augustus and in this +way at the beginning of the year Marcus Lollius alone entered upon +office. As the emperor would not accept the place, Quintus Lepidus and +Lucius Silvanus became rival candidates and threw everything into such +turmoil that Augustus was invoked by those who still retained their +senses. He would not return, however, and sent them back when they came +to him, rebuking them and bidding them cast their votes during the +absence of both claimants. This did not promote peace any the more, but +they began to quarrel and dispute again vehemently, so that it was long +before Lepidus was chosen. Augustus was displeased at this, for he could +not spend all his time at Rome alone, and he did not dare to leave the +city without a head; seeking, therefore, for some one to set over it he +judged Agrippa to be most suitable for the purpose. And as he wished to +clothe him in some greater dignity than common, in order that this might +help him to govern the people more easily, he summoned him, compelled him +to divorce his wife (although she was Cæsar's own niece), and to marry +Julia, and forthwith sent him to Rome to attend both to the wedding and +to the administration of the City. This step is said to have been due +partly to the advice of Mæcenas, who in conversation with him upon these +very matters said: "You have made him so great that he should either +become your son-in-law or be killed."--Agrippa healed the sores which he +found still festering and repelled the advance of the Egyptian rites, +which were returning once more to the City, forbidding any one to perform +them even in the suburbs within eight half-stadia. A disturbance arose +regarding the election of the præfectus urbi--the one chosen on account +of the Feriæ--and he did not attempt to quell it, but they lived through +that year without that official. This was what _he_ accomplished. + +[-7-] Augustus after settling various affairs in Sicily and making +Syracuse together with certain other cities Roman colonies crossed over +into Greece. The Lacedæmonians he honored by giving them Cythera and +attending their Public Mess, because Livia, when she fled from Italy with +her husband and son, passed some time there. From the Athenians, as some +say, he took away Ægina and Eretria, the produce of which they were +enjoying, because they had espoused the cause of Antony. Moreover he +forbade them to make any one a citizen for money. It seemed to them that +what happened to the statue of Athena had tended to their misfortune. +Placed on the Acropolis facing the east it had turned about to the west +and spat blood. + +[ B.C. 20 (_a. u._ 734)] + +As for Augustus, after setting the Greek world in order, he sailed to +Samos, passed the winter there, and in the spring when Marcus Apuleius +and Publius Silius became consuls proceeded to Asia and gave his +attention to matters there and in Bithynia. Though these and the +foregoing provinces were regarded as belonging to the people, he did not +make light of them, but accorded them the very best of care, as if they +were his own. He instituted all reforms that seemed desirable and made a +present of money to some, while others he instructed to collect an amount +in excess of the tribute. The people of Cyzicus he reduced to slavery +because during an uprising they had flogged and put to death some Romans. +And when he reached Syria he took the same action in the case of the +people of Tyre and Sidon on account of their uprising. + +[-8-] Meanwhile Phraates, fearing that he might lead an expedition +against him because as yet none of the agreements had been carried out, +sent back to him the standards and all the captives, save a few who in +shame had destroyed themselves or by eluding detection had remained +in the country. Augustus received them with the appearance of having +conquered the Parthian in some war. He took great pride in the event, +saying that what had been lost in former battles he had recovered without +a struggle. Indeed, in honor of his success he both commanded sacrifices +to be voted and performed them, besides constructing a temple of Mars +Ultor on the Capitol, in imitation of Jupiter Feretrius, for the offering +up of the standards. Moreover he rode into the City on a charger and +was with an arch carrying a trophy. That was what was done later in +commemoration of the event. At this time he was chosen commissioner of +the highways round about Rome, set up the so-called golden milestone, +and assigned road-builders from the ranks of the ex-prætors, with two +lictors, to take care of the various streets. Julia also gave birth to a +child, who received the name Gaius; and a sacrifice of kine was permitted +forever upon his birthday. Now this was done, like everything else, +in pursuance of a decree: privately the ædiles had a horse-race and +slaughter of wild beasts on the birthday of Augustus.--These were the +occurrences in the City. + +[-9-] Augustus ordained that the subject territory should be managed +according to the customs of the Romans, but permitted allied countries to +be governed according to their own ancestral usage. He did not think it +desirable that there should be any additions to the former or that any +new regions should be acquired, but deemed it best for the people to +be thoroughly satisfied with what they already possessed; and he +communicated this opinion to the senate. Therefore he began no war at +this time, but gave out certain sovereignties,--to Iamblichus son of +Iamblichus his ancestral dominion over the Arabians, and to Tarcondimotus +son of Tarcondimotus the kingdom of Cilicia which his father held, except +a few coast districts. For these together with Lesser Armenia he granted +to Archelaus, because the Median king, who had previously ruled them, was +dead. To Herod he entrusted the tetrarchy of a certain Zenodorus and to +one Mithridates, though a mere lad, Commagene, since the king of it had +killed his father. And as the other Armenians had preferred charges +against Artaxes and had summoned his brother Tigranes, who was in Rome, +the emperor sent for Tiberius to cast the former out of his kingdom and +restore the latter to it once more. Nothing was accomplished, however, +worthy of the preparations he had made, for the Armenians slew Artaxes +before his arrival. Still, Tiberius assumed a lofty bearing as if he had +effected something by his own ability, and all the more when sacrifices +were voted in honor of the result. And he now began to have thoughts +about obtaining the monarchy when, as he was approaching Philippi, an +outcry was heard from the field of battle, as if coming from an army, and +fire of its own accord shot up from the altars founded by Antony upon the +ramparts. These things contributed to the exalted feelings of Tiberius. + +Augustus returned to Samos and once more passed the winter there. As a +recompense for his stay he awarded the islanders freedom, and he attended +to many kinds of business. Great numbers of embassies came to him, and +the Indi, who had previously opened negotiations about friendship, now +made terms, sending among other gifts tigers, which were then for the +first time seen by the Romans, as also, I think, by the Greeks. They +likewise presented to him a boy without shoulders (like the statues of +Hermes that we now see). Yet this creature in spite of his anatomy made +perfect use of his feet and hands: he would stretch a bow for them, shoot +missiles, and sound the trumpet,--how, I do not know; I merely record the +story. One of the Indi, Zarmarus, whether he belonged to the class of +sophists and was ambitious on this account or because he was old and was +following some immemorial custom, or because he wished to make a display +for Augustus and the Athenians (for it was there that he had obtained an +audience), chose to die; he was therefore initiated into the service of +the two goddesses,--although it was not the proper time, it is said, for +the ritual,[2]--through the influence of Augustus, and having become an +initiate he threw himself alive into the fire. + +[B.C. 19 (_a. u._ 735)] + +[-10-] The consul that[2] year was Gaius Sentius. When it was found +necessary that a colleague be appointed to hold office with him,--for +Augustus again refused to accept the post which was being saved for +him,--an uprising once more broke out in Rome and assassinations +occurred, so that the senators voted Sentius a guard. When he expressed +himself as opposed to using it, they sent envoys to Augustus, each with +two lictors. As soon as the emperor learned this and felt assured that +nothing but evil would come of it, he did not adopt an attitude like +his former one toward them but appointed consul from among the envoys +themselves Quintus Lucretius, though this man's name had been posted +among the proscribed, and he hastened to Rome himself. For this and his +other actions while absent from the city many honors of all sorts were +voted none of which he would accept, save the founding of a temple to +Fortuna Redux,[3] (this being the name they applied to her), and that the +day on which he arrived should be numbered among the thanksgiving days +and be called Augustalia. Since even then the magistrates and the rest +made preparations to go out to meet him, he entered the city by night; +and on the following day he gave Tiberius the rank of the ex-prætors and +allowed Drusus to become a candidate for offices five years earlier than +custom allowed. The quarrelsome behavior of the people during his absence +did not accord at all with their conduct, influenced by fear, when he was +present; he was accordingly invited and elected to be commissioner of +morals for five years, held the authority of the censors for the same +length of time and that of the consuls for life, being allowed to use the +twelve rods always and everywhere and to sit in the chair of office in +the midst of the consuls of any year. After voting these measures they +begged him to set right all these matters and to enact what laws he +liked. And whatever ordinances might be composed by him they called from +that very moment _leges Augustæ_ and desired to take an oath that they +would abide by them. He accepted their principal propositions, believing +them to be necessary, but absolved them from the requirement of an oath. +If they should vote for a measure that suited them, he knew well that +they would observe it even if they made no agreement to that effect. +Otherwise they would not pay any attention to it, even if they should +take ten thousand pledges to secure it.--Augustus did this. Of the ædiles +one voluntarily resigned his office by reason of poverty. + +[-11-] Agrippa on being sent at this time, as described from Sicily to +Rome, transacted whatever business was urgent and was later assigned to +the Gauls. The inhabitants there were at war among themselves and were +being harshly used by the Celtæ. After settling those troubles he went +over to Spain. For the Cantabri, who had been captured alive in the war +and had been sold, severally killed their masters, returned home, and +united many for a revolt. With the aid of these accessions they occupied +available sites, walled them about and concocted schemes against +the Roman garrisons. It was against this tribe that Agrippa led an +expedition, but he had some trouble also with the soldiers. Not a few of +them were too old, exhausted by the succession of wars, and in fear of +the Cantabri, whom they regarded as hard to subdue; and they consequently +would not obey him. However, by admonition, exhortation, and the hopes +that he held out[4] he soon made them yield obedience: in fighting the +Cantabri, on the other hand, he met with many failures. They had the +advantage of experience in affairs, since they had been slaves to the +Romans, and of despair of ever gaining safety again in case of capture. +Agrippa lost numbers of his soldiers and degraded numerous others because +they had been defeated; among other actions he prohibited a whole +division called the Augustan from being so named any longer; still, after +a long time he destroyed nearly all of the enemy who were of age for +warfare. He deprived the rest of their arms and made them go down from +the heights to the flat lands. Yet he made no communication about them to +the senate and did not accept the triumph although voted in accordance +with instructions from Augustus. In these matters he showed moderation, +as was his wont, and when asked once by the consul for an opinion in a +case concerning his brother he would not give it. At his own expense +he brought in the so-called Parthenian water-supply and named it the +Augustan. In this the emperor took so great delight that once when a +great scarcity of wine had arisen and persons were making a terrible +to-do about it, he declared that Agrippa had carefully seen to it that +they should never perish of thirst. + +[-12-]Such was the character of this man. Of the rest many both made a +triumph their object and celebrated it, not for rendering these same +services, but some for having arrested robbers and others for quieting +cities that were in a state of turmoil. For Augustus, at first at least, +bestowed these rewards lavishly upon some and honored a very great +number with public burials. Those persons, then, gained splendor by +these fêtes; but Agrippa was advanced by him to a position of comparative +independence. Augustus saw that the public business required strict +attention and feared that he might, as often happens in such cases, +become the victim of plots. + +[B.C. 18 (a. u. 736)] + +The breastplate which he often wore beneath his dress even on entering +the senate itself he expected would be of small and slight assistance to +him in that case. Therefore he himself first added five years to his term +as supreme ruler when the ten-year period had expired (this took place in +the consulship of Publius and Gnaeus Lentulus), and then he gave Agrippa +many rights almost equal to his own, together with the tribunician +authority for the same length of time. He then said that so many years +would suffice them. Not much later he obtained the remaining five +belonging to his imperial sovereignty, so that the number of years became +ten again. + +[-13-] When he had done this he next investigated the senatorial body. +The members seemed to him even now to be numerous and he saw +danger in so large a throng, while he felt a hatred for not only such as +were notorious for some baseness, but also those who were distinguished +for their flattery. And when no one, as previously, would resign willingly +nor wished alone to incur accusation, he himself selected the thirty best +men (a point which he confirmed by oath) and bade them after first taking +the same oath to choose and write down groups of five, outside of their +relatives, on tablets. After this he subjected the groups of five to a +casting of lots, with the arrangement that the one man in each who drew +a lot should himself be a senator, and enroll five others on the same +conditions. + +There would, of course, properly be thirty of those chosen by others and +by those who drew a lot. And since some of them were out of town others +drew as substitutes and attended to what should have been their duties. +At first this went on so for several days; but when some abuses crept +in, he no longer put the documents in the charge of the quaestors nor +submitted the groups of five to lot, but he himself read whatever +remained and he himself chose the members that were lacking: and thus six +hundred in all were appointed. [-14-]It had been his plan to make them +three hundred as in old times, and he thought he ought to be well +satisfied if he found so many of them worthy of the senate. But he +finally chose a list of six hundred because of the universal displeasure; +for it came out, by reason of the fact that those whose names would be +cancelled would be many more than those who remained in the body, that +greater fear of becoming private citizens prevailed among its members +than expectation of being senators. Not even here did the matter rest, +since some unsuitable persons were still enrolled. A certain Licinius +Regulus after this, indignant because his name had been erased whereas +his son and several others to whom he thought himself superior had been +counted in, rent his clothing in the very senate, laid bare his body, +enumerated his campaigns, and showed them his scars. And Articuleius +Pætus, one of the senators _in posse_, besought earnestly that he might +retire from his seat in the senate in place of his father, who had been +rejected. Augustus then made a new organization, getting rid of some and +choosing others in their place. Since even so the names of many had been +stricken out and some of them, as usually happens in such a case, charged +that they had been driven out unjustly, he immediately accorded them +the right to behold spectacles and join in festivals in common with the +senators, wearing the same garb, and he permitted them for the future to +stand for offices. Most of them came back in the course of time into +the senate: some few were left in an intermediate position, regarded as +belonging neither to the senate nor to the people. + +[-15-] After this many at once and many subsequently gained the +reputation, whether it was true or false, of plotting against both the +emperor and Agrippa. It is not possible for one outside of such matters +to have certain knowledge about them. Much of what a sovereign does by +way of punishment either personally or through the senate on the ground +that plots have been made against him is viewed with suspicion as +probably a display of wanton power, no matter how justly he may have +acted. For that reason my intention is to record in all matters of this +nature simply the regular version of the story, not busying myself with +aught beyond the public report, except in perfectly patent cases, nor +making any ulterior suggestions as to whether any act was just or unjust +or any statement true or false. Let this principle apply to everything +which I shall write after this. + +At the time Augustus executed a few: Lepidus he hated because his son +had been detected in a against him and had been punished, as well as for +other reasons; he did not, however, wish to kill him but kept insulting +him now in one way, now in another. He ordered Lepidus against his +will to come down from the country to the city and always took him to +gatherings, in order that the man might be subjected to the greatest +amount of jeering and insolence in view of the change from his former +power and dignity. He did not treat him in any way as worthy his +consideration, and at this time he afforded him, last of all the +ex-consuls, the chance of voting. To the rest he was wont to put the +question in the order that belonged to them, but of the ex-consuls he +used to make one first, another second, and third and fourth and so on as +he liked. This the consuls also did. Thus it was that he treated Lepidus. +And when Antistius Labeo enrolled the latter among the men who were to be +senators at the time the vote on this matter was taken, the emperor first +declared that he had perjured himself and threatened to take vengeance. +Thereupon the other replied: "Why, what harm have I done by keeping in +the senate one whom you even now still permit to be high priest?" This +answer quieted Augustus's anger, for though he had often, both privately +and publicly, been judged worthy of this priesthood, he did not deem +it right to take it while Lepidus lived. The reply of Antistius seemed, +indeed, to have been a rather happy one, as was the case once when there +was talk in the senate to the effect that they ought to take turns in +guarding Augustus; for he had said, not daring to speak in opposition nor +willing to agree: "As for me, I snore, and so can not sleep at the door +of his chamber." + +[-16-] Among the laws that Augustus enacted was one which provided that +those who to gain office bribed any person should be debarred from the +said office for five years. He laid heavier penalties upon the unmarried +men and women without husbands, and on the other hand offered prizes for +marriage and the procreation of children. And since among the nobility +there were far more males than females he allowed those who pleased, save +the senators, to marry freedwomen, and ordered that the offspring of such +a man should be deemed legitimate. + +At this period a clamor arose in the senate regarding the disorderly +conduct of the women and the young men, this being alleged as a reason +for the difficulty of persuading them to contract marriage; and when they +urged him to remedy this abuse also, meanwhile indulging in sarcasms +because he enjoyed the favors of many women, at first he made answer that +the most necessary restrictions had been laid down and that anything +further could not be defined in a similar fashion. Then, when he was +driven into a corner, he said: "You ought to admonish and command your +wives what you wish,--just as I myself do." When they heard that, they +plied him with questions all the more, wishing to learn the admonitions +which he said he gave Livia. Reluctantly thereupon he made a few remarks +about dress and about other adornment, about going out and modest +behavior on such occasions. He cared not at all that he did not make good +his words in fact. Something of the sort he had done also while censor. +They brought before him a young man who had married a woman after +seducing her, making the most violent accusations against him: Augustus +was at a loss what to do, not daring to overlook the affair nor yet to +administer any rebuke. After a very long time he heaved a deep sigh and +said: "The factional disputes have borne many terrible fruits: let us try +to forget them and give our attention to the future, to see that nothing +of the sort occurs again." + +Inasmuch, too, as certain infants were obtaining by betrothal the honors +of married couples, but did not accomplish the object in view, he ordered +that no betrothal should be valid where a person did not marry before two +years had passed. That is, any one betrothed must be certainly ten years +old in order to reap any benefit from it. Twelve full years, as I have +said, is required by custom for girls to reach the marriageable age. + +[-17-] Besides these separate enactments there was one instructing those +from time to time in office each to propose one of those who had been +prætors three years previously to attend to the distribution of the +grain, and providing that of that number the four who secured the lot +should give out grain in turn: and the præfectus urbi, appointed for the +Feriæ, was always to choose one of them. The Sibylline verses which had +become indistinct through lapse of time he ordered the priests to copy +out with their own hands in order that no one else should read them. He +allowed the offices to be thrown open to all such as had property worth +ten myriad denarii and were competent to hold office in accordance with +the law. This was the value which he at first set upon the senatorial +rank: later he raised it to twenty-five myriads. Upon some of those who +lived upright lives but possessed less than ten myriads in the first case +or twenty-five in the second he bestowed the amount lacking. Again, he +allowed those prætors who so desired to spend on the festivals besides +what was given them from the public treasury three times as much +again, so that even if some were vexed at the minuteness of his other +regulations yet by reason of this one and also because he brought +back from exile one Pylades, a dancer, driven out on account of civil +quarrels, they remembered them no longer. Hence Pylades is said to have +rejoined very cleverly when the emperor rebuked him for having quarreled +with Bathyllus, an artist in the same line and a relative of Mæcenas: "It +is to your advantage, Cæsar, that the populace should exhaust its energy +over us."--These were the occurrences of that year. + +[B.C. 17 (_a. u._ 737)] + +[-18-]In the consulship of Gaius Furnius and Gaius Silanus Agrippa again +announced the birth of a son named Lucius, and Augustus immediately +adopted him together with his brother Gaius, not waiting for them to +become men but appointing them that very moment successors to his office, +in order that less plots might be directed against him. The festival +of Honor and of Virtus he transferred to the days which are at present +theirs. Those that celebrated triumphs he commanded to erect out of the +spoils some public work to commemorate their deeds. The Sæcularia he +brought for the fifth time to a successful conclusion. The orators, he +ordered, were to give their services without pay, on pain of a fine of +quadruple the amount they might receive. Those whom the lot made jurymen +in any season he forbade to enter any person's house during that year. +And since members of the senate showed lack of interest in attending +meetings of that body, he increased the penalties for such as were late +without some good excuse. + +[B.C. 16 (_a. u._ 7386)] + +[-19-] Next he started for Gaul, during the consulship of Lucius Domitius +and Publius Scipio, making an excuse of the wars that had arisen in that +region. For since he had become disliked by many as a result of his +long stay in the capital and by inflicting penalties offended many who +committed some act contrary to the laws laid down, while he was compelled +in sparing many others to transgress his own enactments, he decided to +leave the country, somewhat after the manner of Solon. Some suspected +that he had gone away on account of Terentia, the wife of Mæcenas, and +intended, because there was much talk made about them in Rome, to join +her without any gossip during his trip abroad. So great was his passion +for her that he once had her enter a contest of beauty against Livia. + +Before starting he dedicated the temple of Quirinus, which he had built +up anew. By this I mean he had adorned it with seventy-six columns, equal +to the total number of years he had lived. This consequently caused some +to say that he had chosen the number purposely and not by mere chance. +After the consecration of this edifice he arranged through Tiberius and +Drusus for gladiatorial combats, permission having been granted them +by the senate. Then he committed to Taurus the management of the City +together with the rest of Italy,--for Agrippa had been despatched again +to Syria and he no longer looked with equal favor on Mæcenas because of +the latter's wife,--and taking Tiberius, though he was prætor, along, he +set out on his journey. Tiberius had become prætor in spite of holding +the honors of an ex-prætor, and his entire office by a decree was placed +in the hands of Drusus. The night following their departure the Hall +of Youth burned to the ground. This was not the only portent that had +occurred, for a wolf had rushed along the Sacred Way into the Forum, +tearing men to pieces, and at a distance from the Forum ants were very +plainly seen together in swarms; likewise a gleam all night long kept +shooting from the south toward the north. Prayers were therefore +offered for the safe return of Augustus. Meantime they celebrated the +quinquennial festival of his sovereignty, the expense being borne by +Agrippa; for the latter had been consecrated by his fellow priests to +be one of the quindecimviri to whom the oversight of the event fell in +regular succession. + +[-20-] There was much other confusion, too, during that period. The +Camunni and Vennones, Alpine tribes, flew to arms but were conquered and +subdued by Publius Silius. The Pannonians in company with the Norici +overran Istria, and after suffering damage at the hands of Silius and +his lieutenants the former came to terms again and were the cause of the +Norici falling into the same slavery. The uprisings in Dalmatia and +in Spain were in a short time quelled. Macedonia was ravaged by the +Dentheleti and the Scordisci. In Thrace somewhat earlier Marcus Lollius +while aiding Rhoemetalces, the uncle and guardian of the children of +Cotys, had subjugated the Bessi. Later Lucius Gallus conquered the +Sarmatæ in the same dispute and drove them back across the Ister. The +greatest, however, of the wars which at that time fell to the lot of the +Romans, which also had something to do, probably, with Augustus's leaving +the city, was against the Celtæ. + +The Sugambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri had first seized in their own +territory some of the Romans and had crucified them, after which they +crossed the Rhine and plundered Germania and Gaul. When the Roman cavalry +approached they laid an ambush and by taking to flight drew their +assailants to follow them; and though they fell in unexpectedly with +the Roman leader Lollius, they conquered even him. On ascertaining this +Augustus hastened against them but found no warfare to carry on. For the +barbarians, learning that Lollius was getting ready and that the emperor +was also heading an expedition, retired into their own territory and made +peace, giving hostages. + +[B.C. 15 (_a. u._ 739)] + +[-21-] On this account Augustus had no need of arms, but the demands of +various other business consumed the entire time of this year, as well as +of the next, in which Marcus Libo and Calpurnius Piso were consuls. +For much injury had been wrought by the Celtæ and much by a certain +Licinnius.[5] And of this, I think, the sea-monster had very plainly +given them warning beforehand. This creature, twenty feet broad and three +times as long and resembling a woman except for its head, had been washed +up on the land from the ocean. Now Licinnius was originally a Gaul but +was captured, brought among Romans, and made a slave to Cæsar, by whom he +was set free, and then by Augustus he had been made procurator of Gaul. +He had barbarian avarice and Roman haughtiness, and tried to overthrow +every person and thing deemed superior to himself and to annihilate +any power which temporarily appeared strong. It was his care to supply +himself with plenty of funds for the requirements of his ministry as well +as to secure a plenty for himself and for members of his family. His +abuses went so far that in some cases where the population paid tribute +by the month he made the months fourteen in number. He declared that this +month called December was really the tenth, and for that reason it was +necessary to count in also the two last months (of which he called one +Undecimber and the other Duodecimber), and to contribute the money that +was due for them. These quibbles brought him into danger. The Gauls +secured the ear of Augustus and made a terrible protest, so that the +emperor first shared their indignation and next begged them to be +patient. Of some of the extortions he said he was unaware and others +he affected not to believe. Some things he concealed, being ashamed of +having employed such a procurator. Licinnius however, by devising another +scheme was enabled to laugh to scorn absolutely all their efforts. When +found that Augustus was displeased with him and that he was likely to +be punished, he took the emperor into his house, and showing him many +treasures of silver and gold and many other valuables piled up in heaps, +he said: "I have gathered these purposely, master, for you and for the +rest of the Romans, to prevent the inhabitants from getting control of so +much money and therefore revolting. You see I have kept it all for you +and herewith give it to you." Thus the sophist was saved, by pretending +that he had sapped the strength of the barbarians to serve Augustus. + +[-22-] Drusus and Tiberius meanwhile were concerned with the following +undertakings. The Rhæti, who dwell between Noricum and Gaul, near the +Tridentine Alps close to Italy, overran a good part of the adjacent +territory of Gaul and carried plunder even out of Italy. Such of the +Romans or their allies as used the road going through their country met +with depredations. These actions of theirs were of course more or less +like those of any nation which has not accepted terms of peace, but +further they destroyed all the males among their captives, not only those +who were apparent but also the embryo ones in the wombs of women, the sex +of which they discovered by some divination. For these reasons Augustus +first sent Drusus against them: he joined battle with a detachment of +theirs that met him near the Tridentine mountains, and speedily had them +routed; for this exploit he received the honors belonging to prætors. +Later, when the tribe had been repulsed from Italy but still harassed +Gaul, the emperor despatched Tiberius in addition. Both of the leaders +then invaded the Rhætian country at many points at once,--the lieutenants +leading such divisions as they did not command personally,--and Tiberius +even crossed the lake[6] in boats. In this way, by encountering them +separately, the Roman commanders spread alarm and had no difficulty in +overcoming those who came near enough for fighting at any time, because +they had only to deal with scattered forces; the remainder, who had +become weaker and more despondent through such tactics, they captured. +And because the land had a large population of males and seemed ripe +for revolt, they deported most of those of military age, especially the +strongest, leaving behind only so many as would be sufficient to inhabit +the country but unable to make any uprising. + +[-23-] This same year Vedius Pollio died, a man who in general had done +nothing deserving notice, being the son of liberti, ranking as a knight, +without any achievement of consequence in his record; but he had become +exceedingly renowned for his wealth and his cruelty, so that he has +even won a place in history. Most of the things that he did it would be +wearisome to relate, but I may mention that he kept in tanks huge eels +trained to eat men, and was accustomed to throw to them the slaves that +he desired to put to death. Once, when he was entertaining Augustus, the +cupbearer shattered a crystal goblet, and without respect to the guest he +ordered that the fellow be thrown to the eels. Hereupon the boy fell on +his knees supplicating Augustus who at first tried to persuade Pollio not +to carry out his intentions. As his host would not yield the point the +emperor said: "Bring all the rest of the drinking vessels which are of +the same sort or any others of value that you may possess, for I want to +use them," and when they were brought he ordered them to be broken. The +master seeing this was of course vexed but could no longer be angry over +one cup, considering the great number of others that were ruined, and +could not punish his servant for what Augustus had done; therefore +reluctantly he took no action. That was the sort of person this Pollio +was, who died. He left various bequests to many different persons and to +Augustus a good share of his inheritance together with Pausilypum[7], a +place between Neapolis and Puteoli, with instructions that some public +work of great beauty should be erected. Augustus razed his house to the +foundation, on the pretext that it was necessary for the preparation of +the other structure, but really with the purpose that he should have no +monument in the city, and built a colonnade, inscribing on it the name +not of Pollio but of Livia. + +This he did later. At the time mentioned he founded a number of cities as +colonies in Gaul and in Spain and restored to the people of Cyzicus their +freedom. To the Paphians, who had suffered from an earthquake, he gave +money and allowed them, by a decree, to call their city Augusta. I have +recorded this, not because Augustus himself and the senators failed to +aid many other cities both before and after this, in case of similar +misfortunes,--if any one should attempt to mention them all, the task of +such a historian would be endless,--but my aim is to show that the senate +assigned names to cities as an honor and the latter did not, as is the +usual procedure now, compile for themselves (each separately) such lists +of names as they might choose. + +[B.C. 14 (_a. u._ 740)] + +[-24-] The next year Marcus Crassus and Gnæus Cornelius became consuls; +and the curule ædiles after resigning their office because they had +entered upon it under unfavorable auguries took it back again, contrary +to precedent, at another meeting of the assembly. The Portico of Paulus +was burned and the fire from it reached the temple of Vesta, so that the +sacred objects that this shrine contained were carried up to the Palatine +by all of the vestal virgins except the eldest (who had gone blind) +and were placed in the house of the priest of Jupiter. The portico was +afterward rebuilt, nominally by Æmilius, who was the representative of +the family that had formerly erected it, but really by Augustus and the +friends of Paulus. At this time the Pannonians revolted and were again +subdued, and the maritime Alps, inhabited by Ligurians called Cometæ and +still free even then, were reduced to a slave district. The revolt in the +Cimmerian Bosporus was also quelled. One Seribonius, who maintained +that he was a grandson of Mithridates and had received the kingdom from +Augustus after the death of Asander, married the latter's wife, +named Dynamis, who was the daughter of Pharnaces and a grandchild of +Mithridates, and obtaining the power committed to her by her husband got +control of Bosporus. Agrippa on being informed of this sent against him +Polemon, king of the Pontus near Cappadocia. He found Seribonius no +longer alive, for the people of Bosporus, learning of his ambitions, had +killed him beforehand, but when these resisted Polemon out of fear that +he might be allowed to reign over them, he engaged them in a set battle. +The victory was his, but he was unable to reduce them to order until +Agrippa came to Sinope, apparently with the intention of conducting +a campaign against them. At that they laid down their arms and were +delivered to Polemon. The woman Dynamis became his spouse,--of course +with the sanction of Augustus. For this outcome sacrifices were made in +the name of Agrippa, but he did not celebrate the triumph, though voted +to him. Nay, he did not so much as write the senate anything about what +had been accomplished. As a result subsequent conquerors, taking his +method as a law, no longer sent any word themselves to the legislative +body and did not accept the celebration of a triumph. For this reason no +one else among his peers (so I am inclined to think) was permitted to do +this, but they enjoyed merely the ornament of triumphal honors. + +[-25-] Augustus finally finished ordering everything in the Gauls, the +Germanias, and the Hispaniæ: upon special districts he spent a great +deal, and levied a great deal upon others, and to some he gave freedom +and citizenship, whereas from others he took them away. + +[B.C. 13 (_a. u._ 741)] + +He then left Drusus in Germania and himself returned to Rome in the +consulship of Tiberius and of Quintilius Varus. It chanced that the news +of his coming reached the city during those days when Cornelius +Balbus after dedicating the theatre now called by his name was giving +spectacles. At this he assumed great importance as if it were he that was +to bring Augustus back, though because of a flooding of the Tiber there +was so great a quantity of water in the theatre that no one could enter +it save in a boat; and Tiberius put the vote to Balbus first, as an +honor for his building the theatre. The senate convened and among other +decisions resolved to place an altar in the senate-chamber itself, to +commemorate the return of Augustus, and that criminals who approached +him as suppliants within the pomerium should be exempt from punishment. +However, he accepted neither of these honors and even escaped a reception +by the people on this occasion by being brought into the city under the +cover of night. This he did almost always whenever he had to go out to +the suburbs or anywhere else, both on his way out and on his way back, so +that nobody should annoy him. The following day he greeted the people on +the Palatine, ascended the Capitol, and taking off the laurel from +around his rods he placed it upon the knees of Jupiter. For that day he +furnished the people with baths and barbers free of charge. After this he +convened the senate and made no address himself by reason of hoarseness, +but gave the book to the quaestor to read which enumerated his +achievements and promulgated rules as to how many years the citizens +should serve in the army and how much money they should receive at the +end of their services in place of the land for which they were always +wont to ask. The object was that by being enlisted on certain specified +terms from the very start they should find in their treatment no excuse +for revolt. The number of years was for the Pretorians twelve and for the +rest sixteen; and the money to be distributed was less for some and more +for others. These measures caused the soldiers neither pleasure nor anger +for the time being, because they had neither obtained all they were +desiring nor yet lost everything. In the remainder of the population it +aroused confident hopes of not being deprived of their possessions in the +future. + +[-26-] His next action was to dedicate the theatre called after +Marcellus. In the festival held on this account the patrician children as +well as his grandson Gaius performed the "Troy" equestrian exercise, +and six hundred Libyan wild beasts were slaughtered. Iullus, the son +of Antony, who was prætor, celebrated the birthday of Augustus with +horse-races and slaughterlng of wild beasts, and entertained both him and +the senate (following a decree of that body) upon the Capitol. + +After this there was another reorganization of the senate. At first the +necessary value of their property had been limited to ten myriad denarii +because many of them had been deprived by the wars of their ancestral +estates. As time went on and men's possessions became larger, it was +advanced to twenty-five myriads, and no one was any longer found who +wanted to be senator. On the contrary, some children and grandchildren +of senators, of whom a part were really poor and another part had been +brought low through calamities suffered by their ancestors, not only +failed to lay claim to the senatorial dignity, but when already placed on +the list withdrew on oath. Therefore previous to this, while Augustus +was still out of the City, a decree had been passed that the so-called +viginti viri[8] should be appointed from the knights. Hence none of them +was any longed enrolled in the senate without having secured some one of +the other offices that lead to it.--These twenty men are a part of the +six-and-twenty.[9] Three of them have charge of capital cases at law. The +next three attend to the coinage of the money. Four act as commissioners +of the streets in the City. Ten are put over the courts that fall by lot +to the _Centumviri_. The two who were entrusted with the roads outside +the walls and the four who were sent to Campania had been abolished. The +senate had voted during the absence of Augustus another measure besides +this, namely that, since nobody could any longer be easily induced to +become a candidate for the tribuneship, they might appoint by lot some +who had been quæstors and were not yet forty years old. At this time the +emperor made a scrutiny of the whole body of citizens. Those of them who +were over thirty-five years of age he did not trouble, but those under +that age who had property of the requisite value he forced to become +senators, except in the case of cripples. Their bodies he viewed himself +but in regard to their property he accepted sworn statements, the men +themselves taking the oath (with others to corroborate their allegations) +and accounting for their lack of funds as well as for their habits of +life. + +[-27-] Nor did he, while observing such strictness in ordinary public +business, neglect the conduct of his own family. Indeed, he rebuked +Tiberius because he had seated Gaius beside him at the thanksgiving +festival which he gave in honor of the emperor's return: and he censured +the people for honoring him with applause and eulogies. On the death of +Lepidus he was appointed high priest and the senate consequently wished +to vote him certain honors;[10] but he declared that he would not accept +them, and when the senators became urgent he rose and left the gathering. +So that measure was not ratified, and he received no official residence, +but because it was absolutely essential that the high priest should live +on public ground he made a portion of his own dwelling public property. +The house of the rex sacrificulus, however, he gave to the vestal virgins +because it was separated merely by a wall from their apartments. + +Cornelius Sisenna was blamed for the conduct of his wife and stated in +the senate that he had married her with the knowledge and on the advice +of the emperor,--whereat Augustus grew exceedingly angry. He indulged in +no violence of word or action but hurried out of the senate-chamber and +then a little later came back again, choosing rather to do this (as he +said to his friends afterward), in spite of its not being right, than to +remain where he was and be compelled to do some harm. + +[B.C. 12 (_a. u._ 742)] + +[-28-] Meantime he bestowed upon Agrippa, who had come from Syria, the +great honor of the tribunician authority for another five years, and sent +him out to Pannonia, which was ready for war, allowing him greater powers +than officials outside of Italy ordinarily possessed. Agrippa made the +campaign though it already was winter: Marcus Valerius and Publius +Sulpicius were the consuls. As the Pannonians became terror stricken at +his approach and showed no further signs of uprising he returned, and on +reaching Campania fell sick. Augustus happened to be giving, under the +name of his children, contests of armed warriors at the Panathenaic +festival, and when he learned of Agrippa's condition he left the country. +Finding him dead, he conveyed his body to the capital and allowed it to +lie in state in the Forum. He also delivered the oration over the dead +man, with a curtain stretched in front of the corpse. Why he did this +I know not. Yet some have said it was because he was high priest, and +others because he was discharging the functions of censor. Both are +mistaken. A high priest is not forbidden to behold a corpse, nor yet +a censor, except when he is about to put the finishing touches to the +census. Then if he sees such an object before his purification, all his +work is rendered null and void. Besides this oration Augustus conducted +his funeral procession in the way that his own was later conducted. He +buried him in his own tomb, though the deceased had a lot of his own in +the Campus Martius. + +[-29-] Such was the end of Agrippa, who had in every way proved himself +clearly the noblest of the men of his day and used the friendship of +Augustus for the emperor's own greatest benefit and for that of the +commonwealth. So much as he surpassed others in excellence, to such an +extent did he voluntarily make himself lower than his patron. He employed +all his own skill and bravery for what would prove most profitable to +Augustus and expended all the honor and power received from him on +benefiting others. As a result he never became in the least troublesome +to Augustus nor the object of jealousy on the part of others. He helped +his friend organize the monarchy like one who was really in love with +the idea of supreme power and he won over the populace by his kindness, +showing himself most truly a friend of the people. At his death he left +them gardens and the bath-house called after his name, so that they +might bathe free of charge; and he gave Augustus certain lands for +this purpose. The latter not only rendered these public property, but +distributed to the people also a hundred denarii apiece, with the +explanation that Agrippa had ordered it. He had inherited most of the +deceased's property, among the articles of which was the Hellespontine +Chersonese, which had come I know not how into the possession of Agrippa. +The emperor felt his loss for a very long time and therefore caused the +populace to hold him in honor. A posthumous son born to him he called +Agrippa. However, he did not allow any of the citizens to omit any of +the ancestral customs (although none of the more prominent men wished to +present himself for the festivals) and he personally superintended the +gladiatorial combats. They were often given, too, in his absence.--This +demise of Agrippa was not only a private loss to his own household, but +a public loss to all the Romans, as was shown by the fact that portents +occurred on this occasion as great as were usually seen before the +most tremendous disasters. Owls gathered in the capital and a bolt of +lightning descended upon the house at Albanum, where the consuls reside +during the sacrifices.[11] The star called comet stood for several days +over the City and was finally dissolved into flashes of light. Many +buildings in the City were destroyed by fire, among them the tent of +Romulus, which was set ablaze by crows dropping upon it burning meat from +some altar.--These were the matters of interest connected with Agrippa. + +[-30-] After this Augustus was chosen supervisor and corrector of morals +for another five years,--this also he received for a limited period as he +had the monarchy,--and he ordered the senators to burn incense as often +as they had a sitting, and not to come to his residence: the first, that +they might show reverence to the gods, and the second, that they might +have no difficulty in convening. Inasmuch as very few became candidates +for the tribuneship on account of its power having been abolished, he +made a law that magistrates should each nominate one of the knights who +possessed not less than twenty-five myriads; the people should then +choose from these the number lacking, and if the men desired to be +senators afterward, well and good; otherwise they should return again to +the rank of knights. + +The province of Asia also stood very greatly in need of some assistance +on account of earthquakes, and he therefore paid into the public treasury +from his own resources their annual tribute and assigned them a governor +for two years chosen by lot and not arbitrarily selected. + +Apuleius and Mæcenas were at one time bitterly reviled in some court of +adultery, not because they had themselves behaved wantonly but because +they had actively aided the man on trial; thereupon Augustus entered the +courtroom and sat in the prætor's chair: he did nothing violent, but +simply forbade the accuser to insult his relatives or friends, and then +rose and left the place. For this action and others the senators honored +him with statues, paid for by private subscription, and by giving +bachelors and spinsters the right to behold spectacles with other people +and to attend banquets on his birthday. Neither of these privileges was +previously permitted them. + +[-31-] When now Agrippa, whom he loved for his excellence and not +through any compulsion, had died, the emperor found that he needed an +assistant in the public business, one who would far surpass the rest in +both honor and power, who might manage everything opportunely and be free +from envy and plots. Therefore he reluctantly chose Tiberius, for his own +grandsons were at this time still minors. He caused him also to divorce +his wife, though she was a daughter of Agrippa by another marriage and +had one child an infant and was soon to give birth to another; and having +betrothed Julia to him he sent him out against the Pannonians. This +people had for a time been quiet, fearing Agrippa, but now after his +death they revolted. Tiberius subdued them, having ravaged considerable +of their territory and done much injury to its inhabitants; he had as +enthusiastic allies the Scordisci, who were neighbors of theirs and +similarly equipped. He took away their arms and sold for export most of +the male population that was of age. For these achievements the senate +voted him a triumph, but Augustus did not allow him to hold it, granting +him instead the triumphal honors. + +[-32-] Drusus had this same experience. The Sugambri and their allies, +owing to the absence of Augustus and the fact that the Gauls were restive +under the yoke of slavery, had become hostile, and he therefore occupied +the subject territory before them, sending for the foremost men on the +pretext of the festival which they celebrate even now about the altar of +Augustus at Lugdunum. Also he observed the Celtae crossing the Rhine +and drove them back. Next he crossed over to the land of the Usipetes +opposite the very island of the Batavi, and from there marched along the +river to the Sugambri country, devastating vast stretches. He sailed +along the Rhine to the ocean, conciliated the Frisii, and traversing the +lake invaded Chaucis, where he ran in danger, as his boats were left high +and dry at the ebb-tide of the ocean. He was saved at this time by the +Frisii (who joined his expedition with infantry), and withdrew, for it +was now winter. + +[B.C. 11(_a. u._ 743)] + +Coming to Rome he was made aedile[12]in the consulship of Quintus Aelius +and Paulus Fabius, though he had already prætor's honors. + +[-33-] At the opening of the spring he set out again to the war, crossed +the Rhine, and subjugated the Usipetes. He bridged the Lupia, invaded the +country of the Sugambri and advanced through it into Cheruscis, as far as +the Visurgis. He was able to do this because the Sugambri in anger at the +Chatti, the only tribe among their neighbors that had refused to join +their alliance, had made a campaign of the whole population against them. +Drusus took this opportunity to traverse their country unnoticed. And he +would nave crossed also the Visurgis, had not provisions grown scarce and +the their country, and though beaten at first vanquished them in turn and +ravaged both that land and the territory of adjacent tribes which had +taken part in the uprising. Immediately he reduced all of them to +subjugation, gaining control of some with their consent, terrifying +others into reluctant submission, and engaging in pitched battles with +others. Later, when some of them rebelled, he again enslaved them. And +for this thanksgivings and triumphal honors were accorded him. + +[-35-] While these events were occurring Augustus took a census, +reckoning in all the property that belonged to him, as an individual +might do, and also making a list of the senate. As he saw that many were +not always present at the meetings he ordered that even less than four +hundred might constitute a quorum for passing decrees. Previously that +had been the minimum number for ratifying any measure. The senate and the +people again contributed money to be spent on images of himself, but he +would erect no such likeness, and only set up representations of the +Public Health, of Concord, and of Peace. The citizens were always +collecting money for statues to him, on the slightest excuse; and at last +they ceased paying it privately, as before, but would come to him on the +first day of the year and give, some more, some less. He, after adding as +much or more again, would return it, not only to the senators but to +all the rest. I have also heard the story that on one day of the year, +following some oracle or dream, he would assume the guise of a beggar and +would accept money from those who passed. This, whether trustworthy or +not, is a prevailing tradition. + +That year he gave Julia in marriage to Tiberius, and his sister Octavia +dying, he caused her body to lie in state in the hero-shrine of Julius; +on this occasion, too, he had a curtain over the corpse. He himself +delivered there the funeral speech and Drusus, having changed his +senatorial dress, had a place on the platform, for the mourning was a +public affair. Her body was carried in procession by her sons-in-law: not +all the honors voted to her were accepted by Augustus. + +At this same time the first priest of Jupiter since [-36-] Merula was +appointed; and the quaestors were ordered to pay careful heed to the +decrees passed from time to time, because the tribunes and the ædiles, +who had previously been entrusted with this business, transacted it +through their assistants, and as a result some mistakes and confusion +took place. + +It was voted, moreover, that the temple of Janus Geminus, which was open, +should be closed, on the assumption that wars had ceased. + +[B.C. 10 (_a. u._ 744)] + +It was not closed, however, for the Dacians crossing the Ister on the ice +took the crops of Pannonia as booty, and the Dalmatians revolted at the +imposition of taxes. Against the latter Tiberius was sent from Gaul, +whither he had gone in company with Augustus, and he restored order. The +nations of the Celtæ, and especially the Chatti, were partly weakened +and partly subdued by Drusus; the tribe mentioned had gone to join the +Sugambri, having abandoned their own country, which the Romans had given +them to dwell in. The emperor delayed in Lugdunis, where he could keep a +sharp watch on affairs, as it was so near the Celtæ. The victors returned +to Rome with Augustus, assumed whatever dignities had been voted them by +the senate, and performed such other duties as belonged to them.--These +events took place in the consulship of Iullus and Fabius Maximus. + + +[Footnote 1: Pliny (Natural History VI, 181) calls him _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 2: Readings and punctuation from Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 3: Augustus returned to Rome October twelfth, and the temple in +question was consecrated December fifteenth.] + +[Footnote 4: Boissevain here amends to [Greek: 'epelpisas]] + +[Footnote 5: In the matter of the spelling of this name the weight of +authority prefers _Licinus_. Dio's form is less correct.] + +[Footnote 6: I. e., the _lacus Venetus_.] + +[Footnote 7: This eminence with its villa appropriately bore the Greek +title _Pausilypon_ (Grief's Surcease), a compound word like our modern +names _Heartsease_, _Sans Souci_, etc. It is the modern "Hill of +Posilipo."] + +[Footnote 8: English, _Twenty Men_; their regular title.] + +[Footnote 9: Latin, _Viginti Sex Viri_.] + +[Footnote 10: The words "certain honors" are supplied on the suggestion +of Boissevain. Boissée and others, who surmise that the text here +contains a lacuna] + +[Footnote 11: I. e., at the time of the Feriæ.] + +[Footnote 12: The reading [Greek: agoranomos] is generally preferred here +to [Greek: asotunmos]] + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +55 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +How Drusus died (chapters 1, 2). + +How the Precinct of Livia was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Campus Agrippae was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Diribitorium was consecrated (chapter 8). + +How Tiberius retired to Rome (chapter 11). + +How the Forum of Augustus was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How the Temple of Mars therein was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How Lucius Cæsar and Gaius Cæsar died (chapters 11, 12). + +How Augustus adopted Tiberius (chapter 13). + +How Livia urged Augustus to rule more mercifully (chapters 14-22). + +About the legions and how men were appointed to manage the military fund +(chapters 23-25). + +How the night-watchmen[1] were appointed (chapter 26). + +How Tiberius fought against the Dalmatians and Pannonians (chapters +28-34). + +Duration of time, 17 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Nero Claudius Tib. F. Drusus, T. Quinctius T. F. Crispinus. (B.C. 9 = a. +u. 745.) + +C. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Asinius C. F. Gallus. (B.C. 8 = a. u. +746.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero (II), Cn. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso. (B.C. 7 = a. +u. 747.) + +Decimus Laelius Decimi F. Balbus, C. Antistius C. F. Veter. (B.C. 6 = a. +u. 748.) + +Augustus (XII), L. Cornelius P. F. Sulla. (B.C. 5 = a. u. 749.) + +C. Calvisius C. F. Sabinus (II), L. Passienus Rufus (B.C. 4 = a. u. 750.) + +L. Cornelius L. F. Lentulus, M. Valerius M. F. Messalla [or] Messalinus. +(B.C. 3 = a. u. 751.) + +Augustus (XIII), M. Plautius M. F. Silvanus. (B.C. 2 = a. u. 752.) + +Cossus Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus, L. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso (B.C. 1 = a. +u. 753.) + +C. Cæsar Augusti F., L. Æmilius L. F. Paulus. (A.D. 1 = a. u. 754.) + +P. Vinicius [or Minucius] M. F., P. Alfenus [or Alfenius] P.F. Varus. +(A.D. 2 = a. u. 755.) + +L. Ælius L. F. Lamia, M. Servilius M.F. (A.D. 3 = a. u. 756.) + +Sextus Ælius Q. F. Catus, C. Sentius C.F. Saturninus. (A.D. 4 = a. u. +757.) + +L. Valerius Potiti F. Messala Valesus, Cn. Cornelius L. F. Cinna Magnus. +(A.D. 5 = a. u. 758.) + +M. Æmilius L.F. Lepidus, L Arruntius L.F. (A.D. 6 = a. u. 759) + +Aul. Licinius Aul. F. Nerva Silianus, Q. Cæcilius Q.F. Metellus Creticus. +(A.D. 7 = a. u. 760.) + +M. Furius M. F. Camillus, Sex. Nonius L.F. Quintilianus. (A.D. 8 = a. u. +761.) + + +_(BOOK 55, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 9 (_a. u._ 745)] + +[-1-] The following year Drusus became consul with Titus Crispinus, +and omens occurred that were not favorable to him. Many buildings were +destroyed by storm and thunderbolts, among them many temples: even that +of Jupiter Capitolinus and the temple annexed to it were injured. He, +however, paid no attention to this and invaded the country of the Chatti, +advancing as far as Suebia, conquering the territory traversed not +without hardship and vanquishing the troops that assailed him not without +bloodshed. From there he marched to Cheruscis and crossing the Visurgis +proceeded as far as the Albis, pillaging the entire district. This Albis +rises in the Vandaliscan mountains and empties in a great flood into the +ocean this side of the Arctic Sea. Drusus undertook to cross it, but +failing in the attempt set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman taller +than mankind confronted him and said: "Whither are thou hastening, +insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt see all this region. +Depart. For thee the end of labor and of life is already at hand." It is +strange to think that any such voice should have come to a person's ears +from the apparition, yet I can not discredit the tale, for he at once +retired. And as he was returning in haste he died on the way of some +disease, before he reached the Rhine. Proof of the story seems to me to +lie in the fact that at the time of his death wolves prowled and yelped +about the camp and two youths were seen riding through the middle of the +ramparts. A kind of lamentation in a woman's voice was also heard, and +there were shooting stars in the sky. These are the noteworthy points. +[-2-] Augustus, soon learning that he was sick (for he was not far off), +sent Tiberius to him with speed. The latter found him still breathing +and on his death carried his body to Rome, causing the centurions and +military tribunes to convey him over the first stage,--as far as the +winter quarters of the army,--and from there the foremost men of each +city. When the deceased was laid in state in the Forum a double funeral +oration was delivered. Tiberius eulogized him there and Augustus in the +Flaminian hippodrome. Since the latter had been abroad on a campaign it +was impious for him to do otherwise than perform the fitting rites in +honor of the exploits of Drusus at the very entrance of the pomerium. The +body was carried to the Campus Martius by the knights, both those who +belonged strictly to the equestrian order and those, as well, who were +of senatorial family.[2] Then, after being given to the flames, it was +deposited in the monument of Augustus. He and his children received the +title of Germanicus and honors in the way of both images and an arch, +besides obtaining a cenotaph close to the Rhine itself. + +Tiberius, while Drusus was still alive, had overcome the Dalmatians and +Pannonians, who were again a little restless, had celebrated a triumph on +horseback, and had banqueted the people, a part on the Capitol and a +part in many other places. At this time also Livia and Julia together +entertained the women. Same festivities were being made ready for Drusus +The Feriæ were to be held a second time on this account so that he might +celebrate his triumph on the same occasion, but his untimely death upset +the plans. As a consolation to Livia images were awarded her and she was +enrolled among the mothers of three children. For upon such men or women +as are not granted so many offspring by Heaven, or at least upon some of +them, a law emanating formerly from the senate but now from the emperor +bestows the dignities belonging to parents of three children. In this way +they are not subject to the reproaches for childlessness and may receive +all but a few of the prizes for fecundity. Not only men but gods enjoy +the privilege, to the end that, if any one dying leaves them anything, +they may take possession of it. These are the facts of the matter. + +[-3-] Augustus ordered that the sittings of the senate should be held on +specified days. Previously there had been no real system about them, and +some members on that account were often late; therefore he appointed two +regular monthly councils, so that those whom the law summoned should be +under compulsion to attend; and in order that no other excuse for their +absence should be within their power he commanded that no court or other +meeting which required their attention should be held at that time. He +made provision with respect to the number necessary for ratifying decrees +under each separate category, to put it briefly; and he increased the +fines imposed upon those who without good excuse were not present at the +gatherings. Inasmuch as many such offences had generally gone unpunished +owing to the large number of those who had incurred penalties, he +commanded that if many should do this, they should draw lots, and every +fifth one to draw a lot should be held liable to punishment.--The names +of all the senators he had recorded on a white tablet and conspicuously +posted. From the beginning made by him this is now annually done. _His_ +intention in doing it was to make it absolutely necessary for them to +come together. Sometimes, by some accident, not so many might assemble as +a special case demanded. This would be known, because except on such days +as the emperor himself might be present the number of those in attendance +was both at this time and later carefully ascertained, and with a great +degree of accuracy. Under these circumstances they would deliberate and +their decision would be recorded, but it was not final, was not ratified: +instead, _auctoritas_ was declared, in order that their _will_ might be +evident,--for such is the force of this word. To translate the term into +Greek by a single expression is not possible. This same custom prevailed +in case they ever assembled through haste in an irregular place, or on a +day that was not fitting, or without a legal summons, or if because +of the opposition of tribunes a decree could not be passed, but their +opinion was not to be concealed. Later, ratification was granted +according to ancestral precedent to the resolution in question, and the +latter obtained the name of _senatus consultum_. This method, strictly +observed for an extremely long period by the men of old time, has in a +already become null and void,--as also the prerogative of the prætors. +For the latter were indignant that they might bring no proposition before +the senate although they ranked above the tribunes in dignity and they +received from Augustus the right of doing so, but in the course of time +it was taken away from them again. + +[-4-] These and other laws which he at this time enacted he inscribed on +white tablets and submitted to the senate before taking any final action +with regard to them; and he allowed the senators to read, each one, the +articles separately, his object being that if any provision did not +please them, or if they could suggest anything better, they might speak. +He was very desirous of being democratic, and once, when one of the +companions of his campaigns asked him to aid him in the capacity of +advocate, at first he pretended to be busy and bade one of his friends +serve as advocate; when, however, the petitioner grew angry and said: +"but as often as you needed my assistance, I did not send somebody else +to you in place of myself, but in person I encountered dangers everywhere +in your behalf," the emperor then entered the courtroom and pled his +cause. He also stood by a friend of his who was defendant in a suit, +having first communicated this very purpose to the senate: he saved the +friend but was so far from being angry at his accuser, although the +latter spoke most bluntly, that when he had to undergo a scrutiny +regarding his morals the emperor acquitted him, saying that his bluntness +was a necessary thing on account of the out-and-out baseness of the mass +of mankind. Augustus, indeed, punished others who were reported to be +conspiring against their sovereign. He had quæstors hold office in the +coast districts near the City and in certain other parts of Italy; and +this he did for several years. Yet at this time he was unwilling, as I +have remarked, [3] to enter the city on account of Drusus's death. + +[B.C. 8 _(a. u. 746)_] + +[-5-] But the next year, in which Asinius Gallus and Graius Marcius were +consuls, he came back and carried the laurel, contrary to custom, into +the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. No festival did he celebrate over his +achievements, thinking that he had lost far more in the death of Drusus +than he had gained by the victories. The consuls carried out the program +usual on such occasions and set some of the captives to fighting with one +another. Later, when they and the rest of the officials were accused of +having been appointed by means of some bribery, he did not investigate +the case but pretended not even to know of it. He did not like to visit +punishment on any of them or to pardon them if they were convicted. But +from office seekers he demanded before the elections a deposit of money +as a guarantee that they would resort to no such methods, on pain of +forfeiting what they had paid in. This course all approved.--As it was +not permissible for a slave to be tortured for evidence against his +master, he ordered that, as often as the necessity for such a course +should arise, the slave should be sold either to the State or to him, in +order that being now the property of some one else than the man on trial +he might be examined. Some found fault with this, because the law was to +be invalidated by the change of masters; but others declared it to be +necessary, because many under the previous arrangement united to take +advantage of the loophole offered and to get the offices. + +[-6-] Augustus, after this, although, as he said, he was minded to lay +aside the supreme power, since the second ten-year period had run out, +resumed it again with a show of reluctance and made a campaign against +the Celtæ. He himself remained behind on Roman territory, but Tiberius +crossed the Rhine. The barbarians in dread of him, all except the +Sugambri, made overtures for peace, but they did not obtain their request +at this time,--for Augustus refused to conclude a truce with them if they +lacked the Sugambri,--nor did they later. To be sure, the Sugambri, too, +sent envoys, but they failed completely to accomplish anything: on the +contrary, all of them, a numerous and distinguished band, met an untimely +end. Augustus arrested them and placed them in various cities: they took +this very much amiss and committed suicide. The tribes then were +quiet for a time, but later they amply requited the Romans for the +calamity.--Besides doing this Augustus granted money to the soldiers, not +as to victors, though he himself had taken the name of imperator and had +given it to Tiberius, but because this was the first time that they had +Gaius appearing in the exercises with them. He advanced Tiberius to the +position of imperator in place of Drusus, and besides exalting him with +that title appointed him consul once more. According to the ancient +custom he had a written notice bulletined for the public benefit before +Tiberius entered upon the office, and he furthermore accorded him the +solemnity of a triumph. Augustus himself did not wish to hold it, but +obtained the privilege of a horse-race perpetually upon his birthday. He +enlarged the pomerium and renamed the month called Sextilis, Augustus. +The people generally wanted September to be so named, because he had been +born in it, but he preferred the other month, in which he had first been +appointed consul and had conquered in many great battles. It was in these +things that he took pride. + +[-7-] The death of Mæcenas caused him grief. He had enjoyed many kind +services at his hands, for which reason he had entrusted him, though but +a knight, with the care of the City for a long time, but especially +was his ministry of use when the emperor's passion became nearly +uncontrollable. Mæcenas was then able to banish his anger and to lead him +into a gentler frame of mind. Here is an instance. Mæcenas once found +his patron holding court, and seeing that would undoubtedly condemn many +persons to death, he undertook to push through the bystanders and +get Finding this impossible, he wrote on a tablet: "Pray desist now, +executioner." Making as if it contained something different, he threw it +into the lap of Augustus, and the latter imposed no death sentences but +immediately rose and left. The emperor was not displeased at such hints +but rather glad of them, because whatever excess of anger he felt by +reason of his own nature and the press of affairs he was able to tone +down with the aid of his friend's frank advice.--This also is a very +great proof of Mæcenas's excellence, that he made himself liked by +Augustus, in spite of resisting his projects, and pleased all the people. +Though he had tremendous influence with the emperor, so that he could +bestow offices and honors upon many men, he did not lose his head but +continued to the end of his life in the equestrian class. For all these +reasons Augustus missed him greatly, and he was affected by the fact that +his minister, though irritated about his own wife, had left him as his +heir and had put all his property, save a very small amount, in his hands +to give to his friends or not, as he saw fit. Such was the character of +Mæcenas and such his treatment of Augustus. He was the first to construct +a swimming pool of warm water in the city and the first to devise signs +for letters, to facilitate speed,--a system which, through Aquila [4] a +freedman, he taught to a number. + +[B.C. 7 (_a. u._ 747)] + +[-8-] Tiberius on the first day that he began the consulship with Gnæus +Piso convened the senate in the Octavium, because it was outside the +pomerium. After assigning himself the duty of repairing the temple of +Concord, in order that he might inscribe upon it his own name and that of +Drusus, he held his triumph, and in company with his mother dedicated the +so-called Precinct of Livia. He himself entertained the senate on the +Capitol, and she the women privately. Not much later, as there was some +disturbance in Germany, he took the field. The festival held in honor of +the return of Augustus was managed by Gaius together with Piso, in his +place. The Campus Agrippæ (except the portico) and the Diribitorium +Augustus himself made public property. The latter was the largest house +ever constructed under a single roof; now the whole top of it has been +taken off because it could not be put together solidly again, and the +edifice stands wide open to the sky. Agrippa had left it still in the +process of building, and it was completed at this time. The portico +in the plain, which Polla his sister (who had also decorated the +race-courses) was making, was not yet finished. Meantime funeral combats +in honor of Agrippa were given, all except Augustus wearing dark clothing +and even his sons the same, and there were both duels and contests of +groups; they were held in the Sæpta out of honor to Agrippa and because +many of the structures surrounding the Forum had been burned. The blame +for the fire was laid upon the debtor class and they were suspected of +having set it with the purpose of having some of their debts remitted +when they appeared to have lost considerable. They obtained nothing, +however. The lanes at this time were provided with certain supervisors +from among the people, whom we call road commissioners[5] They were +allowed to use official dress and two lictors just in the places where +they had jurisdiction and on certain days, and they were given charge of +the body of slaves which previously had accompanied the ædiles to save +buildings that were set afire,--an arrangement still continued to the +present day. They, together with the tribunes and prætors, were by lot +appointed to have charge of the entire city, which was divided into +fourteen wards.--These were all the events of that year, for nothing +worthy of mention happened in Germany. + +[B.C. 6 (_a. u._ 748)] + +[-9-] The year following, which marked the consulship of Gaius Antistius +and Lælius Balbus, Augustus was displeased to see that Gaius and Lucius, +who were being brought up in the lap of sovereignty, did not carefully +imitate his ways. They not only lived too luxuriously, but showed +unseemly audacity. Lucius once entered the theatre by himself and became +the center of attraction of the whole population; some merely let +him engross their thoughts and others openly paid court to him. This +treatment made him more arrogant, and among his other doings he proposed +for consul Gaius, who was not yet a iuvenis. His father, however, +expressed the earnest wish that no such complication of circumstances +might arise as once occurred in his own case,--that any one younger than +twenty should be consul. When the people still remained urgent he then +said that a man ought to receive this office at time when he would not be +liable to error himself and could resist the passions of the populace. +After that he gave Gaius a priesthood, with the right of attendance in +the senate and of beholding spectacles and sitting at banquets with that +body. And wishing in some way [6] to rebuke them still more severely he +bestowed upon Tiberius the tribunician authority for five years, and +assigned to him Armenia, which was becoming estranged since the death of +Tigranes. The result was that he was soon at odds with the people and +Tiberius, though without effecting anything. The people felt that they +had been slighted, and Tiberius feared their anger. He was, however, soon +sent to Rhodes on the pretext that he needed some education; and he +took not even his entire retinue, to say nothing of others, that so his +appearance and his deeds might drop out of their minds. [The trip he made +as a private person except in so far as he compelled the Parians to +sell him the statue of Vesta, that it might be placed in the temple of +Concord. When he reached the island he neither behaved at all nor spoke +in an overweening way.--This is the truest reason for his foreign +journey.] There is also a story current that he did this on account of +his wife Julia, because he could no longer endure her; at any rate she +was left behind at Rome. [Others have said that he was angry at not +having been designated Cæsar. Others still, that he was driven out by +Augustus, being accused of plotting against the latter's children. But +that his departure was not for the sake of education nor because he was +displeased at the decrees passed became plain from many of his subsequent +actions, and especially through his immediately opening his will at that +time, and reading it to his mother and to Augustus. But all possible +conjectures were made.] + +[B.C. 5 (_a. u._ 749)] + + The following year Augustus in the course of his twelfth consulship + placed Gaius among the iuvenes and at the same time brought him + before the senate, declared him Princeps luventutis, and allowed + him to become cavalry commander. + + * * * * * + + [B.C. 2 (_a. u._ 752)] + + And after the elapse of a year Lucius also obtained all the honors + that had been granted to his brother Gaius. On an occasion when the + populace had gathered and were asking that some reforms be instituted, + when, indeed, they had sent for this purpose the tribunes to Augustus, + Lucius came and deliberated with them about their demands; and at + this all were pleased. + +[-10-]Augustus limited the number of the populace to be supplied with +grain, something previously left vague, to twenty myriads, and, as some +say, he gave each one sixty denarii.. .. to Mars, and that he himself and +his grandsons, as often as they pleased, and those who were passing +from the classification of children and were being registered among +the iuvenes, should invariably resort thither; that magistrates being +despatched to offices abroad should make that their starting-point; that +the senate should there declare their votes in regard to the granting +of triumphs and the victors celebrating them should devote to this Mars +their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who might +obtain triumphal honors should have their likenesses in bronze erected +in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were +ever recovered, they should be placed in the temple; that a festival of +the god should be celebrated near the Scalæ by the persons successively +occupying the office of præfectus alae; that a nail should be driven for +his glory by those acting as censors; that senators have the right to +undertake the work of furnishing the horses that were to compete in the +equestrian contest, as well as the general care of the temple, precisely +as had been provided by law in the case of Apollo and in the case of +Jupiter Capitolinus. + +These matters settled, Augustus dedicated that spacious hall: yet to +Gaius and to Lucius he gave once and for all powers to officiate at all +similar consecrations, on the strength of a kind of consular authority +(founded on precedent) that they were to use. They, too, directed the +horse-race on this occasion, and their brother Agrippa took part with +the children of the leading families in the so-called "Troy" equestrian +games. Two hundred and sixty lions were slaughtered in the hippodrome. +There was a gladiatorial combat in the Sæpta, and a naval battle of +"Persians" and "Athenians" was given on the spot, where even at the +present day some relics of it are still exhibited. The above were the +names applied to the parties engaged, and the Athenians, as of old, came +out victorious. + +In the course of the spectacle he let water into the Flaminian Hippodrome +and thirty-six crocodiles were there cut in pieces. However, Augustus did +not serve as consul every day continuously, but after holding office a +little while he gave the title of the consulship to another. + +These were the exercises in honor of Mars. To Augustus himself a sacred +contest was offered in Neapolis, the Campanian city, nominally because he +had helped it rise when it was prostrated by earthquake and by fire, +but in reality because the inhabitants, alone of their neighbors, were +enthusiastic over Greek customs; and he also received the title of +Father, with, binding force (for previously he was merely spoken of by +that name and no decree had been passed). Moreover, it was now that for +the first time he appointed two pretorian prefects, Quintus Ostorius +Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper. This term "prefect" is the word which +I, too, shall use solely to designate the commanders of any body, since +it has won its way into general currency. Likewise Pylades the dancer +conducted certain games, not performing any manual labor in connection +with them (since he was now a man of advanced age) but employing the +insignia of office and authorizing the necessary expenditures. Similarly +the prætor Quintus Crispinus conducted games (though I need lay no +emphasis on that point) and under his management knights and women of +families not unknown to fame were brought into the orchestra. But of all +this Augustus made no account; his daughter Julia, however, proved so +dissolute that she held revels and drinking bouts by night in the +Forum and on the very rostra. When at last he found this out, he was +exceedingly enraged. He had guessed before that she did not lead a right +life, but refused to believe it. For those who hold supreme power are +acquainted with anything better than with their own affairs. Their own +deeds do not go undetected by their associates, but they are not fully +aware of the latter's. In this instance [when he learned what was going +on], he gave way to such violent rage that he could not keep the matter +to himself, but communicated it to the senate. As a result she was +banished to the island of Pandateria, near Campania, and her mother +Scribonia voluntarily was the companion of her voyage. Of the men who +enjoyed her favors Iullus Antonius, on the ground that his conduct was +prompted by designs upon the monarchy, was put to death, along with +others, [prominent persons]. The remainder were banished to islands. +[And since there was a tribune among them he was not tried till he had +completed his term of office.] Many other women, too, were accused of +similar behavior, but the emperor would not permit all the suits: he set +a definite time and forbade investigation of what had occurred previous +to that. In the case of his daughter he would show no mercy, urging that +he would rather have been Phoebe's father than hers, but the rest he +spared. Now Phoebe been a freedwoman of Julia's and the companion of her +undertakings, and had already caused her own death. For this Augustus +praised her. + + [B.C. 1 (_a. u._ 753)] + + Gaius' captaincy of the legions on the Ister was a peaceful period. + He fought no war, not because there was none but because he cultivated + ruling in quiet and safety, and the dangers were assigned to others. + +The revolt of the Armenians and the Parthians' coöperation with them kept +Augustus sorrowful, and he was at a loss to know what to do. His age +rendered him incapable of campaigning, Tiberius (as stated) had already +withdrawn, he could not venture to send any other influential man, +and Gaius and Lucius were, as it happened, young and inexperienced in +affairs. Still, under the prod of necessity, he chose Gaius, gave him +the proconsular authority and a wife (an act intended to increase his +dignity) and assigned advisers to him. Gaius set out and was everywhere +received with marks of distinction, occupying as he did the position of +the emperor's grandson,--one might almost say son,--and Tiberius went +to Chios and paid him court to rid himself of suspicion. He humiliated +himself and groveled at the feet not only of Gaius but of all the +latter's associates. On his return to Syria, after no great successes +won, he was wounded. + +[When the barbarians heard of the campaign of Gaius, Phrataces sent to +Augustus men to explain what had occurred and asked to get back his +brothers on condition of accepting peace. + +[A.D. 1 (_a. u._ 754)] + +The emperor's reply, addressed simply to "Phrataces," without the title +of king, directed him to lay aside the royal name and withdraw from +Armenia. The Parthian, however, instead of being cowed at this, wrote +back in a generally supercilious tone, calling himself "king of kings," +but the other only "Cæsar."--Tigranes did not at once send any envoys, +but when Artabazus somewhat later fell sick and died he despatched a +letter, not writing the name "king" in it, and asked Augustus for the +kingdom. Influenced by these considerations and in fear, likewise, of war +with the Parthians, the emperor accepted the gifts and bade him go with +good hopes to meet Gaius in Syria.] + +[-10a-(_Boissevain_)] ... other party from Egypt that campaigned against +them they repulsed, and did not yield till a tribune from the pretorian +guard was sent against them. He in progress of time checked their +incursions, and for a long period no senator governed the cities in this +region. + +Coincident with these troubles there was a new movement on the part of +the Celtæ. Some time earlier Domitius, while still governing the regions +adjacent to the Ister, had intercepted the Hermunduri (a tribe that for +some unknown reason had left their native land and were wandering about +in search of a different country), and he had settled them in a portion +of Marcomania; next, encountering no opposition, he had crossed the +Albis, cemented friendship with the barbarians on the other side, and +set up an altar to Augustus to commemorate the event. Just now he +had transferred his position to the Rhine, where, in pursuance of an +intention to have his subordinates restore certain Cheruscian exiles, he +had met with misfortune and had caused the other barbarians likewise to +concieve a contempt for the Romans. This was, however, the extent of his +operations during the year in question, for because of the Parthian war +impending no chastisement was visited upon the rebels immediately. + +Nevertheless the war with the Parthians did not materialize. Phrataces +heard that Gaius was in Syria, equipped with consular powers, and was +furthermore uneasy about home interests in which even previously he had +failed to discern a friendly feeling; hence he hastened to effect a +reconciliation, secured on the proviso that he himself should depart from +Armenia and his brothers remain over seas. + +[A.D. 2(_a. u._ 755)] + +Now the Armenians fell into conflict with the Romans the following year, +in which Publius Vinicius and Publius Varus were consuls. The restraining +influence of the fact that Tigranes had perished in some barbarian war +and that Erato had resigned the sovereignty was nullified as soon as they +were delivered to a Mede, Ariobarzanes, who had once come to the Romans +in company with Tiridates. They accomplished nothing worthy of note save +that a leader named Addon,[7] who was occupying Artagira, induced Gaius +to come close up to the wall, pretending that he would reveal to him some +secrets of the Parthian king, and then wounded him. In the consequent +siege he maintained a prolonged resistance. When he was at last +overthrown, not only Augustus but Gaius, too, assumed the title of +imperator, and Armenia passed into the control of Ariobarzanes. Soon +after the latter died, and his son Artabazus received it as the gift of +Augustus and the senate. Gaius fell ill from the wound, and though he +was not in any way robust and the condition of his health had, in fact, +injured his mind, he now grew still more feeble. At length he begged +leave to retire to private life, and it was his wish to take up his abode +somewhere in Syria. Augustus, in the depth of grief, communicated his +desire to the senate, and urged him to come at any rate to Italy and +then do what he pleased. So Gaius resigned at once all the duties of his +office and took a coastwise trading vessel to Lycia, where, at Limyra, +he breathed his last. Prior to his demise the spark of Lucius's life had +also paled. (He, too, was being given practice in many places, sent now +here, now there; and he was wont to read personally the letters of Gaius +before the senate, so often as he was present.) His death was due to a +sudden illness. In connection with both these cases, therefore, suspicion +rested upon Livia, and particularly because the return of Tiberius +from Rhodes to Rome occurred at this time. [-11-] As for him he was so +extremely well versed in the art of divination by the stars, having with +him Thrasyllus, who was a past master of all astrology, that he had +understood accurately what was fated both for himself and for them. And +the story goes that once in Rhodes he was about to push Thrasyllus from +the walls, because the latter was the only one aware of all he had in +mind; observing, however, that his intended victim looked gloomy, he +asked him why his face was overcast. When the other replied that he +suspected some danger, he was surprised [8] and gave up his murderous +designs. Thrasyllus had such a clear knowledge of all things that when +he descried approaching afar off the boat which brought to Tiberius the +message from his mother and Augustus to return to Rome, he told him in +advance what news it would bring. + +[-12-] The bodies of Lucius and of Gaius were brought to Rome by the +military tribunes and by the chief men of each city. The targes and the +golden spears which they had received from the knights on entering the +class of iuvenes were set up in the senate-house. + +Augustus was once called "master" by the people, but he not only forbade +that any one should use this form of address to him but took very good +care in every way to enforce his command. + +[A.D. 3 (_a. u._ 756)] + +When his third ten-year period had been accomplished, he then accepted +the rulership for the fourth time,--of course under compulsion! He had +become milder through age and more hesitating in regard to offending any +of the senators and now wished to have no differences with any of them. + + For lending for three years to such as needed it fifteen hundred + myriads of denarii, without interest, he was praised and reverenced + by all. + +Once, when a fire destroyed the palace, and many persons offered him +large amounts, he would take nothing except an aureus from the various +peoples and a denarius from single individuals. The name _aureus_, which +I give here, is a local term for a piece of money worth twenty-five +denarii.[9] Some of the Greeks also, whose books we read for acquiring +a pure Attic style, give it this name. When Augustus had restored his +dwelling he made all of it public property, either because of the +contributions made by the people or because he was high priest and wished +to live in a building both private and public. + +[-13-] The people urged Augustus very strongly to rescind the sentence of +exile passed upon his daughter, but he answered that fire would mix with +water before she should be brought back. And the populace did throw a +good deal of fire into the Tiber. For the time being they accomplished +nothing, but later they brought such pressure to bear that she was at +last moved from the island to the mainland. + + And later the outbreak of war with the Celtæ found Augustus worn + out in body (by reason of old age and sickness) and incapable of taking + the field. Yielding, then, partly to the requirements of the situation + and partly to the persuasions of Julia[10] (who had already been restored + from banishment) +he both adopted Tiberius and sent him out[11] against the Celtæ, granting +him the tribunician authority for ten years. + +[A.D. 4 (_a. u._ 757)] + +Yet suspecting that he might lose his head and fearing a possible +insurrection he adopted for him also his nephew Germanicus, though +Tiberius himself had a son. After this he took courage, and feeling that +he had successors and supporters, he became desirous to organize the +senate once more. So he nominated the ten senators whom he most honored +and appointed three of them, selected by lot, to be scrutinizers. There +were not many, however, who either imposed sentence on themselves +beforehand,--permission being given them to do so, just as +previously,--or were retired against their will. + +This business, then, was managed by others. The emperor himself took a +census of the inhabitants of Italy possessing property valued at not less +than five myriad denarii. The weaker citizens and those dwelling outside +of Italy he did not compel to undergo the taking of a census, for he +feared that they might be disturbed and show insubordination of some +sort. And in order that he might not seem to be acting in the capacity +of censor (for the reason I mentioned before) [12] he assumed proconsular +powers for the purpose of completing the census and accomplishing the +purification. And inasmuch as many of the young men of the senatorial +class and of the equestrian, as well, had grown poor though not at fault +for it themselves, he made up to most of them the required amount of +property, and in the case of some eighty increased it to thirty myriads. + +[A.D. 4 ( _a. u._ 757) ] + +Since, also, many were giving unrestricted emancipation to their slaves, +he directed what age the manumitter and likewise the person to be +liberated by him must have reached: moreover, what regulations people +in general, and the former masters, should observe toward those made +freedmen. + +[-14-] While he was thus occupied plots were formed against him, and +notably one by Gnæus Cornelius, a son of the daughter of Pompey the +Great. For some time the emperor was a prey to great perplexity not +wishing to kill the men,--for he saw that no greater safety would be +his by their destruction,--nor yet to let them go, for fear this might +attract others to conspire against him. While he was in a dilemma as to +what he should do and could not be free from anxiety by day nor from +terror by night, Livia one day said to him:-- + +"What is this, husband? Why is it you do not sleep!" + +"Wife," answered Augustus, "who could be even to the slightest degree +free from care, that has so many enemies and is so constantly the object +of plots of one set of men or another? Do you not see how many are +attacking both me and our sovereignty? The vengeance meted out to those +found guilty does not retard them: quite the contrary, as if they were +pressing forward to do some noble action the rest also hasten to perish +similarly." + +Livia, hearing this, said: "That you should be the object of plots is not +remarkable, nor is it contrary to human nature. Having so large an empire +you must do many things and naturally you cause grief to not a few +people. A ruler can not please all: on the contrary, even an exceedingly +upright sovereign must inevitably make foes of many persons. For those +who wish to be unjust are many more than those who act justly, and their +desires it is impossible to satisfy. Even among such as possess a certain +excellence some yearn for many great rewards which they can not obtain +and some chafe because they are inferior to others: so both of them find +fault with the ruler. From this you can see that it is impossible to +avoid evil, and furthermore that of all the attacks made none is upon you +but all upon your position of supremacy. If you were a private citizen, +no one would willingly do you any harm unless he had previously received +some injury. But for the supremacy and for the good things that it +contains all yearn, and those who occupy any post of influence far more +than their inferiors. It is the nature of wicked men, who have very +little sense, to do so. It is implanted in their dispositions, just like +anything else, and it is impossible by either persuasion or compulsion to +remove such a bent from some of them. There is no law or fear stronger +than natural tendencies. Reflect on this and do not take the offences of +others so hard, but keep yourself and your supremacy carefully guarded, +that we may hold it safely not by virtue of inflicting severe punishments +but by means of strict watchfulness." + +[-15-] To this Augustus replied: "Wife, I too know that nothing great is +ever free from envy and plots,--least of all sole power. We should be +peers of the gods if we did not have troubles and cares and fears beyond +all private individuals. But to me it is also a source of grief that this +is inevitably so and that no cure for it can be found." + +"Yet," said Livia, "since some men are so constituted as to want to do +wrong in any event, let us guard against them. We have many soldiers who +protect us,--some marshaled against foreign foes and others about your +person,--and a large retinue, so that by their help we may live safely +both at home and abroad." + +"I do not need," said Augustus, interrupting, "to state that many men on +many occasions have perished at the hands of their immediate associates. +For in addition to other disadvantages this, too, is a most distressing +thing in monarchies, that we fear not only enemies (like other people) +but also our friends. Many more rulers have been plotted against by such +persons than by those who had nothing to do with them. This is to be +expected, since the inner circle is with the potentate day and night, +exercising and eating, and he has to take food and drink that they have +prepared. Moreover, against acknowledged enemies you can array these very +men, but against the latter themselves there is no one else to employ as +an ally. To us, therefore, the whole time through, solitude is dreadful, +company dreadful: to be unguarded is terrifying, but most terrifying are +the guards themselves: enemies are difficult to deal with, but still +greater difficulties are presented by our friends. They must all be +called friends, whether they are such or not, but even if one should find +them most reliable, even so one may not trust one's self in their company +with a clear, carefree, unsuspecting heart. This, then, and the fact +that it is requisite to take measures of defence against ordinary +conspirators, make the situation overwhelmingly dreadful. For to be +always compelled to be inflicting punishment and chastisement upon +somebody is highly repugnant to men of character." + +[-16-] "You are right," answered Livia, "and I have some advice to give +you,--at least, if you prove willing to receive it and willing not to +censure me that, woman as I am, I dare to make suggestions to you which +no one else, even of your most intimate friends, would venture. And this +is not through any lack of knowledge on their part, but because they are +not bold enough to speak." + +"Say on," rejoined Augustus, "and let us have it." + +"I will tell you," continued Livia, "without hesitation, because I share +your comforts and adversities, and while you are safe I myself hold +dominion day by day, whereas if you come to any harm (which Heaven +forbid!) I shall perish with you. Well, then, human nature persuades some +to sin under any conditions, and there is no device for controlling +it when it has once started toward any goal. What seems good to +persons,--not to rehearse the vices of the masses,--at once induces very +many of them to do wrong. [-17-] The boast of birth and pride of wealth, +greatness of honor, audacity founded on bravery, and conceit due to +authority, bring shipwreck to not a few. There is no making nobility +ignoble, bravery cowardly, or prudence foolish: it is impossible. Nor, +again, is it to curtail men's abundance or to strike down ambitions where +conduct has been correct: that is iniquitous. That he who is on the +defensive and anticipates others' movements should incur injury and ill +repute is inevitable. Come, let us change our policy and spare some of +them. To me it seems far more feasible to set things right by kindness +than by harshness. Not only are those who grant pardon loved by the +objects of their clemency, who strive to repay the favor, but all others +both respect and reverence them and will not readily endure to see harm +done to them. Sovereigns, however, who maintain an inexorable anger not +only are hated by those who have aught to fear, but cause uneasiness to +all the rest. As a result, men plot against them to avoid meeting an +untimely fate. Do you not notice that physicians very rarely have +recourse to cutting and burning, wishing to avoid aggravating a person's +disease, but in the majority of cases soothe and cure by means of +fomentations and mild drugs? Do not think that because those ailments +have to do with the body and these with the mind that they are +essentially different. Very many experiences of the body are similar in +a way to what goes on in the souls of men, no matter how bodiless the +latter may be. The soul contracts under the influence of fear and expands +under that of wrath. Pain humiliates men and audacity puffs them up. The +correspondences then are very close and therefore both kinds of trouble +need treatments which are much alike. A gentle speech uttered to a man +causes all his unruliness to subside, just as a harsh one provokes to +anger even an easy-going person. The granting of pardon melts the most +audacious, just as punishment irritates the most mild. Acts of violence +inflame all men in every instance, even though such measures may be +thoroughly just, but considerate treatment mollifies them. Hence +one would more readily brave great dangers through persuasion and +voluntarily, than under compulsion. Such is the inherent, unalterable +quality of both methods of behavior that even among brute beasts that +have no mind many of the strongest and fiercest are domesticated by +petting and are subdued by coaxing, whereas many of the most cowardly and +weak are made unmanageable and maddened by cruelties and terrors. + +[-18-] "I am not saying that we must spare absolutely all wrongdoers, for +we must cut out of the way the daredevil and busybody, the man of +evil nature and evil devices, who gives himself up to an unyielding, +persistent baseness, just as we treat parts of the body that are quite +incurable. But of the rest, who err through youth or ignorance or +a misunderstanding or some other chance, some purposely and others +unwillingly, it is proper to admonish some with words, to bring others to +their senses by threats, and to handle still others with moderation in +some different way, precisely as in other [matters] ... all men impose +upon some greater and upon others lesser punishments. So far as these +persons are concerned you may employ moderation without danger, +inflicting upon some the penalty of banishment, upon others that of loss +of political rights, upon still others a money fine. You may also place +some of them in country districts or in certain cities. + +"In the past a few have been brought to their senses by missing what they +hoped for, by failing to secure what they aimed at. A degradation in +seats[13] and factional disputes involving disgrace, as well as being +injured or terrified before they could make a move, has improved not a +few. Yet one well born and courageous would prefer to die rather than to +have any such experience. As a result, vengeance would become not easier +for the plotters but more difficult, and we should be able to live in +safety, since not a word could be said against us. At present we are +thought to kill many through anger,[14] many because of a desire for +their money, others through fear of their bravery, and a great many +others on account of jealousy of their excellence. No one will readily +believe that a person possessing so great an authority and power can +seriously be the object of the plots of any unarmed individual. Some talk +as above and others say that we hear a great many lies and foolishly pay +heed to many of them, believing them true. They assert that those who spy +into and overhear doubtful matters concoct many falsehoods, some being +influenced by enmity, others by wrath, some because they can get money +from their foes, others because they can get no money from the same +persons, and further, that they report not only the fact of certain +persons having committed suspicious actions or intending to commit them, +but also how A said so-and-so, and B hearing it was silent, how one man +laughed and somebody else wept. + +[-19-] "I could cite innumerable other details of like nature which, +no matter how true they were, are no business for free men to concern +themselves about or report to you. If they went unnoticed, they would do +you no harm, but when heard they might irritate you even against your +will: and that ought by no means to happen, especially in a ruler of the +people. Now many believe that from this cause large numbers unjustly +perish, some without a trial and others by some unwarranted condemnation +of a court. They will not admit that the evidence given or statements +made under torture or any similar proof against them is genuine. This is +the sort of talk, though some of it may not be just, which is reported in +the case of practically all so put to death. And you ought, Augustus, +to be free not only from injustice but from the appearance of it. It is +sufficient for a private individual to avoid irregular conduct, but it +behooves a ruler to incur not even the suspicion of it. You are the +leader of human beings, not of beasts, and the only way you can make +them really friendly to you is by persuading them by every means +and constantly, without a break, that you will wrong no one either +voluntarily or involuntarily. A man can be forced to fear another but he +has to be persuaded to love him: and he is to be persuaded by the good +treatment he himself receives and the benefits he sees conferred on +others. The person, however, who suspects that somebody has perished +unjustly both fears that he may some day meet the same fate and is +compelled to hate the one responsible for the deed. And to be hated by +one's subjects is (besides containing no element of good) exceedingly +unprofitable. The general mass of people feel that ordinary individuals +must defend themselves against all who wrong them in any way or else be +despised and consequently oppressed: but rulers, they think, ought to +prosecute those who wrong the State but endure those who are thought +to commit offences against them privately; rulers can not be harmed by +disdain or assault, because they have many guardians to protect them. + +[-20-] "When I hear this and turn my attention to this I feel inclined to +tell you outright to put no one to death for any such reason. Places of +supremacy are established for the preservation of subjects, to prevent +them from being injured either by one another or by foreign tribes: +such places are not, by Jupiter, for the purpose of allowing the rulers +themselves to hard their subjects. It is most glorious to be able not to +destroy most of the citizens but to save them all, if possible. It is +right to educate them by laws and, favours and admonitions, that they may +be right-minded and further to watch and guard them, so that even if they +wish to do wrong they may not be able. And if there is anything ailing, +we must cure and correct it in some way, in order that there may be no +entire loss. To endure the offences of the multitude is a task requiring +great prudence and force: if any one should simply punish all of them as +they deserve, before he knew it he would have destroyed the majority of +mankind. For these reasons, then, I give you my opinion to the effect +that you should not inflict the death penalty for any such error, but +bring the men to their senses in some other way, so that they will not +again do anything dangerous. What crime could a man commit shut up on +an island, or in the country, or in some city, not only destitute of a +throng of servants and money, but under guard, if it be necessary? If the +enemy were anywhere near here or some alien force had dominion over this +sea so that one of the prisoners might escape to them and do us some +harm, or if, again, there were strong cities in Italy with fortifications +and weapons, so that if a man seized them he might become a menace to us, +that would be a different story. But all towns in this neighborhood are +unarmed and lacking any walls that would serve in war, and the enemy is +removed from them by vast distances; a long stretch of sea, and a journey +by land including mountains and rivers hard to cross lie between them and +us. + +Why, then, should one fear this man or that man, defenceless, private +citizens, here in the middle of your empire and enclosed by your armed +forces? I can not see how any one could conceive such a notion or how the +maddest madman could accomplish anything. + +[-21-] "With these premises, therefore, let us give the idea a trial. The +discontented will soon themselves change their ways and bring about an +improvement in others. You notice that Cornelius is both of good birth +and renowned. This matter has to be reasoned out in a human fashion. The +sword can not effect everything for you; it would be a great blessing if +it could bring some men to their senses and persuade them or even compel +them to love any one with genuine affection: but, instead, it will +destroy the body of one man and alienate the minds of the rest. People +do not become more attached to any one because of the vengeance they see +meted out to others, but they become more hostile through the influence +of their own fears. That is one side of the picture. On the other hand, +those who obtain pardon for any crime and repent are ashamed to wrong +their benefactors again, but render them much service in return, hoping +to receive much more again for it. When a man is saved by some one who +has been wronged, he thinks that his rescuer, if fairly treated, will +go to any lengths to aid him. Heed me, therefore, dearest, and make a +change. Then all your other acts that have caused displeasure will +appear to have been due to necessity. In conducting so great a city from +democracy into monarchy it is impossible to make the transfer without +bloodshed. But if you follow your old policy, you will be thought to have +done these unpleasant things intentionally." + +[-22-] Augustus heeded these suggestions of Livia and released all those +against whom charges were pending, admonishing some of them orally; +Cornelius he even appointed consul. Later he so conciliated both him and +the other men that no one else again really plotted against him or had +the reputation of so doing. Livia had had most to do with saving the life +of Cornelius, yet she was destined to be held responsible for the death +of Augustus. + +[A.D. 5 (a. u. 758)] + +At this time, in the consulship of Cornelius and Valerius Messala, +earthquakes of ill omen occurred and the Tiber tore away the bridge so +that the City was under water for seven days. There was an eclipse of the +sun, and famine set in. This same year Agrippa was enrolled among the +iuvenes, but obtained none of the same privileges as his brother. The +senators attended the horse-races separately and the knights also +separately from the remainder of the populace, as is done nowadays. And +since the noblest families did not show themselves inclined to give their +daughters for the service of Vesta, a law was passed that the daughters +of freedmen might likewise be consecrated. Many contended for the honor, +and so they drew lots in the senate in the presence of their fathers; no +priestess, however, was appointed from this class. + +[-23-] The soldiers were displeased at the small size of the prizes for +the wars that had taken place at this period and no one was willing to +carry arms for longer than the specified term of his service. It was +therefore voted that five thousand denarii be given to members of the +pretorian guard when they had ended sixteen, and three thousand to +the other soldiers when they had completed twenty years' service. +Twenty-three legions were being supported at that time, or, as others +say, twenty-five, of citizen soldiers. Only nineteen of them now remain. +The Second (Augusta) is the one that winters in Upper Britain. Of the +Third there are three divisions,--the Gallic, in Phoenicia; the Cyrenaic, +in Arabia; the Augustan, in Numidia. The Fourth. (Scythian) is in Syria, +the Fifth (Macedonian), in Dacia. The Sixth is divided into two parts, of +which the one (Victrix) is in Lower Britain, and the other (Ferrata) is +in Judæa. The soldiers of the Seventh, generally called Claudians, are in +Upper Moesia. Those of the Eighth, Augustans, are in Upper Germany. Those +of the Tenth are both in Upper Pannonia (Legio Gemina) and in Judaea. +The Eleventh, in Lower Moesia, is the Claudian. This name two legions +received from Claudius because they had not fought against him in the +insurrection of Camillus. The Twelfth (Fulminata) is in Cappadocia: the +Thirteenth (Gemina) in Dacia: the Fourteenth (Gemina) in Upper Pannonia: +the Fifteenth (Apollinaris) in Cappadocia. The Twentieth, called both +Valeria and Victrix, is also in Upper Britain. These, I believe, together +with those that have the title of the Twenty second[15] and winter in +Upper Germany Augustus took in charge and kept; and this I say in spite +of the fact that they are by no means called Valerians by all and do +not themselves use the title any longer. These are preserved from the +Augustan legions. Of the rest some have been scattered altogether and +others were mixed in with different legions by Augustus himself and by +the other emperors, from which circumstance they are thought to have been +called Gemina. + +[-24-] Now that I have once been brought into a discussion of the +legions, I shall speak of the forces as they are at present according +to the disposition made by subsequent emperors: in this way any one who +desires to learn anything about them may do so easily, finding all his +information written in one place. Nero organized the First legion, called +the Italian, and now wintering in Lower Moesia; Galba, the First legion, +called Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Seventh (Gemina), which is in +Spain; Vespasian, the Second, Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Fourth +(the Flavian) in Syria; Domitian, the First (Minervia), in Lower Germany; +Trajan, the Second (the Egyptian), and the Thirtieth (Germanic), which he +also named after himself. Marcus Antoninus organized the Second, which +is in Noricum, and the Third, in Rhætia; these are also called Italian: +Severus the Parthian legions, i. e., the First and the Third in +Mesopotamia and between them the Second, the one in Italy. + +This is at present the number of legions which are enrolled in the +service, exclusive of the cohortes urbanæ and the pretorian guard. +At that time, in the days of Augustus, those I mentioned were being +supported, whether twenty-three or twenty-five altogether; and then there +was some allied force, whatever the size, of infantry and cavalry and +sailors. I can not state the exact figures. The body-guards, ten thousand +in all, were divided into ten portions, and the six thousand warders of +the city into four portions, and there were picked foreign horsemen +to whom the name Batavians is applied (from the island Batavia in the +Rhine), because the Batavians are noted for superiority in horsemanship. +I can not, however, state their exact number any more than that of the +evocati. He began to reckon in the latter from the time that he called +the warriors who had previously supported his father to arms again +against Antony; and he retained control of them. They constitute even now +a special corps and carry rods, like the centurions. + +For the distribution mentioned he needed money and therefore introduced +a motion into the senate to the effect that a definite permanent fund be +created, in order that without troubling any private citizen they might +obtain abundant support and rewards from the proposed appropriation. +The means for such a fund was accordingly sought.--As no one showed a +willingness to become ædile, some from the ranks of ex-quæstors and +ex-tribunes were compelled by lot to take the office. This happened +frequently at other times. + +[A.D. 6 (_a. u._ 759)] + +[-25-] After this, in the consulship of Æmilius Lepidus and Lucius +Arruntius, when no source for the fund was found that suited anybody, but +quite everybody felt dejected because such an attempt was being made, +Augustus in the name of himself and of Tiberius put money into +the treasury, which he called the ærarium militare. Some of the +ex-prætors--such as drew the lots--he instructed to administer it for +three years, employing two lictors apiece and such further assistance as +was fitting. This was done by successive officials for a number of years. +At present they are chosen by whoever is emperor and they go about +without lictors. Augustus himself made some further contributions and +promised to do this annually, and he accepted offers from kings and +certain peoples. From private individuals, though a number were ready +and glad to give (as they said), he would take nothing. But as all this +proved very slight in comparison with the large amount spent, and there +was need of some inexhaustible supply, he ordered each one of the +senators to devise means by himself, to write his plan in a book, and +give it to him to look over. This was not because he had no plan of his +own, but because he was most anxious to persuade them to choose the +one that he wished. Various men proposed various courses, but he would +approve none of them: instead, he arranged for five per cent. of the +inheritances and bequests which should be left by deceased persons +(except in the case of very near relations or poor families); he +pretended that he had found this tax suggestion in Cæsar's memoirs. It +was a method that had been introduced once before, but had been later +abolished and was now introduced anew. In this way he increased the +revenues. The expenditures made by three men of consular rank, whom +the lot designated, he partly made smaller and partly did away with +altogether. + +[-26-] This was not the only source of trouble to the Romans: there was +also a severe famine. As a consequence, the gladiators and the slaves +offered for sale were removed to a distance of over seven hundred and +fifty stadia, Augustus and others dismissed the greater part of their +retinue, there was a cessation of lawsuits, and senators were permitted +to leave the city and go where they pleased. In order to prevent any +hindrance to decrees from this last measure it was ordered that all those +framed by as many as happened to attend meetings should be binding. +Moreover, ex-consuls were appointed to take charge of grain and bread +supplies, so as to have a stated quantity sold to each person. Those who +were recipients of public bounty had as much added to their supply gratis +by Augustus as they might obtain at any time. When even that did not +suffice, he forbade the citizens to hold any public festivals on his +birthday. + +Since also at this time many parts of the City fell a prey to fire, he +formed a company of freedmen in seven divisions to render assistance on +such occasions, and appointed a knight as their leader, thinking soon +to disband them. He did not do this, however. Having ascertained by +experience that the aid they gave was most valuable and necessary, he +kept them. The night-watchmen exist to the present day, subject to +special regulations, and those in the service are selected not from the +freedmen only any longer but from on the rest of the classes as well. +They have barracks in the city and draw pay from the public treasury. + +[-27-] The multitude, under the burden of the famine and the tax and the +losses sustained by fire, were ill at ease. They discussed openly many +schemes of insurrection and by night scattered pamphlets more still: this +move was said to be traceable to a certain Publius Rufus, but others were +suspected of it. Rufus could not have originated or have taken an +active part in it; therefore it was thought that others who aimed at a +revolution were making an illicit use of his name. An investigation +of the affair was resolved upon and rewards for information offered. +Information accordingly came in and the city as a result was stirred up. +This lasted till the scarcity of grain subsided, when gladiatorial games +in honor of Drusus were given by Germanicus Cæsar and Tiberius Claudius +Nero, his sons. [In the course of them an elephant vanquished a +rhinoceros and a knight distinguished for his wealth fought as a +gladiator.] The people were encouraged by this honor shown to the memory +of Drusus and by Tiberius's dedication of the temple of the Dioscuri, +upon which he inscribed not only his name but also that of Drusus. +Himself he called Claudianus instead of Claudius, because of his adoption +into the family of Augustus. He continued to direct operations against +the enemy and visited the City constantly whenever opportunity offered; +this was partly on account of various kinds of business but chiefly owing +to fear that Augustus might promote somebody else during his absence. +These were the events in the City that year. + +In Achæa the governor died in the middle of his term and directions were +given to his quæstor and to his assessor (whom, as I have said,[16] we +call legatus) that the latter should administer the government as far as +the isthmus, and the former the rest of it. Herod [17] of Palestine, who +was accused by his brothers of some wrongdoing, was banished beyond the +Alps and his portion of the Palestinian domain reverted to the State. +[Augustus suffered from old age and infirmity, so that he could not +transact business for all that needed his aid: some cases he reviewed and +tried with his counselors, sitting upon the tribunal on the Palatine; +the embassies which came from the various nations and princes he put in +charge of three ex-consuls, under the arrangement that any one of them +individually might listen to such an embassy and return an answer, except +in cases where it was necessary for himself and the senate to render a +decision besides.] + +[-28-] During this same period also many wars took place. Pirates overran +many quarters, so that Sardinia had no senatorial governor for some +years, but was in charge of soldiers with knights for commanders. Not a +few cities rebelled, with the result that for two years the same persons +held office in the same provinces of the People, and were personally +appointed instead of being chosen by lot. The provinces of Cæsar were +in general so arranged that men should govern in the same places for +a considerable time. However, I shall not go into all these matters +minutely. Many things not worthy of record happened in individual +instances, and no one would be benefited by the exact details. I shall +mention simply the events worth remembering, and very briefly, save those +of greatest importance. + +The Isaurians began marauding expeditions and kept on till they faced +grim war, but were finally subdued. The Gætuli, discontented with their +king, Juba, and at the same time feeling themselves slighted because not +governed by the Romans, rose against him: they ravaged the neighboring +territory and killed even many of the Romans who made a campaign against +them. In fine, they gained so great an ascendancy that Cornelius Cossus, +who reduced them, received triumphal honors and title for it. While +these troubles were in progress expeditions against the Celtæ were being +conducted by various leaders, and notably by Tiberius. He advanced first +to the river Visurgis and subsequently as far as the Albis, but nothing +of any moment was accomplished then, although not only Augustus but also +Tiberius was dubbed imperator for it, and Gaius Sentius, governor +of Germany, received triumphal honors. The Celtæ were so afraid of their +foes that they made a truce with him not merely once but twice. And the +reason that peace was again granted them, in spite of their having broken +it so soon, was that the affairs of the Dalmatians and Pannonians, who +had begun a rebellion on a large scale, needed vigilant attention. + +[-29-] The Dalmatians, smarting under the levies of tribute, had for some +time previous kept quiet even against their will. But, at the same time +that Tiberius made his second campaign against the Celtæ, Valerius +Messalinus, the governor of Dalmatia and Pannonia, was himself despatched +to the front with Tiberius, taking most of his army; they, too, were +ordered to send a contingent and on coming together for this purpose had +a chance to see the flower of their fighting force. After that there was +no more delay, but urged on particularly by one Bato, a Dæsidiatian, at +first a few revolted and worsted the Romans that came against them, and +this success then led others to rebel. Next, the Breuci, a Pannonian +tribe, put another leader named Bato at their head and marched against +Sirmium and the Romans in the town. This they did not capture: Cæcina +Severus, the governor of Moesia close by, he heard of their uprising +marched rapidly upon them, and joining battle with them near the river +Dravus vanquished their army. Hoping to renew the struggle soon, since +many of the Romans also had fallen, they turned to summon their allies, +and collected as many as they could. Meanwhile the Dalmatian Bato had +made a descent upon Salonæ, and being himself grievously wounded with a +stone accomplished nothing, but sent some others, who wrought havoc along +the whole sea-coast as far as Apollonia. There, in spite of his +defeat, his representatives won a slight battle against the Romans who +encountered them. + +[-30-] Tiberius ascertaining this feared they might invade Italy and so +returned from Celtica: he sent Messalinus ahead and himself followed with +the rest of the army. Bato learned of their approach and though not yet +well went to meet Messalinus. He proved the latter's superior in open +conflict but was afterward conquered by an ambuscade. Thereupon he went +to Bato the Breucan, and making common cause with him in the war occupied +a mountain named Alma. Here they were defeated in a slight skirmish by +Rhoemetalces the Thracian, despatched in advance against them by Severus, +but resisted Severus himself vigorously. Later Severus withdrew to +Moesia because the Dacians and the Sauromatæ were ravaging it, and while +Tiberius and Messalinus were tarrying in Siscia the Dalmatians overran +their allied territory and likewise caused many to revolt. Although +Tiberius approached them, they would engage in no open battle with him +but kept moving from one place to another, devastating a great deal of +ground. Owing to their knowledge of the country and the lightness of +their equipment they could easily go wherever they pleased. When winter +set in, they did much greater damage by invading Macedonia again. +Rhoemetalces and his brother Rhascuporis got the better of this force in +battle. + +[A.D. 7 (_a. u._ 760)] + +The rest did not stay in their territory while it was being ravaged +(this was principally later, in the consulship of Cæcilius Metellus and +Lincinius Silanus), but took refuge on the heights, from which they made +descents whenever they saw a chance. + +[-31-] When Augustus learned this he began to be suspicious of Tiberius, +for he thought the latter might have overcome them soon but was delaying +purposely so that he might be under arms as long as possible, with war +for an excuse. The emperor therefore sent Germanicus, though he was then +quæstor, and gave him soldiers not only from the free born citizens but +from the freedmen, some of whom were slaves that he had taken from both +men and women, in return for their value, with food for six months, +and had set free. This was not the only measure he took in view of the +necessities of the war: he also postponed the review of the knights, +which was wont to occur in the Forum. And he vowed to conduct the Great +Games [18] because a woman had cut some letters on her arm and had +practiced some kind of divination. He knew well, to be sure, that she had +not been possessed by some divine power, but had done it intentionally. +Inasmuch, however, as the populace were terribly wrought up over the wars +and the famine (which had now set in once more), he, too, affected +to believe what was said and did anything that would lead to the +encouragement of the multitude as a matter of course. In view of the +stringency in the grain supply he again appointed two grain commissioners +from among the ex-consuls, together with lictors. As there was need +of further money for operations against the enemy and the support of +night-watchmen, he introduced the tax of two per cent. on the sale of +slaves, and he ordered that the money delivered from the public treasury +to the prætors who gave armed combats should no longer be expended. + +[-32-]The reason that he sent Germanicus and not Agrippa to take the +field was that the latter possessed a servile nature and spent most of +his time fishing, wherefore he also used to call himself Neptune. He used +to give way to violent anger and slandered Julia as a stepmother, while +upon Augustus he heaped abundant reproaches in the matter of his paternal +inheritance. When he could not be made to moderate his conduct he was +banished and his property was given to the ærarium militare: he himself +was put ashore on Planasia, the island near Corsica.--These were the +events in the City. + +Germanicus reached Pannonia, where armies from various points were +shortly to assemble; the Batos watched for Severus, who was approaching +from Moesia, and fell upon him unexpectedly, while he was encamped near +the Volcæan marshes. The pickets outside the ramparts they frightened +and hurled back within it, but as the men inside stood their ground, the +attacking party was defeated. After this the Romans divided, in order +that many detachments might overrun the country in separate places at one +time. Most of them did nothing worthy of note during this enterprise, +but Germanicus conquered in battle and badly demoralized the Mæzei, a +Dalmatian tribe.--These were the results of that year. + +[A.D. 8 (_a. u._ 761)] + +[-33-] In the consulship of Marcus Furius with Sextus Nonius the +Dalmatians and Pannonians decided they would like to make peace because +they were in distress primarily from famine and then from disease that +followed it, due to their using grasses of various sorts and roots for +food. They did not attempt, however to open any negotiations, being +restrained by those who had no hope of preservation at the hands of the +Romans. So even as they were they still resisted. And one Scenobardus, +who had feigned a readiness to change sides, and had had dealings on this +very business with Manius Ennius, commander of the garrison in Siscia, +declaring that he was ready to desert, became afraid that he might be +injured ere his project was complete, and [19] ... + + _The Po, which they call the monarch of rivers that cleave the soil of + Italy, known by the name Eridanus, had its waters let into a very + broad excavation, on the command of the emperor Augustus. A seventh + division of the channel of this river flows through the center of the + state, affording at its mouth a most satisfactory harbor, and was + formerly believed (my authority is Dio) to be an entirely safe anchorage + for a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships._ (From the Latin of + Jordan.) + + When the famine at last had subsided, he conducted a horse-race in + the name of Germanicus, who was son of Drusus, and in the name of + his brother. On this occasion an elephant fought a rhinoceros, and a + knight who had once held a prominent position on account of + wealth contended in single combat. + + And he found himself sinking under the burden of old age and + physical weakness, so that he could not transact business with all the + persons that needed his services, he delivered to three ex-consuls the + care of the embassies that were constantly arriving from peoples and + kings; each one of these officials separately was empowered to give any + such delegation a hearing and to transmit an answer to them, save in + such cases as he and the senate needed to pass upon finally. Other + questions continued to be investigated and decided by the emperor himself + with the help of his cabinet. + +[-34-] ... however, among the first, but among the last he declared, in +order that everybody might be permitted to hold an individual opinion, +and no one of them be obliged to abandon his own ideas because he felt +it obligatory to agree with his sovereign; and he would often help the +magistrates try cases. Also, as often as the consulting judges held +different views, his vote was reckoned only as equal to that of any one +else. It was at this time that Augustus allowed the senate to try the +majority of cases without his being present, and he no longer frequented +the assemblies of the people. Instead, he had the previous year +personally appointed all who were to hold office, because there were +factional outbreaks: this year and those following he merely posted a +kind of bulletin and made known to the plebs and to the people what +persons he favored. Yet he had so much strength for managing hostile +campaigns that he journeyed to Ariminum in order that he might be able to +give from close at hand all necessary advice in regard to the Dalmatians +and Pannonians. Prayers were offered at his departure and sacrifices upon +his return, as if he had come back from some hostile territory. This was +what was done in Rome. + +Meantime Bato the Breucan, who had betrayed Pinnes and received the +governorship of the Breuci as reward for this, was captured by the other +Bato, and perished. The Breucan had been a little suspicious of his +subject tribes and went around to each of the garrisons to demand +hostages: the other, learning of this habit, lay in wait for him, +conquered him in battle, and shut him up within the fortifications. Later +his defeated rival was given up by those in the place, and he took him +and led him before the army, whereupon the man was condemned to death +and sentence executed without delay. After this event numbers of the +Pannonians rose in revolt. Silvanus led a campaign in person, conquered +the Breucans, and won the allegiance of some of the rest without a +struggle. Bato seeing this gave up all hope of Pannonia, but stationed +garrisons at the passes leading to Dalmatia and ravaged the country. +Then the remainder of the Pannonians, especially as their country was +suffering harm from Silvanus, made terms. Only certain nests of brigands, +who in so great a disturbance could naturally do damage for a long time, +held out. Tins practically always happens in the case of all enemies, and +is especially characteristic of the tribes in question. These localities +were reduced by other persons. + + +[Footnote 1: Lat. _custodes vigilum_.] + +[Footnote 2: Cp. Ovid, _Tristia_, IV, 10, vv. 7 and 8.] + +[Footnote 3: See Chapter 2.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare Reifferscheid's _Suetoni Reliquice_, page 136.] + +[Footnote 5: Or _Curatores Viarum_.] + +[Footnote 6: Between this point and ... "to Mars" two leaves are missing +in the codex Marcianus. The gap is filled in the usual makeshift fashion +by Xiphilinus and Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 7: The ancients seem rather uncertain about this personage's +name, for Velleius Paterculus gives _Adduus_, and Florus _Donnes_. The +modern reader may take his choice of the three, and the layman is as +likely to be right as the expert] + +[Footnote 8: Between this point and the words "he both adopted Tiberius," +etc., in chapter 13, two leaves of the codex Marcianus are lacking. +Of the missing portion Xiphilinus and Zonaras supply perhaps +three-sevenths.] + +[Footnote 9: These are the words of Xiphilinus. Zonaras presents an +alternate possibility (X, 36) as follows: "Among the Greeks, Dio says, +the coin called _aureus_ has twenty drachmæ (denarii) as its regular rate +of exchange."] + +[Footnote 10: It seems rather likely that Zonaras has become confused, +and that he should have said "Livia."] + +[Footnote 11: Verb supplied by Xylander.] + +[Footnote 12: Possibly a reference to the opening of Book Fifty-four. +(Boissée.)] + +[Footnote 13: Compare Xenophon, _Cyropædia_, VIII, 4, 5.] + +[Footnote 14: The three words after "kill" are on the basis of a +suggestion made by Boissevain. The MS. has a gap of some fifteen +letters.] + +[Footnote 15: Emendation by Mommsen.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Book Fifty-three, chapter 14.] + +[Footnote 17: His true name was Archelaus.] + +[Footnote 18: Cp. Suetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 23.] + +[Footnote 19: At this point in the codex Marcianus four leaves have been +lost.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +56 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Augustus addressed those having children and afterward the childless +and unmarried, and what rules he laid down to apply to them (chapters +1-10). + +How Quintilius Varus was defeated by the Celtæ and perished (chapters +18-24). + +How the Temple of Concord was consecrated (chapter 25). + +How the Portico of Livia was consecrated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus passed away (chapters 29-47). + +Duration of time, six years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +Q. Sulpicius Q.F. Camerinus, C. Poppæus Q.F. Sabinus. (A.D. 9 = a. u. +762.) + +P. Cornelius P.F. Dolabella, C. Iunius C.F. Silanus. (A.D. 10 = a. u. +763.) + +M. Æmilius Q.F. Lepidus, T. Statilius T.F. Taurus. (A.D. 11 = a. u. 764.) + +Germanicus Cæsaris F. Cæsar, C. Fonteius C.F. Capito. (A.D. 12 = a. u. +765.) + +L. Munatius L.F. Plancus, C. Silius C.F. Cæcina Largus. (A.D. 13 = a. u. +766.) + +Sextus Pompeius Sexti F., Sex. Apuleius Sex. F. (A.D. 14 = a. u. 767.) + + +_( BOOK 56, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 9 (_a. u._ 762)] + +[-1-] Tiberius returned to Rome after the winter when Quintus Sulpicius +and Gaius Sabinus were consuls. Augustus went out into the suburbs to +meet him, accompanied him to the Sæpta, and there from a platform greeted +the people. Next he performed the ceremonies proper on such an occasion +and had the consuls give triumphal spectacles. And since the knights on +this occasion with great vigor sought for the repeal of the law regarding +the unmarried and the childless, he assembled in one place in the Forum +the unmarried men of this number and in another those who were married or +had children. Seeing that the latter were much fewer in number than the +former he was filled with grief and addressed them to the following +effect: + +[-2-] "Though you are but few all together, in comparison with the great +throng that inhabits this city, and are far behind the others, who are +unwilling to fulfill their duties at all, yet for this reason I praise +you the more and I am heartily grateful that you have shown yourselves +obedient and are helping to replenish the fatherland. It is by lives so +conducted that the Romans of later days will become a mighty multitude. +We were at first a mere handful, but when We had recourse to marriage and +begot children we came to surpass all mankind not only in manliness but +in populousness. This we must remember and console the mortal element of +our being with an endless succession of generations like torches. Thus +the one gap which separates us from divine happiness may through relays +of men be filled by immortality. It was for this cause most of all that +that first and greatest god who fashioned us divided the race of mortals +in twain, rendering one half of it male and the other female, and added +love and the compulsion of their intercourse together, making their +association fruitful, that by the young continually born he might in +a way render mortality eternal. Even of the gods themselves some are +believed to be male, the rest female: and the tradition prevails that +some have begotten others and certain ones have been born of others. So, +even among them, who need no such device, marriage and child-begetting +have been approved as noble. [-3-] You have done right, then, to imitate +the gods and right to emulate your fathers, that, just as they begot you, +you may also bring others into the world. Just as you deem them and +name them ancestors, others will regard you and address you in similar +fashion. The undertakings which they nobly achieved and handed down to +you with glory you will hand on to others. The possessions which they +acquired and left to you will leave to others sprung from your own loins. +Surely the best of all things is a woman who is temperate, domestic, +a good house-keeper, a rearer of children; one to gladden you when in +health, to tend you when sick; to be your partner in good fortune, to +console you in misfortune; to restrain the frenzied nature of the youth +and to temper the superannuated severity of the old man. Is it not a +delight to acknowledge a child bearing the nature of both, to nurture and +educate it, a physical image and a spiritual image, so that in its growth +you yourself live again? Is it not most blessed on departing from life to +leave behind a successor to and inheritor of one's substance and family, +something that is one's own, sprung from one's self? And to have only +one's human part waste away, but to live through the child as successor? +We need not be in the hands of aliens, as in war, nor perish utterly, as +in war. These are the private advantages that accrue to those who marry +and beget children: but for the State, for whose sake we ought to do many +things that are even distasteful to us, how excellent and how necessary +it is, if cities and peoples are to exist, if you are to rule others and +others are to obey you, that there should be a multitude of men to till +the earth in peace and quiet, to make voyages, practice arts, follow +handicrafts, men who in war will protect what we already have with the +greater zeal because of family ties and will replace those that fall by +others. Therefore, men,--for you alone may properly be called men,--and +fathers,--for you are worthy to hold this title like myself,--I love you +and I praise you for this, I am glad of the prizes I have already offered +and I will glorify you still more besides by honors and offices. Thus +you may yourselves reap great benefits and leave them to your children +undiminished. I shall now descend to speak to the rest, who have not done +like you, and whose lot will therefore be directly the opposite: you will +thus learn not only from words but by facts even more how far you excel +them." + +[-4-] After this speech he made presents to some of them at once and +promised to make others: he then went over to the other throng, to whom +he addressed these words: + +"A strange experience has been mine, O--What shall I call you?--Men? But +you do not perform the offices of men.--Citizens? But so far as you are +concerned the city is perishing.--Romans? But you are undertaking to do +away with this name.--Well, at any rate, whoever you are and by whatever +name you delight to be called, mine has been an unexpected experience. +For, though I am always doing everything to promote an increase of +population among you and am now about to rebuke you, I grieve to see that +you are numerous. I could rather wish that those others to whom I have +just spoken were so many than to see you as many as you are; or, still +better, to see you mustered with them,--or at least not to know how +things stand. It is you who without pausing to reflect on the foresight +of the gods or the care of your forefathers are bent upon annihilating +your whole race and making it in truth mortal, upon destroying and ending +the whole Roman nation. What seed of human beings would be left, if all +the remainder of mankind should do the same as you? You are their leaders +and may rightly bear the responsibility for universal destruction. Or, +even if no others emulate you, will you not be justly hated for the very +reason that you overlook what no one else would overlook, and neglect +what no one else would neglect? You are introducing customs and +practices, which, if imitated, would lead to the annihilation of all, +and, if hated, would end in your own punishment. We do not spare +murderers because all persons do not murder, nor do we let temple-robbers +go because not everybody robs temples: but anybody who is convicted of +committing any forbidden act is chastised for the very reason that he +alone, or as one of a small group, does such things as no one else would +do. [-5-] Yet if one should name over the greatest offences, there is +none to compare with that which is now being committed by you, and this +statement holds true not only if you examine crime for crime but if you +compare all of them together with this single one of yours. You have +incurred blood guiltiness by not begetting those who ought to be your +descendants; you are sacrilegious in putting an end to the names and +honors of your ancestors; you are impious in abolishing your families, +which were instituted by the gods, and destroying the greatest of +offerings to them,--the human being,--and by overthrowing in this way +their rites and their temples. Moreover, by causing the downfall of the +government you are disobedient to the laws, and you even betray your +country by rendering her barren and childless: nay more, you lay her even +with the dust by making her destitute of inhabitants. A city consists of +human beings, not of houses or porticos or fora empty of men. Think what +rage would justly seize the great Romulus, the founder of our race, if he +could reflect on the circumstances of his own birth, and then upon +your attitude,--refusing to get children even by lawful marriages! How +wrathful would the Romans who were his followers be when they considered +that they themselves even seized foreign girls, but you are not satisfied +with those of your own race. They actually had children even by their +enemies: you will not beget them even of women with undisputed standing +in the State. How incensed would Curtius be, who endured to die that +the married men might not be sundered from their wives: how indignant +Hersilia, the attendant of her daughter, who instituted for us all the +rites of marriage. Our fathers fought the Sabines to obtain marriages and +made peace through the intercession of their wives and children; they +administered oaths and made sundry treaties for this very purpose: you +are bringing all that labor to naught. Why is it? Do you desire to live +forever apart from women, as the vestal virgins live apart from men? +Then you should be punished like them if you break out into any act of +lewdness. + +[-6-] "I know that my words to you appear bitter and harsh. But, first of +all, reflect that physicians, too, treat many patients by burning when +they can not recover health in any other way. In the second place, it is +not my wish or my pleasure to speak them; and hence it is that I have +this further reproach to bring against you, that you have provoked me to +this discourse. If you dislike what I say, do not continue the conduct +for which you are inevitably reprimanded. If my speech wounds any of you, +how much more do your acts wound both me and all the rest of the Romans. +If you vexed in very truth, make a change, that so I may praise and +reward you. You yourselves are aware that I am not irritable by nature +and that I have done, subject to human limitations, all the acts proper +for a good lawgiver. Never in old times was any one permitted to neglect +marriage and the rearing of children, but from the very outset, at the +first establishment of the government, strict laws were passed regarding +them: since then many decrees have been issued by both the senate and the +people, which it would be superfluous to enumerate. I have increased the +penalties for the disobedient in order that through fear of becoming +liable to them you may be brought to your senses. To those that obey I +have offered more numerous and greater prizes than are given for any +other display of excellence, that if for no other reason at least by +this one you may be persuaded to marry and beget children. Yet you, not +striving for any of the recompenses nor fearing any of the penalties, +have despised all these measures, have trodden them all under foot, as +if you were not even inhabitants of the city. You declare you have taken +upon yourselves this free and continent life, without wives and without +children. You are no different from robbers or the most savage [-7-] +beasts. It is not your delight in a solitary existence that leads you +to live without wives. There is not one of you who either eats alone +or sleeps alone, but you want to have opportunity for wantonness and +licentiousness. Yet I have allowed you to court girls still tender and +not yet of age for marriage, in order that having the name of intendant +bridegrooms you may lead a domestic life. And those not in the senatorial +class I have permitted to wed freedwomen, so that if any one through +passion or some inclination should be disposed to such a proceeding he +might go about it lawfully. I have not limited you rigidly to this, even, +but at first gave you three whole years in which to make preparations, +and later two. Yet not even so, by threatening or urging or postponing or +entreating, have I accomplished anything. You see for yourselves how much +larger a mass you constitute than the married men, when you ought by this +time to have furnished us with as many more children, or rather with +several times your number. How otherwise shall families continue? How can +the commonwealth be preserved if we neither marry nor produce children? +Surely you are not expecting some to spring up from the earth to succeed +to your goods and to public affairs, as myths describe. It is neither +pleasing to Heaven nor creditable that our race should cease and the +name of Romans meet extinguishment in us, and the city be given up to +foreigners,--Greek or even barbarians. We liberate slaves chiefly for the +purpose of making out of them as many citizens as possible; we give our +allies a share in the government that our numbers may increase: yet you, +Romans of the original stock, including Quintii, Valerii, Iulli, are +eager that your families and names at once shall perish with you. + +[-8-] "I am thoroughly ashamed that I have been led to speak in such a +fashion. Have done with your madness, then, and reflect now if not before +that with many dying all the time by disease and many in the wars it is +impossible for the city to maintain itself unless the multitude in it is +constantly reinforced by those who are ever and anon being born. Let no +one of you think that I am ignorant of the many disagreeable and painful +features that belong to marriage and child-rearing. But bear in mind that +we possess nothing at all good with which some bane is not mingled, and +that in our most abundant and greatest blessings there reside the most +abundant and greatest woes. If you decline to accept the latter, do +not strive to obtain the former. Practically all who possess any real +excellence and pleasure are obliged to work before its enjoyment, to work +at the time, and to work afterward. Why should I lengthen my speech by +going into each one of them in detail? Therefore even if there are +some unpleasant features connected with marriage and the begetting of +children, set over against them the better elements: you will find them +more numerous and more vital. For, in addition to all the other blessings +that naturally inhere in this state of life, the prizes offered by +law--an infinitesimal portion of which determines many to undergo +death--might induce anybody to obey me. And is it not a disgrace that for +rewards which influence others to give up their own lives you should be +unwilling either to marry wives or to rear children? + +[-9-] "Therefore, fellow-citizens (for I believe that I have now +persuaded you both to hold fast to the name of citizens and to secure the +additional title of men and fathers), I have administered this rebuke +reluctantly but of necessity, not as your foe nor as one hating you, but +rather loving you and wishing to obtain many others like you,--as one +wishing you to guard lawful hearths, with houses full of descendants, +that we may approach the gods together with wives and children, and +associate with one another standing on an equality in whatever we possess +and harvesting equally the hopes to which it gives rise. How could I +call myself a good ruler over you if I should endure seeing you becoming +constantly fewer? How could I any longer be rightfully named your father, +if you rear no children? Therefore, if you really have a regard for me +and have given me this title not out of flattery but as an honor, desire +yourselves to become men and fathers. Thus you may yourselves share this +title and also render me well named." + +[-10-] Such were his words to both groups at that time. After this he +increased the rewards for those having children and by penalties made a +still wider difference between the married and those without wives. He +further allowed each of them a year in which persons who obeyed him might +render themselves non-liable by yielding obedience. Contrary to the +Voconian Law, according to which no woman could inherit any property +over two and a half myriads in value, he gave women permission to become +inheritors of any amount. He also granted the vestal virgins all the +benefits enjoyed by women who had children. Later the Pappian and Poppæan +Law was framed by Marcus Pappius Mutilus and by Quintus Poppæus Secundus, +who were then consuls for a portion of the year. It turned out that both +of them had not only no children but not even wives. From this very fact +the need of the law was discernible.--These were the events in Rome. + +[-11-] Germanicus meanwhile had captured among other posts in Dalmatia +also Splonum, in spite of the fact that it occupied a naturally strong +position, was well protected by walls, and had a huge number of +defenders. Consequently he was unable to accomplish aught with engines +or by assaults, yet he took it as a result of the following coincidence. +Pusio, a Celtic horseman, discharged a stone against the wall which so +shook the superstructure that it immediately fell and dragged down the +man who was leaning upon it. At this the rest were terrified, and in fear +left the wall to ascend the acropolis. Subsequently they surrendered both +it and themselves. + +The Romans under Germanicus having reached Rætinium, a city of Dalmatia, +fared rather badly. Their opponents, forced back by the numbers, could +not resist them and therefore placed fire in a circle about themselves +and threw it into the buildings near by, devising a way to keep it surely +from blazing up at once and to make it go unnoticed for a long time. The +enemy after doing this retired to the heights. The Romans, unaware of +their action, followed hard after them expecting to find no work at all +in pillaging extensively. Thus they got inside of the circle of fire and +with their minds directed upon the enemy saw nothing of it until they +were encompassed by it on all sides. Then they found themselves in +imminent danger, being pelted by men from above and injured by fire from +without. They could neither safely stay where they were nor break their +way out without danger. If they stood out of range of the missiles they +were consumed by the fire, or if they jumped away from the flame they +were destroyed by the hurlers of missiles. Some were caught in narrow +places and perished by both at once, wounded on one side and burned on +the other. The majority of those who entered the circle met their fate in +this way. Some few by casting corpses into the very flame and making a +passage over them as over bridges managed to escape. The fire gained +such headway that not even those on the acropolis could stay there, but +abandoned it in the night and hid themselves in subterranean chambers. + +[-12-] These were the operations at that point.--Seretium, which Tiberius +had once besieged but not captured, was subdued, and after this some +other towns were more easily won. But since the remainder even under +these conditions offered resistance and the war kept lengthening out and +famine came in its train, especially in Italy, Augustus sent Tiberius +again into Dalmatia. He saw that the soldiers were not for enduring +further delay and were anxious to end the war in some way eyen if it +involved danger; therefore, fearing that if they remained in one place +together they might revolt, he divided them into three parts. One he +assigned to Silvanus and one to Marcus Lepidus; with the remainder he +marched with Germanicus against Bato. Without difficulty the two former +overcame those arrayed in battle opposite them. Tiberius himself went +wandering off through practically the entire country, as Bato appeared +first at one point and then at another: finally, Bato took refuge in Fort +Andetrium, located close to Salonæ, and Tiberius, who besieged him, +found himself in sore straits. The garrison had the protection of +fortifications built upon a well guarded rock, difficult of access, +encircled by deep ravines through which torrents roared, and the men had +all necessary provisions, part of which they had previously stored there, +while a part they were still bringing from the mountains, which were +in their hands. Moreover, by ambuscades they interfered with the Roman +provision trains. Hence Tiberius, though supposed to be besieging them, +was himself placed in the position of a besieged force. + +[-13-] He was in a dilemma and could not find any plan to pursue: +the siege was proving fruitless and dangerous and a retreat appeared +disgraceful. This led to an uproar on the part of the soldiers, who +raised so great an outcry that the enemy, who were encamped in the +shelter of the wall, were terrified and retreated. As a consequence, +being partly angry and partly pleased, he called them together and +administered some rebukes and some admonition. He displayed no rashness +nor yet did he withdraw, but remained quietly on the spot until Bato, +despairing of victory, sent a herald to ask terms. This act was due to +the subjugation of all but a few of the other tribes and the fact that +the force which Bato had was inferior to the one then opposing it. He +could not persuade the rest to ask a truce and so abandoned them, nor did +he again assist one of them, though he received many requests for aid. +Tiberius consequently conceived a contempt for those still left in the +fortress and thinking that he could conquer them without loss paid no +further heed to the nature of the country but proceeded straight up the +cliff. Since there was no level ground and the enemy would not come down +against them, he himself took his seat on a platform in full view in +order to watch the engagement (for this would cause his soldiers to +contend more vigorously), and to render opportune assistance, should +there be any need of it. He kept a part of the army, inasmuch as he had a +great plenty of men, for this very purpose. The rest, drawn up in a dense +square, at first proceeded at a walk; later they were separated by the +steepness and unevenness of the mountain (which was full of gullies and +at many points cut up into ravines), and some ascended more quickly, +others more slowly. [-14-] Seeing this, the Dalmatians marshaled outside +the wall, at the top of the steep, and hurled down quantities of stones +upon them, throwing some from slings, and rolling down others. Others +set in motion wheels, others whole wagons full of rocks, others circular +chests manufactured in some way peculiar to the country and packed with +stones. All these things coming down with great noise kept striking in +different quarters, as if discharged from a sling, and separated the +Romans from one another even more than before and crushed them. Others by +discharging either missiles or spears knocked many of them down. At this +juncture much rivalry developed on the part of the warriors, one side +endeavoring to ascend and conquer the heights, the other to repulse them +and hurl them back. There was great excitement also on the part of the +rest, who watched the action from the walls, and on the part of those +about Tiberius. Each side as a body and also individually encouraged its +own men, trying to lend strength to such as showed zeal and chiding those +that anywhere gave way. Those whose voices could be heard above the rest +were invoking the gods, both parties praying for the protection of +their warriors for the time being, and one side calling for freedom +for themselves in the future, and the other for peace. Under these +circumstances the Romans would certainly have risked their lives in vain, +having to contend against two things at once,--the nature of the +country and the lines of their antagonists,--had not Tiberius by sudden +reinforcements prevented them from taking to flight and disturbed the +enemy from another quarter by means of other soldiers who went about and +ascended the incline a considerable distance off. As a result, the enemy +were routed and could not even enter the fortifications, but scattered +up the mountain sides, first casting off their armor so as to be lightly +equipped. Their pursuers followed them at every point, for they were +exceedingly anxious to end the war and did not want them to unite again +and cause trouble. So they discovered the most of them hiding in the +forests and killed them like beasts, after which they took possession +of the men in the fort, who capitulated. To these Tiberius assured the +rights which had been agreed upon and some others. + +[-15-] Germanicus now turned to meet his adversaries, for many deserters +who were in their ranks prevented a peaceful settlement. He succeeded in +enslaving a place called Arduba, but could not do it with his own force, +though the latter was far greater than his opponents' army. The town had +been powerfully strengthened and a river with a strong current surrounded +its foundations except for a small space. But the deserters had a dispute +with the inhabitants, because the latter were anxious for peace, and came +to blows with them. The assailants had the coöperation of the women in +the town, for these contrary to the judgment of the men desired liberty, +and were ready to suffer any fate whatever sooner than slavery: there was +consequently a great battle, the deserters were beaten and surrendered, +and some of them made their escape. The women caught up their children, +and some threw themselves into the fire, others hurled themselves down +into the river. In this way that post was taken and others near it +voluntarily came to an understanding with Germanicus. He, after effecting +this, went back to Tiberius, and Postumius[1] completed the subjugation +of the remaining sections. [-16-] Upon this, Bato sent his son Sceuas +to Tiberius, promising to surrender himself and all his followers if he +could obtain protection. When he had received a pledge he came by night +into his conqueror's camp and was on the following day led before the +latter who was seated on a platform. Bato asked nothing for himself, even +holding his head forward to await the stroke, but in behalf of the rest +he made a long defence. Being again asked by Tiberius: "Why has it +pleased you to revolt and to war against us so long a time?" he made the +same answer as before: "You are responsible for this; for you send as +guardians over your flocks not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." + +In this way, then, the war was ended once more, after many men and much +money had been consumed. The legions supported for it were very numerous, +whereas the spoils taken were exceedingly meagre. [-17-] On this occasion +also Germanicus announced the victory, in honor of which Augustus and +Tiberius were allowed to bear the name imperator and to celebrate a +triumph; and they received still other honors, as well as two arches +bearing trophies, in Pannonia. These, at least, were all of many +distinctions voted that Augustus would accept. Germanicus received +triumphal honors (which belonged likewise to the other commanders) and +prætorial honors, the right of casting his vote immediately after the +ex-consuls and of obtaining the consulship earlier than custom allowed. +Drusus, the son of Tiberius, although he had not participated in the +war, was voted permission to attend the sittings of the senate before he +became a member of that body, and when he should become quæstor to cast +his vote before the exprætors. + +[-18-] Scarcely had these resolutions been passed when terrible news that +arrived from Germany prevented them from holding any festivals. At that +same period the following events had taken place in Celtica. The Romans +had a hold on parts of it,--not the whole region, but just places +that happened to have been subdued, so that the fact has not received +historical notice,--and soldiers of theirs were used to wintering there +and cities were being founded. The barbarians were adapting themselves +to Roman ways, were taking up the custom of markets, and were holding +peaceful meetings. They had not, however, forgotten their ancestral +habits, their native manners, the life of independence, or the authority +given by arms. Hence, while they were unlearning them gradually and +imperceptibly, with careful watching, they were not disturbed by the +changed conditions of existence, and they were becoming different without +knowing it. Finally, Quintilius Varus received the command of Germany and +in the discharge of his office strove, in administering the affairs of +the people, to introduce more widespread changes among them. He treated +them in general as if they were already slaves, levying money upon them +as he had upon subject nations. This they were not inclined to endure, +for the prominent men longed for their former ascendency and the masses +preferred their accustomed constitution to foreign domination. They did +not openly revolt, since they saw there were many Roman soldiers near +the Rhine and many in their own territory; but they received Varus, +pretending they would execute all his commands, and took him far away +from the Rhine into Cheruscis near the Visurgis. There by behaving in a +most peaceful and friendly manner they led him to believe that they could +be trusted to live submissively without soldiers. [-19-] Consequently he +did not keep his legions together as was proper in an enemy's country, +and many of the men he distributed to helpless communities who asked it, +for the supposed purpose of guarding certain localities, or arresting +robbers, or escorting provision trains. Those deepest in the conspiracy +and the leaders of the plot and of the war, among others Armenius and +Segimerus, were his constant companions and often entertained him. He, +accordingly, became confident and expecting no harm not only refused to +believe all such as suspected the truth and advised him to be on his +guard, but even rebuked them on the ground that they were needlessly +disturbed and slandered his friends. Then there came an uprising, first +of those dwelling at a distance from him, purposely contrived, that Varus +should march against them and be easier overcome while on his journey +through what he deemed a friendly country, and that he might not at once +know that all were his enemies and guard himself against all of them. It +turned out precisely so. They escorted him on his setting out, and begged +to be excused from attendance[2] in order to gather auxiliaries (as they +said), after which they would quickly come to his assistance. So then +they took charge of forces already in waiting, and after killing the +different bodies of soldiers for whom they had previously asked they +encountered him in the midst of forests by this time hard to traverse. +There they showed themselves as enemies instead of subjects and wrought +many deeds of fearful injury. [-20-] The mountains had an uneven surface +broken by ravines, and the trees, standing close together, were extremely +tall. Hence the Romans even before the enemy assaulted them were having +hard work in felling, road making, and bridging places that required it. +They had with them many wagons and many beasts of burden as in a time of +peace. Not a few children and women and a large body of servants were +following them,--another reason for their advancing in scattered groups. +Meanwhile a great rain and wind came up that separated them still +farther, while the ground, being slippery where there were roots and +logs, made walking very difficult for them, and the top branches of +trees, which kept breaking off and falling down, caused confusion. While +the Romans were in such perplexity as this the barbarians suddenly +encompassed them from all sides at once, coming through the thickest part +of the underbrush, since they were acquainted with the paths. At first +they hurled from a distance; then as no one defended himself but many +were wounded, they approached closer to them. The Romans were in no order +but going along helter-skelter among the wagons and the unarmed, and so, +not being able to form readily in a body, and being fewer at every point +than their assailants, they suffered greatly and offered no resistance +at all. [-21-] Accordingly, they encamped on the spot, after securing +a suitable place so far as that was possible on a wooded mountain, and +afterward they either burned or abandoned the majority of their wagons +and everything else that was not absolutely necessary for them. The next +day they advanced in better order, with the aim of reaching open country; +but they did not gain it without loss. From there they went forward and +plunged into the woods again, defending themselves against the attacks, +but endured no inconsiderable reverses in this very operation. For +whereas they were marshaled in a narrow place in order that cavalry +and heavy-armed men in a mass might run down their foes, they had many +collisions with one another and with the trees. Dawn of the fourth day +broke as they were advancing and again a violent downpour and mighty wind +attacked them, which would not allow them to go forward or even to stand +securely, and actually deprived them of the use of their weapons. They +could not manage successfully their arrows or their javelins or, indeed, +their shields (which were soaked through). The enemy, however, being for +the most part lightly equipped and with power to approach and retire +freely, suffered less from the effects of the storm. _Their_ numbers, +moreover, increased, as numbers of those who had at first wavered joined +them particularly for the sake of plunder, and so they could more easily +encircle and strike down the Romans, who were already few, many having +perished in the previous battles. Varus, therefore, and the most eminent +of the other leaders, fearing that they might either be taken alive or be +killed by their bitterest foes,--for they had been wounded,--dared do a +deed which was frightful but not to be avoided: they killed themselves. + +[-22-] When this news was spread, none of the rest, even if he had +strength still left, defended himself longer. Some imitated their leader; +others, throwing aside their arms, allowed who pleased to slay them. To +flee was impossible, however one might wish it. Every man and horse, +therefore, was cut down without resistance, and the[3] ... + + And the barbarians occupied all the strongholds save one, delay over + which prevented them from either crossing the Rhine or invading Gaul. + Yet they found themselves unable to reduce this particular fort because + they did not understand the conduct of sieges and because the Romans + employed numerous archers, who repeatedly repulsed them and from + first to last destroyed a large proportion of the attacking party. + + Later they learned that the Romans had posted a guard at the Rhine + and that Tiberius was approaching with an imposing force of fighters. + Therefore most of the barbarians retired from the fortress, and the + detachment still left there withdrew some distance away, so as not to + be damaged by sudden sallies of the men inside; and they kept watch + of the roads, hoping to capture the garrison through scarcity of food + supplies. The Romans within, so long as they had abundance of sustenance, + remained where they were awaiting relief. But when no one + came to their assistance and they were likewise a prey to hunger, they + watched for a stormy night and issued forth--the soldiers were but + fed, the unarmed many,--and + +they passed the first and second guard of their adversaries, but when +they reached the third they were detected; for on account of fatigue and +fear, and the darkness and cold, the women and children kept calling to +the men of fighting age to come back. They would all have perished or +been captured, had not the barbarians been so busily occupied with +seizing the plunder. This gave an opportunity for many of the most hardy +to get some distance off, and the trumpeters with them by sounding the +signal for a double quick march caused the enemy to think (for night +was coming on and they could not be seen) that they had been sent from +Asprenas. Therefore the foe ceased their pursuit, and Asprenas on +learning what was taking place rendered them assistance in reality. Some +of the captives were later ransomed by their relatives and returned, +for this was permitted on condition that the ransoming party should be +outside of Italy at the time.--But this was only afterward. [-23-] At the +time, when Augustus heard of the disaster to Varus, he rent his clothing +(as some assert) and mourned greatly over the lost soldiers as also over +the fear inspired by the Germans and the Gauls. His grief was especially +keen because he expected that they would march upon Italy and upon Rome +itself. There were no citizens of military age worth mentioning that +were left and the allied forces that were of any value had been ruined. +Nevertheless he made preparations as well as he could in view of the +circumstances: and when no one of the proper age for warfare showed a +willingness to be enrolled, he instituted a drawing of lots and deprived +of his property every fifth man to draw of those not yet thirty-five +years old and every tenth man among those who were older, besides +disenfranchising them. Finally, as very many paid no heed to him even +then, he put some to death. He chose by lot as many as he could of those +who had already finished their service and of the freedmen, and having +enrolled them sent them at once in haste with Tiberius into Germany. And +as there were in Rome a number of Gauls and Celtæ, sojourning there for +various purposes, and some of them serving in the pretorian guard, he +feared that they might commit some act of insurrection: therefore he sent +such as were in his guard off to the islands and ordered the unarmed +class to leave the city. + +[-24-] This was the way be busied himself at that time, and none of the +usual business went on nor were the festivals celebrated. After this, +when he heard that some of the soldiers had been saved, that the +Germanies were garrisoned and the enemy did not dare to come down even to +the Rhine, he ceased to be excited and stopped to consider the matter. +A catastrophe so great and prostrating as this, it seemed to him, could +have been due to nothing else than the wrath of some Divinity: moreover, +by reason of the portents which took place both before the defeat and +afterward he was greatly inclined to suspect some miraculous working. The +temple of Mars in the field of the same name had been struck by lightning +and many locusts that flew into the very city were devoured by swallows; +the peaks of the Alps seemed to totter toward one another and to send up +three fiery columns; the sky in many places appeared ablaze and at the +same time numerous comet stars came to view; spears darting from the +north seemed to be falling upon the Roman camp; bees formed their combs +about Roman altars; a statue of Victory which was in Germany, facing +hostile territory, turned about toward Italy; and once an aimless battle +and conflict of the soldiers occurred about the eagles in the camps, as +if the barbarians had fallen upon them. + +For these reasons, then, and also because ... [4] + + [A.D. 10 (_a. u._ 763)] + + Tiberius did not see fit to cross the Rhine, but kept quiet, watching + to see that the barbarians should not do so. The latter, however, + knowing him to be present, did not venture to cross either. + + Germanicus was endeared to the populace for many causes, but particularly + because he interceded for various persons, and this quite as + much in the presence of Augustus himself as before other justices. Now + there was a court to try a quæstor who was charged with murder, + and, as Germanicus was going to be his advocate, his accuser became + alarmed lest he might consequently meet with defeat before those + judges in whose presence such cases were wont to be tried, and he + desired to have Augustus preside. Yet his efforts were vain, for he + did not win his case. + + ... holding [it] after his prætorship. + +[A.D. 11 (_a. u._ 764)] + +[-25-]But in the following season the temple of Concord was dedicated by +Tiberius and both his name and that of Drusus, his dead brother, were +inscribed upon it. In the consulship of Marcus Æmilius with Statilius +Taurus Tiberius and Germanicus acting as proconsul invaded Celtica and +overran some parts of it. They did not conquer, however, in any battle +(since no one came to close quarters with them), and did not reduce +any tribe. For in their fear of falling victims to a new disaster they +advanced not far beyond the Rhine, but after remaining there until late +autumn and celebrating the birthday of Augustus, on which they held a +kind of horse-race under the direction of the centurions, they returned. + +At Rome Drusus Cæsar, the son of Tiberius, became quæstor, and sixteen +prætors held office because that number became candidates for the +position and Augustus, mindful of his condition, was unwilling to +offend any of them. The same did not hold true, however, of the years +immediately following, but the number remained twelve for a long period. +Besides these proceedings the seers were forbidden to prophesy in private +to any one, or regarding death even if there should be others with +them. Yet in this matter Augustus had no personal feeling, so that by a +bulletin he even published to all the conjunction of stars under which +he had been born. In addition to forbidding the above he proclaimed to +subject states that they should grant no honors to any one assigned to +govern them either during his term of office or within sixty days after +he had departed. For some governors by arranging for testimonials and +eulogies from their subjects were doing much harm. Three senators, as +before, transacted business with the embassies, and the knights,--a fact +which might cause surprise,--were allowed to fight as gladiators. The +reason was that some persisted in disregarding the disenfranchisement +stated as a penalty for such conduct. And as there proved to be no use in +forbidding it and the participants seemed to require a greater punishment +before they would be turned aside from this course, they were given +permission to do as they liked. In this way they incurred death instead +of disenfranchisement, for they fought more than ever, and especially +because their contests were centers of attraction, so that even Augustus +became a spectator in company with the prætors who superintended games. + +[A.D. 12 (_a. u._ 765)] + +[-26-] Germanicus soon after received the office of consul, though he had +not even been prætor, and held it actually throughout the whole year, not +because of fitness but as a number of others held office at that time. +The consul did nothing worthy of note save that at this time, too, he +acted as advocate in suits, since his colleague Gaius Capito counted as +a mere figurehead. Augustus, because he was growing old, wrote a letter +commending Germanicus to the senate and the latter to Tiberius: the +manuscript was not read by him in person, for he was unable to make +himself heard, but by Germanicus, as usual. After that he asked them, +making the Celtic war his excuse, not to come to greet him at home nor to +be angry if he did not continue to eat with them. For generally, as often +as they had a sitting, in the Forum and sometimes in the senate-house +itself, they saluted him when he entered and again when he left; and it +had already happened that, when he was sitting and sometimes lying down +in the Palatium, not only the senate but the knights and many of the +populace greeted him. [-27-] All this time he continued to attend to his +business as before. He allowed the knights to become candidates for the +tribuneship. And learning that vituperative books concerning certain men +were being written, he ordered a search for them. Those that he found in +the city he had burned by the ædiles and those outside by the officials +who might be in charge, and he visited punishment upon some of the +composers. As there were many exiles who were either carrying on their +occupations outsides of the places to which they had been banished or +living too luxuriously in the proper places, he forbade that any one who +had been debarred from fire and water should stay either on the mainland +or on any of the islands distant less than four hundred stadia from the +mainland. Only he made an exception of Cos, Rhodes, Samos[5], and Lesbos, +for what reason I know not. He enjoined upon them also that they should +not cross the seas to any other point and should not possess more than +one ship of burden having a capacity of one thousand amphoræ, and two +driven by oars; that they should not employ more than twenty slaves or +freedmen; that they should not hold property above twelve and a half +myriads; and he threatened to take vengeance upon them for any violation +as well as upon all others who should in any way assist them in violating +these ordinances. These are the laws, as fully as is necessary for our +history, that he laid down. + +A festival extraordinary was conducted by the dancers and horse-breeders. +The Feast of Mars, because the Tiber had previously occupied the +hipprodrome, was this time held in the forum of Augustus and honored by a +kind of horse-race and by the slaughter of wild beasts. It was celebrated +a second time, as custom decreed, and Germanicus on that occasion killed +two hundred lions in the hippodrome. The so-called portico of Julia was +built in honor of Gaius and Lucius, the Cæsars, and was at that time +dedicated. + +[A.D. 13 (_a. u._ 766)] + +[-28-] When Lucius Munatius and Gaius Silius had been registered as +consuls Augustus reluctantly accepted the fifth decennial presidency of +the State and gave Tiberius again the tribunician authority. To Drusus, +the latter's son, he granted permission to stand for the consulship a +third year, still without having held the prætorship; and for himself +he asked twenty annual counselors because of his old age, which did not +permit him to visit the senate any longer save rarely. Previously fifteen +were attached to him for six months. It was further voted that any +measure should have authority, as satisfactory to the whole senate, which +should after deliberation be resolved upon by him in conjunction with +Tiberius and with the consuls of the year, with the men appointed for +deliberation and his grandchildren (the adopted ones, of course) and the +others that he might on any occasion call upon for advice. Gaining by the +decree those powers (which in reality he had in any case) he transacted +most of the is necessary business, though sometimes lying down. Now +as nearly all felt oppressed by the five per cent tax and a political +convulsion seemed likely, he sent document to the senate bidding its +members seek some other means of income. This he did not in the intention +of abolishing the tax but in order that when no other appeared to them +preferable they might though reluctantly ratify it without declaiming +against him He also ordered Germanicus and Drusus not to make any +official statement about it, for fear that if they expressed an opinion +persons would suspect that this had been done by his orders and choose +that plan without further investigation. There was much discussion and +some schemes were submitted to Augustus in writing. When he found by them +that the senators were ready to endure any form of tax rather than that +in force, he changed it to a levy upon fields and houses. And without +telling how great it would be or in what way imposed, he immediately sent +men in different directions to make a list of the possessions both of +individuals and of towns. His object was that they should fear losses on +a large scale and so be content to pay the five per cent. This actually +happened, and so it was that Augustus settled the difficulty. + +[-29-] At the spectacle of the Augustalia [6] which occurred on his +birthday a madman seated himself in the chair which was dedicated to +Julius Cæsar, and taking his crown put it on. This happening disturbed +everybody, for it seemed to have some bearing upon Augustus, as, indeed, +proved true. + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +For the following year, when Sextus Apuleius and Sextus Pompeius were +consuls, Augustus set out for Campania and after superintending the games +at Naples soon passed away in Nola. Omens had appeared to him, not few by +any means nor difficult to interpret, that pointed to this end. The sun +suffered a total eclipse and most of the sky seemed to be on fire. The +forms of glowing logs appeared falling from it and bloody comet stars +were seen. When a senate-meeting had been announced on account of his +sickness in order that they might offer prayers, the senate-house was +found closed and an owl sitting upon it hooted. A thunderbolt fell upon +his image standing on the Capitol and erased the first letter of the name +of Cæsar. This led the seers to declare that on the hundredth day +after that he should attain to some heavenly condition. They made this +deduction from the fact that the letter mentioned signifies "hundred" +among the Latins and all the rest of the name means "god" among the +Etruscans. These signs appeared while he was still alive. Men of later +times called attention to the case of the consuls and of Servius +Sulpicius Galba. The former officials were in some way related to +Augustus, and Galba, who afterward came to power, was at this time on the +very first day of the year enrolled among the iuvenes. Since he was the +first of the Romans to become sovereign after the race of Augustus had +passed away, it gave occasion to some to say that this coincidence had +not been due to mere accident, but had been brought about by some divine +counsel. + +[-30-] So Augustus fell sick and died. Livia incurred some suspicion +regarding the manner of his death, inasmuch as he had secretly sailed +over to the island to meet Agrippa and thought to reconcile everything in +a way satisfactory to all. She was afraid, some say, that Augustus would +bring him back to make him sovereign, and so smeared with poison some +figs that were still on trees from which Augustus was wont to gather +fruit with his own hands. So she ate the ones that had not been smeared, +and pointed out the poisoned ones to him. From this or from some other +cause he became ill and sending for his associates he told them all his +wishes, finally adding: "Rome was clay when I took it in hand: I leave it +to you stone." In this he had reference not entirely to the appearance +of its buildings, but also to the strength of the empire. By asking +some applause from them as to comic actors at the close of some mime he +ridiculed most tellingly the whole life of man. + +Thus on the nineteenth day of August, the day on which he first became +consul, he passed away, having lived seventy-five years, ten months, and +twenty-six days. He had been born on the twenty-third of September. He +reigned as monarch, from the time he conquered at Actium, forty-four +years lacking thirteen days. [-31-] His death, however, was not +immediately made public. Livia, fearing that as Tiberius was still in +Dalmatia there might be some uprising, concealed the fact until the +latter arrived. This is the statement made in the larger number of +histories and the more trustworthy ones. There are some who have affirmed +that Tiberius was present during the emperor's illness and received some +injunctions from him.--The body of Augustus was carried from Nola by +the foremost men of each city in succession. When it came near Rome the +knights took it in charge and conveyed it by night into the city. On the +following day there was a senate-meeting, and to it the majority came +wearing the equestrian costume, but the officials the senatorial, except +for the purple-bordered togas. Tiberius and Drusus his son wore dark +clothing made in everyday fashion. They, too, offered incense but made +no use of a flute player. Most of the members sat in their accustomed +places, but the consuls below, one on the prætors' bench and one on +the tribunes'. After this Tiberius was absolved for having touched +the corpse,--a forbidden act,--and for having escorted it on its way, +although the ... + +[-32-] + + ... his will Drusus took from the virgin priestesses of Vesta, with + whom it had been deposited, and carried it into the senate. Those who + had sealed it viewed the impressions, and then it was read in hearing + of the senate. + + ... one Polybius of Cæsar's household read his will, as it was not proper +for a senator to read anything of the sort. It showed that two-thirds +of the inheritance had been left to Tiberius and the rest to Livia,--at +least this is one report. In order that she, too, might have the benefit +of his property he had asked permission of the senate to leave her +so much, since it was contrary to law. These two were mentioned as +inheritors. He ordered many objects and sums of money to be given to many +different persons, both relatives of his and those joined by no ties of +kindred, not only to senators and knights but also to kings; for the +people there were a thousand myriads and for the soldiers two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece to the Pretorians, half that amount to the city +force, and to the remainder of the native soldiery seventy-five each. +Moreover, in the case of children, of whose fathers he had been the heir +while they were still small, he enjoined that everything, together with +income, should be given back to them when they became men: this was, +indeed his custom while in life. Whenever he inherited the estate of any +one who had offspring, he never neglected to give it all to the man's +children, immediately if they were already adults, and later if it were +otherwise. Though he took such an attitude toward other people's children +he did not restore his daughter from exile, though he deemed her worthy +of gifts; and he forbade her being buried in his own tomb.--So much was +learned from the will. + +[-33-] Four books were then brought in and Drusus read them. In the first +were written details pertaining to his funeral; in the second all the +works which he had done, which he commanded to be inscribed aloft upon +bronze columns to be set around his heroum; the third contained +an account of military matters, of the revenues and of the public +expenditures, the amount of money in the treasuries, and everything else +of the sort having a bearing upon the administration; and the fourth had +injunctions and orders for Tiberius and for the public. Among these last +was a command that they should not liberate many slaves and should thus +avoid filing the city with a variegated rabble. He also exhorted them +not to enroll large numbers as citizens, in order that there might be a +distinct difference between themselves and subject nations; to deliver +the control of public business to all who had ability both to understand +and to act, and never to let it depend on any one person; in this way no +one would set his mind on a tyranny nor would the State go to pieces if +one fell. He advised them to be satisfied with present possessions +and under no conditions to wish to increase the empire to any greater +dimensions. It would be hard to guard, he said, and this would lead to +danger of their losing what was already theirs. This principle he had +himself really always followed not only in speech but also in action. +For, whereas he might have made great acquisitions of barbarian +territory, he had not wished to do so.--These were his injunctions. + +[-34-] Then came his funeral. There was a couch made of ivory and gold +and adorned with robes of purple mixed with gold. In it his body was +hidden, in a kind of box down below: a wax image of him in triumphal +garb was displayed. This one was borne from the Palatium by the officials +for the following year, and another of gold from the senate-house, and +still another upon a triumphal chariot. Behind these came the images of +his ancestors and of his deceased relatives (except of Cæsar, because he +had been enrolled among the heroes), and those of other Romans who had +been prominent in any way, beginning with Romulus himself. An image of +Pompey the Great was also seen, and all the nations he had acquired, each +represented by a likeness which bore some local characteristic, were +carried in procession. After these followed all the remaining objects +mentioned above. When the couch had been placed in view upon the orators' +platform, Drusus read something from that place: and from the other, the +rostra of the Julian shrine, Tiberius delivered the following public +oration over the deceased, according to a decree:-- + +[-35-] "What needed to be said privately by relatives over the divine +Augustus Drusus has spoken. But since the senate has wisely deemed him +worthy of some kind of public utterance, I know that the speech was +fittingly entrusted to me. To whom more justly than to me, his child and +successor, could be the task of praising him be confided? It is not my +privilege, however, to be gladdened by the thought that my ability must +prove no whit inferior to your desires in the matter and to his worth. +Indeed, if I were to speak among strangers, I should be greatly alarmed +lest in following my speech they should believe his deeds to be no better +than I describe them. As it is, I am encouraged by the thought that my +words will be directed to you who know all of them thoroughly, have +experienced them all, and for that reason have deemed him worthy of these +very praises. You will judge of his excellence not from what I may say +but from what you yourselves know, and you will assist my discourse, +making good what is deficient by your memory of events. So that in this +way his eulogy will become a public one, given by all, as I, like the +head of some chorus, indicate the chief points and you come in with the +remainder of the refrain. I am certainly not afraid that you will hold me +guilty of weakness because I am unable to meet your desires nor that you +will be jealous to see his excellence going beyond your reach. Who does +not understand the fact that not all mankind assembled in one place could +worthily sound his praises? And you all voluntarily make way for him to +triumph, not envious to think that not one of you could equal him, but +rejoicing in his surpassing greatness. The greater he looms up before +you, the more greatly will you feel yourselves benefited, so that envy +will not be bred in you by your inferiority to him but awe from the +advantages you have received at his hands. + +[-36-] "I shall begin at the point where he also began to enter politics, +that is, from his earliest manhood. This, indeed, is one of the greatest +achievements of Augustus,--that when he had just emerged from boyhood and +was entering upon the state of youth, he paid attention to education +so long as public affairs were well managed by the famous Cæsar, the +demi-god: when after the conspiracy against the latter the whole +commonwealth was thrown into confusion, he at the same time amply avenged +his father and rendered a much needed aid to you, not fearing the +multitude of his enemies nor dreading the greatness of the business nor +hesitating through his own immaturity. Yet what deed like this can be +cited of Alexander of Macedon or our Romulus, who have the reputation of +having done something brilliant when very young? But these I shall pass +over, lest from merely comparing them with him and bringing them up,--and +that among you who are acquainted with him no less than I,--I may be +thought to be diminishing the greatness of Augustus. If I am to do this +sort of thing, I should be justified only if I looked at his deeds beside +those of Hercules: yet even then I should fail of my effect, inasmuch as +the latter killed only serpents when he was a child, a stag and a +boar when he was a man,--oh, yes, and by Jupiter a lion also, though +reluctantly and in obedience to a command; whereas our hero voluntarily +made wars and enacted laws not among beasts but among men, carefully +preserved the commonwealth, and himself gained brilliance. It was for +this that you chose him prætor and appointed him consul at that age when +some are unwilling even to serve in the army. + +[-37-] "This was the beginning of political life for Augustus, and it is +the beginning of my speech about him. Soon after, seeing that the +largest and best portion both of the people and of the senate was in +accord with him, but that Lepidus and Antony, Sextus, Brutus, and Cassius +were employing rebels, he feared that the city might become involved in +many wars,--civil wars,--at once, and be so torn asunder and exhausted as +not to be able to revive in any fashion; and so he manipulated them very +cleverly and to the greatest public good. He attached himself to the +strong ones, who were menacing the very city, and with them fought the +others till he made an end of them: when these were out of the way he in +turn freed us from the former. He chose against his will to surrender a +few to their wrath so that he might save the majority, and he chose to +assume a friendly attitude toward them individually so as not to have to +fight with them all at once. From this he derived no individual gain but +aided us all most evidently. Why should one speak at length to enumerate +his deeds in the wars both at home and abroad? Consider especially that +the former ought never to have occurred at all and that the latter by the +conquests gained show their advantages better than any words, moreover +that they largely depended upon chance, that the successes were obtained +with the aid of many citizens and many allies so that these deserve the +credit equally with him, and finally that the achievements might possibly +be compared with those of some others. These, accordingly, I shall put +aside. You can behold and read them inscribed in letters and characters +in many places. I shall speak only of the works which belong to Augustus +himself, which have never been performed by any other man, and have not +only caused our city to survive from many dangers of a sorts but have +rendered it more prosperous and powerful. The mention of them will confer +upon him a unique glory and will afford the elder among you an innocent +pleasure while giving the younger men an exact instruction in the +character and constitution of the government. + +[-38-] "This Augustus, then, whom you deemed worthy of this title for the +very reasons just cited, as soon as he had freed himself from the civil +wars after acting and enduring (not in a way that pleased himself) +as Heaven approved, first of all preserved the lives of most of his +opponents, who were survivors of the army, and thus he in no way imitated +Sulla, called the Fortunate. Not to give you a list of all of them, who +does not know about Sosius, about Scaurus the brother of Sextus, and +particularly about Lepidus, who lived so long a time after his defeat and +continued to be high priest his whole life through? Next he honored his +companions in conflict with many great gifts, but did not allow them to +act in any arrogant way or to be wanton. You know thoroughly among others +in this category both Mæcenas and Agrippa, so that there is no need of my +enumerating the names. Augustus had two qualities, too, which were never +united in any one else. Some conquerors, I know, have spared their +enemies and others have refused to allow their companions to give way +to license. But both sorts of behavior at once, continually without any +exception, were never found in the same man. Here is evidence. Sulla and +Marius treated as enemies even the children of those who fought against +them. Why need I cite the other less important men? Pompey and Cæsar were +in general guiltless of this conduct, but permitted their friends to do +not a few things that were contrary to their own principles. But this +man had each of the two virtues so fused and intermingled that to his +adversaries he made defeat look like victory and to his comrades he +showed a happiness in excellence. + +[-39-] "After doing this and quieting by kindness all that remained of +factional disputes and imposing temperance by his benefits upon the +victorious military, he might as a result of this and the weapons and the +money at his command have been indisputably the sole lord of everything, +as, indeed, he had been made by the very course of events. Yet he +refused, and like a good physician, who takes in hand a disease-ridden +body and heals it, he restored everything to you after making it well. +And to what this action amounted you can best realize from the fact that +our fathers spoke in praise of Pompey and Metellus, who was formerly +prominent, because they voluntarily disbanded the forces with which they +had been engaged in war. Now if they, who had but a small force and a +merely temporary one and besides saw opponents who would not allow them +to do otherwise,--if they received praise for doing this,--how could one +speak fittingly of the magnanimity of Augustus? He held all your forces, +however great, he was master of all your funds, vast in amount, had no +one to fear or suspect: but whereas he might have ruled alone with the +approval of all, he would not accept such a course, but laid the arms, +the provinces, the money at your feet. Wherefore you with wise insistence +and proper prudence would not have it nor allow him to retire to private +life; you knew well that democracy would never accommodate itself to such +tremendous interests, but that the superintendence of a single person +would most surely preserve them, and so refused what was nominally +independence but really factional discord. And making choice of him, whom +you had proved worthy by his very deeds, you compelled him to stand at +your head for a time at least. When you had in this way tested him even +more than before, you finally forced him a second, a third, a fourth, and +a fifth time to remain as manager of public affairs. [-40-] It was +only natural. Who would not choose to be safe without trouble, to +be prosperous without danger, to enjoy unsparingly the blessings of +government and not to be disturbed by cares for its maintenance? Who was +there that could rule even his private possessions better than Augustus, +to say nothing of the goods of so many human beings? He accepted the +trying and hostile provinces for his own portion to guard and preserve, +but restored to you all such others as were peaceful and free from +danger. Though he supported such a large standing army to fight in your +behalf, he let the soldiers be troublesome to none of his own countrymen +but rendered them to outsiders most terrifying guardians, to the people +at home unarmed and unwarlike. The senators in places of authority +were not deprived of appeal to the lot, but prizes for excellence were +furnished them in addition. He did not destroy the power of the ballot in +their decisions and he guaranteed safety in free speech as well. Cases +difficult to decide he transferred from the people to the searching +justice of the courts, but preserved to the popular body the dignity of +the elections and trained citizens in these to seek a means of honor, not +of strife. He even cut away the ambitious greed of office seekers and put +a regard for reputation in its place. His own money, which he increased +by legitimate methods, he spent for public needs: for the public funds he +cared as if they were his own, while he refrained from touching them, as +belonging to others. He saw that all public works that were falling to +decay were repaired, and deprived no one connected with their renovation +of the glory attaching: many structures he built anew (some in his own +name, some in that of another), or else gave others charge of erecting +them. Consequently, his gaze was directed toward public utility and +privately he grudged no one the fame to be derived from public service. +Wantonness among his own kin he recompensed relentlessly, but the +offences of others he treated with humaneness. Those who had traits of +excellence he allowed to come as near as they could to his own standard, +and with the conduct of such as lived otherwise he did not concern +himself minutely. Among those who conspired against him he invoked +justice upon only those whose lives were of no profit even to themselves. +The rest he placed in such a position that for a great while they could +obtain no excuse either true or false for attacking him. It is nothing +surprising that he was occasionally the object of conspiracies, for +even the gods do not please all alike. The excellence of good rulers +is discernible not in the villainies of others but in their own good +behavior. + +[-41-] "I have spoken, Quirites, of his greatest and most striking +characteristics in a rather summary way. For if one should desire to +enumerate all of his great points individually, it would need many days. +Furthermore, I know that though you will have heard so few facts from me, +they will lead you to remember for yourselves everything else, and it +will seem almost as if I had spoken that too. In the rest that I have +said about him I have not been speaking in a spirit of vainglory [7], nor +has that been your state of mind in listening; but I intended that his +many noble achievements might obtain an ever memorable glory in your +souls. Who would not feel inclined to make mention of his senators?--how +without giving offence he removed the scum that had come to the surface +from the factions, how by this very act he exalted the remainder, +magnified it by increasing the property requirement, and enriched it by +grants of money; how he voted on an equality with the senators and +had their help in making changes; how he communicated to them all the +greatest and most important matters either in the meeting-place or else +at his house, whither he called different members at different times +because of his age and bodily infirmity. Who would not like to cite the +condition of the rest of the Romans, before whom he set public works, +money, games, festivals, amnesty, an abundance of food, safety not only +from the enemy and evildoers but even from the acts of Heaven, nor such +alone as befall by day, but by night as well? Or, again, the allies?--how +he made their freedom free from danger and their alliance to involve +no loss. Or the subject nations?--how no one of them was treated with +insolence or abuse. How can one forget a man who was in private life +poor, in public life rich, saving in his own case but liberal of +expenditures for others?--one who even endured all toil and danger for +you but would not submit to your escorting him when he went forth on any +expedition or to your meeting him when he returned: one who on festivals +admitted even the populace to his home, but on other days greeted even +the senate only in its chambers? How could one forget the number and +precision as well of his laws, which contained for the wronged an +all-sufficient consolation and for the wrongdoers a not inhuman +punishment? Or his rewards offered to those who married and had children? +Or the prizes given to the soldiers without disadvantage to any +other person? Then there is the fact of his being satisfied with our +possessions once for all acquired by the will of Destiny, and his refusal +to subjugate additional territory. For while imagining that we bore a +wider sway we might meantime lose all we had. You recall how he always +shared the joys and sorrows, the jests and earnestness of his intimate +friends, and allowed absolutely all who could make any useful suggestion +to feel free to speak; how he praised those who spoke the truth and hated +flatterers; how he bestowed upon many large sums from his own means, and +how when aught was bequeathed to him by men with children he restored it +all to those children. What oblivion is dark enough to bury all this? It +was for this, therefore, I say, that you naturally made him your head and +a father of the people, that you decked him with many marks of esteem and +numerous consulships and finally declared him a hero and published him +as immortal. Hence we ought not either to mourn for him, but to give his +body back now in due time to Nature, and to glorify his spirit, as that +of a god, forever." + +[-42-] This was what Tiberius read. Directly after, the same men as +before took up the couch and carried it through the triumphal gateway, +according to the senate's decree. There were present and took part in +carrying him out the senate and the equestrian class, the women of his +family, and the pretorian guard; and nearly everybody else in the city +was in attendance. When the body had been placed on the pyre in the +Campus Martius, all the priests marched about it first; and then the +knights, all the magistrates and others, and the heavy-armed force for +garrison duty ran around it; and they cast upon it all the triumphal +decorations which any of them had ever received from him for any deed of +valor. Next the centurions took torches, conformably to a decree of the +senate, and kindled the fire from beneath. So it was consumed, and an +eagle released from it flew aloft appearing to bear his spirit into +heaven. When this had been accomplished most of those present departed; +but Livia remained on the spot for five days in company with the most +prominent knights, and gathered his bones, which she placed in the +monument. + +The show of grief required by law was prolonged [-43-] only for a few +days by the men, but by the women, according to a decree, for a whole +year. Real grief not in the hearts of many at the time, but later felt by +all the citizens. Augustus had been accessible to all and was accustomed +to aid many persons in the matter of money. He used to bestow honors +scrupulously upon his friends and delighted exceedingly to have them +speak frankly. One instance, in addition to what has been told, occurred +in the case of Athenodorus. The latter was once brought into his room in +a covered litter, as if it were some woman, and leaping from it sword in +hand asked: "Aren't you afraid that some one may come in this way +and kill you?" Instead of being angry Augustus thanked him for his +suggestion. + +The people consequently were wont to recall these traits of his, and how +he did not get blindly enraged at those who injured him as well as how +he kept faith with even such as were unworthy of it. There was a robber +named Corocotta, who flourished in Spain, and the emperor was in the +first place so angry at him that he offered twenty-five myriads to the +man that captured him alive. Later the robber came to him of his own +accord, and he not only did him no harm but made him richer by the amount +of money mentioned. Hence the Romans missed him mightily for these +reasons as well as because by mingling monarchy with democracy he +preserved their freedom for them and secured orderliness and security, so +that their lives, free from the audacities of democracy, free from the +wantonness of tyrannies, were cast in a liberty of moderation and under a +monarchy without terrors; they were subjects of royalty, yet not slaves, +and democratic citizens without discord. [-44-] If any of them remembered +his former deeds in the course of the civil wars, they laid them to the +pressure of circumstances, and they thought it fair to look for his real +disposition, which had given him undisputed authority. This offered, in +truth, a mighty contrast. Any one who goes carefully into each of his +separate actions will find this true. In regard to the mass of them I +must record curtly that he stopped all factional disputes, transformed +the government in a way to give it power, and strengthened it greatly. +Therefore if any deed of violence is encountered,--as is often bound to +happen when the face of a situation shifts unexpectedly,--one might more +justly blame the circumstances themselves than him. + +Not the smallest factor in his glory was the length of his reign. The +majority of those that had lived under a democracy and the more powerful +had time to die. Those who were left, knowing nothing of that form of +government and having been reared entirely or mostly under existing +conditions, were not only not displeased with them,--they had become so +familiar,--but took delight in them, for they saw that these were better +and more free from terror than others of which they heard. + +[-45-] Though the people knew this during his life they nevertheless +realized it more fully after his decease. Human nature is so constituted +that in good fortune it does not perceive its prosperity so fully as it +misses it when evil days arrive. This was the case then in regard to +Augustus. When they found his successor Tiberius not the same sort of +man they longed for the previous emperor. Persons with their wits about +them had some immediate evidence of the change in the constitution. +The consul Pompeius, who went out to meet the men bearing the body of +Augustus, received a blow in the leg and had to be carried back with the +body. An owl sat over the senate-house again at the very first sitting of +the senate after his death and uttered many ill-omened cries. The two men +differed so from each other that some suspected that Augustus with full +knowledge of Tiberius's character had purposely appointed him for +successor to the end that he himself might have greater glory. This +began to be rumored at a later date. + +[-46-] At this time they declared Augustus immortal and assigned to him +attendants and sacred rites, making Livia (who was already called Julia +and Augusta) his priestess. Permission was granted Livia to employ a +lictor during the services. And she bestowed upon a certain Numerius +Atticus, a senatorial exprætor, twenty-five myriads because he swore that +he had seen Augustus ascending into heaven after the manner described in +the cases of Proclus and of Romulus. A heroüm voted by the senate and +built by Livia and Tiberius was erected to the dead emperor in Rome, +and others at many different points, sometimes with the consent of the +nations concerned and sometimes without their consent. Also the house at +Nola, where he passed away, was dedicated to him as a precinct. While the +heroüm was being built in Rome, they placed a golden image of him upon a +couch in the temple of Mars, and to this they paid all the honors that +they were afterward to give to his statue. Other votes in regard to +him were that his image should not be borne in procession at any one's +funeral and the consuls should celebrate his birthday with games no less +than that of Mars[8] the tribunes, as being sacrosanct, were to manage +the Augustalia. These officials conducted everything as had been the +custom, wearing the triumphal costume at the horse-race; they did not, +however, ascend the chariot. Besides this Livia held a private festival +in his honor for three days in the Palatium, and this is continued to the +present day by whoever is emperor. + +[-47-] This was the extent of the decrees passed in memory of Augustus +nominally by the senate but really by Tiberius and Livia. Various men +made various motions and they decided that Tiberius should receive +written proposals from them and pick out whatever he chose. I have added +the name of Livia because she took a share in the proceedings, as though +she had full power. + +Meantime the populace was plunged in tumult because at the Augustalia one +of the dancers would not enter the theatre for the stipulated pay. They +did not cease their disturbances until the tribunes convened the senate +without delay and begged that body to allow them to spend something more +than the legal amount.--Here ends my account of Augustus. + + +[Footnote 1: Undoubtedly _C. Vibius_ POSTUMUS is the person meant.] + +[Footnote 2: Reading [Greek: paremenoi] (Boissevain, following the MS.).] + +[Footnote 3: A leaf is here missing in the codex Marcianus. Of the +portion lost Zonaras supplies about one quarter.] + +[Footnote 4: Another leaf of the codex Marcianus is here lacking, leaving +a gap of which Zonaras and an Excerpt of de Valois supply a sixth or +more.] + +[Footnote 5: A conjecture of Boissevain's. The MS. has "Sardinia." (See +Mnemosyne, N.S. XIII, p. 329.)] + +[Footnote 6: Dio here appears to confuse the festival of Augustus's +Birthday (September 23d) with that of the Augustalia proper, which was +celebrated October third to twelfth. The opening of chapter 34, Book +Fifty-four, might lead one to think, however, that he had accustomed +himself to use the phrase "which are still celebrated" to listing the +latter from the former.] + +[Footnote 7: This sentence in the MS. is faulty. Oddey and Bekker +supplied words for the necessary sense.] + +[Footnote 8: Compare Roscher, II, column 2399.]; + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +57 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +About Tiberius (chapter I ff.). How Cappadocia began to be governed by +Romans (chapter 17). How Germanicus Cæsar died (chapter 18). How Drusus +Cæsar died (chapter 22). + +Duration of time, 11 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Drusus Cæsar Tiberi F., C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus (A.D. 15 = a. u. 768 = +Second of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +T. Statilius T. F. Sisenna Taurus, L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (A.D. 16 = +a. u. 769 = Third of Tiberius.) + +C. Cæcilius C. F. Nepos [or] Rufus, L. Pomponius L. F. Flaccus. (A.D. 17 += a. u. 770 = Fourth of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Cæsar Augusti F. (III), Germanicus Cæsar Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 18 = a. +u. 771 = Fifth of Tiberius.) + +M. Iunius M. F. Silanus, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus or Balbus. (A.D. 19 = +a. u. 772 = Sixth of Tiberius.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala, M. Aurelius M. F. Cotta. (A.D. 20 = a. u. 773 += Seventh of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Cæsar Augusti F. (IV), Drusus Iulius Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 21 = a. u. +774 = Eighth of Tiberius.) + +Decimus Haterius C. F. Agrippa, C. Sulpicius Serg. F. Galba. (A.D. 22 = +a. u. 775 = Ninth of Tiberius.) + +C. Asinius C. F. Pollio, C. Antistius C. F. Vetus. (A.D. 23 = a. u. 776 = +Tenth of Tiberius.) + +Sergius Cornelius Sergi F. Cethego, L. Visellius L. F. Varro. (A.D. 24 = +a. u. 777 = Eleventh of Tiberius.) + +M. [or C.] Asinius [M. or] C. F. Agrippa, Cossus Cornelius Cossi F. +Lentulus. (A.D. 25 = a. u. 778 = Twelfth of Tiberius.) + + +_(BOOK 57 BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +[-1-] Tiberius was a patrician of good education, but he had a most +peculiar nature. He never let what he desired appear in his talk, and +about what he said he wished he usually cared nothing at all. Thus his +words indicated just the opposite of his real purpose: be denied any +interest in what he longed for and urged the claims of what he hated. He +would exhibit anger over matters that were very far from arousing his +rage and made a show of affability where he was most vexed. He would pity +those whom he severely punished and retain a grudge against those whom he +pardoned. Sometimes he would regard his dearest foe as his nearest friend +and again he would act toward his most intimate companion as if the +latter were thoroughly hostile. In general, he thought it bad policy +for the independent sovereign to reveal his state of mind; this was the +source, he said, of great failures, but by the opposite course even more +successes, and greater, were attained. If he had merely followed this +method without complications, he would have had no protection against +such as had come to know him; they would have taken everything by +contraries and would have deemed his saying that he did not wish +something to be equivalent to his ardently desiring it, and that he was +eager for something equivalent to his not being concerned about it. It +happened, however, that he became angry if any one gave evidence of +understanding him. Many were those he put to death for no other offence +than having comprehended him. It was a dangerous matter, then, to fail to +understand him--for many were ruined by approving what he said instead of +what he wished,--but still more dangerous to understand him. Such persons +were suspected of discovering his practice and being consequently +displeased with it. Practically the only sort of man that could maintain +himself,--and such a person is rarely found,--was one who did not +misunderstand his nature yet did not subject it to uncomfortable +exposure. Under these conditions men would not be deceived by believing +him nor be hated for revealing their comprehension of his policy. For he +gave plenty of trouble both to any one who opposed what he said and to +any one who favored it. As he was really anxious for one thing to be +done but wanted to appear to desire something different, he invariably +regarded those who took either side as his opponents and therefore was +hostile to the one class because of his real feelings, and to the other +for the sake of appearances. + +[-2-] It was due to this characteristic that, as emperor, he sent a +dispatch straight from Nola to the legions and provinces declaring that +he was emperor. This name, which was voted him along with the rest, he +would not accept, and though taking the portion of Augustus he would not +adopt this title of his. At a time when he was already surrounded by the +body-guards he asked the senate to help him escape suffering any violence +at the burial of the emperor's body. He was afraid some men might snatch +it up and burn it in the Forum, as they had that of Cæsar. When somebody +thereupon as a compliment voted that he be given a guard, as if he had +none, he saw through the man's flattery and answered: "The soldiers are +not mine but the public's." Besides doing this he administered in fact +all the business of the empire, meanwhile declaring that he wanted none +of it. At first he said he should give it all up on account of his +age,--fifty-six,--and his near-sightedness (although he saw extremely +well in the dark, his eyes in the daylight were very weak). Later he +asked for some associates and colleagues, though not to take charge of +the whole domain at once, as in an oligarchy, but he divided it into +three parts, one of which he should retain himself and yield the +remaining two to others. One of these portions consisted of Rome and +the rest of Italy, the second of the legions, the third of the subject +peoples outside. Though he became very urgent, most of the senators +still opposed him and begged him to govern the entire realm. But Asinius +Gallus, who employed the frank speech of old days more than was good for +him, replied: "Choose whichever part you wish." Tiberius rejoined: "How +is it feasible for the same man both to make the division and to choose?" +Gallus, perceiving into what a plight he had fallen, framed his words to +flatter him, interrupting to the effect that: "I not setting before you +the idea of your having a third but the impossibility of the empire's +being divided." In fact, however, he did not mollify Tiberius, but after +first undergoing many dire sufferings was subsequently murdered. For +Gallus had married the former wife of the new ruler and claimed Drusus as +his son, and consequently there had been hatred between them before this. + +[-3-] Tiberius acted in this way at that time chiefly because it was his +nature and he had determined upon that policy, but partly also because +he was suspicious of the Pannonian and Germanic legions and feared +Germanicus, the ruler of the Germany of that day and a favorite of +theirs. He had previously made sure of the soldiers in Italy by means of +the oaths established by Augustus; but as he was suspicious of the others +he waited for either possible outcome, intending to save himself by +retiring to private life in case the legions should revolt and prevail. +For this reason he often feigned sickness and remained at home, so as not +to be compelled to say or do anything definite. I have even heard that +when it began to be said that Livia against the will of Augustus had kept +the empire for him, he took such action[1] that he might appear to have +received it not from her (with whom he was on very bad terms), but under +compulsion from the senators through surpassing them in excellence. Again +I have heard that when he saw that people were cool toward him he waited +and delayed in order that they in the hope of his voluntarily resigning +the empire might no adopt rebellious measures until he had secured an +unshakable control of the government. Still, I do not record these +stories as the true causes of his delay, but rather his usual disposition +and the disturbance among the soldiers. He sent some one from Nola and +had Agrippa killed at once. Yet he declared this had not been done by +his orders and he threatened the perpetrator of the deed. Instead of +punishing him, however, he allowed men to invent versions of the affair +some to the effect that Augustus had put him out of the way just before +his death, others that the centurion who was guarding him slew him on his +own responsibility for some revolutionary dealings, others that Livia and +not Tiberius had ordered his death. + +[-4-] This rival, then, he had removed from the scene immediately, but +there remained Germanicus, whom he feared mightily. The soldiers in +Pannonia had risen as soon as they learned of the demise of Augustus. +They gathered in one fort and having strengthened it they took many steps +toward rebellion. Among other things they attempted to kill their leader, +Junius Blæsus, and arrested and tortured his slaves. In general, what +they wanted was to have the period of service extend over not more than +sixteen years, and they demanded that they should receive a denarius per +day and be given at once his prizes that were in the camp. In case they +did not obtain their demands they threatened to make the province revolt +and to march upon Rome. Indeed, they were at this time with difficulty +won over by the persuasions of Blæsus to send envoys to Tiberius at Rome +in regard to these matters. For they hoped during this change in +the government to accomplish the utmost of their desires either by +frightening the emperor into it or by giving the power to some one else. +Subsequently, when Drusus came upon them with the Pretorians, they were +thrown into tumult once more because no definite answer was returned +them. Some of his followers they wounded and they put a guard around him +in the night to prevent his escape. Noticing, however, an eclipse of the +moon occurring they felt their boldness begin to waver so that they +did no further harm to this detachment and despatched envoys again to +Tiberius. Meantime a great storm came up, and when on this account every +one had retired to his own quarters, the most audacious soldiers were +destroyed, some in one manner, some in another, by Drusus and his +associates in his own tent, whither he had summoned them on some +unsignifying pretext. The rest were restored to good standing on +condition of surrendering for punishment those responsible for the +uprising. In this way this division became quiet. + +[-5-] The warriors in Germany, however, where many had been assembled +on account of the war, would not hear of moderation, since they saw that +Germanicus was both a Cæsar and far superior to Tiberius, but proclaiming +publicly the above facts they heaped abuse upon Tiberius and saluted +Germanicus as emperor. When after much pleading he found himself unable +to reduce them to order, finally he drew his sword as if to despatch +himself. They cried out upon him in horror, and one of them proffering +his own sword said: "Take this; this is sharper." Germanicus, seeing +to what lengths the matter had gone, did not venture to kill himself, +particularly as he had reason to believe that they would persist in their +uprising none the less. Therefore he composed a letter purporting to have +been sent from Tiberius, gave them twice the gift bequeathed them by +Augustus,--pretending it was the emperor who did this,--and released +those who were beyond the age of service. Most of them belonged to the +city troops which Augustus had gathered as an extra force after the +disaster to Varus. As a result, they ceased for the time being their +seditious behavior. Later on came senators as envoys from Tiberius, to +whom the latter had secretly communicated only so much as he wished +Germanicus to know. He felt quite sure that they would tell him the +emperor's plans in their entirety, and accordingly did not care that +either they or Germanicus should trouble themselves about anything +further; the instructions delivered were supposed to comprise everything. +Now when these men had arrived and the soldiers learned about the trick +Germanicus had played, a suspicion sprang up that the presence of the +senators meant the overthrow of their leader's measures, and this led to +new turmoil. The men-at-arms almost killed some of the envoys and to the +point of seizing Germanicus's wife Agrippina (daughter of Agrippa and +Julia, the daughter of Augustus) and his son, both of whom had been +sent by him to some place for refuge. The boy was called Gaius Caligula +because, being brought up for the most part in the camp he wore the +military shoes instead of those usual at the capital. At the request of +Germanicus they released to him Agrippina, who was pregnant but they +retained possession of Gaius. Yet on this occasion too, as they +accomplished nothing, they after a time grew quiet. In fact, they +experienced such a revulsion of sentiment that of their own accord they +arrested the boldest of their number: and some they killed privately, the +rest they brought before a gathering; and then, according to the wish of +the majority, [-6-] they executed some and released others. Germanicus +being still afraid that they would make another uprising invaded the +enemy's country and there spent some time, giving them plenty of work and +abundant food,--the fruit of others' labor. + +Thus, though he might have obtained the imperial power,--for he found +favor in the sight of absolutely all the Romans as well as their +subjects,--he declined the honor. For this Tiberius praised him and sent +many pleasing messages both to him and to Agrippina: he was not, however, +pleased with his rival's progress but feared him all the more because he +had won the attachment of the legions. Tiberius assumed that he did not +feel as he appeared to do, from his own consciousness of saying one thing +and doing another. Hence he was suspicious of Germanicus and further +suspicious of his wife, who was possessed of an ambition appropriate to +her lofty lineage. Yet he displayed no sign of irritation toward them, +but delivered many eulogies of Germanicus in the senate and proposed +sacrifices to be offered in honor of his achievements as he did in the +case of Drusus. Also he bestowed upon the soldiers in Pannonia the same +privileges as Germanicus had given. For the future, however, he refused +to release members of the service outside of Italy until they had served +the twenty years. + +[-7-] Now when no further news of a revolutionary nature came, but all +parts of the Roman world began to yield a steady acquiescence to his +leadership, he no longer practiced dissimulation regarding the acceptance +of sovereign power, and managed the empire, so long as Germanicus lived, +in the way I am about to describe. He did little or nothing, that is, on +his own responsibility, but brought even the smallest matters before the +senate and communicated them to that body. In the Forum a platform had +been erected on which he sat in public to transact business, and he +always gathered about him advisers, after the manner of Augustus. +Moreover, he did not take any step of consequence without making it known +to the rest. He stated his own opinion openly and not only granted every +one the right to oppose it freely in speech, but sometimes even endured +to have some vote directly against it. Often he would cast a vote +himself. Drusus did this, like the rest, now voting first and again after +some others. The emperor would sometimes remain silent and sometimes give +his opinion first, or after a few others, or even last; in some cases he +would speak out directly, but generally (to avoid appearing to have cut +short their freedom of speech), he would say: "If I were to give my views +I should propose this or that." This had equal influence with the other +method, only those who came after were not prevented by him from stating +what appeared good to them. But frequently he would outline one plan and +those who came after him would prefer something different; occasionally +they even prevailed. Yet for all that he harbored anger against no +one. He held court himself, as I have stated, but he also attended +the magistrates' courts, both when summoned by them and without an +invitation. These officials he allowed to sit in their own places: he +himself took his seat on the bench located opposite them and as presiding +officer made any remarks that seemed to him pertinent. + +[-8-] In all other matters, too, he behaved in this same way. He would +not allow himself to be called "master" by the freedmen, nor "imperator" +except by the soldiers; the title of _Pater Patriæ_ he put away from him +entirely: that of _Augustus_ he did not assume (for he never permitted +the question to be put to vote), but endured to hear it spoken and to +read it when written. Moreover, when he sent messages to any kings he +would regularly include this title in his letter. In general he spoke +of himself as Cæsar, sometimes as Germanicus (from the exploits of +Germanicus), and _Princeps Senatus_, according to ancient usage. Often he +used to say: "My position is that of master of the slaves, imperator of +the soldiers, and first citizen among the rest." He would pray, whenever +it happened that he was so engaged, that he might live and rule so long +a time as should be to the advantage of the public. And he was so +democratic in all circumstances alike that on his birthday he did not +permit any unusual demonstrations, and he did not give people the right +to swear by his Fortune nor did he prosecute any one who after swearing +by it incurred the charge of perjury. In short, he would not (at first, +at least) sanction in his own case the carrying out of the custom which +has obtained as a matter of course on the first day of the year, down to +the present, in honor of Augustus, of all rulers that came after him of +whom we make any account, and of such as nowadays succeed to imperial +privileges,--namely, the ratification under oath of what they have done +and of what they shall do by citizens alive during the particular year +in question. Yet in the case of the measures of Augustus he both +administered the oath to others and took it himself. In order to render +his attitude more striking, he would let the first day of the month go +by, not entering the senate nor showing himself at all in the City on +that day, but spending the time in some suburb; then later he would come +in and take pledges separately. This was part of the reason that he +remained somewhere outside on the first days of the month, but he was +also anxious to avoid disturbing any of the inhabitants, who were +concerned with the new offices and the festival, and to avoid taking +money from them. He did not even commend Augustus for his behavior in +this respect because it brought about great dissatisfaction and a great +expenditure in order to return favors. [-9-] Not only in this way were his +actions democratic, but no precinct was set apart for him either by his +own choice or in any other way,--that is to say at this time. Nor was any +one allowed to set up an image of him. Without delay he expressly forbade +any city or individual to do this. To this refusal he attached the phrase +"unless I grant permission "; but he added: "I will not grant it." Least +of all did he assume to have been insulted or to have been impiously +treated by any one. (Men were already calling such a procedure impiety, +and were bringing many suits based on that ground.) He would not hear of +any such indictment being brought for his own benefit, though he paid +tribute to the majesty of Augustus in this matter also. At first he would +not punish even such as had incurred charges for their actions in regard +to his predecessor, and some against whom complaint was made of their +having perjured themselves by the Fortune of Augustus he released. As +time went on, however, he put a very great number to death. + +[-10-] Not only did he magnify Augustus as above stated, but in giving +the finishing touches to the buildings of which Augustus had laid the +foundations (though not bringing them to completion) he inscribed the +first emperor's name; the latter's statues and heroä, likewise, whether +those that the provinces or those that individuals were erecting he +partly consecrated himself and partly assigned to some member of the +pontifices. This plan of inscribing the builder's name he carried out not +only in the case of the actual monuments of Augustus himself, but equally +in the case of all such as needed any repair. He put in good condition +all buildings that had fallen to decay (not constructing anything new at +all himself, except the temple of Augustus), and appropriated none of +them, but restored to all of them the same names, names of the original +builders. While expending extremely little for himself he laid out +very great sums for the common good, either building over or adorning +practically all the public works. He assisted many cities and individuals +and enriched numerous senators who were poor and on that account were no +longer willing to be members of the senate. However, he did not do this +promiscuously and even expunged the names of some for licentiousness and +of others for poverty when they could give no adequate reason for it. +Every gift that was bestowed upon any persons was counted out directly in +his presence. For since in the days of Augustus the officials who made +the presentation were wont to deduct large sums for their own use, he +took the greatest care that this should not happen during his reign. All +the expenditures, moreover, he made from the regular sources of income. +He killed no one for his money, did not confiscate (at this time) any +one's property, nor collect any funds by abuses. Indeed, when Aemilius +Rectus once sent him from Egypt, of which he was governor, more money +than was required, he sent him a message, saying: "To shear my sheep and +not to shave them to the skin is what I desire." + +[-11-] Furthermore he was extremely easy of access and ready to grant +an audience. The senators he bade greet him all at once and so avoid +jostling one another. In fine, he showed himself so considerate that +once, when the leaders of the Rhodians sent him some communication and +failed to write at the foot of the letter this customary formula about +offering their prayers for his welfare, he summoned them in haste as +if he intended to do them some harm, but on their arrival instead of +administering any serious rebuke had them subscribe what was lacking and +then sent them away. The temporary officials he honored as he would have +done in a democracy, even rising from his seat at the approach of the +consuls. Whenever he entertained them at dinner he would in the first +place receive them at the door when they entered, and secondly escort +them on their way when they departed. In case he was at any time being +carried anywhere in his litter, he would not allow even one of the +knights who was prominent to accompany him, still less a senator. On the +occasion of festivals or so often as anything similar was going to +afford the people leisure, he would go the evening before to one of the +Cæsarians who lived near the places where there was sure to be a large +crowd and there pass the night. His object was to make it possible for +the people to meet him with a minimum of formality and fatigue. The +equestrian contests he would often watch in person from the house of some +freedman. He attended the spectacles very frequently in order to do +honor to those who gave them as well as to ensure the orderliness of the +multitude and to seem to take an interest in their celebration. Really he +did not care in the least about anything of the kind, nor did he have the +reputation of being enthusiastic in these matters. In every way he was so +fair and equal that when the populace once desired that a certain dancer +be set free he would not approve the proposal until the man's master had +been persuaded and received the value of his chattel. His intercourse +with his companions was like that between private individuals: he helped +them when they were sued and joined them in the ceremony of sacrifice; he +visited them when they were sick, taking no guard into the room with him; +over one of them who died he himself delivered the funeral oration. + +[-12-] Moreover, he bade his mother behave in a similar manner, so far +as it was proper for her to do so, partly that she might imitate him and +partly to prevent her becoming overproud. She occupied a position of +great prominence, far above all women of former time, so that she could +at any time receive the senate and such of the people as so wished to +greet her in her house. This was also inscribed in the public records. +The letters of Tiberius bore for a time her name also and were written by +both with equal authority. Except that she never ventured to enter the +senate or the camps or the public assemblies she undertook to man age +everything like a sole ruler. In the time of Augustus she had had great +influence and she declared that it was she who made Tiberius emperor. +Consequently she was not satisfied to rule on equal terms with him, but +wished to assert a superiority over him. In this way many measures out of +the ordinary were introduced and many persons voted that she should be +called Mother of her Country, many others that she should he termed +Parent. Others proposed that Tiberius should receive his name from her, +that just as the Greeks were called by their father's name so he should +be called by his mother's. This vexed him and he neither ratified the +honors voted her (save a very few) nor allowed her any further unusual +freedom of action. For instance, she had once dedicated in her house +an image to Augustus and in honor of the event wished to entertain the +senate and the knights together with their wives, but he would not grant +her permission to carry out any part of this program until the senate had +voted it, and not even then to receive the men at dinner. Instead, he +entertained the latter and she attended to the women. Finally, he removed +her entirely from the public sphere, allowing her to direct affairs +within doors; then, as she was troublesome even in this capacity, he +proceeded to absent himself from the City and avoided her in every way +possible. It was chiefly on her account that he removed to Capreae.--This +is the tradition that obtains about Livia. + +[-13-] Now Tiberius began to treat more harshly those accused of any +crime and became at enmity with his son Drusus, who was most licentious +and cruel (as is evidenced by the fact that the sharpest kind of swords +was called Drusian after him); him he often censured both privately and +publicly. Once he said to him outright in the Presence of many witnesses: +"While I live you shall perform no act of violence or insolence, and +if you venture to do any such thing, you shall be cut off from the +possibility after I am dead." For during some time the emperor continued +to live a very temperate life and allowed no one else to indulge in +licentiousness but punished numbers for it. Yet once when the senators +evinced a desire to have a penalty imposed by law upon those guilty of +lewd living he would make no such ruling, explaining that it is better to +correct them privately in some way or other instead of laying them open +to a public punishment. Under existing conditions, he said, there was a +chance of bringing some of them to moderation through fear of disgrace, +and they might endeavor to escape discovery; but if the law should once +be overcome by nature, no one would pay any further heed to it. Not a +few men also were wearing quantities of purple clothing (though this had +formerly been forbidden); of these no one was either rebuked or fined: +but when a rain came up on a certain festival the emperor put on a dark +woolen cloak. After this none of them dared any longer to assume any +different kind of garb. + +This is the way he behaved under all conditions so long as Germanicus +lived. Subsequent to that event he changed many of his ways. Perhaps he +had been minded from the first as he later appeared to feel, and had been +merely shamming as long as Germanicus existed because he saw that he +was lying in wait for the leadership; or perhaps he was excellent by +nature but drifted into vice when he was deprived of his rival. [-14-] I +shall notice also separate events,--all those, at least that deserve +mention,--each in its proper place. + +[A.D. 15 (_a. u._ 768)] + +In the consulship of Drusus his son and of Gaius Norbanus he presented +to the people the bequests made by Augustus: this was after some one had +approached a corpse that was being carried out through the Forum for +burial and bending down had whispered something in its ear; when the +spectators asked what he had said, he stated that he had commissioned +the dead to tell Augustus that they had got nothing as yet. This man the +emperor immediately despatched, in order (as he jokingly said) that he +might carry his own message to Augustus; with the rest he settled after a +little, distributing sixty-five denarii apiece. Some say this payment was +made the previous year. + +At this time certain knights desired to enter a championship contest in +the games which Drusus had arranged for his own celebration and that of +Germanicus; Tiberius did not view their combat, and when one of them was +killed he forbade the other to fight as a gladiator again. Still other +conflicts took place in connection with the horse-race that was in honor +of Augustus's birthday; indeed, a few beasts were slain. So things went +on for a number of years. + +At this time, too, Crete, its governor being dead, was attached to the +quaestorship and to the quaestor's assistant for the future. Since, also, +many of those to whom the provinces had been allotted lingered in Rome +and in the remainder of Italy for a long time, so that those who had held +the office before them delayed, contrary to precedent, Tiberius commanded +that they should take their departure by the first day of June. Meanwhile +his grandson by Drusus died, but he neglected none of his customary +duties; it was his settled conviction that a governor of men ought not to +give up care of the common weal by reason of private misfortunes, and he +confirmed the rest in their purpose not to jeopardize the interests of +the living because of the dead. + +The river Tiber now proceeded to occupy a large portion of the City, +so that there was an inundation. Most people regarded this also as a +prodigy, like the great earthquakes which shook down a portion of the +wall, and like the frequent fall of thunderbolts, which made wine leak +even from pails that were sound. The emperor, however, thinking that it +was due to the great number of springs, appointed five senators, chosen +by lot, to constitute a permanent board to look after the river, to the +end that it should not give out in summer nor become over full in winter, +but flow evenly so far as possible all the time. These were the measures +of Tiberius. + +As for Drusus, he performed the duties pertaining to the consulship along +with his colleague as any private citizen might have done. Being left +heir to someone's estate he assisted in carrying out the funeral. Yet +he was so prone to anger that he inflicted blows upon a distinguished +knight, and for this exploit he obtained the surname of Castor. [2] And +he showed himself such a hard drinker that one night, when he was forced +to lend aid with the Pretorians to some people whose property was on +fire, he commanded, at their request for water, to pour it out hot for +them. He was so fond of dancers that this class raised a tumult and would +not be brought to order by the laws which Tiberius had introduced to +apply to them. + +[A.D. 16 (_a. u._ 769)] + +[-15-] These were the events of that period. Now when Statilius Taurus +was consul with Lucius Libo, Tiberius forbade any man to wear silk +clothing and likewise to use gold ornaments, except for sacred +ceremonies. As some were at a loss to know whether it were forbidden them +also to possess silver ornaments which had some gold inlaid, he wished +to issue some decree about this too, but he refused to let the word +_emblaema_, since it was a Greek term, be inserted in the original +document. Yet he could find no native word that would describe such +inlaid work. + +This was the position he took in that matter. Now there was a centurion +who wished to give some evidence before the senate in Greek, and he would +not allow it. Yet he was wont to hear many suits that were argued there +in that language and to investigate many himself. Besides his unusual +behavior in this respect he failed to pass sentence on Lucius Scribonius +Libo, a young noble suspected of revolutionary designs, so long as the +latter was well; but upon his falling sick he had him brought into the +senate in a covered litter (such as the wives of senators use) to be +condemned to death. + +A slight delay ensued and Libo committed suicide, whereupon the emperor +passed judgment upon his behavior, though he was dead, gave his money to +the accusers, and had sacrifices voted for his overthrow, not only for +his own sake, but for the sake of Augustus and of the latter's father +Julius, as had occasionally been decreed in past times. + +Though he took such action in the case of this man, he administered no +rebuke at all to Vibius Rufus, who used Cæsar's chair (the one on which +the latter was always accustomed to sit and on which he was slain). Rufus +did this regularly, besides having Cicero's wife as his consort, and +prided himself on both achievements, evidently thinking that he would +become an orator by means of the wife or a Cæsar by means of the chair. +For this, as I have stated, he received no censure; indeed, he became +consul. + +Tiberius was, moreover, forever in the company of Thrasyllus and made +some use of the mantic art every day, becoming himself so proficient in +the study that when he was once bidden in a dream to give money to a +certain person, he comprehended that a deceitful spirit had been called +up before him and he put the man to death. Likewise, in the case of +all the rest of the astrologers and magicians and those who practiced +divination in any other way whatever, he had the foreigners executed +and banished all such citizens as still at that time after the previous +decree, by which it had been forbidden to engage in any such business in +the City, were accused in court of employing the art. + +To such of them as obeyed immunity had been granted. In fact, all the +citizens would have been acquitted even contrary to his wish, had not +a certain tribune prevented it. Here one could catch a glimpse of the +democratic constitution, inasmuch as the senate, approving the course +of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, overcame Drusus and Tiberius and was itself +subdued by the tribune. + +[-16-] These affairs were settled in this way. Certain men who had been +quaestors the previous year were sent out to the provinces, since those +who were quaestors at the time proved too few for them. This was done +again and again, as often as it was found necessary. + +Many of the public documents had either perished utterly or had faded +during the lapse of time. Three senators were therefore elected to copy +off what was extant and to look up the rest.--Assistance was given in +several conflagrations not only by Tiberius but also by Livia. + +The same year a certain Clemens, who had been a slave of Agrippa and +resembled him to a certain extent, pretended to be he. He went to Gaul +and won the attachment of many there, and later of many in Italy. Finally +he marched upon Rome with the avowed intention of recovering the dominion +of his grandfather. Many of the inhabitants of the city were thrown into +confusion at this, and not a few joined his cause. Tiberius, however, got +him in his hands by a clever device and through the agency of certain +persons who pretended to sympathize with the upstart. Then he tortured +the prisoner in order to learn something about his fellow conspirators, +but when the victim uttered not a word the emperor asked him:" How did +you get to be Agrippa?" And he replied: "In the same way as you got to be +Cæsar." + +[A.D. 17 (a. u. 770)] + +[-17-] The following year Gaius Cæcilius and Lucius Flaccus received the +title of consuls. And when some brought Tiberius money after the first +of the month, he would not accept it and published a kind of document +regarding this very point, in which he used a word that was not Latin. +After thinking it over by night he sent for all those who had accurate +knowledge of such matters, for he was extremely anxious to have his +diction irreproachable. Thereupon a certain Ateius Capito declared: "Even +if no one has previously used this expression, yet because of you we +shall all enumerate it among the primitive usages," but was interrupted +by one Marcellus,[3] who said: "You, being Cæsar, can extend Roman +government over men, but not over words." And the emperor did the man no +harm for this, in spite of the excessive frankness of his speech. + +He had a grudge, however, against Archelaus. the king of Cappadocia, +because the latter had first become his suppliant to the extent of +employing him as advocate when this monarch in the time of Augustus had +been accused by his people, and had subsequently slighted him on the +occasion of a visit to Rhodes, but had paid court to Gaius, who also went +to Asia. Therefore he summoned him on the charge of rebellious behavior +and delivered him up to the votes of the senate. (The king was not only +well stricken in years, but a great sufferer from gout, and was moreover +believed to be demented.) As a matter of fact he had been incommoded +previously by loss of mind to the extent of having a guardian placed over +his domain by Augustus; but at that time he was no longer weak-witted and +was merely feigning, in the hope of saving himself by this expedient +if by no other. He would now have been executed, had not some one in +testifying against him stated that he had once said: "When I get back +home, I will show him what sort of sinews I possess." A shout of laughter +went up at this, for the man was not only unable to stand, but could +not even assume a sitting posture, and so Tiberius gave up his plan of +putting him to death. The condition of the prince was so serious that +he was carried into the senate in a covered litter. For since it was +customary even for men, whenever one of them came there feeling ill, to +be carried in a reclining position, Tiberius took advantage of the method +on this occasion, too. (And the invalid spoke a few words, bending +forward from the litter.) So it was that the life of Archelaus was +temporarily saved, but he died shortly afterward in some other way. After +this Cappadocia reverted to the Romans and was put in charge of a knight. + +To the cities in Asia which had been damaged by the earthquake an +ex-prætor was assigned with five lictors. Considerable money therefore +was diverted from the revenues and considerable was given by Tiberius +personally. For whereas he refrained scrupulously from the possessions of +others,--so long at least as he practiced virtue at all,--and would not +even accept the inheritances which were left to him by testators having +relatives, he spent vast sums both upon the cities and upon private +individuals. He would not hear of any honor or praise for these +acts.--Embassies that came from foreign cities or nations he never +dealt with alone, but caused a number of others to participate in the +deliberations, and especially such as had once governed these peoples. + +[-18-] Now Germanicus, having acquired a reputation for his campaign +against the Celtae, advanced as far as the ocean, inflicted an +overwhelming defeat upon the barbarians, collected and buried the bones +of those who had fallen under Varus, and won back the military standards. + + His wife Julia was not recalled from the banishment to which for + unchastity her father Augustus had condemned her; nay, he even put + her under lock and key till wretchedness and starvation caused her + death. + +[A.D. 17 or 18] + +The senate urged upon Tiberius the request that the month of November, on +the sixteenth of which he had been born, should be called Tiberius; to +which he responded: "What will you do, if there arise thirteen Cæsars?" + +[A.D. 19 (_a. u._ 772)] + +Later, when Marcus Junius and Lucius Norbanus came to office, a portent +of some magnitude occurred on the very first day of the month, and it +doubtless had a bearing on the fate of Germanicus. Norbanus the consul +had always been devoted to the trumpet, and as he had practiced +assiduously in this pursuit he wished on this occasion also to play the +instrument just about dawn, when many persons were already near his house +This proceeding threw them all without exception into confusion, just as +if the consul had imparted to them some warlike signal; and they were +also disturbed by the falling of the statue of Janus. Their calm was +further ruffled by an oracle, reputed to be a Sibylline utterance, which +would not fit any other period of the city's history, but pointed to that +very time. It declared: + + "After thrice three hundred revolving years have been numbered, Civil + strife shall consume the Romans,--and the Sybaritan Folly." ... + +Tiberius denounced these verses as false and made an investigation of all +the books containing any prophecies. Some he rejected as worthless and +others he admitted as genuine. + + As there had been a large influx of Jews into Rome and they were + converting many of the native inhabitants to their principles he + expelled the great majority of them. + +At the death of Germanicus Tiberius and Livia were thoroughly pleased, +but everybody else was mightily afflicted. He was a man who possessed the +most striking physical beauty and likewise the noblest of spirits. Both +in education and in strength he was conspicuous [and whereas he was the +bravest of the brave against the enemy, he was the mildest of the mild to +his friend. Though as a Cæsar he had extreme power he kept his ambitions +on the same plane as weaker men. He in no wise conducted himself +oppressively toward his subjects] or with jealousy toward Drusus or in +any way to deserve censure toward Tiberius. [In brief, he belonged to the +few men of all time who have neither sinned against the fortune allotted +to them nor been destroyed by it.] + +Although on several occasions he might [with the free consent not only +of the soldiers but of the people and senate as well] have obtained the +imperial power, he refused to do so. His death occurred in Antioch as the +result of a plot formed by Piso and Plancina. Bones of men buried in the +house where he dwelt and sheets of lead containing certain curses along +with his name were found while he yet breathed. + +[A.D. 20 (_a u._ 773)] + +Piso was brought before the senate by Tiberius himself on the charge of +having murdered Germanicus, but succeeded in securing a postponement and +committed suicide. + + Germanicus left three sons, whom Augustus in his testament denominated + Cæsars. The eldest of these, Nero, at that time had his name + placed among the number of the iuvenes. + +[-19-] Tiberius, who had hitherto been the author of manifold meritorious +works and had made but few errors, now, when he ceased to have a rival in +view, changed to precisely the reverse of his previous conduct, which had +included many excellent deeds. Among other ways in which his rule became +cruel he pushed to the bitter end the trials for maiestas, in cases where +complaint was made against any one for committing any improper act or +uttering any improper speech not only against Augustus but against +Tiberius personally and against his mother. + + And towards those suspected of plotting against him he was inexorable. + + Tiberius was stern in his chastisement of persons accused of an + offence. He would remark as follows: "Nobody willingly submits to + be ruled, but a man is driven into it reluctantly. Not only do subjects + like to refuse obedience, but, more than that, they enjoy plotting + against their rulers. And he would accept accusers indiscriminately: a + slave might denounce a master or a son a father. + + Indeed, by indicating to certain persons his wish for the death of + certain others he brought about the destruction of the latter through + the medium of the former, and there was no secrecy about these + transactions. + +Not only were slaves tortured to make them testify against their own +masters, but freedmen and citizens as well. Such as accused or offered +testimony against persons divided by lot the property of those convicted +and received in addition both offices and honors. In the case of many he +took care to ascertain the day and the hour that they had been born and +on the basis of their character and fortune thus investigated would +put them to death. If he discovered any qualities of haughtiness and +aspiration to power in any one, he despatched him whether or no. Yet so +much did he investigate and understand what was fated for each of the +prominent men that on meeting Galba (subsequently emperor), when the +latter had betrothed a wife, he remarked: "You also shall taste of the +sovereignty." He spared him, as I conjecture, because this was settled as +his fate; but, as he explained it himself, because Galba would reign only +in old age and long after his death. + +[Tiberius also found some pretexts for assassinations. The death of +Germanicus led to the destruction of many others on the ground that they +were pleased at it.] + +The man who coöperated with him and helped him in all his undertakings +with the utmost zeal was Lucius Aelius Sejanus, a son of Strabo, and +formerly a favorite of Marcus Gabius Apicius,--that Apicius who so +surpassed all mankind in voluptuous living that when he had once desired +to learn how much he had already spent and how much he still had, +on finding that two hundred and fifty myriads were left him became +grief-stricken, feeling that he was destined to die of hunger, and took +his own life. This Sejanus, accordingly, at one time shared his father's +command of the Pretorians. After his father had been sent to Egypt, and +he obtained entire control, he made the force more compact in many ways, +gathering within one fortification the cohorts, which had been separate +and apart from one another like those of the night guardsmen. In this way +the entire body could receive the orders speedily and they were a source +of terror to all, because they were within one fortification. This was +the man whom Tiberius, because of the similarity of their characters, +took as his helper, elevating him to prætorial honors, which had never +yet been accorded to any of his peers; and he made him his adviser and +assistant in all matters. [In fine, he changed so much after the death +of Germanicus that whereas previously he was highly praised, he now +attracted even greater wonder.] + +[A.D.21 (a. u. 774)] + +[-20-] When Tiberius began to hold the consular office in company with +Drusus, men immediately began to prophecy destruction for Drusus from +this very circumstance. For there is not a man who was ever consul with +Tiberius that did not meet a violent death, but in the first place there +was Quintilius Varus, and next Gnæus Piso, and then Germanicus himself, +who perished violently and miserably. The emperor was evidently doomed +to cause such ruin throughout his life: Drusus, his colleague at this +time, and Sejanus, who subsequently participated in the office, also +came to grief. + +While Tiberius was out of town, Gaius Lutorius Priscus,[4] a knight, who +took great pride in his poetic talents and had composed a notable funeral +oration over Germanicus for which he had received considerable money, was +charged with having composed a poem upon Drusus also, during the latter's +illness. For this he was tried in the senate, condemned and put to death. +Now Tiberius was vexed, not because the man had been punished, but +because the senators had inflicted death upon any one without his +approval. He therefore rebuked them and ordered a decree to be issued to +the effect that no person condemned by them be executed within ten days, +nor the document applying to his case be made public before the same +time. This was to ensure the possibility of his learning their decrees +in advance even while absent and of rendering a final decision on such +matters. + +[A.D. 22 (_a. u._ 775)] + +[-21-] After this, when his consulship had expired, he came to Rome and +prevented the consuls from acting as advocates to certain persons by +saying: "If I were consul, I should not do this." + +One of the prætors was accused of having uttered some impious word or +having committed some impious act against him, whereupon the man left the +senate and taking off his robe of office returned, demanding as a private +citizen to have the complaint lodged at once. At this the emperor showed +great grief and molested him no further. + +[A.D. 23 (_a. u._ 776)] + +The dancers he drove out of Rome and would allow them no place in which +to practice their profession, because they kept debauching the women and +stirring up tumults. + +He honored many men, and numbers of those who died, with statues and +public funerals. A bronze statue of Sejanus was erected in the theatre +during the life of the model. As a result, numerous images of this +minister were made by many persons and many encomiuma were spoken both in +the assembly and in the senate. The consuls themselves, besides the other +prominent citizens, regularly had recourse to his house just at dawn, and +communicated to him both all the private requests that any of them wished +to make of Tiberius and the public business which had to be taken up. +In brief, henceforth nothing of the kind was considered without his +knowledge. + +About this time one of the largest porticos in Rome began to lean to one +side and was set upright in a remarkable way by a certain architect +whose name no one knows, because Tiberius, jealous of his wonderful +achievement, would not permit it to be entered in the records. This +architect, accordingly, however he was called after strengthening the +foundations all about, so that they could not move out of position, and +surrounding all the rest of the arcade with thick fleeces and cloths, +ran ropes all over it and through it and by the pushing of many men and +machines brought it once more into its previous position. At the time +Tiberius both admired him and felt envious of him; for the former reason +he honored him with a present of money and for the latter he expelled +him from the city. Later, the exile approached him to make supplication +during the course of which he purposely let fall a crystal goblet, which +fell apart somehow or was broken, and then by passing his hands over +it showed it straightway intact; for this the suppliant hoped to have +obtained pardon, but instead the emperor put him to death. + +[-22-] Drusus, son of Tiberius, perished by poison. Sejanus, puffed up +by power and rank, in addition to his other overweening behavior finally +turned against Drusus and once struck him a blow with his fist. As this +gave the assailant reason to fear both Drusus and Tiberius, and inasmuch +as he felt sure that, if he could get the young man out of the way, he +could handle the elder very easily, he administered poison to the former +through the agency of those in attendance upon him and of Drusus's wife, +whom some name Livilla. [5] Sejanus was her paramour.--The guilt was +imputed to Tiberius because he altered none of his accustomed habits +either during the illness of Drusus or at his death and would not allow +others to alter theirs. But the story is not credible. This was his +regular behavior, as a matter of principle, in every case alike, +and furthermore he was attached to his son, the only one he had and +legitimate. Those that engineered his death he punished, some at once and +some later. At the time he entered the senate, delivered the appropriate +eulogy over his child, and departed homeward. + + Thus perished Sejanus's victim. Tiberius took his way to the + senate-house, where he lamented him publicly, put Nero and Drusus + (children of Germanicus) in charge of the senate, and exposed the body + of Drusus upon the rostra; and Nero, being his son-in-law, pronounced + an eulogy over him. This man's death proved a cause of death to many + persons, who were taxed with being pleased at his demise. Among the + large number of people who lost their lives was Agrippina, together + with her children, the youngest excepted. Sejanus had incensed + Tiberius greatly against her, anticipating that, when she and her + children were disposed of, he might have for his spouse Livia, wife of + Drusus, for whom he entertained a passion, and might wield supreme + power, since no successor would be found for Tiberius. The latter + detested his nephew as a bastard. Many others also did he banish or + destroy for different and ever different causes, for the most part + fictitious. + +Tiberius forbade those debarred from fire and water to make any will,--a +custom still observed. Ælius Saturninus he brought before the senate for +trial on the charge of having recited some improper verses about him, and +the culprit having been found guilty was hurled from the Capitol. [-23-]I +might narrate many other such occurrences, if I were to go into all in +detail. But the general statement may suffice that many were slain by him +for such offences. And also this,--that he investigated carefully, case by +case, all the slighting remarks that any persons were accused of uttering +against him and then called himself all the ill names that other men +invented. Even if a person made some statement secretly and to a single +companion, he would publish this too, and actually had it entered on the +official records. Often he falsely added, from his own consciousness of +defects, what no one had even said as really spoken, in order that it +might be thought he had juster cause for his wrath. Consequently it came +to pass that he himself committed against himself all those outrages for +which he was wont to chastise other people on the ground of impiety; and +he likewise became subject to no little ridicule. For, if persons denied +having spoken certain phrases, he, by asserting and taking oath that it +had been said, wronged himself with greater show of reality. For this +reason some suspected that he was bereft of his senses. Yet he was not +generally believed to be insane simply for this behavior. All other +business he managed in a way quite beyond criticism. For instance, he +appointed a guardian over a certain senator that lived licentiously, as +he might have done for a child. Again, he brought Capito, procurator of +Asia, before the senate, and, after charging him with using soldiers and +acting in some other ways as if he had supreme command, he banished him. +In those days officials administering the imperial funds were allowed +to do nothing more than to levy the customary tribute, and they were +compelled, in the case of disputes, to stand trial in the Forum and +according to the laws, on an equal footing with private persons.--So +great were the contrasts in Tiberius's conduct. + +[A.D. 24 (_a. u._ 777)] + +[-24-] When the ten years of his office had expired, he did not ask any +vote for its resumption, for he had no wish to receive it piecemeal, as +Augustus had done. The decennial festival, however, was held. + +[A.D. 25 (_a. u._ 778)] + +Cremutius Cordus was forced to lay violent hands upon himself, because he +had come into collision with Sejanus. He was at the gates of old age and +had lived most irreproachably, so much so that no sufficient complaint +could be found against him and he was tried for the history which he +had long before composed regarding the deeds of Augustus and the latter +himself had read. The ground of censure was that he had praised Cassius +and Brutus and had attacked the people and the senate. Of Cæsar and +Augustus he had spoken no ill, but at the same time had shown no +excessive respect for them. This was the complaint against him, and this +it was that caused his death as well as the burning of his works,--those +found in the city at this time being destroyed by the ædiles, and those +abroad by the officials of each place. Later they were published again, +for his daughter Marcia in particular, as well as others, had hidden +copies, and they attracted much greater attention by reason of the +unhappy end of Cordus. + +About this time Tiberius exhibited to the senators his pretorian cohort +in the act of exercising, as if they were ignorant of his power; his +purpose was to make them more afraid of him, when they saw his defenders +so many and so strong. + +Besides these events of the time that seem worthy to chronicle in a +history, the people of Cyzicus were once more deprived of their freedom +because they had imprisoned certain Romans and because they had not +completed the heroüm to Augustus that they had begun to build.--And the +emperor would certainly have put to death the man who sold the emperor's +statue along with his house and was brought to trial for the act, had not +the consul asked the ruler himself to give his vote first. Being ashamed +to appear partial to himself, he cast his ballot for acquittal. + +Also a senator, Lentulus, an excellent man naturally and now far advanced +in old age, was accused by some one of having plotted against the +emperor. Lentulus was present and burst out laughing. At this an uproar +arose in the senate, which was calmed by Tiberius saying: "I am no longer +worthy to live, if Lentulus, too, hates me." + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: epratten] (Boissevain) in place of the MS. +[Greek: eplatten].] + +[Footnote: 2: This was the name of a celebrated gladiator of the time. +(Compare Horace, Epistles, I, 18, 19.)] + +[Footnote 3: This is M. Pomponius Marcellus.] + +[Footnote 4: Reported elsewhere as _Clutorius_ or _Cluturius Priscus_. +The error may probably be referred to Dio as well as to Xiphilus, through +whom this particular chapter comes. (See Dessau, Prosop. Imp. Rom., I, +p.425)] + +[Footnote 5: The version of Zonaras says: "whom some record as Julia, +others as Livia." Inscriptions give her name as either _Claudia Livia_ or +_Livilla_. From these two pieces of evidence Boissevain with customary +acumen concludes that Dio's original words were probably: "whom some name +Livilla, and others Livia."] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +58 + +Tiberius withdraws to Capreæ: Sabinus loses his life through the +treachery of Latiarius (chapter 1). + +About the death of Livia (chapter 2). + +Gallus is condemned to consume away by a slow death (chapter 3). + +Sejanus, puffed up by excessive honors, is put to death together with his +household and friends by the artifice of Tiberius (chapters 4-19). + +The method of selecting magistrates and of holding comitia (chapter 20). + +The lustfulness of Tiberius, his cruelty towards his own family and +others, and likewise his greed (chapters 21-25). + +About Artabanus, the Parthian King, and about Armenia (chapter 26). + +About the death of Thrasyllus (chapter 27). + +About the death of Tiberius (chapter 28). + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Cn. Lentulus Gætulicus, C. Calvisius Sabinus. (A.D. 26 = a. u. 779 = +Thirteenth of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +M. Licinius Crassus, L. Calpurnius Piso. (A.D. 27 = a. u. 780 = +Fourteenth of Tiberius.) + +App. Iunius Silanus, P. Silius Nerva. (A.D. 28 = a. u. 781 = Fifteenth of +Tiberius.) + +L. Rubellius Geminus, C. Fufius Geminus. (A.D. 29 = a. u. 782 = Sixteenth +of Tiberius.) + +M. Vinicius Quartinus, L. Cassius Longinus. (A.D. 30 = a. u. 783 = +Seventeenth of Tiberius.) + +Tiberius Aug. (V), L. Ælius Seianus. (A.D. 31 = a. u. 784 = Eighteenth of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Furius Camillus Scribonianus. (A.D. 32 = a. u. +785 = Nineteenth of Tiberius.) + +Serv. Sulpicius Galba, L. Cornelius Sulla, (A.D. 33 = a. u. 786 = +Twentieth of Tiberius.) + +L. Vitellius, Paulus Fabius Persicus. (A.D. 34 = a. u. 787 = Twenty-first +of Tiberius.) + +C. Cestius Gallus, M. Servilius Nonianus. (A.D. 35 = a. u. 788 = +Twenty-second of Tiberius.) + +Sex. Papinius, Q. Plautius. (A.D. 36 = a. u. 789 = Twenty-third of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Acerronius Proculus, C. Pontius Nigrinus. (A.D. 37 = a. u. 790 = +Twenty-fourth of Tiberius, to March 26th.) + + +_(BOOK 57, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 26 (_a. u._ 779)] + +[-1-] He went away about this time from Rome and never returned to the +city at all, though he was ever on the point of doing so and kept sending +messages to that effect. + +[A.D. 27 (_a. u._ 780)] + + Much calamity could be laid by the Romans at his door, since + he wasted the lives of men alike for public service and for + private whim, as when he decided to expel the hunting + spectacles from the city. Consequently some persons attempted + to carry them on in the country outside and perished in the + ruins of their theatres, which had been loosely + constructed of rude planks. + +[A.D. 28 (_a. u._ 781)] + +It was now, too, that a certain Latiarius, a companion of Sabinus (one of +the most prominent men at Rome) and also in favor with Sejanus, concealed +senators in the ceiling of the apartment where his friend lived and led +Sabinus into conversation. By throwing out some of his usual remarks he +induced the other also to speak out freely all that he had in his mind. +It is the practice of such as wish to play the sycophant to take the lead +in some kind of abuse and to disclose some secret, intending that their +victim either for listening to them or for saying something similar may +find himself liable to indictment. To the sycophants, since they do it +with a purpose, freedom of speech involves no danger. They are regarded +as speaking so not because their words express their real sentiments but +because they wish to convict others. Their victims, however, are punished +for the smallest syllable out of the ordinary that they may utter. This +also happened in the present case. Sabinus was put in prison that very +day and subsequently perished without trial. His body was flung down the +Scalæ Gemoniæ and cast into the river. The affair was made more tragic by +the behavior of a dog of Sabinus that went with him to his cell, was +by him at his death, and at the end was thrown into the river with +him.--Such was the nature of this event. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 29 (_a. u._ 782)] + +[-2-] During this same period Livia also passed away at the age of +eighty-six. Tiberius paid her no visits while she was ill and did not +personally attend to her laying out. In fact, he made no arrangements at +all in her honor save the public funeral and images and some other small +matters of no importance. As for her being deified, he forbade that +absolutely. The senate, however, did not content itself with voting +merely the measures which he had ordained, but enjoined upon the women +mourning for her during the entire year, although it approved the course +of Tiberius in not abandoning even at this time the conduct of public +business. Furthermore they voted her an arch (as had never been done in +the case of any other woman), because she had preserved not a few of +them, had reared many children belonging to citizens, and had helped +find husbands for numerous girls,--for all of which acts some called her +Mother of her Country. She was buried in the mausoleum of Augustus. + +Tiberius would not pay a single one of her bequests to anybody. + +Among the many excellent utterances of hers that are related is one +concerned with the occasion when some men that were naked met her and on +that account fell under sentence of execution; she saved their lives by +saying that to chaste women such persons were no whit different from +statues. When some one asked her how and by what course of action she had +obtained such an influence over Augustus, she answered that it was by +being scrupulously chaste herself, doing willingly whatever pleased him, +not meddling with any of his business, and particularly by pretending +neither to hear of nor notice the favorites that were the objects of his +passion. Such was the character of Livia. The arch voted to her, however, +was not built for the reason that Tiberius promised to construct it +at his own expense. For, as he disliked to annul the decree by direct +command, he made it void in this way, by not allowing the work to be +undertaken out of the public funds nor attending to it himself. + +[A.D. 29 or 30] + +Sejanus was rising to still greater heights. It was voted that his +birthday should be publicly observed, and the mass of statues which the +senate and the equestrian order, the tribes and the foremost citizens set +up, would have passed any one's power to count. Separate envoys were sent +to both these "rulers" by the senate as well as the knights and also by +the people, who selected them from their own tribunes and aediles. For +both of them alike they offered prayers and sacrifices and they took +oaths by their Fortunes. + +[A.D. 30 (a. u. 783)] + +[-3-] Gallus, who married the wife of Tiberius and spoke his mind +regarding the empire, was the next object of the emperor's attack, for +which the right moment had been carefully selected. [Whether he really +believed that Sejanus would be emperor or whether it was out of fear of +Tiberius, he paid court to the former. It may indeed, have been a kind +of plot, to make the minister irksome to Tiberius and so accomplish his +ruin: but at any rate Gallus transacted the greater and more important +part of his business with him and made efforts to be one of the envoys. +Therefore the emperor sent a report about him to the senate, making among +other statements one to the effect that this man was jealous of his +friendship for Sejanus, although Gallus himself treated Syriacus as an +intimate friend. He did not make this known to Gallus, entertaining him +most hospitably instead.] Hence something most unusual befell him that +never happened to any one else. On the very same day he was banqueted at +the house of Tiberius, pledging him in the cup of friendship, and was +condemned before the senate. Indeed, a prætor was sent to imprison him +and lead him away for punishment. Yet Tiberius, though he had acted so, +did not permit his victim to die, in spite of the latter's wish for death +as soon as he learned the decree. Instead, he bade Gallus (in order to +make his lot still more dismal) to be of good cheer and instructed the +senate[1] that he should be guarded without bonds until the emperor +should reach the City; his object, as I said, was to make the prisoner +suffer for the longest possible time both from deprivation of his civic +rights and from terror. So it turned out. He was kept under the eyes of +the consuls of each year except when Tiberius held the office, in that +case he was guarded by the prætors, not to prevent his escape, but to +prevent his death. He had no companion or servant as associate, spoke to +no one, saw no one, except when he was compelled to take food. And what +he got was of such a quality and amount as neither to afford him any +pleasure or strength nor yet to allow him to die. This was the worst +feature of it. Tiberius did the same thing in the case of many others. +For instance, he had imprisoned one of his companions, and when there was +later talk about executing him, he said: "I have not yet made my peace +with him." Some one else, again, he had tortured very severely, and then +on ascertaining that the victim had been unjustly accused he had him +killed with all speed, remarking that he had been too terribly outraged +to find any satisfaction in living. Syriacus, who had neither committed +nor been charged with any wrong, but was renowned for his education, was +slain merely for the reason that Tiberius said he was a friend of Gallus. +[Sejanus brought false accusation also against Drusus, through the medium +of his wife. For, by maintaining illicit relations with practically all +the wives of the distinguished men, he learned what their husbands said +and did, and further made them his assistants by promises of marriage. +Now when Tiberius without discussion sent Drusus to Rome, Sejanus, +fearing that his position might be injured, persuaded Cassius [2] to busy +himself against him.] + +After exalting Sejanus to a high pinnacle of glory and making him a +member of his family by the alliance with Julia, daughter of Drusus, +Tiberius later killed him. + +[-4-] Now Sejanus was growing greater and more formidable all the time, +and his progress made the senators and the rest look up to him as if he +were actually emperor and esteem Tiberius lightly. When Tiberius learned +this, he did not regard the matter as a trivial one, fearing, indeed, +that they would hail his rival as emperor outright, and he did not +neglect it. Yet he did nothing openly, for Sejanus had won the entire +pretorian guard thoroughly to his own side and had gained the favor of +the senators partly by benefits, partly by implanting hopes, and partly +by intimidation. He had made all the attendants on Tiberius so entirely +his friends that absolutely everything the emperor did was at once +reported to him, whereas of what he did not a word reached Tiberius's +ears. Hence the latter appeared content to follow where Sejanus led, +appointed him consul, and termed him Sharer of his Cares, repeating often +the phrase "My Sejanus," and publishing the same by writing it to the +senate and the people. Men took this behavior as sincere and were +deceived, and so set up bronze statues all about to both alike, wrote +their names together in bulletins, and brought into the theatres gilded +chairs for both. Finally it was voted that they should together be made +consuls every four years and that a body of citizens should go out to +meet both alike whenever they entered Rome. In the end they sacrificed to +the images of Sejanus as to those of Tiberius. This was the way matters +stood with Sejanus. Now among the rest many famous men met an ill fate, +of whom was also Gaius Fufius Geminus. Being accused of the crime of +maiestas against Tiberius he took his will into the senate-chamber and +read it, showing that he had left his inheritance in equal portions to +his children and to his sovereign. As he was charged with weakness he +went home before any vote was reached. When he learned that the quæstor +had arrived to attend to his execution, he wounded himself and displaying +the wound to the official exclaimed: "Report to the senate that it is +thus one dies who is a man." Likewise, his wife, Mutilia Prisca, against +whom some complaint was made, made her way into the senate and there +stabbed herself with a dagger, which she had brought in secretly. + +Next he destroyed Mutilia and her husband together with two daughters on +account of her friendship for his mother. + +In the days of Tiberius all who accused any persons regularly received +money and large allotments both from the victims' property and from the +public treasury in addition to various honors. There were cases where +certain men who impudently threw others into a panic or recklessly passed +the death sentence upon them obtained in the one instance statues and +in the other triumphal honors. Hence several citizens who were really +illustrious and conquered the right to some such distinction would not +assume it out of reluctance to let any period of their lives betray even +a superficial similarity to the careers of those scoundrels. + +Tiberius, feigning sickness, sent Sejanus on to Rome with the assurance +that he should follow. He declared that in this separation a part of his +own body and soul was wrenched away from him: shedding tears he embraced +and kissed him, and Sejanus naturally was thereat the more elated. + +[A.D. 31 (a u. 784)] + +[-5-] By this time Sejanus was so imposing both in his haughtiness of +mind and in his immensity of power that, to make a long matter short, he +seemed to be the emperor and Tiberius a kind of island potentate because +the latter spent all his days in the island called Capreæ. Then there was +rivalry and jostling about the great man's doors from the fear not merely +that a person might fail to be observed by his patron but that he might +appear among the last: for all the words and gestures, particularly of +those in front, were carefully watched. People who hold a prominent +position as the result of native worth are not given at all to seeking +signs of friendship from others, and in case anything of the sort is seen +to be wanting on the part of these others the persons in question are not +provoked, inasmuch as they have an innate consciousness that they are not +being looked down upon. Any, however, that hold an artificial rank are +extremely jealous of all such attentions, feeling them to be necessary to +render their position complete. If they fail to obtain them then they +are as irritated as if slander were being pronounced against them and as +angry as if they were the recipients of positive insult. Consequently +the world is more scrupulous in the case of such persons than (one might +almost say) in the case of emperors themselves. To the latter it is +ascribed as a virtue to pardon any one if an error is committed; but in +the self-made persons that course appears to argue an inherent weakness, +whereas to attack and to exact vengeance is thought to furnish proof of +great power. + +One morning, the first of the month, when all were gathered at Sejanus's +house, the couch placed in the small room where he received broke into +infinitesimal fragments under the weight of the throng seated upon it; +and, as he was leaving the house, a weasel darted through the midst of +them. After he had sacrificed on the Capitol and was now coming down to +the Forum, his servants that acted as body-guard turned aside along +the road leading to the prison, because the crowd prevented them from +escorting him, and as they descended the steps down which condemned +criminals were commonly cast they slipped and fell. Subsequently he took +the auspices and not one bird of good omen appeared, but crows flew and +cawed about him and then flew off all together to the jail, where they +alighted. + +[-6-] These prodigies neither Sejanus nor any one else laid to heart. +For, in view of the way things stood, not even if some god had plainly +foretold that so great a change would take place in a short time, would +any one have believed it. They swore by his Fortune as if they would +never be weary, and hailed him colleague of Tiberius, making this phrase +refer not to the consulship but to the supreme power. Tiberius was no +longer uninformed of aught that concerned his minister. He racked his +brains to see in what manner he might kill him, but, not finding any way +in which he might do this openly and safely, he treated both the man +himself and all the rest in a remarkable fashion, so as to gain an +accurate knowledge of their feeling. He sent many despatches of all kinds +regarding himself to Sejanus and to the senate incessantly, saying at one +time that he was poorly and just at the point of death, and again that +he was in exceedingly good health and would reach Rome directly. Now he +would strongly approve Sejanus and again vehemently denounce him. Some of +his companions he would honor to show his regard for him, and others he +would dishonor. Thus Sejanus, filled in turn with extreme elation +and extreme fear, was always in a flutter. He could not decide to be +terrified and for that reason attempt a revolution, inasmuch as he was +being honored, nor yet to become bold enough to attempt some desperate +venture inasmuch as he was frequently abased. Moreover, all the rest of +the people were getting to feel dubious, because they heard alternately +and at short intervals the most contrary reports, because they could no +longer justify themselves in either admiring or despising Sejanus, and +because they were wondering about Tiberius, thinking first that he was +going to die and then that his arrival was imminent. + +[-7-] Sejanus was disturbed by all this, and a great deal more by the +fact that from one of his statues at first a mass of smoke ascended in a +burst, and then, when the head was taken off to enable investigators to +see what was going on, a huge serpent darted up. Another head at once +replaced the former, and accordingly he was on the point of sacrificing +to himself (for sacrificing to himself was a regular part of his +program), when a rope was discovered coiled around the statue's neck. +Also a figure of Fortuna, made (as is said) in the time of Tullius, an +early king of Rome,--one which Sejanus at this time kept at his house and +took great pride in,--he saw turn away while he was sacrificing in +person ... and later others who had gone out in their company.[3] Most +men were suspicious of these circumstances, but since they did not know +the mind of Tiberius and further took into consideration the latter's +caprice and the unstable condition of affairs, they were divided in +sentiment. Privately they kept a sharp eye on their own safety, but +publicly they paid court to him, among other reasons because Tiberius +had joined to [him][4] as priests both Sejanus and his son. Moreover, they +had given him the proconsular authority and had likewise voted that word +be sent to all such as were consuls from year to year to emulate him in +their office. So Tiberius had honored him with the priesthoods, but he +did not send for him: instead, when his minister requested that he might +go to Campania, pleading as an excuse that his fiancée was ill, the +emperor directed him to stay where he was, giving as a reason that he +would himself arrive in Rome in almost no time. + +[-8-] As a result, then, of this, Sejanus was again gradually alienated +and his vexation was increased by the fact that Tiberius appointed Gaius +priest with the imperial commendation and gave some hints to the effect +that he should make the new appointee his successor in the empire. The +angry favorite would have begun rebellious measures, especially as the +soldiers were ready to obey him in everything, had he not perceived that +the populace was hugely pleased at what was said in regard to Gaius, +out of reverence for the memory of Germanicus his father. Sejanus had +previously thought that these persons, too, were on his side, and now, +finding them enthusiastic for Gaius, he became dejected. He felt sorry +that he had not shown open revolt during his consulship. The rest were +strongly influenced against him by the course of events [5] as also by +Tiberius's action in releasing soon after an enemy of Sejanus, chosen ten +years before to govern Spain and just now being tried on certain charges. +Because of Sejanus the emperor also granted temporary immunity from +such suits to such others as were going to govern any provinces or to +administer any similar public business. And in writing to the senate +about the death of Nero he used simply the name Sejanus, with no phrases +added as had been his custom. Moreover, he forbade offering sacrifice to +any human being (because sacrifice was often offered to this man) and +the introduction of any business looking to his own honor (because many +honorary measures were being passed for his rival's benefit). He had +forbidden this practice still earlier, but now, on account of Sejanus, he +renewed his injunction. For naturally, if he allowed nothing of the +sort to be done in his own case, he would not permit it in the case of +another. + +[-9-] In view of all this, the people began to look down on Sejanus more +and more, to the point of drawing aside at his approach and leaving him +alone,--and that openly, without pretence of concealment. When Tiberius +learned of it, his courage revived: he felt that he should have the +coöperation of the people and the senate, and accordingly began an attack +upon his enemy. First, in order to take him off his guard to the fullest +possible extent, be spread a report that he would give him the office of +tribune. Then he despatched a communication against him to the senate by +the hands of Nævius Sertorius Macro, whom he had privately appointed to +command the body-guards and had instructed as to precisely what must be +done. The latter came by night into Rome as if on some different errand +and made known his message to Memmius Regulus, then consul (his colleague +sided with Sejanus), and to Græcinius Laco, commander of the night watch. +At dawn Macro ascended the Palatine, where there was to be a session of +the senate in the temple of Apollo. Encountering Sejanus, who had not yet +gone in, he saw that he was troubled at Tiberius's having sent him no +message, and encouraged him, telling him aside and in confidence that he +was bringing him the tribunician authority. Sejanus, overjoyed at +this, hastened to the senate-chamber. Macro sent away to the camp the +Pretorians that commonly surrounded the minister and the senate, after +revealing to them his right as leader to do so and declaring that he +brought documents from Tiberius that bestowed gifts upon them. Around +the temple he stationed the night watch in their stead, went in himself, +delivered his letter to the consuls, and went out before a word was read. +He then put Laco in charge of guard duty at that point, and himself +hurried to the camp to prevent any uprising. + +[-10-] Meanwhile the letter was read. It was a long one and contained +no wholesale denunciations of Sejanus but first some indifferent +matters, then a slight censure of his conduct, then something else, and +after that some further objection to him. At the close it said that two +senators that were very intimate with him must be punished and that +he himself must be kept guarded. Tiberius did not give them orders +outright to put him to death, not because such was not his desire, but +because he feared that some disturbance might be the result of it. But +since, as he said, he could not take the journey safely, he had sent for +one of the consuls. + +This was all that the composition disclosed. During the reading many +diverse utterances and expressions of countenance were observable. First, +before the people heard the letter, they were engaged in lauding the +man, whom they supposed to be on the point of receiving the tribunician +authority. They shouted their approval realizing in anticipation all +their hopes and making a demonstration to show that they would concur in +granting him honor. When, however, nothing of the sort was discovered, +but they kept hearing just the reverse of what they expected, they fell +into confusion and subsequently into deep dejection. Some of those seated +near him even withdrew. They now no longer cared to share the same seat +with the man whom previously they were anxious to claim as friend. Then +prætors and tribunes began to surround him to prevent his causing any +uproar by rushing out,--which he certainly would have done, if he had +been startled at the outset by any general tirade. As it was, he paid no +great heed to what was read from time to time, thinking it a slight +matter, a single charge, and hoping that nothing further, or at any rate +nothing serious in regard to him had been made a matter of comment. So +he let the time slip by and remained where he was. + +Meantime Regulus called him forward, but he paid no attention, not out +of contempt,--for he had already been humbled,--but because he was +unaccustomed to hearing any command given him. But when the consul +shouted at him a second and a third time, at the same time stretching out +his arm and saying: "Sejanus, come here!" he enquired blankly: "Are you +calling _me_?" So at last he stood up, and Laco, who had entered, +took his stand beside him. When finally the reading of the letter was +finished, all with one voice both denounced him and uttered threats, some +because they had been wronged, others through fear, some to disguise +their friendship for him and others out of joy at his downfall. Regulus +did not give all of them, however, a chance to vote, nor did he put the +question to any one regarding the man's death, for fear there should be +come opposition and a consequent disturbance; for Sejanus had numerous +relatives and friends. Hence, after asking one person's opinion and +obtaining a supporting vote in favor of imprisonment, he conducted +the former favorite out of the senate-chamber, and in company with the +other officials and with Laco led him down to the prison. + +[-11-] Then might one have obtained a clear and searching +insight into the weakness of man, so that self-conceit would have been +never again, under any conditions possible. Him whom at dawn they had +escorted to the senate-halls as one superior to themselves they were now +dragging to a cell as if no better than the worst. On him whom they once +deemed worthy of crowns they now heaped bonds. Him whom they were wont to +protect as a master they now guarded like a runaway slave, and +uncovered while he wore a headdress. Him whom they had adorned with the +purple-bordered toga they struck in the face. Whom they were wont to +adore and sacrifice to as to a god they were now leading to execution. +The crowd also assailed him, reproaching him violently for the lives he +had destroyed and jeering loudly at what had been hoped of him. All of +his images they hurled down, beat down, and pulled down, seeming to +feel that they were maltreating the man himself, and he thus became a +spectator of what he was destined to suffer. For the moment he was merely +cast into prison; but not much later,--that very day, in fact,--the +senate assembled in the temple of Concord not far from his cell, and +seeing the attitude of the populace and that none of the Pretorians was +near by it condemned him to death. On these orders he was executed and +his body cast down the Scalæ Gemoniæ, where the rabble abused it for +three whole days and afterward threw it into the river. His children +were put to death by special decree, the girl (whom he had betrothed +to the son of Claudius) having been first outraged by the public +executioner on the principle that it was unlawful for a virgin to meet +death in prison. His wife Apicata was not condemned, to be sure, but +on learning that her children were dead and after seeing their bodies +on the Stairs she withdrew and composed a statement regarding the +death of Drusus, directed against Livilla, the latter's wife, who had +been the cause of a quarrel between herself and her husband, resulting +in their separation. This document she forwarded to Tiberius and then +committed suicide. Thus the statement came to the hands of Tiberius, +and when he had obtained proof of the information he put to death +Livilla and all others therein mentioned. I have, indeed, heard that he +spared her out of regard for her mother Antonia, and that Antonia +herself voluntarily destroyed her daughter by starving her. At any +rate, that was later. + +[-12-] At this time a great uproar ensued in the City. The +populace slew any one it saw of those who had possessed great influence +with Sejanus and relying on him had committed acts of insolence. +The soldiers, too, in irritation because they had been suspected of +friendliness toward Sejanus and because the nightwatchmen had been +preferred before them in the confidence of the emperor, proceeded to +burn and plunder,--and this in spite of the fact that all officials were +guarding the entire city in accordance with the injunction of Tiberius. + +Not even the senate was quiet, but such members of it as had paid court +to Sejanus were greatly disturbed by dread of reprisals; and those who +had accused or borne witness against any persons were filled with fear +by the prevailing suspicion that they had destroyed their victims out of +regard for the minister instead of for Tiberius. Very small indeed +was the courageous element, which was unhampered by these terrors and +expected that Tiberius would become milder. For as usually happens, they +laid the responsibility for their previous misfortunes upon the dead man +and charged the emperor with few or none of them. Of the most of this +unjust treatment, they said, he had been ignorant, and he had been forced +into the rest against his will. Privately this was the disposition of +the various classes; publicly they voted, as if they had cast off some +tyranny, not to hold any mourning over the deceased and to have a statue +of Liberty erected in the Forum; also a festival was to be celebrated +under the auspices of all the magistrates and priests,--as had never +before occurred; and the day on which he died was to be made renowned +by annual horse-races and slaughters of wild beasts, directed by those +appointed to the four priesthoods and by the members of the Sodality of +Augustus. This, too, had never before been done. To celebrate the ruin of +the man whom they by the excess and novelty of their honors had led to +destruction they voted solemnities that were not customary even for the +gods. They comprehended so clearly that it was chiefly these honors +which had bereft him of his senses that they at once forbade explicitly +the giving of excessive marks of esteem to any one, as also the taking +of oaths in the name of any one other than the emperor. Yet though +they passed such votes, as if under a divine inspiration, they began +shortly after to fawn upon Macro and Laco. They gave them great sums +of money and to Laco the honors of ex-quaestors, while to Macro they +extended the honors of ex-prætors. Similarly[6] they allowed them +also to view spectacles in their company and to wear the toga +praetextata at the ludi votivi. The men did not accept these privileges, +however, for the recent example served as a deterrent. Nor would +Tiberius take any honor bestowed, though many were voted him, chief +among them being that he should begin from this time to be termed Father +of his Country and that his birthday should be marked by ten equestrian +contests and a senatorial banquet. Indeed, he gave notice anew that no +one should introduce any such motion.--These were the events happening in +the capital. + +[-13-] Tiberius for a time had certainly been in great fear +that Sejanus would occupy the City and sail against him, and so he had +prepared boats, to the end that, if anything of the sort should come to +pass, he might escape. He had commanded Macro,--or so some say,--if there +should be any uprising to bring Drusus before the senate and the people +and appoint him emperor. + +When he learned that his enemy was dead, he rejoiced, as was natural, yet +would not receive the embassy sent to congratulate him, though many +members of the senate and many of the knights and of the populace had +been despatched, as before. Indeed he even rebuffed the consul Regulus, +who had always been devoted to his interests and had come in accordance +with the emperor's own commands to see about his being conveyed in +safety to the City. + +[-14-] Thus perished Sejanus, who had attained greater power +than those who obtained his office before or after him (save Plautianus). +His relatives, his associates, and all the rest who had paid court to +him and had moved that honors be granted him were brought to trial. The +majority of them were convicted for the acts that had previously made +them objects of envy; and their fellow-citizens condemned them for the +measures which they themselves had previously voted. Numbers of men who +had been tried on various charges and acquitted were again accused and +convicted on the ground that they had been saved the first time as a +favor to the deceased. Accordingly, if no other complaint could be +brought against a person, the statement that he had been a friend of +Sejanus served to convict him,--as if, forsooth, Tiberius himself had not +been friendly with him, and caused others to become interested for his +sake. Among those who laid information in this way were the men who were +wont to pay court to Sejanus. Inasmuch as they knew thoroughly those who +were in the same position, they had no great trouble either in finding +them out or securing their conviction. So they, expecting to save +themselves by doing this, and to obtain honors and money besides, +accused others or else bore witness against them. But it proved that none +of their hopes was realized. They found themselves liable to the same +charges on which they had prosecuted others, and partly as a result of +them and partly on account of the general detestation of traitors perished +along with their companions. [-15-] Of those against whom charges were +brought many were present in person to hear their accusation and make +their defence, and some employed great frankness in so doing. Still, the +majority made away with themselves prior to their conviction. They did +this chiefly to avoid suffering insult and outrage. (For all who had +incurred any such charge, senators as well as knights, women as well as +men, were crowded together into the prison. After their condemnation +some underwent the penalty there and others were hurled from the +Capitol by the tribunes or the consuls. The bodies of all of them were +cast into the Forum and subsequently were thrown into the river.) But +their object was partly that their children might inherit their property. +Very few estates of such as voluntarily took themselves off before their +trial were confiscated, Tiberius in this way inviting men to become their +own murderers, that he might avoid the reputation of having killed +them; as if it were not far more fearful to compel a man to die by his +own hand than to deliver him to the executioner. [-16-] Most of the +estates of such as failed to die in this way were confiscated, only a +little or nothing at all even being given to their accusers. For he was +now giving far more[7] accurate attention to money. After this Tiberius +increased to one per cent. a tax which was already one-half of one +per cent. and proceeded to accept every inheritance left to him. And +in fact nearly every one left him something,--even those who made +away with themselves,--as they had to Sejanus while the latter lived. + +Also, with that same intention which had led him not to take possession +of the wealth of those who perished voluntarily, he made the senate +sponsor for every official summons, to the end that he might be free +from blame himself (for so he thought) and the senate pass sentence upon +itself as a wrongdoer.[8] By this means people came to be thoroughly +aware, during the time that they were being destroyed through one +another's agency, that their former troubles had emanated no more from +Sejanus than from Tiberius. For not only were the accusers of various +persons brought to trial, but those who had condemned them were in turn +sentenced. So it was that Tiberius spared no one, but kept using up +all the citizens one against another; no firm friendships existed any +longer[9]; but the unjust and the guiltless, the fearful and the fearless +stood on the same footing as regarded the investigation made into the +complaints about Sejanus. At length he saw fit to propose a kind of +amnesty for the sufferers, and so he gave permission to those who wished +to go into mourning for the deceased; and in addition he forbade that any +one should in any way be hindered from showing this respect to the memory +of any person,--for such prohibitory votes were frequently passed. Yet he +did not in fact confirm this edict, but after a brief space he punished +numbers on account of Sejanus and on other complaints: they were +generally charged with having outraged and murdered their nearest female +relatives. + +[A.D. 32(_a. u._ 785)] + +[-17-] Such was the state of affairs at this time, and there was not a +soul that could deny that he would be glad to feast on the emperor's +flesh. Now the next year, when Gnæus Domitius and Camillus Scribonianus +became consuls, a very laughable thing happened. It had now long been the +custom for the members of the senate on the first of the year to take the +oath not man by man, but for one (as I have stated)[10] to take the oath +for them and the rest to express their acquiescence. This time, however, +they did not do so, but of their own motion, without any compulsion, they +were separately and individually pledged, as though this would make them +any more regardful of their oath. Previously for many years the emperor +had allowed matters to go on without a single person's swearing +allegiance to his acts of government: this I have mentioned. [11]--At +this time also there occurred something else still more laughable. + +[-18-] They voted that he should select as many of their number as he +liked and should employ twenty of them,--whomsoever the lot should +designate,--as guards with daggers as often as he entered the +senate-chamber. Of course, as the exterior of the building was watched by +the soldiers and no private citizen could come inside, their resolution +that a guard be given him amounted to a precaution against no one but +themselves, thus indicating that they were hostile. Naturally Tiberius +expressed his obligations to them and thanked them for their good +intentions, but he rejected their offer as being too much out of the +ordinary. He was not so simple as to give swords to the very men whom he +hated and by whom he was hated. Yet, as a result of this very measure +he began to grow suspicious of them,--for every act in contravention +of sincerity which one undertakes for the purpose of flattery breeds +suspicion,--and bidding a long adieu to their decrees he began to +honor the Pretorians both by addresses and with money, in spite of his +knowledge that they had been on the side of Sejanus, so that he might +find them more disposed to be employed against the senators. On occasion, +to be sure, he in turn commended the latter, when they voted that +funds from the public treasury be bestowed on the guardsmen. He kept +alternately deceiving the one party by his talk and winning over the +other party by his acts in a most effective way. For instance, Junius +Gallic had moved that a spectacle be provided in the meeting place of +the knights for those of the body-guard who had finished their term of +service: Tiberius did not merely banish him when the man was brought up +on this very charge of giving an impression that he was persuading the +soldiers to show good-will to the government rather than to the emperor; +no, but when he found that Junius was setting sail for Lesbos he deprived +him of a safe and comfortable existence there and delivered him to the +custody of the magistrates, as he had once done with Gallus. And in order +to assure the two classes still more fully how he felt toward both of +them he not long after asked the senate that Macro and some military +tribunes be deemed sufficient to conduct him to the senate-chamber. He +had no need of those persons, for he had no idea of ever entering the +city again, but what he wanted was to display his hatred of the senators +and show the latter the friendliness of the soldiers. The senators +actually granted this request. However, they attached to the decree a +clause that the escort should be searched on entering to make sure that +no one had a dagger hidden beneath his arm.--This resolution was passed +in the following year. + +[-19-] At this time he spared among some others who had been intimate +with Sejanus Lucius Cæsianus,[12] a prætor, and Marcus Terentius, a +knight. He overlooked the behavior of the former, who at the Floralia to +ridicule Tiberius had had everything up to midnight done by baldheaded +men (because the emperor himself was also baldheaded) and had furnished +light to those leaving the theatre by the hands of five thousand boys +with shaven pates. Tiberius was so far from becoming angry at him that +he pretended not to have heard about it at all, though all baldheaded +persons were from then on called Caesiani, after this man. Terentius he +spared because when on trial for his friendship with Sejanus he not only +did not deny it but affirmed that he had worked for him and paid court to +him to the greatest possible extent for the reason that the minister was +so highly honored by Tiberius himself. "Consequently," he said, "if the +emperor did rightly in having such a friend, neither have I done any +wrong: and if my sovereign, who knows all things accurately, erred, what +wonder is it that I shared his deception? Our duty is to cherish all whom +he honors without concerning ourselves overmuch about the kind of men +they are, but making one thing determine our friendship for them,--the +fact that they please the emperor." The senate for these reasons +acquitted him and in addition rebuked his accusers. Tiberius concurred +with them. When Piso, the praefectus urbi, died, he honored him with a +public funeral,--a distinction granted also to others. In his place he +chose Lucius Lamia, whom he had long ago put in charge of Syria[13] and +was keeping at Rome. He took similar action, too, in the case of many +others, really caring nothing at all for them, but making an outward show +of honoring them.--Meantime Vitrasius Pollio, governor of Egypt died, and +he entrusted the province for a time to one Hiberus, a Cæsarian. + +[A.D. 33 (_a. u._ 786)] + +[-20-] Now of the consuls Domitius held office the whole year +through,--for he was husband of Agrippina, the daughter of +Germanicus,--but the rest adapted themselves to the whims of Tiberius. +Some he elevated for a longer time and some for a shorter: some he +stopped before the end of their appointed term and others he allowed +to hold office beyond the limits designated. Not infrequently he would +appoint a man for an entire year and then depose him, setting up another +and still another in his place. Sometimes, after choosing certain +substitutes for third place, he would then have others become consuls +before them in the place of still others. These irregularities in the +case of the consuls occurred through practically his entire reign. Of the +candidates for the other offices he selected as many as he wished and +sent their names to the senate, recommending some to that body,--and +these were chosen, by acclamation,--but making others depend upon their +own claims or the assent of the senate or the decision of the lot. After +that, in order to follow out ancient precedent, such as belonged to +the people and the plebs went before one of these two bodies and were +announced: this is the same practice that is followed at present, +intended to produce at least an appearance of valid election. In case +there was ever a deficiency of candidates or they became involved in +irreconcilable strife, a smaller number was chosen.--The following year, +in which Servius Galba (that later became emperor) and Lucius Cornelius +held the consular title, fifteen prætors held office. This went on for +many years, so that sometimes sixteen and sometimes one or two less were +chosen. + +[-21-] The next move of Tiberius was to approach the capital and sojourn +in its environs; he did not, however, go within the walls, although +he was but thirty stades distant, so that he bestowed in marriage the +remaining daughters of Germanicus and also Julia, the daughter of Drusus. +Hence the city did not make a festival of their marriages, but everything +went on as usual: the senators met and decided judicial cases. For +Tiberius made an important point of their assembling as often as he would +have convened them, and insisted on their not arriving later or departing +earlier than the time fixed. He sent to the consuls many injunctions on +this head and once ordered certain statements to be read aloud by them. +He behaved in the same way in regard to certain other matters (just as if +he could not write directly to the senate!). To that body he sent in not +only the documents given him by the informers but also the confessions +under torture which Macro obtained, so that nothing was left in the hands +of the senators save the vote of condemnation. About this time, however, +a certain Vibullius Agrippa, a knight, swallowed poison from a ring and +died in the senate-house itself, and Nerva, who could no longer endure +the emperor's society, starved himself to death, his chief reason for +doing so being that Tiberius had reaffirmed the laws on contracts, +enacted by Cæsar, which were sure to result in great loss of confidence +and upheaval; and although his chief repeatedly urged him to utter +some word,[14] he refused to answer. These events seemed to make some +impression on the emperor and he modified the situation, so far as it +pertained to loans, by giving two thousand five hundred myriads to the +public treasury under the arrangement that this money could be lent out +by the senatorial party without interest for three years to such as +desired it. He further commanded that the most notorious of those who had +steadily acted as accusers should be put to death on one day. And when a +man who belonged to the centurions wished to lodge information against +some one, he forbade that any person who had served in the army should do +so, although he allowed the privilege to knights and senators. + +[-22-] There is no denying that he received praise for his behavior in +these matters, and most of all because he would not accept a number of +honors that were voted to him for it. But the sensual orgies which he +carried on shamelessly with the individuals of highest rank, male and +female alike, caused ill to be spoken of him. For example, there was the +case of his friend Sextus Marius. Imperial favor had made this man so +rich and so powerful that when he was once at odds with a neighbor he +invited him to dine for two successive days. On the first he razed his +guest's dwelling entirely to the ground and on the next he rebuilt it on +a larger scale and in more elaborate style. The victim of his treatment +declared his ignorance of the perpetrators, whereupon Marius admitted +being responsible for both occurrences and added significantly: "This +shows you that I have both the knowledge and the power to repel attacks +and also to requite a kindness." This friend, then, who had sent his +daughter, a strikingly beautiful girl, to a place of refuge to prevent +her being outraged by Tiberius, was charged with having criminal +relations with her and for that reason destroyed both his daughter and +himself. All this covered the emperor with disgrace, and his connection +with the death of Drusus and Agrippina gave him a reputation for cruelty. +Men had been thinking all along that the whole of the previous action +against these two was due to Sejanus, and had been hoping that now their +lives would be spared; so, when they learned that they had been actually +murdered, they were exceedingly grieved, partly for the reasons mentioned +and partly because, so far from depositing their bones in the imperial +tomb, Tiberius ordered their remains to be hidden so carefully in the +earth that they might never be found. In addition to Agrippina, Munatia +Plancina was slain. Previous to this time, though he hated her (not on +account of Germanicus but for another reason), he yet allowed her to live +to prevent Agrippina from rejoicing at her death. + +[-23-] Besides doing this he appointed Gaius quaestor, though not of +first rank, promising him, however, that he would advance him to the +other office five years earlier than was customary. At the same time he +requested the senate not to make the young man conceited by numerous or +extraordinary honors, for fear the latter might go astray in one way or +another. He had, indeed, a descendant in the person of Tiberius, but him +he disregarded both on account of age (he was a mere child as yet) and +on account of the prevailing suspicion that this boy was not the son of +Drusus. He therefore clove to Gaius as the most eligible candidate for +sole ruler, especially as he felt sure that Tiberius would live but a +short time and would be murdered by that very man. There was no detail +of the character of Gaius of which he was in ignorance; indeed, he once +remarked to his successor, who was quarreling with Tiberius: "You will +kill him, and others will kill you." The emperor knew of no one else that +suited him so entirely, and at the same time he was well aware that the +man would be a thorough knave; yet the story obtains that he was glad to +give him the empire in order that his own crimes might find concealment +in the enormity of Gaius's offences and that the largest and the noblest +portion of what was left of the senate might perish after him. At all +events he is said to have often uttered the ancient saying: + + "When I am dead, let fire o'erwhelm the earth."[15] + +Often, also, he declared Priam fortunate, because that king involved his +country and his throne in his own utter ruin. These records about him are +given a semblance of reality by what took place in those days. Such a +multitude of the senators and of others lost their lives that out of +the officials chosen by lot the ex-prætors held the governorship of the +provinces for three years and the ex-consuls for six, owing to the lack +of persons to succeed them. And what name could one properly give to the +elected magistrates, whom from the first he allowed to hold office for an +unusually long time? + +Now among those who died at this time was also Gallus. Tiberius himself +said that only then (and scarcely even so) did he become reconciled with +him. Thus it was that contrary to the usual custom he inflicted upon some +life as a punishment and bestowed upon others death as a kindness. + +[A.D. 34 (_a. u._ 787)] + +[-24-] The twentieth year of the emperor's reign now came in, and he +himself though he sojourned in the vicinity of Albanum and Tusculum did +not enter the City; the consuls, Lucius Vitellius and Fabius Persicus, +celebrated the second ten-year period. The senators so termed it in +preference to "twenty-year period" to signify that they were granting +him the leadership of the State again, as had been done in the case +of Augustus. Punishment overtook them at the same time that they were +celebrating the appropriate festival. This time none of those accused +was acquitted, but all were convicted,--the majority from documents +contributed by Tiberius and the statements under torture obtained by +Macro, the rest by what these two suspected they were planning. It was +rumored that the real reason why Tiberius did not come to Rome was to +avoid being disgraced while present by the sentences of condemnation. +Among various persons who perished either at the hands of the +executioners or by their own acts was Pomponius Labeo. He, who had once +governed Moesia for eight years after his prætorship, was, with his wife, +indicted for receiving bribes and voluntarily destroyed both her and +himself. Mamercus AEmilius Scaurus, on the other hand, who had never +governed anybody nor received bribes, was convicted because of a tragedy +and fell a victim to a worse fate than any he had depicted. Atreus was +the name of the composition, and in the manner of Euripides[16] it +advised some one of the subjects of that monarch to endure the folly of +the ruling prince. Tiberius, when he heard of it, declared that the verse +had been composed against him at this juncture and that "Atreus" was +merely a pretence used on account of that monarch's bloodthirstiness. +And adding quietly "I will have him play the part of Ajax," he brought +pressure to bear to make him commit suicide. The above was not the +accusation made against him; instead, he was charged with having kept up +a _liaison_ with Livilla. Many others had been punished on her account, +some with good reason and some as the result of blackmail. + +[-25-] While matters at Rome were in this condition, the subject +territory was not quiet either. The very moment a certain youth who +declared he was Drusus appeared in the region of Greece and Ionia, the +cities both received him enthusiastically and supported his cause. He +would have proceeded to Syria and taken possession of the legions, had +not some one recognized him and putting an end to his success taken him +to Tiberius. + +[A.D. 35 (_a. u._ 788)] After this Gaius Gallus and Marcus Servilius +became consuls. Tiberius was at Antium holding fête in honor of the +nuptials of Gaius. Not even for such a purpose would he enter Rome, +because of the case of one Fulcinius Trio. The latter, who had been a +friend of Sejanus but had stood high in the favor of Tiberius on account +of his readiness at blackmail, was, when accused, delivered up for +punishment; and through fear he slew himself beforehand after abusing +roundly both the emperor and Macro in his testament. His children did not +dare to publish it, but Tiberius, learning what had been written, ordered +it to be presented before the senate. Little did he trouble himself +about such matters. Sometimes he would voluntarily give to the public +denunciations of his conduct that were being kept secret, as another man +would eulogies. Indeed, he took all that Drusus had uttered in distress +and misfortune, and this, too, he sent in to the senate.--So much, then, +for the death of Trio. Poppaeus Sabinus, who had governed both the Mysias +and Macedonia besides during almost all the reign of Tiberius up to this +time, withdrew from life with the greatest good-will before any charge +could be brought against him. He was succeeded by Regulus with equal +authority. For, according to some reports, Macedonia and Achaea were both +assigned to the new ruler without lots being cast for them. + +[A.D. 36 (_a. u._ 789)] + +[-26-] About the same period Artabanus the Parthian after the death of +Artaxias bestowed Armenia upon his son Arsaces. When no vengeance fell +upon him from Tiberius for this move, he made an attempt upon Cappadocia +and treated the Parthians, too, rather haughtily. Consequently some +revolted from him and went on an embassy to Tiberius, asking a king for +themselves from among those serving as hostages. He sent them at once +Phraates, son of Phraates, and at the death of the latter (which occurred +on the way) Tiridates, who was himself also of the royal race. To insure +his securing the throne as easily as possible the emperor wrote orders to +Mithridates the Iberian to invade Armenia, so that Artabanus should leave +home and assist his son. Things turned out as planned, but the reign of +Tiridates lasted only a short time, for Artabanus got the Scythians on +his side and had no great difficulty in expelling him. So much for the +Parthian affairs.--Armenia fell into the hands of Mithridates, son of +Mithridates the Iberian, of course, and a brother of Pharasmanes, who +became king of the Iberians after him.--When Sextus Papinius became +consul with Quintus Plautius, the Tiber inundated a large part of the +City so that it remained under water, and a much more extensive section +in the vicinity of the hippodrome and the Aventine was devastated by +fire. In view of these disasters Tiberius gave two thousand five hundred +myriads to those who had suffered any loss. + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +And if Egyptian affairs also touch Roman interests at all, it might be +mentioned that that year the phoenix was seen. All these events were +thought to foreshadow the death of Tiberius. Thrasyllus died at this very +time and the emperor himself in the following spring, in the consulship +of Gnaeus Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus. It chanced that Macro had +plotted against Domitius and numerous others and had devised complaints +and tortures against them. Not all that were accused, however, were put +to death, because Thrasyllus handled Tiberius very cleverly. Concerning +himself he stated very accurately both the day and the hour in which he +should die, but he falsely declared that the emperor would live ten more +years, in order that the latter, feeling he had a moderately long time to +live, might be in no hurry to kill them. The issue justified the plan. +Thinking that it would be possible for him later to do whatever he liked +at his leisure, he made no haste in any way and showed no anger when the +senate, in consideration of the opposition to the tortures expressed by +the magistrates, postponed the sentencing of the prisoners. Yet pitiable +scenes were not wanting. One woman wounded herself, was carried into +the senate and from there to prison, where she died. Lucius Arruntius, +distinguished both for his age and for his education, destroyed himself +voluntarily when Tiberius was already sick and was not thought likely to +recover. The man was aware of the evil character of Gaius and desired to +depart before he should taste of it, saying: "I can not in my old +age become the slave of a new master like him." Still others were +saved,--some who had actually been condemned but were not permitted to +die before the expiration of ten days, and others because their trial was +again put off when the judges learned that Tiberius was seriously ailing. + +[-28-] He passed away at Misenum before he could learn anything of this. +He had been sick for a considerable time, but expecting to live, as +Thrasyllus had foretold, he neither consulted physicians nor changed his +way of life; wasting away gradually as he was, in old age and subject to +a sickness that was not severe, he would often all but expire and then +recover strength again. These changes would cause Gaius and the rest +first great pleasure, when they thought he was going to die, and then +great fear, when they thought he would live. His successor, therefore, +fearing that his health might actually be restored, refused his requests +for anything to eat, on the ground that he would be injured, and +pretending that he needed warmth wrapped many thick cloths about him. In +this way he smothered him, with a certain amount of help, to be sure, +from Macro. The latter, as Tiberius was already seriously ill, was paying +his court to the young man, particularly as he had before this succeeded +in making him fall in love with his own wife, Ennia Thrasylla. Tiberius +suspecting this had once said: "You understand well when to abandon the +setting, and hasten to the rising sun." + +So Tiberius, who possessed the most varied virtues, the most varied +vices, and followed each set in turn as if the other did not exist, +passed away in this fashion on the twenty-sixth day of March.[17] He had +lived seventy-seven years, four months, nine days, of which he had spent +as ruler twenty-two years, seven months and seven days. A public funeral +was accorded him and a eulogy, delivered by Gaius. + + +[Footnote 1: Supplying here (as did Sylburgius, to fill a gap in the +sense) ... [GREEK: echeleuse chahi tae boulae]....] + +[Footnote 2: The consul of A.D. 30, either _C. Cassius Longinus_ or his +brother _L. Cassius Longinus_.] + +[Footnote 3: A gap in the MS. exists, as indicated.] + +[Footnote 4: A corrupt reading for which no wholly satisfactory +substitute has been offered.] + +[Footnote 5: The predicate of this clause has fallen out in the MS., and +the restoration is on lines suggested by Bekker.] + +[Footnote 6: Reading (with Mommsen) [Greek: outo] for [Greek: auto].] + +[Footnote 7: Reading [Greek: aedae polu] (Stephanus, Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 8: Using Boissevain's reading [Greek: adikousaes] (from Reiske) +in preference to the MS. [Greek: diadikousaes].] + +[Footnote 9: A small gap. The text filled and context amended by Kuiper.] + +[Footnote 10: Evidently the previous reference was in a passage now lost, +between Bk. 57, ch. 17, sect. 8, and Bk. 58, ch. 7, sect. 2 of the Codex +Marcianus (Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 11: Compare Book Fifty-seven, chapter eight.] + +[Footnote 12: Cæsianus and Cæsiani are conjectures of Boissevain, the MS. +being corrupt. The person meant is _L. Apronius Cæsianus_ (consul A.D. +39).] + +[Footnote 13: A correction of Casaubon's for "the army" (MS.), which +seems senseless.] + +[Footnote 14: The phrase yields no particular sense and is probably +corrupt, but a correction is not easy. "To state his reasons" has been +suggested; and a very slight change in the Greek produces "to eat +something" another conjecture.] + +[Footnote 15: Probably from the _Bellerophon_ of Euripides.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Euripides, Phoenician Maidens, verse 393.] + +[Footnote 17: Dio is in error. The date was really about ten days +earlier.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +59 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +About Gaius Cæsar, called also Caligula (chapters 1-6). How the Heroüm +of Augustus was sanctified (chapter 7). How the Mauritanias began to be +governed by Romans (chapter 25). How Gaius Cæsar died (chapters 29, 30). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gnæus Acerronius and +Pontius Nigrinus, together with three additional years, in which there +were the following magistrates here enumerated. + +M. Aquilius C. F. Iulianus, and P. Nonius M. F. Asprenas. (A.D. 38 = a. +u. 791 = Second of Gaius.) + +C. Cæsar Germanicus (II), L. Apronius L. F. Cæsianus. (A.D. 39 = a. u. +792 = Third of Gaius, from March 26th.) + +C. Cæsar (III). (A.D. 40 = a. u. 793 = Fourth of Gaius.) + +C. Cæsar (IV), Cn. Sentius Cn. F. Saturninus. (A.D. 41 = a. u. 794 = +Fifth of Gaius, to Jan. 24th.) + +This last year is not counted, because most of the events in it are +recorded in the sixtieth book. + + +_(BOOK 59, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +[-1-] This, then, is the tradition about Tiberius. His successor was +Gaius, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who was known also, as I have +stated, by the nicknames of Germanicus and Caligula. Tiberius had left +the empire partly in charge of his grandson Tiberius; but Gaius had his +will carried to the senate by Macro and caused it to be declared null +and void by the consuls and the rest (with whom he had made previous +arrangements) on the ground that the author of the document had not been +of sound mind. This was evidenced by his allowing a mere boy to rule +them, who had not yet the right even to enter the senate. Thus did Gaius +at this time separate the lad from imperial office, and later in spite of +having adopted him he slew him. Of no avail was the fact that Tiberius in +his testament, still extant, had written the same words over in a number +of ways, as if this would lend them some force, nor yet that all of it +had been at this time read aloud by Macro before the senatorial body. For +no injunction can have weight against the intentional misunderstanding or +the power of one's successors. Tiberius suffered the same treatment he +had accorded to his mother's wishes, save that he discharged none of the +obligations imposed by her will in the case of any person, whereas all +his bequests were paid to all the beneficiaries, save to his grandson. +This, of course, made it perfectly plain that the whole fault found with +the will had been invented on account of the lad. Gaius need not have +published it, since he was not unacquainted with the contents, but +inasmuch as many knew what was in it and it seemed likely that he himself +on the one hand or the senate on the other would be blamed for its +suppression, he chose rather to have the latter body overthrow it than to +conceal the document. + +[-2-] At the same time by paying all the bequests of the dead emperor, as +if they were his own, to every one concerned he gained among the many a +certain reputation for nobility of character. In company with the senate +he inspected the Pretorians while they were busy with exercises and +distributed to them the two hundred and fifty denarii apiece that had +been bequeathed, and he added as a gift as many more. To the people he +paid the one thousand one hundred and twenty-five myriads (this was the +amount bequeathed to them) and in addition the sixty denarii per man +which they had failed to receive on the occasion of his enrollment among +the iuvenes,--this with interest amounting to fifteen denarii more. He +also settled the bequests to the citizen force, to the night-watchmen, to +those of the regular army outside Italy, and to any other army of native +Romans in the smaller forts,--that is, the citizens proper received one +hundred twenty-five denarii each, and all the rest seventy-five. + +He behaved in this same way also in regard to Livia's will, executing all +the provisions of it. If he had spent the rest of his money with equal +propriety, he would nave been thought prudent and munificent. Sometimes, +through fear of the people and the soldiers, he did so act, but it +was mostly through whims. At such times he discharged not only the +obligations of Tiberius but those of his great-grandmother, and debts +owing to private individuals as well as to others. As it was, he lavished +boundless sums upon dancers (whose recall he at once effected), upon +horses, upon gladiators and everything of that sort; and so in an +inconceivably short time he had exhausted the treasures, which had grown +so great, and at the same time convicted himself of having done it +through a sort of easy-going temper and indecision. He had found +accumulated five myriad myriads, seven thousand five hundred denarii, or +(according to others) eight myriad myriads, two thousand five hundred, +and yet could not keep any part of it to the third year, but actually in +the second season fell in need of a great deal besides. + +[-3-] He went through the same process of deterioration, too, in almost +all other respects. At first he seemed a most democratic person and would +send no letters either to the people or to the senate nor assume any of +the titles of sovereignty; yet he became most dictatorial, so that he +took in one day all those honors which Augustus had with difficulty +secured, voted one by one, during the long extent of his reign, some of +which Tiberius had refused to accept at all. He postponed nothing except +the title of _Father_, and that he acquired after no long time. Though +he had proved himself the most libidinous of men, had seduced one +woman already betrothed and had dragged others from their husbands, he +afterward hated them all save one. And he would certainly have detested +her, had he lived any longer. Toward his mother, his sisters, and his +grandmother Antonia he conducted himself in the most dutiful manner +possible. The last named he immediately saluted as Augusta and appointed +her priestess of Augustus, giving her at once all the privileges +pertaining to the vestal virgins. To his sisters he assigned these honors +of the vestal virgins, the right to witness horse-races in the same +section of seats with him, and the right to have uttered in their behalf +as well the prayers which were annually offered by the magistrates and +the priests for his welfare and that of the State, and the oaths of +allegiance sworn to his empire. He set sail himself and with his own +hands collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his +brothers that had died: wearing the purple-bordered toga and attended +by some lictors, as at a triumph, he deposited these in the monument +of Augustus. All measures voted against them he canceled, all who had +plotted against them he chastised, and recalled such as were in exile on +their account.--Now, though he had done all this, he showed himself +the most impious of men in the case both of his grandmother and of his +sisters. The former, because she had rebuked him for something, he forced +to seek death by her own hand; and after ravishing all his sisters he +shut two of them up on an island: the third had previously died. Again in +the matter of Tiberius (whom he also termed "grandfather"), he asked that +he might receive from the senate the same honors as Augustus; but these +were not immediately voted, for the senators could not endure to honor +that tyrant, nor did they make bold to dishonor him because they were +not yet clearly acquainted with the character of their young lord, and +consequently postponed everything until the latter should be present: +so then Gaius bestowed upon him no mark of notice other than a public +funeral, after bringing the body into the City by night and having it +laid out at daybreak. And though he did make a speech over it, he did +not say so much in praise of Tiberius as he did to remind the people of +Augustus and Germanicus, comparing himself meanwhile with them. + +[-4-] Gaius inevitably went so by contraries in every matter that he not +only emulated but even surpassed his predecessor's licentiousness and +bloodthirstiness, for which he had censured him; but of the qualities he +had praised in him he imitated not one. Though he had been the first to +insult him, the first to abuse him, so that others thinking to please +him in this way made use of rather heedless freedom of speech, he later +lauded and magnified Tiberius, going to the point of punishing some for +what they had said. These, as enemies of the former emperor, he hated for +their injurious remarks, and he hated equally those who in way praised +Tiberius, as being the latter's friends. + +Though he had put an end to complaints arising from maiestas, he made +these the cause of many persons' downfall. Though according to his own +account he dismissed the anger that he felt toward those who had united +against his father and his mother and his brothers (and burned their +letters), he yet put to death great numbers of them on the basis of +evidence contained in such documents. He did, to be sure, really destroy +some papers, but not those which held definite incontrovertible proof; of +these he made copies. Besides, though he at first forbade any one to set +up his images, he went on to manufacture the statues himself. Whereas +once he requested the annulment of a decree that sacrifice should be +offered to his Fortune, and had this action of his inscribed on a tablet, +he afterward ordered temples and sacrifices to be prepared for him as for +some god. He delighted by turns in vast throngs of men and in solitude; +he grew angry if requests were preferred, or if they were not preferred. +He would start out on enterprises with the greatest amount of dash, and +then carry them through in the most sluggish manner. He both spent money +most unsparingly and showed a thoroughly sordid spirit in exacting it. He +was alike irritated and pleased both at those who flattered him and at +those who spoke their own minds. Many who were guilty of great crimes +he neglected to punish and many who had done no wrong he ruthlessly +slaughtered. Among his associates he made some the recipients of +excessive adulation and others of excessive insult. Consequently, no one +knew either what to say or how to act toward him, but all who met with +success obtained it as the result of chance rather than of rational +calculation. + +[-5-] That was the kind of emperor into whose hands the Romans had now +fallen. Hence the deeds of Tiberius, though they were felt to have been +most grievous, were still as far superior to those of Gaius as the deeds +of Augustus were to those of his successor. For Tiberius always held the +power in his own hands and used other people to help him carry out +his wishes: Gaius, on the other hand, was ruled by charioteers and by +gladiators; he was the slave of dancers and other theatrical performers. +Indeed, he always kept Apelles, the most famous of the tragedians of that +day, with him even in public. Thus he by himself and they by themselves +did without let or hindrance all that such persons when given power would +naturally dare to do. Everything that could help theatrical productions +he arranged and settled on the slightest pretext in the most expensive +manner, and compelled prætors and consuls to do the same, so that almost +every day some performance of the kind was sure to be given. Originally +he was but a spectator and listener at these and would take sides for and +against various performers like one of the mob; and sometimes, if he were +irritated at his opponents, he would not visit the spectacle. But as time +went on he came to imitate and contend in many events, driving chariots, +fighting duels, giving exhibitions of dancing, and acting in tragedy. +This became his regular practice. And one night he urgently summoned +the leaders of the senate as if to some important deliberation and then +danced before them. + +[-6-] Now in that year that Tiberius died and Gaius entered upon office +in his stead he first began to show great deference to the senators on an +occasion when knights were present at the meeting and also some of the +populace. He promised to share his power with them and do whatever would +please them, calling himself meanwhile their son and nursling. He was +then twenty-five years old, lacking five months, four days. After this he +freed those who were in prison, among whom was Quintus Pomponius, who for +seven whole years after his consulship had been kept in a cell suffering +abuse. Gaius did away with the complaints for maiestas, on account of +which he saw that most of the prisoners were suffering, and heaped up (or +so he pretended) and burned the documents pertaining to their cases that +Tiberius had left behind. He also declared: "I have done this, that +no matter how much I might wish to bear malice toward any one; for my +mother's and my brothers' sake, I might still be unable to punish him." +For this he was commended because it was expected that _he_ at all events +would speak the truth; by reason of his youth it was not thought possible +that he could be guilty of duplicity in thought or speech. And he still +further increased their hopes by ordering that the celebration of the +Saturnalia extend over five days, and by taking from each of those +enjoying an allowance of grain only an as instead of the denarius which +they were wont to give an emperor for the manufacture of images. + +It was voted that he should at once become consul by the removal of +Proculus and Nigrinus, who were holding office at the time, and that he +should thereafter be consul annually. However, he did not accept the +offer, but instead waited until the two officials completed the six +months' term for which they had been appointed, and then became consul +himself, taking his uncle Claudius as a colleague. The latter, who had +previously been ranked among the knights and after the death of Tiberius +had been sent as an envoy to Gaius in behalf of that order, now for the +first time after living forty-six years became both consul and senator at +once. The behavior of Gaius in these matters appeared satisfactory and +to his actions corresponded the speech which he delivered in the +senate-house on entering upon his consulship. In it he denounced Tiberius +for each of the crimes of which he was commonly accused and made many +announcements about his own line of conduct; and the senate, fearing +that he might change, issued a decree that his statements should be read +annually. + +[-7-] Soon after, clad in the triumphal garb, he dedicated the heroüm of +Augustus. Boys of the noblest families, both of whose parents had to be +living, together with maidens similarly circumstanced, sang the hymn, +and the senators with their wives as well as the people were banqueted. +Entertainments of all sorts were given. There were exhibitions involving +music, and horseraces took place on two days,--twenty heats the first +day and forty [1] more the second, because the former was the emperor's +birthday and the latter that of Augustus. He had a similar number of +events on many other occasions, as seemed good to him. Hitherto not more +than ten[2] events had been usual, but this time he finished four hundred +bears together with an equal number of beasts from Libya. The boys of +noble birth performed "Troy" on horseback, and six horses drew the +triumphal car on which he was borne. This was an innovation. + +In the races he did not give the signals to the charioteers in person, +but viewed the spectacle from a front seat with his brothers and his +fellow-priests of the Augustan order. He was always greatly displeased +if any one was absent from the theatre or left in the middle of the +performance, and so, in order that no one might have an excuse for +not attending, he postponed all lawsuits and suspended all periods of +mourning. Thus, women bereft of their husbands were allowed to marry even +before the appointed time, unless, indeed, they were pregnant. In order +to enable people to come without formality and to save them the trouble +of greeting him (for previously those who met the emperor on the streets +always saluted him), he forbade any one's doing this again. Those who +chose might come barefoot to the spectacles. It had been from very +ancient times the custom for persons to do this who held court in the +summer; the practice had been frequently followed by Augustus at the +summer festivals but had been abandoned by Tiberius. + +It was at this period that the senators first began sitting upon cushions +instead of the bare boards, and that they were allowed to wear caps to +the theatre, Thessalian fashion, to avoid distress from the sun's rays. +And whenever the sun was particularly severe, they used instead of the +theatre the Diribitorium, which was furnished with benches.--This was +what Gaius did in his consulship, which he held two months and twelve +days. The remainder of the six months' term he surrendered to the men +previously appointed for it. [-8-] It was after this that he fell sick, +but instead of dying himself he managed to cause the death of Tiberius, +who had been registered among the iuvenes, had been given the title of +Princeps Iuventutis, and finally had been adopted into his family.[3] The +complaint brought against the lad was that he had prayed and expected +that Gaius might die. This charge proved the destruction of many others, +too. The same ruler who gave to Antiochus son of Antiochus the district +of Commagene, which his father had held, and likewise the coast districts +of Cilicia, and had freed Agrippa (grandson of Herod, who had been +imprisoned by Tiberius), and had put him in charge of his grandfather's +domain, not only deprived Agrippa's brother (or else his son) of his +paternal fortune but furthermore had him murdered, without making any +communication about him to the senate. Later he took similar action in a +number of other cases. + +Now the young Tiberius perished on suspicion of having utilized the +emperor's illness as an occasion for conspiracy. On the other hand, there +were Publius Afranius Potitus, a plebeian, who in a burst of foolish +servility had promised not only of his own free will but under oath that +he would give his life to have Gaius recover, and a certain Atanius +Secundus, a knight, who announced that in the event of a favorable +outcome he would fight as a gladiator. These, instead of the money which +they hoped to receive from him in return for offering to die in exchange +for his life, were compelled to keep their promises so as not to +perjure themselves. That was the cause of these men's death. Again, his +father-in-law Marcus Silanus, though he had made no promise and taken +no oath, nevertheless, because his virtue and his relationship made him +displeasing to the emperor and subjected him to extreme insults, for +this reason committed suicide. Tiberius had held him in such honor as to +refuse always to try a case that was appealed from his jurisdiction and +to refer all such disputes back to him again. But Gaius abused him in +every way and had such a high opinion of him that he called him "the +golden sheep." Now Silanus on account of his age and his reputation was +accorded by all the consuls the honor of casting his vote first; and to +prevent his doing so any longer Gaius had abolished the custom of having +some of the ex-consuls vote first or second according to the pleasure of +those who put the vote. He arranged that such persons should cast their +votes on the same footing as the rest and in the same order as they had +held the office. Moreover, he put aside his victim's daughter to marry +Cornelia Orestilla, whom he had actually seized during the marriage +festival which she was celebrating with her betrothed, Gaius Calpurnius +Piso. Before two months had elapsed he banished both of them on the +ground that they had carnal knowledge of each other. He allowed Piso to +take with him ten slaves, and then when the latter asked for more he +let him employ as many as he liked, saying: "You will have just so many +soldiers." + +[A.D. 38 (_a. u._ 791)] + +[-9-] The next year Marcus Julianus and Publius Nonius, regularly +appointed, became consuls. Oaths pertaining to the acts of Tiberius were +not introduced and for this reason are not used nowadays either. No +one numbers Tiberius among the emperors in the list of members of his +house.[4] But in regard to Augustus and Gaius they took the oaths which +had regularly been the custom and others to the effect that they would +hold Gaius and his sisters in greater respect than themselves and their +children, and they offered prayers for all of them alike. + +On the very first day of the new year one Machaon, a slave, climbed upon +the couch of Jupiter Capitolinus and after uttering from that place many +dire prophecies killed a little dog which he had brought in with him and +slew himself. + +The following good deeds must be set down to the credit of Gaius. He +published, as Augustus had done, all the accounts of public funds, which +had not been made known during the time Tiberius was out of the city. He +helped the soldiers extinguish a conflagration and assisted those who +suffered loss by it. As the equestrian order pined from lack of men he +summoned the foremost men from every office, even abroad, and enrolled +them with due regard to their relatives and their wealth. Some of them he +allowed to wear the senatorial costume occasionally even before they had +held any office through which we enter the senate, on the strength of +their hopes to secure admission to that body. Previously it would seem +that only those who had been born in the senatorial order were allowed to +do this. These deeds caused pleasure to all. But this action in restoring +the elections to the populus and the plebs, rescinding the decisions of +Tiberius about these matters, and in abolishing the one per cent. +tax, and again in scattering at some gymnastic contest tickets and +distributing very large gifts to such as secured them,--these actions, +though they delighted the lower classes, grieved the sensible, who +reflected that even if the offices fell once more into the hands of the +general public, still, in case the existing funds should be exhausted and +private sources of income fail, many dreadful disasters would result. + +[-10-] The performances of his next to be enumerated elicited the censure +of all without distinction. He caused very great numbers of men to fight +as gladiators, forcing them to contend both separately and in groups, +drawn up in a kind of military formation: he requested permission from +the senate to do this, and again,--something quite contrary to the spirit +of the enacted law that he might do whatsoever he pleased,--he asked +leave to put to death a number of persons, among them twenty-six knights, +some of whom had already devoured their living, while others had merely +practiced gladiatorial combat. It was not the number of those who +perished that was so bad (though it was bad enough) but his frenzied +delight in their slaughter and his never satisfied gazing at the scene of +blood. The same trait of cruelty led him once, when there was a shortage +of condemned criminals to be given to the beasts, to order some of the +mob that stood near the benches to be seized and thrown to them. And to +prevent the possibility of their making an outcry or attacking him orally +he had their tongues cut out first of all. One of the prominent knights, +too, he compelled to fight in single combat on the charge of insult +offered to his mother Agrippina, and when the man proved victorious +handed him over to the accusers and had him slain. The same person's +father, though guilty of no wrong, he confined in a cage (as he had +confined numerous others), and there put an end to him.--These contests +he at first conducted in the Sæpta, after excavating [5] the entire site +and filling it with water, to enable him to bring in one ship. Later he +transferred his operations to another place, where he tore down a large +number of massive buildings and set up benches. The theatre of Taurus +he held in contempt. All this behavior, expenditures and murders alike, +subjected him to criticism. + +He was further blamed for compelling Macro together with Ennia to cause +their own death, remembering neither the latter's affection nor the +former's benefits, which had gained for him among other advantages the +sole possession of the empire. The fact that he had appointed Macro to +govern Egypt had not the slightest influence. He even involved him in +a scandal (of which the greatest share belonged to Gaius himself), by +bringing against him besides all the rest a complaint that he had played +the pander. Before long many others were condemned and executed, and +some were executed prior to their conviction. Nominally they suffered on +account of some wrong done to his parents or his brothers or the rest who +had perished with those relatives as an excuse, but really on account +of their property. For the treasury had been exhausted and he had no +resources. Such persons were convicted by witnesses against them and by +the documents which he once declared he had burned. Again, the disease +which had attacked him the previous year and the death of his sister +Drusilla brought about the ruin of others, since,--to omit graver +cases,--whoever had entertained or had greeted any one or had bathed on +the days in question incurred punishment. + +[-11-] The nominal spouse of Drusilla was Marcus Lepidus, at once the +favorite and lover of the emperor, but Gaius also treated her as a +concubine. When her death occurred at this time, her husband delivered +the eulogy but it was her brother who accorded her a public funeral. The +Pretorians with their commander and the equestrian order by itself +ran about the pyre [6] and the boys of noble birth performed the Troy +exercise about her tomb; all the honors that had been given to Livia were +voted to her, and it was further decreed that she should be declared +immortal, that a figure in gold representing her be set up in the +senate-house, and that in the temple of Venus in the Forum there should +be dedicated with equal honors a statue of her as large as that of the +goddess. Moreover, a separate shrine should be built for her and twenty +priests [7] not only men but also women should do her honor. Women, as +often as they gave testimony, should swear by her and on her birthday a +festival equal to the Megalensia should be celebrated and the senate and +the knights should hold a banquet. She straightway received the name +Panthea and was declared worthy of divine honors in all the cities. A +certain Livius Geminus, a senator, stated on oath, invoking destruction +upon himself and his children if he spoke falsely, that he had seen her +ascending into heaven and holding converse with the gods; and he called +all the other gods and Panthea herself to witness. For his declaration he +received twenty-five myriads. Besides all this Gaius showed her honor in +not having the festivals which were then due to take place celebrated +either at their appointed time (except as mere formalities) or at any +later date. All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed +pleasure at anything, as being grieved, or behaved as if they were +glad.[9] They were charged with malice either in failing to mourn her +(this was disrespect to her as a mortal) or in bewailing her (this was +disrespect to her as a goddess). One single occurrence gives the key to +all the transactions of that time. The emperor charged with impiety and +put to death a man who had sold warm water. [-12-] Having allowed a few +days to elapse he married Lollia Paulina and he compelled no less a +person than her husband, Memmius Regulus, to betroth her to him so that +he might not break the law in taking her without a betrothal. But almost +in a trice he had driven her away, too. + +Meantime he granted to Soaimus the land of the Arabian Ituræans, to Cotys +Lesser Armenia and later parts of Arabia, to Rhoemetalces the possessions +of Cotys, and to Polemon son of Polemon his ancestral domain,--all these +upon the vote of the senate. The ceremony took place in the Forum, where +he sat upon the rostra in a chair between the consuls; some say he used +silken awnings. Soon after he caught sight of a lot of mud in an alley +and ordered that it be cast into the toga of Flavius Vespasian, who was +ædile at the time and had charge of keeping alleys clean. This event was +regarded at the moment as of no particular importance, but later, when +Vespasian, who took charge of a state in confusion and turmoil, had +reduced the same to order, it seemed to have been due to some divine +prompting and to have signified that Gaius had entrusted the city to him +unconditionally for its amelioration. + +[A.D. 39 (_a. u._ 792)] + +[-13-] He now became consul again, and though he prevented the priest +of Jupiter from taking the oath in the senate (for at this time they +regularly did so privately, as in the days of Tiberius), he himself both +when he entered upon office and when he relinquished it took the oath +like the rest upon the rostra, which had been made larger than before. +Thirty days was the duration of his tenure (whereas he let his colleague +Lucius Apronius hold office for six months), and his successor was +Sanguinius Maximus, præfectus urbi. During this and the following period +numbers of the foremost men perished in fulfillment of a sentence of +condemnation (for many who had been released from prison were punished +for the very reasons that had led to their imprisonment by Tiberius), +and many others in gladiatorial combats. There was nothing happening but +slaughter. The emperor no longer made any concessions to the populace, +opposing instead absolutely everything it wished, and consequently the +people, too, resisted all his desires. The talk and actions usual at such +a juncture with an angry ruler on one side and a hostile folk on the +other were plainly in evidence. The contest between them, however, was +not an equal one. The people could do nothing outside of discussion and +showing their feelings by their demeanor, whereas Gaius dragged many of +his opponents away while they were witnessing performances at the theatre +and arrested many more after they had left the building. The chief causes +for his rage were first that they did not show enthusiasm in attending; +he made his appearance at a different hour on different occasions, +sometimes not till nightfall, and they were worn out waiting for him: +second, that they did not always applaud the performances that pleased +him and sometimes even showed favor to objects of his dislike. Again, it +vexed him mightily to have them cry out in their efforts to extol him: +"Young Augustus!" He felt that he was not being congratulated upon being +emperor while so young, but was being censured for holding at his age +so great a domain. His regular conduct was as described. Once he said +threateningly to the whole people: "How I wish you had one neck!" At +another time, when he was showing some of his usual irritation, the +populace in displeasure ceased to notice the spectacle, and turned +against the informers, and with loud shouts demanded their surrender. +Gaius, indignant, vouchsafed them no answer, but committing to others +the conduct of the games withdrew into Campania. Later he returned to +celebrate the birthday of Drusilla, brought into the hippodrome on a +wagon her statue drawn by[10] elephants and gave the people a free show +for two days. The first day, besides the equestrian contests, he had five +hundred bears slaughtered, and on the second a like number of Libyan +beasts was used up. Athletes struggled in the pancratium at many +different points in the city. The populace was feasted and presents were +given to the senators and their wives. + + * * * * * + +[-14-] At the same time that he authorized these murders, apparently +because he was so very poor, he devised another kind of transaction. He +took the surviving combatants and sold them at an excessive valuation to +the consuls, the prætors, and the rest, meeting with acquiescence from +some and compelling others, who objected strenuously, to carry out his +wishes at the horse-races; and most of all he imposed upon the ones +especially selected by lot for this purpose, for he had ordered that two +prætors, just as it might happen, should be allotted to take charge of +the gladiatorial games. He himself sat on the auctioneer's platform and +kept outbidding them. Many also came from outside to bid against +them, particularly because he allowed such as wished to employ a +greater number of gladiators than the law permitted and because he +often had recourse to them himself. So people bought them for large +sums, some through need of the men, others thinking they should +gratify him, and the largest number (in case they were reputed to be +property-holders) out of a wish to avail themselves of this pretext for +spending some of their substance and thus by becoming poorer save +their lives. + +Yet, in spite of this action of his, he afterward put out of the way by +poison the best and most famous of these slaves. He did the same also in +the case of rival horses and charioteers, being greatly devoted to the +party that wore the frog green and from this color was called the Party +of the Leek. Even now the place where the chariots practiced is called +Galanum. One of the horses, that he named Incitatus, he invited to +dinner, offered him golden barley, and drank his health in wine from gold +goblets. He took oaths by the same beast's Guardian Spirit and Presiding +Fortune and promised besides that he would appoint him consul. This he +would certainly have done, too, if he had lived longer. + +[-15-] Now formerly for the purpose of providing funds it had been voted +that all those persons who had wished to leave anything to Tiberius +and were alive should at their death bestow the same upon Gaius. The +publication of a decree was deemed necessary to prevent its seeming that +he could break the laws in securing by inheritance such gifts; for he +had at the time neither wife nor children. But at the time of which I am +speaking he proceeded to levy for himself without any vote absolutely all +the property of men who had served among the centurions and had after the +triumph which his father celebrated left it to somebody other than the +emperor. When not even this sufficed, he hit upon the following third +means of raising money. There was a senator, Gnæus Domitius Corbulo, +who had noticed that the roads during the reign of Tiberius were in bad +condition and was always nagging the road commissioners about it and +furthermore kept making a nuisance of himself before the senate regarding +the matter. Gaius took him as a confederate and through him attacked +all those, alive or dead, who had ever been road commissioners and had +received money for repairing the highways. He fined both them and the men +who had secured any contracts from them, on the pretence that they had +spent nothing. For this help Corbulo was at the time made consul, +but later, in the reign of Claudius, he was accused and his conduct +investigated. Claudius made no further demands for any sums still owing +and after collecting what had been paid in, partly from the treasury and +partly from Corbulo, he returned it to the persons who had been fined. +All that was later. At this time these unfortunates one by one and +practically everybody else in the City were, as one might say, despoiled. +Of those who possessed anything there was no one,--not a man nor a +woman,--who got off scot free. Though he allowed some of the more elderly +persons to live, yet by calling them his fathers, grandfathers, mothers, +and grandmothers, he got revenue from them during their lifetime and +inherited their property when they died. + +[-16-] Up to this time he was always speaking ill of Tiberius before +everybody, and so far from rebuking others who criticised him privately +or publicly he enjoyed their language. But now he entered the +senate-house and eulogized his predecessor at length, besides severely +rebuking the senate and the people, saying that they did wrong in finding +fault with him. "I may do even this," he said, "in my capacity as +emperor, but you are not only unjust but also guilty of impiety[11] to +take such an attitude toward one who ruled you." Thereupon he considered +separately the case of each man who had lost his life and showed to his +own satisfaction that the senators had been responsible for the death of +most of them; some, he alleged, they had killed by accusation, some by +damning evidence, and all by sentence of condemnation. This he proved +by having some freedmen read it from those very documents which he once +declared he had burned. And he told them besides: "In case Tiberius +really did do wrong, you ought not to have honored him while he lived, +and at any rate, by Jupiter, you ought not to repudiate what you often +said and voted. But you both behaved toward him with fickleness and again +after filling Sejanus with conceit and spoiling him you put him to death, +and therefore I ought not either to expect any decent treatment from +you." After some such remarks he represented in his speech Tiberius +himself as saying to him: "All this that you have said has been good and +true. Therefore have no affection nor mercy for any one of them. They all +hate you: they all pray for your death. They will murder you if they can. +Hence do not stop to consider what acts of yours will please them and +heed none of their talk. Rather, have regard to your own pleasure and +safety solely, since that has the most just claim. In this way you +will suffer no harm and will enjoy all supremest pleasures. You will, +moreover, be honored by them whether they so desire or not. If you follow +a different course, it will be useless, and beyond an empty reputation +you will gain no advantage, but become the victim of plots and perish +ingloriously. No man living is ruled of his own free will, but the +element which is kept in fear, whatever its size, waits upon the stronger +element, whereas if it attains to courage, it always wreaks vengeance +upon the other, which has now become the weaker." + +At the close of this address Gaius reintroduced the complaints for +maiestas, ordered his commands to be inscribed upon a bronze tablet and +rushing hastily from the senate-house proceeded the same day to the +suburbs of the capital. The senate and the people were filled with great +fear as they thought of the denunciations against Tiberius, which they +had often uttered, and of the many surprises his speech had had in store +for them. Temporarily their alarm and dejection prevented them from +saying a word or transacting any business. Next day they assembled again, +praised Gaius unstintedly as a most sincere and pious ruler, and thanked +him profusely that they had not perished like others. Accordingly, +they voted annually to sacrifice cattle to the Spirit of Kindness that +animated him both on the anniversary of the day he had read this matter +just mentioned and on those belonging to the Palatium[12]: on such +occasions his image in gold was to be conducted to the Capitol and hymns +sung in its honor by the boys of noblest birth. They granted him also +the right to celebrate a lesser triumph, as though he had defeated some +enemies. This was what they voted at that meeting: later they added to it +extensively on almost every pretext. + +[-17-] Gaius took no heed of the celebration mentioned; it seemed to him +to be no great thing to drive a horse on land: but he had a desire to +ride horseback through the sea in a way, by bridging over the water +between Puteoli and Bauli. This locality is opposite the City, twenty-six +stades distant. Boats for the bridge were partly brought together and +partly built new for the purpose. For the number it had proved possible +to collect in a brief space of time was insufficient, although all +feasible vessels had been gathered, and it was principally this fact that +caused a serious famine in Italy and Rome. In joining these boats not +merely a passageway was constructed but resting places and waiting rooms +were built along in it, and these had running water fit for drinking. +When it was ready, he put on the breastplate of Alexander (or so he +said), and over it a purple silk chlamys, containing much gold and many +precious stones from India. He furthermore girt on a sword, took a +shield, and donned a garland of oak leaves. Next he offered sacrifice +to Neptune and some other gods and to Envy (in order, he said, that no +jealousy might attend him), and entered the passage from the end at +Bauli, taking with him great numbers of armed horsemen and foot soldiers; +and he made a fierce dash into the city as if he were after some enemies. +There he rested the following day, as though seeking respite from battle, +and wearing a gold-spangled tunic he returned on a chariot over the same +bridge. He was drawn by race-horses that were most competent to gain +victories. A long train of what was apparently spoils accompanied him, +among them Darius, one of the Arsacidæ, belonging to the group of +Parthians then serving as hostages. His friends and associates in +beflowered robes followed him on vehicles, as did the army and the rest +of the throng, which was decked out according to individual taste. Of +course, in the midst of such a campaign and after so magnificent a +victory he had to deliver a bit of an harangue: so he ascended a platform +which had likewise been erected at about the center of the bridge. First +he extolled himself as one who had undertaken a great enterprise; next +he praised the soldiers as men exhausted by the dangers they had faced, +adding the significant statement that they had traversed the sea on foot. +For this gallantry he gave them money and afterward for the rest of the +day and all through the night they enjoyed a banquet,--he on the bridge, +as though some island, and they at anchor on other boats. Light in +abundance shone upon them from the place itself and abundant light +besides from the mountains. For since the place was crescent-shaped, fire +was exhibited from all sides, as might be done in a theatre, so that no +one could notice the darkness. It was his wish to make the night day, as +he had made the sea land. When he had become full to excess of food and +strong drink, he threw numbers of his companions off the bridge into the +sea and sank many of the rest by making a circuitous attack upon them in +boats that had rams. Some perished, but the majority though drunk managed +to save themselves. The reason was that the sea showed itself extremely +smooth and tranquil both while the bridge was being put together and +while the other events were taking place. This, too, caused the emperor +some elation, and he said that even Neptune was afraid of him. As for +Darius and Xerxes, he made all manner of fun of them, inasmuch as he had +bridged over a far vaster expanse of sea than they. + +[-18-] The final episode in the career of that bridge, which I shall now +relate, proved another source of death to many. Inasmuch as the emperor +had exhausted his revenues in the construction he fell to plotting against +many more persons because of their property. He presided at trials both +privately and in company with the entire senate. That body also tried +some cases by itself, yet it had not full powers and there were many +appeals from its decisions. The decisions of the senate were merely +made public, but when any men were condemned by Gaius their names were +bulletined, as though he feared they might not learn their fate. These +met their punishment some in prison and others by being hurled from the +Capitoline. Still others killed themselves beforehand. There was no +safety even for such as left the country, but many of them, too, lost +their lives either on the road or while in banishment It is not worth +while to burden my readers unduly by going into the details of most of +these cases, but I may stop to notice Calvisius Sabinus, one of the +foremost men in the senate. He had recently come from governing Pannonia, +and he and his wife Cornelia were both indicted. The charge against +her was that she had visited some military posts and had watched some +soldiers practicing. These two did not stand trial but despatched +themselves before the time set. The same is to be recorded of Titius +Rufus, against whom a complaint was lodged that he had said the senate +had one thing in their minds but uttered something different. Also one +Junius Priscus, a prætor, was accused on various charges, but his death +was really due to the supposition that he was wealthy. Gaius, on learning +that he possessed nothing worth causing his death for, made this +remarkable statement: "He fooled me and perished uselessly when he might +as well have lived." + +[-19-] Among these men put on trial at this time Domitius Afer +encountered danger from an unexpected source and secured his preservation +in a still more remarkable way. Gaius was incensed against him (if for no +other reason) because in the reign of Tiberius he had accused a woman who +was related to the emperor's mother Agrippina. Later the woman had met +Afer and as she saw that out of embarrassment he stood aside from her +path she called to him and said (referring to the matter): "Never mind, +Domitius: it wasn't you, but Agamemnon, that caused me these troubles." +[13] Just about this time Afer had set up an image of the emperor and had +placed upon it an inscription showing that Gaius in his twenty-seventh +year was already consul for the second time. This vexed the latter, who +felt that undue notice was being given to his youth and his transgression +of the law. So for this action, for which Afer had looked to be honored, +he brought him before the senate and read a long speech against him. +Gaius always maintained that he surpassed all living orators, and knowing +that his adversary was an extremely gifted speaker he strove on this +occasion to excel him. He would certainly have put Afer to death, if the +latter had entered into the least competition with him. As it was, +the man made no answer or defence, but pretended to be astonished and +overcome by the cleverness of Gaius, and repeating the accusation point +by point he praised it as though he were some listener and not on trial. +When opportunity was given him to speak, he took to supplicating and +bewailing his lot; finally he threw himself on the earth and lying there +prostrate he besought his accuser, apparently fearing him as an orator +rather than as Cæsar. In this way the latter when he saw and heard what I +have described was melted, for he thought that he had really overwhelmed +Domitius by the eloquence of his address. For this reason, then, and on +account of Callistus the freedman, whom he was wont to honor and whose +favor Domitius had courted, he ceased his anger. And when Callistus later +blamed him for having accused the man in the first place, the emperor +answered: "It would not have been right for me to hide such a speech." +So Domitius was saved by being convicted of no longer being a skillful +speaker. + +On the other hand Lucius Annæus Seneca, who was superior in wisdom to all +the Romans of his day and to many other great men, came very near being +ruined, though he had done no wrong and there was no suspicion of such +a thing, but just because he pled a case well in the senate while his +sovereign was present. Gaius ordered him to be put to death, but let +him go because he believed what one of his female associates said, that +Seneca had a bad case of consumption and would die before a great while. + +[-20-] Directly he appointed Domitius consul and removed those who held +the office at the time: this he did because they had not proclaimed a +thanksgiving on the occasion of his birthday (the prætors had held a +horse-race and had slaughtered some beasts, but that happened every year) +whereas they had celebrated a festival to commemorate the victory of +Augustus over Antony. In order to find an accusation against them he +chose to figure as a descendant of Antony rather than of Augustus. He had +beforehand told those who shared his secrets that whichever the consuls +did they would certainly get into trouble, whether they offered sacrifice +as a mark of joy over Antony's disaster or whether they went without +sacrificing on such an occasion as the victory of Augustus. It was for +these reasons, then, that he summarily dismissed these officials and +broke to pieces their fasces. One of them took it so much to heart that +he killed himself. + +Domitius was chosen as the emperor's colleague nominally by the people +but actually by Gaius himself. The latter had, to be sure, restored +the elections to the populace, but they had become rather lax in the +performance of their duties because for a long time now they had enjoyed +none of the privileges of freemen; and as a rule no more office-seekers +presented themselves than were needed to fill vacant places, or if ever +there was an excessive number the outcome had been all arranged among +themselves. Thus the appearance of a democracy was preserved but none of +the proper results was secured; and this led Gaius himself to abolish the +elections again. After this things went on precisely as in the reign of +Tiberius. Sometimes fifteen prætors were chosen and again one more or +less, as it might happen. + +Such was the action he took regarding the elections. In general he +maintained a malignant and suspicious attitude toward quite everything +that went on, as witness his banishing Carrina Secundus the orator +because the latter had delivered in a gymnasium a speech against tyrants. +Also, when Lucius Piso, son of Plancina and Gnaeus Piso, chanced to +become governor of Africa, the emperor feared that pride might lead him +to revolt, particularly since he was to have a large force made up of +both citizens and foreigners. Hence the province was divided in two and +the military force together with the Nomads in the immediate vicinity was +assigned to a different official. That arrangement lasts to this day. + +[-21-] Gaius had now spent practically all the money in Rome and the rest +of Italy, gathered from every source from which he could in any way get +it, and as no resource that was of any value or practicable could be +found there, his expenses became a source of great annoyance to him. +Therefore he set out for Gaul, declaring hostilities against the Celtae +on the ground that they were showing some uneasiness, but in reality his +purpose was to get money from that region and Spain, where wealth was +also abundant. However, he did not make an outright declaration of his +destination, but went first to one of the suburbs and then suddenly +started on his journey, taking with him many dancers, gladiators, horses, +women, and the rest of the rout. When he reached the section he had in +view he did no damage to any of the enemy;--as soon as he had proceeded +a short distance beyond the Rhine he turned back, and next he started +apparently to conduct a campaign against Britain, but turned back from +the ocean's edge, showing no little vexation at his lieutenants because +they won some slight success;--among the subject peoples, however, and +among the allies and the citizens he wrought the greatest imaginable +havoc. In the first place he despoiled property holders on any and every +excuse, and second, individuals and cities brought him "voluntarily" +large gifts. He kept on murdering victims, alleging that some were +rebelling and others conspiring. The general complaint against them all +was that they were rich. The fact that he attended to the selling of +their possessions in person enabled him to obtain far greater sums than +would otherwise have been the case. Everybody was compelled to buy them, +under all sorts of conditions and for much more than their value, for the +reasons I have mentioned. Accordingly, he sent also for the finest and +most precious heirlooms of the government and auctioned them off, selling +with them the fame of the persons who had once used them. He would make +some comment on each one, such as "This belonged to my father," "this to +my mother," "this to my grandfather," "this to my great-grandfather," +"this Egyptian piece belonged to Antony--became a prize of Augustus." +Meantime he incidentally showed the necessity of selling them, so that no +one dared to appear to be indigent, and he sold with each article some +valuable association. + +[-22-] In spite of all this he did not secure any surplus. He kept up his +expenditures both for the objects that regularly interested him, +producing some spectacles at Lugdunum, and also for the army. For the +number of soldiers he had gathered amounted to twenty myriads, or, as +some say, to twenty-five myriads. Seven times was he named imperator by +them (just as pleased him), though he had won no battle and slain no +enemy. To be sure, he did once by a ruse seize and make prisoners a few +of the latter, but it was his own people whom he wasted most, striking +some of them down individually and butchering others _en masse_. Once he +saw a crowd either of prisoners or some other persons and gave orders (in +the cant phrase) that they should all be slain from baldhead to baldhead. +Another time he was playing dice and, finding that he had no money, +called for the census of the Gauls and ordered the wealthiest of them to +be put to death. Then he returned to his fellow gamblers and said: "Here +you are playing for a few denarii, while I have collected nearly fifteen +thousand myriads." So these men perished without consideration. Indeed, +one of them, Julius Sacerdos, who was fairly well off but not so +extremely wealthy as naturally to become the object of attack, +nevertheless fell a victim because of a similarity of names. This shows +how carelessly everything went. + +Others who perished I need not cite by name, simply mentioning enough +to satisfy the requirements of my record. One, then, that he killed was +Gastulicus Lentulus, a man of good reputation in every way, who had been +governor of Germany for ten years; his death was due to the fact that the +soldiers liked him. Another that he murdered was Lepidus, that lover and +favorite of his, husband of Drusilla, the man who together with Gaius had +maintained criminal relations with the emperor's other sisters Agrippina +and Julia, the man whom he had permitted to stand for office five years +earlier than the laws allowed, whom he also declared he should leave +to succeed him as emperor. To celebrate the event he gave the soldiers +money, as though he had worsted some hostile force, and sent three +daggers to Mars the Avenger in Rome. His sisters for their connection +with Lepidus he deported to the Portian islands, having first written +to the senate a great deal of outrageous and brutal comment upon them. +Agrippina was given the victim's bones in a jar and ordered to keep it in +her bosom throughout the entire journey and bring it back to Rome again. +Also, since many honors had been voted to these women on the emperor's +account, the emperor forbade any distinction being awarded to any of his +relatives again. + +[-23-] He sent to the senate at the time a report of the matter as if he +had escaped some great plot, for he was always pretending to be in danger +and to be leading a miserable existence. The senators on being apprised +of the facts passed several complimentary votes and granted him a lesser +triumph; they sent envoys to announce this, some of whom were chosen by +lot, but Claudius by election. That also displeased the emperor to such +an extent that he again forbade anything approaching praise or honor +being given to his relatives. He felt, too, that he had not been honored +as he deserved, and indeed he never made any account of the honors +granted him. It irritated him to have small distinctions voted, since +that implied a slight, and greater distinctions irritated him because +then he was deprived of the possibility of winning still higher prizes. +He did not wish it to seem that anything that brought him honors was in +the senators' power,--that would make them stronger than he,--nor again +that they should have the right to grant such a thing to him, as if they +had power and he was inferior to them. For this reason he ofttimes found +fault with various gifts, on the ground that they did not increase his +splendor but rather diminished his power. Being of this mind he used to +become angry at those who did him honor if in any case it seemed that +they had voted him less than he deserved. So capricious was he that no +one could easily suit him. + +Accordingly, for the reasons mentioned he would not receive all of those +ambassadors, affecting to mistrust that they were spies, but chose out +a few and sent the rest back before they reached Gaul. Those that he +admitted to his presence were not accorded any august reception; indeed, +he would have killed Claudius, had he not entertained a contempt for him, +since the latter partly by nature and partly with intention gave the +impression of great stupidity. Others were again sent, more in number +(for he had complained among other points of the smallness of the first +embassy), and they made the announcement that many marks of distinction +had been voted to him: these he received gladly, even going out to meet +them, for which action he received fresh honors at their hands. This, +however, was somewhat later. + +At the time under discussion Gaius divorced Paulina on the pretext that +she was barren, but really because he had had enough of her, and married +Milonia Cæsonia. She had formerly been his mistress, but now as she was +pregnant he chose to make her his wife and have her bear him a child a +month later. The people of Rome were disturbed by this behavior and were +still further disturbed because a number of trials were hanging over +their heads as a result of the friendship they had shown for his sisters +and for the men who had been murdered: even some ædiles and prætors were +compelled to resign their offices and stand trial.--Meantime they also +suffered from the excessive heat. This grew so extremely severe that +curtains were stretched across the Forum.--Among the men exiled at this +time Ofonius Tigillinus was banished on the charge of having had a +_liaison_ with Agrippina. + +[-24-] All this, however, did not distress the people so much as their +expectation that the cruelty and licentiousness of Gaius would go to +still greater lengths. They were particularly troubled on ascertaining +that King Agrippa and King Antiochus were with him, like two +tyrant-trainers. + +[A.D. 40 (_a. u._ 793)] + +As a consequence, while he was consul for the third time no tribune nor +prætor dared to convene the senate. For he had no colleague; though this, +as some think, was not intentional, but the regular appointee died and no +one else in so short a period of time as was available could be brought +forward in the comitia to fill his place. Moreover, the prætors who +attend to the affairs of the consuls, whenever the latter are out of +town, ought to have administered all business pending. But at this +period, in order not to appear to have acted for the emperor, they +performed none of their duties. The senators in a body ascended the +Capitoline, offered their sacrifices, and did obeisance to the chair +of Gaius located in the temple. Furthermore, according to a custom +prevailing in the time of Augustus, they deposited money, [14] making a +show of giving it to the emperor himself. Their practice was similar also +in the following year. At the time of the events just narrated they came +together in the senate-house after these proceedings, without any person +having convened them, but accomplished nothing, wasting the whole day in +laudations of Gaius and prayers in his behalf. Since they had no love +for him nor any wish that he should survive, they simulated both these +feelings to all the greater extent, as if hoping in this way to disguise +their real sentiments. On the third day devoted to prayers they came +together in response to an announcement of a meeting made by all the +prætors in a written notice: still, they transacted no business on this +day nor again on the next until on the twelfth day word was brought that +Gaius had resigned his office. Then at last the men who had been elected +for subsequent service succeeded to the position and administered the +business that fell to them. It was voted among other measures that the +same honors should be given to the birthdays of Tiberius and of Drusilla +as to that of Augustus. The actor folk also celebrated a festival, +provided a spectacle, and set up and dedicated images of Gaius and +Drusilla.--This was in accordance with a letter of Gaius. Whenever he +wished any business brought up he communicated in writing a small portion +of it to all the senators, but most of it to the consuls, and then +sometimes ordered this to be read in the senate.--So much for the +transactions of the senate. + +[-25-] Meanwhile Gaius sent for Ptolemæus, the son of Juba, and on +ascertaining that he was wealthy put him to death and a number of others +with him. Also when he reached the ocean and was to all appearances about +to conduct a campaign in Britain and had drawn up all the soldiers on the +beach, he embarked on the triremes but after putting out a little from +the land he sailed back again. Next he took his seat on a high platform +and gave his soldiers the watchword as if for battle, while the +trumpeters urged them on. All of a sudden, however, he ordered them to +gather the shells. Having secured these "spoils" (you see he needed booty +for the celebration of his triumph) he became immensely elated, assuming +that he had enslaved the ocean itself; and he gave his soldiers many +presents. The shells he took back to Rome for the purpose of exhibiting +the spoils to the people there as well. The senate did not see how it +could remain inactive in the face of this procedure, inasmuch as it +learned he was in an exalted frame of mind, nor yet again how it could +praise him. For, when anybody bestows great praise or extraordinary +honors for a small success or none at all, that person becomes suspected +of making a mock and jest of the affair. Still, for all that, when +Gaius entered the City he came very near devoting the whole senate to +destruction because it had not voted him divine honors. But he contented +himself with assembling the populace, upon whom he showered from a raised +position quantities of silver and gold. Many perished in the effort to +seize it; for, as some say, he had mixed small knife-blades in with the +coin. + + As a result of his adulteries he repeatedly received the titles of + imperator and Germanicus and Britannicus no less than if he had subdued + Gaul and Britain entire. + + Since this was his manner of life, he was destined inevitably to be + plotted against. He was on the lookout for an attack and arrested + Anicius Cerealius and his son Sextus Papinius, whom he put to the + torture. And inasmuch as the former would not utter a word, he + persuaded Papinius (by promising him safety and immunity) to denounce + certain persons (whether truly or falsely); he then straightway + put to death both Cerealius and the rest before his very eyes. + There was a Betilienus Bassus whom he had ordered killed, and + he compelled Capito, the man's father, to be present at his son's + execution, though Capito was not guilty of any crime and had received + no court summons. When the father enquired if he would allow him + to shut his eyes, Gaius ordered him to be slain likewise. He, finding + himself in danger, pretended to have been one of the plotters and + promised that he would disclose the names of all the rest; and he + named the companions of Gaius and those who abetted his licentiousness + and cruelty. He would have brought destruction upon many persons, + had he not by laying further information against the prefects, and + Callistus and Cæsonia, aroused distrust. So he was put to death, but + this very act paved the way for the ruin of Gaius. For the emperor + privately summoned the prefects and Callistus and said to them: + "I am but one and you are three; and I am defenceless, whereas + you are armed: hence, if you hate and desire to kill me, slay me at + once." The general consequences were that he came to regard himself + as an object of hatred, and believing that they were vexed at his + behavior he harbored suspicion against them and wore a sword at his + side when in the City; and to forestall any harmony of action on their + part he attempted to embroil them one with another by pretending to + make a confidant of each one separately and talking to him about the + rest until they obtained a notion of his designs and left him a prey + to the conspirators. + + The same emperor ordered the senate to convene and affected to + grant its members amnesty, saying that there were only a very few + against whom he still retained his anger. This expression doubled the + anxiety of each one of them, for everybody was thinking of himself. + +[-26-] Another person, named Protogenes, assisted the emperor in all his +projects, and carried continually on his person two books, of which he +called the one "sword" and the other "dagger." This Protogenes once +entered the senate as if on some indifferent business and when all, as +was to be expected, saluted and greeted him, he darted a kind of sinister +glance at Scribonius Proculus and said: "Do you, too, greet me, though +you hate the emperor so?" On hearing this all those present surrounded +their fellow senator and tore him to pieces and voted [some festivals +to Gains as also] that the emperor should have a high platform in the +senate-house to prevent any one's approaching him, besides enjoying the +use of a military guard even there. [They resolved further that his +statues should be guarded. + +Pleased at this Gaius laid aside his anger toward them and with a buoyant +spirit promised them some money. Pomponius, who was said to have plotted +against him, he released, inasmuch as he had been betrayed by a friend. +And, as the man's mistress when tortured would not utter a word, he did +her no further harm and even gave her an honorary gift of money. Gaius +was praised for this partly through fear and partly sincerely, and] as +some called him hero and others god, he fairly went out of his head. Even +before this he was in the habit of demanding that he be given superhuman +regard and said that he had intercourse with the Moon Goddess and was +crowned by Victory. He also pretended to be Jupiter and took this as a +pretext for having carnal knowledge of various women, especially his +sisters. Again he would often figure as [Neptune, because he had bridged +so great an expanse of sea, or perhaps as] Juno and Diana and Venus. +[He would impersonate Hercules, Bacchus, Apollo, and all the other +divinities, not merely males but also females.] As fast as he changed the +names he would assume all the rest of the attributes that belonged to +them, [so that he might seem to resemble them]. Now he would be seen in +feminine guise, holding a wine-cup and thyrsus, again with masculine +trappings he would carry a club and lion-skin: [or perhaps a helmet +and shield]. He would make up first with smooth chin and later on as a +bearded man. Sometimes he wielded a trident and on other occasions he +brandished the thunderbolt. He would array himself like a maiden equipped +for [hunting or] war, and after a brief interval would come forth as a +woman. Thus he could make changes with careful attention to details by +the variety of his dress and by what he attached to or threw over it, and +he was anxious to appear to be anything rather than a human being [and +an emperor]. Once a certain Gaul, espying him on a, high platform +transacting business in the guise of Jupiter, laughed aloud. Gaius +called to him and asked: "What do I seem to you to be?" And the other +answered--I shall tell his exact words--: "A big pack of foolishness." Yet +the man met no dire fate, for he was a shoemaker. Persons of such rank as +Gaius can bear the frankness of the common herd more easily than that of +those who hold high position.--Now this was the attire he would +assume whenever he pretended to be some god; and there were suitable +supplications, prayers, and sacrifices offered to it. [-27-] Otherwise, +he usually appeared in public in silk and triumphal dress. Very few were +those whom he would kiss. To most of the senators even he extended his +hand or foot for homage. Consequently the men who were kissed by him +thanked him for it even in the senate, though all might see him kissing +dancers every day. [And these divine honors paid him came not only from +the many, accustomed at all times to flatter, but from those who really +pretended to be something.] + +Take the case of Lucius Vitellius, not of low birth nor without sense, a +man who, on the contrary, had become famous by his governorship of Syria. +In addition to his other brilliant exploits as an official he spoiled +a plot of Artabanus in that region. He encountered the latter, who had +suffered no punishment for Armenia, already close to the Euphrates and +terrified him by his sudden appearance. He then induced him to come to +a conference and finally compelled him to sacrifice to the images of +Augustus and Gaius. Furthermore he made a peace with him that was +advantageous for the Romans and secured his children as hostages. This +Vitellius, then, was summoned by Gaius to be put to death. The complaint +against him was the same as the Parthians had against their king whom +they expelled. Jealousy made him the object of hatred, and fear the +object of plots. [For every power stronger than himself Gaius entertained +hatred, and he was suspicious of whatever was successful, feeling sure +that it would ultimately attack him.] But Vitellius saved his life by +somehow presenting himself in such a way as to appear of less importance +than his reputation would lead one to expect. He fell at the emperor's +feet shedding tears of lamentation, all the time saluting him frequently +as divine and paying him worship; at last he vowed that should he survive +he would sacrifice to Gaius. By this behavior he so mollified the +offended monarch and won his good-will that he not only managed to +survive but came to be regarded as one of his lord's most intimate +friends. On one occasion Gaius declared he was enjoying converse with the +Moon Goddess, and when he asked Vitellius if he could see the goddess +with him, the other kept his eyes fixed on the ground, as if overcome by +amazement. In a half whisper he answered: "Only you gods, master, may +behold one another."--So Vitellius from these beginnings, later came to +surpass all others in adulation. + +[-28-] [Gaius gave orders that in Miletus of the province of Asia a +certain tract of land should be set apart for his worship. His avowed +reason for choosing this city was that Diana had preempted Ephesus, +Augustus Pergamum, and Tiberius Smyrna. The truth of the matter, however, +was that he had conceived a desire to appropriate to his own use the +large and extremely beautiful temple which the Milesians were building to +Apollo. Thereupon he went to still greater lengths and built actually in +Rome itself one temple of his own that was accorded him by vote of the +senate, and another at his private expense on the Capitoline.] He also +planned a kind of dwelling on the Capitol, in order, as he said, that he +might live in the same house with Jupiter. However, he disdained taking +second place in this union of households and found fault with the god for +occupying the Capitol before him: accordingly, he hastened to construct +another temple on the Palatine and by way of a statue for it thought he +should like to change that of Olympian Jove so as to resemble himself. +This he found impossible, for the boat built to bring it was shattered by +thunderbolts, and loud laughter was plainly heard as often as any persons +approached the pedestal to take hold of it. So after hurling threats at +the obdurate image he set up a new one of himself.--The temple of the +Dioscuri in the Roman Forum he cut in two and made through it an approach +to the Palatine running right between the statues, to the end (these +were at all events his words) that he might have the Dioscuri for +gate-keepers. Assuming the name of Dialius [15] he attached Cæsonia his +wife, Claudius, and other persons who were very wealthy to his service as +priests, receiving from each one two hundred and fifty myriads for this +honor. He also consecrated himself to his own service and appointed his +horse a fellow-priest. Dainty and expensive birds were daily sacrificed +to him; he had a contrivance by which he defied the thunder with +answering peals and could send return flashes when it lightened. Likewise +whenever a bolt fell, he would in turn hurl a javelin at a rock, +repeating each time the words of Homer: "Either lift me or I will thee." +[16] [When thirty days after her marriage Cæsonia brought forth a +little daughter, he pretended that this, too, had come about through +supernatural means and gave himself airs on the fact that in so few days +after becoming a husband he was a father. He gave the child the name of +Drusilla, and taking her up to the Capitol placed her on the knees of +Jupiter, with the implication that she was his child, and put her in +charge of Minerva to be suckled.] This god, then, this Jupiter,--[he +was called by the latter name so much that it even found its way into +documents,--at the same time that all this took place was collecting +money in most shameful and most frightful ways.] One may, to be sure, +[leave out of account the wares and the taverns, the brothels [17] and +the courts, the artisans and the wage-earning slaves] and other such +sources from [every single one of] which he gathered funds; but how can +one escape mentioning the rooms set apart in the very palace and +the wives of the foremost men as well as the children of the most +aristocratic families that he shut up in these rooms and foully abused, +sparing absolutely no one in his greed for such victims, meeting with no +resistance from some [who wished to avoid showing any displeasure] but +seizing others quite against their will? [Yet these proceedings did not +displease the mob very much, but they rather delighted with him in his +licentiousness and in the fact that] he also would throw himself on the +heap of gold and silver collected from these persons and roll in it. +[When, however, after enacting severe laws in regard to the taxes he +inscribed them in exceedingly small letters on a tablet which he then +hung up aloft so as to make sure that it should be read as little as +possible and that many through ignorance of what was bidden or forbidden +should make themselves liable to the penalties thereof, the people +straightway ran together excitedly into the hippodrome and raised fierce +shouts.] + +Once the people had come together in the hippodrome and were objecting +to his conduct, and he had them cut down by the soldiers. In this way he +imposed silence upon them all. + +[A.D. 41 (a. u. 794)] + +[-29-] As he continued to show insanity in every way, a plot was formed +against him by Cassius Chairea and Cornelius Sabinus, though they were +holding tribuneships in his pretorian guard. A number were in the +conspiracy and privy to what was being done, among whom were Callistus +and the prefect. + +Practically all of his courtiers were interested, both in their own +behalf and for the common good. Any who did not take part in the +conspiracy still refused to reveal it, though they knew of it and were +glad to see a plot formed against him. + +But the men who actually killed Gaius were those mentioned. It is worth +noting, besides, that Chairea was an old-fashioned sort of man and had a +private cause for anger. Gaius was in the habit of nicknaming him "sissy" +(though he was the hardiest of men) and whenever it came the turn of +Chairea to command would give him some such watchword as "yearning" or +"Venus." Again, an oracle had a short time before warned Gaius to beware +of Cassius. The former, supposing that it had reference to Gaius Cassius, +governor of Asia at the time, because he was a descendant of that Cassius +who had slain Cæsar, had him brought as a prisoner. The person whose +future conduct the divinity was really indicating to the emperor, +however, was this Cassius Chairea. Likewise a certain Egyptian, +Apollonius, foretold in his native land what happened to him. For this +speech he was sent to Rome and was brought before the emperor the day on +which the latter was destined to die; his punishment was postponed till a +little later, and in this way his life was saved. + +The deed was done as follows: Gaius was celebrating a festival in the +palace and was attending to the production of a spectacle. In the course +of this he was himself both eating and drinking and was feasting the rest +of the company. Pomponius Secundus, consul at the time, was taking his +fill of the food as he sat by the emperor's feet, and at the same time +kept continually bending over to shower kisses upon them. Gaius himself +decided that he wanted to dance and act as a tragedian. The followers of +Chairea could endure it no longer. As he went out of the theatre to see +the boys of most noble lineage whom he had imported from Greece and Ionia +to sing the hymn composed in his honor, the conspirators wounded him, +then intercepted him in a narrow passage and killed him. When he fell to +the ground none of those present would keep his hands off him but they +all savagely stabbed the lifeless corpse again and again. Some chewed +pieces of his flesh. His wife and daughter were immediately slain. + +So Gaius, who accomplished all these exploits in three years, nine +months, and twenty-eight days, learned by actual experience that he was +not a god. + + Now he was openly spurned by those who had been accustomed to + do him reverence even when absent. His blood was spilled by persons + who were wont to speak and to write of him as "Jove" and "god." + His statues and his images were dragged from their pedestals, for the + people in particular retained a lively remembrance of the distress they + had endured. + + All the soldiers in the Germanic division raised an outcry and their + remonstrance extended to the point of indulging in slaughter. + +Those who stood by remembered the words once spoken by him to the +populace: "How I wish you had but one neck!" and made it plain to him +that it was he who had but one neck, whereas they had many hands. And +when the pretorian guard, filled with consternation, began running about +and demanding who had slain Gaius, Valerius Asiaticus, an ex-consul, took +a remarkable mode of bringing them to their senses, in that he climbed +up to a conspicuous place and cried out: "I only wish I had killed him!" +This alarmed them so that they stopped their outcry. + + All such persons as in any way acknowledged the authority of the + senate obeyed their oaths and became once more quiet.--While the + overthrow of Gaius was thus being accomplished, the consuls Sentius + and Secundus forthwith transferred the funds from the treasure-chambers + to the Capitol. They stationed most of the senators and + plenty of soldiers as guards over it to prevent any plundering being + done by the populace. So these men in company with the prefects + and the circle of Sabinus and Chairea deliberated as to what should + be done. + + +[Footnote 1: Emended by Boissevain from the "four" of the MS.] + +[Footnote 2: Boissevain restores the MS. "ten" in place of the "twelve" +of Robert Estienne.] + +[Footnote 3: Compare Suetonius, Life of Gaius, chapter 15.] + +[Footnote 4: This sentence is unintelligible and doubtless the MS. is +corrupt. No editor has offered a wholly satisfactory emendation, though +by comparing Book Sixty, chapter 4, the sense would seem to require: "no +one, in taking the oath, mentions the name of Tiberius in the number of +the emperors."] + +[Footnote 5: Reading (with Boissevain) [Greek: exoruxas] for [Greek: +dioruxas].] + +[Footnote 6: This predicate is supplied on the suggestion of Boissevain. +In the MS. an evident gap of a few words exists.] + +[Footnote 7: Adopting the emendation of Bücheler, [Greek: ieraes +eichosin].] + +[Footnote 9: Boissevain remarks that this sentence may be interpreted to +mean "All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed pleasure +at [decrees passed in her honor], as being grieved [at her death], or +behaved as if they were glad [that she had become a goddess]," but adds +that the text is open to suspicion.] + +[Footnote: 10 Reading [Greek: up] (a suggestion of Boissevain's) in place +of [Greek: hép] Compare Book Sixty-one, chapter 16.] + +[Footnote 11: Inserting with Bekker [Greek: alla chai asebeite.]] + +[Footnote 12: This expression is obscure. Fabricius thought it contained +a reference to the Palatine Games, and Boissevain queries whether we +should read "at the _spectacles_ belonging to the Palatium."] + +[Footnote 13: This is a quotation of the speech made by Achilles to the +heralds whom Agamemnon despatches to the hero's hut in pursuance of the +threat previously uttered that he (Agamemnon) will take Briseis, favorite +of Achilles, in lieu of Chryseis, surrendered to her father. (From +Homer's Iliad, Book I, verse 335.)] + +[Footnote 14: Sc. "in it"? (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 15: According to Boissevain, this is very probably a MS. error +for _Jupiter Latiaris_.] + +[Footnote 16: From Homer's Iliad, Book Twenty-three, verse 724.] + +[Footnote 17: Reading (with Reiske) pornas for ornas] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +60 + +Claudius is made emperor: his faults and excellencies (chapters 1-7). + +He restores their kingdoms to Antiochus, to both the Mithridates, to +Agrippa, to Herod, and enlarges the size of the same (chapter 8). + +The Chatti, Chauci, Mauri are overcome (chapters 8, 9). + +Certain regulations: the harbor of Ostia: Lake Fucinus to empty into the +Tiber (chapters 10-13). + +Assassinations instituted: crimes of Messalina and the freedmen (chapters +14-18). + +Britain is partially subdued (chapters 19-23). + +Certain regulations: outrages of Messalina: the causes of her demise +(chapters 24-31). + +Agrippina is wed: she at once enacts the role of a Messalina: at length +she murders Claudius (chapters 32-35). + +These events occurred during the remainder of the consulship of C. Cæsar +(4th) and Cn. Sentius Saturninus, together with 13 other years in which +the following held the consulship. + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (II), C. Cæcina Largus. (A.D. 42 = a. u. 795 = Second +of Claudius, from Jan. 24th.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (III), L. Vitellius (II). (A.D. 43 = a. u. 796 = +Third of Claudius.) + +L. Quinctius Crispinus (II), M. Statilius Taurus. (A.D. 44 = a. u. 797 = +Fourth of Claudius.) + +M. Vinicius (II), T. Statilius Taurus Corvinus. (A.D. 45 = a. u. 798 = +Fifth of Claudius.) + +Valerius Asiaticus (II), M. Iunius Silanus. (A.D. 46 = a. u. 799 = Sixth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (IV), L. Vitellius (III). (A.D. 47 = a. u. 800 = +Seventh of Claudius.) + +A. Vitellius, L. Vipsanius. (A.D. 48 = a. u. 801 = Eighth of Claudius.) + +C. Pompeius Longinus Gallus, Q. Veranius. (A.D. 49 = a. u. 802 = Ninth of +Claudius.) + +C. Antistius Vetus, M. Suillius Nervilianus. (A.D. 50 = a. u. 803 = Tenth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Cæsar Aug. (V), Ser. Cornelius Orfitus. (A.D. 51 = a. u. 804 = +Eleventh of Claudius.) + +Cornelius Sulla Faustus, L. Salvius Otho Titianus. (A.D. 52 = a. u. 805 = +Twelfth of Claudius.) + +Dec. Iunius Silanus Torquatus, Q. Haterius Antoninus. (A.D. 53 = a. u. +806 = Thirteenth of Claudius.) + +M. Asinius Marcellus, Manius Acilius Aviola. (A.D. 54 = a. u. 807 = +Fourteenth of Claudius--to October 13th.) + + +_(BOOK 60, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 41 (_a. u._ 794)] + +[-1-] When Gaius perished in the manner described, the consuls despatched +guards to every quarter of the city and gathered the senate on the +Capitol, where many diverse opinions were uttered. Some favored a +democracy, some a monarchy; some were for choosing this man, and others +that. Therefore they spent the rest of the day and the whole night +without accomplishing anything. Meanwhile some soldiers who had entered +the palace for the purpose of making spoil of something or other found +Claudius hidden away in a dark corner. He was attending Gaius when the +latter came out of the theatre, and at this time through fear of the +confusion had crouched down out of the way. At first, the men thinking +that he was some one else and perhaps had something worth taking dragged +him out. Afterwards, on recognizing him, they hailed him as emperor and +conducted him to the camp. Then in company with their comrades they +delivered to him the entire power of government, inasmuch as he was of +the imperial race and was regarded as suitable. In spite of his shrinking +and remonstrance the more he attempted to avoid the honor and to resist +the more did the soldiers in turn insist upon not accepting an emperor +from others but upon their own right to establish such a sovereign over +the entire world. Hence, with a show of reluctance, he yielded. The +consuls for a time sent tribunes and others forbidding him to assume any +such authority and to submit to the jurisdiction of the people and the +senate and the laws; but, when their attendant soldiers left them in the +lurch, then finally they too yielded and voted him all the remaining +privileges pertaining to sole rulership. + +[-2-] So it was that Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, the son of +Drusus child of Livia, obtained the imperial power without having been +previously tested at all in any position of authority, save only that he +had been consul. He was fifty years of age. In mental development he was +by no means inferior, having been through a sufficient education to do +a little history writing, but physically he was frail, and his head and +hands shook a little. Hence his voice was also faltering and he did not +himself read all the measures that he introduced before the senate but +would give them to the quæstor to read,--though at first, at least, +he was regularly present. Whatever he did read in person he generally +recited sitting down. He was the first of the Romans, too, to employ a +covered chair,--which has led to the present custom which prescribes that +not only the emperors be carried in chairs but we ex-consuls, as well. +Before this time, Augustus, Tiberius, and some others used to be carried +sometimes in litters such as women even at the present day affect. These +infirmities, however, were not the cause of nearly so much trouble to +him as were the freedmen and women with whom he associated; for more +conspicuously than any of his peers he was ruled by slaves and by women. +From a child he had been reared with careful nursing and in the midst of +terror and had for that reason feigned simplicity to a greater extent +than was really true this fact he himself admitted in the senate: and as +he had lived for a long time with his grandmother Livia and for another +long period with his mother Antonia and again with liberti, and moreover +had had several amours with women, he had acquired no qualities becoming +a freeman, but although ruler of all the Romans and their subjects he was +himself nothing more nor less than a slave. They would take advantage of +him particularly when he was inclined to drink and sexual intercourse, +for in both these directions he was quite insatiable and on such +occasions was exceedingly easy to master. Moreover, he was afflicted by +cowardice, which frequently roused in him so great alarm that he could +not calculate anything as he ought. They anticipated this failing of his, +too, and it was no inconsiderable help toward getting the better of him. +By frightening him half to death they would reap great benefits, and in +other people they inspired so much fear that--to give an epitome of the +situation--once when a number were on the same day invited to dinner by +Claudius and again by his dependents, the guests neglected him on +some indifferent pretext and presented themselves at the feast of his +companions. + +[-3-] Though, generally speaking, he was the sort of character described, +still he performed not a few valuable services whenever he was free from +the influences mentioned and was master of himself. I shall take up his +acts in detail. + +All honors voted to him he immediately accepted, except the title +"Father," and this he afterward took: yet he did not at once enter the +senate, but delayed as late as the thirtieth day. The fact that he had +seen Gaius perish as he did and now learned that some other candidates, +presumably superior to himself, had been proposed for emperor by the +senatorial body made him a little timid. Therefore he exercised great +caution at all points and caused all men and women who approached him to +be searched, for fear they might have a dagger. At banquets he made sure +there were some soldiers present,--a custom which, set by him, continues +to this day. That of invariable search was brought to an end by +Vespasian. He put to death Chairea and some others in spite of his +pleasure at the death of Gaius. In other words he looked far ahead to +ensure his own safety, and was not so much grateful to the man for having +by his deed enabled him to get the empire as he was displeased at the +idea of any one assassinating an emperor. He acted in this matter not as +an avenger of Gaius but as one who had caught a person plotting against +himself. As a sequel to this murder Sabinus also died by his own hand, +not choosing to survive after his comrade had been executed. + +As for all other citizens who had openly shown their eagerness for +a democracy or had been regarded as eligible for the supreme power. +Claudius so far from bearing malice toward them gave them honors and +offices. In plainer terms than any ruler that ever lived he promised +them immunity,--therein imitating the example of the Athenians,[1] as +he said,--and it was no mere promise, but he afforded it in fact. He +abolished complaints of maiestas alike for things written and things +done and punished no one on any such charge for either earlier or later +offences. He invented no complaint for the sake of persecuting those who +had wronged or insulted him when he was a private citizen; and there were +many who had done this, particularly as he was deemed of no importance, +and to please either Tiberius or Gaius. If, however, he found them guilty +of some other crime, he would take vengeance on them also for their +former abuse. [-4-] The taxes introduced in the reign of Gaius and +whatever other measures had led to denunciation of the latter's acts were +done away with by Claudius, not all at once but as opportunity offered. +He also brought back such persons as Gaius had unjustly exiled,---among +others the latter's sisters Agrippina and Julia,--and restored to them, +their property. Of those imprisoned,--and a very great number were in +this predicament,--he liberated such as were suffering for maiestas or +any similar complaints, but real criminals he punished. + +He investigated the cases very carefully, in order that those who had +committed crimes should not be released on account of the victims of +blackmail, nor yet the latter be ruined on account of the former. Nearly +every day either in company with the entire senate or alone he would sit +on a platform trying cases, generally in the Forum, but occasionally +elsewhere. In fact, he renewed the custom of having men sit as his +colleagues, which had been abandoned ever since Tiberius withdrew to the +island. Very often he joined the consuls and the prætors and especially +those having charge of the finances in their investigations, and some few +matters he turned over entirely to the various courts. He destroyed the +poisons (which were found in great variety among the effects of Gaius); +and the books of Protogenes (who was put to death) together with the +documents which Gaius pretended to have burned but which were actually +found in the imperial archives he showed to the senators and gave them to +the latter, to the very men who had written them, no less than to those +against whom they had been written, to read: afterward he burned them up. +Yet, when the senate manifested a desire to dishonor Gaius, he personally +prevented such a measure from being voted, but on his own responsibility +caused all of his predecessor's images to disappear by night. Hence the +name of Gaius does not occur in the list of emperors whom we mention +in oaths and prayers any more than that of Tiberius. Neither of them, +however, suffered any official disgrace. + +[-5-] Accordingly, the unjust institutions set up by Gaius and by others +on his account Claudius overturned. To Drusus his father and Antonia +his mother he offered horse-races on their birthdays, putting off to +different days the festivals which would occur on the same dates, in +order that there should not be two celebrations at once. His grandmother +Livia was not only honored by equestrian contests, but was deified, and +he set up a statue to her in the temple of Augustus, charging the vestal +virgins with the duty of offering sacrifice in proper form. He also +ordered that women should use her name in taking oaths. + +Though he paid such reverence to his ancestors, he himself would accept +nothing beyond the names pertaining to his office. On the first day of +August, to be sure,--his birthday,--there were equestrian contests, but +not on his account: it was because the temple of Mars had been dedicated +on that day, which had consequently been distinguished thereafter by +annual contests. + +Beside moderation in this respect he further forbade any one's worshiping +him or offering him any sacrifice; he checked the many excessive +acclamations accorded him; and he accepted only one image,--of +silver,--and two statues, of bronze and stone, that had been voted to +him at the start. All such expenditures, he declared, were useless and +furthermore inflicted great loss and great annoyance upon the city. All +the temples and all the rest of the public works had been filled with +statues and votive offerings, so that he said he should have to make it +a matter of thought what to do with them. He forbade the prætors' giving +gladiatorial games and ordained that any one else who superintended them +in any place whatsoever should not allow to be written or reported the +statement that such games were being held for the emperor's preservation. +He became so used to settling all these matters by considering the merits +of each case rather than according to the dictates of custom that he +adopted the same attitude toward other departments of life. For instance, +when this year he betrothed one of his daughters to Lucius Junius Silanus +and gave the other in marriage to Gnæus Pompeius Magnus, he did nothing +out of the common to commemorate the occasion, but attended the courts +in person on those days and convened the senate as usual. He ordered his +sons-in-law temporarily to hold office among the viginti viri, and later +to act as prefects of the city at the Feriæ. After a long interval he +gave them the right to stand for the other offices five years sooner than +was customary. + +Gaius had despoiled this Pompeius of his title _Magnus_ and came very +near killing him because he was so named. Yet out of contempt for him, +since he was still but a boy, he did not go to such extremes, and merely +abolished the offending epithet, saying that it was not safe for any one +to be called Magnus. Claudius now restored to him this title and gave him +his daughter to wife. + +[-6-] These were certainly commendable actions. In addition, when at one +time in the senate the consuls came down from their seats to talk with +him, he rose in turn and went to meet them. In Naples he lived entirely +like a private citizen. He and his associates while there adopted the +Greek manner of life invariably; at the musical entertainments he would +wear cloak and military boots, and at the gymnastic exercises a purple +robe and golden crown. His action, moreover, in regard to money was +remarkable, for he forbade any one to bring him contributions, as had +been customary in the reigns of Augustus and of Gaius, and he refused +to allow any person to name him as heir if such person possessed any +relatives whatever. Indeed, the funds that had been confiscated by +government order during the period of Tiberius and Gaius he gave back +either to the victims themselves, if they still survived, or otherwise to +their children. + +It had been the custom[2] that if any slightest detail were carried out +contrary to precedent on the occasion of the games these should be given +over again, as I have stated. But since such occasions were frequent, +occurring a third, fourth, fifth, and sometimes tenth time, and this +partly by accident but generally by intention on the part of those +benefited by these happenings, he enacted a law that on only one day +should the equestrian contests take place a second time; in fact, +however, he usually abrogated this privilege also. The schemers +henceforth easily avoided falling into irregularities, as they gained +very little by so doing. + +In the matter of the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by +reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a +tumult to bar them from the City, he decided not to drive them out, but +ordered them to follow that mode of life prescribed by their ancestral +custom and not to assemble in numbers.--The clubs instituted by Gaius he +disbanded.--Also, seeing that there was no use in forbidding the populace +to do certain things unless their daily life should be reorganized, +he abolished the taverns where they were wont to gather and drink and +commanded that no dressed meat nor warm water[3] should be sold. Some who +disobeyed this ordinance were punished. + +He restored to the various cities the statues which Gaius was in the +habit of requiring them to send, restored also to the Dioscuri +their temple and to Pompey the right of naming the theatre. On the +stage-building of the latter he inscribed also the name of Tiberius, +because that emperor had rebuilt the structure when it was burned. His +own name he had chiseled there likewise (not because he had reared it +but because he had dedicated it), but on no other part of the edifice. +Likewise he did not wear the triumphal garb the entire time of the games, +though permission was voted to him, but appeared in it merely to +offer sacrifice; the rest of the festival he superintended in the +purple-bordered garment. + +[-7-] He introduced in the orchestra among others knights and women who +were his peers, who had been accustomed in the reign of Gaius so to +appear regularly. The reason was not that he liked their performance, +but that he wanted a proof of their past behavior. Certainly none of them +was again marshaled on the stage during the era of Claudius. The Pyrrhic +dance, which the boys sent for by Gaius were practicing, they were +allowed to perform once, were honored with citizenship for it, and were +then dismissed. Others, in turn, chosen from among the retinue, then gave +exhibitions.--This was what took place in theatrical circles. + +In the hippodrome twelve camels and horses had one contest, and three +hundred bears together with an equal number of Libyan beasts were +slaughtered. Previous to this time the different classes in attendance +had watched the spectacle each from its own special location,--senators, +knights, and populace; thus it had come to be a regular practice, yet no +definite positions had been assigned to them. [-8-] It was at this time +that Claudius marked off the space which still belongs to the senate, +and furthermore he allowed those senators who chose to view the sights +somewhere else and even in citizen's dress. After this he banqueted the +senators and their wives, the knights, and likewise the tribes. + +Next he restored Commagene to Antiochus, for Gaius, though he had himself +given him the district, had taken it away again; and Mithridates the +Iberian, whom Gaius had summoned only to imprison, he sent home again to +resume his sovereignty. To another Mithridates, a lineal descendant of +Mithridates the Great, he granted Bosporus, giving to Polemon some land +in Cilicia in place of it. He enlarged the domain of Agrippa of Palestine +(who, happening to be in Rome, had helped him become emperor), and +bestowed on him consular honors. To the latter's brother Herod he gave +pretorial dignities and some authority. They were allowed to enter the +senate and to express their thanks to him in Greek.--Now these were the +acts of Claudius himself, and they were lauded by all. + +But certain other deeds were done at this time of an entirely different +nature by his freedmen and by his wife, Valeria Messalina. She became +enraged at her niece Julia because the latter neither paid her honor nor +flattered her; and she was also jealous because the girl was extremely +beautiful and had been the only one to enjoy the favor of Claudius +several times. Accordingly, she had her banished by bringing against her +among other complaints that of adultery (for which Annius Seneca was also +exiled) and after a while she succeeded in procuring Julia's death. As +for the freedmen, it was they who persuaded Claudius to accept triumphal +honors for his deeds in Mauretania, though he had not been successful and +had not yet attained imperial power when the end of the war came. This +same year, however, Sulpicius Galba overcame the Chatti, and Publius +Gabinius conquered the Cauchi[4] beside winning fame in other ways; for +instance, he recovered a military eagle, the only one left among the +enemy from the catastrophe of Varus. Through the exploits of both of +these men Claudius received a title of imperator that had some foundation +in fact. + +[A.D. 42 (_a. u._ 795)] + +[-9-] The next year the same Moors were again subdued in fighting with +him. Suetonius Paulinus, one of the ex-prætors, overran their country +as far as the Atlantic. Gnæus Hosidius Geta, one of the peers, making a +subsequent campaign, advanced at once against their general Salabus and +conquered him two separate times. And when the latter after leaving a few +soldiers near the frontier to hold back any who might pursue took refuge +in the sandy part of the country, Geta ventured to follow him. First +stationing a part of his army opposite the hostile detachment that was +awaiting him he provided himself with as much water as was feasible, and +pushed forward. When this supply gave out and no more could be found, +he was caught in an exceedingly unpleasant position. The barbarians, +especially since through habit they can endure thirst an exceedingly long +time, and through knowledge of the country can always get _some_ water, +had no trouble in maintaining themselves. The Romans, for the opposite +reasons, found it impossible to advance and difficult to withdraw. While +Geta was in a dilemma as to what he should do, one of the natives who was +at peace with the invaders persuaded him to make use of incantations and +enchantments, telling him that as a result of such procedure abundant +water had frequently been granted them. No sooner had he taken this +advice than so much rain burst from heaven as to allay the soldiers' +thirst entirely, beside scaring the enemy, who thought the gods were +assisting the Roman. Consequently they came to terms voluntarily and +ended their warfare.--After these events Claudius divided the Moors who +were in subjection into two districts, namely, the country about Tengis +and that about Cæsarea, these cities giving their names to the whole +region; and he appointed two knights as governors. At this same period +certain parts of Numidia also were involved in warfare by neighboring +barbarians, and when the latter had been conquered returned to a state of +repose. + +[-10-] The office of consul Claudius held in conjunction with Gaius +Largus. He allowed the latter to continue consul for a whole year, but as +for himself he remained a magistrate only two months at this time. He had +the rest swear to the deeds of Augustus, and was himself sworn, but in +regard to his own deeds he allowed no such procedure on the part of any +one. On leaving the office he took the oath again, like other people. +This was always his practice, every time he was consul. + +About this period certain speeches of Augustus and Tiberius were being +read according to decree on the first of the month, and when they had +kept the senators busy till evening he ended the reading, declaring that +it was sufficient for them to be engraved on tablets. + +Some prætors who were entrusted with the administration of the funds +having incurred charges, he did not take legal measures against them, but +made the rounds of those who sold goods and let buildings, and corrected +whatever he deemed to be abuses. This he did also on numerous other +occasions.--There were likewise peculiarities in the appointment of the +prætors, for their number was now fourteen or eighteen or somewhere +between, just as it happened.--Beside this action with reference to the +finances he established a board of three ex-prætors to collect debts +owing the government, granting them lictors and the usual force of +assistants. + +[-11-] On the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of +abundant provisions not only for that particular crisis, but for all +succeeding time. Practically all food used by the Romans was imported, +and yet the region near the mouth of the Tiber had no safe landing-places +nor suitable harbors, so that their mastery of the sea was rendered +useless. Save for such staples as were brought in during their season +and stored in warehouses nothing from abroad could be had in the winter +season; and if any one risked a voyage, he was almost sure to meet with +disaster. Being cognizant of these facts Claudius undertook to build +a harbor and would not be turned aside, though the architects on his +enquiring how great the expense would be replied: "You don't want to do +this." So sure were they that the great disbursements necessary would +cause him to rein in his ambition if he should learn beforehand the exact +amount. He, however, desired a work worthy of the dignity and greatness +of Rome, and he brought it to a successful conclusion. In the first place +he excavated a very considerable piece of land, constructed quays on all +sides of it, and let the sea into it. Next in the sea itself he heaped +huge mounds on both sides of the entrance to this place,--mounds that +enclosed a large body of water. Between these breakwaters he reared an +island and planted on it a tower with a beacon light.--This harbor, then, +still so called in local parlance, was created by him at this period. He +had another project to make an outlet into the Liris from Lake Fucina, in +the Marsian country, to the end that the land around it might be tilled +and the river be rendered more navigable. But the expenditure was all to +no purpose. + +He made a number of laws, most of which I have no need to mention; but +here are some of the regulations that he introduced. He had the governors +who were chosen by lot set out before the first day of April; for it was +their habit to delay a long time in the City. And he would not +permit those chosen by election to express any thanks to him in the +senate,--this had been a kind of custom with them,--but he said: "These +persons ought not to thank me, as if they were so eager for office, but I +them, because they cheerfully help me bear the burden of government: +and if they acquit themselves well in office, I shall praise them still +more." Such men as by reason of insufficient means were not able to be +senators he allowed to ask permission to retire, and he admitted some +of the knights to tribuneships: the rest of them, without exception, he +forced to attend the senate as often as notice was sent them. He was +so severe upon those who were remiss in this matter that some killed +themselves. + +[-12-] In other respects he was sociable and considerate in his dealings +with them. He would visit them when sick and be a partner in their +merrymakings. A certain tribune beat a slave of his in public, but +Claudius did the offender himself no harm, only depriving him of his +assistants, and these he restored not long afterward. Another of his +slaves was sent to the Forum and severely scourged, because he had +insulted a prominent man. In the senate the emperor would himself +regularly rise in case the rest had been standing for a long time. On +account of his ill health, as I related, he frequently remained seated +and read his advice, if asked for it. He allowed Lucius Sulla to sit on +the prætors' bench because this man, being unable by reason of age to +hear anything from his own seat, had stood up. The day on which a year +previous he had been declared emperor he did nothing unusual, except to +give the Pretorians twenty-five denarii, and this he continued to do +every year thereafter. Some of the prætors, however, of their own free +will and not by any decree publicly celebrated that day and also the +birthday of Messalina. Not all of them did this, but as many as chose. +This shows what freedom they had. You may see how really moderate +Claudius was in all such matters from the fact that when a son was born +to him,--called at that time Claudius Tiberius Germanicus but later also +_Britannicus_,--he did not make the occasion in any way conspicuous and +would not allow him to be named Augustus nor Messalina Augusta. + +[-13-]He was constantly arranging gladiatorial games, taking a degree of +pleasure in them that aroused criticism. Very few beasts were destroyed, +but a great many human beings, some of whom fought with one another +whereas others were devoured by animals. The emperor hated vehemently +the freed slaves who in the reigns of Tiberius and Gaius had conspired +against their masters, as well as those who extorted blackmail from +people or had borne false witness against any persons. The majority of +these he got rid of in the manner mentioned, though some of them he +punished by other methods. A great many he delivered up to the vengeance +of their masters. So great did the number become of those who died a +public death that the statue of Augustus, erected on the scene, was +turned to face in another direction, both to prevent its being thought +that _he_ was viewing the slaughter and to avoid having the statue +always covered up. For this act Claudius was well laughed at when people +reflected how he sated himself with the sights that he did not think +proper for even the inanimate bronze to behold. It might be noted +particularly that he used to delight greatly even at lunch time in +watching those who were incidentally cut down in the middle of the +spectacle. Yet a lion that had been trained to eat men and on this +account greatly pleased the crowd he ordered killed on the principle +that it was not fitting for Romans to gaze on such a sight. He received +abundant praise, however, for appearing in the people's midst at the +spectacle, for giving them all they wanted, and for his employing a +herald so very little and announcing most events by notices written on +boards. + +[-14-] After he had become accustomed, then, to feast his fill on blood +and slaughter, he had recourse more readily to other kinds of killings. +The Cæsarians and Messalina were really responsible for this. Whenever +they desired to obtain any one's death, they would terrify him, with the +result that they would be allowed to do everything they chose. Often, +when in a moment of sudden alarm his momentary terror had led him to +order some one's death, afterward, when he recovered and came to his +senses, he would search for the man and on learning what had happened +would be grieved and repent. He began this series of slaughters with +Gaius Appius Silanus. This man, who was of very noble family and at the +time was governor of Spain, he had sent for, pretending that he wanted to +see him about something, had married him to Messalina's mother, and had +for some time held him in honor among his dearest and closest friends. +Then he suddenly killed him. The reason was that Silanus had offended +Messalina, the most abandoned and lustful of women, in refusing to lie +with her, and by the slight shown the empress had alienated Narcissus, +the emperor's freedman. As they had no true charge to bring against him, +nor even one that would be believed, Narcissus invented a dream in which +he declared he had seen Claudius murdered by the hand of Silanus. So just +before dawn, while the emperor was still in bed, he came all of a tremble +to tell him the dream, and Messalina by expatiating on it made it worse. +Thus Silanus perished just because of a vision. + +[-15-] After the latter's death the Romans at once lost confidence in +Claudius, and Annius Vinicianus with some others formed a plot against +him. The chief conspirator had been one of those proposed at the death of +Gaius for the imperial office, and it was partly fear inspired by this +fact that caused him to rebel. As he possessed no considerable force, +however, he sent to Furius Camillus Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia, +who had a large body of native and foreign troops. Camillus, who was +inclined to the project of his own accord, was induced to revolt at the +same time, particularly because he had been spoken of for emperor. When +so much had been accomplished, many senators and knights joined the ranks +of Annius. They did him no good, however,[5] for the soldiers, because +Camillus proffered them the name of _populus_ and promised that he would +restore to them their ancient freedom, suspected that they should have +troubles and changes of government again and would therefore no longer +obey him. Then in terror he fled from them, and coming to the island Issa +he there met a voluntary death. Claudius for a time was quite cowed +with fear and was ready at a demand from Camillus to withdraw from his +sovereignty voluntarily. Later he recovered courage and rewarded his +soldiers among other methods by having the citizen legions (the seventh +and the eleventh) named the Claudian, and the Faithful, and the Pious, +by the senate itself. Then he made reprisals upon those who had plotted +against him and on this charge put many to death, among them a prætor, +who first had to resign his office. Numbers, of whom Vinicianus was one, +committed suicide, for Messalina and Narcissus and all the latter's +fellow freedmen seized this opportunity to wreak their direst vengeance. +They employed slaves and liberti, for instance, and informers against +their own masters. These masters and others of undoubted nobility, +foreigners and citizens alike, not only plebeians, but some of the +knights and senators, were put to the torture in spite of the fact that +Claudius at the very beginning of his reign had sworn not to torture any +free citizen. + +[-16-] Many men therefore at this time and many women incurred +punishment. Some of the latter met their fate right in the prison, and +when they were to die were actually led in chains upon a scaffold, like +captives, and their bodies like those of others were thrown down the +Scalæ Gemoniæ. Of those who were executed outside the prison only +the heads were exhibited in that place. Some of the most guilty, +nevertheless, either through favoritism or by the use of money saved +their necks with the help of Messalina and of the Cæsarians following +Narcissus. All the children of those who perished were granted immunity +and some received money. Trials were held in the senate-house in the +presence of Claudius, his prefects, and his freedmen. With a consul on +each side he made his report to the senators while seated upon a chair +of state or on a bench. Next he himself went to his accustomed seat and +chairs were set for his escort. This same program was followed also at +the other most important functions. + +It was at this time that a certain Galæsus, a freedman of Camillus, was +brought into the senate and talked with the utmost frankness on a variety +of subjects. The following remark of his is worth instancing. Narcissus +had taken the floor and said to him: "What would you have done, Galæsus, +if Camillus had become monarch?" He replied: "I should have stood behind +him and said nothing." So he became famous for this speech, and Arria +for something quite different. The latter, who was wife of Cæcina Pætus, +refused to live after he had been put to death, although, being on very +intimate terms with Messalina, she might have occupied a position of some +honor. Moreover, when her husband showed cowardice, she strengthened his +resolution. She took the sword and gave herself a wound, then handed it +to him, saying: "See, Pætus, I feel no pain."--These two persons, then, +were accorded praise, for by reason of the long succession of woes +matters had now come to such a pass that excellence no longer meant +anything else than dying nobly. + +The attitude of Claudius in bringing destruction upon them and others is +indicated by his forever giving to the soldiers as a watchword this verse +about its being necessary "In one's first anger to ward off the foe." [6] +He kept throwing out many other hints of that sort in Greek both to them +and to the senate, with the result that those who could understand any +of them laughed at him. These were some of the happenings of that +period.--And the tribunes at the death of one of their number themselves +convened the senate for the purpose of appointing a tribune to succeed +him,--this in spite of the fact that the consuls were accessible. + +[A.D. 43 (_a. u._ 796)] + +[-17-] When Claudius now became consul again,--it was the third time,--he +put an end to many sacrifices and many feast days. For, as the greater +part of the year was given up to them, no small damage was done to public +business. Beside curtailing the number of these he retrenched in all the +other ways that he could. What had been given away by Gaius without any +justice or reason he demanded back from the recipients; but he gave back +to the road commissioners all that his predecessor had exacted in fines +on account of Corbulo. Moreover, he gave notice to magistrates chosen by +lot, since they were even now slow about leaving the City, that they must +commence their journey before the middle of April came. He reduced to +servitude the Lycians, who rising in revolt had slain some Romans, and +merged them in the prefecture of Pamphylia. During the investigation, +which was conducted in the senate-house, he put a question in the Latin +tongue to one of the envoys who had originally been a Lycian but had been +made a Roman. As the man did not understand what was said, he took away +his citizenship, saying that it was not proper for a person to be a Roman +who had no knowledge of Roman speech. A great many other persons unworthy +of citizenship were excluded from its privileges, whereas he granted it +to some quite without restrictions, either individuals or large bodies of +men. And inasmuch as practically everywhere Romans were esteemed above +foreigners, many sought the franchise by personal application to the +emperor and many bought it from Messalina and the Cæsarians. For this +reason, though the right was at first bartered only for great sums, it +later was so cheapened by the facility with which it could be obtained +that it came to be said that if a person only gave a man some broken +glassware he might become a citizen. + +This behavior, then, subjected the emperor to no end of jests, but he +received praise for such actions as the following. Many persons were all +the time becoming objects of blackmail, some because they did not use +Claudius's proper title and others because they were going to leave him +nothing when they died,--the blackmailers asserting that it was necessary +for those who obtained citizenship from him to do both of these things. +The emperor now stepped in and forbade that any one should be called +to account for such negligence.--Now Messalina and his freedmen kept +offering for sale and peddling out not merely the franchise, and military +posts, and positions as procurator, and governmental offices, but +everything in general to such an extent that all necessaries grew +scarce[7]; and Claudius was forced to muster the populace on the Campus +Martius and there from a platform to ordain what the prices of wares +should be. + +Claudius himself wearing a chlamys gave a contest of armed men at the +camp. His son's birthday was observed voluntarily by the prætors with +a kind of spectacle that they produced and with dinners. This was once +afterward repeated, too,--at least by all of them that chose. + +[-18-] Meanwhile Messalina was exhibiting her own licentious tendencies +and was forcing the other women of her circle to show themselves equally +unchaste. Many of them she caused to commit adultery in the very palace, +while their husbands were present and observed what took place. Such men +she loved and cherished, and crowned with honors and offices: but others, +who would not submit to this humiliation, she hated and brought to +destruction in every possible way. These deeds, however, though of such +a character and carried on so openly, for a long while never came to the +notice of Claudius. Messalina gave him some attractive housemaids +for bedfellows and intercepted those who were able to afford him any +information,--some by kindness and some by punishments. Thus, at this +period, she succeeded in putting out of the way Catonius Justus, captain +of the pretorian guard, before he could carry out his intention of +telling the emperor something about these doings. And becoming jealous +of Julia, daughter of Drusus son of Tiberius, and later wife of Nero +Germanicus, just as she had been of the other Julia, she compassed her +death.--It was about then, also, that one of the knights on the charge of +having conspired against Claudius was hurled down, the Capitoline by the +tribunes and the consuls. + +[-19-] At the same time that these events were happening in the City +Aulus Plautius, a senator of great renown, made a campaign against +Britain. The cause was that a certain Bericus, who had been ejected from +the island during a revolution, had persuaded Claudius to send a body of +troops there. This Plautius after he was made general had difficulty in +leading his army beyond Gaul. The soldiers objected, on the ground that +their operations were to take place outside the limits of the known +world, and would not yield him obedience until the arrival of Narcissus, +sent by Claudius, who mounted the tribunal of Plautius and tried to +address them. This made them more irritated than ever and they would not +allow the newcomer to say a word, but all suddenly shouted together the +well-known phrase: "Ho! Ho! the Saturnalia!" (For at the festival of +Saturn slaves celebrate the occasion by donning their masters' dress.) +After this they at once followed Plautius voluntarily, but their delay +had brought the expedition late in the season. Three divisions were made, +in order that they might not be hindered in advancing (as might happen +to a single force), and some of them in their voyage across became +discouraged because they were buffeted into a backward course, whereas +others acquired confidence from the fact that a flash of light starting +from the east shot across to the west, the direction in which they were +sailing. So they came to anchor on the shore of the island and found no +one to oppose them. The Britons as a result of their inquiries had not +expected that they would come and had therefore not assembled beforehand. +Nor even at this time would they come into closer conflict with the +invaders, but took refuge in the swamps and in the forests, hoping to +exhaust their opponents in some other way, so that the latter as in +the days of Julius Cæsar would sail back empty-handed. [-20-] Plautius +accordingly had considerable trouble in searching for them.--They were +not free and independent but were parceled out among various kings.--When +at last he did find them, he conquered first Caratacus and next +Togodumnus, children of Cynobelinus, who was dead. After the flight of +those kings he attached by treaty a portion of the Bodunni, ruled by a +nation of the Catuellani. Leaving a garrison there he advanced farther. +On reaching a certain river, which the barbarians thought the Romans +would not be able to cross without a bridge,--a conviction which led them +to encamp in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank,--he sent ahead +Celtæ who were accustomed to swim easily in full armor across the most +turbulent streams. These fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, but instead +of shooting at any of the men confined themselves to wounding the horses +that drew their chariots and consequently in the confusion not even the +mounted warriors could save themselves. Plautius sent across also Fiavius +Vespasian, who afterward obtained the imperial office, and his brother +Sabinus, a lieutenant of his. So they likewise got over the river in some +way and killed numbers of the foe, who were not aware of their approach. +The survivors, however, did not take to flight, and on the next day +joined issue with them again. The two forces were rather evenly matched +until Gnæus Hosidius Geta, at the risk of being captured, managed to +conquer the barbarians in such a way that he received triumphal honors +without having ever been consul. + +Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it +empties into the ocean and the latter's flood-tide forms a lake. This +they crossed easily because they knew where the firm ground in this +locality and the easy passages were; but the Romans in following them up +came to grief at this spot. However, when the Celtæ swam across again and +some others had traversed a bridge a little way up stream, they assailed +the barbarians from many sides at once and cut down large numbers of +them. In pursuing the remainder incautiously they got into swamps from +which it was not easy to make one's way out, and in this way lost many +men. + +[-21-] Shortly after Togodumnus perished, but the Britons so far from +yielding stood together all the more closely to avenge his death. Because +of this fact and his previous mishap Plautius became alarmed, and instead +of advancing farther proceeded to guard what he had already gained and +sent for Claudius. He had been notified to do this in case he met with +any particularly stubborn resistance, and a large reinforcement for the +army, consisting partly of elephants, had been assembled in advance. + +When the message reached him, Claudius entrusted domestic affairs +(including the management of the soldiers) to his colleague Vitellius, +whom he had caused to become consul like himself for the entire six +months' period, and started himself on the expedition. He sailed down the +river to Ostia, and from there followed the coast to Massilia. Thence +advancing partly by land and partly along the water courses he came to +the ocean and crossed over to Britain, where he joined the legions that +were waiting for him near the Thames. Taking charge of these he crossed +the stream, and encountering the barbarians, who had gathered at his +approach, he defeated them in a pitched battle and captured Camulodunum, +the capital of Cynobelinus. Next he extended his authority over numerous +tribes, in some cases by treaty, in others by force, and was frequently, +contrary to precedent, saluted as imperator. The usual practice is that +no single person may receive this title more than once from one and the +same war. He deprived those he conquered of their arms and assigned them +to the attention of Plautius, bidding him to subjugate the regions that +were left. Claudius himself now hastened back to Rome, sending ahead the +news of the victory by his sons-in-law, Magnus and Silanus. + +[-22-] The senate on learning of his achievement gave him the title of +Britannicus and allowed him to celebrate a triumph. + +[A.D. 44 (_a. u._ 796)] + +They voted also that there should be an animal festival commemorating the +event and that an arch bearing a trophy should be erected in the City and +a second in Gaul, because it was from that district that he had set sail +in crossing over to Britain. They bestowed on his son the same honorific +title as upon him, so that Claudius was known in a way as Britannicus +Proper. Messalina was granted the same privilege of front seats as Livia +had enjoyed and also the use of the carpentum. These were the honors +bestowed upon the imperial family. + +The memory of Gaius disgusted the senators so much that they resolved +that all the bronze coinage which had his image stamped upon it should +be melted down. Though this was done, yet the bronze was converted to no +better use, for Messalina made statues of Mnester the dancer out of it. +Inasmuch as the latter had once been on intimate terms with Gaius, +she made this offering as a mark of gratitude for his consenting to a +_liaison_ with her. She had been madly enamored of him, and when she +found herself unable in any way either by promises or by frightening him +to persuade him to have intercourse with her, she had a talk with +her husband and asked him that the man might be forced to obey her, +pretending that she wanted his help for some different purpose. Claudius +accordingly told him to do whatsoever he should be ordered by Messalina. +On these terms he agreed to enjoy her, alleging that he had been +commanded to do so by her husband. Messalina adopted this same method +with numerous other men, and committed adultery feigning that Claudius +knew what was taking place and countenanced her unchastity. + +[-23-] Portions of Britain, then, were captured at this time in the +manner described. After this, during the second consulship of Gaius +Crispus and the first of Titus Statilius, Claudius came to Rome at the +end of a six months' absence from the city (of which time he had spent +only sixteen days in Britain) and celebrated his triumph. In this he +followed the well-established precedents, even to the extent of ascending +the steps of the Capitol on his knees, with his sons-in-law supporting +him on each side. He granted to the senators taking part with him in the +procession triumphal honors, and this not merely to the ex-consuls ... +for he was accustomed to do that most lavishly on other occasions and +with the slightest excuse. Upon Rufrius Pollio the prefect he bestowed an +image and a seat in the senatorial body as often as he would enter that +assembly with him. And to avoid having it thought that he was making any +innovation, he declared that Augustus had done this in the case of a +certain Valerius, a Ligurian. He also increased the dignity of Laco +(formerly præfectus vigilum but now procurator of the Gauls) by this same +mark of esteem and in addition by the honors belonging to ex-consuls. + +Having finished this business he held the festival following the triumph +and assumed for the occasion some of the consular authority. It took +place in both the theatres at once. In the course of the spectacle he +would frequently absent himself while others superintended it in his +place. He had announced as many horse-races as could find place in a +day, but they amounted to not more than ten altogether. For between the +separate courses bears were slaughtered and athletes struggled. Boys sent +for from Asia also executed the Pyrrhic dance. The performers in the +theatre gave, with the consent of the senate, another festival likewise +intended to commemorate the victory. All this was done on account of +the successes in Britain, and to the end that other nations might more +readily capitulate it was voted that all the agreements which Claudius or +the lieutenants representing him should make with any peoples should be +binding, the same as if sanctioned by the senate and the people. + +[-24-] Achæa and Macedonia, which ever since Tiberius became emperor had +belonged to elected governors, Claudius now returned to the choice by +lot. And abolishing the office of "prætor charged with the administration +of funds" he put the business in the hands of quæstors as it had been of +old; and these were not annual magistrates, as was the case with them +previously and with the prætors subsequently, but the same two men +attended to their duties for three entire years. Some of these secured a +prætorship immediately afterward and others drew a salary the amount of +which depended on the impression of efficiency they had created while in +office. + +The quæstors, then, were given charge of the treasury in place of +governorships in Italy outside of the City; for he did away with all of +the latter. To compensate the prætors he entrusted to their care several +kinds of judicial cases which the consuls were previously accustomed to +try. Those serving as soldiers, since by law they could not have wives, +were granted the privileges of married men. Marcus Julius Cottius +received an increase in his ancestral domain (which included the Alps +named after him) and was now for the first time called king. The Rhodians +were deprived of their liberty because they had impaled certain Romans. +And Umbonius Silio, governor of Bætica, was summoned and ejected from the +senate because he had sent so little grain to the soldiers then serving +in Mauretania. At least, this was the accusation brought against him. In +reality it was not so at all, but his treatment was due to his having +offended some of the freedmen. So he brought together all his furniture, +considerable in amount and very beautiful, in the auction room as if he +were going to call for bids on all of it: but he sold only his senatorial +dress. By this he showed that he had received no deadly blow and could +enjoy life as a private citizen.--Beside these events of the time +the weekly market was transferred to a different day because of some +religious rites. That happened, too, on many other occasions. + +[A.D. 45 _(a. u._ 798)] + +[-25-] following year Marcus Vinicius for the second and Statilius +Corvinus for the first time entered upon the office of consul. Claudius +himself took all the customary oaths in detail, but prevented the rest +from taking oath separately. Accordingly, as in earlier times, one man +who was a prætor and second who was a tribune and one each of the other +officials repeated the oaths for those of the same grade. This custom was +followed for several years. + +Now since the City was becoming filled with numbers of images,--for those +who wished might without restrictions appear in public in a painting or +in bronze or stone,--he had most of those already existing set somewhere +else and for the future forbade that any private citizen be allowed to +follow the practice, unless the senate should grant permission or except +he had built or repaired some public work. Such persons and their +relatives might have their likenesses set up in the places in question. + +Having banished the governor of a certain province for venality the +emperor confiscated to public uses all the extra funds that the man had +gathered in office. Again, to prevent these persons eluding those who +wished to bring them to trial, he would give to nobody one office +immediately after another. This had been the custom in earlier days also, +to the end that any one without difficulty might institute a suit against +them in the intervening period; indeed, those whose terms had expired and +who were granted leave of absence from the City might not even take these +absences in succession, since it was intended that, if officials should +be guilty of any irregularity, they should not gain the further benefit +of escaping investigation by either continuous office or continuous +absence. The custom had, however, fallen out of use. So carefully did +Claudius guard against both possibilities that he would not without out +some delay allow even an official who was his colleague to be chosen by +lot for the governorship of a province that would naturally belong to +him. Still, he allowed some of them to govern for two years and sometimes +he would send elected magistrates. Persons who preferred a request to +leave Italy for a time were given permission by Claudius himself without +action of the senate; yet, in order to appear to be doing it under some +form of law, he ordered that a decree to the effect be issued. Votes +of this sort were also passed the following year. At the time under +consideration he arranged the votive festival which he had promised in +commemoration of his campaign. To the populace supported by public dole +he gave seventy-five denarii in every case and in some cases more, so +that for a few it amounted to three hundred twelve and a half. He did +not, however, distribute all of it in person, but his sons-in-law also +took part, because the distribution lasted several days and he was +anxious to use them in holding court. + +In the case of the Saturnalia he put back the fifth day which had been +appointed by Gaius but was later abolished. [-26-] and inasmuch as the +sun was to undergo an eclipse on his birthday, he feared that some +disturbance might result,--for already certain other portents had +occurred,--and therefore he gave notice beforehand not only that there +would be an eclipse and when and for how long, but also the reasons for +which this would necessarily take place. They are as follows: + +The moon, which revolves lower down than the sun (or so it is believed), +either directly below him or perhaps with Mercury and likewise Venus +intervening, has a longitudinal movement just like him, and a higher and +lower movement just like him, but furthermore a latitudinal movement such +as nowhere belongs to the sun under any circumstances. When, therefore, +she gets in a direct line with him over our heads and passes under his +blaze, then she obscures his beams that extend toward the earth, for +some to a greater, for some to a less degree, but does not conceal his +presence for even the briefest moment. For since the sun has a light of +his own he can never surrender it, and consequently, when the moon is +not directly in people's way so as to throw a shadow over him, he always +appears entire. + +This, then, is what happens to the sun and it was made public by Claudius +at the time mentioned. With regard to the moon, however,--for it is not +irrelevant to speak of lunar phenomena also, since once I have broached +this subject,--as often as she gets directly opposite the sun (and she +only takes such a position with reference to him at full moon, whereas +he takes it with reference to her at the season of new moon), a conical +shadow falls upon the earth. This occurs whenever in her motion to and +from us her revolution takes her between the sun and the earth; then she +is deprived of the sun's light and appears by herself just as she really +is. Such are the conditions of the case. + +[A.D. 46 (a. u. 799)] + +[-27-] At the close of that year Valerius Asiaticus for the second time +and also Marcus Silanus became consuls. The latter held office for the +period for which he was elected. Asiaticus, however, though elected to +serve for the whole year (as was done in other cases), failed to do so +and resigned voluntarily. Some others had done this, though mostly by +reason of poverty. The expenses connected with the horse-races had +greatly increased, for generally there was a series of twenty-four +contests. But Asiaticus withdrew simply by reason of his wealth, which +also proved his destruction. Inasmuch as he was extremely well-to-do and +by being consul a second time had aroused the dislike and jealousy of +many, he desired in a way to overthrow himself, feeling that by so +doing he would be less likely to encounter danger. Still he was +deceived.--Vinicius, on the other hand, suffered no harm from Claudius, +for though he was an illustrious man he managed by keeping quiet and +minding his own business to preserve his life; but he perished by poison +administered by Messalina. She suspected that he had killed his wife +Julia and was angry because he refused to have intercourse with her. He +was duly accorded a public funeral and eulogies,--an honor which had been +granted to many. + +Asinius Gallus, half-brother of Drusus by the same mother, conspired +against Claudius but instead of being put to death was banished. The +reason perhaps was that he made ready no army and collected no funds in +advance but was emboldened merely by his extreme folly, which led him to +think that the Romans would submit to having him rule them on account +of his family. But the chief cause was that he was a very small and +unshapely person and was therefore held in contempt, incurring ridicule +rather than danger. + +[-28-]The people were truly loud in praise of Claudius for his +moderation, and also, by Jupiter, at the fact that he showed displeasure +when a certain man sought the aid of the tribunes against the person who +had freed him, asking and securing thus a helper in his cause. Both the +man in question and those associated with him in the proceedings were +punished; and the emperor further forbade rendering assistance to persons +in this way against their former masters, on pain of being deprived of +the right to bring suit against others. Per contra, people were vexed at +seeing him so much the slave of his wife and freedmen. This feeling was +especially marked on an occasion when Claudius himself and all the rest +were anxious to kill Sabinus (former governor of the Celtæ in the reign +of Gains) in a gladiatorial fight, but the latter approached Messalina +and she saved him. They were also irritated at her having withdrawn +Mnester from the theatre and keeping him with her. But whenever any talk +about his not dancing sprang up among the people, Claudius would appear +surprised and make various apologies, taking oath that he was not at his +house. The populace, believing him to be really ignorant of what was +going on, was grieved to think that he alone was not cognizant of what +was being done in the imperial apartments,--behavior so conspicuous +that news of it had already traveled to the enemy. They were unwilling, +however, to reveal to him the state of affairs, partly through awe of +Messalina and partly to spare Mnester. For he pleased the people as much +by his skill as he did the empress by his beauty. With his abilities in +dancing he combined great cleverness of repartee, so that once when the +crowd with mighty enthusiasm begged him to perform a famous pantomime, he +dared to come to the front of the stage and say: + + "To do this, friends, I may not try; + Orestes' bedfellow am I." + +This, then, was the relation of Claudius to these matters. + +As the number of lawsuits was now beyond reckoning and persons summoned +would now no longer put in an appearance because they expected to be +defeated, he gave written notice that by a given day he should decide the +case against them, by default, so that they would lose it even if absent. +And there was no deviation from this rule. + + Mithridates king of the Iberians[8] undertook to rebel and was engaged + in preparations for a war against the Romans. His mother, + however, opposed him and since she could not win him over by persuasion, + determined to take to flight: he then became anxious to conceal + his project, and so, while himself continuing preparations, he sent + his brother Cotys on an embassy to convey a friendly message to + Claudius. But Cotys proved a treacherous ambassador and told the + emperor all, and he was made king of Iberia in place of Mithridates. + +[A.D. 47, (a. u. 800)] + +[-29-]The following year, the eight hundredth anniversary of the founding +of the city of Rome, Claudius became consul for the fourth and Lucius +Vitellius for the third time. Claudius now ejected some members of +the senate, the majority of whom were not sorry to be driven out but +willingly stood aside on account of their poverty. Likewise he brought +in a number to fill their places. Among these he summoned with haste +one Surdinius Gallus, qualified to be a senator, who had emigrated to +Carthage, and said to him: "I will bind you with golden fetters." Gallus, +therefore, fettered by his rank, remained at home. + +Although Claudius visited dire punishment upon the freedmen of others, in +case he caught them in any crime, he was very lenient with his own. One +day an actor in the theatre uttered this well-worn saying: + + "A knave who prospers scarce can be endured,"[9] + +whereupon the whole assemblage looked at Polybius, the emperor's +freedman. He, undismayed, shouted out: "The same poet, however, says:-- + + 'Who once were goatherds now have royal power.'" [9] + +and suffered no harm for his behavior. + +Information was laid that some persons were plotting against Claudius, +but in the majority of instances he paid no attention, saying: "It +doesn't do to adopt the same defensive tactics against a flea as against +a beast of prey." Asiaticus, however, was tried before him and came very +near being acquitted. He entered a general denial, declaring: "I have +no knowledge of nor acquaintance with any of these persons who are +testifying against me." Then the soldier who stated he had been an +associate of his, being asked which one Asiaticus was, pointed out a +baldheaded man that happened to be standing near him. Baldness was the +only thing of which he was sure about Asiaticus. This event occasioned +much laughter and Claudius was on the point of freeing him, when +Vitellius to please Messalina made the statement that he had been sent +for by the prisoner, who requested the privilege of deciding the manner +of death to be visited upon him. Hearing this, Claudius believed that on +account of a guilty conscience Asiaticus had really condemned himself and +accordingly had him executed. + +Among many others who were calumniated by Messalina he put to death +Asiaticus and likewise Magnus, his son-in-law. Asiaticus had property, +and the family of Magnus as well as his close relationship were irksome. +Of course, they were nominally convicted on different charges from these. + +This year a new island, not large, made its appearance by the side of the +island Thera. + +Claudius, monarch of the Romans, published a law to the effect that no +senator might journey above seven mile-posts from the City without the +monarch's express orders.[10] + +Moreover, since many persons would afford their sick slaves no care, +but drove them out of their houses, a law was passed that all slaves +surviving such an experience should be free. + +He also prohibited anybody's driving through the City [sic] seated in a +vehicle.[11] + +[-30-]Vespasian in Britain had been hemmed in by the barbarians and was +in danger of annihilation, but his son Titus becoming alarmed about his +father managed by unusual daring to break through the enclosing line; he +then pursued and destroyed the fleeing enemy. Plautius for his skillful +handling of the war with Britain and his successes in it both received +praise from Claudius and obtained an ovation. [In the course of the armed +combat of gladiators many foreign freedmen and British captives fought. +The number of men receiving their finishing blow in this part of the +spectacle was large, and he took pride in the fact.] + +Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo as prætor in Celtica organized the forces and +damaged among other barbarians the Cauchi, as they are commonly called. +While in the midst of the enemy's country he was recalled by Claudius, +who on ascertaining his valor and his discipline would not allow him to +climb to any greater heights. Corbulo learning this turned back, giving +vent only to the following exclamation:--"How fortunate were those who +became prætors in the days of old!" He implied that the latter had been +permitted to exhibit their prowess without danger whereas his progress +had been blocked by the emperor on account of jealousy. Yet even so he +obtained a triumph. Being again entrusted with an army he trained it no +less thoroughly, and as the nations were at peace he had the men dig +a trench all the way across from the Rhine to the Meuse, as much as a +hundred and seventy stadia long, the purpose of which was to prevent the +rivers flowing back and causing inundations at the flood tide of the +ocean. + +[A.D. 48 (a. u. 801)] + +When a grandson was borne to him by his daughter Antonia (whom, after the +death of Magnus, he had given in marriage to Cornelius Faustus Sulla, +brother of Messalina), he had the good sense not to allow any decree to +be passed in honor of the occasion. + +Messalina and her freedmen swelled with importance. There were three of +the latter in particular who divided the ruling power among themselves: +Callistus, who had been given charge of the records of value; Narcissus, +who presided over the letters and hence wore a dagger at his belt; and +Pallas, to whom the administration of funds had been entrusted. + +[-31-] Messalina, as if it did not satisfy her to play the adulteress and +harlot,--for besides her usual shameful behavior she sometimes carried +on a regular brothel in the palace, serving as a prostitute herself and +compelling women of highest rank to do the same,--now conceived a desire +to have many husbands, that is, with the legal title. [And she would have +entered upon a legal contract with all those who enjoyed her favors, had +she not been detected and destroyed in her very first attempt. For a time +all the Cæesarians were on good terms with her and everything they did +was with one mind. But when she slandered and killed Polybius, after +herself making repeated advances to him, they no longer trusted her. As a +result, deserted by their good-will, she perished.] She registered Gaius +Silius [son of the Silius slain by Tiberius] as her husband, celebrated +the marriage in costly fashion, bestowed a royal residence upon him, and +gathered in it all the most valuable of Claudius's heirlooms. Finally she +declared him consul. Now all this though [even previously] heard and seen +by everybody [else] continued to escape the notice of Claudius. So when +he went down to Ostia to inspect the grain supply, and she was left +behind in Rome on the pretext of being ill, she got up a banquet of no +little renown and carried on a most licentious revel. Then Narcissus, +having got Claudius alone, conveyed to him through the medium of +concubines information of all that was taking place. [And by frightening +him with the idea that Messalina was going to kill him also and set up +Silius as emperor in his place, he persuaded him to arrest and torture +several persons.] The moment this was done the emperor hastened back in +person to the city; and entering just as he was he put to death Mnester +with many others and then slew Messalina [after she had retreated into +the gardens of Asiaticus, which more than anything else were the cause of +her ruin.] + +[A.D. 48-54] + +After her Claudius destroyed also his own slave for insulting one of the +prominent men. + +[A.D. 49 (a. u. 802)] + +After a little he married his niece Agrippina, mother of Domitius, who +was surnamed Nero. She had beauty and had been in the habit of consulting +him constantly and being in his company alone because he was her uncle, +though she was rather more free in her conduct toward him than would +properly become a niece. [And for this reason he executed Silanus, +feeling that he was plotting against him.] [Yet Silanus was regarded as +an upright man and was honored by Claudius to the extent of receiving +triumphal honors while still a boy, being betrothed to the emperor's +daughter Octavia, and becoming prætor long before the age ordained. He +was allowed to give the festival that fell to his lot at the expense of +Claudius, and during it the latter asked some favors of him as if he were +himself the mere head of some party[12] and uttered any shouts that he +saw other people wished him to utter. Yet in spite of all this Claudius +had become such a slave to the women that on their account he killed both +his sons-in-law.] + + On the heels of this occurrence Vitellius came forward in the senate with + a declaration that the good of the State required Claudius to marry. He + indicated Agrippina as a suitable person in this emergency and suggested + that they force him to the marriage. Then the senators rose and came + to Claudius and "compelled" him to marry. They also passed a decree + permitting Romans to wed their nieces, a union formerly prohibited. + +[-32-] As soon as Agrippina had become settled in the palace, she gained +complete control of Claudius; for she possessed in an unusual degree the +quality of _savoir faire_. Likewise she won the devotion of all those who +were at all fond of him, partly by fear and partly by benefits conferred. +[At length she caused his son Britannicus to be brought up as if he +were no relation of the emperor. The other child, who had betrothed the +daughter of Sejanus, was dead. She made Domitius at this time son-in-law +of Claudius and later actually had him adopted. She accomplished these +ends partly by causing the freedmen to persuade Claudius and partly by +seeing to it beforehand that the senate, the populace, and the soldiers +should always concur to favor her demands. This son Agrippina] was +training for the assumption of imperial office and was having educated +under Seneca. She gathered for him an inconceivable amount of wealth, +omitting not one of the most humble and least influential citizens in her +search for money, paying court to every one who was in the least degree +well-off and murdering many for this very reason. In addition, she +destroyed out of jealousy some of the foremost women and put to death +Lollia Paulina because the latter had cherished some hope of being +married to Claudius. As she did not recognize the woman's head when it +was brought to her, she opened with her own hand the mouth and inspected +the teeth, which had certain peculiarities. + + Mithridates, king of the Iberians; was defeated in a conflict with + a Roman army. Despairing of his life he begged that a hearing be + granted him to show cause why he should not be summarily executed + or led in the procession of triumph. This right having been accorded + him Claudius received him in Rome, standing on a tribunal, and addressed + threatening language to him. The king throughout replied + in an unabashed manner and concluded his remarks with "I was not + carried to you, but made the journey: if you doubt it, release me and + try to find me." + +[-33-] She [sc. Agrippina] quickly became a second Messalina, and chiefly +because she obtained from the senate among other honors the right to use +the carpentum at festivals. + +[A.D. 50 (a. u. 803)] + + Subsequently Claudius applied to Agrippina the additional title of + _Augusta_. + +When Claudius had adopted her son Nero and had made him his son-in-law +(by disowning his daughter and introducing her into another family so +that he might not have the name of uniting brother and sister), a mighty +portent occurred. All that day the sky seemed to be on fire. + + Agrippina banished also Calpurnia, one of the most distinguished + ladies in the land, or perhaps even caused her death (as one version + of the story reports), because Claudius had admired and commended + her beauty. + + [A.D. 51 (a. u. 804)] + + When Nero (for this is the name for him that has won its way into + favor) was registered among the iuvenes, the day that he was registered + the Divine Power shook the earth for long distances and by + night struck terror to the hearts of all men without exception. + +[-32-] [While Nero was growing up, Britannicus received neither honor nor +care. Agrippina, indeed, either drove away or killed those who showed any +zeal in his behalf. Sosibius, to whom his bringing up and education +had been entrusted, she caused to be slain on the pretext that he was +plotting against Nero. After that she delivered the boy to the charge of +persons who suited her and did him all the harm she could. She would not +let him visit his father nor appear before the people, but kept him in a +kind of imprisonment, though without bonds.] + +Dio, 61st Book: "Since the prefects Crispinus and Lusius Veta would not +yield to her in every matter, she ousted them from office." + +[A.D. 51-52] + +[-33-] [No one attempted any kind of reprisal upon Agrippina, for, to be +brief, she had more power than Claudius himself and gave greetings in +public to those who desired it. This fact was entered on the records.] + + She possessed all powers, since she dominated Claudius and had + made sure of the devotion of Narcissus and Pallas. (Callistus, after + rising to great heights of influence, was dead.) + + [A.D. 52 (a. u. 805)] + + The astrologers were banished from the entire expanse of Italy, and + their disciples were punished. + + Carnetacus, a barbarian chieftain who was captured and brought to + Rome and received his pardon at the hands of Claudius, then, after + his liberation, wandered about the city; and on beholding its brilliance + and its size he exclaimed: "Can you, who own these things and things + like them, still yearn for our miserable tents?" + +Claudius conceived a wish to have a naval battle in a certain lake[13]; +so, after building a wooden wall around it and setting up benches, +he gathered an enormous multitude. Claudius and Nero were arrayed in +military costume. Agrippina wore a beautiful chlamys woven with gold, and +the rest of the people whatever pleased their fancy. Those who were to +take part in this sea-fight were condemned criminals, and each side had +fifty ships, one party being called Rhodians and the other Sicilians. +First they drew close together and after uniting at one spot they +addressed Claudius in this fashion: "Salve, imperator, morituri +salutamus."[14] Since this afforded them no salvation and they were still +ordered to fight, they used simple smashing tactics and took very good +care not to harm each other. This went on until they were cut down by +outside force. [Somewhat later the Fucinian Lake caved in and Narcissus +was severely criticised for it. He presided over the undertaking, and +it was thought that after spending a great deal less than he had +received[15] he had then purposely contrived the collapse, in order that +his villainy might go undetected.] + +[A.D. 52-53] + +About Narcissus there is a story of how openly, he used to make sport of +Claudius. One day when the latter was holding court the Bithynians raised +a great outcry against Junius Cilo, their governor, because, as +they asserted, he had taken very considerable bribes. Claudius not +understanding on account of their noise asked the bystanders what they +were saying. Thereupon, instead of telling him the truth, Narcissus said: +"They are expressing their gratitude to Junius." Claudius, believing him, +rejoined: "Why, he shall have charge of them two years more!" + +Agrippina often attended her husband in public, when he was transacting +ordinary business, or when he was hearing ambassadors; she sat upon a +separate platform. This was surely one of the most remarkable sights of +the time. + +On one occasion when a certain orator, Julius Gallicus, was pleading a +case, Claudius grew vexed and ordered that he be cast into the Tiber, +near the banks of which he chanced to be holding court. Domitius Afer, +who as an advocate had the greatest ability of his contemporaries, made +a very neat joke on this. A man whom Gallicus had disappointed came to +Domitius for assistance, whereupon the latter said to him: "And who told +you I could swim better than he can?" + + Later Claudius fell sick, and Nero entered the senate to promise a + horse-race in case Claudius should regain his health. Agrippina was + leaving no stone unturned to make him popular with the masses and to + cause him to be regarded as the only natural successor to the imperial + throne. Hence it was that she selected the equestrian contest, on which + they doted especially, for Nero to promise in the event of Claudius's + recovery (an outcome against which she sincerely prayed).--Again, after + instigating a riot over the sale of bread she persuaded Claudius to make + known to the populace by public bulletin and to write to the senate + that, if he should die, Nero was fully capable of administering public + interests. In consequence of this he became a power and his name was on + everybody's lips, whereas in regard to Britannicus numbers did not know + of his existence and all others regarded him as idiotic and epileptic; + for this was the declaration that Agrippina gave out.--Well, Claudius + became convalescent and Nero conducted the horse-race in a sumptuous + manner; now, too, he married Octavia, a new circumstance to cause him a + feeling of manly dignity. + + [A.D. 53-54] + + Nothing seemed to satisfy Agrippina, though all rights + which Livia had possessed were bestowed upon her also and a number of + additional honors had been decreed. She, wielding equal power with + Claudius, desired to have his title outright; and once, when a blaze had + spread over the city to a considerable distance, she accompanied him in + the work of rescue. + + [A.D. 54 (a. u. 807)] + +[-34-] Claudius was irritated by Agrippina's actions, of which he now +began to become aware, and sought to find his son Britannicus. The boy, +however, was purposely kept out of his sight by the empress most of the +time, for she was doing everything conceivable to secure the right of +succession for Nero, since he was her own son by her former husband +Domitius. Claudius, who displayed his affection whenever he met +Britannicus, was not disposed to endure her behavior and made +preparations to put an end to her power, to register his son among the +iuvenes, and appoint him as heir to the empire. + +This news alarmed Agrippina, who decided to anticipate the emperor's +project by poisoning him. Since, however, by reason of the great quantity +of wine he was forever drinking and his general habits of life, which all +emperors adopt for their protection, he could not easily be harmed, she +sent for a drug-woman named Lucusta, a recent captive renowned for the +desired skill, and obtaining from her a poison whose effect was sure she +put it in one of the vegetables called[16] mushrooms. Then she herself +ate of the others in the dish but made her husband eat the one which had +the poison; for it was the largest and finest of them. The victim of this +plot was carried out of the banquet apparently quite overcome by strong +drink, but that had happened many times before. During the night the +poison took effect and he passed away, without having been able to say +or hear a word. It was the thirteenth of October, and he had lived +sixty-three years, two months, and thirteen days, having been emperor +thirteen years, eight months and twenty days. Agrippina's rapid vengeance +had been aided by the fact that before her attempt she had despatched +Narcissus to Campania, feigning that he needed to take the waters there +for his gout. Had he been present, she would never have done the deed, +such extreme care did he take of his master. His death followed hard upon +that of Claudius, and he left behind him a reputation for power unequaled +by any man of that age. His property amounted to more than ten thousand +myriads, and cities and kings were dependent upon him. Even when he was +on the point of being slain, he managed to execute a brilliant coup. He +had charge of the correspondence of Claudius and had in his possession +letters containing secret information against Agrippina and others: all +of these he burned before his death. + + And he was slain beside the tomb of Messalina,--a coincidence + manifestly intended by chance, to satisfy her vengeance. + +[-35-] In such fashion did Claudius meet his end. It seemed that +indications of this event were given in advance by the comet star, which +was seen over a wide expanse of territory, by the shower of blood, by the +bolt that descended upon the standards of the Pretorians, by the +opening of its own accord of the temple of Jupiter Victor, by the +swarming of bees in the camp, and by the fact that one representative of +each political office died. The emperor received the state burial and +all the other honors obtained by Augustus. Agrippina and Nero feigned +sorrow for the man whom they had killed, and elevated to heaven him +whom they had carried out in a state of collapse from the banquet. On +this point Lucius Junius Gallic, brother of Seneca, was the author of a +most witty saying. Seneca himself had composed a work that he called +Gourdification,--a word made on the analogy of "deification"; and his +brother is credited with expressing a great deal in one short sentence. +For whereas the public executioners were accustomed to drag the bodies +of those killed in prison to the Forum with large hooks, and thence +hauled them to the river, he said that Claudius must have been raised to +heaven with a hook. Nero has also left us a remark not unworthy of +record. He declared mushrooms to be the food of the gods, because +Claudius by means of a mushroom had become a god. + + +[Footnote:1 A reference to Book Forty-four, chapter 26 (the Return of the +"Party of the Peiræus").] + +[Footnote 2: Adopting Canter's emendation. [Greek: eithismenou] for the +unintelligible [Greek: ois men oute] of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 3: The drinking of warm water ranked among the ancients as a +luxurious practice. (Compare the end of chapter 14, Book Fifty-seven, and +the end of chapter 11, Book Fifty-nine.)] + +[Footnote 4: An emendation by Leunclavius, based on Suetonius, Life of +Claudius, chapter 24 (fin.).] + +[Footnote 5: A small gap in the MS. is here filled according to Oddey.] + +[Footnote 6: A line of Homer's occurring in the Iliad once (XXIV, 369) +and in the Odyssey twice (XVI, 72, and XXI, 133).] + +[Footnote 7: Because monopolies of selling them had been conceded for +huge sums to avaricious tradesmen.] + +[Footnote 8: This is an error. Mithridates of Bosporus is the person +actually meant.] + +[Footnotes 9: These two quotations are to be found in Kock (_Fragmenta +Comicorum Græcorum_) Vol. III, p. 499. They are Nos. 487 and 488 of +the [Greek: Adespota Opoteras]. Kock sees no reason for assigning them +specifically to the New Comedy (as Meineke has done).] + +[Footnote 10: For a further discussion of this isolated statement (from +Suidas) see Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, III, p. 912, note 1.] + +[Footnote 11: From an examination of Suetonius, Life of Claudius, chapter +25, it seems likely that Dio wrote "cities" (plural), referring to all +the Italian towns.] + +[Footnote 12: "Of charioteers" is undoubtedly the sense.] + +[Footnote 13: The same _locus Fucinus_ that is presently mentioned +again.] + +[Footnote 14: "Hail, emperor, we about to die salute thee."] + +[Footnote 15: This verb is a mere conjecture by one of the editors. The +MS. reading, "he had hoped," is, of course, corrupt.] + +[Footnote 16: Dio probably says "called" here because the Greek word he +uses for "mushrooms" has many other meanings, such as snuff of a wick, +scab, knob, etc.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. 4, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 10883-8.txt or 10883-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/8/8/10883/ + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/10883-8.zip b/old/10883-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..07fbc44 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10883-8.zip diff --git a/old/10883.txt b/old/10883.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb4b42e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10883.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11320 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. 4, by Cassius Dio + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dio's Rome, Vol. 4 + An Historical Narrative Originally Composed in Greek During the + Reigns of Septimius Severus, Geta and Caracalla, Macrinus, + Elagabalus and Alexander Severus: And Now Presented in English Form + +Author: Cassius Dio + +Release Date: January 31, 2004 [EBook #10883] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +DIO'S ROME + + + +AN + +HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK + +DURING THE REIGNS OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA + +AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS + +AND ALEXANDER SEVERUS: + + +AND + +NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + +BY + + +HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting +Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + +FOURTH VOLUME + + +Extant Books 52-60 (B.C. 29-A.D. 54). + + +1905 + +PAFRAETS BOOK COMPANY TROY NEW YOKK + + + +VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Fifty-two +Book Fifty-three +Book Fifty-four +Book Fifty-five +Book Fifty-six +Book Fifty-seven +Book Fifty-eight +Book Fifty-nine +Book Sixty + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +52 + +VOL. 4-1 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar formed a plan to lay aside his sovereignty (chapters 1-40). + +How he began to be called emperor (chapters 41-43). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (5th) and +Sextus Apuleius. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + + +_(BOOK 52, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[-1-] My record has so far stated what the Romans both did and endured +for seven hundred and twenty-five years under the monarchy, as a +democracy, and beneath the rule of a few. After this they reverted to +nothing more nor less than a state of monarchy again, although Caesar had +a plan to lay down his arms and entrust affairs to the senate and the +populace. He held a consultation on the subject with Agrippa and Maecenas, +to whom he communicated all his secrets. Agrippa, first of the two, +answered him as follows:-- + +[-2-] "Be not surprised, Caesar, if I try to turn your mind away from +monarchy, in spite of the fact that I might enjoy many advantages from it +if you held the place. If it were going to prove serviceable to you, I +should be thoroughly enthusiastic for it. But those who hold supreme +power are not in a like position with their friends: the latter without +incurring jealousy or danger reap all the benefits they please, whereas +jealousies and dangers are the lot of the former. I have thought it +right, as in other cases, to look forward not for my own interest but for +yours and the public's. Let us consider leisurely all the features of the +system of government and turn whichever way our reflection may direct us. +For it will not be asserted that we ought to choose it under any and all +circumstances, even if it be not advantageous. Otherwise we shall seem to +have been unable to bear good fortune and to have gone mad through our +successes, or else to have been aiming at it long since, to have used our +father and our devotion to him as a mere screen, to have put "the people +and the senate" forward as an excuse. Our object will seem to have been +not to free them from conspirators but to enslave them to ourselves. +Either supposition entails censure. Who would not be indignant to see +that we had spoken words of one tenor, but to ascertain that we had had +something different in mind? How much more would he hate us now than if +we had at the outset laid bare our desires and aimed straight at the +monarchy! It has come to be generally believed that to adopt some violent +course belongs somehow to the nature of man, even if it involves taking +an unfair advantage. Every person who excels in any business thinks it +right that he should enjoy more advantages than his inferior. If he meets +with a success he ascribes it to the force of his individual temperament, +and if he fails in anything he refers it to the workings of the +supernatural. A man, however, who tries to gain advancement by plots and +injuries is in the first place held to be crafty and crooked, malicious +and vicious: (and this I know you would allow no one to say or think +about you, even if you might rule the whole world by it): again, if he +succeeds, he is thought to have gained an unjust advantage, and if he +fails, to have met with merited misfortune. [-3-] This being so, any one +might reproach us quite as much, even if we had nothing of the sort in +mind at the beginning and were to begin to devise it only now. For to let +the situation get the better of us and not restrain ourselves and not +make a right use of the gifts of Fortune is much worse than for a man to +do wrong through ill-luck. The latter sort are often compelled by their +very disasters and in consideration of their own need of profit to behave +against their will in an irregular way: the others voluntarily abandon +self-control even if to do so is contrary to their own interests. And +when men neither have any love of simplicity in their souls nor are able +to show moderation in regard to the blessings bestowed upon them, how +could one expect that they would either rule well over others or behave +themselves uprightly in trouble? Let us make our decision on the basis +that we are in neither of the classes mentioned and do not desire to +act in any way unreasonably, but will choose whatever course after +deliberation appears to us best. I shall speak quite frankly, for I could +not for my part express myself in any other way, and I am aware that you +do not enjoy hearing lies mingled with flattery. + +[-4-] "Equality before the law has a pleasant name and its results are a +triumph of justice. If you take men who have received the same nature, +are of kindred race to one another, have been brought up under the same +institutions, have been trained in laws that are alike, and yield in +common the service of their bodies and of their minds to the same State, +is it not just that they should have all other things, too, in common? Is +it not best that they should secure no superior honors except as a result +of excellence? Equality of birth strives for equality of possessions, +and if it attains it is glad, but if it misses is displeased. And human +nature everywhere, because it is sprung from the gods and is to return to +the gods, gazes upward and is not content to be ruled forever by the +same person, nor will it endure to share in the toils, the dangers, the +expenditures, and be deprived of partnership in higher matters. Or, if +it is forced to submit to such conditions, it hates the power which has +applied coercion and if it obtains an opportunity takes vengeance on what +it hates. All men think they ought to rule, and for this reason submit to +being ruled in turn. They do not wish to be defrauded, and therefore do +not insist on defrauding others. They are pleased with honors bestowed by +their peers, and approve the penalties inflicted by their laws. If they +conduct their government on these lines, and believe that profits and the +opposite shall be shared in common, they wish no harm to happen to any +one of the citizens and devoutly hope that all good things may fall to +the lot of all of them. If one of them himself possesses any excellence, +he makes it known without hesitation, practices it enthusiastically, +and exhibits it very gladly: or, if he sees it in another, he readily +advances it, is eager to increase it, and honors it most brilliantly. On +the other hand if any one deteriorates, everybody hates him. If one meets +misfortune, everybody pities him. Each person regards the loss or shame +that such cause to be a common detriment to the city. + +[-5-] "This is the constitution of democracies. Under tyrannies exactly +the opposite conditions are found. It is useless to go at length into all +of the details, but the chief feature is that no one is willing to +seem to know or possess anything good, because the whole ruling power +generally becomes hostile to him in such a case. Every one else takes the +tyrant's behavior as a standard of life, and pursues whatever objects he +may hope to gain through him by taking advantage of his neighbor while +incurring no danger himself. Consequently the majority of the people have +an eye only to their own interests and hate all other citizens: they +esteem their neighbor's good fortune as a personal loss, and his +misfortunes as a personal gain. + +"Such being the state of the case, I do not see what could possibly +incite you to become sole ruler. Besides the fact that that system is +disagreeable to democracies, it would be far more unpleasant still to +yourself. You surely see how the City and its affairs are even now in a +state of turmoil. It is difficult, also, to overthrow our populace which +has lived during so many years in freedom, and difficult, since so many +enemies confront us round about, to reduce again to slavery the allies +and the subject nations, which from of old have been democratic +communities and were set free by our own selves. + +[-6-] "To begin first with the smallest matter, it will be requisite that +you procure a large supply of money from all sides. It is impossible +that our present revenues should suffice for the very expenses, and +particularly for the support of the soldiers. This need exists also in +democracies, for it is not possible to organize any government without +expense. But under such a system many give largely in addition to what +is required, and do it frequently, making it a matter of rivalry and +securing proper honors for their liberality. Or, if perchance there +are compulsory levies upon everybody, they endure it because they can +persuade themselves that it is wise and because they are contributing in +their own behalf. Under sovereignties they think that the ruling power +alone, to which they credit boundless wealth, should bear the expense: +they are very ready to search out the ruler's sources of income, but do +not make a similar careful calculation about the outgo. They are not +inclined to pay out anything extra personally and of their own free will, +nor will they hear of voluntary public contributions. The former course +no one would choose, because he would not readily admit that he was rich, +and it is not to the advantage of the ruler to have it happen. So liberal +a citizen would immediately acquire a reputation for patriotism among the +mass of the people, would become conceited, and cause a disturbance in +politics. On the other hand, a general levy weighs heavily upon them all +and chiefly because they endure the loss whereas others take the gain. In +democracies those who contribute money as a general rule also serve in +the army, so that in a way they get it back again. But in monarchies one +set of people usually farm, manufacture, carry on maritime enterprises, +engage in politics,--the principal pursuits by which fortunes are +secured,--and a different set are under arms and draw pay. + +"This single necessity, then, which is of such importance [-7-] will +cause you trouble. Here is another. It is by all means essential that +whoever from time to time commits a crime should pay some penalty. The +majority of men are not brought to reason by suggestion or by example, +but it is absolutely requisite to punish them by disenfranchisement, by +exile, and by death; and this often happens in so great an empire and in +so large a multitude of men, especially during a change of government. +Now if you appointed other men to judge these wrongdoers, they would +acquit them speedily, particularly all whom you may be thought to hate. +For judges secure a pretended authority when they act in any way contrary +to the wish of the ruling power. If, again, any are convicted, they will +believe they have been condemned on account of instructions for which +you are responsible. However, if you sit as judge yourself, you will be +compelled to chastise many of the peers,--and this is not favorable,--and +you will certainly be thought to be setting some of them right in anger +rather than in justice. No one believes that those who have the power to +use compulsion can execute judgment with justice, but everybody thinks +that out of shame they spread out a mere phantom and rough picture of +government in front of the truth, in order that under the legitimate +name of court they may fulfill their desire. This is what happens in +monarchies. In democracies, when any one is accused of committing a +private wrong, he is made defendant in a private suit before judges who +are his equals: or, if he is accused for a public crime, such a man has +empaneled a jury of his peers, whoever the lot shall designate. It is +easier for men to bear their decisions, since they do not think that any +verdict rendered is due to the power of the judge or has been wrung from +him as a favor.[1] + +[-8-] "Then again there are many, apart from any criminals, some priding +themselves on birth, others on wealth, others on something different, +in general not bad men, who are by nature opposed to the conception of +monarchy. If a ruler allows them to become strong, he cannot live in +safety, and if he undertakes to impose a check on them, he cannot do so +justly. What then shall he do with them? How shall he treat them? If you +root out their families, diminish their wealth, humble their pride, you +will lose the good-will of your subjects. How can it be otherwise, if no +one is permitted to be born nobly or to grow rich honestly or to become +strong, brave, or learned? But if you allow all the separate classes to +grow strong, you will not be able to deal with them easily. If you alone +were sufficient for carrying on politics and war well and opportunely, +and needed no assistant for any of them, it would be a different story. +As the case stands, however, it is quite essential for you to have many +helpers, since they must govern so large a world: and they all ought +to be both brave and prudent. Now if you hand over the legions and +the offices to such men, there will be danger that both you and your +government will be overthrown. It is not possible for a valuable man to +be produced without good sense, and he cannot acquire any great good +sense from servile practices. But again, if he becomes a man of sense, he +cannot fail to desire liberty and to hate all masters. If, on the other +hand, you entrust nothing to these men, but put affairs in charge of the +worthless and chance comers, you will very quickly incur the anger of the +first class, who think themselves distrusted, and you will very quickly +fail in the greatest enterprises. What good could an ignorant or low-born +person accomplish? What enemy would not hold him in contempt? What allies +would obey him? Who, even of the soldiers themselves, would not disdain +to be ruled by such a man? What evils are wont to result from such a +condition I do not need to describe to you, for you know them thoroughly. +I feel obliged to say only this, that if such an assistant did nothing +right, he would injure you far more than the enemy: if he did anything +satisfactorily, his lack of education would cause him to lose his head, +and he would be a terror to you. + +[-9-] "Such a question does not arise in democracies. The more men there +are who are wealthy and brave, so much the more do they vie with one +another and up-build the city. The latter uses them and is glad, unless +any one of them wishes to found a tyranny: him the citizens punish +severely. That this is so and that democracies are far superior to +monarchies the experience of Greece makes clear. As long as the people +had the monarchical government, they effected nothing of importance: but +when they began to live under the democratic system, they became most +renowned. It is shown also by the experience of other branches of +mankind. Those who are still conducting their governments under tyrannies +are always in slavery and always plotting against their rulers. But those +who have presidents for a year or some longer period continue to be both +free and independent. + +"Yet, why need we use foreign examples, when we have some of our own? We +Romans, ourselves, after trying a different social organization at first, +later, when we had gone through many bitter experiences, felt a desire +for liberty; and having secured it we attained our present eminence, +strong in no advantages save those that come from democracy, through +which the senate debated, the people ratified, the force under arms +showed zeal, and the commanders were fired with ambition. None of these +things could be done under a tyranny. For that reason, indeed, the +ancient Romans detested it so much as to impose a curse upon that form of +government. + +[-10-] "Aside from these considerations, if one is to speak about what is +disadvantageous for you personally, how could you endure the management +of so many interests by day and night alike? How could you hold out in +your enfeebled state? How could you participate in human enjoyments? +How could you be happy if deprived of them? What could cause you +real pleasure? When would you be free from biting grief? It is quite +inevitable that the man who holds so great an empire should reflect +deeply, be subject to many fears enjoy very little pleasure, but hear +and see, perform and suffer, always and everywhere, what is most +disagreeable. That is why, I think, both Greeks and some barbarians would +not accept government by a king when offered to them. + +"Knowing this beforehand, take good counsel before you enter upon such an +existence. For it is disgraceful, or rather impossible, after you have +once plunged into it to rise to the upper air again. Do not be deceived +by the greatness of the authority nor the abundance of possessions, nor +the mass of body-guards, nor the throng of courtiers. Men who have great +power have great troubles: those who have large possessions are obliged +to spend largely: the crowd of body-guards is gathered because of the +crowd of conspirators: and the flatterers would be more glad to destroy +than to save any one. Consequently, in view of these facts, no sensible +man would desire to become supreme ruler. [-11-] If the fact that such +rulers can enrich and preserve others and perform many other good deeds, +and that, by Jupiter, they may also outrage others and injure whomsoever +they please leads any one to think that tyranny is worth striving for, he +is utterly mistaken. I need not tell you that to live licentiously and to +do evil is base and hazardous and hated of both gods and men. You are not +that sort of man, and it is not for these reasons that you would choose +to be sole ruler. I have elected to speak now not of everything which one +might accomplish who handled affairs badly, but of what even the very +best are compelled to do and endure when they adopt the system. The other +point,--that one may bestow abundant favors,--is worthy of zeal, to be +sure: yet when this disposition is indulged in private capacity, it is +noble, august, glorious, and safe, whereas in monarchies it is first of +all not a sufficient offset to the other, more disagreeable matters, that +any one should choose monarchy for this especially when one is to grant +to others the benefit to be derived therefrom, and accept himself the +unpleasantness involved in the rest of the conduct of the office. + +[-12-] "In the next place, the matter is not simple, as people think. No +one could render assistance enough to satisfy all who need help. Those +who think they ought to receive some gift from the sovereign are +practically all mankind, even though no favors can at once be seen to be +due them. Every one naturally has his own approbation and wishes to enjoy +some benefit from him who is able to give. But the presents which can +be given them,--I mean honors and offices, and sometimes money,--can be +counted quite easily as compared with so great a multitude. This being +so, more hatred would fall to the monarch's lot from those who fail to +get what they want than friendship from such as obtain their desires. +The latter take what they regard as due to them and think there is no +particular reason for being very thankful to the one who gives it, since +they are getting no more than they expected. Moreover, they actually +shrink from such behavior for fear they may appear in the light +of persons undeserving of generous treatment. The others, who are +disappointed of their hopes, are grieved for two causes. First, they feel +that they are robbed of what belongs to them, for by nature all persons +think that everything which they desire is their own: second, they feel +as if they were finding themselves guilty of some wrong, if they show +resignation at not obtaining what they expect. The man who gives such +great gifts rightly of course investigates before all else each person's +worth: some he honors, others he neglects. As a result, then, of his +judgment, some are filled with pride and others with vexation by their +own consciousness of its correctness. If any one were to wish to guard +against this outcome and distribute his presents without system, he would +fail utterly. The base, being honored contrary to their deserts, would +become worse; for they would decide either that they were approved as +being good or, if not so, that they were courted as dangerous persons: +the excellent, on attaining no higher place than they, but held merely in +equal honor with the base, would be more indignant at their reduction to +the latter's level than the others would rejoice to be deemed valuable. +Accordingly, they would give up the practice of better principles and +strive to emulate less worthy men. Thus, even as a result of the very +honors, those who bestow them would reap no benefit and those who receive +them would become worse than before. So that this consideration, which +would please some persons most in the monarchical constitution, has been +proved to be a most difficult problem for you to deal with. + +[-13-] "Reflecting on these facts and the rest which I mentioned a little +earlier, be prudent while you may, and restore to the people the arms, +the provinces, the offices, and the funds. If you do it at once and +voluntarily, you will be the most famous of men and the most secure. But +if you wait for some force to be applied, perhaps you might suffer some +disaster together with ill repute. Here is evidence. Marius, Sulla, +Metellus, and Pompey at first, when they got control of affairs, refused +to become princes, and by this attitude escaped harm. Cinna, however, and +Strabo,[2] the second Marius, Sertorius, and Pompey himself at a later +date, through their desire for sovereignty perished miserably. It is hard +for this city which has been under a democracy for so many years and +rules so many human beings to be willing to be a slave to any one. You +have heard that the people banished Camillus when he used white horses +for his triumph: you have heard that they overthrew Scipio after +condemning him for some fraudulent procedure: you remember how they +behaved toward your father because they had some suspicion that he wanted +monarchy. Yet there have never been any better men than these. + +"Moreover, I do not advise you merely to relinquish dominion, but to +accomplish beforehand all that is advantageous for the public, and by +decrees and laws to settle definitely whatever business needs attention, +just as Sulla did. For even if some of his ordinances were subsequently +overthrown, yet the majority of them and the more important still hold +their ground. Do not say that even then some will indulge in factional +quarrels, or I may be tempted to say again that all the more the Romans +would not submit to a single ruler. If we were to review all the +calamities that might befall a nation, it would be most unreasonable for +us to fear dissensions which are the outgrowth of democracy rather then +the tyrannies which spring from monarchy. Regarding the terrible nature +of the latter I have not even undertaken to say a word. It has been my +wish not merely to inveigh against a proposition so capable of censure, +but to show you this,--that it is naturally such a regime that not even +the most excellent men....[3] + +[-14-] "They cannot easily persuade by frank argument men who possess +less power, or succeed in their enterprises, because their subjects are +not in accord with them. Hence, if you have any care at all of your +country, for whom you have fought so many wars, for whom you would gladly +surrender your life, attune her to greater moderation and order her +affairs with that in view. For the privilege of doing and saving +precisely what one pleases becomes in the case of sensible people, if you +examine it, a cause of prosperity to all: but in the case of the foolish, +a cause of disaster. Therefore he who confers authority upon such men is +holding out a sword to a child and a madman; but he who gives it to the +prudent, besides performing other services, preserves the objects of his +liberality themselves, though they may be unwilling. Therefore I ask you +not to be deceived by regarding fine-sounding names, but to look forward +to the results that spring from them, and so to put an end to the +insolence of the populace, and to impose the management of public affairs +upon yourself and the most excellent of the remainder of the community. +Then the most prudent may deliberate, those most qualified for generals +become commanders, and the strongest and most needy men serve as +soldiers and draw pay. In this way, all zealously discharging the duties +appertaining to their offices and paying without hesitation the debts +they owe one another, they will not be aware of their inferiority and +lack of certain advantages and will secure the real democracy and a safe +sort of freedom. The boasted "freedom" of the mob proves to be the most +bitter servitude of the best element and brings a common destruction upon +both. The other, which I advocate, honors responsible men everywhere and +bestows equal advantages upon all so far as they are worthy: thus it +renders prosperous all alike who possess it. [-15-] Do not think that I +am advising you to enslave the people and the senate and then play the +tyrant. This plan I should never dare to suggest nor you to execute. It +would, notwithstanding, be well and useful both for you and for the city +that you should yourself establish all proper laws with the approval of +the best men without any opposing talk or resistance on the part of the +masses, that you and your counselors should arrange the details of wars +according to your united wishes while all the rest straightway obey +orders, that the choice of officials should be in the power of the +cabinet to which you belong, and that the same men should also determine +honors and penalties. Then whatever pleases you after consulting the +Peers will be immediately a law, and wars against enemies may be waged +with secrecy and at an opportune time; those to whom a trust is committed +will be appointed because of excellence and not by lot and strife for +office; the good will be honored without jealousy and the bad punished +without opposition. Thus what was done would be accomplished in the best +way, not referred to the public, nor talked over openly, not committed to +packed committees, nor endangered by rivalry. We should reap the benefits +of the blessings that belong to us with enjoyment,[4] not entering upon +dangerous wars nor impious civil disputes. These two drawbacks are found +in every democracy: the more powerful, desiring first place and hiring +the weaker men, turn everything continually upside down. They have been +most frequent in our epoch and there is no other way save the one I +propose that will put a stop to them. The proof of my words is that +we have been warring abroad and fighting among ourselves for an +inconceivably long time: the cause is the multitude of men and the +magnitude of the interests at stake. The men are of all sorts in respect +to both race and nature and have the most diversified tempers and +desires. The interests have become so vast that it is very difficult to +attempt to administer them. [-16-] Witness to the truth of my words is +borne by our past. While we were but few, we had no important quarrel +with our neighbors, got along well with our government, and subjugated +almost all of Italy. But ever since we spread beyond the peninsula and +crossed to many foreign lands and islands, filling the whole sea and the +whole earth with our name and power, nothing good has been our lot. In +the first place we disputed in cliques at home and within our walls, and +later we exported this plague to the camps. Therefore our city, like a +great merchantman full of a crowd of every race borne without a pilot +these many years through rough water, rolls and shoots hither and thither +because it is without ballast. Do not, then, allow her to be longer +exposed to the tempest; for you see that she is waterlogged. And do not +let her split upon a reef[5]; for her timbers are rotten and will not be +able to hold out much longer. But since the gods have taken pity on this +land and have set you up as her arbiter and chief; do not betray your +country. Through you she has now revived a little: if you are faithful, +she may live with safety for ages to come. + +[-17-] "That I do right to urge you to be sole ruler of the people I +think you have long ere this been persuaded. If so, then be ready and +eager to assume the leadership of the State, or rather, do not let it +slip. For we are not deliberating about taking something, but about not +losing it and about running hazards in addition. Who will spare you if +you commit matters to the people as they were, and to some other man, +seeing that there are great numbers whom you have injured, all of whom, +or nearly all, will lay claim to the sovereignty? No one of them will +fail to wish to punish you for what you have done, or will care to have +you survive as a rival. There is evidence of this in the case of Pompey, +who, when he withdrew from his supremacy, became the victim of scorn and +of plots: he found himself unable to win back his place, and so perished. +Also Caesar your father, who did this very same thing, was slain for his +trouble. Marius and Sulla would certainly have endured a like fate, had +they not died too soon. Indeed, some say that Sulla anticipated this +very end by making away with himself. Many of the provisions of his +constitution, at any rate, began to be abolished while he was still +alive. You, too, must expect to find that many Lepiduses, Sertoriuses, +Brutuses, Cassiuses will arise against you. + +[-18-] "Seeing these facts and reflecting on the other interests +involved, do not abandon yourself and your country, out of fear that you +may seem to some to be pursuing the office of set purpose. First of all, +even if any one does suspect it, the desire is not one repugnant to human +nature, and the danger from it is a noble danger. Second, is any one +unaware of the necessity under which you were led to take this action? +Hence, if there be any blame attached to it, one might most justly +censure your father's slayers therefor. For if they had not murdered him +in so unjust and pitiable a fashion, you would not have taken up arms, +would not have gathered your legions, would not have made a compact with +Antony and Lepidus, and would not have taken measures against those very +men. That you were right and were justified in doing all this no one is +unaware. If any slight errors have been committed, at least we cannot +safely make any further changes. Therefore for our own sakes and for that +of the city let us obey Fortune, who gives you the supremacy. Let us be +very thankful to her that she has not simply filled us with civil woes, +but has put the reorganization of the government in your hands. By paying +due reverence to her you may show all mankind that whereas others wrought +disturbance and injury, you are an upright man. + +"Do not, I beg you, fear the magnitude of the empire. The greater its +extent, the more are the preservative influences it possesses; also, to +guard anything is a long way easier than to acquire it. Toils and dangers +are needed to win over what belongs to others, but a little prudence +suffices to retain what is already yours. Moreover, do not be afraid +that you will not live quite safely in the midst of it and enjoy all the +blessings extant among men, if you are willing to arrange all the details +as I shall advise you. And do not think that I am making my appeal depart +from the subject in hand, if I shall speak at some length about the +project. I shall not do this merely to hear myself talk, but to the end +that you may be positively assured that it is both possible and easy, for +a man of sense at least, to govern well and without danger. + +[-19-] "I maintain, therefore, first of all that you ought to pick out +your friends in the senatorial body and then subject it to a sifting +process, because some who are not fit have become senators on account +of civil disputes: such of them as possess any excellence you ought to +retain, but the rest you should erase from the roll. Do not, however, get +rid of any man of worth, because of poverty, but give him the money that +he needs. In the place of those who have been dropped introduce the +noblest, the best, the richest men obtainable, selecting them not only +from Italy but from the allies and subject nations. In this way you will +not be employing many assistants and you will insure a correct attitude +on the part of the chief men from all the provinces. These districts, +having no renowned leader, will not be disposed to rebel, and their +prominent men will entertain affection for you because they have been +made sharers in your empire. + +"Take precisely these same measures in the case of the knights, by +enrolling in the equestrian class such as hold second place everywhere in +birth, excellence, and wealth. Register as many in both classes as may +please you, not troubling at all about their numbers. The more men of +repute you have as your associates, the more easily will you yourself +settle everything in case of need and persuade your subjects that you are +treating them not as slaves nor in any way as inferior to us, but are +sharing with them besides all the other blessings that belong to us the +chief magistracy also, that so they may be devoted to it as their own +possession. I am so far from assuming this to be a mistaken policy that I +say they ought all to be given a share in the government. Thus, having an +equal allotment in it, they might be faithful allies of ours, believing +that they inhabited one single city owned in common by all of us, +and this _really_ a city, and regarding fields and villages as their +individual property. But about this and what ought to be done so as not +to grant them absolutely everything, we shall reflect in greater detail +at another time. + +[-20-] "It is proper to put men on the roll of the knights at eighteen +years of age; for at that period of life physical condition is at its +best and suitability of temperament can be discerned. But for the +senate they should wait till they are twenty-five years old. Is it not +disgraceful and hazardous to entrust public business to men younger than +this, when we will commit none of our private affairs to any one before, +he has reached such an age? After they have served as quaestors and +aediles, or tribunes, let them be praetors, when they have attained their +thirtieth birthday. These offices and that of consul are the only ones at +home which I maintain you ought to recognize; and that is for the sake of +remembrance of ancestral customs and in order not to seem to be changing +the constitution altogether. Do you, however, yourself choose all who are +to hold them and not put any of these offices longer in charge of the +rabble or the populace,--for they will surely quarrel,--nor in charge of +the senate, for its members will contend for the prize. Moreover, do +not keep up the ancient powers of these positions, for fear history +may repeat itself, but preserve the honor attached while abating the +influence to such an extent as will enable you to deprive each place of +none of its esteem but to forestall any desire of insubordination. This +can be done if you require the incumbents to stay in town, and do not +permit any of them to handle arms either during their period of office or +immediately afterward, but only after the lapse of some time, as much +as you think sufficient in each instance. In this way none of them will +rebel, because they become to an extent by their title masters of armies, +and their irritation will be assuaged by their faring as private citizens +for a time. Let these magistrates conduct such of the festivals as would +naturally belong to their office, and let them all individually try cases +save those of homicide, during their tenure of office in Rome. Courts +should also be made up of the senators and knights, but the final appeal +should be to the aforesaid officials. + +[-21-] "Let a praefectus urbi be appointed from the ranks of the prominent +men and from such as have previously passed through the necessary +offices. His duties should not be to govern when the consuls are +somewhere out of town, but to exercise at all times a general supervision +of the City's interests and to decide the cases referred to him by all +the other magistrates I mentioned, both those demanding final decision +and such as may be appealed, together with any that involve the death +penalty; and he must have authority in all of them that concern men both +in the City (except such as I shall name) and those dwelling outside to +the distance of seven hundred and fifty stades. + +"Still another magistrate ought to be chosen, himself also from a similar +class, to investigate and watch the matters of family, property, and +morals of senators and knights, alike of men and of the children and +wives belonging to them[6]. He should also set right such behavior as +properly entails no punishment, yet if neglected becomes the cause of +many great evils. The more important details he must report to you. This +duty ought to be assigned to some senator, and to the most distinguished +one after the praefectus urbi, rather than to one of the knights. He would +naturally receive his name from your authority as censor, (for you must +certainly be the dictator of the census), so that he might be called +sub-censor[7].--Let these two hold office for life, unless either of them +deteriorates in any way or becomes sick or superannuated. By reason of +the permanence of their positions they would do nothing dangerous, for +one would be entirely unarmed and the other would have but a few soldiers +and be acting for the most part under your eyes. By reason of their rank +they would shrink from coming into collision with any one and would be +afraid to do any act of violence, for they would foresee their retirement +to ordinary citizenship and the supremacy of others in their stead. Let +them also draw a certain salary, to compensate them for the time consumed +and to increase their reputation. This is the opinion I have to give you +in regard to these officials. + +"Let those who have been praetors hold some office among the subject +nations. Before they have been praetors I do not think they should have +this privilege. Let those who have not yet been praetors serve for one +or two terms as lieutenants to such persons as you may have designated. +Then, under these conditions, let them be consuls if they continue to +govern rightly, and after that let them take the greater positions of +command. [-22-] The following is the way I advise you to arrange it. +Divide up all of Italy which is over seven hundred and fifty stades from +the city and all the rest of the territory which owns our sway, both on +the continents and in the islands,--divide it up everywhere according to +races and nations; and pursue the same course with as many cities as are +important enough to be ruled by one man with full powers. Then establish +soldiers and a governor in each one and send out one of the ex-consuls to +take charge of all, and two of the ex-praetors. One of the latter, fresh +from the City, should have the care of private business and the supplying +of provisions: the other should be one of those who have had this +training, who will attend to the public interests of the cities and will +govern the soldiers, except in cases that concern disenfranchisement or +death. These must be referred only to the ex-consul who is governor, +except in regard to the centurions who are on the lists and to the +foremost private individuals in every place. Do not allow any other +person than yourself to punish either of these classes, so that they may +never be impelled by fear of any one else to take any action against you. +As for my proposition that the second of the ex-praetors should be put in +charge of the soldiers, it is subject to the following limitations. If +only a few are in service in foreign forts or in one native post, it is +well enough for this to be so. But if two citizen legions are wintering +in the same province (and more than this number I should not advise you +to trust to one commander), it will be necessary for the two ex-praetors +to superintend them, each having charge of one besides managing +the remaining political and private interests. Therefore, let the +ex-consul[8]... these matters and likewise on the cases, both those +subject to appeal and those already referred which are sent up to him +from[9] his praetors. And do not be surprised that I recommend to you to +divide Italy also into such sections. It is large and populous, and so +is incapable of being well managed by the governors at the capital. The +governor of any district ought to be always present and no duties should +be laid upon our city magistrates[10] that are impossible of fulfillment. + +[-23-] "Let all these men to whom affairs outside the city are committed +receive pay, the greater ones more, the inferior ones less, those of +medium importance a medium amount. They can not in a foreign land live +on their own resources nor as now stand an unlimited and uncalculated +expense. Let them govern not less than three years (unless any one of +them commits a crime), nor more than five. These limits are because +annual and short-time appointments after teaching persons what they +need to know send them back again before they can display any of their +knowledge: and, on the other hand, longer and more lasting positions fill +many with conceit and incline them to rebellion. Hence I think that +the greater posts of authority ought not to be given to persons +consecutively, without interval, for it makes no difference whether a man +is governor in the same province or in several in succession, if he holds +office longer than is proper. Appointees improve when a period of time is +allowed to elapse and they return home and live as ordinary citizens. + +"The senators, accordingly, I affirm ought to discharge these duties and +in the way described. [-24-] Of the knights the two best should command +the body-guard which protects you. To entrust it to one man is hazardous, +and to several is sure to breed turmoil. Let these prefects therefore be +two in number, in order that, if one of them suffers any bodily harm, you +may still not lack a person to guard you: and let them be appointed from +those who have been on many campaigns and have been active also in many +other capacities. Let them have command both of the Pretorians and of all +the remaining soldiers in Italy with such absolute power that they +may put to death such of them as do wrong, except in the case of the +centurions and any others who have been assigned to members of the senate +holding office. These should be tried by the senatorial magistrates +themselves, in order that the latter may have authority both to honor +and to chastise their dependents and so be able to count on their +unhesitating support. Over all the other soldiers in Italy those prefects +should have dominion (aided of course by lieutenants), and further over +the Caesarians, both such as wait upon you and all the rest that are of +any value. These duties will be both fitting and sufficient for them to +discharge.[11] They should not have more labors laid upon them than they +will be able to dispose of effectively, that they may not be weighed down +by the press of work or find it impossible to see to everything. These +men ought to hold office for life like the praefectus urbi and the +sub-censor. Let some one else be appointed night watchman, and still +another commissioner of grain and of the other market produce, both of +these from the foremost knights after those mentioned and appointed to +hold their posts for a definite time like the magistrates elected from +the senatorial class. [-25-] The disposition of the funds, also,--of both +the people and the empire, I mean, whether in Rome or in the rest of +Italy or outside,--should be entirely in the hands of the knights. These +treasurers also, as well as all of the same class who have the management +of anything, should draw pay, some more and some less, with reference to +the dignity and magnitude of their employment. The reason is that it is +not possible for them, since they are poorer than the senators, to spend +their own means while engaged in no business in Rome. And then again, it +is neither possible nor advantageous for you that the same men should be +made masters of both the troops and the finances. Furthermore, it is well +that all the business of the empire should be transacted through a number +of agents, in order that many may receive the benefit of it and become +experienced in affairs. In this way your subjects, reaping a multiform +enjoyment from the public treasures, will be better disposed toward you, +and you will have an abundant supply of the best men on each occasion for +all necessary lines of work. One single knight with as many subordinates +(drawn from the knights and from your freedmen) as the needs of the case +demand, is sufficient for every separate form of business in the City and +for each province outside. You need to have these assistants along with +them in order that your service may contain a prize of excellence, and +that you may not lack persons from whom you may learn the truth even +contrary to the wishes of their superiors, in case there is anything +irregular happening. + +"If any one of the knights after passing through many forms of service +distinguishes himself enough to become a senator, his age ought not to +hinder him at all from being enrolled in the senate. Let some of those +even be registered who have held the post of company leaders in citizen +forces, unless it be one who has served in the rank and file; for it is +both a shame and a reproach to have on the list of the senate any of +these persons who have carried loaded panniers and charcoal baskets. But +in the case of such as were originally centurions there is nothing to +prevent the most distinguished of them from being advanced to a better +class. + +[-26-] "With regard to the senators and the knights this is my advice to +you. And, by Jupiter, I have this to say further. While they are still +children they should attend schools, and when they come out of childhood +into youth they should turn their minds to horses and arms and have paid +public teachers in each of these two departments. In this way from very +boyhood they will both learn and practice all that they must themselves +do on becoming men, and so they will prove far more serviceable to you +for every work. The best ruler, who is of any value, must not only +himself perform all his required tasks, but also look forward to see how +the rest shall become also as excellent as possible. And this name can be +yours, not if you allow them to do whatever they please and then censure +those who err, but if before any mistakes occur you teach them everything +which, when practiced, will render them more useful both to themselves +and to you. And afford nobody any excuse whatever, either wealth or +birth, or anything else that accompanies excellence, for affecting +indolence or effeminacy or any other behavior that is not genuine. Many +persons, fearing that on account of some such possession they may incur +jealousy or danger, do much that is unworthy of themselves, expecting +by such behavior to live in greater security. As a consequence they +commiserate themselves, believing themselves wronged in this very +particular, that they are not allowed to appear to live aright. Their +ruler also suffers a loss because he is deprived of the services of good +men, and suffers ill repute for the censure imposed upon them. Therefore +never permit this to be done, and have no fears that any one brought up +and educated as I propose will ever adopt a rebellious policy. Quite the +reverse; it is only the ignorant and licentious that you need suspect. +Such persons are easily influenced to behave most disgracefully and +abominably in absolutely every way first toward their own selves and next +toward other people. Those, however, who have been well brought up and +educated are purposed not to wrong any one and least of all him who cared +for their rearing and education. If any one, accordingly, shows himself +wicked and ungrateful, do not entrust him with any such position as will +enable him to effect any harm: if even so he rebels, let him be tried and +punished. Do not be afraid that any one will blame you for this, if you +carry out all my injunctions. For in taking vengeance on the wrongdoer +you will be guilty of no sin any more than the physician who burns and +cuts. All will pronounce the man justly treated, because after partaking +of the same rearing and education as the rest he plotted against +you.--This is the course of action I advise in the case of the senators +and knights. + +[-27-] "A standing army should be supported, drawn from the citizens, +the subject nations, and the allies, in one case more, in another less, +province by province, as the necessities of the case demand; and they +ought to be always under arms and make a practice of warfare continually. +They must have secured winter-quarters at the most opportune points, and +serve for a definite time, so that a certain period of active life may +remain for them before old age. For, separated so far as we are from the +frontiers of the empire, with enemies living near us on every side, we +should otherwise no longer be able to count on auxiliaries in the case of +emergencies. Again, if we allow all those of military age to have arms +and to practice warlike pursuits, quarrels and civil wars will always be +arising among them. However, if we prevent them from doing this and then +need their assistance at all in battle, we shall always have to face +danger with inexperienced and untrained soldiers at our back. For this +reason I submit the proposition that most of them live without arms +and away from forts; but that the hardiest and those most in need of a +livelihood be registered and kept in practice. They themselves will fight +better by devoting their leisure to this single business; and the rest +will the more easily farm, manage ships, and attend to the other pursuits +of peace, if they are not forced to be called out for service, but have +others to stand as their guardians. The most active and vigorous element, +that is, which is oftenest obliged to live by robbery, will be supported +without harming others, and all the rest of the population will lead a +life free from danger. + +[-28-] "From what source, then, will the money come for these warriors +and for the other expenses that will be found necessary? I shall make +this point clear, with only the short preliminary statement that even +were we under a democracy, we should in any case need money. We can not +survive without soldiers, and without pay none of them will serve. Hence +let us not feel downhearted in the belief that the compulsory collection +of money appertains only to monarchy, and let us not turn away from +the system for that reason, but conduct our deliberations with a full +knowledge of the fact that in any case it is necessary for us to obtain +funds, whatsoever form of government we may adopt. Consequently, I +maintain that you should first of all sell the goods which are in the +public treasury,--and I notice that these have become numerous on account +of the wars,--except a few which are exceedingly useful and necessary +to you: and you should loan all this money at some moderate rate of +interest. In this way the land will be worked, being delivered to men who +will cultivate it themselves, and the latter will obtain a starting-point +and so grow more prosperous, while the treasury will have a sufficient +and perpetual revenue. This amount should be computed together with all +the rest of the revenue that can be derived from the mines and with +certainty from any other source; and after that we ought to reckon on not +only the military service but everything else which contributes to the +successful life of a city, and further how much it will be necessary to +lay out in campaigns at short notice and other critical occurrences which +are wont to take place. Then, to make up the deficiency in income, we +ought to levy upon absolutely all instruments which produce any profit +for the men who possess them, and we should exact taxes from all whom we +rule. It is both just and proper that no one of them should be exempt +from taxation,--individual or people,--because they are destined to enjoy +the benefit of the taxes in common with the rest. We should set over them +tax-collectors in every case to manage the business, so that they may +levy from all sources of revenue everything that falls due during their +term of management. The following plan will render it easier for the +officers to gather the taxes and will be of no little service to those +who contribute them. I mean that they will bring in whatever they owe +in an appointed order and little by little, instead of remaining idle +a short time and then having the entire sum demanded of them in one +payment. + +[-29-] "I am not unaware that some of the incomes and taxes established +will be disliked. But I know this, too,--that if the peoples secure +immunity from any further abuse and believe in reality that they will be +contributing all of this for their own safety and for reaping subsidiary +benefits in abundance and that most of it will be obtained by no others +than men of their own district, some by governing, others by managing, +others by army service, they will be very grateful to you, giving as they +do a small portion of large possessions, the profits of which they enjoy +without oppression. Especially will this be true if they see that you +live temperately and spend nothing foolishly. Who, if he saw you very +economical of your own means and very lavish of the public funds, +would not willingly contribute, and deem your possession of wealth to +constitute his safety and prosperity? By these means a very large amount +of money would be on hand. + +[-30-] "The rest I urge you to arrange in the following way. Adorn this +city in the most expensive manner possible and add brilliance by every +form of festival. It is fitting that we who rule many people should +surpass all in everything, and such spectacles tend in a way to promote +respect on the part of our allies and alarm on the part of enemies. The +affairs of other nations you should order in this fashion. First, let the +various tribes have no power in any matter nor meet in assemblies at all. +They would decide nothing good and would always be creating more or less +turmoil. Hence I say that even our own populace ought not to gather at +court or for elections or for any other such meeting where any business +is to be transacted. Next, they should not indulge in numbers of houses +of great size and beyond what is necessary, and they should not expend +money upon many and all kinds of contests: so they will neither be worn +out by vain zeal nor become hostile through unreasonable rivalries. They +ought, however, to have certain festivals and spectacles, (apart from the +horse-race held among us), but not to such an extent that the treasury or +private estates will be injured, or any stranger be compelled to spend +anything whatever in their midst, or food for a lifetime be furnished +to all who have merely won in some contest. It is unreasonable that the +well-to-do should submit to compulsory expenditures outside their own +countries; and for the athletes the prizes for each event are sufficient. +This ruling does not apply to any one of them who might come out victor +in the Olympian or Pythian games, or some contest here at Rome.[12] Such +are the only persons who ought to be fed, and then the cities will not +exhaust themselves without avail nor anybody practice save those who have +a chance of winning, since one can follow some other pursuit that is +more advantageous both to one's self and to one's country. "This is my +decision about these matters.--Now to the horse-races which are held +without gymnastic contests, I think that no other city but ours should be +allowed to hold them, so that vast sums of money may not be dissipated +recklessly nor men go miserably frantic,--and most of all that the +soldiers may have a plentiful supply of the best horses. This, therefore, +I would forbid altogether, that those races should take place anywhere +else than here. The other amusements I have determined to moderate so +that all organizations should make the enjoyment of entertainments for +eye and ear inexpensive, and men thereby live more temperately and free +from discontent. + +"Let none of the foreigners employ their own coinage or weights or +measures, but let them all use ours. And they should send no embassy to +you, unless it involve a point for decision. Let them instead present to +their governor whatever they please and through him forward to you all +such requests of theirs as he may approve. In this way they will neither +spend anything nor effect their object by crooked practices, but receive +their answers at first hand without any expenditure or intrigue. + +[-31-] "Moreover, in respect to other matters, you would seem to be +ordering things in the best way if you should, in the first place, +introduce before the senate the embassies which come from the enemy and +from those under truce, both kings and peoples. For it is awe-inspiring +and impressive to let the senate appear to be master of all situations +and to exhibit many adversaries prepared for petitioners who are guilty +of double dealing. Next, have all the laws enacted by the senators, and +do not impose a single one upon all the people alike, except the decrees +of that body. In this way the dignity of the empire would be the more +confirmed and the decisions made in accordance with the laws would prove +indisputable and evident to all alike. Thirdly, it would be well in case +the senators who are serving in the city, their children or their wives, +are ever charged with any serious crime, so that a person convicted would +receive a penalty of disenfranchisement or exile or even death, that +you should set the situation before the senate, without any previous +condemnation, and commit to that body the entire decision at first hand +regarding it. Thus those guilty of any crime would be tried before all +their peers and punished without any ill-feeling against you. The rest, +seeing this, would improve in character for fear of being themselves +publicly apprehended. I am speaking here about those offences regarding +which laws are established, and judgments are rendered according to the +laws. + +"As for talk that some one has abused you or spoken in an unfitting way +about you, do not listen to any one who brings such an accusation nor +investigate it. It is disgraceful to believe that any one has wantonly +insulted you who are doing no wrong and benefiting all. Only those who +rule badly will credit these reports. Because of their own conscience +they surmise that the matter has been stated truthfully. It is a shame to +be angry at complaints for which, if true, one had better not have been +responsible, and about which, if false, one ought not to pretend to care. +Many in times past by angry behavior have caused more things and worse to +be said against them. This is my opinion about those accused of uttering +some insult. Your personality should be too strong and too lofty to be +assailed by any insolence, and you should never allow yourself to think +nor lead others into thinking that any person can be indecent toward you. +Thus they will think of you as of the gods, that you are sacrosanct. If +any one should be accused of plotting against you (such a thing might +happen), do not yourself sit as judge on a single detail of the case nor +reach any decision in advance,--for it is absurd that the same man should +be made both accuser and judge,--but take him to the senate and make him +plead his defence. If he be convicted, punish him, though moderating the +sentence so far as is feasible, in order that belief in his guilt may be +fostered. It is very difficult to make most men believe that any unarmed +person will plot against him who is armed. And the only way you could +gain credence would be by punishing him not in anger nor overwhelmingly, +if it be possible.--This is aside from the case of one who had an army +and should revolt directly against you. It is not fitting that such an +one be tried, but that he be chastised as an enemy. + +"In this way refer to the senate these matters and [-32-] most of the +highly important affairs that concern the commonwealth. Public interests +you must administer publicly. It is also an inbred trait of human nature +for individuals to delight in marks of esteem from a superior, which seem +to raise one to equality with him, and to approve everything which the +superior has determined after consulting them, as if it were their own +proposal, and to cherish it, as if it were their own choice. Consequently +I affirm that such business ought to be brought before the senate.--In +regard to most cases all those senators present ought equally to state +their opinions: but when one of their number is accused, not all of them +should do so, unless it be some one who is not yet a senator or is not +yet in the ranks of the ex-quaestors that is being tried. And, indeed, it +is absurd that one who has not yet been a tribune or an aedile should cast +a vote against such as have already filled these offices, or, by Jupiter, +that any one of the latter should vote against the ex-praetors or they +against the ex-consuls. Let the last named have authority to render a +decision in all cases, but the rest only in the cases of their peers and +their subordinates. + +[-33-] "You yourself must try in person the referred and the appealed +cases which come to you from the higher officials, from the procurators, +from the praefectus urbi, from the sub-censor, and the prefects, both the +commissioner of grain[13] and the night-watch.[14] No single one of them +should have such absolute powers of decision and such independence that a +case can not be appealed from him. You should be the judge, therefore +in these instances, and also when knights are concerned and properly +enrolled centurions and the foremost private citizens, if the trial +involves death or disenfranchisement. Let these be your business alone, +and for the reasons mentioned let no one else on his own responsibility +render a decision in them. You should always have associated with you +for discussion the most honored of the senators and of the knights, and +further certain others from the ranks of the ex-consuls and ex-praetors, +some at one time and some at another. In this association you will become +more accurately acquainted with their characters beforehand, and so be +able to put them to the right kind of employment, and they by coming in +contact with your habits and wishes will have them in mind on going out +to govern the provinces. Do not, however, openly ask their opinions when +a rather careful consideration is required, for fear that they, being +outside their accustomed sphere, may hesitate to speak freely; but let +them record their views on tablets. To these you alone should have +access, that they may become known to no one else, and then order the +writing to be immediately erased. In this way you may best get at each +man's exact opinion, when they believe that it can not be identified +among all the rest. + +"Moreover for the lawsuits, letters, and decrees of the cities, for the +consideration of the demands of individuals and everything else which +belongs to the administration of the empire you must have supporters and +assistants from among the knights. Everything will move along more easily +in this way, and you will neither err through want of fairness nor become +exhausted by doing everything yourself. Grant every one who wishes to +make any suggestion whatever to you the right of speaking freely and +fearlessly. If you approve what he says, it will be of great service: +and if you are not persuaded, it will do no harm. Those who obtain your +favorable judgment you should both praise and honor, since by their +devices you will receive glory: and those who fail of it you should never +dishonor or censure. It is proper to look at their intentions, and not to +find fault because their plans were unavailable. Guard against this same +mistake when war is concerned. Be not enraged at any one for involuntary +misfortune nor jealous of his good fortune, to the end that all may +zealously and gladly run risks for you, confident that if they make a +slip they will not be punished nor if successful become the objects of +intrigue. There are many who through fear of jealousy on the part of +those in power have chosen to meet reverses rather than to effect +anything. As a result they retained their safety, but the loss fell upon +their own heads. You, who are sure to reap the principal benefit from +both classes alike,--the inferior and the superior,--ought never to +choose to become nominally jealous of others, but really of yourself. + +[-34-] "Whatever you wish your subjects to think and do _you_ must +say and do. You can better educate them in this way than if you +should desire to terrify them by the severities of the laws. The former +course inspires emulation, the latter fear. And any one can more easily +imitate superior conduct, when he actually sees it in some life, than he +can guard against low behavior which he merely hears to be prohibited by +edict. Act in every way yourself with circumspection, not condoning any +mistakes of your own, for be well assured that all will straightway learn +everything you say and do. You will live as it were in a kind of theatre, +whose audience is the whole world: and it will not be possible for you to +escape detection if you commit the very smallest error. No act of yours +will ever be in private, but all of them will be performed in the midst +of many persons. And all the remainder of mankind somehow take the +greatest delight in being officious with respect to what is done by their +rulers. Hence, if they once ascertain that you are urging them to one +course and following a different one yourself, they will not fear your +threats, but will imitate your deeds. + +"Have an eye to the lives of others, but do not carry your investigations +unpleasantly close. Decide cases which are brought before you by +outsiders, but do not pretend to notice conduct that receives no +outspoken censure from any one, except irregularities not consonant with +public interest. The latter ought to be properly rebuked, even if no one +has aught to say against them. Other private failings you ought to know, +in order to avoid making a mistake some day by employing an assistant +unsuitable for a particular duty: do not, however, take individuals to +task. Their natures impel many persons to commit various violations of +the law. If you make an unsparing campaign against them, you might leave +scarcely one man unpunished. But if you humanely mingle consideration +with the strict command of the law, you may perhaps bring them to their +senses. For the law, though necessarily severe in its punishments, can +not always conquer nature. Some men, if permitted to think they are +unobserved, or if moderately admonished, improve, some through shame +at being discovered and others through fear of failure the next time. +Whereas when they are openly denounced and throw compunction to the +winds, or where they are chastised beyond measure, they overturn and +trample under foot all law and order and obey slavishly the impulses of +their nature. Therefore it is not easy to discipline all of them nor is +it fitting to allow some of them to continue publicly their outrageous +conduct. + +"This is the way I advise you to treat people's offences, except the very +desperate cases: and you should honor even beyond the deserts of the deed +whatever they do rightly. In this way you can best make them refrain from +baser conduct by kindliness and cause them to aim at what is better by +liberality. Have no dread that either money or other means of rewarding +those who do well will ever fail you. I think those deserving of good +treatment will prove far fewer than the rewards, since you are lord of so +much land and sea. And fear not that any who are benefited will commit +some act of ingratitude. Nothing so captivates and conciliates any one, +be he foreigner or be he foe, as freedom from wrongs and likewise kindly +treatment. + +[-35-] "This is the attitude which I urge you to assume toward others. +For your own part allow no extraordinary or overweening distinction to +be given you through word or deed by the senate or by anybody else. To +others honor which you confer lends adornment, but to your own self +nothing can be given that is greater than what you already have, and it +would arouse no little suspicion of failure in straightforwardness. None +of the ordinary people willingly approves of having any such distinction +voted to the man in power. As he receives everything of the kind +from himself, he not only obtains no praise for it but becomes a +laughing-stock instead. Any additional brilliance, then, you must create +for yourself by your good deeds. Never permit gold or silver images of +yourself to be made; they are not only costly, but they give rise to +plots and last but a brief time: you must build in the very hearts of +men others out of benefits conferred, which shall be both unalloyed and +undying. Again, do not ever allow a temple to be raised to yourself. +Large amounts of money are spent uselessly on such objects, which had +better be laid out upon necessary improvements. Great wealth is gathered +not so much by acquiring a great deal as by not spending a great deal. +Nor does a temple contribute anything to any one's glory. Excellence +raises many men to the level of the gods, but nobody ever yet was made a +god by show of hands. Hence if you are upright and rule well, the whole +earth will be your precinct, all cities your temple, all mankind your +statues. In their thoughts you will ever be enshrined and surrounded by +good repute. Those who administer their power in any other way are not +only not magnified by sites and edifices of worship, though these be +the choicest in all the cities, but erect for themselves therein mute +detractors which become trophies of their baseness, memorials of their +injustice. And the longer these last, the more steadfastly does the +ill-repute of such sovereigns abide. [-36-] Therefore if you desire to +become in very truth immortal, act in this way; and further, reverence +the Divine Power yourself everywhere in every way, following our fathers' +belief, and compel others to honor it. Those who introduce strange ideas +about it you should both hate and punish, not only for the sake of the +gods (because if a man despises them he will esteem naught else sacred) +but because such persons by bringing in new divinities persuade many to +adopt foreign principles of law. As a result conspiracies, factions, and +clubs arise which are far from desirable under a monarchy. Accordingly, +do not grant any atheist or charlatan the right to be at large. The art +of soothsaying is a necessary one and you should by all means appoint +some men to be diviners and augurs, to whom people can resort who desire +to consult them on any matter; but there ought to be no workers of magic +at all. Such men tell partly truth but mostly lies, and frequently +inspire many of their followers to rebel. The same thing is true of many +who pretend to be philosophers. Hence I urge you to be on your guard +against them. Do not, because you have come in contact with such +thoroughly admirable men as Areus and Athenodorus, think that all +the rest who say they are philosophers are like them. Some use this +profession as a screen to work untold harm to both populace and +individuals. + +[-37-] "Your spirit, then, because you have no desire for anything more +than you possess, ought to be most peaceful, whereas your equipment +should be most warlike, in order that no one ordinarily may either wish +or try to harm you, but if he should, that he may be punished easily and +instantly. For these and other reasons it is requisite for some persons +to keep their ears and eyes open to everything appertaining to your +position of authority, in order that you may not fail to notice anything +which needs guarding against or setting right. Remember, however, that +you must not trust merely to all they say, but investigate their words +carefully. There are many who, some through hatred of certain persons, +others out of desire for what they possess, or as a favor to some one, or +because they ask money and do not receive it, oppress others under the +pretext that the latter are rebellious or are guilty of harboring some +design or uttering some statement against the supreme ruler. Therefore it +is not right to pay immediate or ready attention to them, but to enquire +into absolutely everything. If you are slow in believing anybody, you +will suffer no great harm, but if you are hasty, you may make a mistake +which can not easily be repaired. + +"Now it is both right and necessary for you to honor the excellent both +among the freedmen and among the rest of your associates. This will +afford you great renown and security. They must, however not have any +extraordinary powers but all carefully moderate their conduct, that +so you may not be ill spoken of through them. For everything they do, +whether well or ill, will be accredited to you, and the estimate of +yourself to be made by all men will depend upon what you permit these +persons to do. + +"Do not, then, allow the influential either to make unjust gains or to +concern themselves with blackmail: and let no one be complained of for +'having influence', even if he is otherwise irreproachable. Defend the +masses vigorously when they are wronged and do not attend too easily to +accusations against them. Examine every deed on its merits, not being +suspicious of every one who is prominent nor believing every one who is +lower in the social scale. Those who are active and are the authors of +any useful device you must honor, but the idle or such as busy themselves +with petty foolishness you must hate. Thus your subjects will be inclined +to the former conduct because of the benefits attached and will refrain +from the latter on account of the penalties, and will become better +as individuals and more serviceable for your employment in the public +service. + +"It is an excellent achievement also to render private disputes as few as +possible and their settlement as rapid as may be. But it is best of all +to cut short the impetuosity of communities, and, if under guise of some +appeals to your sovereignty and safety and good fortune they undertake to +use force upon anybody or to undertake exploits or expenditures that are +beyond their power, not to permit it. You should abolish altogether their +enmities and rivalries among themselves and not authorize them to create +any empty titles or anything else which will breed differences between +them. All will readily obey you both in this and in every other matter, +private and public, if you never permit any one to transgress this rule. +Non-enforcement of laws makes null and void even wisely framed precepts. +Consequently you should not allow persons to ask for what you are not +accustomed to give. Try to compel them to avoid diligently this very +practice of petitioning for something prohibited. This is what I have to +say on that subject. + +[-38-] "I advise you never to make use of your authority against all the +citizens at once nor to deem it in any way curtailed if you do not do +absolutely everything that is within your power. But in proportion as you +are able to carry out all your wishes, you must be anxious to wish only +what is proper, make always a self-examination, to see whether what you +are doing is right or not, what conduct will cause people to love you, +and what not, in order that you may perform the one set of acts and avoid +the other. Do not admit the thought that you will sufficiently escape +the reputation of acting contrary to this rule, if only you hear no one +censuring you; and do not look for any one to be so mad as to reproach +you openly for anything. No one would do this, not even if he should be +violently wronged. Quite the reverse,--many are compelled in public to +praise their oppressors, and while engaged in opposition not to manifest +their wrath. The ruler must infer the disposition of people not from what +they say but from the way it is natural for them to feel. + +[-39-] "This and a similar policy is the one I wish you to pursue. I pass +over many matters because it is not feasible to speak of them all at one +time and within present limits. One suggestion therefore I will make to +sum up both previous remarks and whatever is lacking. If you yourself by +your own motion do whatever you would wish some one else who ruled you +to do, you will make no mistakes and will be always successful, and +consequently your life will be most pleasant and free from danger. How +can all fail to regard you and to love you as father and preserver, when +they see you are orderly, leading a good life, good at warfare, but a man +of peace: when you are not wanton, do not defraud: when you meet them +on a footing of equality, and do not yourself grow rich while demanding +money from others: are not yourself given to luxury while imposing +hardships upon others: are not yourself unbridled while reproving others: +when, instead, your life in every way without exception is precisely +like theirs? Be of good cheer, for you have in your own hands a great +safeguard by never wronging another. And believe me when I tell you that +you will never be the object of hatred or plots. Since this is so, you +must quite inevitably lead a pleasant life. What is pleasanter, what is +more conducive to prosperity, than to enjoy in a rightful way all the +blessings among men and to have the power of granting them to others? + +[-40-] "With this in mind, together with all the rest that I have told +you, heed my advice and let not that fortune slip which has chosen you +out of all and set you at the head of all. If you would choose the +substance of monarch but fear the name of 'kingdom' as accursed, then +refrain from taking possession of the latter and be satisfied to employ +merely the title of 'Caesar.' If you need any further appellations, they +will give you that of _Imperator_, as they gave it to your father. They +will reverence you also by still another name, so that you may obtain all +the advantages of a kingdom without the disfavor that attaches to the +term itself." + +[-41-] Maecenas thus brought his speech to an end. Caesar thanked them both +heartily for their many ideas, the exhaustiveness of their exposition, +and their frankness. He rather inclined, however, to the proposition of +Maecenas. Yet he did not immediately put into practice all of the other's +suggestions, for fear that he might meet with some setback if he wanted +to reform men in multitudes. So he made some changes for the better at +once and others later. He left some things also for those who should +come to the head of the State afterward to do, as might be found more +opportune in the progress of time. Agrippa cooeperated with him in all his +projects quite zealously, in spite of having stated a contrary opinion, +just as if he had been the one to propose the plan. Caesar did this and +what I have recorded earlier in the narrative in that year when he was +consul for the seventh time, and added the title of _Imperator_. I do not +refer to the title anciently granted some persons for victories,--this he +received many times before and many times later for his deeds themselves, +so that he had the name of imperator twenty-one times,--but to the other +one which signifies supreme power, just as they had voted to his father +Caesar and to the children and descendants of the same. + +[-42-] After this he entered upon a censorship with Agrippa and besides +setting aright some other business he investigated the senate. Many +knights and many foot-soldiers, too, who did not deserve it were in the +senate as a result of the civil wars, so that the total of that body +amounted to a thousand. These he wished to remove, but did not himself +erase any of their names, urging them to become their own judges out of +the consciousness of their family and their life. So first he persuaded +fifty of them to retire voluntarily from the assemblage and then +compelled one hundred and forty others to imitate their example. He +disenfranchised none of them, but posted the names of the second +division. In the case of the first, because they had not delayed but had +straightway obeyed him, he remitted the reproach and their identity was +not made public. These accordingly returned willingly to private life. He +ousted Quintus Statilius, very much against the latter's will, from the +tribuneship to which he had been appointed. Some others he made senators, +and he counted among the ex-consuls two men of the senatorial class,--a +certain Cluvius and Gaius Furnius,--because they had been appointed +first, though certain others had taken possession of their offices +so that they were unable to become consuls. He added to the class of +patricians, the senate allowing him to do this because most of its +members had perished. No element is exhausted so fast in civil wars as +the nobility or is deemed to be so necessary for the continuance of +ancestral customs. In addition to the above measures he forbade all +persons in the senate to go outside of Italy, unless he himself should +order or permit any one of them to do so. This custom is still kept up at +the present day. Except that he may visit Sicily and Gallia Narbonensis +no senator is allowed to go anywhere out of the country. As these regions +are close at hand and the population is unarmed and peaceful, those who +have any possessions there have been granted the right to take trips to +them as often as they like, without asking leave.--Since also he saw that +many of the senators and of the others who had been devoted to Antony +still maintained an attitude of suspicion toward him, and as he was +afraid they might cause some uprising, he announced that all the letters +found in his rival's chest had been burned. Some of them as a matter of +fact had perished, but the majority of them he took pains to preserve and +did not even hesitate to use them later. + +[-43-] Besides these acts related he also settled Carthage anew, because +Lepidus had laid waste a part of it and for that reason he maintained +that the colonists' rights of settlement had been abrogated. He summoned +Antiochus of Commagene to appear before him because this prince had +treacherously slain an envoy despatched to Rome by his brother, who was +at variance with him. Caesar brought him before the senate, where he was +condemned and the sentence of death imposed. Capreae was also obtained +from the Neapolitans, to whom it had anciently belonged, in exchange for +other land. It lies not far from the mainland opposite Surrentum and is +good for nothing but has a name even now on account of Tiberius's sojourn +there.--These were the events of that period. + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: anagchastae] (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 2: The same Strabo who is mentioned in the early part of +chapter 28, Book Forty-four.] + +[Footnote 3: There is a gap here in the Greek text. The conclusion of +Agrippa'a speech is missing, as is also the earlier portion of Maecenas's, +with some brief preface thereto. In the next chapter we are full in the +midst of the opposite argument,--in favor, namely, of the assumption of +supreme power by Octavius Caesar.] + +[Footnote 4: Cobet prefers to read "fearlessly" (substituting [Greek: +hadeos] for [Greek: aedeos]).] + +[Footnote 5: Dio seems here to be imitating, in his phraseology, +Thukydides (VII, 25). The proper reading is [Greek: peri herma] (two +words), not [Greek: perierma] as in some of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 6: Dindorf's reading (Greek: _gunaichon te ton prosaechouson +autois_).] + +[Footnote 7: Compare Suetonius, _Augustus_, chapter 37. In practice there +were six of them,--three to nominate senators, and three to make a review +of the knights.] + +[Footnote 8: Here some words have evidently fallen out of the text.] + +[Footnote 9: Reading [Greek: hapo] with Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 10: Reading [Greek: archousi] (MSS. and Boissevain) instead of +[Greek: archomenois] (Xylander).] + +[Footnote 11: Adopting Boissevain's reading (Greek: diagein estai).] + +[Footnote 12: A reference particularly to the ludi Capitolini, founded by +Domitian.] + +[Footnote 13: Latin, _praefectus annonae_.] + +[Footnote 14: Latin, _praefectus vigilum_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +53 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-third of Dio's Rome: + +How the temple of Apollo on the Palatine was consecrated (chapters 1, 2). + +How Caesar delivered in the senate a speech as if retiring from the +sovereignty; and thereafter assigned to that body its proper provinces +(chapters 3-12). + +About the appointment of the governors sent to the provinces (chapters +13-15). + +How Caesar was given the title of Augustus (chapter 16). + +About the names which the emperors assume (chapters 17-22). + +How the Saepta were consecrated (chapters 23, 24). + +How Caesar fought against Astures and Cantabri (chapter 25). + +How Gaul began to be governed Romans (chapter 26). + +How the Portico of Neptune and the Baths of Agrippa were dedicated +(chapter 27). + +How the Pantheon was dedicated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus was released from the obligation of obeying the laws +(chapter 28). + +How an expedition was made into Arabia Felix (chapters 29-33). + +Duration of time six years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated. + +Caesar (VI), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (II). (B.C. 28 = a. u. 726.) + +Caesar (VII), M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa (III). (B.C. 27 = a. u. 727.) + +Caesar Augustus (VIII), T. Statilius T.F. Taurus (II). (B.C. 26 = a. u. +728.) + +Augustus (IX), M. lunius M.F. Silanus. (B.C. 25 = a. u. 729.) + +Augustus (X), C. Norbanus C.F.C.N. Flaccus. (B.C. 24 = a. u. 730.) + +Augustus (XI), Cn. Calpurnius Cn.F.Cn.N. Piso. (B.C. 23 = a. u. 731.) + + +_(BOOK 53, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 28 (_a. u._ 726)] + +[-1-] The following year Caesar held office for the sixth time and did +everything according to the usage approved from very early times, +delivering to Agrippa his colleague the bundles of rods which belonged +to an incumbent of the consulship, while he himself used the others. On +completing his term he had the oath administered according to ancestral +custom. Whether he ever did this again I do not know. Agrippa he honored +exceedingly, even going so far as to give him his niece in marriage and +to provide him with a tent similar to his own whenever they went on a +campaign together; and the watchword was given by both of them. At that +particular time besides attending to the ordinary run of business he +finished the taking of the census, in which he was called _Princeps +Senatus_, as had been deemed proper under the real democracy. He further +completed and dedicated the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, the +precinct surrounding it, and the stores of books. And he celebrated in +company with Agrippa the festival in honor of the victory won at Actium, +which had been voted: in it he had the horse-race between boys and +between men of the nobility. This celebration every five years, as long +as it lasted, was in charge of the four priesthoods in succession,--I +mean the pontifices and augurs and the so-called septemviri and +quindecimviri. A gymnastic contest was also held at that time,--a wooden +stadium being built in the Campus Martius,--and there was an armed combat +of captives. This continued for several days without a break, in spite of +Caesar's falling sick; for even so Agrippa filled his place. + +[-2-] Caesar spent some of his private means upon the festivals, and when +money was needed for the public treasury he borrowed it and supplied the +want. For the management of this branch of the service he ordered two +annual magistrates to be chosen from among the ex-praetors. To the +populace he distributed a quadruple allowance of grain and made a present +of money to some of the senators. For many of them had grown so poor as +not to be willing to be even aedile on account of the great expenses. +Moreover the courts which belonged to the aedileship were to be assigned +to the praetors as had been the custom, the more important to the praetor +urbanus and the others to the praetor peregrinus. Again, he himself +appointed the praetor urbanus, as he often did subsequently. The pledges +deposited with the public treasury before the battle of Actium he +released, save any that involved house property, and burned the old +acknowledgments of those who owed the State anything. Egyptian rites +he did not admit within the pomerium, but paid great attention to +the temples of Egyptian deities. Such as had been built by private +individuals he ordered their children and descendants, if any survived, +to repair, and the rest he restored himself. He did not, however, +appropriate the credit for their building but allowed it to rest with +those who had originally constructed them. And since very many unlawful +and unjust ordinances had been passed during the internecine strifes and +in the wars, and particularly in the dual reign of Antony and Lepidus, he +abolished them all by one promulgation, setting his sixth consulship as +the limit of their existence. As he obtained approbation and praise for +this act he desired to exhibit another instance of magnanimity, that by +such a policy he might be honored the more and that his supremacy might +be voluntarily confirmed by the people, which would enable him to +avoid the appearance of having forced them against their will. As a +consequence, after apprising those senators with whom he was most +intimate of his designs, he entered the senatorial body in his seventh +consulship and read the following document. + +[B.C. 27 (_a. u._ 727)] + +[-3-] "I am sure that I shall seem to some of you, Conscript Fathers, to +have made an incredible choice. For what each one of my hearers would not +wish to do himself, he does not like to believe when another states it as +accomplished. This is chiefly because every one is jealous of every one +who surpasses him and is more or less inclined to distrust anything said +that is higher than his own standard.[1] Moreover I know this, that those +who make apparently untrustworthy statements not only persuade nobody but +further have the appearance of cheats. And, indeed, if it were a case of +announcing something that I was not intending to do immediately, I should +hesitate very much about making it public, for fear of obtaining some +unworthy charge against me instead of gratitude. But, as it is, when +the performance will follow the promise this very day, I feel entirely +confident not only of avoiding any shame for prevarication but of +surpassing all mankind in good repute. [-4-] You all see that I am so +situated that I could rule you perpetually. All the revolutionists either +have been disciplined and been made to halt or have had pity shown them +and so have come to their senses. My helpers have been made devoted by +a recompense of benefits and steadfast by a participation in the +government: therefore they do not desire any political innovations, and +if anything of the sort should take place, the men to assist me are even +more ready for it than the instigators of rebellion. My military is in +prime condition, we have good-will, strength, money, and allies, and +chiefest of all you and the people are so disposed toward me that you +would be quite willing to have me at your head. However, I will lead you +no longer, nor shall any one say that all the acts of my previous career +have been with the object of sole rulership. I give up the entire domain, +and I restore to you absolutely everything,--the arms, the laws, and the +provinces,--not only all those which you committed to me but also all +that I myself subsequently acquired for you. Thus by my deeds themselves +you may ascertain that I did not from the outset desire any position of +power, but wished in very truth to avenge my father cruelly murdered and +to extricate the city from great and continuous evils. [-5-] I would that +I had never taken charge of affairs even to the present extent. That is, +I would that the city had never needed me for any such purpose, but that +we of this age had from the outset lived in peace and harmony as our +fathers once did. But since an inflexible fate, as it seems, brought you +to a place where there was need even of me, though I was still young, +and I was put to the test, I was always ready to labor zealously at +everything even beyond what was expected of my years, so long as the +situation demanded my help, and I accomplished everything with good +fortune, even surpassing my powers. There was not one consideration out +of all that might be cited which could turn me from aiding you when you +were in danger, not toil or fear or threats of foes or prayers of friends +or the numbers of the confederates or the desperation of our adversaries. +I gave myself to you unsparingly for all the tasks that fell to our +lot, and my performances and sufferings you know. From it I myself have +derived no gain except that I caused my country to survive, but you are +both preserved and in your sober senses. Since, then, the gracious act +of Fortune has restored to you by my hands peace without treachery and +harmony without turmoil, receive back also liberty and democracy. +Take possession of the arms and the subject nations, and conduct the +government as has been your wont. + +[-6-] "You should not be surprised at my attitude when you see my right +conduct in other ways, my mildness and freedom from meddling, and reflect +moreover that I have never accepted any extraordinary privilege, beyond +what the majority might gain, though you have often voted many of them to +me. Do not, again, condemn me for folly because, when it is in my power +to rule over you and hold so great a sovereignty over this great world, I +am unwilling. Examining the merits of the situation I deem it most just +for you to manage your own affairs: examining the advantages, I regard it +as most advantageous to myself to be free from trouble, from jealousy, +from plots, and for you to conduct a free government with moderation and +love: examining where the glory lies (for the sake of which men often +choose to enter war and danger), will it not add most to my reputation +to resign so great a dominion? Will it not be most glorious to leave so +exalted a sovereignty and voluntarily become a plain citizen? So if any +one of you doubts that any one else could show true moderation in this +and bring himself to speak out, let him at all events believe me. For, +though I could recite many great benefits which have been conferred upon +you by me and by my father for which you would naturally love and honor +us above all the rest, I could say nothing greater and I should take +pride in nothing else more than this, that he would not accept the +monarchy which you strove to give him, and that I, holding it, lay it +aside. + +[-7-] "What need to set side by side his separate exploits,--the conquest +of Gaul, the subduing of Moesia, the subjugation of Egypt, the enslaving +of Pannonia? Or again Pharnaces, Juba, Phraates, the campaign against +the Britons, the crossing of the Rhine? Yet these are greater and more +important deeds than all our forefathers performed in all previous time. +Still, any of these accomplishments scarcely deserves a place beside my +present act, nor yet, indeed, does the fact that the civil wars, the +greatest and most diverse that have occurred in the history of man, we +fought to a successful finish, and that we made humane terms, overcoming +all who withstood us, as enemies, and saving alive all who yielded, as +friends; (so that if our city should ever again be fated to suffer from +disaffection, we might pray that the quarrel should follow this same +course). For that in spite of our possessing such great power and +standing at the summit of excellence and good fortune so that we might +govern you willing or unwilling, we should neither lose our heads nor +desire sole supremacy, but that instead he should reject it when offered +and I return it when given is a superhuman achievement. I speak in this +way not for idle boasting,--I should not have said it at all if I were +to derive any advantage whatever from it,--but in order that you may see +that whereas there are many public benefits to our credit and we have +in private many lofty titles, we take greatest pride in this, that what +others desire to gain even by doing violence to their neighbors we +surrender without any compulsion. + +[-8-] Who could be found more magnanimous than I (not to mention again +my father deceased) or whose conduct more godlike? With so many fine +soldiers at my back and citizens and allies (O Jupiter and Hercules!), +that love me, supreme over the entire sea within the Pillars of Hercules +except a very few tribes, possessing both cities and provinces on all the +continents, at a time when there is no longer any foreign enemy opposing +me and there is no disturbance at home, but you all are at peace, +harmonious and strong, and greatest of all are willingly obedient,--under +such conditions I voluntarily, of my own motion, resign so great a +dominion and alienate so vast a property. For if Horatius, Mucius, +Curtius, Regulus, the Decii wished to encounter danger and death with the +object of seeming to have done a great and noble deed, why should I not +even more desire to do this as a result of which I shall while alive +excel both them and all the rest of mankind in glory? No one of you +should think that whereas the ancient Romans pursued excellence and good +repute, all manliness has now become extinct in the city. Again, do not +entertain a suspicion that I wish to betray you and confide you to any +base fellows or expose you to mob rule, from which nothing good but all +the most terrible evils always result to mankind. Upon you, upon you, the +most excellent and prudent, I lay all public interests. The other course +I should never have followed, had it been necessary for me to die or even +to become monarch ten thousand times. This policy I adopt for my own +good and for that of the city. I myself have undergone both labors +and hardships and I can no longer hold out either in mind or in body. +Furthermore I foresee the jealousy and hatred which rises in the breasts +of some against the best men, and the plots which result from those +feelings; and for that reason I choose rather to be a private citizen +with glory than to be a monarch in danger. And the public business would +be managed much better if carried on publicly and by many people at once +than if it were dependent upon any one man. + +[-9-] "For these reasons, then, I supplicate and beseech all of you both +to commend my course and to cooeperate heartily with me, reflecting upon +all that I have done for you in war and in government. You will be paying +me all the thanks due for it by allowing me now at last to lead a life of +quiet. Thus you will come to know that I understand not only how to rule +but to be ruled, and that all commands which I have laid upon others I +can endure to have laid upon me. I must surely expect to live in security +and to suffer no harm from any one by either deed or word, such is the +confidence (based upon the consciousness of my own rectitude) that I have +in your good-will. I may of course meet with some catastrophe, as happens +to many; for it is not possible for a man to please everybody, especially +when he has been involved in so great wars, some foreign and some civil, +and has had affairs of such magnitude entrusted to him: yet even so, I +am quite ready to choose to die as a private citizen before my appointed +time rather than to become immortal as a sole ruler. That very +circumstance will bring me fame,--that I not only murdered no one in +order to hold possession of the sovereignty but even died untimely in +order to avoid becoming monarch. The man who has dared to slay me will +certainly be punished by Heaven and by you, as took place in the case +of my father. He was declared to be equal to a god and obtained eternal +honors, whereas those who slew him perished, the evil men, in evil +plight. We could not become deathless, yet by living well and by dying +well we do in a sense gain this boon. Therefore I, who possess the first +requisite and hope to possess the second, return to you the arms and the +provinces, the revenues and the laws. I make only this final suggestion, +that you be not disheartened through fear of the magnitude of affairs or +the difficulty of handling them, nor neglect them in disdain, with the +idea that they can be easily managed. + +[-10-] "I have, indeed, no objection to suggesting to you in a summary +way what ought to be done in each of the leading categories. And what +are these suggestions? First, guard vigilantly the established laws and +change none of them. What remains fixed, though it be inferior, is more +advantageous than what is always subject to innovations, even though it +seem to be superior. Next, whatever injunctions these laws lay upon you +be careful to perform, and to refrain from whatever they forbid, and do +this scrupulously not only in word but also in deed, not only in public +but in private, that you may obtain not penalties but honors. The offices +both of peace and of war you should entrust to those who are each time +the most excellent and sensible, without jealousy of any persons, and +entering into rivalry not that this man or that man may reap some +advantage but that the city may be preserved and prosperous. Such men you +must honor but chastise those who show any different spirit in politics. +Make your private means public property of the city, and keep your hands +off public money as you would off your neighbors' goods. Keep careful +watch over what belongs to you but be not eager for that upon which you +can have no claim. Treat the allies and subject nations with neither +insolence nor rapacity, and neither wrong nor fear the enemy. Have your +arms always in hand, but do not use them against one another nor against +a peaceful population. Give the soldiers a sufficient support, so that +they may not on account of want desire anything which belongs to others. +Keep them together and discipline them, to prevent their doing any damage +through audacity. + +"But why need I make a long story by going into everything which it is +your duty to do? You may easily understand from this how the remaining +business must be conducted. I will close with this one remark. If you +conduct the government in this way, you will enjoy prosperity yourselves +and you will gratify me, who found you in the midst of wretched dishonor +and have rendered you such as you are. If you prove impotent to carry out +any single branch as you should, you will cause me regret and you will +cast the city again into many wars and great dangers." + +[-11-] While Caesar was engaged in setting his decision before them, a +varied feeling took possession of the senators. A few of them knew his +real intention and as a result they kept applauding him enthusiastically. +Of the rest some were suspicious of what was said and others believed +in it, and therefore both marveled equally, the one class at his great +artifice and the other at the determination that he had reached. One side +was displeased at his involved scheming and the other at his change +of mind. For already there were some who detested the democratic +constitution as a breeder of factional difficulties, were pleased at the +change of government, and took delight in Caesar. Consequently, though +the announcement affected different persons differently, their views in +regard to it were in each case the same. As for those who believed his +sentiments to be genuine, any who wished it could not rejoice because of +fear, nor the others lament because of hopes. And as many as disbelieved +it did not venture to accuse him and confute him, some because they were +afraid and others because they did not care to do so. Hence they all +either were compelled or pretended to believe him. As for praising him, +some did not have the courage and others were unwilling. Even in the +midst of his reading there were frequent shouts and afterward many more. +The senators begged that a monarchy be established, and directed all +their remarks to that end until (naturally) they forced him to assume the +reins of government. At once they saw to it that twice as much pay was +voted to the men who were to compose his body-guard as to the rest of the +soldiers, that this might incite the men to keep a careful watch of him. +Then he began to show a real interest in setting up a monarchy. + +[-12-] In this way he had his headship ratified by the senate and the +people. As he wished even so to appear to be democratic in principle, +he accepted all the care and superintendence of public business on the +ground that it required expert attention, but said that he should not +personally govern all the provinces and those that he did govern he +should not keep in his charge perpetually. The weaker ones, because +(as he said) they were peaceful and free from war, he gave over to the +senate. But the more powerful he held in possession because they were +slippery and dangerous and either had enemies in adjoining territory or +on their own account were able to cause a great uprising. His pretext was +that the senate should fearlessly gather the fruits of the finest portion +of the empire, while he himself had the labors and dangers: his real +purpose was that by this plan the senators be unarmed and unprepared for +battle, while he alone had arms and kept soldiers. Africa and Numidia, +Asia and Greece with Epirus, the Dalmatian and Macedonian territories, +Sicily, Crete, and Libya adjacent to Cyrene, Bithynia with the adjoining +Pontus, Sardinia and Baetica, were consequently held to belong to +the people and the senate. Caesar's were--the remainder of Spain, the +neighborhood of Tarraco and Lusitania, all Gauls (the Narbonensian and +the Lugdunensian, the Aquitani and the Belgae), both themselves and the +aliens among them. Some of the Celtae whom we call Germani had occupied +all the Belgic territory near the Rhine and caused it to be called +Germania, the upper part extending to the sources of the river and the +lower part reaching to the Ocean of Britain. These provinces, then, +and the so-called Hollow Syria, Phoenicia and Cilicia, Cyprus and the +Egyptians, fell at that time to Caesar's share. Later he gave Cyprus and +Gaul adjacent to Narbo back to the people, and he himself took Dalmatia +instead. This was also done subsequently in the case of other provinces, +as the progress of my narrative will show. I have enumerated these in +such detail because now each one of them is ruled separately, whereas in +old times and for a long period the provinces were governed two and three +together. The others I have not mentioned because some of them were +acquired later, and the rest, even if they had been already subdued, were +not being governed by the Romans, but either were left to enjoy their own +laws or had been turned over to some kingdom or other. All of them that +after this came into the Roman empire were attached to the possessions +of the man temporarily in power.--This, then, was the division of the +provinces. + +[-13-] Wishing to lead the Romans still further away from the idea +that he looked upon himself as absolute monarch, Caesar undertook the +government of the regions given him for ten years. In the course of this +time he promised to reduce them to quiet and he carried his playfulness +to the point of saying that if they should be sooner pacified, he would +deliver them sooner to the senate. Thereupon he first appointed the +senators themselves to govern both classes of provinces except Egypt. +This land alone, for the reasons mentioned, he assigned to the knight +previously named.[2] Next he ordained that the rulers of senatorial +provinces should be annual magistrates, elected by lot, unless any one +had the special privilege accorded to a large number of children or +marriage. They were to be sent out by the assembly of the senate as a +body, with no sword at their side nor wearing the military garb. The name +proconsul was to belong not only to the two ex-consuls but also to +the rest who had served as praetors or who at least held the rank of +ex-praetors. Both classes were to employ as many lictors as were usual in +the capital. He ordered further that they were to put on the insignia of +their office immediately on leaving the pomerium and were to wear them +continually until they should return. The heads of imperial provinces, on +the other hand, were to be chosen by himself and be his agents, and they +were to be named propraetors even if they were from the ranks of the +ex-consuls. Of these two names which had been extremely common under the +democracy he gave that of praetor to the class chosen by him because +from very early times war had been their care, and he called them also +propraetors: the name of consul he gave to the others, because their +duties were more peaceful, and called them in addition proconsuls. These +particular names of praetor and consul he continued in Italy, and spoke of +all officials outside as governing as their representatives. He caused +the class of his own choosing to employ the title of propraetor and to +hold office for as much longer than a year as should please him, wearing +the military costume and having a sword with which they are empowered to +punish soldiers. No one else, proconsul or propraetor or procurator, who +is not empowered to kill a soldier, has been given the privilege of +wearing a sword. It is permitted not only to senators but also to knights +who have this function. This is the condition of the case.--All the +propraetors alike employ six lictors: as many of them as do not belong to +the number of ex-consuls are named from this very number.[3] Both classes +alike assume the decorations of their position of authority when they +enter their appointed district and lay them aside immediately upon +finishing their term. + +[-14-] It is thus and on these conditions that governors from among the +ex-praetors and ex-consuls have been customarily sent to both kinds +of provinces. The emperor would send one of them on his mission +whithersoever and whenever he wished. Many while acting as praetors and +consuls secured the presidency of provinces, as sometimes happens at the +present day. In the case of the senate he privately gave Africa and Asia +to the ex-consuls and all the other districts to the ex-praetors. He +publicly forbade all the senators to cast lots for anybody until five +years after such a candidate had held office in the City. For a short +time all persons that fulfilled these requirements, even if they were +more numerous than the provinces, drew lots for them. Later, as some +of them did not govern well, this I appointment, too, reverted to the +emperor. Thus they also in a sense receive their position from him, and +he ordains that only a number equal to the number of provinces shall draw +lots, and that they shall be whatever men he pleases. Some emperors have +sent men of their own choosing there also, and have allowed certain of +them to hold office for more than a year: some have assigned certain +provinces to knights instead of to senators. + +These were the customs thus established at that time in regard to those +senators that were authorized to execute the death penalty upon their +subjects. Some who have not this authority are sent out to the provinces +called "provinces of the senate and the people",--namely, such quaestors +as the lot may designate and men who are co-assessors with those who hold +the actual authority. This would be the correct way to speak of these +associates, with reference not to the ordinary name but to their duties: +others call these also _presbeutai_, using the Greek term; about this +title enough has been said in the foregoing narrative. Each separate +official chooses his own assessors, the expraetors selecting one from +either their peers or their inferiors, and the ex-consuls three from +among those of equal rank, subject to the approval of the emperor. + +There were certain innovations made also in regard to these men, but +since they soon lapsed this is sufficient to say here. + +[-15-] This is the method followed in regard to the provinces of the +people. To the others, called provinces of the emperor, which have more +than one citizenlegion, lieutenants are sent chosen by the ruler himself, +generally from the ex-praetors but in some instances already from the +ex-quaestors or those who had held some office between the two. Those +positions, then, appertain to the senators. + +From among the knights the emperor himself despatches, some to the +citizen posts alone but others to foreign places (according to the +custom then instituted by [the same] Caesar), the military tribunes, the +prospective senators and the remainder, concerning whose difference in +rank I have previously spoken in the narrative.[4] The procurators (a +name that we give to the men who collect the public revenues and spend +what is ordered) he sends to all the provinces alike, his own and the +people's, and some of these officers belong to the knights, others to the +freedmen. By way of exception the proconsuls levy the tribute upon +the people they govern. The emperor gives certain injunctions to the +procurators, the proconsuls, and the propraetors, in order that they may +proceed to their place of office on fixed conditions. Both this practice +and the giving of salary to them and to the remaining employees of the +government were made the custom at this period. In old times some by +contracting for work to be paid for from the public treasury furnished +themselves with everything needed for their office. It was only in the +days of Caesar that these particular persons began to receive something +definite. This salary was not assigned to all of them in equal amounts, +but as need demands. The procurators get their very name, a dignified +one, from the amount of money given into their charge. The following laws +were laid down for all alike,--that they should not make up lists for +service or levy money beyond the amount appointed, unless the senate +should so vote or the emperor so order: also that when their successors +should arrive, they were immediately to leave the province and not to +delay on their return, but to be back within three months. + +[-16-] These matters were so ordained at that time,--or, at least, one +might say so. In reality Caesar himself was destined to hold absolute +control of all of them for all time, because he commanded the soldiers +and was master of the money; nominally the public funds had been +separated from his own, but in fact he spent the former also as he saw +fit. + +When his decade had come to an end, there was voted him another five +years, then five more, after that ten, and again another ten, and a like +number the fifth time,[5] so that by a succession of ten-year periods he +continued monarch for life. Consequently the subsequent emperors, though +no longer appointed for a specified period but for their whole life at +once, nevertheless have been wont to hold a festival every ten years as +if then renewing their sovereignty once more: this is done even at the +present day. + +Caesar had received many honors previously, when the matter of declining +the sovereignty and that regarding the division of the provinces were +under discussion. For the right to fasten the laurel in front of his +royal residence and to hang the oak-leaf crown above the doors was then +voted him to symbolize the fact that he was always victorious over +enemies and preserved the citizens. The royal building is called +Palatium, not because it was ever decreed that that should be its name, +but because Caesar dwelt on the Palatine and had his headquarters there; +and his house secured some renown from the mount as a whole by reason +of the former habitation of Romulus there. Hence, even if the emperor +resides somewhere else, his dwelling retains the name of Palatium. + +When he had really completed the details of administration, the name +Augustus was finally applied to him by the senate and by the people. They +wanted to call him by some name of their own, and some proposed this, +while others chose that. Caesar was exceedingly anxious to be called +Romulus, but when he perceived that this caused him to be suspected of +desiring the kingship, he no longer insisted on it but took the title of +Augustus, signifying that he was more than human. All most precious and +sacred objects are termed _augusta_. Therefore they saluted him also +in Greek as _sebastos_, meaning an _august_ person, from the verb +_sebazesthai_. [-17-] In this way all the power of the people and that of +the senate reverted to Augustus, and from his time there was a genuine +monarchy. Monarchy would be the truest name for it, no matter how much +two and three hold the power together. This name of monarch the Romans so +detested that they called their emperors neither dictators nor kings nor +anything of the sort. Yet since the management of the government devolves +upon them, it can not but be that they are kings. The offices that +commonly enjoy some legal sanction are even now maintained, except that +of censor. Still, everything is directed and carried out precisely as the +emperor at the time may wish. In order that they may appear to hold this +power not through force, but according to law, the rulers have taken +possession,--names and all,--of every position (save the dictatorship) +which under the democracy was of mighty influence among the citizens who +bestowed the power. They very frequently become consuls and are always +called proconsuls whenever they are outside the pomerium. The title of +imperator is invariably given not only to such as win victories but to +all the rest, to indicate the complete independence of their authority, +instead of the name "king" or "dictator." These particular names they +have never assumed since the terms first fell out of use in the Senate, +but they are confirmed in the prerogatives of these positions by the +appellation of imperator. By virtue of the titles mentioned they get the +right to make enrollments, to collect moneys, declare wars make peace, +rule foreign and native territory alike everywhere and always, even to +the extent of putting to death both knights and senators within the +pomerium, and all the other privileges once granted to the consuls and +other officials with full powers. By virtue of the office of censor they +investigate our lives and characters and take the census. Some they list +in the equestrian and senatorial class and others they erase from +the roll, as pleases them. By virtue of being consecrated in all the +priesthoods and furthermore having the right to give the majority of them +to others and from the fact that _one_ of the high priests (if there be +two or three holding office at once) is chosen from their number, they +are themselves also masters of holy and sacred things. The so-called +tribunician authority which the men of very greatest attainment used to +hold gives them the right to stop any measure brought up by some one +else, in case they do not join in approving it, and to be free from +personal abuse. Moreover if they are thought to be wronged in even the +slightest degree not merely by action but even by conversation they may +destroy the guilty party without a trial as one polluted. They do not +think it lawful to be tribune, because they belong altogether to the +patrician class, but they assume all the power of the tribuneship +undiminished from the period of its greatest extent; and thereby the +enumeration of the years they have held the office in question goes +forward on the assumption that they receive it year by year along with +the others who are successively tribunes. Thus by these names they have +secured these privileges in accordance with all the various usages of the +democracy, in order that they may appear to possess nothing that has not +been given them. + +[-18-] They have gained also another prerogative which was given to none +of the ancient Romans outright to apply to all cases, and it is through +this alone that it would be possible for them to hold the above offices +and any others besides. They are freed from the action of the laws, as +the very words in Latin indicate. That is, they are liberated from every +consideration of compulsion and are subjected to none of the written +ordinances. So by virtue of these democratic names they are clothed in +all the strength of the government and have all that appertains to kings +except the vulgar title. "Caesar" or "Augustus" as a mode of address +confers upon them no distinct privilege of its own but shows in the one +case the continuance of their family and in the other the brilliance and +dignity of their position. The salutation "father" perhaps gives them a +certain authority over us which fathers once had over their children. It +was not used, however, for this purpose in the beginning, but for their +honor, and to admonish them to love their subjects as they would their +children, while the subjects were to respect them as they respect their +fathers. + +Such is the number and quality of the titles to which those in power +are accustomed according to the and according to what has now become +tradition. At present all of them are, as a rule, bestowed upon the +rulers at once, except the title of censor: to the earlier emperors they +were voted separately and from time to time. Some of the emperors took +the censorship in accordance with ancient custom and Domitian took it for +life. This is, however, no longer done at the present day. They possess +its powers and are not chosen for it and do not employ its name except in +the censuses. + +[-19-] Thus was the constitution made over at that time for the better +and in a way to provide greater security. It was doubtless absolutely +impossible for the people to be preserved under a democracy. Events after +this, however, can not be said to be similar to those preceding this +period. Formerly everything was referred to the senate and the people +even if it occurred at a distance; hence all learned of it and many +recorded it. Consequently the truth of happenings, no matter with how +much fear and gratitude and friendship and enmity toward any one they +were related, has been found at least In the works of those who wrote of +them and to a certain extent also in the public records. But after this +time business began to be transacted more often with concealment and +secrecy. Nowadays, even if anything is made public, it is distrusted +because it can not be proved. It is suspected that all speeches and acts +are to meet the wishes of the men at the time in power and of their +associates. As a result much that never occurs is noised abroad and +much that really happens is unknown. Nearly everything is reported in a +different form from what really takes place. Yet the magnitude of the +empire and the number of events render accuracy in regard to them most +difficult. In Rome there are many operations going on, and so in its +subject territory, as well as against hostile tribes, always and every +day, so to speak, clear information about which no one can easily get +except those actively concerned. There are great numbers who do not hear +at all of what has taken place. Hence all that follows which will require +mention I shall narrate as it has been published, whether it is so in +truth or is really somewhat different. In addition, however, my own +opinion so far as possible will be stated in matters where I have been +able to deduce something else than the common report from the many things +I have read or heard or seen. + +[-20-] Caesar, as I have said, received the further designation of +Augustus, and a sign of no little moment in regard to him occurred that +very night. The Tiber overflowed and occupied all of Rome that was built +in the plain country so that it was submerged. From this the soothsayers +inferred that he would rise to great heights and keep the whole city +subservient. While different persons were rivals to show him excessive +honors, one Sextus Pacuvius, or, as others say, Apudius[6] surpassed them +all. In the open senate he consecrated himself to him after the fashion +of the Spaniards and advised the rest to do the same. When Augustus +hindered him he rushed out to the crowd standing near by, and (as he was +tribune) compelled them and next all the rest who were wandering about +through the streets and lanes to consecrate themselves; to Augustus. From +this episode we are wont even now to say in appeals to the sovereign +"we have consecrated ourselves to you." Pacuvius ordered all to offer +sacrifice for this occurrence and before the people he once said he +should make Augustus his inheritor on equal terms with his son. This was +not because he possessed anything much, but because he wished to get +more. And his desire was accomplished. + +[-21-] Augustus attended with considerable zeal to all the business of +the empire to make it appear that he had received it in accordance with +the wishes of all, and he also enacted many laws. (I need not go into +each one of them in detail except those which have a bearing upon my +history. This same course I shall follow in the case of later events, in +order not to become wearisome by introducing all such matters as not even +those who specialize on them most narrowly know with accuracy.) Not all +of these laws were enacted on his sole responsibility: some of them he +brought before the public in advance, in order that, if any featured +caused displeasure, he might learn it in time and correct them. He urged +that any one at all give him advice, if any one could think of anything +better. He accorded them full liberty of speech and some provisions he +actually did alter. Most important of all, he took as advisers for six +months the consuls or the consul (when he himself also held the office), +one of each of the other kinds of officials, and fifteen men chosen +by lot from the remainder of the senatorial body. Through them he was +accustomed to a certain extent to communicate to all the rest the +provisions of his laws. Some features he brought before the entire +senate. He deemed it better, however, to consider most of the laws and +the greater ones in company with a few persons at leisure, and acted +accordingly. Sometimes he tried cases with their assistance. The entire +senate by itself sat in judgment as formerly and transacted business with +occasional groups of envoys and heralds from both peoples and kings. +Furthermore the people and the plebs came together for the elections, but +nothing was done that would not please Caesar. Some of those who were +to hold office he himself chose out and nominated and others he put, +according to ancient custom, in the power of the people and the plebs, +yet taking care that no unfit persons should be appointed, nor by +factious cliques nor by bribery. In this way he controlled the entire +empire. + +[-22-] I shall relate also in detail all his acts that need mentioning, +together with the names of the consuls under whom they were performed. +In the year previously named, seeing that the roads outside the wall had +become through neglect hard to traverse, he ordered different senators to +repair different ones at their own expense. He himself attended to the +Flaminian Way, since he was going to lead an army out by that route. +This operation was finished forthwith and images of him were accordingly +erected on arches on the bridge over the Tiber and at Ariminum. The other +roads were repaired later either at public expense (for none of the +senators liked to spend money on it) or by Augustus, as one may wish to +state. I can not distinguish their treasures in spite of the fact that +Augustus coined into money some silver statues of himself made by his +friends and by certain of the tribes, purposing thereby to make it appear +that all the expenditures which he said he made were from his own means. +Therefore I have no opinion to record as to whether a ruler at any +particular time took money from the public treasury or whether he ever +gave it himself. For both of these things were often done. Why should any +one list such things as either expenditures or donations, when the people +and the emperor are constantly making both the one and the other in +common? + +These were the acts of Augustus at that time. He also set out apparently +to make a campaign into Britain, but on coming to the provinces of Gaul +lingered there. For the Britons seemed likely to make terms with him +and Gallic affairs were still unsettled, as the civil wars had begun +immediately after their subjugation. He made a census of the people and +set in order their life and government. + +[ B.C. 26 (_a. u. 728_)] + +[-23-] From there he came to Spain and reduced that country also to +quiet. After this he became consul for the eighth time with Statilius +Taurus, and Agrippa dedicated the so-called for he had not promised to +repair any road. This edifice in the Campus Martius had been constructed +by Lepidus by the addition of porticos all about for the tribal +elections, and Agrippa adorned it with stone tablets and paintings, naming +it Julian, from Augustus. The builder incurred no jealousy for it but was +greatly honored both by Augustus himself and by all the rest of the +people. The reason is that he gave his master the most kindly, the most +distinguished, the most beneficial advice and cooeperation, yet claimed +not even a small share of the consequent glory. He used the honors which +Caesar gave not for personal gain or enjoyment but for the benefit of the +giver himself and of the public.--On the other hand Cornelius Gallus +was led to insolent behavior by honor. He talked a great deal of idle +nonsense against Augustus and was guilty of many sly reprehensible +actions. Throughout nearly all Egypt he set up images of himself and he +inscribed upon the pyramids a list of his achievements. For this he +was accused by Valerius Largus, his comrade and intimate, and was +disenfranchised by Augustus, so that he was prevented from living in the +emperor's provinces. After this took place others attacked him, and +brought many indictments against him. The senate unanimously voted that +he should be convicted in the courts, be deprived of his property, and be +exiled, that his possessions be given to Augustus, and that they should +sacrifice oxen. In overwhelming grief at this Gallus committed suicide +before the decrees took effect. [-24-] The false behavior of most men was +evidenced by this fact, that they now treated the man whom they once used +to flatter in such a way that they forced him to die by his own hand. +To Largus they showed devotion because his star was beginning to +rise,--though they were sure to vote the same measures against him, if +anything similar should ever occur in his case. Proculeius, however, felt +so toward him that on meeting him once he clapped his hand over his nose +and his mouth, thereby signifying to the bystanders that it was not safe +even to breathe in the man's presence. Another person, although unknown, +approached him with witnesses and asked if Largus recognized him. When +the one questioned said "no", he recorded his denial on a tablet, thus +making it beyond the power of the rascal to inform against a person at +least whom he had not previously known. + +Thus we see that most men emulate the exploits of others, though they be +evil, instead of guarding against their fate. So also at this time there +was Marcus Egnatius Rufus, who had been an aedile: the majority of his +deeds had been good, and with his own slaves and with some others that +were hired he lent aid to the houses that took fire during his year of +office. In return he received from the people the expenses incurred in +his position and by a suspension of the law was made praetor. Elated at +these marks of favor he despised Augustus so much as to record that he +(Rufus) had delivered the City unimpaired and entire to his successor. +All the foremost men, and Augustus himself most of all, became indignant +at this. He prepared therefore to teach the upstart a lesson in the near +future not to exalt his mind above the mass of men. For the time being +he issued an edict to the aediles to see to it that no building took fire +and, if aught of the kind did happen, to extinguish the blaze. + +[-25-] In this same year also Polemon, who was king of Pontus, was +enrolled among the friends and allies of the Roman People; front seats +for the senators were provided in all the theatres of the emperor's whole +domain. Augustus, finding that the Britons would not come to terms, +wished to make an expedition into their country, but was detained by the +Salassi, who had revolted against him, and by the Cantabri and Astures, +who had been made hostile. The former dwell close under the Alps, as +has been herein stated,[7] whereas both of the latter tribes hold the +strongest region of the Pyrenees on the Spanish side and the plain which +is below it. For these reasons Augustus, now in his ninth consulship with +Marcus Silanus, sent Terentius Varro against the Salassi. + +[B.C. 25 (_a. u._ 729)] + +The latter invaded their territory at many points at once in order that +they might not unite and become harder to subdue, and had a very easy +time in conquering them because they attacked him only in small groups. +Having forced them to capitulate he demanded a fixed sum of money, +allowing it to be supposed that he would impose no other punishment. +After that he sent soldiers everywhere, apparently to attend to the +collection of the indemnity and arrested those of military age, whom he +sold under an agreement that none of them should be liberated within +twenty years. The best of their land was given to members of the +Pretorians and came to include a city called Augusta Praetoria.[8] +Augustus himself waged war upon the Astures and upon the Cantabri at +the same time. These refused to yield, because of confidence in their +position on the heights, and would not come to close quarters owing +to their inferior numbers and the fact that most of them were javelin +throwers, but they caused him much trouble, whenever he made any +movement, by always seizing the higher ground in advance and placing +ambuscades in depressions and in wooded spots. He found himself therefore +quite unable to cope with the difficulty, and having fallen ill from +weariness and worry retired to Tarraco, and there remained sick. Meantime +Gaius Antistius fought against them, accomplishing considerable, not +because he was a better general than Augustus, but because the barbarians +felt contempt for him and thus joined battle with the Romans and were +defeated. In this way he captured some points, and afterward Titus[9] +Carisius took Lancia, the principal fortress of the Astures, which had +been abandoned, and won to his side many towns. + +[-26-] At the conclusion of this war Augustus dismissed the more aged of +his soldiers and gave them a city to settle in Lusitania,--the so-called +Augusta Emerita. For those who were still of the military age he arranged +some spectacles right among the legions, through the agency of Tiberius +and Marcellus as aediles. To Juba he gave portions of Gaetulia in return +for the prince's ancestral domain (for the majority of the inhabitants +had been enrolled as members of the Roman polity), and also the +possessions of Bocchus and Bogud. On the death of Amyntas he did not +entrust the country to the children of the deceased but made it a part of +the subject territory. Thus Gaul together with Lycaonia obtained a Roman +governor. The regions of Pamphylia formerly assigned to Amyntas were +restored to their own district.--About this same time Marcus Vinicius +in making reprisals against the Celtae, because they had arrested and +destroyed Romans who had entered their country to have friendly dealings +with them, himself gave the name of imperator to Augustus. For this and +for the other achievements of the time a triumph was voted to Caesar; +but as he did not care to celebrate it, an arch bearing a trophy was +constructed in the Alps for his glory and authority was given him to wear +always on the first day of the year both the crown and the triumphal +garb. After these successes in the wars Augustus closed the precinct of +Janus, which had been opened because of the strife. + +[-27-] Meanwhile Agrippa had been beautifying the city at his own +expense. First, in honor of the naval victories he built over the +so-called _Portico of Neptune_ and lent it further brilliance by the +painting of the Argonauts. Secondly, he repaired the Laconian sudatorium. +He gave the name Laconian to the gymnasium because the Lacedaemonians had, +in those days, a greater reputation than anybody else for stripping +naked and exercising smeared with oil. Also, he completed the so-called +_Pantheon_. It has this name perhaps because it received the images +of many gods and among them the statues of Mars and Venus; but my own +opinion is that the name is due to its round shape, like the sky. Agrippa +desired to place Augustus also there and to take the designation of the +structure from his title. But, as his master would not accept either +honor, he placed in the temple itself a statue of the former Caesar and in +the anteroom representations of Augustus and himself. This was done not +from any rivalry and ambition on Agrippa's part to make himself equal to +Augustus, but from his superabundant devotion to him and his perpetual +affection for the commonwealth; hence Augustus, so far from censuring +him for it, honored him the more. For, being unable through sickness +to superintend at that time the marriage of his daughter Julia and his +nephew Marcellus, he commissioned Agrippa to hold the festival in his +absence. And when the house on the Palatine hill, which had formerly been +Antony's but was later given to Agrippa and Messala, was burned down, +he made a grant of money to Messala and gave Agrippa equal rights of +domicile. The latter not unnaturally gained high distinction as a result +of this. And one Gaius Toranius also acquired a good reputation because +while tribune he brought his father, though some one's freedman, into the +theatre and made him sit beside him upon the tribune's bench. Publius +Servilius, too, made a name for himself because while praetor he caused to +be killed at a festival three hundred bears and other Libyan wild beasts +equal in number. + +[B.C. 24 (_a. u._ 730)] + +[-28-] Augustus now entered upon office for the tenth time with Gaius +Norbanus, and on the first day of the month the senate took oaths, +confirming his deeds. When he was announced as drawing near the city +(his sickness had delayed him), he promised to give the people a hundred +denarii each and issued instructions that the document concerning the +money should not be bulletined until the senate also should approve. +They had freed him from all compulsion of the laws to the end, as I have +stated,[10] that being really independent and possessed of full powers +over both himself and the laws he should follow all of them that he +wished and not follow any that he did not wish. This right was voted to +him while still absent. On his arrival in Rome there were various events +in honor of his preservation and return, and Marcellus was accorded the +right to be a senator of the class of ex-praetors and to be a candidate +for the consulship ten years earlier than was customary. Tiberius was +permitted in a similar fashion to be a candidate five years before the +age set for each office. The latter was at once appointed quaestor and +the former aedile. As the quaestors needed to serve in the provinces were +proving insufficient, all drew lots for the places who for ten years +previous had been named quaestors without the duties of the office. These, +then, were the occurrences in the City worthy of note that year. + +[-29-] As soon as Augustus had departed from Spain, leaving behind Lucius +AEmilius[11] as governor of it, the Cantabri and Astures made an uprising. +They sent to AEmilius before anything about it became known to him and +said they wished to give the army grain and some other presents. Then, +having secured a number of soldiers, who were presumably to carry the +supplies, they led them to suitable places and butchered them. Their +pleasure, however, did not last long. When their country had been +devastated and some forts burned and, chiefest of all, the hands of every +one that was caught were cut off, they were quickly subdued. While this +was going on, another new campaign had its beginning and end. It was +led by AElius Gallus, governor of Egypt, against the so-called _Arabia +Felix_[12] of which Sabos was king. At first he encountered no one at +all, yet did not proceed without effort. The desert, the sun, and the +water (which had some peculiar nature), distressed them greatly so that +the majority of the army perished. The disease proved to be dissimilar +to any ordinary complaint, and fell upon the head, which it caused +to wither. This killed most of them at once, but in the case of the +survivors it descended to the legs, skipping all the intervening parts of +the body, and wrought injury to them. There was no remedy for it except +by both drinking and rubbing on olive oil mixed with wine. This was in +the power of only a few of them to do, for the country produces neither +of these articles and the men had not provided a large supply of them +beforehand. In the midst of this trouble the barbarians also fell upon +them. For a while the enemy were defeated whenever they joined battle and +lost some places: later, however, with the disease as an ally they won +back their own possessions and drove the survivors of the expedition out +of the country. These were the first of the Romans (and I think the only +ones) who traversed so much of this part of Arabia in warfare. They had +advanced as far as the so-named Athlula, a famous locality. + +[B.C. 23 (_a. u._ 731)] + +[-30-] Augustus was for the eleventh time consul with Calpurnius Piso, +when he fell so sick once more as to have no hope of saving his life. He +accordingly arranged everything in the idea that he was about to die, and +gathering about him the officials and the other foremost senators and +knights he appointed no successor, though they were expecting that +Marcellus would be preferred before all for the position. After +conversing briefly with them about public matters he gave Piso the list +of the forces and the public revenues written in a book, and handed his +ring to Agrippa. The emperor became unable to do even the very simplest +things, yet a certain Antonius Musas managed to restore him to health by +means of cold baths and cold drinks. For this he received a great deal +of money from both Augustus and the senate, as well as the right to wear +gold rings,--he was a freedman,--and secured exemption from taxes for +both himself and the members of his profession, not only those then +living but also those of coming generations. But he who assumed the +powers of Fortune and Fate was destined soon after to be well worsted. +Augustus had been saved in this manner: but Marcellus, falling sick not +much later, was treated in the same way by Musas and died. Augustus gave +him a public burial with the usual eulogies, placed him in the monument +which was being built, and honored his memory by calling the theatre, +the foundations of which had already been laid by the former Caesar, the +Theatre of Marcellus. He ordered also that a gold image of the deceased, +a golden crown, and his chair of office be carried into the theatre at +the Ludi Romani and be placed in the midst of the officials having charge +of the function. This he did later. + +[-31-] After being restored to health on this occasion he brought his +will into the senate and wished to read it, by way of showing people that +he had left no successor to his position. He did not, however, read it, +for no one would permit that. Quite every one, however, was astonished +at him in that since he loved Marcellus as son-in-law and nephew yet he +failed to trust him with the monarchy but preferred Agrippa before him. +His regard for Marcellus had been shown by many honors, among them his +lending aid in carrying out the festival which the young man gave as +aedile; the brilliance of this occasion is shown by the fact that in +midsummer he sheltered the Forum by curtains overhead and introduced a +knight and a woman of note as dancers in the orchestra. But his final +attitude seemed to show that he was not yet confident of the youth's +judgment and that he either wanted the people to get back their liberty +or Agrippa to receive the leadership from them. He understood well that +Agrippa and the people were on the best of terms and he was unwilling to +appear to be delivering the supreme power with his own hands. [-32-] When +he recovered, therefore, and learned that Marcellus on this account was +not friendly toward Agrippa, he immediately despatched the latter to +Syria, so that no delay and desultory dispute might arise by their being +in the same place. Agrippa forthwith started from the City but did not +make his way to Syria, but, proceeding even more moderately than usual, +he sent his lieutenants there and himself lingered in Lesbos. + +Besides doing this Augustus appointed ten praetors, feeling that he did +not require any more. This number remained constant for several years. +Some of them were intended to fulfill the same duties as of yore and two +of them to have charge of the administration of the finances each year. +Having settled these details he resigned the consulship and went to +Albanum. He himself ever since the constitution had been arranged had +held office for the entire year, as had most of his colleagues, and he +wished now to interrupt this custom again, in order that as many as +possible might be consuls. His resignation took place outside the city to +prevent his being hindered in his purpose. + +For this act he received praise, as also because he chose to take his +place Lucius Sestius, who had always been an enthusiastic follower of +Brutus, had campaigned with the latter in all his wars, and even at this +time made mention of him, had his images, and delivered eulogies. So +far from disliking the friendly and faithful qualities of the man, the +emperor even honored him. + +The senate consequently voted that Augustus be tribune for life and that +he might bring forward at each meeting of the senate any business he +liked concerning any one matter, even if he should not be consul at +the time, and allowed him to hold the office of proconsul once for all +perpetually, so that he had neither to lay it down on entering the +pomerium nor to take it up again outside. The body also granted him more +power in subject territory than the several governors possessed. As a +result both he and subsequent emperors gained a certain legal right to +the use of the tribunican authority, in addition to their other powers. +But the actual name of tribune neither Augustus nor any other emperor has +held. + +[-33-] And it seems to me that he then acquired these rights as described +not from flattery but as a mark of real honor. In most ways he behaved +toward the Romans as if they were free citizens. For, when Tiridates in +person and envoys from Phraates arrived to settle their mutual disputes, +he introduced them to the senate. After this, when the decision of the +question had been entrusted to him by that body, he refused to surrender +Tiridates to Phraates, but sent back to him his son, whom Tiridates had +formerly received from the other and was keeping, on condition that the +captives and the military standards taken in the disasters of Crassus and +of Antony be returned. + +In this same year one of the inferior aediles died and Gaius Calpurnius +succeeded him, in spite of having served previously as one of the +patrician aediles. This is not mentioned as having occurred in the case of +any other man. During the Feriae there were two praefecti urbi each day, +and one of them, who was not yet admitted to the standing of a youth, +nevertheless held office. + +Livia, however, was accused of having caused the death of Marcellus +because he had been preferred before her sons. This suspicion became +a matter of controversy both in that year and in the following, which +proved so unhealthful that great numbers perished during its progress. +And, as it usually happens that some sign occurs before such events, +so on this occasion a wolf had been caught in the city, fire and storm +damaged many buildings, and the Tiber, rising, washed away the wooden +bridge and rendered the city submerged for three days. + + +[Footnote 1: Following Dindorf's reading [Greek: hyper heauton].] + +[Footnote 2: A reference to Cornelius Gallus (see Book Fifty-one, chapter +17).] + +[Footnote 3: The expression to which Dio here refers is doubtless the +adjective _quinquefascalis_, found in inscriptional Latin. All the +editions from Xylander to Dindorf gave "six lictors", erroneously, as was +pointed out by Mommsen (_Romisches Staatsrecht_, 12, p. 369, note 4). +Boissevain is the first editor to make the correction. (See the latter +portion of chapter 17, Book Fifty-seven, which should be compared with +Tacitus, Annals, II, 47, 5.) + +The Greek language had a phrase [Greek: hae hexapelekus archae], +corresponding to the Latin _sexfascalis_, but no adjective [Greek: +pentapelekus], which would be the equivalent of _quinquefascalis_, is +reported in the lexicons.] + +[Footnote 4: Cp. Book Fifty-two, chapter 25.] + +[Footnote 5: Translating Boissevain's conjecture, [Greek: dela chahi +pempton isa], in place of a corruption in the text.] + +[Footnote 6: In view of the fact that _Sex. Pacuvius Taurus_ does not +come on the scene (as tribune of the plebs) till B.C. 9-7, it seems more +likely, as Boissevain remarks, that Apudius is the correct name of the +author of this piece of flattery.] + +[Footnote 7: Boissevain thinks that the passage indicated was probably in +Book Twenty-two (one of the lost portions of the work). Compare Fragment +LXXIV (1) in Volume VI of this translation.--Boissee suggested Book +Forty-nine, Chapter 34. There, too, the correspondence is not complete.] + +[Footnote 8: The modern _Aosta_.] + +[Footnote 9: Possibly this praenomen is an error for _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 10: Chapter 18 of this Book.] + +[Footnote 11: Another writer reports his name as _Lucius Lamia_.] + +[Footnote 12: The "prosperous" or fertile part of Arabia, as opposed to +_Arabia Deserta_ or _Petraea_.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +54 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fourth of Dio's Rome: + +How road commissioners were appointed from among the ex-praetors (chapter +8). + +How grain commissioners were appointed from among the ex-praetors +(chapters 1 and 17). + +How Noricum was reduced (chapter 20). + +How Rhaetia was reduced (chapter 22). + +How the Maritime Alps began to yield obedience to the Romans (chapter +24). + +How the theatre of Balbus was dedicated (chapter 25). + +How the theatre of Marcellus was dedicated (chapter 26). + +How Agrippa died and Augustus acquired the Chersonese (chapters 28, 29). + +How the Augustalia was instituted (chapter 34). + +Duration of time, 13 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +M. Claudius M. F. Marcellus AEserninus, L. Arruntius L.F. (B.C. 22 = a. u. +732.) + +M. Lollius M. F., Q. AEmilius M. F. Lepidus. (B.C. 21 = a. u. 733.) + +M. Apuleius Sex, F., P. Silius P. F. Nerva. (B.C. 20 = a. u. 734.) + +C. Sentius C. F. Saturninus, Q. Lucretius Q. F. Vispillo. (B.C. 19 = a. +u. 735.) + +Cn. Cornelius L. F., P. Cornelius P. F. Lentulus Marcellinus. (B.C. 18 = +a. u. 736.) + +C. Furnius C. F., C. Iunius C. F. Silanus. (B.C. 17 = a. u. 737.) + +L. Domitius Cn. F. Cn. N. Ahenobarbus, P. Cornelius P. F. P. N. Scipio. +(B.C. 16 = a. u. 738.) + +M. Livius L. F. Drusus Libo, L. Calpurnius L. F. Piso Frugi. (B.C. 15 = +a. u. 739.) + +M. Licinius M. F. Crassus, Cn. Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus. (B.C. 14 = a. +u. 740.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero, P. Quintilius Sex. F. Varus. (B.C. 13 = a. u. +741.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala Barbatus, P. Sulpicius P. F. Quirinus. (B.C. 12 += a. u. 742.) + +Paulus Fabius Q. F. Maximus, Q. AElius Q. F. Tubero. (B.C. 11 = a. u. +743.) + +Iullus Antonius M. F., Africanus Q. Fabius Q. F. (B.C. 10 = a. u. 744.) + + +_(BOOK 54, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 22 (_a. u._ 732)] + +[-1-] The following year, during which Marcus Marcellus and Lucius +Arruntius were the consuls, the river caused another flood which +submerged the City, and many objects were struck by thunderbolts, among +them the statues in the Pantheon; and the spear even fell from the hand +of Augustus. The pestilence raged throughout Italy so that no one tilled +the land, and I think that the same was the case in foreign parts. The +Romans, therefore, reduced to dire straits by disease and by famine, +thought that this had happened to them for no other reason than that they +did not have Augustus for consul this time also. They accordingly wished +to elect him as dictator, and shutting the senate up within its halls +they forced it to vote this measure by threatening to burn down the +building. Next they took the twenty-four rods and accosted Augustus, +begging him both to be named dictator and to become commissioner of +grain, as Pompey had once been. He accepted the latter duty under +compulsion and ordered two men from among those who had served as praetors +five years or more previously, in every instance, to be chosen annually +to attend to the distribution of grain. As for the dictatorship, however, +he would not hear of it and went so far as to rend his clothing when +he found himself unable to restrain them in any other way, either by +reasoning or by prayer. As he already had authority and honor even beyond +that of dictators he did right to guard against the jealousy and hatred +which the title would arouse. [-2-] His course was the same when they +wished to elect him censor for life. Without entering upon the office +himself he immediately designated others as censors, namely Paulus +AEmilius Lepidus and Lucius Munatius Plancus, the latter a brother of that +Plancus who had been proscribed and the former a person who at that time +had himself been under sentence of death. These were the last private +citizens to hold the appointment, as was at once made manifest by the +men themselves. The platform on which they were intended to perform the +ceremonies pertaining to their position fell to the ground in pieces when +they had ascended it on the first day of their office. After that there +were no other censors appointed together, as they had been. Even at this +time Augustus in spite of their having been chosen took care of many +matters which properly belonged to them. Of the Public Messes he +abolished some altogether and reformed others so that greater temperance +prevailed. He committed the charge of all the festivals to the praetors, +commanding that an appropriation be given them from the public treasury. +Moreover he forbade them to spend from their own means on these occasions +more than they received from the other source, or to have armed combat +under any other conditions than if the senate should vote for it, and +even then there were to be not more than two such contests in each year +and they should consist of not more than one hundred and twenty men. To +the curule aediles he entrusted the extinguishment of conflagrations, for +which purpose he granted them six hundred slave assistants. And since +knights and women of note had thus early appeared in the orchestra, he +forbade not only the children of senators, to whom the prohibition had +even previously extended, but also their grandchildren, who naturally +found a place in the equestrian class, to do anything of the sort again. +[-3-] In these ordinances he let both the substance and the name of the +lawgiver and emperor be seen. In other matters he was more moderate +and even came to the aid of some of his friends when their conduct was +subjected to official scrutiny. But a certain Marcus Primus was accused +of having made war upon the Odrysae, while he was governor of Macedonia, +who said at one time that he had done it with the approval of Augustus, +and again with that of Marcellus. The emperor thereupon came of his own +accord into the court and, when interrogated by the praetors as to whether +he had instructed the man to make war, entered a denial. The advocate +of Primus, Licinius Murena, in the course of some rather disrespectful +remarks that he made to him enquired: "What are you doing here!" and "Who +summoned you!" To this Augustus only replied: "The Public Good." For this +he received praise from sensible persons and was even given the right to +convene the senate as often as he pleased. Some of the others looked down +upon him. Indeed, not a few voted for the acquittal of Primus and others +united to form a plot against Caesar. Fannius Caepio was at the head of it, +though others had a share. Murena also was said, whether truly or by way +of calumny, to have been one of the conspirators, since he was insatiate +and unsparing in his outspokenness to all alike. These men did not appear +for trial in court but were convicted by default on the supposition that +they intended to flee; shortly after, however, they were put to death. +Murena found neither his brother Proculeius nor Maecenas his sister's +husband of any avail, though they were the recipients of distinguished +honors from Augustus. And as some of the jurymen actually voted to acquit +these conspirators, the emperor made a law that votes should not be cast +secretly in cases by default and that the persons on trial must receive +a unanimous conviction. That he authorized these provisions not in anger +but as really conducive to the public good he gave overwhelming evidence. +Caepio's father liberated one of his slaves who had accompanied his son on +his flight, because he had wished to defend the younger man when he met +his death; but a second slave who had betrayed him the father led through +the middle of the Forum with an inscription making known the reason why +he should be killed, and after that crucified him: yet at all this the +emperor showed no indignation. He would have allayed all the criticism +of those not pleased with the course of events, had he not allowed +sacrifices, as for some victory, to be both voted and offered. + +[-4-] It was at this period that he restored both Cyprus and Gallia +Narbonensis to the people as provinces no longer needing his +administration of martial law. + +Thus proconsuls began to be sent to these places also. He also dedicated +the temple of Jupiter Tonans, concerning which event these two traditions +survive,--that at the time thunder occurred during the ritual, and that +later Augustus had a dream, which I shall proceed to describe. He thought +that the throng had come to do reverence to the deity, partly attracted +by the novelty of his name and form and partly because he had been put in +place by Augustus, but chiefest of all because they encountered him first +when they ascended the Capitol; and he dreamed that Jupiter in the great +temple was angry because he was now reduced to second place, and that he +himself thereupon said to the offended god (as he reported the story) +that he had Tonans as an advance guard. When it became day he attached a +bell to the statue by way of confirming the vision. For those who guard +apartment houses by night carry a bell, in order to be able to signal the +inhabitants whenever they wish.--These events, then, took place at Rome. + +[-5-] About this same period the Cantabri and the Astures broke out into +war again. The action of the Astures was due to the haughtiness and +cruelty of Carisius. The Cantabri, on the other hand, took the field +because they learned that the other tribe was in revolt and because they +despised their governor, Gaius Furnius, since he had but lately arrived +and they conceived him to be unacquainted with conditions in their +territory. He did not, however, show himself that sort of man in action, +for both tribes were defeated and reduced to slavery by him, Carisius +even receiving help from him. Not many of the Cantabri were captured. As +they had no hope of freedom they did not choose to live, but some after +setting the forts on fire stabbed themselves, and others let themselves +be consumed with the works, while still others in the sight of all took +poison. Thus the most of them and the fiercest faction perished. As for +the Astures, as soon as they had been repulsed in a siege at some +point and had subsequently been beaten in battle, they made no further +resistance but were straightway subdued. + +About this same time the Ethiopians, who dwell beyond Egypt, advanced +as far as the city called Elephantine, with Candace as their leader, +ravaging the whole region that they traversed. On learning that Gaius[1] +Petronius, the governor of Egypt, was approaching and somewhere near, +they hastily retreated hoping to make good their escape. Overtaken on the +road, however, they suffered defeat and then drew him on into their own +country. There, too, he contended nobly and took among other cities +Napata, the royal residence of that tribe. This town was razed to the +ground and a garrison left at another post. For Petronius, not being able +to advance farther on account of the sand and the heat, nor to remain +conveniently on the spot with his entire army, withdrew, taking the most +of it with him. At that the Ethiopians attacked the garrisons, but he +again proceeded against them, rescued his own men, and compelled Candace +to make terms with him. + +[ B.C. 21 (_a. u._ 733)] + +[-6-] While this was going on Augustus went to Sicily in order to settle +the affairs of that island and of other countries as far as Syria. While +he was still there, the Roman populace fell to disputing over an election +of the consuls. This incident showed clearly that it was impossible for +them to be safe under a democracy, for with the little power that they +had over elections and in regard to offices, even, they began rioting. +The place of one of the consuls was being kept for Augustus and in this +way at the beginning of the year Marcus Lollius alone entered upon +office. As the emperor would not accept the place, Quintus Lepidus and +Lucius Silvanus became rival candidates and threw everything into such +turmoil that Augustus was invoked by those who still retained their +senses. He would not return, however, and sent them back when they came +to him, rebuking them and bidding them cast their votes during the +absence of both claimants. This did not promote peace any the more, but +they began to quarrel and dispute again vehemently, so that it was long +before Lepidus was chosen. Augustus was displeased at this, for he could +not spend all his time at Rome alone, and he did not dare to leave the +city without a head; seeking, therefore, for some one to set over it he +judged Agrippa to be most suitable for the purpose. And as he wished to +clothe him in some greater dignity than common, in order that this might +help him to govern the people more easily, he summoned him, compelled him +to divorce his wife (although she was Caesar's own niece), and to marry +Julia, and forthwith sent him to Rome to attend both to the wedding and +to the administration of the City. This step is said to have been due +partly to the advice of Maecenas, who in conversation with him upon these +very matters said: "You have made him so great that he should either +become your son-in-law or be killed."--Agrippa healed the sores which he +found still festering and repelled the advance of the Egyptian rites, +which were returning once more to the City, forbidding any one to perform +them even in the suburbs within eight half-stadia. A disturbance arose +regarding the election of the praefectus urbi--the one chosen on account +of the Feriae--and he did not attempt to quell it, but they lived through +that year without that official. This was what _he_ accomplished. + +[-7-] Augustus after settling various affairs in Sicily and making +Syracuse together with certain other cities Roman colonies crossed over +into Greece. The Lacedaemonians he honored by giving them Cythera and +attending their Public Mess, because Livia, when she fled from Italy with +her husband and son, passed some time there. From the Athenians, as some +say, he took away AEgina and Eretria, the produce of which they were +enjoying, because they had espoused the cause of Antony. Moreover he +forbade them to make any one a citizen for money. It seemed to them that +what happened to the statue of Athena had tended to their misfortune. +Placed on the Acropolis facing the east it had turned about to the west +and spat blood. + +[ B.C. 20 (_a. u._ 734)] + +As for Augustus, after setting the Greek world in order, he sailed to +Samos, passed the winter there, and in the spring when Marcus Apuleius +and Publius Silius became consuls proceeded to Asia and gave his +attention to matters there and in Bithynia. Though these and the +foregoing provinces were regarded as belonging to the people, he did not +make light of them, but accorded them the very best of care, as if they +were his own. He instituted all reforms that seemed desirable and made a +present of money to some, while others he instructed to collect an amount +in excess of the tribute. The people of Cyzicus he reduced to slavery +because during an uprising they had flogged and put to death some Romans. +And when he reached Syria he took the same action in the case of the +people of Tyre and Sidon on account of their uprising. + +[-8-] Meanwhile Phraates, fearing that he might lead an expedition +against him because as yet none of the agreements had been carried out, +sent back to him the standards and all the captives, save a few who in +shame had destroyed themselves or by eluding detection had remained +in the country. Augustus received them with the appearance of having +conquered the Parthian in some war. He took great pride in the event, +saying that what had been lost in former battles he had recovered without +a struggle. Indeed, in honor of his success he both commanded sacrifices +to be voted and performed them, besides constructing a temple of Mars +Ultor on the Capitol, in imitation of Jupiter Feretrius, for the offering +up of the standards. Moreover he rode into the City on a charger and +was with an arch carrying a trophy. That was what was done later in +commemoration of the event. At this time he was chosen commissioner of +the highways round about Rome, set up the so-called golden milestone, +and assigned road-builders from the ranks of the ex-praetors, with two +lictors, to take care of the various streets. Julia also gave birth to a +child, who received the name Gaius; and a sacrifice of kine was permitted +forever upon his birthday. Now this was done, like everything else, +in pursuance of a decree: privately the aediles had a horse-race and +slaughter of wild beasts on the birthday of Augustus.--These were the +occurrences in the City. + +[-9-] Augustus ordained that the subject territory should be managed +according to the customs of the Romans, but permitted allied countries to +be governed according to their own ancestral usage. He did not think it +desirable that there should be any additions to the former or that any +new regions should be acquired, but deemed it best for the people to +be thoroughly satisfied with what they already possessed; and he +communicated this opinion to the senate. Therefore he began no war at +this time, but gave out certain sovereignties,--to Iamblichus son of +Iamblichus his ancestral dominion over the Arabians, and to Tarcondimotus +son of Tarcondimotus the kingdom of Cilicia which his father held, except +a few coast districts. For these together with Lesser Armenia he granted +to Archelaus, because the Median king, who had previously ruled them, was +dead. To Herod he entrusted the tetrarchy of a certain Zenodorus and to +one Mithridates, though a mere lad, Commagene, since the king of it had +killed his father. And as the other Armenians had preferred charges +against Artaxes and had summoned his brother Tigranes, who was in Rome, +the emperor sent for Tiberius to cast the former out of his kingdom and +restore the latter to it once more. Nothing was accomplished, however, +worthy of the preparations he had made, for the Armenians slew Artaxes +before his arrival. Still, Tiberius assumed a lofty bearing as if he had +effected something by his own ability, and all the more when sacrifices +were voted in honor of the result. And he now began to have thoughts +about obtaining the monarchy when, as he was approaching Philippi, an +outcry was heard from the field of battle, as if coming from an army, and +fire of its own accord shot up from the altars founded by Antony upon the +ramparts. These things contributed to the exalted feelings of Tiberius. + +Augustus returned to Samos and once more passed the winter there. As a +recompense for his stay he awarded the islanders freedom, and he attended +to many kinds of business. Great numbers of embassies came to him, and +the Indi, who had previously opened negotiations about friendship, now +made terms, sending among other gifts tigers, which were then for the +first time seen by the Romans, as also, I think, by the Greeks. They +likewise presented to him a boy without shoulders (like the statues of +Hermes that we now see). Yet this creature in spite of his anatomy made +perfect use of his feet and hands: he would stretch a bow for them, shoot +missiles, and sound the trumpet,--how, I do not know; I merely record the +story. One of the Indi, Zarmarus, whether he belonged to the class of +sophists and was ambitious on this account or because he was old and was +following some immemorial custom, or because he wished to make a display +for Augustus and the Athenians (for it was there that he had obtained an +audience), chose to die; he was therefore initiated into the service of +the two goddesses,--although it was not the proper time, it is said, for +the ritual,[2]--through the influence of Augustus, and having become an +initiate he threw himself alive into the fire. + +[B.C. 19 (_a. u._ 735)] + +[-10-] The consul that[2] year was Gaius Sentius. When it was found +necessary that a colleague be appointed to hold office with him,--for +Augustus again refused to accept the post which was being saved for +him,--an uprising once more broke out in Rome and assassinations +occurred, so that the senators voted Sentius a guard. When he expressed +himself as opposed to using it, they sent envoys to Augustus, each with +two lictors. As soon as the emperor learned this and felt assured that +nothing but evil would come of it, he did not adopt an attitude like +his former one toward them but appointed consul from among the envoys +themselves Quintus Lucretius, though this man's name had been posted +among the proscribed, and he hastened to Rome himself. For this and his +other actions while absent from the city many honors of all sorts were +voted none of which he would accept, save the founding of a temple to +Fortuna Redux,[3] (this being the name they applied to her), and that the +day on which he arrived should be numbered among the thanksgiving days +and be called Augustalia. Since even then the magistrates and the rest +made preparations to go out to meet him, he entered the city by night; +and on the following day he gave Tiberius the rank of the ex-praetors and +allowed Drusus to become a candidate for offices five years earlier than +custom allowed. The quarrelsome behavior of the people during his absence +did not accord at all with their conduct, influenced by fear, when he was +present; he was accordingly invited and elected to be commissioner of +morals for five years, held the authority of the censors for the same +length of time and that of the consuls for life, being allowed to use the +twelve rods always and everywhere and to sit in the chair of office in +the midst of the consuls of any year. After voting these measures they +begged him to set right all these matters and to enact what laws he +liked. And whatever ordinances might be composed by him they called from +that very moment _leges Augustae_ and desired to take an oath that they +would abide by them. He accepted their principal propositions, believing +them to be necessary, but absolved them from the requirement of an oath. +If they should vote for a measure that suited them, he knew well that +they would observe it even if they made no agreement to that effect. +Otherwise they would not pay any attention to it, even if they should +take ten thousand pledges to secure it.--Augustus did this. Of the aediles +one voluntarily resigned his office by reason of poverty. + +[-11-] Agrippa on being sent at this time, as described from Sicily to +Rome, transacted whatever business was urgent and was later assigned to +the Gauls. The inhabitants there were at war among themselves and were +being harshly used by the Celtae. After settling those troubles he went +over to Spain. For the Cantabri, who had been captured alive in the war +and had been sold, severally killed their masters, returned home, and +united many for a revolt. With the aid of these accessions they occupied +available sites, walled them about and concocted schemes against +the Roman garrisons. It was against this tribe that Agrippa led an +expedition, but he had some trouble also with the soldiers. Not a few of +them were too old, exhausted by the succession of wars, and in fear of +the Cantabri, whom they regarded as hard to subdue; and they consequently +would not obey him. However, by admonition, exhortation, and the hopes +that he held out[4] he soon made them yield obedience: in fighting the +Cantabri, on the other hand, he met with many failures. They had the +advantage of experience in affairs, since they had been slaves to the +Romans, and of despair of ever gaining safety again in case of capture. +Agrippa lost numbers of his soldiers and degraded numerous others because +they had been defeated; among other actions he prohibited a whole +division called the Augustan from being so named any longer; still, after +a long time he destroyed nearly all of the enemy who were of age for +warfare. He deprived the rest of their arms and made them go down from +the heights to the flat lands. Yet he made no communication about them to +the senate and did not accept the triumph although voted in accordance +with instructions from Augustus. In these matters he showed moderation, +as was his wont, and when asked once by the consul for an opinion in a +case concerning his brother he would not give it. At his own expense +he brought in the so-called Parthenian water-supply and named it the +Augustan. In this the emperor took so great delight that once when a +great scarcity of wine had arisen and persons were making a terrible +to-do about it, he declared that Agrippa had carefully seen to it that +they should never perish of thirst. + +[-12-]Such was the character of this man. Of the rest many both made a +triumph their object and celebrated it, not for rendering these same +services, but some for having arrested robbers and others for quieting +cities that were in a state of turmoil. For Augustus, at first at least, +bestowed these rewards lavishly upon some and honored a very great +number with public burials. Those persons, then, gained splendor by +these fetes; but Agrippa was advanced by him to a position of comparative +independence. Augustus saw that the public business required strict +attention and feared that he might, as often happens in such cases, +become the victim of plots. + +[B.C. 18 (a. u. 736)] + +The breastplate which he often wore beneath his dress even on entering +the senate itself he expected would be of small and slight assistance to +him in that case. Therefore he himself first added five years to his term +as supreme ruler when the ten-year period had expired (this took place in +the consulship of Publius and Gnaeus Lentulus), and then he gave Agrippa +many rights almost equal to his own, together with the tribunician +authority for the same length of time. He then said that so many years +would suffice them. Not much later he obtained the remaining five +belonging to his imperial sovereignty, so that the number of years became +ten again. + +[-13-] When he had done this he next investigated the senatorial body. +The members seemed to him even now to be numerous and he saw +danger in so large a throng, while he felt a hatred for not only such as +were notorious for some baseness, but also those who were distinguished +for their flattery. And when no one, as previously, would resign willingly +nor wished alone to incur accusation, he himself selected the thirty best +men (a point which he confirmed by oath) and bade them after first taking +the same oath to choose and write down groups of five, outside of their +relatives, on tablets. After this he subjected the groups of five to a +casting of lots, with the arrangement that the one man in each who drew +a lot should himself be a senator, and enroll five others on the same +conditions. + +There would, of course, properly be thirty of those chosen by others and +by those who drew a lot. And since some of them were out of town others +drew as substitutes and attended to what should have been their duties. +At first this went on so for several days; but when some abuses crept +in, he no longer put the documents in the charge of the quaestors nor +submitted the groups of five to lot, but he himself read whatever +remained and he himself chose the members that were lacking: and thus six +hundred in all were appointed. [-14-]It had been his plan to make them +three hundred as in old times, and he thought he ought to be well +satisfied if he found so many of them worthy of the senate. But he +finally chose a list of six hundred because of the universal displeasure; +for it came out, by reason of the fact that those whose names would be +cancelled would be many more than those who remained in the body, that +greater fear of becoming private citizens prevailed among its members +than expectation of being senators. Not even here did the matter rest, +since some unsuitable persons were still enrolled. A certain Licinius +Regulus after this, indignant because his name had been erased whereas +his son and several others to whom he thought himself superior had been +counted in, rent his clothing in the very senate, laid bare his body, +enumerated his campaigns, and showed them his scars. And Articuleius +Paetus, one of the senators _in posse_, besought earnestly that he might +retire from his seat in the senate in place of his father, who had been +rejected. Augustus then made a new organization, getting rid of some and +choosing others in their place. Since even so the names of many had been +stricken out and some of them, as usually happens in such a case, charged +that they had been driven out unjustly, he immediately accorded them +the right to behold spectacles and join in festivals in common with the +senators, wearing the same garb, and he permitted them for the future to +stand for offices. Most of them came back in the course of time into +the senate: some few were left in an intermediate position, regarded as +belonging neither to the senate nor to the people. + +[-15-] After this many at once and many subsequently gained the +reputation, whether it was true or false, of plotting against both the +emperor and Agrippa. It is not possible for one outside of such matters +to have certain knowledge about them. Much of what a sovereign does by +way of punishment either personally or through the senate on the ground +that plots have been made against him is viewed with suspicion as +probably a display of wanton power, no matter how justly he may have +acted. For that reason my intention is to record in all matters of this +nature simply the regular version of the story, not busying myself with +aught beyond the public report, except in perfectly patent cases, nor +making any ulterior suggestions as to whether any act was just or unjust +or any statement true or false. Let this principle apply to everything +which I shall write after this. + +At the time Augustus executed a few: Lepidus he hated because his son +had been detected in a against him and had been punished, as well as for +other reasons; he did not, however, wish to kill him but kept insulting +him now in one way, now in another. He ordered Lepidus against his +will to come down from the country to the city and always took him to +gatherings, in order that the man might be subjected to the greatest +amount of jeering and insolence in view of the change from his former +power and dignity. He did not treat him in any way as worthy his +consideration, and at this time he afforded him, last of all the +ex-consuls, the chance of voting. To the rest he was wont to put the +question in the order that belonged to them, but of the ex-consuls he +used to make one first, another second, and third and fourth and so on as +he liked. This the consuls also did. Thus it was that he treated Lepidus. +And when Antistius Labeo enrolled the latter among the men who were to be +senators at the time the vote on this matter was taken, the emperor first +declared that he had perjured himself and threatened to take vengeance. +Thereupon the other replied: "Why, what harm have I done by keeping in +the senate one whom you even now still permit to be high priest?" This +answer quieted Augustus's anger, for though he had often, both privately +and publicly, been judged worthy of this priesthood, he did not deem +it right to take it while Lepidus lived. The reply of Antistius seemed, +indeed, to have been a rather happy one, as was the case once when there +was talk in the senate to the effect that they ought to take turns in +guarding Augustus; for he had said, not daring to speak in opposition nor +willing to agree: "As for me, I snore, and so can not sleep at the door +of his chamber." + +[-16-] Among the laws that Augustus enacted was one which provided that +those who to gain office bribed any person should be debarred from the +said office for five years. He laid heavier penalties upon the unmarried +men and women without husbands, and on the other hand offered prizes for +marriage and the procreation of children. And since among the nobility +there were far more males than females he allowed those who pleased, save +the senators, to marry freedwomen, and ordered that the offspring of such +a man should be deemed legitimate. + +At this period a clamor arose in the senate regarding the disorderly +conduct of the women and the young men, this being alleged as a reason +for the difficulty of persuading them to contract marriage; and when they +urged him to remedy this abuse also, meanwhile indulging in sarcasms +because he enjoyed the favors of many women, at first he made answer that +the most necessary restrictions had been laid down and that anything +further could not be defined in a similar fashion. Then, when he was +driven into a corner, he said: "You ought to admonish and command your +wives what you wish,--just as I myself do." When they heard that, they +plied him with questions all the more, wishing to learn the admonitions +which he said he gave Livia. Reluctantly thereupon he made a few remarks +about dress and about other adornment, about going out and modest +behavior on such occasions. He cared not at all that he did not make good +his words in fact. Something of the sort he had done also while censor. +They brought before him a young man who had married a woman after +seducing her, making the most violent accusations against him: Augustus +was at a loss what to do, not daring to overlook the affair nor yet to +administer any rebuke. After a very long time he heaved a deep sigh and +said: "The factional disputes have borne many terrible fruits: let us try +to forget them and give our attention to the future, to see that nothing +of the sort occurs again." + +Inasmuch, too, as certain infants were obtaining by betrothal the honors +of married couples, but did not accomplish the object in view, he ordered +that no betrothal should be valid where a person did not marry before two +years had passed. That is, any one betrothed must be certainly ten years +old in order to reap any benefit from it. Twelve full years, as I have +said, is required by custom for girls to reach the marriageable age. + +[-17-] Besides these separate enactments there was one instructing those +from time to time in office each to propose one of those who had been +praetors three years previously to attend to the distribution of the +grain, and providing that of that number the four who secured the lot +should give out grain in turn: and the praefectus urbi, appointed for the +Feriae, was always to choose one of them. The Sibylline verses which had +become indistinct through lapse of time he ordered the priests to copy +out with their own hands in order that no one else should read them. He +allowed the offices to be thrown open to all such as had property worth +ten myriad denarii and were competent to hold office in accordance with +the law. This was the value which he at first set upon the senatorial +rank: later he raised it to twenty-five myriads. Upon some of those who +lived upright lives but possessed less than ten myriads in the first case +or twenty-five in the second he bestowed the amount lacking. Again, he +allowed those praetors who so desired to spend on the festivals besides +what was given them from the public treasury three times as much +again, so that even if some were vexed at the minuteness of his other +regulations yet by reason of this one and also because he brought +back from exile one Pylades, a dancer, driven out on account of civil +quarrels, they remembered them no longer. Hence Pylades is said to have +rejoined very cleverly when the emperor rebuked him for having quarreled +with Bathyllus, an artist in the same line and a relative of Maecenas: "It +is to your advantage, Caesar, that the populace should exhaust its energy +over us."--These were the occurrences of that year. + +[B.C. 17 (_a. u._ 737)] + +[-18-]In the consulship of Gaius Furnius and Gaius Silanus Agrippa again +announced the birth of a son named Lucius, and Augustus immediately +adopted him together with his brother Gaius, not waiting for them to +become men but appointing them that very moment successors to his office, +in order that less plots might be directed against him. The festival +of Honor and of Virtus he transferred to the days which are at present +theirs. Those that celebrated triumphs he commanded to erect out of the +spoils some public work to commemorate their deeds. The Saecularia he +brought for the fifth time to a successful conclusion. The orators, he +ordered, were to give their services without pay, on pain of a fine of +quadruple the amount they might receive. Those whom the lot made jurymen +in any season he forbade to enter any person's house during that year. +And since members of the senate showed lack of interest in attending +meetings of that body, he increased the penalties for such as were late +without some good excuse. + +[B.C. 16 (_a. u._ 7386)] + +[-19-] Next he started for Gaul, during the consulship of Lucius Domitius +and Publius Scipio, making an excuse of the wars that had arisen in that +region. For since he had become disliked by many as a result of his +long stay in the capital and by inflicting penalties offended many who +committed some act contrary to the laws laid down, while he was compelled +in sparing many others to transgress his own enactments, he decided to +leave the country, somewhat after the manner of Solon. Some suspected +that he had gone away on account of Terentia, the wife of Maecenas, and +intended, because there was much talk made about them in Rome, to join +her without any gossip during his trip abroad. So great was his passion +for her that he once had her enter a contest of beauty against Livia. + +Before starting he dedicated the temple of Quirinus, which he had built +up anew. By this I mean he had adorned it with seventy-six columns, equal +to the total number of years he had lived. This consequently caused some +to say that he had chosen the number purposely and not by mere chance. +After the consecration of this edifice he arranged through Tiberius and +Drusus for gladiatorial combats, permission having been granted them +by the senate. Then he committed to Taurus the management of the City +together with the rest of Italy,--for Agrippa had been despatched again +to Syria and he no longer looked with equal favor on Maecenas because of +the latter's wife,--and taking Tiberius, though he was praetor, along, he +set out on his journey. Tiberius had become praetor in spite of holding +the honors of an ex-praetor, and his entire office by a decree was placed +in the hands of Drusus. The night following their departure the Hall +of Youth burned to the ground. This was not the only portent that had +occurred, for a wolf had rushed along the Sacred Way into the Forum, +tearing men to pieces, and at a distance from the Forum ants were very +plainly seen together in swarms; likewise a gleam all night long kept +shooting from the south toward the north. Prayers were therefore +offered for the safe return of Augustus. Meantime they celebrated the +quinquennial festival of his sovereignty, the expense being borne by +Agrippa; for the latter had been consecrated by his fellow priests to +be one of the quindecimviri to whom the oversight of the event fell in +regular succession. + +[-20-] There was much other confusion, too, during that period. The +Camunni and Vennones, Alpine tribes, flew to arms but were conquered and +subdued by Publius Silius. The Pannonians in company with the Norici +overran Istria, and after suffering damage at the hands of Silius and +his lieutenants the former came to terms again and were the cause of the +Norici falling into the same slavery. The uprisings in Dalmatia and +in Spain were in a short time quelled. Macedonia was ravaged by the +Dentheleti and the Scordisci. In Thrace somewhat earlier Marcus Lollius +while aiding Rhoemetalces, the uncle and guardian of the children of +Cotys, had subjugated the Bessi. Later Lucius Gallus conquered the +Sarmatae in the same dispute and drove them back across the Ister. The +greatest, however, of the wars which at that time fell to the lot of the +Romans, which also had something to do, probably, with Augustus's leaving +the city, was against the Celtae. + +The Sugambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri had first seized in their own +territory some of the Romans and had crucified them, after which they +crossed the Rhine and plundered Germania and Gaul. When the Roman cavalry +approached they laid an ambush and by taking to flight drew their +assailants to follow them; and though they fell in unexpectedly with +the Roman leader Lollius, they conquered even him. On ascertaining this +Augustus hastened against them but found no warfare to carry on. For the +barbarians, learning that Lollius was getting ready and that the emperor +was also heading an expedition, retired into their own territory and made +peace, giving hostages. + +[B.C. 15 (_a. u._ 739)] + +[-21-] On this account Augustus had no need of arms, but the demands of +various other business consumed the entire time of this year, as well as +of the next, in which Marcus Libo and Calpurnius Piso were consuls. +For much injury had been wrought by the Celtae and much by a certain +Licinnius.[5] And of this, I think, the sea-monster had very plainly +given them warning beforehand. This creature, twenty feet broad and three +times as long and resembling a woman except for its head, had been washed +up on the land from the ocean. Now Licinnius was originally a Gaul but +was captured, brought among Romans, and made a slave to Caesar, by whom he +was set free, and then by Augustus he had been made procurator of Gaul. +He had barbarian avarice and Roman haughtiness, and tried to overthrow +every person and thing deemed superior to himself and to annihilate +any power which temporarily appeared strong. It was his care to supply +himself with plenty of funds for the requirements of his ministry as well +as to secure a plenty for himself and for members of his family. His +abuses went so far that in some cases where the population paid tribute +by the month he made the months fourteen in number. He declared that this +month called December was really the tenth, and for that reason it was +necessary to count in also the two last months (of which he called one +Undecimber and the other Duodecimber), and to contribute the money that +was due for them. These quibbles brought him into danger. The Gauls +secured the ear of Augustus and made a terrible protest, so that the +emperor first shared their indignation and next begged them to be +patient. Of some of the extortions he said he was unaware and others +he affected not to believe. Some things he concealed, being ashamed of +having employed such a procurator. Licinnius however, by devising another +scheme was enabled to laugh to scorn absolutely all their efforts. When +found that Augustus was displeased with him and that he was likely to +be punished, he took the emperor into his house, and showing him many +treasures of silver and gold and many other valuables piled up in heaps, +he said: "I have gathered these purposely, master, for you and for the +rest of the Romans, to prevent the inhabitants from getting control of so +much money and therefore revolting. You see I have kept it all for you +and herewith give it to you." Thus the sophist was saved, by pretending +that he had sapped the strength of the barbarians to serve Augustus. + +[-22-] Drusus and Tiberius meanwhile were concerned with the following +undertakings. The Rhaeti, who dwell between Noricum and Gaul, near the +Tridentine Alps close to Italy, overran a good part of the adjacent +territory of Gaul and carried plunder even out of Italy. Such of the +Romans or their allies as used the road going through their country met +with depredations. These actions of theirs were of course more or less +like those of any nation which has not accepted terms of peace, but +further they destroyed all the males among their captives, not only those +who were apparent but also the embryo ones in the wombs of women, the sex +of which they discovered by some divination. For these reasons Augustus +first sent Drusus against them: he joined battle with a detachment of +theirs that met him near the Tridentine mountains, and speedily had them +routed; for this exploit he received the honors belonging to praetors. +Later, when the tribe had been repulsed from Italy but still harassed +Gaul, the emperor despatched Tiberius in addition. Both of the leaders +then invaded the Rhaetian country at many points at once,--the lieutenants +leading such divisions as they did not command personally,--and Tiberius +even crossed the lake[6] in boats. In this way, by encountering them +separately, the Roman commanders spread alarm and had no difficulty in +overcoming those who came near enough for fighting at any time, because +they had only to deal with scattered forces; the remainder, who had +become weaker and more despondent through such tactics, they captured. +And because the land had a large population of males and seemed ripe +for revolt, they deported most of those of military age, especially the +strongest, leaving behind only so many as would be sufficient to inhabit +the country but unable to make any uprising. + +[-23-] This same year Vedius Pollio died, a man who in general had done +nothing deserving notice, being the son of liberti, ranking as a knight, +without any achievement of consequence in his record; but he had become +exceedingly renowned for his wealth and his cruelty, so that he has +even won a place in history. Most of the things that he did it would be +wearisome to relate, but I may mention that he kept in tanks huge eels +trained to eat men, and was accustomed to throw to them the slaves that +he desired to put to death. Once, when he was entertaining Augustus, the +cupbearer shattered a crystal goblet, and without respect to the guest he +ordered that the fellow be thrown to the eels. Hereupon the boy fell on +his knees supplicating Augustus who at first tried to persuade Pollio not +to carry out his intentions. As his host would not yield the point the +emperor said: "Bring all the rest of the drinking vessels which are of +the same sort or any others of value that you may possess, for I want to +use them," and when they were brought he ordered them to be broken. The +master seeing this was of course vexed but could no longer be angry over +one cup, considering the great number of others that were ruined, and +could not punish his servant for what Augustus had done; therefore +reluctantly he took no action. That was the sort of person this Pollio +was, who died. He left various bequests to many different persons and to +Augustus a good share of his inheritance together with Pausilypum[7], a +place between Neapolis and Puteoli, with instructions that some public +work of great beauty should be erected. Augustus razed his house to the +foundation, on the pretext that it was necessary for the preparation of +the other structure, but really with the purpose that he should have no +monument in the city, and built a colonnade, inscribing on it the name +not of Pollio but of Livia. + +This he did later. At the time mentioned he founded a number of cities as +colonies in Gaul and in Spain and restored to the people of Cyzicus their +freedom. To the Paphians, who had suffered from an earthquake, he gave +money and allowed them, by a decree, to call their city Augusta. I have +recorded this, not because Augustus himself and the senators failed to +aid many other cities both before and after this, in case of similar +misfortunes,--if any one should attempt to mention them all, the task of +such a historian would be endless,--but my aim is to show that the senate +assigned names to cities as an honor and the latter did not, as is the +usual procedure now, compile for themselves (each separately) such lists +of names as they might choose. + +[B.C. 14 (_a. u._ 740)] + +[-24-] The next year Marcus Crassus and Gnaeus Cornelius became consuls; +and the curule aediles after resigning their office because they had +entered upon it under unfavorable auguries took it back again, contrary +to precedent, at another meeting of the assembly. The Portico of Paulus +was burned and the fire from it reached the temple of Vesta, so that the +sacred objects that this shrine contained were carried up to the Palatine +by all of the vestal virgins except the eldest (who had gone blind) +and were placed in the house of the priest of Jupiter. The portico was +afterward rebuilt, nominally by AEmilius, who was the representative of +the family that had formerly erected it, but really by Augustus and the +friends of Paulus. At this time the Pannonians revolted and were again +subdued, and the maritime Alps, inhabited by Ligurians called Cometae and +still free even then, were reduced to a slave district. The revolt in the +Cimmerian Bosporus was also quelled. One Seribonius, who maintained +that he was a grandson of Mithridates and had received the kingdom from +Augustus after the death of Asander, married the latter's wife, +named Dynamis, who was the daughter of Pharnaces and a grandchild of +Mithridates, and obtaining the power committed to her by her husband got +control of Bosporus. Agrippa on being informed of this sent against him +Polemon, king of the Pontus near Cappadocia. He found Seribonius no +longer alive, for the people of Bosporus, learning of his ambitions, had +killed him beforehand, but when these resisted Polemon out of fear that +he might be allowed to reign over them, he engaged them in a set battle. +The victory was his, but he was unable to reduce them to order until +Agrippa came to Sinope, apparently with the intention of conducting +a campaign against them. At that they laid down their arms and were +delivered to Polemon. The woman Dynamis became his spouse,--of course +with the sanction of Augustus. For this outcome sacrifices were made in +the name of Agrippa, but he did not celebrate the triumph, though voted +to him. Nay, he did not so much as write the senate anything about what +had been accomplished. As a result subsequent conquerors, taking his +method as a law, no longer sent any word themselves to the legislative +body and did not accept the celebration of a triumph. For this reason no +one else among his peers (so I am inclined to think) was permitted to do +this, but they enjoyed merely the ornament of triumphal honors. + +[-25-] Augustus finally finished ordering everything in the Gauls, the +Germanias, and the Hispaniae: upon special districts he spent a great +deal, and levied a great deal upon others, and to some he gave freedom +and citizenship, whereas from others he took them away. + +[B.C. 13 (_a. u._ 741)] + +He then left Drusus in Germania and himself returned to Rome in the +consulship of Tiberius and of Quintilius Varus. It chanced that the news +of his coming reached the city during those days when Cornelius +Balbus after dedicating the theatre now called by his name was giving +spectacles. At this he assumed great importance as if it were he that was +to bring Augustus back, though because of a flooding of the Tiber there +was so great a quantity of water in the theatre that no one could enter +it save in a boat; and Tiberius put the vote to Balbus first, as an +honor for his building the theatre. The senate convened and among other +decisions resolved to place an altar in the senate-chamber itself, to +commemorate the return of Augustus, and that criminals who approached +him as suppliants within the pomerium should be exempt from punishment. +However, he accepted neither of these honors and even escaped a reception +by the people on this occasion by being brought into the city under the +cover of night. This he did almost always whenever he had to go out to +the suburbs or anywhere else, both on his way out and on his way back, so +that nobody should annoy him. The following day he greeted the people on +the Palatine, ascended the Capitol, and taking off the laurel from +around his rods he placed it upon the knees of Jupiter. For that day he +furnished the people with baths and barbers free of charge. After this he +convened the senate and made no address himself by reason of hoarseness, +but gave the book to the quaestor to read which enumerated his +achievements and promulgated rules as to how many years the citizens +should serve in the army and how much money they should receive at the +end of their services in place of the land for which they were always +wont to ask. The object was that by being enlisted on certain specified +terms from the very start they should find in their treatment no excuse +for revolt. The number of years was for the Pretorians twelve and for the +rest sixteen; and the money to be distributed was less for some and more +for others. These measures caused the soldiers neither pleasure nor anger +for the time being, because they had neither obtained all they were +desiring nor yet lost everything. In the remainder of the population it +aroused confident hopes of not being deprived of their possessions in the +future. + +[-26-] His next action was to dedicate the theatre called after +Marcellus. In the festival held on this account the patrician children as +well as his grandson Gaius performed the "Troy" equestrian exercise, +and six hundred Libyan wild beasts were slaughtered. Iullus, the son +of Antony, who was praetor, celebrated the birthday of Augustus with +horse-races and slaughterlng of wild beasts, and entertained both him and +the senate (following a decree of that body) upon the Capitol. + +After this there was another reorganization of the senate. At first the +necessary value of their property had been limited to ten myriad denarii +because many of them had been deprived by the wars of their ancestral +estates. As time went on and men's possessions became larger, it was +advanced to twenty-five myriads, and no one was any longer found who +wanted to be senator. On the contrary, some children and grandchildren +of senators, of whom a part were really poor and another part had been +brought low through calamities suffered by their ancestors, not only +failed to lay claim to the senatorial dignity, but when already placed on +the list withdrew on oath. Therefore previous to this, while Augustus +was still out of the City, a decree had been passed that the so-called +viginti viri[8] should be appointed from the knights. Hence none of them +was any longed enrolled in the senate without having secured some one of +the other offices that lead to it.--These twenty men are a part of the +six-and-twenty.[9] Three of them have charge of capital cases at law. The +next three attend to the coinage of the money. Four act as commissioners +of the streets in the City. Ten are put over the courts that fall by lot +to the _Centumviri_. The two who were entrusted with the roads outside +the walls and the four who were sent to Campania had been abolished. The +senate had voted during the absence of Augustus another measure besides +this, namely that, since nobody could any longer be easily induced to +become a candidate for the tribuneship, they might appoint by lot some +who had been quaestors and were not yet forty years old. At this time the +emperor made a scrutiny of the whole body of citizens. Those of them who +were over thirty-five years of age he did not trouble, but those under +that age who had property of the requisite value he forced to become +senators, except in the case of cripples. Their bodies he viewed himself +but in regard to their property he accepted sworn statements, the men +themselves taking the oath (with others to corroborate their allegations) +and accounting for their lack of funds as well as for their habits of +life. + +[-27-] Nor did he, while observing such strictness in ordinary public +business, neglect the conduct of his own family. Indeed, he rebuked +Tiberius because he had seated Gaius beside him at the thanksgiving +festival which he gave in honor of the emperor's return: and he censured +the people for honoring him with applause and eulogies. On the death of +Lepidus he was appointed high priest and the senate consequently wished +to vote him certain honors;[10] but he declared that he would not accept +them, and when the senators became urgent he rose and left the gathering. +So that measure was not ratified, and he received no official residence, +but because it was absolutely essential that the high priest should live +on public ground he made a portion of his own dwelling public property. +The house of the rex sacrificulus, however, he gave to the vestal virgins +because it was separated merely by a wall from their apartments. + +Cornelius Sisenna was blamed for the conduct of his wife and stated in +the senate that he had married her with the knowledge and on the advice +of the emperor,--whereat Augustus grew exceedingly angry. He indulged in +no violence of word or action but hurried out of the senate-chamber and +then a little later came back again, choosing rather to do this (as he +said to his friends afterward), in spite of its not being right, than to +remain where he was and be compelled to do some harm. + +[B.C. 12 (_a. u._ 742)] + +[-28-] Meantime he bestowed upon Agrippa, who had come from Syria, the +great honor of the tribunician authority for another five years, and sent +him out to Pannonia, which was ready for war, allowing him greater powers +than officials outside of Italy ordinarily possessed. Agrippa made the +campaign though it already was winter: Marcus Valerius and Publius +Sulpicius were the consuls. As the Pannonians became terror stricken at +his approach and showed no further signs of uprising he returned, and on +reaching Campania fell sick. Augustus happened to be giving, under the +name of his children, contests of armed warriors at the Panathenaic +festival, and when he learned of Agrippa's condition he left the country. +Finding him dead, he conveyed his body to the capital and allowed it to +lie in state in the Forum. He also delivered the oration over the dead +man, with a curtain stretched in front of the corpse. Why he did this +I know not. Yet some have said it was because he was high priest, and +others because he was discharging the functions of censor. Both are +mistaken. A high priest is not forbidden to behold a corpse, nor yet +a censor, except when he is about to put the finishing touches to the +census. Then if he sees such an object before his purification, all his +work is rendered null and void. Besides this oration Augustus conducted +his funeral procession in the way that his own was later conducted. He +buried him in his own tomb, though the deceased had a lot of his own in +the Campus Martius. + +[-29-] Such was the end of Agrippa, who had in every way proved himself +clearly the noblest of the men of his day and used the friendship of +Augustus for the emperor's own greatest benefit and for that of the +commonwealth. So much as he surpassed others in excellence, to such an +extent did he voluntarily make himself lower than his patron. He employed +all his own skill and bravery for what would prove most profitable to +Augustus and expended all the honor and power received from him on +benefiting others. As a result he never became in the least troublesome +to Augustus nor the object of jealousy on the part of others. He helped +his friend organize the monarchy like one who was really in love with +the idea of supreme power and he won over the populace by his kindness, +showing himself most truly a friend of the people. At his death he left +them gardens and the bath-house called after his name, so that they +might bathe free of charge; and he gave Augustus certain lands for +this purpose. The latter not only rendered these public property, but +distributed to the people also a hundred denarii apiece, with the +explanation that Agrippa had ordered it. He had inherited most of the +deceased's property, among the articles of which was the Hellespontine +Chersonese, which had come I know not how into the possession of Agrippa. +The emperor felt his loss for a very long time and therefore caused the +populace to hold him in honor. A posthumous son born to him he called +Agrippa. However, he did not allow any of the citizens to omit any of +the ancestral customs (although none of the more prominent men wished to +present himself for the festivals) and he personally superintended the +gladiatorial combats. They were often given, too, in his absence.--This +demise of Agrippa was not only a private loss to his own household, but +a public loss to all the Romans, as was shown by the fact that portents +occurred on this occasion as great as were usually seen before the +most tremendous disasters. Owls gathered in the capital and a bolt of +lightning descended upon the house at Albanum, where the consuls reside +during the sacrifices.[11] The star called comet stood for several days +over the City and was finally dissolved into flashes of light. Many +buildings in the City were destroyed by fire, among them the tent of +Romulus, which was set ablaze by crows dropping upon it burning meat from +some altar.--These were the matters of interest connected with Agrippa. + +[-30-] After this Augustus was chosen supervisor and corrector of morals +for another five years,--this also he received for a limited period as he +had the monarchy,--and he ordered the senators to burn incense as often +as they had a sitting, and not to come to his residence: the first, that +they might show reverence to the gods, and the second, that they might +have no difficulty in convening. Inasmuch as very few became candidates +for the tribuneship on account of its power having been abolished, he +made a law that magistrates should each nominate one of the knights who +possessed not less than twenty-five myriads; the people should then +choose from these the number lacking, and if the men desired to be +senators afterward, well and good; otherwise they should return again to +the rank of knights. + +The province of Asia also stood very greatly in need of some assistance +on account of earthquakes, and he therefore paid into the public treasury +from his own resources their annual tribute and assigned them a governor +for two years chosen by lot and not arbitrarily selected. + +Apuleius and Maecenas were at one time bitterly reviled in some court of +adultery, not because they had themselves behaved wantonly but because +they had actively aided the man on trial; thereupon Augustus entered the +courtroom and sat in the praetor's chair: he did nothing violent, but +simply forbade the accuser to insult his relatives or friends, and then +rose and left the place. For this action and others the senators honored +him with statues, paid for by private subscription, and by giving +bachelors and spinsters the right to behold spectacles with other people +and to attend banquets on his birthday. Neither of these privileges was +previously permitted them. + +[-31-] When now Agrippa, whom he loved for his excellence and not +through any compulsion, had died, the emperor found that he needed an +assistant in the public business, one who would far surpass the rest in +both honor and power, who might manage everything opportunely and be free +from envy and plots. Therefore he reluctantly chose Tiberius, for his own +grandsons were at this time still minors. He caused him also to divorce +his wife, though she was a daughter of Agrippa by another marriage and +had one child an infant and was soon to give birth to another; and having +betrothed Julia to him he sent him out against the Pannonians. This +people had for a time been quiet, fearing Agrippa, but now after his +death they revolted. Tiberius subdued them, having ravaged considerable +of their territory and done much injury to its inhabitants; he had as +enthusiastic allies the Scordisci, who were neighbors of theirs and +similarly equipped. He took away their arms and sold for export most of +the male population that was of age. For these achievements the senate +voted him a triumph, but Augustus did not allow him to hold it, granting +him instead the triumphal honors. + +[-32-] Drusus had this same experience. The Sugambri and their allies, +owing to the absence of Augustus and the fact that the Gauls were restive +under the yoke of slavery, had become hostile, and he therefore occupied +the subject territory before them, sending for the foremost men on the +pretext of the festival which they celebrate even now about the altar of +Augustus at Lugdunum. Also he observed the Celtae crossing the Rhine +and drove them back. Next he crossed over to the land of the Usipetes +opposite the very island of the Batavi, and from there marched along the +river to the Sugambri country, devastating vast stretches. He sailed +along the Rhine to the ocean, conciliated the Frisii, and traversing the +lake invaded Chaucis, where he ran in danger, as his boats were left high +and dry at the ebb-tide of the ocean. He was saved at this time by the +Frisii (who joined his expedition with infantry), and withdrew, for it +was now winter. + +[B.C. 11(_a. u._ 743)] + +Coming to Rome he was made aedile[12]in the consulship of Quintus Aelius +and Paulus Fabius, though he had already praetor's honors. + +[-33-] At the opening of the spring he set out again to the war, crossed +the Rhine, and subjugated the Usipetes. He bridged the Lupia, invaded the +country of the Sugambri and advanced through it into Cheruscis, as far as +the Visurgis. He was able to do this because the Sugambri in anger at the +Chatti, the only tribe among their neighbors that had refused to join +their alliance, had made a campaign of the whole population against them. +Drusus took this opportunity to traverse their country unnoticed. And he +would nave crossed also the Visurgis, had not provisions grown scarce and +the their country, and though beaten at first vanquished them in turn and +ravaged both that land and the territory of adjacent tribes which had +taken part in the uprising. Immediately he reduced all of them to +subjugation, gaining control of some with their consent, terrifying +others into reluctant submission, and engaging in pitched battles with +others. Later, when some of them rebelled, he again enslaved them. And +for this thanksgivings and triumphal honors were accorded him. + +[-35-] While these events were occurring Augustus took a census, +reckoning in all the property that belonged to him, as an individual +might do, and also making a list of the senate. As he saw that many were +not always present at the meetings he ordered that even less than four +hundred might constitute a quorum for passing decrees. Previously that +had been the minimum number for ratifying any measure. The senate and the +people again contributed money to be spent on images of himself, but he +would erect no such likeness, and only set up representations of the +Public Health, of Concord, and of Peace. The citizens were always +collecting money for statues to him, on the slightest excuse; and at last +they ceased paying it privately, as before, but would come to him on the +first day of the year and give, some more, some less. He, after adding as +much or more again, would return it, not only to the senators but to +all the rest. I have also heard the story that on one day of the year, +following some oracle or dream, he would assume the guise of a beggar and +would accept money from those who passed. This, whether trustworthy or +not, is a prevailing tradition. + +That year he gave Julia in marriage to Tiberius, and his sister Octavia +dying, he caused her body to lie in state in the hero-shrine of Julius; +on this occasion, too, he had a curtain over the corpse. He himself +delivered there the funeral speech and Drusus, having changed his +senatorial dress, had a place on the platform, for the mourning was a +public affair. Her body was carried in procession by her sons-in-law: not +all the honors voted to her were accepted by Augustus. + +At this same time the first priest of Jupiter since [-36-] Merula was +appointed; and the quaestors were ordered to pay careful heed to the +decrees passed from time to time, because the tribunes and the aediles, +who had previously been entrusted with this business, transacted it +through their assistants, and as a result some mistakes and confusion +took place. + +It was voted, moreover, that the temple of Janus Geminus, which was open, +should be closed, on the assumption that wars had ceased. + +[B.C. 10 (_a. u._ 744)] + +It was not closed, however, for the Dacians crossing the Ister on the ice +took the crops of Pannonia as booty, and the Dalmatians revolted at the +imposition of taxes. Against the latter Tiberius was sent from Gaul, +whither he had gone in company with Augustus, and he restored order. The +nations of the Celtae, and especially the Chatti, were partly weakened +and partly subdued by Drusus; the tribe mentioned had gone to join the +Sugambri, having abandoned their own country, which the Romans had given +them to dwell in. The emperor delayed in Lugdunis, where he could keep a +sharp watch on affairs, as it was so near the Celtae. The victors returned +to Rome with Augustus, assumed whatever dignities had been voted them by +the senate, and performed such other duties as belonged to them.--These +events took place in the consulship of Iullus and Fabius Maximus. + + +[Footnote 1: Pliny (Natural History VI, 181) calls him _Publius_.] + +[Footnote 2: Readings and punctuation from Dindorf.] + +[Footnote 3: Augustus returned to Rome October twelfth, and the temple in +question was consecrated December fifteenth.] + +[Footnote 4: Boissevain here amends to [Greek: 'epelpisas]] + +[Footnote 5: In the matter of the spelling of this name the weight of +authority prefers _Licinus_. Dio's form is less correct.] + +[Footnote 6: I. e., the _lacus Venetus_.] + +[Footnote 7: This eminence with its villa appropriately bore the Greek +title _Pausilypon_ (Grief's Surcease), a compound word like our modern +names _Heartsease_, _Sans Souci_, etc. It is the modern "Hill of +Posilipo."] + +[Footnote 8: English, _Twenty Men_; their regular title.] + +[Footnote 9: Latin, _Viginti Sex Viri_.] + +[Footnote 10: The words "certain honors" are supplied on the suggestion +of Boissevain. Boissee and others, who surmise that the text here +contains a lacuna] + +[Footnote 11: I. e., at the time of the Feriae.] + +[Footnote 12: The reading [Greek: agoranomos] is generally preferred here +to [Greek: asotunmos]] + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +55 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +How Drusus died (chapters 1, 2). + +How the Precinct of Livia was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Campus Agrippae was consecrated (chapter 8) + +How the Diribitorium was consecrated (chapter 8). + +How Tiberius retired to Rome (chapter 11). + +How the Forum of Augustus was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How the Temple of Mars therein was consecrated (chapter 12). + +How Lucius Caesar and Gaius Caesar died (chapters 11, 12). + +How Augustus adopted Tiberius (chapter 13). + +How Livia urged Augustus to rule more mercifully (chapters 14-22). + +About the legions and how men were appointed to manage the military fund +(chapters 23-25). + +How the night-watchmen[1] were appointed (chapter 26). + +How Tiberius fought against the Dalmatians and Pannonians (chapters +28-34). + +Duration of time, 17 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Nero Claudius Tib. F. Drusus, T. Quinctius T. F. Crispinus. (B.C. 9 = a. +u. 745.) + +C. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Asinius C. F. Gallus. (B.C. 8 = a. u. +746.) + +Tib. Claudius Tib. F. Nero (II), Cn. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso. (B.C. 7 = a. +u. 747.) + +Decimus Laelius Decimi F. Balbus, C. Antistius C. F. Veter. (B.C. 6 = a. +u. 748.) + +Augustus (XII), L. Cornelius P. F. Sulla. (B.C. 5 = a. u. 749.) + +C. Calvisius C. F. Sabinus (II), L. Passienus Rufus (B.C. 4 = a. u. 750.) + +L. Cornelius L. F. Lentulus, M. Valerius M. F. Messalla [or] Messalinus. +(B.C. 3 = a. u. 751.) + +Augustus (XIII), M. Plautius M. F. Silvanus. (B.C. 2 = a. u. 752.) + +Cossus Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus, L. Calpurnius Cn. F. Piso (B.C. 1 = a. +u. 753.) + +C. Caesar Augusti F., L. AEmilius L. F. Paulus. (A.D. 1 = a. u. 754.) + +P. Vinicius [or Minucius] M. F., P. Alfenus [or Alfenius] P.F. Varus. +(A.D. 2 = a. u. 755.) + +L. AElius L. F. Lamia, M. Servilius M.F. (A.D. 3 = a. u. 756.) + +Sextus AElius Q. F. Catus, C. Sentius C.F. Saturninus. (A.D. 4 = a. u. +757.) + +L. Valerius Potiti F. Messala Valesus, Cn. Cornelius L. F. Cinna Magnus. +(A.D. 5 = a. u. 758.) + +M. AEmilius L.F. Lepidus, L Arruntius L.F. (A.D. 6 = a. u. 759) + +Aul. Licinius Aul. F. Nerva Silianus, Q. Caecilius Q.F. Metellus Creticus. +(A.D. 7 = a. u. 760.) + +M. Furius M. F. Camillus, Sex. Nonius L.F. Quintilianus. (A.D. 8 = a. u. +761.) + + +_(BOOK 55, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[B.C. 9 (_a. u._ 745)] + +[-1-] The following year Drusus became consul with Titus Crispinus, +and omens occurred that were not favorable to him. Many buildings were +destroyed by storm and thunderbolts, among them many temples: even that +of Jupiter Capitolinus and the temple annexed to it were injured. He, +however, paid no attention to this and invaded the country of the Chatti, +advancing as far as Suebia, conquering the territory traversed not +without hardship and vanquishing the troops that assailed him not without +bloodshed. From there he marched to Cheruscis and crossing the Visurgis +proceeded as far as the Albis, pillaging the entire district. This Albis +rises in the Vandaliscan mountains and empties in a great flood into the +ocean this side of the Arctic Sea. Drusus undertook to cross it, but +failing in the attempt set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman taller +than mankind confronted him and said: "Whither are thou hastening, +insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt see all this region. +Depart. For thee the end of labor and of life is already at hand." It is +strange to think that any such voice should have come to a person's ears +from the apparition, yet I can not discredit the tale, for he at once +retired. And as he was returning in haste he died on the way of some +disease, before he reached the Rhine. Proof of the story seems to me to +lie in the fact that at the time of his death wolves prowled and yelped +about the camp and two youths were seen riding through the middle of the +ramparts. A kind of lamentation in a woman's voice was also heard, and +there were shooting stars in the sky. These are the noteworthy points. +[-2-] Augustus, soon learning that he was sick (for he was not far off), +sent Tiberius to him with speed. The latter found him still breathing +and on his death carried his body to Rome, causing the centurions and +military tribunes to convey him over the first stage,--as far as the +winter quarters of the army,--and from there the foremost men of each +city. When the deceased was laid in state in the Forum a double funeral +oration was delivered. Tiberius eulogized him there and Augustus in the +Flaminian hippodrome. Since the latter had been abroad on a campaign it +was impious for him to do otherwise than perform the fitting rites in +honor of the exploits of Drusus at the very entrance of the pomerium. The +body was carried to the Campus Martius by the knights, both those who +belonged strictly to the equestrian order and those, as well, who were +of senatorial family.[2] Then, after being given to the flames, it was +deposited in the monument of Augustus. He and his children received the +title of Germanicus and honors in the way of both images and an arch, +besides obtaining a cenotaph close to the Rhine itself. + +Tiberius, while Drusus was still alive, had overcome the Dalmatians and +Pannonians, who were again a little restless, had celebrated a triumph on +horseback, and had banqueted the people, a part on the Capitol and a +part in many other places. At this time also Livia and Julia together +entertained the women. Same festivities were being made ready for Drusus +The Feriae were to be held a second time on this account so that he might +celebrate his triumph on the same occasion, but his untimely death upset +the plans. As a consolation to Livia images were awarded her and she was +enrolled among the mothers of three children. For upon such men or women +as are not granted so many offspring by Heaven, or at least upon some of +them, a law emanating formerly from the senate but now from the emperor +bestows the dignities belonging to parents of three children. In this way +they are not subject to the reproaches for childlessness and may receive +all but a few of the prizes for fecundity. Not only men but gods enjoy +the privilege, to the end that, if any one dying leaves them anything, +they may take possession of it. These are the facts of the matter. + +[-3-] Augustus ordered that the sittings of the senate should be held on +specified days. Previously there had been no real system about them, and +some members on that account were often late; therefore he appointed two +regular monthly councils, so that those whom the law summoned should be +under compulsion to attend; and in order that no other excuse for their +absence should be within their power he commanded that no court or other +meeting which required their attention should be held at that time. He +made provision with respect to the number necessary for ratifying decrees +under each separate category, to put it briefly; and he increased the +fines imposed upon those who without good excuse were not present at the +gatherings. Inasmuch as many such offences had generally gone unpunished +owing to the large number of those who had incurred penalties, he +commanded that if many should do this, they should draw lots, and every +fifth one to draw a lot should be held liable to punishment.--The names +of all the senators he had recorded on a white tablet and conspicuously +posted. From the beginning made by him this is now annually done. _His_ +intention in doing it was to make it absolutely necessary for them to +come together. Sometimes, by some accident, not so many might assemble as +a special case demanded. This would be known, because except on such days +as the emperor himself might be present the number of those in attendance +was both at this time and later carefully ascertained, and with a great +degree of accuracy. Under these circumstances they would deliberate and +their decision would be recorded, but it was not final, was not ratified: +instead, _auctoritas_ was declared, in order that their _will_ might be +evident,--for such is the force of this word. To translate the term into +Greek by a single expression is not possible. This same custom prevailed +in case they ever assembled through haste in an irregular place, or on a +day that was not fitting, or without a legal summons, or if because +of the opposition of tribunes a decree could not be passed, but their +opinion was not to be concealed. Later, ratification was granted +according to ancestral precedent to the resolution in question, and the +latter obtained the name of _senatus consultum_. This method, strictly +observed for an extremely long period by the men of old time, has in a +already become null and void,--as also the prerogative of the praetors. +For the latter were indignant that they might bring no proposition before +the senate although they ranked above the tribunes in dignity and they +received from Augustus the right of doing so, but in the course of time +it was taken away from them again. + +[-4-] These and other laws which he at this time enacted he inscribed on +white tablets and submitted to the senate before taking any final action +with regard to them; and he allowed the senators to read, each one, the +articles separately, his object being that if any provision did not +please them, or if they could suggest anything better, they might speak. +He was very desirous of being democratic, and once, when one of the +companions of his campaigns asked him to aid him in the capacity of +advocate, at first he pretended to be busy and bade one of his friends +serve as advocate; when, however, the petitioner grew angry and said: +"but as often as you needed my assistance, I did not send somebody else +to you in place of myself, but in person I encountered dangers everywhere +in your behalf," the emperor then entered the courtroom and pled his +cause. He also stood by a friend of his who was defendant in a suit, +having first communicated this very purpose to the senate: he saved the +friend but was so far from being angry at his accuser, although the +latter spoke most bluntly, that when he had to undergo a scrutiny +regarding his morals the emperor acquitted him, saying that his bluntness +was a necessary thing on account of the out-and-out baseness of the mass +of mankind. Augustus, indeed, punished others who were reported to be +conspiring against their sovereign. He had quaestors hold office in the +coast districts near the City and in certain other parts of Italy; and +this he did for several years. Yet at this time he was unwilling, as I +have remarked, [3] to enter the city on account of Drusus's death. + +[B.C. 8 _(a. u. 746)_] + +[-5-] But the next year, in which Asinius Gallus and Graius Marcius were +consuls, he came back and carried the laurel, contrary to custom, into +the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. No festival did he celebrate over his +achievements, thinking that he had lost far more in the death of Drusus +than he had gained by the victories. The consuls carried out the program +usual on such occasions and set some of the captives to fighting with one +another. Later, when they and the rest of the officials were accused of +having been appointed by means of some bribery, he did not investigate +the case but pretended not even to know of it. He did not like to visit +punishment on any of them or to pardon them if they were convicted. But +from office seekers he demanded before the elections a deposit of money +as a guarantee that they would resort to no such methods, on pain of +forfeiting what they had paid in. This course all approved.--As it was +not permissible for a slave to be tortured for evidence against his +master, he ordered that, as often as the necessity for such a course +should arise, the slave should be sold either to the State or to him, in +order that being now the property of some one else than the man on trial +he might be examined. Some found fault with this, because the law was to +be invalidated by the change of masters; but others declared it to be +necessary, because many under the previous arrangement united to take +advantage of the loophole offered and to get the offices. + +[-6-] Augustus, after this, although, as he said, he was minded to lay +aside the supreme power, since the second ten-year period had run out, +resumed it again with a show of reluctance and made a campaign against +the Celtae. He himself remained behind on Roman territory, but Tiberius +crossed the Rhine. The barbarians in dread of him, all except the +Sugambri, made overtures for peace, but they did not obtain their request +at this time,--for Augustus refused to conclude a truce with them if they +lacked the Sugambri,--nor did they later. To be sure, the Sugambri, too, +sent envoys, but they failed completely to accomplish anything: on the +contrary, all of them, a numerous and distinguished band, met an untimely +end. Augustus arrested them and placed them in various cities: they took +this very much amiss and committed suicide. The tribes then were +quiet for a time, but later they amply requited the Romans for the +calamity.--Besides doing this Augustus granted money to the soldiers, not +as to victors, though he himself had taken the name of imperator and had +given it to Tiberius, but because this was the first time that they had +Gaius appearing in the exercises with them. He advanced Tiberius to the +position of imperator in place of Drusus, and besides exalting him with +that title appointed him consul once more. According to the ancient +custom he had a written notice bulletined for the public benefit before +Tiberius entered upon the office, and he furthermore accorded him the +solemnity of a triumph. Augustus himself did not wish to hold it, but +obtained the privilege of a horse-race perpetually upon his birthday. He +enlarged the pomerium and renamed the month called Sextilis, Augustus. +The people generally wanted September to be so named, because he had been +born in it, but he preferred the other month, in which he had first been +appointed consul and had conquered in many great battles. It was in these +things that he took pride. + +[-7-] The death of Maecenas caused him grief. He had enjoyed many kind +services at his hands, for which reason he had entrusted him, though but +a knight, with the care of the City for a long time, but especially +was his ministry of use when the emperor's passion became nearly +uncontrollable. Maecenas was then able to banish his anger and to lead him +into a gentler frame of mind. Here is an instance. Maecenas once found +his patron holding court, and seeing that would undoubtedly condemn many +persons to death, he undertook to push through the bystanders and +get Finding this impossible, he wrote on a tablet: "Pray desist now, +executioner." Making as if it contained something different, he threw it +into the lap of Augustus, and the latter imposed no death sentences but +immediately rose and left. The emperor was not displeased at such hints +but rather glad of them, because whatever excess of anger he felt by +reason of his own nature and the press of affairs he was able to tone +down with the aid of his friend's frank advice.--This also is a very +great proof of Maecenas's excellence, that he made himself liked by +Augustus, in spite of resisting his projects, and pleased all the people. +Though he had tremendous influence with the emperor, so that he could +bestow offices and honors upon many men, he did not lose his head but +continued to the end of his life in the equestrian class. For all these +reasons Augustus missed him greatly, and he was affected by the fact that +his minister, though irritated about his own wife, had left him as his +heir and had put all his property, save a very small amount, in his hands +to give to his friends or not, as he saw fit. Such was the character of +Maecenas and such his treatment of Augustus. He was the first to construct +a swimming pool of warm water in the city and the first to devise signs +for letters, to facilitate speed,--a system which, through Aquila [4] a +freedman, he taught to a number. + +[B.C. 7 (_a. u._ 747)] + +[-8-] Tiberius on the first day that he began the consulship with Gnaeus +Piso convened the senate in the Octavium, because it was outside the +pomerium. After assigning himself the duty of repairing the temple of +Concord, in order that he might inscribe upon it his own name and that of +Drusus, he held his triumph, and in company with his mother dedicated the +so-called Precinct of Livia. He himself entertained the senate on the +Capitol, and she the women privately. Not much later, as there was some +disturbance in Germany, he took the field. The festival held in honor of +the return of Augustus was managed by Gaius together with Piso, in his +place. The Campus Agrippae (except the portico) and the Diribitorium +Augustus himself made public property. The latter was the largest house +ever constructed under a single roof; now the whole top of it has been +taken off because it could not be put together solidly again, and the +edifice stands wide open to the sky. Agrippa had left it still in the +process of building, and it was completed at this time. The portico +in the plain, which Polla his sister (who had also decorated the +race-courses) was making, was not yet finished. Meantime funeral combats +in honor of Agrippa were given, all except Augustus wearing dark clothing +and even his sons the same, and there were both duels and contests of +groups; they were held in the Saepta out of honor to Agrippa and because +many of the structures surrounding the Forum had been burned. The blame +for the fire was laid upon the debtor class and they were suspected of +having set it with the purpose of having some of their debts remitted +when they appeared to have lost considerable. They obtained nothing, +however. The lanes at this time were provided with certain supervisors +from among the people, whom we call road commissioners[5] They were +allowed to use official dress and two lictors just in the places where +they had jurisdiction and on certain days, and they were given charge of +the body of slaves which previously had accompanied the aediles to save +buildings that were set afire,--an arrangement still continued to the +present day. They, together with the tribunes and praetors, were by lot +appointed to have charge of the entire city, which was divided into +fourteen wards.--These were all the events of that year, for nothing +worthy of mention happened in Germany. + +[B.C. 6 (_a. u._ 748)] + +[-9-] The year following, which marked the consulship of Gaius Antistius +and Laelius Balbus, Augustus was displeased to see that Gaius and Lucius, +who were being brought up in the lap of sovereignty, did not carefully +imitate his ways. They not only lived too luxuriously, but showed +unseemly audacity. Lucius once entered the theatre by himself and became +the center of attraction of the whole population; some merely let +him engross their thoughts and others openly paid court to him. This +treatment made him more arrogant, and among his other doings he proposed +for consul Gaius, who was not yet a iuvenis. His father, however, +expressed the earnest wish that no such complication of circumstances +might arise as once occurred in his own case,--that any one younger than +twenty should be consul. When the people still remained urgent he then +said that a man ought to receive this office at time when he would not be +liable to error himself and could resist the passions of the populace. +After that he gave Gaius a priesthood, with the right of attendance in +the senate and of beholding spectacles and sitting at banquets with that +body. And wishing in some way [6] to rebuke them still more severely he +bestowed upon Tiberius the tribunician authority for five years, and +assigned to him Armenia, which was becoming estranged since the death of +Tigranes. The result was that he was soon at odds with the people and +Tiberius, though without effecting anything. The people felt that they +had been slighted, and Tiberius feared their anger. He was, however, soon +sent to Rhodes on the pretext that he needed some education; and he +took not even his entire retinue, to say nothing of others, that so his +appearance and his deeds might drop out of their minds. [The trip he made +as a private person except in so far as he compelled the Parians to +sell him the statue of Vesta, that it might be placed in the temple of +Concord. When he reached the island he neither behaved at all nor spoke +in an overweening way.--This is the truest reason for his foreign +journey.] There is also a story current that he did this on account of +his wife Julia, because he could no longer endure her; at any rate she +was left behind at Rome. [Others have said that he was angry at not +having been designated Caesar. Others still, that he was driven out by +Augustus, being accused of plotting against the latter's children. But +that his departure was not for the sake of education nor because he was +displeased at the decrees passed became plain from many of his subsequent +actions, and especially through his immediately opening his will at that +time, and reading it to his mother and to Augustus. But all possible +conjectures were made.] + +[B.C. 5 (_a. u._ 749)] + + The following year Augustus in the course of his twelfth consulship + placed Gaius among the iuvenes and at the same time brought him + before the senate, declared him Princeps luventutis, and allowed + him to become cavalry commander. + + * * * * * + + [B.C. 2 (_a. u._ 752)] + + And after the elapse of a year Lucius also obtained all the honors + that had been granted to his brother Gaius. On an occasion when the + populace had gathered and were asking that some reforms be instituted, + when, indeed, they had sent for this purpose the tribunes to Augustus, + Lucius came and deliberated with them about their demands; and at + this all were pleased. + +[-10-]Augustus limited the number of the populace to be supplied with +grain, something previously left vague, to twenty myriads, and, as some +say, he gave each one sixty denarii.. .. to Mars, and that he himself and +his grandsons, as often as they pleased, and those who were passing +from the classification of children and were being registered among +the iuvenes, should invariably resort thither; that magistrates being +despatched to offices abroad should make that their starting-point; that +the senate should there declare their votes in regard to the granting +of triumphs and the victors celebrating them should devote to this Mars +their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who might +obtain triumphal honors should have their likenesses in bronze erected +in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were +ever recovered, they should be placed in the temple; that a festival of +the god should be celebrated near the Scalae by the persons successively +occupying the office of praefectus alae; that a nail should be driven for +his glory by those acting as censors; that senators have the right to +undertake the work of furnishing the horses that were to compete in the +equestrian contest, as well as the general care of the temple, precisely +as had been provided by law in the case of Apollo and in the case of +Jupiter Capitolinus. + +These matters settled, Augustus dedicated that spacious hall: yet to +Gaius and to Lucius he gave once and for all powers to officiate at all +similar consecrations, on the strength of a kind of consular authority +(founded on precedent) that they were to use. They, too, directed the +horse-race on this occasion, and their brother Agrippa took part with +the children of the leading families in the so-called "Troy" equestrian +games. Two hundred and sixty lions were slaughtered in the hippodrome. +There was a gladiatorial combat in the Saepta, and a naval battle of +"Persians" and "Athenians" was given on the spot, where even at the +present day some relics of it are still exhibited. The above were the +names applied to the parties engaged, and the Athenians, as of old, came +out victorious. + +In the course of the spectacle he let water into the Flaminian Hippodrome +and thirty-six crocodiles were there cut in pieces. However, Augustus did +not serve as consul every day continuously, but after holding office a +little while he gave the title of the consulship to another. + +These were the exercises in honor of Mars. To Augustus himself a sacred +contest was offered in Neapolis, the Campanian city, nominally because he +had helped it rise when it was prostrated by earthquake and by fire, +but in reality because the inhabitants, alone of their neighbors, were +enthusiastic over Greek customs; and he also received the title of +Father, with, binding force (for previously he was merely spoken of by +that name and no decree had been passed). Moreover, it was now that for +the first time he appointed two pretorian prefects, Quintus Ostorius +Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper. This term "prefect" is the word which +I, too, shall use solely to designate the commanders of any body, since +it has won its way into general currency. Likewise Pylades the dancer +conducted certain games, not performing any manual labor in connection +with them (since he was now a man of advanced age) but employing the +insignia of office and authorizing the necessary expenditures. Similarly +the praetor Quintus Crispinus conducted games (though I need lay no +emphasis on that point) and under his management knights and women of +families not unknown to fame were brought into the orchestra. But of all +this Augustus made no account; his daughter Julia, however, proved so +dissolute that she held revels and drinking bouts by night in the +Forum and on the very rostra. When at last he found this out, he was +exceedingly enraged. He had guessed before that she did not lead a right +life, but refused to believe it. For those who hold supreme power are +acquainted with anything better than with their own affairs. Their own +deeds do not go undetected by their associates, but they are not fully +aware of the latter's. In this instance [when he learned what was going +on], he gave way to such violent rage that he could not keep the matter +to himself, but communicated it to the senate. As a result she was +banished to the island of Pandateria, near Campania, and her mother +Scribonia voluntarily was the companion of her voyage. Of the men who +enjoyed her favors Iullus Antonius, on the ground that his conduct was +prompted by designs upon the monarchy, was put to death, along with +others, [prominent persons]. The remainder were banished to islands. +[And since there was a tribune among them he was not tried till he had +completed his term of office.] Many other women, too, were accused of +similar behavior, but the emperor would not permit all the suits: he set +a definite time and forbade investigation of what had occurred previous +to that. In the case of his daughter he would show no mercy, urging that +he would rather have been Phoebe's father than hers, but the rest he +spared. Now Phoebe been a freedwoman of Julia's and the companion of her +undertakings, and had already caused her own death. For this Augustus +praised her. + + [B.C. 1 (_a. u._ 753)] + + Gaius' captaincy of the legions on the Ister was a peaceful period. + He fought no war, not because there was none but because he cultivated + ruling in quiet and safety, and the dangers were assigned to others. + +The revolt of the Armenians and the Parthians' cooeperation with them kept +Augustus sorrowful, and he was at a loss to know what to do. His age +rendered him incapable of campaigning, Tiberius (as stated) had already +withdrawn, he could not venture to send any other influential man, +and Gaius and Lucius were, as it happened, young and inexperienced in +affairs. Still, under the prod of necessity, he chose Gaius, gave him +the proconsular authority and a wife (an act intended to increase his +dignity) and assigned advisers to him. Gaius set out and was everywhere +received with marks of distinction, occupying as he did the position of +the emperor's grandson,--one might almost say son,--and Tiberius went +to Chios and paid him court to rid himself of suspicion. He humiliated +himself and groveled at the feet not only of Gaius but of all the +latter's associates. On his return to Syria, after no great successes +won, he was wounded. + +[When the barbarians heard of the campaign of Gaius, Phrataces sent to +Augustus men to explain what had occurred and asked to get back his +brothers on condition of accepting peace. + +[A.D. 1 (_a. u._ 754)] + +The emperor's reply, addressed simply to "Phrataces," without the title +of king, directed him to lay aside the royal name and withdraw from +Armenia. The Parthian, however, instead of being cowed at this, wrote +back in a generally supercilious tone, calling himself "king of kings," +but the other only "Caesar."--Tigranes did not at once send any envoys, +but when Artabazus somewhat later fell sick and died he despatched a +letter, not writing the name "king" in it, and asked Augustus for the +kingdom. Influenced by these considerations and in fear, likewise, of war +with the Parthians, the emperor accepted the gifts and bade him go with +good hopes to meet Gaius in Syria.] + +[-10a-(_Boissevain_)] ... other party from Egypt that campaigned against +them they repulsed, and did not yield till a tribune from the pretorian +guard was sent against them. He in progress of time checked their +incursions, and for a long period no senator governed the cities in this +region. + +Coincident with these troubles there was a new movement on the part of +the Celtae. Some time earlier Domitius, while still governing the regions +adjacent to the Ister, had intercepted the Hermunduri (a tribe that for +some unknown reason had left their native land and were wandering about +in search of a different country), and he had settled them in a portion +of Marcomania; next, encountering no opposition, he had crossed the +Albis, cemented friendship with the barbarians on the other side, and +set up an altar to Augustus to commemorate the event. Just now he +had transferred his position to the Rhine, where, in pursuance of an +intention to have his subordinates restore certain Cheruscian exiles, he +had met with misfortune and had caused the other barbarians likewise to +concieve a contempt for the Romans. This was, however, the extent of his +operations during the year in question, for because of the Parthian war +impending no chastisement was visited upon the rebels immediately. + +Nevertheless the war with the Parthians did not materialize. Phrataces +heard that Gaius was in Syria, equipped with consular powers, and was +furthermore uneasy about home interests in which even previously he had +failed to discern a friendly feeling; hence he hastened to effect a +reconciliation, secured on the proviso that he himself should depart from +Armenia and his brothers remain over seas. + +[A.D. 2(_a. u._ 755)] + +Now the Armenians fell into conflict with the Romans the following year, +in which Publius Vinicius and Publius Varus were consuls. The restraining +influence of the fact that Tigranes had perished in some barbarian war +and that Erato had resigned the sovereignty was nullified as soon as they +were delivered to a Mede, Ariobarzanes, who had once come to the Romans +in company with Tiridates. They accomplished nothing worthy of note save +that a leader named Addon,[7] who was occupying Artagira, induced Gaius +to come close up to the wall, pretending that he would reveal to him some +secrets of the Parthian king, and then wounded him. In the consequent +siege he maintained a prolonged resistance. When he was at last +overthrown, not only Augustus but Gaius, too, assumed the title of +imperator, and Armenia passed into the control of Ariobarzanes. Soon +after the latter died, and his son Artabazus received it as the gift of +Augustus and the senate. Gaius fell ill from the wound, and though he +was not in any way robust and the condition of his health had, in fact, +injured his mind, he now grew still more feeble. At length he begged +leave to retire to private life, and it was his wish to take up his abode +somewhere in Syria. Augustus, in the depth of grief, communicated his +desire to the senate, and urged him to come at any rate to Italy and +then do what he pleased. So Gaius resigned at once all the duties of his +office and took a coastwise trading vessel to Lycia, where, at Limyra, +he breathed his last. Prior to his demise the spark of Lucius's life had +also paled. (He, too, was being given practice in many places, sent now +here, now there; and he was wont to read personally the letters of Gaius +before the senate, so often as he was present.) His death was due to a +sudden illness. In connection with both these cases, therefore, suspicion +rested upon Livia, and particularly because the return of Tiberius +from Rhodes to Rome occurred at this time. [-11-] As for him he was so +extremely well versed in the art of divination by the stars, having with +him Thrasyllus, who was a past master of all astrology, that he had +understood accurately what was fated both for himself and for them. And +the story goes that once in Rhodes he was about to push Thrasyllus from +the walls, because the latter was the only one aware of all he had in +mind; observing, however, that his intended victim looked gloomy, he +asked him why his face was overcast. When the other replied that he +suspected some danger, he was surprised [8] and gave up his murderous +designs. Thrasyllus had such a clear knowledge of all things that when +he descried approaching afar off the boat which brought to Tiberius the +message from his mother and Augustus to return to Rome, he told him in +advance what news it would bring. + +[-12-] The bodies of Lucius and of Gaius were brought to Rome by the +military tribunes and by the chief men of each city. The targes and the +golden spears which they had received from the knights on entering the +class of iuvenes were set up in the senate-house. + +Augustus was once called "master" by the people, but he not only forbade +that any one should use this form of address to him but took very good +care in every way to enforce his command. + +[A.D. 3 (_a. u._ 756)] + +When his third ten-year period had been accomplished, he then accepted +the rulership for the fourth time,--of course under compulsion! He had +become milder through age and more hesitating in regard to offending any +of the senators and now wished to have no differences with any of them. + + For lending for three years to such as needed it fifteen hundred + myriads of denarii, without interest, he was praised and reverenced + by all. + +Once, when a fire destroyed the palace, and many persons offered him +large amounts, he would take nothing except an aureus from the various +peoples and a denarius from single individuals. The name _aureus_, which +I give here, is a local term for a piece of money worth twenty-five +denarii.[9] Some of the Greeks also, whose books we read for acquiring +a pure Attic style, give it this name. When Augustus had restored his +dwelling he made all of it public property, either because of the +contributions made by the people or because he was high priest and wished +to live in a building both private and public. + +[-13-] The people urged Augustus very strongly to rescind the sentence of +exile passed upon his daughter, but he answered that fire would mix with +water before she should be brought back. And the populace did throw a +good deal of fire into the Tiber. For the time being they accomplished +nothing, but later they brought such pressure to bear that she was at +last moved from the island to the mainland. + + And later the outbreak of war with the Celtae found Augustus worn + out in body (by reason of old age and sickness) and incapable of taking + the field. Yielding, then, partly to the requirements of the situation + and partly to the persuasions of Julia[10] (who had already been restored + from banishment) +he both adopted Tiberius and sent him out[11] against the Celtae, granting +him the tribunician authority for ten years. + +[A.D. 4 (_a. u._ 757)] + +Yet suspecting that he might lose his head and fearing a possible +insurrection he adopted for him also his nephew Germanicus, though +Tiberius himself had a son. After this he took courage, and feeling that +he had successors and supporters, he became desirous to organize the +senate once more. So he nominated the ten senators whom he most honored +and appointed three of them, selected by lot, to be scrutinizers. There +were not many, however, who either imposed sentence on themselves +beforehand,--permission being given them to do so, just as +previously,--or were retired against their will. + +This business, then, was managed by others. The emperor himself took a +census of the inhabitants of Italy possessing property valued at not less +than five myriad denarii. The weaker citizens and those dwelling outside +of Italy he did not compel to undergo the taking of a census, for he +feared that they might be disturbed and show insubordination of some +sort. And in order that he might not seem to be acting in the capacity +of censor (for the reason I mentioned before) [12] he assumed proconsular +powers for the purpose of completing the census and accomplishing the +purification. And inasmuch as many of the young men of the senatorial +class and of the equestrian, as well, had grown poor though not at fault +for it themselves, he made up to most of them the required amount of +property, and in the case of some eighty increased it to thirty myriads. + +[A.D. 4 ( _a. u._ 757) ] + +Since, also, many were giving unrestricted emancipation to their slaves, +he directed what age the manumitter and likewise the person to be +liberated by him must have reached: moreover, what regulations people +in general, and the former masters, should observe toward those made +freedmen. + +[-14-] While he was thus occupied plots were formed against him, and +notably one by Gnaeus Cornelius, a son of the daughter of Pompey the +Great. For some time the emperor was a prey to great perplexity not +wishing to kill the men,--for he saw that no greater safety would be +his by their destruction,--nor yet to let them go, for fear this might +attract others to conspire against him. While he was in a dilemma as to +what he should do and could not be free from anxiety by day nor from +terror by night, Livia one day said to him:-- + +"What is this, husband? Why is it you do not sleep!" + +"Wife," answered Augustus, "who could be even to the slightest degree +free from care, that has so many enemies and is so constantly the object +of plots of one set of men or another? Do you not see how many are +attacking both me and our sovereignty? The vengeance meted out to those +found guilty does not retard them: quite the contrary, as if they were +pressing forward to do some noble action the rest also hasten to perish +similarly." + +Livia, hearing this, said: "That you should be the object of plots is not +remarkable, nor is it contrary to human nature. Having so large an empire +you must do many things and naturally you cause grief to not a few +people. A ruler can not please all: on the contrary, even an exceedingly +upright sovereign must inevitably make foes of many persons. For those +who wish to be unjust are many more than those who act justly, and their +desires it is impossible to satisfy. Even among such as possess a certain +excellence some yearn for many great rewards which they can not obtain +and some chafe because they are inferior to others: so both of them find +fault with the ruler. From this you can see that it is impossible to +avoid evil, and furthermore that of all the attacks made none is upon you +but all upon your position of supremacy. If you were a private citizen, +no one would willingly do you any harm unless he had previously received +some injury. But for the supremacy and for the good things that it +contains all yearn, and those who occupy any post of influence far more +than their inferiors. It is the nature of wicked men, who have very +little sense, to do so. It is implanted in their dispositions, just like +anything else, and it is impossible by either persuasion or compulsion to +remove such a bent from some of them. There is no law or fear stronger +than natural tendencies. Reflect on this and do not take the offences of +others so hard, but keep yourself and your supremacy carefully guarded, +that we may hold it safely not by virtue of inflicting severe punishments +but by means of strict watchfulness." + +[-15-] To this Augustus replied: "Wife, I too know that nothing great is +ever free from envy and plots,--least of all sole power. We should be +peers of the gods if we did not have troubles and cares and fears beyond +all private individuals. But to me it is also a source of grief that this +is inevitably so and that no cure for it can be found." + +"Yet," said Livia, "since some men are so constituted as to want to do +wrong in any event, let us guard against them. We have many soldiers who +protect us,--some marshaled against foreign foes and others about your +person,--and a large retinue, so that by their help we may live safely +both at home and abroad." + +"I do not need," said Augustus, interrupting, "to state that many men on +many occasions have perished at the hands of their immediate associates. +For in addition to other disadvantages this, too, is a most distressing +thing in monarchies, that we fear not only enemies (like other people) +but also our friends. Many more rulers have been plotted against by such +persons than by those who had nothing to do with them. This is to be +expected, since the inner circle is with the potentate day and night, +exercising and eating, and he has to take food and drink that they have +prepared. Moreover, against acknowledged enemies you can array these very +men, but against the latter themselves there is no one else to employ as +an ally. To us, therefore, the whole time through, solitude is dreadful, +company dreadful: to be unguarded is terrifying, but most terrifying are +the guards themselves: enemies are difficult to deal with, but still +greater difficulties are presented by our friends. They must all be +called friends, whether they are such or not, but even if one should find +them most reliable, even so one may not trust one's self in their company +with a clear, carefree, unsuspecting heart. This, then, and the fact +that it is requisite to take measures of defence against ordinary +conspirators, make the situation overwhelmingly dreadful. For to be +always compelled to be inflicting punishment and chastisement upon +somebody is highly repugnant to men of character." + +[-16-] "You are right," answered Livia, "and I have some advice to give +you,--at least, if you prove willing to receive it and willing not to +censure me that, woman as I am, I dare to make suggestions to you which +no one else, even of your most intimate friends, would venture. And this +is not through any lack of knowledge on their part, but because they are +not bold enough to speak." + +"Say on," rejoined Augustus, "and let us have it." + +"I will tell you," continued Livia, "without hesitation, because I share +your comforts and adversities, and while you are safe I myself hold +dominion day by day, whereas if you come to any harm (which Heaven +forbid!) I shall perish with you. Well, then, human nature persuades some +to sin under any conditions, and there is no device for controlling +it when it has once started toward any goal. What seems good to +persons,--not to rehearse the vices of the masses,--at once induces very +many of them to do wrong. [-17-] The boast of birth and pride of wealth, +greatness of honor, audacity founded on bravery, and conceit due to +authority, bring shipwreck to not a few. There is no making nobility +ignoble, bravery cowardly, or prudence foolish: it is impossible. Nor, +again, is it to curtail men's abundance or to strike down ambitions where +conduct has been correct: that is iniquitous. That he who is on the +defensive and anticipates others' movements should incur injury and ill +repute is inevitable. Come, let us change our policy and spare some of +them. To me it seems far more feasible to set things right by kindness +than by harshness. Not only are those who grant pardon loved by the +objects of their clemency, who strive to repay the favor, but all others +both respect and reverence them and will not readily endure to see harm +done to them. Sovereigns, however, who maintain an inexorable anger not +only are hated by those who have aught to fear, but cause uneasiness to +all the rest. As a result, men plot against them to avoid meeting an +untimely fate. Do you not notice that physicians very rarely have +recourse to cutting and burning, wishing to avoid aggravating a person's +disease, but in the majority of cases soothe and cure by means of +fomentations and mild drugs? Do not think that because those ailments +have to do with the body and these with the mind that they are +essentially different. Very many experiences of the body are similar in +a way to what goes on in the souls of men, no matter how bodiless the +latter may be. The soul contracts under the influence of fear and expands +under that of wrath. Pain humiliates men and audacity puffs them up. The +correspondences then are very close and therefore both kinds of trouble +need treatments which are much alike. A gentle speech uttered to a man +causes all his unruliness to subside, just as a harsh one provokes to +anger even an easy-going person. The granting of pardon melts the most +audacious, just as punishment irritates the most mild. Acts of violence +inflame all men in every instance, even though such measures may be +thoroughly just, but considerate treatment mollifies them. Hence +one would more readily brave great dangers through persuasion and +voluntarily, than under compulsion. Such is the inherent, unalterable +quality of both methods of behavior that even among brute beasts that +have no mind many of the strongest and fiercest are domesticated by +petting and are subdued by coaxing, whereas many of the most cowardly and +weak are made unmanageable and maddened by cruelties and terrors. + +[-18-] "I am not saying that we must spare absolutely all wrongdoers, for +we must cut out of the way the daredevil and busybody, the man of +evil nature and evil devices, who gives himself up to an unyielding, +persistent baseness, just as we treat parts of the body that are quite +incurable. But of the rest, who err through youth or ignorance or +a misunderstanding or some other chance, some purposely and others +unwillingly, it is proper to admonish some with words, to bring others to +their senses by threats, and to handle still others with moderation in +some different way, precisely as in other [matters] ... all men impose +upon some greater and upon others lesser punishments. So far as these +persons are concerned you may employ moderation without danger, +inflicting upon some the penalty of banishment, upon others that of loss +of political rights, upon still others a money fine. You may also place +some of them in country districts or in certain cities. + +"In the past a few have been brought to their senses by missing what they +hoped for, by failing to secure what they aimed at. A degradation in +seats[13] and factional disputes involving disgrace, as well as being +injured or terrified before they could make a move, has improved not a +few. Yet one well born and courageous would prefer to die rather than to +have any such experience. As a result, vengeance would become not easier +for the plotters but more difficult, and we should be able to live in +safety, since not a word could be said against us. At present we are +thought to kill many through anger,[14] many because of a desire for +their money, others through fear of their bravery, and a great many +others on account of jealousy of their excellence. No one will readily +believe that a person possessing so great an authority and power can +seriously be the object of the plots of any unarmed individual. Some talk +as above and others say that we hear a great many lies and foolishly pay +heed to many of them, believing them true. They assert that those who spy +into and overhear doubtful matters concoct many falsehoods, some being +influenced by enmity, others by wrath, some because they can get money +from their foes, others because they can get no money from the same +persons, and further, that they report not only the fact of certain +persons having committed suspicious actions or intending to commit them, +but also how A said so-and-so, and B hearing it was silent, how one man +laughed and somebody else wept. + +[-19-] "I could cite innumerable other details of like nature which, +no matter how true they were, are no business for free men to concern +themselves about or report to you. If they went unnoticed, they would do +you no harm, but when heard they might irritate you even against your +will: and that ought by no means to happen, especially in a ruler of the +people. Now many believe that from this cause large numbers unjustly +perish, some without a trial and others by some unwarranted condemnation +of a court. They will not admit that the evidence given or statements +made under torture or any similar proof against them is genuine. This is +the sort of talk, though some of it may not be just, which is reported in +the case of practically all so put to death. And you ought, Augustus, +to be free not only from injustice but from the appearance of it. It is +sufficient for a private individual to avoid irregular conduct, but it +behooves a ruler to incur not even the suspicion of it. You are the +leader of human beings, not of beasts, and the only way you can make +them really friendly to you is by persuading them by every means +and constantly, without a break, that you will wrong no one either +voluntarily or involuntarily. A man can be forced to fear another but he +has to be persuaded to love him: and he is to be persuaded by the good +treatment he himself receives and the benefits he sees conferred on +others. The person, however, who suspects that somebody has perished +unjustly both fears that he may some day meet the same fate and is +compelled to hate the one responsible for the deed. And to be hated by +one's subjects is (besides containing no element of good) exceedingly +unprofitable. The general mass of people feel that ordinary individuals +must defend themselves against all who wrong them in any way or else be +despised and consequently oppressed: but rulers, they think, ought to +prosecute those who wrong the State but endure those who are thought +to commit offences against them privately; rulers can not be harmed by +disdain or assault, because they have many guardians to protect them. + +[-20-] "When I hear this and turn my attention to this I feel inclined to +tell you outright to put no one to death for any such reason. Places of +supremacy are established for the preservation of subjects, to prevent +them from being injured either by one another or by foreign tribes: +such places are not, by Jupiter, for the purpose of allowing the rulers +themselves to hard their subjects. It is most glorious to be able not to +destroy most of the citizens but to save them all, if possible. It is +right to educate them by laws and, favours and admonitions, that they may +be right-minded and further to watch and guard them, so that even if they +wish to do wrong they may not be able. And if there is anything ailing, +we must cure and correct it in some way, in order that there may be no +entire loss. To endure the offences of the multitude is a task requiring +great prudence and force: if any one should simply punish all of them as +they deserve, before he knew it he would have destroyed the majority of +mankind. For these reasons, then, I give you my opinion to the effect +that you should not inflict the death penalty for any such error, but +bring the men to their senses in some other way, so that they will not +again do anything dangerous. What crime could a man commit shut up on +an island, or in the country, or in some city, not only destitute of a +throng of servants and money, but under guard, if it be necessary? If the +enemy were anywhere near here or some alien force had dominion over this +sea so that one of the prisoners might escape to them and do us some +harm, or if, again, there were strong cities in Italy with fortifications +and weapons, so that if a man seized them he might become a menace to us, +that would be a different story. But all towns in this neighborhood are +unarmed and lacking any walls that would serve in war, and the enemy is +removed from them by vast distances; a long stretch of sea, and a journey +by land including mountains and rivers hard to cross lie between them and +us. + +Why, then, should one fear this man or that man, defenceless, private +citizens, here in the middle of your empire and enclosed by your armed +forces? I can not see how any one could conceive such a notion or how the +maddest madman could accomplish anything. + +[-21-] "With these premises, therefore, let us give the idea a trial. The +discontented will soon themselves change their ways and bring about an +improvement in others. You notice that Cornelius is both of good birth +and renowned. This matter has to be reasoned out in a human fashion. The +sword can not effect everything for you; it would be a great blessing if +it could bring some men to their senses and persuade them or even compel +them to love any one with genuine affection: but, instead, it will +destroy the body of one man and alienate the minds of the rest. People +do not become more attached to any one because of the vengeance they see +meted out to others, but they become more hostile through the influence +of their own fears. That is one side of the picture. On the other hand, +those who obtain pardon for any crime and repent are ashamed to wrong +their benefactors again, but render them much service in return, hoping +to receive much more again for it. When a man is saved by some one who +has been wronged, he thinks that his rescuer, if fairly treated, will +go to any lengths to aid him. Heed me, therefore, dearest, and make a +change. Then all your other acts that have caused displeasure will +appear to have been due to necessity. In conducting so great a city from +democracy into monarchy it is impossible to make the transfer without +bloodshed. But if you follow your old policy, you will be thought to have +done these unpleasant things intentionally." + +[-22-] Augustus heeded these suggestions of Livia and released all those +against whom charges were pending, admonishing some of them orally; +Cornelius he even appointed consul. Later he so conciliated both him and +the other men that no one else again really plotted against him or had +the reputation of so doing. Livia had had most to do with saving the life +of Cornelius, yet she was destined to be held responsible for the death +of Augustus. + +[A.D. 5 (a. u. 758)] + +At this time, in the consulship of Cornelius and Valerius Messala, +earthquakes of ill omen occurred and the Tiber tore away the bridge so +that the City was under water for seven days. There was an eclipse of the +sun, and famine set in. This same year Agrippa was enrolled among the +iuvenes, but obtained none of the same privileges as his brother. The +senators attended the horse-races separately and the knights also +separately from the remainder of the populace, as is done nowadays. And +since the noblest families did not show themselves inclined to give their +daughters for the service of Vesta, a law was passed that the daughters +of freedmen might likewise be consecrated. Many contended for the honor, +and so they drew lots in the senate in the presence of their fathers; no +priestess, however, was appointed from this class. + +[-23-] The soldiers were displeased at the small size of the prizes for +the wars that had taken place at this period and no one was willing to +carry arms for longer than the specified term of his service. It was +therefore voted that five thousand denarii be given to members of the +pretorian guard when they had ended sixteen, and three thousand to +the other soldiers when they had completed twenty years' service. +Twenty-three legions were being supported at that time, or, as others +say, twenty-five, of citizen soldiers. Only nineteen of them now remain. +The Second (Augusta) is the one that winters in Upper Britain. Of the +Third there are three divisions,--the Gallic, in Phoenicia; the Cyrenaic, +in Arabia; the Augustan, in Numidia. The Fourth. (Scythian) is in Syria, +the Fifth (Macedonian), in Dacia. The Sixth is divided into two parts, of +which the one (Victrix) is in Lower Britain, and the other (Ferrata) is +in Judaea. The soldiers of the Seventh, generally called Claudians, are in +Upper Moesia. Those of the Eighth, Augustans, are in Upper Germany. Those +of the Tenth are both in Upper Pannonia (Legio Gemina) and in Judaea. +The Eleventh, in Lower Moesia, is the Claudian. This name two legions +received from Claudius because they had not fought against him in the +insurrection of Camillus. The Twelfth (Fulminata) is in Cappadocia: the +Thirteenth (Gemina) in Dacia: the Fourteenth (Gemina) in Upper Pannonia: +the Fifteenth (Apollinaris) in Cappadocia. The Twentieth, called both +Valeria and Victrix, is also in Upper Britain. These, I believe, together +with those that have the title of the Twenty second[15] and winter in +Upper Germany Augustus took in charge and kept; and this I say in spite +of the fact that they are by no means called Valerians by all and do +not themselves use the title any longer. These are preserved from the +Augustan legions. Of the rest some have been scattered altogether and +others were mixed in with different legions by Augustus himself and by +the other emperors, from which circumstance they are thought to have been +called Gemina. + +[-24-] Now that I have once been brought into a discussion of the +legions, I shall speak of the forces as they are at present according +to the disposition made by subsequent emperors: in this way any one who +desires to learn anything about them may do so easily, finding all his +information written in one place. Nero organized the First legion, called +the Italian, and now wintering in Lower Moesia; Galba, the First legion, +called Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Seventh (Gemina), which is in +Spain; Vespasian, the Second, Adiutrix, in Lower Pannonia, and the Fourth +(the Flavian) in Syria; Domitian, the First (Minervia), in Lower Germany; +Trajan, the Second (the Egyptian), and the Thirtieth (Germanic), which he +also named after himself. Marcus Antoninus organized the Second, which +is in Noricum, and the Third, in Rhaetia; these are also called Italian: +Severus the Parthian legions, i. e., the First and the Third in +Mesopotamia and between them the Second, the one in Italy. + +This is at present the number of legions which are enrolled in the +service, exclusive of the cohortes urbanae and the pretorian guard. +At that time, in the days of Augustus, those I mentioned were being +supported, whether twenty-three or twenty-five altogether; and then there +was some allied force, whatever the size, of infantry and cavalry and +sailors. I can not state the exact figures. The body-guards, ten thousand +in all, were divided into ten portions, and the six thousand warders of +the city into four portions, and there were picked foreign horsemen +to whom the name Batavians is applied (from the island Batavia in the +Rhine), because the Batavians are noted for superiority in horsemanship. +I can not, however, state their exact number any more than that of the +evocati. He began to reckon in the latter from the time that he called +the warriors who had previously supported his father to arms again +against Antony; and he retained control of them. They constitute even now +a special corps and carry rods, like the centurions. + +For the distribution mentioned he needed money and therefore introduced +a motion into the senate to the effect that a definite permanent fund be +created, in order that without troubling any private citizen they might +obtain abundant support and rewards from the proposed appropriation. +The means for such a fund was accordingly sought.--As no one showed a +willingness to become aedile, some from the ranks of ex-quaestors and +ex-tribunes were compelled by lot to take the office. This happened +frequently at other times. + +[A.D. 6 (_a. u._ 759)] + +[-25-] After this, in the consulship of AEmilius Lepidus and Lucius +Arruntius, when no source for the fund was found that suited anybody, but +quite everybody felt dejected because such an attempt was being made, +Augustus in the name of himself and of Tiberius put money into +the treasury, which he called the aerarium militare. Some of the +ex-praetors--such as drew the lots--he instructed to administer it for +three years, employing two lictors apiece and such further assistance as +was fitting. This was done by successive officials for a number of years. +At present they are chosen by whoever is emperor and they go about +without lictors. Augustus himself made some further contributions and +promised to do this annually, and he accepted offers from kings and +certain peoples. From private individuals, though a number were ready +and glad to give (as they said), he would take nothing. But as all this +proved very slight in comparison with the large amount spent, and there +was need of some inexhaustible supply, he ordered each one of the +senators to devise means by himself, to write his plan in a book, and +give it to him to look over. This was not because he had no plan of his +own, but because he was most anxious to persuade them to choose the +one that he wished. Various men proposed various courses, but he would +approve none of them: instead, he arranged for five per cent. of the +inheritances and bequests which should be left by deceased persons +(except in the case of very near relations or poor families); he +pretended that he had found this tax suggestion in Caesar's memoirs. It +was a method that had been introduced once before, but had been later +abolished and was now introduced anew. In this way he increased the +revenues. The expenditures made by three men of consular rank, whom +the lot designated, he partly made smaller and partly did away with +altogether. + +[-26-] This was not the only source of trouble to the Romans: there was +also a severe famine. As a consequence, the gladiators and the slaves +offered for sale were removed to a distance of over seven hundred and +fifty stadia, Augustus and others dismissed the greater part of their +retinue, there was a cessation of lawsuits, and senators were permitted +to leave the city and go where they pleased. In order to prevent any +hindrance to decrees from this last measure it was ordered that all those +framed by as many as happened to attend meetings should be binding. +Moreover, ex-consuls were appointed to take charge of grain and bread +supplies, so as to have a stated quantity sold to each person. Those who +were recipients of public bounty had as much added to their supply gratis +by Augustus as they might obtain at any time. When even that did not +suffice, he forbade the citizens to hold any public festivals on his +birthday. + +Since also at this time many parts of the City fell a prey to fire, he +formed a company of freedmen in seven divisions to render assistance on +such occasions, and appointed a knight as their leader, thinking soon +to disband them. He did not do this, however. Having ascertained by +experience that the aid they gave was most valuable and necessary, he +kept them. The night-watchmen exist to the present day, subject to +special regulations, and those in the service are selected not from the +freedmen only any longer but from on the rest of the classes as well. +They have barracks in the city and draw pay from the public treasury. + +[-27-] The multitude, under the burden of the famine and the tax and the +losses sustained by fire, were ill at ease. They discussed openly many +schemes of insurrection and by night scattered pamphlets more still: this +move was said to be traceable to a certain Publius Rufus, but others were +suspected of it. Rufus could not have originated or have taken an +active part in it; therefore it was thought that others who aimed at a +revolution were making an illicit use of his name. An investigation +of the affair was resolved upon and rewards for information offered. +Information accordingly came in and the city as a result was stirred up. +This lasted till the scarcity of grain subsided, when gladiatorial games +in honor of Drusus were given by Germanicus Caesar and Tiberius Claudius +Nero, his sons. [In the course of them an elephant vanquished a +rhinoceros and a knight distinguished for his wealth fought as a +gladiator.] The people were encouraged by this honor shown to the memory +of Drusus and by Tiberius's dedication of the temple of the Dioscuri, +upon which he inscribed not only his name but also that of Drusus. +Himself he called Claudianus instead of Claudius, because of his adoption +into the family of Augustus. He continued to direct operations against +the enemy and visited the City constantly whenever opportunity offered; +this was partly on account of various kinds of business but chiefly owing +to fear that Augustus might promote somebody else during his absence. +These were the events in the City that year. + +In Achaea the governor died in the middle of his term and directions were +given to his quaestor and to his assessor (whom, as I have said,[16] we +call legatus) that the latter should administer the government as far as +the isthmus, and the former the rest of it. Herod [17] of Palestine, who +was accused by his brothers of some wrongdoing, was banished beyond the +Alps and his portion of the Palestinian domain reverted to the State. +[Augustus suffered from old age and infirmity, so that he could not +transact business for all that needed his aid: some cases he reviewed and +tried with his counselors, sitting upon the tribunal on the Palatine; +the embassies which came from the various nations and princes he put in +charge of three ex-consuls, under the arrangement that any one of them +individually might listen to such an embassy and return an answer, except +in cases where it was necessary for himself and the senate to render a +decision besides.] + +[-28-] During this same period also many wars took place. Pirates overran +many quarters, so that Sardinia had no senatorial governor for some +years, but was in charge of soldiers with knights for commanders. Not a +few cities rebelled, with the result that for two years the same persons +held office in the same provinces of the People, and were personally +appointed instead of being chosen by lot. The provinces of Caesar were +in general so arranged that men should govern in the same places for +a considerable time. However, I shall not go into all these matters +minutely. Many things not worthy of record happened in individual +instances, and no one would be benefited by the exact details. I shall +mention simply the events worth remembering, and very briefly, save those +of greatest importance. + +The Isaurians began marauding expeditions and kept on till they faced +grim war, but were finally subdued. The Gaetuli, discontented with their +king, Juba, and at the same time feeling themselves slighted because not +governed by the Romans, rose against him: they ravaged the neighboring +territory and killed even many of the Romans who made a campaign against +them. In fine, they gained so great an ascendancy that Cornelius Cossus, +who reduced them, received triumphal honors and title for it. While +these troubles were in progress expeditions against the Celtae were being +conducted by various leaders, and notably by Tiberius. He advanced first +to the river Visurgis and subsequently as far as the Albis, but nothing +of any moment was accomplished then, although not only Augustus but also +Tiberius was dubbed imperator for it, and Gaius Sentius, governor +of Germany, received triumphal honors. The Celtae were so afraid of their +foes that they made a truce with him not merely once but twice. And the +reason that peace was again granted them, in spite of their having broken +it so soon, was that the affairs of the Dalmatians and Pannonians, who +had begun a rebellion on a large scale, needed vigilant attention. + +[-29-] The Dalmatians, smarting under the levies of tribute, had for some +time previous kept quiet even against their will. But, at the same time +that Tiberius made his second campaign against the Celtae, Valerius +Messalinus, the governor of Dalmatia and Pannonia, was himself despatched +to the front with Tiberius, taking most of his army; they, too, were +ordered to send a contingent and on coming together for this purpose had +a chance to see the flower of their fighting force. After that there was +no more delay, but urged on particularly by one Bato, a Daesidiatian, at +first a few revolted and worsted the Romans that came against them, and +this success then led others to rebel. Next, the Breuci, a Pannonian +tribe, put another leader named Bato at their head and marched against +Sirmium and the Romans in the town. This they did not capture: Caecina +Severus, the governor of Moesia close by, he heard of their uprising +marched rapidly upon them, and joining battle with them near the river +Dravus vanquished their army. Hoping to renew the struggle soon, since +many of the Romans also had fallen, they turned to summon their allies, +and collected as many as they could. Meanwhile the Dalmatian Bato had +made a descent upon Salonae, and being himself grievously wounded with a +stone accomplished nothing, but sent some others, who wrought havoc along +the whole sea-coast as far as Apollonia. There, in spite of his +defeat, his representatives won a slight battle against the Romans who +encountered them. + +[-30-] Tiberius ascertaining this feared they might invade Italy and so +returned from Celtica: he sent Messalinus ahead and himself followed with +the rest of the army. Bato learned of their approach and though not yet +well went to meet Messalinus. He proved the latter's superior in open +conflict but was afterward conquered by an ambuscade. Thereupon he went +to Bato the Breucan, and making common cause with him in the war occupied +a mountain named Alma. Here they were defeated in a slight skirmish by +Rhoemetalces the Thracian, despatched in advance against them by Severus, +but resisted Severus himself vigorously. Later Severus withdrew to +Moesia because the Dacians and the Sauromatae were ravaging it, and while +Tiberius and Messalinus were tarrying in Siscia the Dalmatians overran +their allied territory and likewise caused many to revolt. Although +Tiberius approached them, they would engage in no open battle with him +but kept moving from one place to another, devastating a great deal of +ground. Owing to their knowledge of the country and the lightness of +their equipment they could easily go wherever they pleased. When winter +set in, they did much greater damage by invading Macedonia again. +Rhoemetalces and his brother Rhascuporis got the better of this force in +battle. + +[A.D. 7 (_a. u._ 760)] + +The rest did not stay in their territory while it was being ravaged +(this was principally later, in the consulship of Caecilius Metellus and +Lincinius Silanus), but took refuge on the heights, from which they made +descents whenever they saw a chance. + +[-31-] When Augustus learned this he began to be suspicious of Tiberius, +for he thought the latter might have overcome them soon but was delaying +purposely so that he might be under arms as long as possible, with war +for an excuse. The emperor therefore sent Germanicus, though he was then +quaestor, and gave him soldiers not only from the free born citizens but +from the freedmen, some of whom were slaves that he had taken from both +men and women, in return for their value, with food for six months, +and had set free. This was not the only measure he took in view of the +necessities of the war: he also postponed the review of the knights, +which was wont to occur in the Forum. And he vowed to conduct the Great +Games [18] because a woman had cut some letters on her arm and had +practiced some kind of divination. He knew well, to be sure, that she had +not been possessed by some divine power, but had done it intentionally. +Inasmuch, however, as the populace were terribly wrought up over the wars +and the famine (which had now set in once more), he, too, affected +to believe what was said and did anything that would lead to the +encouragement of the multitude as a matter of course. In view of the +stringency in the grain supply he again appointed two grain commissioners +from among the ex-consuls, together with lictors. As there was need +of further money for operations against the enemy and the support of +night-watchmen, he introduced the tax of two per cent. on the sale of +slaves, and he ordered that the money delivered from the public treasury +to the praetors who gave armed combats should no longer be expended. + +[-32-]The reason that he sent Germanicus and not Agrippa to take the +field was that the latter possessed a servile nature and spent most of +his time fishing, wherefore he also used to call himself Neptune. He used +to give way to violent anger and slandered Julia as a stepmother, while +upon Augustus he heaped abundant reproaches in the matter of his paternal +inheritance. When he could not be made to moderate his conduct he was +banished and his property was given to the aerarium militare: he himself +was put ashore on Planasia, the island near Corsica.--These were the +events in the City. + +Germanicus reached Pannonia, where armies from various points were +shortly to assemble; the Batos watched for Severus, who was approaching +from Moesia, and fell upon him unexpectedly, while he was encamped near +the Volcaean marshes. The pickets outside the ramparts they frightened +and hurled back within it, but as the men inside stood their ground, the +attacking party was defeated. After this the Romans divided, in order +that many detachments might overrun the country in separate places at one +time. Most of them did nothing worthy of note during this enterprise, +but Germanicus conquered in battle and badly demoralized the Maezei, a +Dalmatian tribe.--These were the results of that year. + +[A.D. 8 (_a. u._ 761)] + +[-33-] In the consulship of Marcus Furius with Sextus Nonius the +Dalmatians and Pannonians decided they would like to make peace because +they were in distress primarily from famine and then from disease that +followed it, due to their using grasses of various sorts and roots for +food. They did not attempt, however to open any negotiations, being +restrained by those who had no hope of preservation at the hands of the +Romans. So even as they were they still resisted. And one Scenobardus, +who had feigned a readiness to change sides, and had had dealings on this +very business with Manius Ennius, commander of the garrison in Siscia, +declaring that he was ready to desert, became afraid that he might be +injured ere his project was complete, and [19] ... + + _The Po, which they call the monarch of rivers that cleave the soil of + Italy, known by the name Eridanus, had its waters let into a very + broad excavation, on the command of the emperor Augustus. A seventh + division of the channel of this river flows through the center of the + state, affording at its mouth a most satisfactory harbor, and was + formerly believed (my authority is Dio) to be an entirely safe anchorage + for a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships._ (From the Latin of + Jordan.) + + When the famine at last had subsided, he conducted a horse-race in + the name of Germanicus, who was son of Drusus, and in the name of + his brother. On this occasion an elephant fought a rhinoceros, and a + knight who had once held a prominent position on account of + wealth contended in single combat. + + And he found himself sinking under the burden of old age and + physical weakness, so that he could not transact business with all the + persons that needed his services, he delivered to three ex-consuls the + care of the embassies that were constantly arriving from peoples and + kings; each one of these officials separately was empowered to give any + such delegation a hearing and to transmit an answer to them, save in + such cases as he and the senate needed to pass upon finally. Other + questions continued to be investigated and decided by the emperor himself + with the help of his cabinet. + +[-34-] ... however, among the first, but among the last he declared, in +order that everybody might be permitted to hold an individual opinion, +and no one of them be obliged to abandon his own ideas because he felt +it obligatory to agree with his sovereign; and he would often help the +magistrates try cases. Also, as often as the consulting judges held +different views, his vote was reckoned only as equal to that of any one +else. It was at this time that Augustus allowed the senate to try the +majority of cases without his being present, and he no longer frequented +the assemblies of the people. Instead, he had the previous year +personally appointed all who were to hold office, because there were +factional outbreaks: this year and those following he merely posted a +kind of bulletin and made known to the plebs and to the people what +persons he favored. Yet he had so much strength for managing hostile +campaigns that he journeyed to Ariminum in order that he might be able to +give from close at hand all necessary advice in regard to the Dalmatians +and Pannonians. Prayers were offered at his departure and sacrifices upon +his return, as if he had come back from some hostile territory. This was +what was done in Rome. + +Meantime Bato the Breucan, who had betrayed Pinnes and received the +governorship of the Breuci as reward for this, was captured by the other +Bato, and perished. The Breucan had been a little suspicious of his +subject tribes and went around to each of the garrisons to demand +hostages: the other, learning of this habit, lay in wait for him, +conquered him in battle, and shut him up within the fortifications. Later +his defeated rival was given up by those in the place, and he took him +and led him before the army, whereupon the man was condemned to death +and sentence executed without delay. After this event numbers of the +Pannonians rose in revolt. Silvanus led a campaign in person, conquered +the Breucans, and won the allegiance of some of the rest without a +struggle. Bato seeing this gave up all hope of Pannonia, but stationed +garrisons at the passes leading to Dalmatia and ravaged the country. +Then the remainder of the Pannonians, especially as their country was +suffering harm from Silvanus, made terms. Only certain nests of brigands, +who in so great a disturbance could naturally do damage for a long time, +held out. Tins practically always happens in the case of all enemies, and +is especially characteristic of the tribes in question. These localities +were reduced by other persons. + + +[Footnote 1: Lat. _custodes vigilum_.] + +[Footnote 2: Cp. Ovid, _Tristia_, IV, 10, vv. 7 and 8.] + +[Footnote 3: See Chapter 2.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare Reifferscheid's _Suetoni Reliquice_, page 136.] + +[Footnote 5: Or _Curatores Viarum_.] + +[Footnote 6: Between this point and ... "to Mars" two leaves are missing +in the codex Marcianus. The gap is filled in the usual makeshift fashion +by Xiphilinus and Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 7: The ancients seem rather uncertain about this personage's +name, for Velleius Paterculus gives _Adduus_, and Florus _Donnes_. The +modern reader may take his choice of the three, and the layman is as +likely to be right as the expert] + +[Footnote 8: Between this point and the words "he both adopted Tiberius," +etc., in chapter 13, two leaves of the codex Marcianus are lacking. +Of the missing portion Xiphilinus and Zonaras supply perhaps +three-sevenths.] + +[Footnote 9: These are the words of Xiphilinus. Zonaras presents an +alternate possibility (X, 36) as follows: "Among the Greeks, Dio says, +the coin called _aureus_ has twenty drachmae (denarii) as its regular rate +of exchange."] + +[Footnote 10: It seems rather likely that Zonaras has become confused, +and that he should have said "Livia."] + +[Footnote 11: Verb supplied by Xylander.] + +[Footnote 12: Possibly a reference to the opening of Book Fifty-four. +(Boissee.)] + +[Footnote 13: Compare Xenophon, _Cyropaedia_, VIII, 4, 5.] + +[Footnote 14: The three words after "kill" are on the basis of a +suggestion made by Boissevain. The MS. has a gap of some fifteen +letters.] + +[Footnote 15: Emendation by Mommsen.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Book Fifty-three, chapter 14.] + +[Footnote 17: His true name was Archelaus.] + +[Footnote 18: Cp. Suetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 23.] + +[Footnote 19: At this point in the codex Marcianus four leaves have been +lost.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +56 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Augustus addressed those having children and afterward the childless +and unmarried, and what rules he laid down to apply to them (chapters +1-10). + +How Quintilius Varus was defeated by the Celtae and perished (chapters +18-24). + +How the Temple of Concord was consecrated (chapter 25). + +How the Portico of Livia was consecrated (chapter 27). + +How Augustus passed away (chapters 29-47). + +Duration of time, six years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +Q. Sulpicius Q.F. Camerinus, C. Poppaeus Q.F. Sabinus. (A.D. 9 = a. u. +762.) + +P. Cornelius P.F. Dolabella, C. Iunius C.F. Silanus. (A.D. 10 = a. u. +763.) + +M. AEmilius Q.F. Lepidus, T. Statilius T.F. Taurus. (A.D. 11 = a. u. 764.) + +Germanicus Caesaris F. Caesar, C. Fonteius C.F. Capito. (A.D. 12 = a. u. +765.) + +L. Munatius L.F. Plancus, C. Silius C.F. Caecina Largus. (A.D. 13 = a. u. +766.) + +Sextus Pompeius Sexti F., Sex. Apuleius Sex. F. (A.D. 14 = a. u. 767.) + + +_( BOOK 56, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 9 (_a. u._ 762)] + +[-1-] Tiberius returned to Rome after the winter when Quintus Sulpicius +and Gaius Sabinus were consuls. Augustus went out into the suburbs to +meet him, accompanied him to the Saepta, and there from a platform greeted +the people. Next he performed the ceremonies proper on such an occasion +and had the consuls give triumphal spectacles. And since the knights on +this occasion with great vigor sought for the repeal of the law regarding +the unmarried and the childless, he assembled in one place in the Forum +the unmarried men of this number and in another those who were married or +had children. Seeing that the latter were much fewer in number than the +former he was filled with grief and addressed them to the following +effect: + +[-2-] "Though you are but few all together, in comparison with the great +throng that inhabits this city, and are far behind the others, who are +unwilling to fulfill their duties at all, yet for this reason I praise +you the more and I am heartily grateful that you have shown yourselves +obedient and are helping to replenish the fatherland. It is by lives so +conducted that the Romans of later days will become a mighty multitude. +We were at first a mere handful, but when We had recourse to marriage and +begot children we came to surpass all mankind not only in manliness but +in populousness. This we must remember and console the mortal element of +our being with an endless succession of generations like torches. Thus +the one gap which separates us from divine happiness may through relays +of men be filled by immortality. It was for this cause most of all that +that first and greatest god who fashioned us divided the race of mortals +in twain, rendering one half of it male and the other female, and added +love and the compulsion of their intercourse together, making their +association fruitful, that by the young continually born he might in +a way render mortality eternal. Even of the gods themselves some are +believed to be male, the rest female: and the tradition prevails that +some have begotten others and certain ones have been born of others. So, +even among them, who need no such device, marriage and child-begetting +have been approved as noble. [-3-] You have done right, then, to imitate +the gods and right to emulate your fathers, that, just as they begot you, +you may also bring others into the world. Just as you deem them and +name them ancestors, others will regard you and address you in similar +fashion. The undertakings which they nobly achieved and handed down to +you with glory you will hand on to others. The possessions which they +acquired and left to you will leave to others sprung from your own loins. +Surely the best of all things is a woman who is temperate, domestic, +a good house-keeper, a rearer of children; one to gladden you when in +health, to tend you when sick; to be your partner in good fortune, to +console you in misfortune; to restrain the frenzied nature of the youth +and to temper the superannuated severity of the old man. Is it not a +delight to acknowledge a child bearing the nature of both, to nurture and +educate it, a physical image and a spiritual image, so that in its growth +you yourself live again? Is it not most blessed on departing from life to +leave behind a successor to and inheritor of one's substance and family, +something that is one's own, sprung from one's self? And to have only +one's human part waste away, but to live through the child as successor? +We need not be in the hands of aliens, as in war, nor perish utterly, as +in war. These are the private advantages that accrue to those who marry +and beget children: but for the State, for whose sake we ought to do many +things that are even distasteful to us, how excellent and how necessary +it is, if cities and peoples are to exist, if you are to rule others and +others are to obey you, that there should be a multitude of men to till +the earth in peace and quiet, to make voyages, practice arts, follow +handicrafts, men who in war will protect what we already have with the +greater zeal because of family ties and will replace those that fall by +others. Therefore, men,--for you alone may properly be called men,--and +fathers,--for you are worthy to hold this title like myself,--I love you +and I praise you for this, I am glad of the prizes I have already offered +and I will glorify you still more besides by honors and offices. Thus +you may yourselves reap great benefits and leave them to your children +undiminished. I shall now descend to speak to the rest, who have not done +like you, and whose lot will therefore be directly the opposite: you will +thus learn not only from words but by facts even more how far you excel +them." + +[-4-] After this speech he made presents to some of them at once and +promised to make others: he then went over to the other throng, to whom +he addressed these words: + +"A strange experience has been mine, O--What shall I call you?--Men? But +you do not perform the offices of men.--Citizens? But so far as you are +concerned the city is perishing.--Romans? But you are undertaking to do +away with this name.--Well, at any rate, whoever you are and by whatever +name you delight to be called, mine has been an unexpected experience. +For, though I am always doing everything to promote an increase of +population among you and am now about to rebuke you, I grieve to see that +you are numerous. I could rather wish that those others to whom I have +just spoken were so many than to see you as many as you are; or, still +better, to see you mustered with them,--or at least not to know how +things stand. It is you who without pausing to reflect on the foresight +of the gods or the care of your forefathers are bent upon annihilating +your whole race and making it in truth mortal, upon destroying and ending +the whole Roman nation. What seed of human beings would be left, if all +the remainder of mankind should do the same as you? You are their leaders +and may rightly bear the responsibility for universal destruction. Or, +even if no others emulate you, will you not be justly hated for the very +reason that you overlook what no one else would overlook, and neglect +what no one else would neglect? You are introducing customs and +practices, which, if imitated, would lead to the annihilation of all, +and, if hated, would end in your own punishment. We do not spare +murderers because all persons do not murder, nor do we let temple-robbers +go because not everybody robs temples: but anybody who is convicted of +committing any forbidden act is chastised for the very reason that he +alone, or as one of a small group, does such things as no one else would +do. [-5-] Yet if one should name over the greatest offences, there is +none to compare with that which is now being committed by you, and this +statement holds true not only if you examine crime for crime but if you +compare all of them together with this single one of yours. You have +incurred blood guiltiness by not begetting those who ought to be your +descendants; you are sacrilegious in putting an end to the names and +honors of your ancestors; you are impious in abolishing your families, +which were instituted by the gods, and destroying the greatest of +offerings to them,--the human being,--and by overthrowing in this way +their rites and their temples. Moreover, by causing the downfall of the +government you are disobedient to the laws, and you even betray your +country by rendering her barren and childless: nay more, you lay her even +with the dust by making her destitute of inhabitants. A city consists of +human beings, not of houses or porticos or fora empty of men. Think what +rage would justly seize the great Romulus, the founder of our race, if he +could reflect on the circumstances of his own birth, and then upon +your attitude,--refusing to get children even by lawful marriages! How +wrathful would the Romans who were his followers be when they considered +that they themselves even seized foreign girls, but you are not satisfied +with those of your own race. They actually had children even by their +enemies: you will not beget them even of women with undisputed standing +in the State. How incensed would Curtius be, who endured to die that +the married men might not be sundered from their wives: how indignant +Hersilia, the attendant of her daughter, who instituted for us all the +rites of marriage. Our fathers fought the Sabines to obtain marriages and +made peace through the intercession of their wives and children; they +administered oaths and made sundry treaties for this very purpose: you +are bringing all that labor to naught. Why is it? Do you desire to live +forever apart from women, as the vestal virgins live apart from men? +Then you should be punished like them if you break out into any act of +lewdness. + +[-6-] "I know that my words to you appear bitter and harsh. But, first of +all, reflect that physicians, too, treat many patients by burning when +they can not recover health in any other way. In the second place, it is +not my wish or my pleasure to speak them; and hence it is that I have +this further reproach to bring against you, that you have provoked me to +this discourse. If you dislike what I say, do not continue the conduct +for which you are inevitably reprimanded. If my speech wounds any of you, +how much more do your acts wound both me and all the rest of the Romans. +If you vexed in very truth, make a change, that so I may praise and +reward you. You yourselves are aware that I am not irritable by nature +and that I have done, subject to human limitations, all the acts proper +for a good lawgiver. Never in old times was any one permitted to neglect +marriage and the rearing of children, but from the very outset, at the +first establishment of the government, strict laws were passed regarding +them: since then many decrees have been issued by both the senate and the +people, which it would be superfluous to enumerate. I have increased the +penalties for the disobedient in order that through fear of becoming +liable to them you may be brought to your senses. To those that obey I +have offered more numerous and greater prizes than are given for any +other display of excellence, that if for no other reason at least by +this one you may be persuaded to marry and beget children. Yet you, not +striving for any of the recompenses nor fearing any of the penalties, +have despised all these measures, have trodden them all under foot, as +if you were not even inhabitants of the city. You declare you have taken +upon yourselves this free and continent life, without wives and without +children. You are no different from robbers or the most savage [-7-] +beasts. It is not your delight in a solitary existence that leads you +to live without wives. There is not one of you who either eats alone +or sleeps alone, but you want to have opportunity for wantonness and +licentiousness. Yet I have allowed you to court girls still tender and +not yet of age for marriage, in order that having the name of intendant +bridegrooms you may lead a domestic life. And those not in the senatorial +class I have permitted to wed freedwomen, so that if any one through +passion or some inclination should be disposed to such a proceeding he +might go about it lawfully. I have not limited you rigidly to this, even, +but at first gave you three whole years in which to make preparations, +and later two. Yet not even so, by threatening or urging or postponing or +entreating, have I accomplished anything. You see for yourselves how much +larger a mass you constitute than the married men, when you ought by this +time to have furnished us with as many more children, or rather with +several times your number. How otherwise shall families continue? How can +the commonwealth be preserved if we neither marry nor produce children? +Surely you are not expecting some to spring up from the earth to succeed +to your goods and to public affairs, as myths describe. It is neither +pleasing to Heaven nor creditable that our race should cease and the +name of Romans meet extinguishment in us, and the city be given up to +foreigners,--Greek or even barbarians. We liberate slaves chiefly for the +purpose of making out of them as many citizens as possible; we give our +allies a share in the government that our numbers may increase: yet you, +Romans of the original stock, including Quintii, Valerii, Iulli, are +eager that your families and names at once shall perish with you. + +[-8-] "I am thoroughly ashamed that I have been led to speak in such a +fashion. Have done with your madness, then, and reflect now if not before +that with many dying all the time by disease and many in the wars it is +impossible for the city to maintain itself unless the multitude in it is +constantly reinforced by those who are ever and anon being born. Let no +one of you think that I am ignorant of the many disagreeable and painful +features that belong to marriage and child-rearing. But bear in mind that +we possess nothing at all good with which some bane is not mingled, and +that in our most abundant and greatest blessings there reside the most +abundant and greatest woes. If you decline to accept the latter, do +not strive to obtain the former. Practically all who possess any real +excellence and pleasure are obliged to work before its enjoyment, to work +at the time, and to work afterward. Why should I lengthen my speech by +going into each one of them in detail? Therefore even if there are +some unpleasant features connected with marriage and the begetting of +children, set over against them the better elements: you will find them +more numerous and more vital. For, in addition to all the other blessings +that naturally inhere in this state of life, the prizes offered by +law--an infinitesimal portion of which determines many to undergo +death--might induce anybody to obey me. And is it not a disgrace that for +rewards which influence others to give up their own lives you should be +unwilling either to marry wives or to rear children? + +[-9-] "Therefore, fellow-citizens (for I believe that I have now +persuaded you both to hold fast to the name of citizens and to secure the +additional title of men and fathers), I have administered this rebuke +reluctantly but of necessity, not as your foe nor as one hating you, but +rather loving you and wishing to obtain many others like you,--as one +wishing you to guard lawful hearths, with houses full of descendants, +that we may approach the gods together with wives and children, and +associate with one another standing on an equality in whatever we possess +and harvesting equally the hopes to which it gives rise. How could I +call myself a good ruler over you if I should endure seeing you becoming +constantly fewer? How could I any longer be rightfully named your father, +if you rear no children? Therefore, if you really have a regard for me +and have given me this title not out of flattery but as an honor, desire +yourselves to become men and fathers. Thus you may yourselves share this +title and also render me well named." + +[-10-] Such were his words to both groups at that time. After this he +increased the rewards for those having children and by penalties made a +still wider difference between the married and those without wives. He +further allowed each of them a year in which persons who obeyed him might +render themselves non-liable by yielding obedience. Contrary to the +Voconian Law, according to which no woman could inherit any property +over two and a half myriads in value, he gave women permission to become +inheritors of any amount. He also granted the vestal virgins all the +benefits enjoyed by women who had children. Later the Pappian and Poppaean +Law was framed by Marcus Pappius Mutilus and by Quintus Poppaeus Secundus, +who were then consuls for a portion of the year. It turned out that both +of them had not only no children but not even wives. From this very fact +the need of the law was discernible.--These were the events in Rome. + +[-11-] Germanicus meanwhile had captured among other posts in Dalmatia +also Splonum, in spite of the fact that it occupied a naturally strong +position, was well protected by walls, and had a huge number of +defenders. Consequently he was unable to accomplish aught with engines +or by assaults, yet he took it as a result of the following coincidence. +Pusio, a Celtic horseman, discharged a stone against the wall which so +shook the superstructure that it immediately fell and dragged down the +man who was leaning upon it. At this the rest were terrified, and in fear +left the wall to ascend the acropolis. Subsequently they surrendered both +it and themselves. + +The Romans under Germanicus having reached Raetinium, a city of Dalmatia, +fared rather badly. Their opponents, forced back by the numbers, could +not resist them and therefore placed fire in a circle about themselves +and threw it into the buildings near by, devising a way to keep it surely +from blazing up at once and to make it go unnoticed for a long time. The +enemy after doing this retired to the heights. The Romans, unaware of +their action, followed hard after them expecting to find no work at all +in pillaging extensively. Thus they got inside of the circle of fire and +with their minds directed upon the enemy saw nothing of it until they +were encompassed by it on all sides. Then they found themselves in +imminent danger, being pelted by men from above and injured by fire from +without. They could neither safely stay where they were nor break their +way out without danger. If they stood out of range of the missiles they +were consumed by the fire, or if they jumped away from the flame they +were destroyed by the hurlers of missiles. Some were caught in narrow +places and perished by both at once, wounded on one side and burned on +the other. The majority of those who entered the circle met their fate in +this way. Some few by casting corpses into the very flame and making a +passage over them as over bridges managed to escape. The fire gained +such headway that not even those on the acropolis could stay there, but +abandoned it in the night and hid themselves in subterranean chambers. + +[-12-] These were the operations at that point.--Seretium, which Tiberius +had once besieged but not captured, was subdued, and after this some +other towns were more easily won. But since the remainder even under +these conditions offered resistance and the war kept lengthening out and +famine came in its train, especially in Italy, Augustus sent Tiberius +again into Dalmatia. He saw that the soldiers were not for enduring +further delay and were anxious to end the war in some way eyen if it +involved danger; therefore, fearing that if they remained in one place +together they might revolt, he divided them into three parts. One he +assigned to Silvanus and one to Marcus Lepidus; with the remainder he +marched with Germanicus against Bato. Without difficulty the two former +overcame those arrayed in battle opposite them. Tiberius himself went +wandering off through practically the entire country, as Bato appeared +first at one point and then at another: finally, Bato took refuge in Fort +Andetrium, located close to Salonae, and Tiberius, who besieged him, +found himself in sore straits. The garrison had the protection of +fortifications built upon a well guarded rock, difficult of access, +encircled by deep ravines through which torrents roared, and the men had +all necessary provisions, part of which they had previously stored there, +while a part they were still bringing from the mountains, which were +in their hands. Moreover, by ambuscades they interfered with the Roman +provision trains. Hence Tiberius, though supposed to be besieging them, +was himself placed in the position of a besieged force. + +[-13-] He was in a dilemma and could not find any plan to pursue: +the siege was proving fruitless and dangerous and a retreat appeared +disgraceful. This led to an uproar on the part of the soldiers, who +raised so great an outcry that the enemy, who were encamped in the +shelter of the wall, were terrified and retreated. As a consequence, +being partly angry and partly pleased, he called them together and +administered some rebukes and some admonition. He displayed no rashness +nor yet did he withdraw, but remained quietly on the spot until Bato, +despairing of victory, sent a herald to ask terms. This act was due to +the subjugation of all but a few of the other tribes and the fact that +the force which Bato had was inferior to the one then opposing it. He +could not persuade the rest to ask a truce and so abandoned them, nor did +he again assist one of them, though he received many requests for aid. +Tiberius consequently conceived a contempt for those still left in the +fortress and thinking that he could conquer them without loss paid no +further heed to the nature of the country but proceeded straight up the +cliff. Since there was no level ground and the enemy would not come down +against them, he himself took his seat on a platform in full view in +order to watch the engagement (for this would cause his soldiers to +contend more vigorously), and to render opportune assistance, should +there be any need of it. He kept a part of the army, inasmuch as he had a +great plenty of men, for this very purpose. The rest, drawn up in a dense +square, at first proceeded at a walk; later they were separated by the +steepness and unevenness of the mountain (which was full of gullies and +at many points cut up into ravines), and some ascended more quickly, +others more slowly. [-14-] Seeing this, the Dalmatians marshaled outside +the wall, at the top of the steep, and hurled down quantities of stones +upon them, throwing some from slings, and rolling down others. Others +set in motion wheels, others whole wagons full of rocks, others circular +chests manufactured in some way peculiar to the country and packed with +stones. All these things coming down with great noise kept striking in +different quarters, as if discharged from a sling, and separated the +Romans from one another even more than before and crushed them. Others by +discharging either missiles or spears knocked many of them down. At this +juncture much rivalry developed on the part of the warriors, one side +endeavoring to ascend and conquer the heights, the other to repulse them +and hurl them back. There was great excitement also on the part of the +rest, who watched the action from the walls, and on the part of those +about Tiberius. Each side as a body and also individually encouraged its +own men, trying to lend strength to such as showed zeal and chiding those +that anywhere gave way. Those whose voices could be heard above the rest +were invoking the gods, both parties praying for the protection of +their warriors for the time being, and one side calling for freedom +for themselves in the future, and the other for peace. Under these +circumstances the Romans would certainly have risked their lives in vain, +having to contend against two things at once,--the nature of the +country and the lines of their antagonists,--had not Tiberius by sudden +reinforcements prevented them from taking to flight and disturbed the +enemy from another quarter by means of other soldiers who went about and +ascended the incline a considerable distance off. As a result, the enemy +were routed and could not even enter the fortifications, but scattered +up the mountain sides, first casting off their armor so as to be lightly +equipped. Their pursuers followed them at every point, for they were +exceedingly anxious to end the war and did not want them to unite again +and cause trouble. So they discovered the most of them hiding in the +forests and killed them like beasts, after which they took possession +of the men in the fort, who capitulated. To these Tiberius assured the +rights which had been agreed upon and some others. + +[-15-] Germanicus now turned to meet his adversaries, for many deserters +who were in their ranks prevented a peaceful settlement. He succeeded in +enslaving a place called Arduba, but could not do it with his own force, +though the latter was far greater than his opponents' army. The town had +been powerfully strengthened and a river with a strong current surrounded +its foundations except for a small space. But the deserters had a dispute +with the inhabitants, because the latter were anxious for peace, and came +to blows with them. The assailants had the cooeperation of the women in +the town, for these contrary to the judgment of the men desired liberty, +and were ready to suffer any fate whatever sooner than slavery: there was +consequently a great battle, the deserters were beaten and surrendered, +and some of them made their escape. The women caught up their children, +and some threw themselves into the fire, others hurled themselves down +into the river. In this way that post was taken and others near it +voluntarily came to an understanding with Germanicus. He, after effecting +this, went back to Tiberius, and Postumius[1] completed the subjugation +of the remaining sections. [-16-] Upon this, Bato sent his son Sceuas +to Tiberius, promising to surrender himself and all his followers if he +could obtain protection. When he had received a pledge he came by night +into his conqueror's camp and was on the following day led before the +latter who was seated on a platform. Bato asked nothing for himself, even +holding his head forward to await the stroke, but in behalf of the rest +he made a long defence. Being again asked by Tiberius: "Why has it +pleased you to revolt and to war against us so long a time?" he made the +same answer as before: "You are responsible for this; for you send as +guardians over your flocks not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." + +In this way, then, the war was ended once more, after many men and much +money had been consumed. The legions supported for it were very numerous, +whereas the spoils taken were exceedingly meagre. [-17-] On this occasion +also Germanicus announced the victory, in honor of which Augustus and +Tiberius were allowed to bear the name imperator and to celebrate a +triumph; and they received still other honors, as well as two arches +bearing trophies, in Pannonia. These, at least, were all of many +distinctions voted that Augustus would accept. Germanicus received +triumphal honors (which belonged likewise to the other commanders) and +praetorial honors, the right of casting his vote immediately after the +ex-consuls and of obtaining the consulship earlier than custom allowed. +Drusus, the son of Tiberius, although he had not participated in the +war, was voted permission to attend the sittings of the senate before he +became a member of that body, and when he should become quaestor to cast +his vote before the expraetors. + +[-18-] Scarcely had these resolutions been passed when terrible news that +arrived from Germany prevented them from holding any festivals. At that +same period the following events had taken place in Celtica. The Romans +had a hold on parts of it,--not the whole region, but just places +that happened to have been subdued, so that the fact has not received +historical notice,--and soldiers of theirs were used to wintering there +and cities were being founded. The barbarians were adapting themselves +to Roman ways, were taking up the custom of markets, and were holding +peaceful meetings. They had not, however, forgotten their ancestral +habits, their native manners, the life of independence, or the authority +given by arms. Hence, while they were unlearning them gradually and +imperceptibly, with careful watching, they were not disturbed by the +changed conditions of existence, and they were becoming different without +knowing it. Finally, Quintilius Varus received the command of Germany and +in the discharge of his office strove, in administering the affairs of +the people, to introduce more widespread changes among them. He treated +them in general as if they were already slaves, levying money upon them +as he had upon subject nations. This they were not inclined to endure, +for the prominent men longed for their former ascendency and the masses +preferred their accustomed constitution to foreign domination. They did +not openly revolt, since they saw there were many Roman soldiers near +the Rhine and many in their own territory; but they received Varus, +pretending they would execute all his commands, and took him far away +from the Rhine into Cheruscis near the Visurgis. There by behaving in a +most peaceful and friendly manner they led him to believe that they could +be trusted to live submissively without soldiers. [-19-] Consequently he +did not keep his legions together as was proper in an enemy's country, +and many of the men he distributed to helpless communities who asked it, +for the supposed purpose of guarding certain localities, or arresting +robbers, or escorting provision trains. Those deepest in the conspiracy +and the leaders of the plot and of the war, among others Armenius and +Segimerus, were his constant companions and often entertained him. He, +accordingly, became confident and expecting no harm not only refused to +believe all such as suspected the truth and advised him to be on his +guard, but even rebuked them on the ground that they were needlessly +disturbed and slandered his friends. Then there came an uprising, first +of those dwelling at a distance from him, purposely contrived, that Varus +should march against them and be easier overcome while on his journey +through what he deemed a friendly country, and that he might not at once +know that all were his enemies and guard himself against all of them. It +turned out precisely so. They escorted him on his setting out, and begged +to be excused from attendance[2] in order to gather auxiliaries (as they +said), after which they would quickly come to his assistance. So then +they took charge of forces already in waiting, and after killing the +different bodies of soldiers for whom they had previously asked they +encountered him in the midst of forests by this time hard to traverse. +There they showed themselves as enemies instead of subjects and wrought +many deeds of fearful injury. [-20-] The mountains had an uneven surface +broken by ravines, and the trees, standing close together, were extremely +tall. Hence the Romans even before the enemy assaulted them were having +hard work in felling, road making, and bridging places that required it. +They had with them many wagons and many beasts of burden as in a time of +peace. Not a few children and women and a large body of servants were +following them,--another reason for their advancing in scattered groups. +Meanwhile a great rain and wind came up that separated them still +farther, while the ground, being slippery where there were roots and +logs, made walking very difficult for them, and the top branches of +trees, which kept breaking off and falling down, caused confusion. While +the Romans were in such perplexity as this the barbarians suddenly +encompassed them from all sides at once, coming through the thickest part +of the underbrush, since they were acquainted with the paths. At first +they hurled from a distance; then as no one defended himself but many +were wounded, they approached closer to them. The Romans were in no order +but going along helter-skelter among the wagons and the unarmed, and so, +not being able to form readily in a body, and being fewer at every point +than their assailants, they suffered greatly and offered no resistance +at all. [-21-] Accordingly, they encamped on the spot, after securing +a suitable place so far as that was possible on a wooded mountain, and +afterward they either burned or abandoned the majority of their wagons +and everything else that was not absolutely necessary for them. The next +day they advanced in better order, with the aim of reaching open country; +but they did not gain it without loss. From there they went forward and +plunged into the woods again, defending themselves against the attacks, +but endured no inconsiderable reverses in this very operation. For +whereas they were marshaled in a narrow place in order that cavalry +and heavy-armed men in a mass might run down their foes, they had many +collisions with one another and with the trees. Dawn of the fourth day +broke as they were advancing and again a violent downpour and mighty wind +attacked them, which would not allow them to go forward or even to stand +securely, and actually deprived them of the use of their weapons. They +could not manage successfully their arrows or their javelins or, indeed, +their shields (which were soaked through). The enemy, however, being for +the most part lightly equipped and with power to approach and retire +freely, suffered less from the effects of the storm. _Their_ numbers, +moreover, increased, as numbers of those who had at first wavered joined +them particularly for the sake of plunder, and so they could more easily +encircle and strike down the Romans, who were already few, many having +perished in the previous battles. Varus, therefore, and the most eminent +of the other leaders, fearing that they might either be taken alive or be +killed by their bitterest foes,--for they had been wounded,--dared do a +deed which was frightful but not to be avoided: they killed themselves. + +[-22-] When this news was spread, none of the rest, even if he had +strength still left, defended himself longer. Some imitated their leader; +others, throwing aside their arms, allowed who pleased to slay them. To +flee was impossible, however one might wish it. Every man and horse, +therefore, was cut down without resistance, and the[3] ... + + And the barbarians occupied all the strongholds save one, delay over + which prevented them from either crossing the Rhine or invading Gaul. + Yet they found themselves unable to reduce this particular fort because + they did not understand the conduct of sieges and because the Romans + employed numerous archers, who repeatedly repulsed them and from + first to last destroyed a large proportion of the attacking party. + + Later they learned that the Romans had posted a guard at the Rhine + and that Tiberius was approaching with an imposing force of fighters. + Therefore most of the barbarians retired from the fortress, and the + detachment still left there withdrew some distance away, so as not to + be damaged by sudden sallies of the men inside; and they kept watch + of the roads, hoping to capture the garrison through scarcity of food + supplies. The Romans within, so long as they had abundance of sustenance, + remained where they were awaiting relief. But when no one + came to their assistance and they were likewise a prey to hunger, they + watched for a stormy night and issued forth--the soldiers were but + fed, the unarmed many,--and + +they passed the first and second guard of their adversaries, but when +they reached the third they were detected; for on account of fatigue and +fear, and the darkness and cold, the women and children kept calling to +the men of fighting age to come back. They would all have perished or +been captured, had not the barbarians been so busily occupied with +seizing the plunder. This gave an opportunity for many of the most hardy +to get some distance off, and the trumpeters with them by sounding the +signal for a double quick march caused the enemy to think (for night +was coming on and they could not be seen) that they had been sent from +Asprenas. Therefore the foe ceased their pursuit, and Asprenas on +learning what was taking place rendered them assistance in reality. Some +of the captives were later ransomed by their relatives and returned, +for this was permitted on condition that the ransoming party should be +outside of Italy at the time.--But this was only afterward. [-23-] At the +time, when Augustus heard of the disaster to Varus, he rent his clothing +(as some assert) and mourned greatly over the lost soldiers as also over +the fear inspired by the Germans and the Gauls. His grief was especially +keen because he expected that they would march upon Italy and upon Rome +itself. There were no citizens of military age worth mentioning that +were left and the allied forces that were of any value had been ruined. +Nevertheless he made preparations as well as he could in view of the +circumstances: and when no one of the proper age for warfare showed a +willingness to be enrolled, he instituted a drawing of lots and deprived +of his property every fifth man to draw of those not yet thirty-five +years old and every tenth man among those who were older, besides +disenfranchising them. Finally, as very many paid no heed to him even +then, he put some to death. He chose by lot as many as he could of those +who had already finished their service and of the freedmen, and having +enrolled them sent them at once in haste with Tiberius into Germany. And +as there were in Rome a number of Gauls and Celtae, sojourning there for +various purposes, and some of them serving in the pretorian guard, he +feared that they might commit some act of insurrection: therefore he sent +such as were in his guard off to the islands and ordered the unarmed +class to leave the city. + +[-24-] This was the way be busied himself at that time, and none of the +usual business went on nor were the festivals celebrated. After this, +when he heard that some of the soldiers had been saved, that the +Germanies were garrisoned and the enemy did not dare to come down even to +the Rhine, he ceased to be excited and stopped to consider the matter. +A catastrophe so great and prostrating as this, it seemed to him, could +have been due to nothing else than the wrath of some Divinity: moreover, +by reason of the portents which took place both before the defeat and +afterward he was greatly inclined to suspect some miraculous working. The +temple of Mars in the field of the same name had been struck by lightning +and many locusts that flew into the very city were devoured by swallows; +the peaks of the Alps seemed to totter toward one another and to send up +three fiery columns; the sky in many places appeared ablaze and at the +same time numerous comet stars came to view; spears darting from the +north seemed to be falling upon the Roman camp; bees formed their combs +about Roman altars; a statue of Victory which was in Germany, facing +hostile territory, turned about toward Italy; and once an aimless battle +and conflict of the soldiers occurred about the eagles in the camps, as +if the barbarians had fallen upon them. + +For these reasons, then, and also because ... [4] + + [A.D. 10 (_a. u._ 763)] + + Tiberius did not see fit to cross the Rhine, but kept quiet, watching + to see that the barbarians should not do so. The latter, however, + knowing him to be present, did not venture to cross either. + + Germanicus was endeared to the populace for many causes, but particularly + because he interceded for various persons, and this quite as + much in the presence of Augustus himself as before other justices. Now + there was a court to try a quaestor who was charged with murder, + and, as Germanicus was going to be his advocate, his accuser became + alarmed lest he might consequently meet with defeat before those + judges in whose presence such cases were wont to be tried, and he + desired to have Augustus preside. Yet his efforts were vain, for he + did not win his case. + + ... holding [it] after his praetorship. + +[A.D. 11 (_a. u._ 764)] + +[-25-]But in the following season the temple of Concord was dedicated by +Tiberius and both his name and that of Drusus, his dead brother, were +inscribed upon it. In the consulship of Marcus AEmilius with Statilius +Taurus Tiberius and Germanicus acting as proconsul invaded Celtica and +overran some parts of it. They did not conquer, however, in any battle +(since no one came to close quarters with them), and did not reduce +any tribe. For in their fear of falling victims to a new disaster they +advanced not far beyond the Rhine, but after remaining there until late +autumn and celebrating the birthday of Augustus, on which they held a +kind of horse-race under the direction of the centurions, they returned. + +At Rome Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius, became quaestor, and sixteen +praetors held office because that number became candidates for the +position and Augustus, mindful of his condition, was unwilling to +offend any of them. The same did not hold true, however, of the years +immediately following, but the number remained twelve for a long period. +Besides these proceedings the seers were forbidden to prophesy in private +to any one, or regarding death even if there should be others with +them. Yet in this matter Augustus had no personal feeling, so that by a +bulletin he even published to all the conjunction of stars under which +he had been born. In addition to forbidding the above he proclaimed to +subject states that they should grant no honors to any one assigned to +govern them either during his term of office or within sixty days after +he had departed. For some governors by arranging for testimonials and +eulogies from their subjects were doing much harm. Three senators, as +before, transacted business with the embassies, and the knights,--a fact +which might cause surprise,--were allowed to fight as gladiators. The +reason was that some persisted in disregarding the disenfranchisement +stated as a penalty for such conduct. And as there proved to be no use in +forbidding it and the participants seemed to require a greater punishment +before they would be turned aside from this course, they were given +permission to do as they liked. In this way they incurred death instead +of disenfranchisement, for they fought more than ever, and especially +because their contests were centers of attraction, so that even Augustus +became a spectator in company with the praetors who superintended games. + +[A.D. 12 (_a. u._ 765)] + +[-26-] Germanicus soon after received the office of consul, though he had +not even been praetor, and held it actually throughout the whole year, not +because of fitness but as a number of others held office at that time. +The consul did nothing worthy of note save that at this time, too, he +acted as advocate in suits, since his colleague Gaius Capito counted as +a mere figurehead. Augustus, because he was growing old, wrote a letter +commending Germanicus to the senate and the latter to Tiberius: the +manuscript was not read by him in person, for he was unable to make +himself heard, but by Germanicus, as usual. After that he asked them, +making the Celtic war his excuse, not to come to greet him at home nor to +be angry if he did not continue to eat with them. For generally, as often +as they had a sitting, in the Forum and sometimes in the senate-house +itself, they saluted him when he entered and again when he left; and it +had already happened that, when he was sitting and sometimes lying down +in the Palatium, not only the senate but the knights and many of the +populace greeted him. [-27-] All this time he continued to attend to his +business as before. He allowed the knights to become candidates for the +tribuneship. And learning that vituperative books concerning certain men +were being written, he ordered a search for them. Those that he found in +the city he had burned by the aediles and those outside by the officials +who might be in charge, and he visited punishment upon some of the +composers. As there were many exiles who were either carrying on their +occupations outsides of the places to which they had been banished or +living too luxuriously in the proper places, he forbade that any one who +had been debarred from fire and water should stay either on the mainland +or on any of the islands distant less than four hundred stadia from the +mainland. Only he made an exception of Cos, Rhodes, Samos[5], and Lesbos, +for what reason I know not. He enjoined upon them also that they should +not cross the seas to any other point and should not possess more than +one ship of burden having a capacity of one thousand amphorae, and two +driven by oars; that they should not employ more than twenty slaves or +freedmen; that they should not hold property above twelve and a half +myriads; and he threatened to take vengeance upon them for any violation +as well as upon all others who should in any way assist them in violating +these ordinances. These are the laws, as fully as is necessary for our +history, that he laid down. + +A festival extraordinary was conducted by the dancers and horse-breeders. +The Feast of Mars, because the Tiber had previously occupied the +hipprodrome, was this time held in the forum of Augustus and honored by a +kind of horse-race and by the slaughter of wild beasts. It was celebrated +a second time, as custom decreed, and Germanicus on that occasion killed +two hundred lions in the hippodrome. The so-called portico of Julia was +built in honor of Gaius and Lucius, the Caesars, and was at that time +dedicated. + +[A.D. 13 (_a. u._ 766)] + +[-28-] When Lucius Munatius and Gaius Silius had been registered as +consuls Augustus reluctantly accepted the fifth decennial presidency of +the State and gave Tiberius again the tribunician authority. To Drusus, +the latter's son, he granted permission to stand for the consulship a +third year, still without having held the praetorship; and for himself +he asked twenty annual counselors because of his old age, which did not +permit him to visit the senate any longer save rarely. Previously fifteen +were attached to him for six months. It was further voted that any +measure should have authority, as satisfactory to the whole senate, which +should after deliberation be resolved upon by him in conjunction with +Tiberius and with the consuls of the year, with the men appointed for +deliberation and his grandchildren (the adopted ones, of course) and the +others that he might on any occasion call upon for advice. Gaining by the +decree those powers (which in reality he had in any case) he transacted +most of the is necessary business, though sometimes lying down. Now +as nearly all felt oppressed by the five per cent tax and a political +convulsion seemed likely, he sent document to the senate bidding its +members seek some other means of income. This he did not in the intention +of abolishing the tax but in order that when no other appeared to them +preferable they might though reluctantly ratify it without declaiming +against him He also ordered Germanicus and Drusus not to make any +official statement about it, for fear that if they expressed an opinion +persons would suspect that this had been done by his orders and choose +that plan without further investigation. There was much discussion and +some schemes were submitted to Augustus in writing. When he found by them +that the senators were ready to endure any form of tax rather than that +in force, he changed it to a levy upon fields and houses. And without +telling how great it would be or in what way imposed, he immediately sent +men in different directions to make a list of the possessions both of +individuals and of towns. His object was that they should fear losses on +a large scale and so be content to pay the five per cent. This actually +happened, and so it was that Augustus settled the difficulty. + +[-29-] At the spectacle of the Augustalia [6] which occurred on his +birthday a madman seated himself in the chair which was dedicated to +Julius Caesar, and taking his crown put it on. This happening disturbed +everybody, for it seemed to have some bearing upon Augustus, as, indeed, +proved true. + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +For the following year, when Sextus Apuleius and Sextus Pompeius were +consuls, Augustus set out for Campania and after superintending the games +at Naples soon passed away in Nola. Omens had appeared to him, not few by +any means nor difficult to interpret, that pointed to this end. The sun +suffered a total eclipse and most of the sky seemed to be on fire. The +forms of glowing logs appeared falling from it and bloody comet stars +were seen. When a senate-meeting had been announced on account of his +sickness in order that they might offer prayers, the senate-house was +found closed and an owl sitting upon it hooted. A thunderbolt fell upon +his image standing on the Capitol and erased the first letter of the name +of Caesar. This led the seers to declare that on the hundredth day +after that he should attain to some heavenly condition. They made this +deduction from the fact that the letter mentioned signifies "hundred" +among the Latins and all the rest of the name means "god" among the +Etruscans. These signs appeared while he was still alive. Men of later +times called attention to the case of the consuls and of Servius +Sulpicius Galba. The former officials were in some way related to +Augustus, and Galba, who afterward came to power, was at this time on the +very first day of the year enrolled among the iuvenes. Since he was the +first of the Romans to become sovereign after the race of Augustus had +passed away, it gave occasion to some to say that this coincidence had +not been due to mere accident, but had been brought about by some divine +counsel. + +[-30-] So Augustus fell sick and died. Livia incurred some suspicion +regarding the manner of his death, inasmuch as he had secretly sailed +over to the island to meet Agrippa and thought to reconcile everything in +a way satisfactory to all. She was afraid, some say, that Augustus would +bring him back to make him sovereign, and so smeared with poison some +figs that were still on trees from which Augustus was wont to gather +fruit with his own hands. So she ate the ones that had not been smeared, +and pointed out the poisoned ones to him. From this or from some other +cause he became ill and sending for his associates he told them all his +wishes, finally adding: "Rome was clay when I took it in hand: I leave it +to you stone." In this he had reference not entirely to the appearance +of its buildings, but also to the strength of the empire. By asking +some applause from them as to comic actors at the close of some mime he +ridiculed most tellingly the whole life of man. + +Thus on the nineteenth day of August, the day on which he first became +consul, he passed away, having lived seventy-five years, ten months, and +twenty-six days. He had been born on the twenty-third of September. He +reigned as monarch, from the time he conquered at Actium, forty-four +years lacking thirteen days. [-31-] His death, however, was not +immediately made public. Livia, fearing that as Tiberius was still in +Dalmatia there might be some uprising, concealed the fact until the +latter arrived. This is the statement made in the larger number of +histories and the more trustworthy ones. There are some who have affirmed +that Tiberius was present during the emperor's illness and received some +injunctions from him.--The body of Augustus was carried from Nola by +the foremost men of each city in succession. When it came near Rome the +knights took it in charge and conveyed it by night into the city. On the +following day there was a senate-meeting, and to it the majority came +wearing the equestrian costume, but the officials the senatorial, except +for the purple-bordered togas. Tiberius and Drusus his son wore dark +clothing made in everyday fashion. They, too, offered incense but made +no use of a flute player. Most of the members sat in their accustomed +places, but the consuls below, one on the praetors' bench and one on +the tribunes'. After this Tiberius was absolved for having touched +the corpse,--a forbidden act,--and for having escorted it on its way, +although the ... + +[-32-] + + ... his will Drusus took from the virgin priestesses of Vesta, with + whom it had been deposited, and carried it into the senate. Those who + had sealed it viewed the impressions, and then it was read in hearing + of the senate. + + ... one Polybius of Caesar's household read his will, as it was not proper +for a senator to read anything of the sort. It showed that two-thirds +of the inheritance had been left to Tiberius and the rest to Livia,--at +least this is one report. In order that she, too, might have the benefit +of his property he had asked permission of the senate to leave her +so much, since it was contrary to law. These two were mentioned as +inheritors. He ordered many objects and sums of money to be given to many +different persons, both relatives of his and those joined by no ties of +kindred, not only to senators and knights but also to kings; for the +people there were a thousand myriads and for the soldiers two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece to the Pretorians, half that amount to the city +force, and to the remainder of the native soldiery seventy-five each. +Moreover, in the case of children, of whose fathers he had been the heir +while they were still small, he enjoined that everything, together with +income, should be given back to them when they became men: this was, +indeed his custom while in life. Whenever he inherited the estate of any +one who had offspring, he never neglected to give it all to the man's +children, immediately if they were already adults, and later if it were +otherwise. Though he took such an attitude toward other people's children +he did not restore his daughter from exile, though he deemed her worthy +of gifts; and he forbade her being buried in his own tomb.--So much was +learned from the will. + +[-33-] Four books were then brought in and Drusus read them. In the first +were written details pertaining to his funeral; in the second all the +works which he had done, which he commanded to be inscribed aloft upon +bronze columns to be set around his heroum; the third contained +an account of military matters, of the revenues and of the public +expenditures, the amount of money in the treasuries, and everything else +of the sort having a bearing upon the administration; and the fourth had +injunctions and orders for Tiberius and for the public. Among these last +was a command that they should not liberate many slaves and should thus +avoid filing the city with a variegated rabble. He also exhorted them +not to enroll large numbers as citizens, in order that there might be a +distinct difference between themselves and subject nations; to deliver +the control of public business to all who had ability both to understand +and to act, and never to let it depend on any one person; in this way no +one would set his mind on a tyranny nor would the State go to pieces if +one fell. He advised them to be satisfied with present possessions +and under no conditions to wish to increase the empire to any greater +dimensions. It would be hard to guard, he said, and this would lead to +danger of their losing what was already theirs. This principle he had +himself really always followed not only in speech but also in action. +For, whereas he might have made great acquisitions of barbarian +territory, he had not wished to do so.--These were his injunctions. + +[-34-] Then came his funeral. There was a couch made of ivory and gold +and adorned with robes of purple mixed with gold. In it his body was +hidden, in a kind of box down below: a wax image of him in triumphal +garb was displayed. This one was borne from the Palatium by the officials +for the following year, and another of gold from the senate-house, and +still another upon a triumphal chariot. Behind these came the images of +his ancestors and of his deceased relatives (except of Caesar, because he +had been enrolled among the heroes), and those of other Romans who had +been prominent in any way, beginning with Romulus himself. An image of +Pompey the Great was also seen, and all the nations he had acquired, each +represented by a likeness which bore some local characteristic, were +carried in procession. After these followed all the remaining objects +mentioned above. When the couch had been placed in view upon the orators' +platform, Drusus read something from that place: and from the other, the +rostra of the Julian shrine, Tiberius delivered the following public +oration over the deceased, according to a decree:-- + +[-35-] "What needed to be said privately by relatives over the divine +Augustus Drusus has spoken. But since the senate has wisely deemed him +worthy of some kind of public utterance, I know that the speech was +fittingly entrusted to me. To whom more justly than to me, his child and +successor, could be the task of praising him be confided? It is not my +privilege, however, to be gladdened by the thought that my ability must +prove no whit inferior to your desires in the matter and to his worth. +Indeed, if I were to speak among strangers, I should be greatly alarmed +lest in following my speech they should believe his deeds to be no better +than I describe them. As it is, I am encouraged by the thought that my +words will be directed to you who know all of them thoroughly, have +experienced them all, and for that reason have deemed him worthy of these +very praises. You will judge of his excellence not from what I may say +but from what you yourselves know, and you will assist my discourse, +making good what is deficient by your memory of events. So that in this +way his eulogy will become a public one, given by all, as I, like the +head of some chorus, indicate the chief points and you come in with the +remainder of the refrain. I am certainly not afraid that you will hold me +guilty of weakness because I am unable to meet your desires nor that you +will be jealous to see his excellence going beyond your reach. Who does +not understand the fact that not all mankind assembled in one place could +worthily sound his praises? And you all voluntarily make way for him to +triumph, not envious to think that not one of you could equal him, but +rejoicing in his surpassing greatness. The greater he looms up before +you, the more greatly will you feel yourselves benefited, so that envy +will not be bred in you by your inferiority to him but awe from the +advantages you have received at his hands. + +[-36-] "I shall begin at the point where he also began to enter politics, +that is, from his earliest manhood. This, indeed, is one of the greatest +achievements of Augustus,--that when he had just emerged from boyhood and +was entering upon the state of youth, he paid attention to education +so long as public affairs were well managed by the famous Caesar, the +demi-god: when after the conspiracy against the latter the whole +commonwealth was thrown into confusion, he at the same time amply avenged +his father and rendered a much needed aid to you, not fearing the +multitude of his enemies nor dreading the greatness of the business nor +hesitating through his own immaturity. Yet what deed like this can be +cited of Alexander of Macedon or our Romulus, who have the reputation of +having done something brilliant when very young? But these I shall pass +over, lest from merely comparing them with him and bringing them up,--and +that among you who are acquainted with him no less than I,--I may be +thought to be diminishing the greatness of Augustus. If I am to do this +sort of thing, I should be justified only if I looked at his deeds beside +those of Hercules: yet even then I should fail of my effect, inasmuch as +the latter killed only serpents when he was a child, a stag and a +boar when he was a man,--oh, yes, and by Jupiter a lion also, though +reluctantly and in obedience to a command; whereas our hero voluntarily +made wars and enacted laws not among beasts but among men, carefully +preserved the commonwealth, and himself gained brilliance. It was for +this that you chose him praetor and appointed him consul at that age when +some are unwilling even to serve in the army. + +[-37-] "This was the beginning of political life for Augustus, and it is +the beginning of my speech about him. Soon after, seeing that the +largest and best portion both of the people and of the senate was in +accord with him, but that Lepidus and Antony, Sextus, Brutus, and Cassius +were employing rebels, he feared that the city might become involved in +many wars,--civil wars,--at once, and be so torn asunder and exhausted as +not to be able to revive in any fashion; and so he manipulated them very +cleverly and to the greatest public good. He attached himself to the +strong ones, who were menacing the very city, and with them fought the +others till he made an end of them: when these were out of the way he in +turn freed us from the former. He chose against his will to surrender a +few to their wrath so that he might save the majority, and he chose to +assume a friendly attitude toward them individually so as not to have to +fight with them all at once. From this he derived no individual gain but +aided us all most evidently. Why should one speak at length to enumerate +his deeds in the wars both at home and abroad? Consider especially that +the former ought never to have occurred at all and that the latter by the +conquests gained show their advantages better than any words, moreover +that they largely depended upon chance, that the successes were obtained +with the aid of many citizens and many allies so that these deserve the +credit equally with him, and finally that the achievements might possibly +be compared with those of some others. These, accordingly, I shall put +aside. You can behold and read them inscribed in letters and characters +in many places. I shall speak only of the works which belong to Augustus +himself, which have never been performed by any other man, and have not +only caused our city to survive from many dangers of a sorts but have +rendered it more prosperous and powerful. The mention of them will confer +upon him a unique glory and will afford the elder among you an innocent +pleasure while giving the younger men an exact instruction in the +character and constitution of the government. + +[-38-] "This Augustus, then, whom you deemed worthy of this title for the +very reasons just cited, as soon as he had freed himself from the civil +wars after acting and enduring (not in a way that pleased himself) +as Heaven approved, first of all preserved the lives of most of his +opponents, who were survivors of the army, and thus he in no way imitated +Sulla, called the Fortunate. Not to give you a list of all of them, who +does not know about Sosius, about Scaurus the brother of Sextus, and +particularly about Lepidus, who lived so long a time after his defeat and +continued to be high priest his whole life through? Next he honored his +companions in conflict with many great gifts, but did not allow them to +act in any arrogant way or to be wanton. You know thoroughly among others +in this category both Maecenas and Agrippa, so that there is no need of my +enumerating the names. Augustus had two qualities, too, which were never +united in any one else. Some conquerors, I know, have spared their +enemies and others have refused to allow their companions to give way +to license. But both sorts of behavior at once, continually without any +exception, were never found in the same man. Here is evidence. Sulla and +Marius treated as enemies even the children of those who fought against +them. Why need I cite the other less important men? Pompey and Caesar were +in general guiltless of this conduct, but permitted their friends to do +not a few things that were contrary to their own principles. But this +man had each of the two virtues so fused and intermingled that to his +adversaries he made defeat look like victory and to his comrades he +showed a happiness in excellence. + +[-39-] "After doing this and quieting by kindness all that remained of +factional disputes and imposing temperance by his benefits upon the +victorious military, he might as a result of this and the weapons and the +money at his command have been indisputably the sole lord of everything, +as, indeed, he had been made by the very course of events. Yet he +refused, and like a good physician, who takes in hand a disease-ridden +body and heals it, he restored everything to you after making it well. +And to what this action amounted you can best realize from the fact that +our fathers spoke in praise of Pompey and Metellus, who was formerly +prominent, because they voluntarily disbanded the forces with which they +had been engaged in war. Now if they, who had but a small force and a +merely temporary one and besides saw opponents who would not allow them +to do otherwise,--if they received praise for doing this,--how could one +speak fittingly of the magnanimity of Augustus? He held all your forces, +however great, he was master of all your funds, vast in amount, had no +one to fear or suspect: but whereas he might have ruled alone with the +approval of all, he would not accept such a course, but laid the arms, +the provinces, the money at your feet. Wherefore you with wise insistence +and proper prudence would not have it nor allow him to retire to private +life; you knew well that democracy would never accommodate itself to such +tremendous interests, but that the superintendence of a single person +would most surely preserve them, and so refused what was nominally +independence but really factional discord. And making choice of him, whom +you had proved worthy by his very deeds, you compelled him to stand at +your head for a time at least. When you had in this way tested him even +more than before, you finally forced him a second, a third, a fourth, and +a fifth time to remain as manager of public affairs. [-40-] It was +only natural. Who would not choose to be safe without trouble, to +be prosperous without danger, to enjoy unsparingly the blessings of +government and not to be disturbed by cares for its maintenance? Who was +there that could rule even his private possessions better than Augustus, +to say nothing of the goods of so many human beings? He accepted the +trying and hostile provinces for his own portion to guard and preserve, +but restored to you all such others as were peaceful and free from +danger. Though he supported such a large standing army to fight in your +behalf, he let the soldiers be troublesome to none of his own countrymen +but rendered them to outsiders most terrifying guardians, to the people +at home unarmed and unwarlike. The senators in places of authority +were not deprived of appeal to the lot, but prizes for excellence were +furnished them in addition. He did not destroy the power of the ballot in +their decisions and he guaranteed safety in free speech as well. Cases +difficult to decide he transferred from the people to the searching +justice of the courts, but preserved to the popular body the dignity of +the elections and trained citizens in these to seek a means of honor, not +of strife. He even cut away the ambitious greed of office seekers and put +a regard for reputation in its place. His own money, which he increased +by legitimate methods, he spent for public needs: for the public funds he +cared as if they were his own, while he refrained from touching them, as +belonging to others. He saw that all public works that were falling to +decay were repaired, and deprived no one connected with their renovation +of the glory attaching: many structures he built anew (some in his own +name, some in that of another), or else gave others charge of erecting +them. Consequently, his gaze was directed toward public utility and +privately he grudged no one the fame to be derived from public service. +Wantonness among his own kin he recompensed relentlessly, but the +offences of others he treated with humaneness. Those who had traits of +excellence he allowed to come as near as they could to his own standard, +and with the conduct of such as lived otherwise he did not concern +himself minutely. Among those who conspired against him he invoked +justice upon only those whose lives were of no profit even to themselves. +The rest he placed in such a position that for a great while they could +obtain no excuse either true or false for attacking him. It is nothing +surprising that he was occasionally the object of conspiracies, for +even the gods do not please all alike. The excellence of good rulers +is discernible not in the villainies of others but in their own good +behavior. + +[-41-] "I have spoken, Quirites, of his greatest and most striking +characteristics in a rather summary way. For if one should desire to +enumerate all of his great points individually, it would need many days. +Furthermore, I know that though you will have heard so few facts from me, +they will lead you to remember for yourselves everything else, and it +will seem almost as if I had spoken that too. In the rest that I have +said about him I have not been speaking in a spirit of vainglory [7], nor +has that been your state of mind in listening; but I intended that his +many noble achievements might obtain an ever memorable glory in your +souls. Who would not feel inclined to make mention of his senators?--how +without giving offence he removed the scum that had come to the surface +from the factions, how by this very act he exalted the remainder, +magnified it by increasing the property requirement, and enriched it by +grants of money; how he voted on an equality with the senators and +had their help in making changes; how he communicated to them all the +greatest and most important matters either in the meeting-place or else +at his house, whither he called different members at different times +because of his age and bodily infirmity. Who would not like to cite the +condition of the rest of the Romans, before whom he set public works, +money, games, festivals, amnesty, an abundance of food, safety not only +from the enemy and evildoers but even from the acts of Heaven, nor such +alone as befall by day, but by night as well? Or, again, the allies?--how +he made their freedom free from danger and their alliance to involve +no loss. Or the subject nations?--how no one of them was treated with +insolence or abuse. How can one forget a man who was in private life +poor, in public life rich, saving in his own case but liberal of +expenditures for others?--one who even endured all toil and danger for +you but would not submit to your escorting him when he went forth on any +expedition or to your meeting him when he returned: one who on festivals +admitted even the populace to his home, but on other days greeted even +the senate only in its chambers? How could one forget the number and +precision as well of his laws, which contained for the wronged an +all-sufficient consolation and for the wrongdoers a not inhuman +punishment? Or his rewards offered to those who married and had children? +Or the prizes given to the soldiers without disadvantage to any +other person? Then there is the fact of his being satisfied with our +possessions once for all acquired by the will of Destiny, and his refusal +to subjugate additional territory. For while imagining that we bore a +wider sway we might meantime lose all we had. You recall how he always +shared the joys and sorrows, the jests and earnestness of his intimate +friends, and allowed absolutely all who could make any useful suggestion +to feel free to speak; how he praised those who spoke the truth and hated +flatterers; how he bestowed upon many large sums from his own means, and +how when aught was bequeathed to him by men with children he restored it +all to those children. What oblivion is dark enough to bury all this? It +was for this, therefore, I say, that you naturally made him your head and +a father of the people, that you decked him with many marks of esteem and +numerous consulships and finally declared him a hero and published him +as immortal. Hence we ought not either to mourn for him, but to give his +body back now in due time to Nature, and to glorify his spirit, as that +of a god, forever." + +[-42-] This was what Tiberius read. Directly after, the same men as +before took up the couch and carried it through the triumphal gateway, +according to the senate's decree. There were present and took part in +carrying him out the senate and the equestrian class, the women of his +family, and the pretorian guard; and nearly everybody else in the city +was in attendance. When the body had been placed on the pyre in the +Campus Martius, all the priests marched about it first; and then the +knights, all the magistrates and others, and the heavy-armed force for +garrison duty ran around it; and they cast upon it all the triumphal +decorations which any of them had ever received from him for any deed of +valor. Next the centurions took torches, conformably to a decree of the +senate, and kindled the fire from beneath. So it was consumed, and an +eagle released from it flew aloft appearing to bear his spirit into +heaven. When this had been accomplished most of those present departed; +but Livia remained on the spot for five days in company with the most +prominent knights, and gathered his bones, which she placed in the +monument. + +The show of grief required by law was prolonged [-43-] only for a few +days by the men, but by the women, according to a decree, for a whole +year. Real grief not in the hearts of many at the time, but later felt by +all the citizens. Augustus had been accessible to all and was accustomed +to aid many persons in the matter of money. He used to bestow honors +scrupulously upon his friends and delighted exceedingly to have them +speak frankly. One instance, in addition to what has been told, occurred +in the case of Athenodorus. The latter was once brought into his room in +a covered litter, as if it were some woman, and leaping from it sword in +hand asked: "Aren't you afraid that some one may come in this way +and kill you?" Instead of being angry Augustus thanked him for his +suggestion. + +The people consequently were wont to recall these traits of his, and how +he did not get blindly enraged at those who injured him as well as how +he kept faith with even such as were unworthy of it. There was a robber +named Corocotta, who flourished in Spain, and the emperor was in the +first place so angry at him that he offered twenty-five myriads to the +man that captured him alive. Later the robber came to him of his own +accord, and he not only did him no harm but made him richer by the amount +of money mentioned. Hence the Romans missed him mightily for these +reasons as well as because by mingling monarchy with democracy he +preserved their freedom for them and secured orderliness and security, so +that their lives, free from the audacities of democracy, free from the +wantonness of tyrannies, were cast in a liberty of moderation and under a +monarchy without terrors; they were subjects of royalty, yet not slaves, +and democratic citizens without discord. [-44-] If any of them remembered +his former deeds in the course of the civil wars, they laid them to the +pressure of circumstances, and they thought it fair to look for his real +disposition, which had given him undisputed authority. This offered, in +truth, a mighty contrast. Any one who goes carefully into each of his +separate actions will find this true. In regard to the mass of them I +must record curtly that he stopped all factional disputes, transformed +the government in a way to give it power, and strengthened it greatly. +Therefore if any deed of violence is encountered,--as is often bound to +happen when the face of a situation shifts unexpectedly,--one might more +justly blame the circumstances themselves than him. + +Not the smallest factor in his glory was the length of his reign. The +majority of those that had lived under a democracy and the more powerful +had time to die. Those who were left, knowing nothing of that form of +government and having been reared entirely or mostly under existing +conditions, were not only not displeased with them,--they had become so +familiar,--but took delight in them, for they saw that these were better +and more free from terror than others of which they heard. + +[-45-] Though the people knew this during his life they nevertheless +realized it more fully after his decease. Human nature is so constituted +that in good fortune it does not perceive its prosperity so fully as it +misses it when evil days arrive. This was the case then in regard to +Augustus. When they found his successor Tiberius not the same sort of +man they longed for the previous emperor. Persons with their wits about +them had some immediate evidence of the change in the constitution. +The consul Pompeius, who went out to meet the men bearing the body of +Augustus, received a blow in the leg and had to be carried back with the +body. An owl sat over the senate-house again at the very first sitting of +the senate after his death and uttered many ill-omened cries. The two men +differed so from each other that some suspected that Augustus with full +knowledge of Tiberius's character had purposely appointed him for +successor to the end that he himself might have greater glory. This +began to be rumored at a later date. + +[-46-] At this time they declared Augustus immortal and assigned to him +attendants and sacred rites, making Livia (who was already called Julia +and Augusta) his priestess. Permission was granted Livia to employ a +lictor during the services. And she bestowed upon a certain Numerius +Atticus, a senatorial expraetor, twenty-five myriads because he swore that +he had seen Augustus ascending into heaven after the manner described in +the cases of Proclus and of Romulus. A herouem voted by the senate and +built by Livia and Tiberius was erected to the dead emperor in Rome, +and others at many different points, sometimes with the consent of the +nations concerned and sometimes without their consent. Also the house at +Nola, where he passed away, was dedicated to him as a precinct. While the +herouem was being built in Rome, they placed a golden image of him upon a +couch in the temple of Mars, and to this they paid all the honors that +they were afterward to give to his statue. Other votes in regard to +him were that his image should not be borne in procession at any one's +funeral and the consuls should celebrate his birthday with games no less +than that of Mars[8] the tribunes, as being sacrosanct, were to manage +the Augustalia. These officials conducted everything as had been the +custom, wearing the triumphal costume at the horse-race; they did not, +however, ascend the chariot. Besides this Livia held a private festival +in his honor for three days in the Palatium, and this is continued to the +present day by whoever is emperor. + +[-47-] This was the extent of the decrees passed in memory of Augustus +nominally by the senate but really by Tiberius and Livia. Various men +made various motions and they decided that Tiberius should receive +written proposals from them and pick out whatever he chose. I have added +the name of Livia because she took a share in the proceedings, as though +she had full power. + +Meantime the populace was plunged in tumult because at the Augustalia one +of the dancers would not enter the theatre for the stipulated pay. They +did not cease their disturbances until the tribunes convened the senate +without delay and begged that body to allow them to spend something more +than the legal amount.--Here ends my account of Augustus. + + +[Footnote 1: Undoubtedly _C. Vibius_ POSTUMUS is the person meant.] + +[Footnote 2: Reading [Greek: paremenoi] (Boissevain, following the MS.).] + +[Footnote 3: A leaf is here missing in the codex Marcianus. Of the +portion lost Zonaras supplies about one quarter.] + +[Footnote 4: Another leaf of the codex Marcianus is here lacking, leaving +a gap of which Zonaras and an Excerpt of de Valois supply a sixth or +more.] + +[Footnote 5: A conjecture of Boissevain's. The MS. has "Sardinia." (See +Mnemosyne, N.S. XIII, p. 329.)] + +[Footnote 6: Dio here appears to confuse the festival of Augustus's +Birthday (September 23d) with that of the Augustalia proper, which was +celebrated October third to twelfth. The opening of chapter 34, Book +Fifty-four, might lead one to think, however, that he had accustomed +himself to use the phrase "which are still celebrated" to listing the +latter from the former.] + +[Footnote 7: This sentence in the MS. is faulty. Oddey and Bekker +supplied words for the necessary sense.] + +[Footnote 8: Compare Roscher, II, column 2399.]; + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +57 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +About Tiberius (chapter I ff.). How Cappadocia began to be governed by +Romans (chapter 17). How Germanicus Caesar died (chapter 18). How Drusus +Caesar died (chapter 22). + +Duration of time, 11 years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Drusus Caesar Tiberi F., C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus (A.D. 15 = a. u. 768 = +Second of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +T. Statilius T. F. Sisenna Taurus, L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (A.D. 16 = +a. u. 769 = Third of Tiberius.) + +C. Caecilius C. F. Nepos [or] Rufus, L. Pomponius L. F. Flaccus. (A.D. 17 += a. u. 770 = Fourth of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Caesar Augusti F. (III), Germanicus Caesar Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 18 = a. +u. 771 = Fifth of Tiberius.) + +M. Iunius M. F. Silanus, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus or Balbus. (A.D. 19 = +a. u. 772 = Sixth of Tiberius.) + +M. Valerius M. F. Messala, M. Aurelius M. F. Cotta. (A.D. 20 = a. u. 773 += Seventh of Tiberius.) + +Tib. Caesar Augusti F. (IV), Drusus Iulius Tib. F. (II). (A.D. 21 = a. u. +774 = Eighth of Tiberius.) + +Decimus Haterius C. F. Agrippa, C. Sulpicius Serg. F. Galba. (A.D. 22 = +a. u. 775 = Ninth of Tiberius.) + +C. Asinius C. F. Pollio, C. Antistius C. F. Vetus. (A.D. 23 = a. u. 776 = +Tenth of Tiberius.) + +Sergius Cornelius Sergi F. Cethego, L. Visellius L. F. Varro. (A.D. 24 = +a. u. 777 = Eleventh of Tiberius.) + +M. [or C.] Asinius [M. or] C. F. Agrippa, Cossus Cornelius Cossi F. +Lentulus. (A.D. 25 = a. u. 778 = Twelfth of Tiberius.) + + +_(BOOK 57 BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 14 (_a. u._ 767)] + +[-1-] Tiberius was a patrician of good education, but he had a most +peculiar nature. He never let what he desired appear in his talk, and +about what he said he wished he usually cared nothing at all. Thus his +words indicated just the opposite of his real purpose: be denied any +interest in what he longed for and urged the claims of what he hated. He +would exhibit anger over matters that were very far from arousing his +rage and made a show of affability where he was most vexed. He would pity +those whom he severely punished and retain a grudge against those whom he +pardoned. Sometimes he would regard his dearest foe as his nearest friend +and again he would act toward his most intimate companion as if the +latter were thoroughly hostile. In general, he thought it bad policy +for the independent sovereign to reveal his state of mind; this was the +source, he said, of great failures, but by the opposite course even more +successes, and greater, were attained. If he had merely followed this +method without complications, he would have had no protection against +such as had come to know him; they would have taken everything by +contraries and would have deemed his saying that he did not wish +something to be equivalent to his ardently desiring it, and that he was +eager for something equivalent to his not being concerned about it. It +happened, however, that he became angry if any one gave evidence of +understanding him. Many were those he put to death for no other offence +than having comprehended him. It was a dangerous matter, then, to fail to +understand him--for many were ruined by approving what he said instead of +what he wished,--but still more dangerous to understand him. Such persons +were suspected of discovering his practice and being consequently +displeased with it. Practically the only sort of man that could maintain +himself,--and such a person is rarely found,--was one who did not +misunderstand his nature yet did not subject it to uncomfortable +exposure. Under these conditions men would not be deceived by believing +him nor be hated for revealing their comprehension of his policy. For he +gave plenty of trouble both to any one who opposed what he said and to +any one who favored it. As he was really anxious for one thing to be +done but wanted to appear to desire something different, he invariably +regarded those who took either side as his opponents and therefore was +hostile to the one class because of his real feelings, and to the other +for the sake of appearances. + +[-2-] It was due to this characteristic that, as emperor, he sent a +dispatch straight from Nola to the legions and provinces declaring that +he was emperor. This name, which was voted him along with the rest, he +would not accept, and though taking the portion of Augustus he would not +adopt this title of his. At a time when he was already surrounded by the +body-guards he asked the senate to help him escape suffering any violence +at the burial of the emperor's body. He was afraid some men might snatch +it up and burn it in the Forum, as they had that of Caesar. When somebody +thereupon as a compliment voted that he be given a guard, as if he had +none, he saw through the man's flattery and answered: "The soldiers are +not mine but the public's." Besides doing this he administered in fact +all the business of the empire, meanwhile declaring that he wanted none +of it. At first he said he should give it all up on account of his +age,--fifty-six,--and his near-sightedness (although he saw extremely +well in the dark, his eyes in the daylight were very weak). Later he +asked for some associates and colleagues, though not to take charge of +the whole domain at once, as in an oligarchy, but he divided it into +three parts, one of which he should retain himself and yield the +remaining two to others. One of these portions consisted of Rome and +the rest of Italy, the second of the legions, the third of the subject +peoples outside. Though he became very urgent, most of the senators +still opposed him and begged him to govern the entire realm. But Asinius +Gallus, who employed the frank speech of old days more than was good for +him, replied: "Choose whichever part you wish." Tiberius rejoined: "How +is it feasible for the same man both to make the division and to choose?" +Gallus, perceiving into what a plight he had fallen, framed his words to +flatter him, interrupting to the effect that: "I not setting before you +the idea of your having a third but the impossibility of the empire's +being divided." In fact, however, he did not mollify Tiberius, but after +first undergoing many dire sufferings was subsequently murdered. For +Gallus had married the former wife of the new ruler and claimed Drusus as +his son, and consequently there had been hatred between them before this. + +[-3-] Tiberius acted in this way at that time chiefly because it was his +nature and he had determined upon that policy, but partly also because +he was suspicious of the Pannonian and Germanic legions and feared +Germanicus, the ruler of the Germany of that day and a favorite of +theirs. He had previously made sure of the soldiers in Italy by means of +the oaths established by Augustus; but as he was suspicious of the others +he waited for either possible outcome, intending to save himself by +retiring to private life in case the legions should revolt and prevail. +For this reason he often feigned sickness and remained at home, so as not +to be compelled to say or do anything definite. I have even heard that +when it began to be said that Livia against the will of Augustus had kept +the empire for him, he took such action[1] that he might appear to have +received it not from her (with whom he was on very bad terms), but under +compulsion from the senators through surpassing them in excellence. Again +I have heard that when he saw that people were cool toward him he waited +and delayed in order that they in the hope of his voluntarily resigning +the empire might no adopt rebellious measures until he had secured an +unshakable control of the government. Still, I do not record these +stories as the true causes of his delay, but rather his usual disposition +and the disturbance among the soldiers. He sent some one from Nola and +had Agrippa killed at once. Yet he declared this had not been done by +his orders and he threatened the perpetrator of the deed. Instead of +punishing him, however, he allowed men to invent versions of the affair +some to the effect that Augustus had put him out of the way just before +his death, others that the centurion who was guarding him slew him on his +own responsibility for some revolutionary dealings, others that Livia and +not Tiberius had ordered his death. + +[-4-] This rival, then, he had removed from the scene immediately, but +there remained Germanicus, whom he feared mightily. The soldiers in +Pannonia had risen as soon as they learned of the demise of Augustus. +They gathered in one fort and having strengthened it they took many steps +toward rebellion. Among other things they attempted to kill their leader, +Junius Blaesus, and arrested and tortured his slaves. In general, what +they wanted was to have the period of service extend over not more than +sixteen years, and they demanded that they should receive a denarius per +day and be given at once his prizes that were in the camp. In case they +did not obtain their demands they threatened to make the province revolt +and to march upon Rome. Indeed, they were at this time with difficulty +won over by the persuasions of Blaesus to send envoys to Tiberius at Rome +in regard to these matters. For they hoped during this change in +the government to accomplish the utmost of their desires either by +frightening the emperor into it or by giving the power to some one else. +Subsequently, when Drusus came upon them with the Pretorians, they were +thrown into tumult once more because no definite answer was returned +them. Some of his followers they wounded and they put a guard around him +in the night to prevent his escape. Noticing, however, an eclipse of the +moon occurring they felt their boldness begin to waver so that they +did no further harm to this detachment and despatched envoys again to +Tiberius. Meantime a great storm came up, and when on this account every +one had retired to his own quarters, the most audacious soldiers were +destroyed, some in one manner, some in another, by Drusus and his +associates in his own tent, whither he had summoned them on some +unsignifying pretext. The rest were restored to good standing on +condition of surrendering for punishment those responsible for the +uprising. In this way this division became quiet. + +[-5-] The warriors in Germany, however, where many had been assembled +on account of the war, would not hear of moderation, since they saw that +Germanicus was both a Caesar and far superior to Tiberius, but proclaiming +publicly the above facts they heaped abuse upon Tiberius and saluted +Germanicus as emperor. When after much pleading he found himself unable +to reduce them to order, finally he drew his sword as if to despatch +himself. They cried out upon him in horror, and one of them proffering +his own sword said: "Take this; this is sharper." Germanicus, seeing +to what lengths the matter had gone, did not venture to kill himself, +particularly as he had reason to believe that they would persist in their +uprising none the less. Therefore he composed a letter purporting to have +been sent from Tiberius, gave them twice the gift bequeathed them by +Augustus,--pretending it was the emperor who did this,--and released +those who were beyond the age of service. Most of them belonged to the +city troops which Augustus had gathered as an extra force after the +disaster to Varus. As a result, they ceased for the time being their +seditious behavior. Later on came senators as envoys from Tiberius, to +whom the latter had secretly communicated only so much as he wished +Germanicus to know. He felt quite sure that they would tell him the +emperor's plans in their entirety, and accordingly did not care that +either they or Germanicus should trouble themselves about anything +further; the instructions delivered were supposed to comprise everything. +Now when these men had arrived and the soldiers learned about the trick +Germanicus had played, a suspicion sprang up that the presence of the +senators meant the overthrow of their leader's measures, and this led to +new turmoil. The men-at-arms almost killed some of the envoys and to the +point of seizing Germanicus's wife Agrippina (daughter of Agrippa and +Julia, the daughter of Augustus) and his son, both of whom had been +sent by him to some place for refuge. The boy was called Gaius Caligula +because, being brought up for the most part in the camp he wore the +military shoes instead of those usual at the capital. At the request of +Germanicus they released to him Agrippina, who was pregnant but they +retained possession of Gaius. Yet on this occasion too, as they +accomplished nothing, they after a time grew quiet. In fact, they +experienced such a revulsion of sentiment that of their own accord they +arrested the boldest of their number: and some they killed privately, the +rest they brought before a gathering; and then, according to the wish of +the majority, [-6-] they executed some and released others. Germanicus +being still afraid that they would make another uprising invaded the +enemy's country and there spent some time, giving them plenty of work and +abundant food,--the fruit of others' labor. + +Thus, though he might have obtained the imperial power,--for he found +favor in the sight of absolutely all the Romans as well as their +subjects,--he declined the honor. For this Tiberius praised him and sent +many pleasing messages both to him and to Agrippina: he was not, however, +pleased with his rival's progress but feared him all the more because he +had won the attachment of the legions. Tiberius assumed that he did not +feel as he appeared to do, from his own consciousness of saying one thing +and doing another. Hence he was suspicious of Germanicus and further +suspicious of his wife, who was possessed of an ambition appropriate to +her lofty lineage. Yet he displayed no sign of irritation toward them, +but delivered many eulogies of Germanicus in the senate and proposed +sacrifices to be offered in honor of his achievements as he did in the +case of Drusus. Also he bestowed upon the soldiers in Pannonia the same +privileges as Germanicus had given. For the future, however, he refused +to release members of the service outside of Italy until they had served +the twenty years. + +[-7-] Now when no further news of a revolutionary nature came, but all +parts of the Roman world began to yield a steady acquiescence to his +leadership, he no longer practiced dissimulation regarding the acceptance +of sovereign power, and managed the empire, so long as Germanicus lived, +in the way I am about to describe. He did little or nothing, that is, on +his own responsibility, but brought even the smallest matters before the +senate and communicated them to that body. In the Forum a platform had +been erected on which he sat in public to transact business, and he +always gathered about him advisers, after the manner of Augustus. +Moreover, he did not take any step of consequence without making it known +to the rest. He stated his own opinion openly and not only granted every +one the right to oppose it freely in speech, but sometimes even endured +to have some vote directly against it. Often he would cast a vote +himself. Drusus did this, like the rest, now voting first and again after +some others. The emperor would sometimes remain silent and sometimes give +his opinion first, or after a few others, or even last; in some cases he +would speak out directly, but generally (to avoid appearing to have cut +short their freedom of speech), he would say: "If I were to give my views +I should propose this or that." This had equal influence with the other +method, only those who came after were not prevented by him from stating +what appeared good to them. But frequently he would outline one plan and +those who came after him would prefer something different; occasionally +they even prevailed. Yet for all that he harbored anger against no +one. He held court himself, as I have stated, but he also attended +the magistrates' courts, both when summoned by them and without an +invitation. These officials he allowed to sit in their own places: he +himself took his seat on the bench located opposite them and as presiding +officer made any remarks that seemed to him pertinent. + +[-8-] In all other matters, too, he behaved in this same way. He would +not allow himself to be called "master" by the freedmen, nor "imperator" +except by the soldiers; the title of _Pater Patriae_ he put away from him +entirely: that of _Augustus_ he did not assume (for he never permitted +the question to be put to vote), but endured to hear it spoken and to +read it when written. Moreover, when he sent messages to any kings he +would regularly include this title in his letter. In general he spoke +of himself as Caesar, sometimes as Germanicus (from the exploits of +Germanicus), and _Princeps Senatus_, according to ancient usage. Often he +used to say: "My position is that of master of the slaves, imperator of +the soldiers, and first citizen among the rest." He would pray, whenever +it happened that he was so engaged, that he might live and rule so long +a time as should be to the advantage of the public. And he was so +democratic in all circumstances alike that on his birthday he did not +permit any unusual demonstrations, and he did not give people the right +to swear by his Fortune nor did he prosecute any one who after swearing +by it incurred the charge of perjury. In short, he would not (at first, +at least) sanction in his own case the carrying out of the custom which +has obtained as a matter of course on the first day of the year, down to +the present, in honor of Augustus, of all rulers that came after him of +whom we make any account, and of such as nowadays succeed to imperial +privileges,--namely, the ratification under oath of what they have done +and of what they shall do by citizens alive during the particular year +in question. Yet in the case of the measures of Augustus he both +administered the oath to others and took it himself. In order to render +his attitude more striking, he would let the first day of the month go +by, not entering the senate nor showing himself at all in the City on +that day, but spending the time in some suburb; then later he would come +in and take pledges separately. This was part of the reason that he +remained somewhere outside on the first days of the month, but he was +also anxious to avoid disturbing any of the inhabitants, who were +concerned with the new offices and the festival, and to avoid taking +money from them. He did not even commend Augustus for his behavior in +this respect because it brought about great dissatisfaction and a great +expenditure in order to return favors. [-9-] Not only in this way were his +actions democratic, but no precinct was set apart for him either by his +own choice or in any other way,--that is to say at this time. Nor was any +one allowed to set up an image of him. Without delay he expressly forbade +any city or individual to do this. To this refusal he attached the phrase +"unless I grant permission "; but he added: "I will not grant it." Least +of all did he assume to have been insulted or to have been impiously +treated by any one. (Men were already calling such a procedure impiety, +and were bringing many suits based on that ground.) He would not hear of +any such indictment being brought for his own benefit, though he paid +tribute to the majesty of Augustus in this matter also. At first he would +not punish even such as had incurred charges for their actions in regard +to his predecessor, and some against whom complaint was made of their +having perjured themselves by the Fortune of Augustus he released. As +time went on, however, he put a very great number to death. + +[-10-] Not only did he magnify Augustus as above stated, but in giving +the finishing touches to the buildings of which Augustus had laid the +foundations (though not bringing them to completion) he inscribed the +first emperor's name; the latter's statues and heroae, likewise, whether +those that the provinces or those that individuals were erecting he +partly consecrated himself and partly assigned to some member of the +pontifices. This plan of inscribing the builder's name he carried out not +only in the case of the actual monuments of Augustus himself, but equally +in the case of all such as needed any repair. He put in good condition +all buildings that had fallen to decay (not constructing anything new at +all himself, except the temple of Augustus), and appropriated none of +them, but restored to all of them the same names, names of the original +builders. While expending extremely little for himself he laid out +very great sums for the common good, either building over or adorning +practically all the public works. He assisted many cities and individuals +and enriched numerous senators who were poor and on that account were no +longer willing to be members of the senate. However, he did not do this +promiscuously and even expunged the names of some for licentiousness and +of others for poverty when they could give no adequate reason for it. +Every gift that was bestowed upon any persons was counted out directly in +his presence. For since in the days of Augustus the officials who made +the presentation were wont to deduct large sums for their own use, he +took the greatest care that this should not happen during his reign. All +the expenditures, moreover, he made from the regular sources of income. +He killed no one for his money, did not confiscate (at this time) any +one's property, nor collect any funds by abuses. Indeed, when Aemilius +Rectus once sent him from Egypt, of which he was governor, more money +than was required, he sent him a message, saying: "To shear my sheep and +not to shave them to the skin is what I desire." + +[-11-] Furthermore he was extremely easy of access and ready to grant +an audience. The senators he bade greet him all at once and so avoid +jostling one another. In fine, he showed himself so considerate that +once, when the leaders of the Rhodians sent him some communication and +failed to write at the foot of the letter this customary formula about +offering their prayers for his welfare, he summoned them in haste as +if he intended to do them some harm, but on their arrival instead of +administering any serious rebuke had them subscribe what was lacking and +then sent them away. The temporary officials he honored as he would have +done in a democracy, even rising from his seat at the approach of the +consuls. Whenever he entertained them at dinner he would in the first +place receive them at the door when they entered, and secondly escort +them on their way when they departed. In case he was at any time being +carried anywhere in his litter, he would not allow even one of the +knights who was prominent to accompany him, still less a senator. On the +occasion of festivals or so often as anything similar was going to +afford the people leisure, he would go the evening before to one of the +Caesarians who lived near the places where there was sure to be a large +crowd and there pass the night. His object was to make it possible for +the people to meet him with a minimum of formality and fatigue. The +equestrian contests he would often watch in person from the house of some +freedman. He attended the spectacles very frequently in order to do +honor to those who gave them as well as to ensure the orderliness of the +multitude and to seem to take an interest in their celebration. Really he +did not care in the least about anything of the kind, nor did he have the +reputation of being enthusiastic in these matters. In every way he was so +fair and equal that when the populace once desired that a certain dancer +be set free he would not approve the proposal until the man's master had +been persuaded and received the value of his chattel. His intercourse +with his companions was like that between private individuals: he helped +them when they were sued and joined them in the ceremony of sacrifice; he +visited them when they were sick, taking no guard into the room with him; +over one of them who died he himself delivered the funeral oration. + +[-12-] Moreover, he bade his mother behave in a similar manner, so far +as it was proper for her to do so, partly that she might imitate him and +partly to prevent her becoming overproud. She occupied a position of +great prominence, far above all women of former time, so that she could +at any time receive the senate and such of the people as so wished to +greet her in her house. This was also inscribed in the public records. +The letters of Tiberius bore for a time her name also and were written by +both with equal authority. Except that she never ventured to enter the +senate or the camps or the public assemblies she undertook to man age +everything like a sole ruler. In the time of Augustus she had had great +influence and she declared that it was she who made Tiberius emperor. +Consequently she was not satisfied to rule on equal terms with him, but +wished to assert a superiority over him. In this way many measures out of +the ordinary were introduced and many persons voted that she should be +called Mother of her Country, many others that she should he termed +Parent. Others proposed that Tiberius should receive his name from her, +that just as the Greeks were called by their father's name so he should +be called by his mother's. This vexed him and he neither ratified the +honors voted her (save a very few) nor allowed her any further unusual +freedom of action. For instance, she had once dedicated in her house +an image to Augustus and in honor of the event wished to entertain the +senate and the knights together with their wives, but he would not grant +her permission to carry out any part of this program until the senate had +voted it, and not even then to receive the men at dinner. Instead, he +entertained the latter and she attended to the women. Finally, he removed +her entirely from the public sphere, allowing her to direct affairs +within doors; then, as she was troublesome even in this capacity, he +proceeded to absent himself from the City and avoided her in every way +possible. It was chiefly on her account that he removed to Capreae.--This +is the tradition that obtains about Livia. + +[-13-] Now Tiberius began to treat more harshly those accused of any +crime and became at enmity with his son Drusus, who was most licentious +and cruel (as is evidenced by the fact that the sharpest kind of swords +was called Drusian after him); him he often censured both privately and +publicly. Once he said to him outright in the Presence of many witnesses: +"While I live you shall perform no act of violence or insolence, and +if you venture to do any such thing, you shall be cut off from the +possibility after I am dead." For during some time the emperor continued +to live a very temperate life and allowed no one else to indulge in +licentiousness but punished numbers for it. Yet once when the senators +evinced a desire to have a penalty imposed by law upon those guilty of +lewd living he would make no such ruling, explaining that it is better to +correct them privately in some way or other instead of laying them open +to a public punishment. Under existing conditions, he said, there was a +chance of bringing some of them to moderation through fear of disgrace, +and they might endeavor to escape discovery; but if the law should once +be overcome by nature, no one would pay any further heed to it. Not a +few men also were wearing quantities of purple clothing (though this had +formerly been forbidden); of these no one was either rebuked or fined: +but when a rain came up on a certain festival the emperor put on a dark +woolen cloak. After this none of them dared any longer to assume any +different kind of garb. + +This is the way he behaved under all conditions so long as Germanicus +lived. Subsequent to that event he changed many of his ways. Perhaps he +had been minded from the first as he later appeared to feel, and had been +merely shamming as long as Germanicus existed because he saw that he +was lying in wait for the leadership; or perhaps he was excellent by +nature but drifted into vice when he was deprived of his rival. [-14-] I +shall notice also separate events,--all those, at least that deserve +mention,--each in its proper place. + +[A.D. 15 (_a. u._ 768)] + +In the consulship of Drusus his son and of Gaius Norbanus he presented +to the people the bequests made by Augustus: this was after some one had +approached a corpse that was being carried out through the Forum for +burial and bending down had whispered something in its ear; when the +spectators asked what he had said, he stated that he had commissioned +the dead to tell Augustus that they had got nothing as yet. This man the +emperor immediately despatched, in order (as he jokingly said) that he +might carry his own message to Augustus; with the rest he settled after a +little, distributing sixty-five denarii apiece. Some say this payment was +made the previous year. + +At this time certain knights desired to enter a championship contest in +the games which Drusus had arranged for his own celebration and that of +Germanicus; Tiberius did not view their combat, and when one of them was +killed he forbade the other to fight as a gladiator again. Still other +conflicts took place in connection with the horse-race that was in honor +of Augustus's birthday; indeed, a few beasts were slain. So things went +on for a number of years. + +At this time, too, Crete, its governor being dead, was attached to the +quaestorship and to the quaestor's assistant for the future. Since, also, +many of those to whom the provinces had been allotted lingered in Rome +and in the remainder of Italy for a long time, so that those who had held +the office before them delayed, contrary to precedent, Tiberius commanded +that they should take their departure by the first day of June. Meanwhile +his grandson by Drusus died, but he neglected none of his customary +duties; it was his settled conviction that a governor of men ought not to +give up care of the common weal by reason of private misfortunes, and he +confirmed the rest in their purpose not to jeopardize the interests of +the living because of the dead. + +The river Tiber now proceeded to occupy a large portion of the City, +so that there was an inundation. Most people regarded this also as a +prodigy, like the great earthquakes which shook down a portion of the +wall, and like the frequent fall of thunderbolts, which made wine leak +even from pails that were sound. The emperor, however, thinking that it +was due to the great number of springs, appointed five senators, chosen +by lot, to constitute a permanent board to look after the river, to the +end that it should not give out in summer nor become over full in winter, +but flow evenly so far as possible all the time. These were the measures +of Tiberius. + +As for Drusus, he performed the duties pertaining to the consulship along +with his colleague as any private citizen might have done. Being left +heir to someone's estate he assisted in carrying out the funeral. Yet +he was so prone to anger that he inflicted blows upon a distinguished +knight, and for this exploit he obtained the surname of Castor. [2] And +he showed himself such a hard drinker that one night, when he was forced +to lend aid with the Pretorians to some people whose property was on +fire, he commanded, at their request for water, to pour it out hot for +them. He was so fond of dancers that this class raised a tumult and would +not be brought to order by the laws which Tiberius had introduced to +apply to them. + +[A.D. 16 (_a. u._ 769)] + +[-15-] These were the events of that period. Now when Statilius Taurus +was consul with Lucius Libo, Tiberius forbade any man to wear silk +clothing and likewise to use gold ornaments, except for sacred +ceremonies. As some were at a loss to know whether it were forbidden them +also to possess silver ornaments which had some gold inlaid, he wished +to issue some decree about this too, but he refused to let the word +_emblaema_, since it was a Greek term, be inserted in the original +document. Yet he could find no native word that would describe such +inlaid work. + +This was the position he took in that matter. Now there was a centurion +who wished to give some evidence before the senate in Greek, and he would +not allow it. Yet he was wont to hear many suits that were argued there +in that language and to investigate many himself. Besides his unusual +behavior in this respect he failed to pass sentence on Lucius Scribonius +Libo, a young noble suspected of revolutionary designs, so long as the +latter was well; but upon his falling sick he had him brought into the +senate in a covered litter (such as the wives of senators use) to be +condemned to death. + +A slight delay ensued and Libo committed suicide, whereupon the emperor +passed judgment upon his behavior, though he was dead, gave his money to +the accusers, and had sacrifices voted for his overthrow, not only for +his own sake, but for the sake of Augustus and of the latter's father +Julius, as had occasionally been decreed in past times. + +Though he took such action in the case of this man, he administered no +rebuke at all to Vibius Rufus, who used Caesar's chair (the one on which +the latter was always accustomed to sit and on which he was slain). Rufus +did this regularly, besides having Cicero's wife as his consort, and +prided himself on both achievements, evidently thinking that he would +become an orator by means of the wife or a Caesar by means of the chair. +For this, as I have stated, he received no censure; indeed, he became +consul. + +Tiberius was, moreover, forever in the company of Thrasyllus and made +some use of the mantic art every day, becoming himself so proficient in +the study that when he was once bidden in a dream to give money to a +certain person, he comprehended that a deceitful spirit had been called +up before him and he put the man to death. Likewise, in the case of +all the rest of the astrologers and magicians and those who practiced +divination in any other way whatever, he had the foreigners executed +and banished all such citizens as still at that time after the previous +decree, by which it had been forbidden to engage in any such business in +the City, were accused in court of employing the art. + +To such of them as obeyed immunity had been granted. In fact, all the +citizens would have been acquitted even contrary to his wish, had not +a certain tribune prevented it. Here one could catch a glimpse of the +democratic constitution, inasmuch as the senate, approving the course +of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, overcame Drusus and Tiberius and was itself +subdued by the tribune. + +[-16-] These affairs were settled in this way. Certain men who had been +quaestors the previous year were sent out to the provinces, since those +who were quaestors at the time proved too few for them. This was done +again and again, as often as it was found necessary. + +Many of the public documents had either perished utterly or had faded +during the lapse of time. Three senators were therefore elected to copy +off what was extant and to look up the rest.--Assistance was given in +several conflagrations not only by Tiberius but also by Livia. + +The same year a certain Clemens, who had been a slave of Agrippa and +resembled him to a certain extent, pretended to be he. He went to Gaul +and won the attachment of many there, and later of many in Italy. Finally +he marched upon Rome with the avowed intention of recovering the dominion +of his grandfather. Many of the inhabitants of the city were thrown into +confusion at this, and not a few joined his cause. Tiberius, however, got +him in his hands by a clever device and through the agency of certain +persons who pretended to sympathize with the upstart. Then he tortured +the prisoner in order to learn something about his fellow conspirators, +but when the victim uttered not a word the emperor asked him:" How did +you get to be Agrippa?" And he replied: "In the same way as you got to be +Caesar." + +[A.D. 17 (a. u. 770)] + +[-17-] The following year Gaius Caecilius and Lucius Flaccus received the +title of consuls. And when some brought Tiberius money after the first +of the month, he would not accept it and published a kind of document +regarding this very point, in which he used a word that was not Latin. +After thinking it over by night he sent for all those who had accurate +knowledge of such matters, for he was extremely anxious to have his +diction irreproachable. Thereupon a certain Ateius Capito declared: "Even +if no one has previously used this expression, yet because of you we +shall all enumerate it among the primitive usages," but was interrupted +by one Marcellus,[3] who said: "You, being Caesar, can extend Roman +government over men, but not over words." And the emperor did the man no +harm for this, in spite of the excessive frankness of his speech. + +He had a grudge, however, against Archelaus. the king of Cappadocia, +because the latter had first become his suppliant to the extent of +employing him as advocate when this monarch in the time of Augustus had +been accused by his people, and had subsequently slighted him on the +occasion of a visit to Rhodes, but had paid court to Gaius, who also went +to Asia. Therefore he summoned him on the charge of rebellious behavior +and delivered him up to the votes of the senate. (The king was not only +well stricken in years, but a great sufferer from gout, and was moreover +believed to be demented.) As a matter of fact he had been incommoded +previously by loss of mind to the extent of having a guardian placed over +his domain by Augustus; but at that time he was no longer weak-witted and +was merely feigning, in the hope of saving himself by this expedient +if by no other. He would now have been executed, had not some one in +testifying against him stated that he had once said: "When I get back +home, I will show him what sort of sinews I possess." A shout of laughter +went up at this, for the man was not only unable to stand, but could +not even assume a sitting posture, and so Tiberius gave up his plan of +putting him to death. The condition of the prince was so serious that +he was carried into the senate in a covered litter. For since it was +customary even for men, whenever one of them came there feeling ill, to +be carried in a reclining position, Tiberius took advantage of the method +on this occasion, too. (And the invalid spoke a few words, bending +forward from the litter.) So it was that the life of Archelaus was +temporarily saved, but he died shortly afterward in some other way. After +this Cappadocia reverted to the Romans and was put in charge of a knight. + +To the cities in Asia which had been damaged by the earthquake an +ex-praetor was assigned with five lictors. Considerable money therefore +was diverted from the revenues and considerable was given by Tiberius +personally. For whereas he refrained scrupulously from the possessions of +others,--so long at least as he practiced virtue at all,--and would not +even accept the inheritances which were left to him by testators having +relatives, he spent vast sums both upon the cities and upon private +individuals. He would not hear of any honor or praise for these +acts.--Embassies that came from foreign cities or nations he never +dealt with alone, but caused a number of others to participate in the +deliberations, and especially such as had once governed these peoples. + +[-18-] Now Germanicus, having acquired a reputation for his campaign +against the Celtae, advanced as far as the ocean, inflicted an +overwhelming defeat upon the barbarians, collected and buried the bones +of those who had fallen under Varus, and won back the military standards. + + His wife Julia was not recalled from the banishment to which for + unchastity her father Augustus had condemned her; nay, he even put + her under lock and key till wretchedness and starvation caused her + death. + +[A.D. 17 or 18] + +The senate urged upon Tiberius the request that the month of November, on +the sixteenth of which he had been born, should be called Tiberius; to +which he responded: "What will you do, if there arise thirteen Caesars?" + +[A.D. 19 (_a. u._ 772)] + +Later, when Marcus Junius and Lucius Norbanus came to office, a portent +of some magnitude occurred on the very first day of the month, and it +doubtless had a bearing on the fate of Germanicus. Norbanus the consul +had always been devoted to the trumpet, and as he had practiced +assiduously in this pursuit he wished on this occasion also to play the +instrument just about dawn, when many persons were already near his house +This proceeding threw them all without exception into confusion, just as +if the consul had imparted to them some warlike signal; and they were +also disturbed by the falling of the statue of Janus. Their calm was +further ruffled by an oracle, reputed to be a Sibylline utterance, which +would not fit any other period of the city's history, but pointed to that +very time. It declared: + + "After thrice three hundred revolving years have been numbered, Civil + strife shall consume the Romans,--and the Sybaritan Folly." ... + +Tiberius denounced these verses as false and made an investigation of all +the books containing any prophecies. Some he rejected as worthless and +others he admitted as genuine. + + As there had been a large influx of Jews into Rome and they were + converting many of the native inhabitants to their principles he + expelled the great majority of them. + +At the death of Germanicus Tiberius and Livia were thoroughly pleased, +but everybody else was mightily afflicted. He was a man who possessed the +most striking physical beauty and likewise the noblest of spirits. Both +in education and in strength he was conspicuous [and whereas he was the +bravest of the brave against the enemy, he was the mildest of the mild to +his friend. Though as a Caesar he had extreme power he kept his ambitions +on the same plane as weaker men. He in no wise conducted himself +oppressively toward his subjects] or with jealousy toward Drusus or in +any way to deserve censure toward Tiberius. [In brief, he belonged to the +few men of all time who have neither sinned against the fortune allotted +to them nor been destroyed by it.] + +Although on several occasions he might [with the free consent not only +of the soldiers but of the people and senate as well] have obtained the +imperial power, he refused to do so. His death occurred in Antioch as the +result of a plot formed by Piso and Plancina. Bones of men buried in the +house where he dwelt and sheets of lead containing certain curses along +with his name were found while he yet breathed. + +[A.D. 20 (_a u._ 773)] + +Piso was brought before the senate by Tiberius himself on the charge of +having murdered Germanicus, but succeeded in securing a postponement and +committed suicide. + + Germanicus left three sons, whom Augustus in his testament denominated + Caesars. The eldest of these, Nero, at that time had his name + placed among the number of the iuvenes. + +[-19-] Tiberius, who had hitherto been the author of manifold meritorious +works and had made but few errors, now, when he ceased to have a rival in +view, changed to precisely the reverse of his previous conduct, which had +included many excellent deeds. Among other ways in which his rule became +cruel he pushed to the bitter end the trials for maiestas, in cases where +complaint was made against any one for committing any improper act or +uttering any improper speech not only against Augustus but against +Tiberius personally and against his mother. + + And towards those suspected of plotting against him he was inexorable. + + Tiberius was stern in his chastisement of persons accused of an + offence. He would remark as follows: "Nobody willingly submits to + be ruled, but a man is driven into it reluctantly. Not only do subjects + like to refuse obedience, but, more than that, they enjoy plotting + against their rulers. And he would accept accusers indiscriminately: a + slave might denounce a master or a son a father. + + Indeed, by indicating to certain persons his wish for the death of + certain others he brought about the destruction of the latter through + the medium of the former, and there was no secrecy about these + transactions. + +Not only were slaves tortured to make them testify against their own +masters, but freedmen and citizens as well. Such as accused or offered +testimony against persons divided by lot the property of those convicted +and received in addition both offices and honors. In the case of many he +took care to ascertain the day and the hour that they had been born and +on the basis of their character and fortune thus investigated would +put them to death. If he discovered any qualities of haughtiness and +aspiration to power in any one, he despatched him whether or no. Yet so +much did he investigate and understand what was fated for each of the +prominent men that on meeting Galba (subsequently emperor), when the +latter had betrothed a wife, he remarked: "You also shall taste of the +sovereignty." He spared him, as I conjecture, because this was settled as +his fate; but, as he explained it himself, because Galba would reign only +in old age and long after his death. + +[Tiberius also found some pretexts for assassinations. The death of +Germanicus led to the destruction of many others on the ground that they +were pleased at it.] + +The man who cooeperated with him and helped him in all his undertakings +with the utmost zeal was Lucius Aelius Sejanus, a son of Strabo, and +formerly a favorite of Marcus Gabius Apicius,--that Apicius who so +surpassed all mankind in voluptuous living that when he had once desired +to learn how much he had already spent and how much he still had, +on finding that two hundred and fifty myriads were left him became +grief-stricken, feeling that he was destined to die of hunger, and took +his own life. This Sejanus, accordingly, at one time shared his father's +command of the Pretorians. After his father had been sent to Egypt, and +he obtained entire control, he made the force more compact in many ways, +gathering within one fortification the cohorts, which had been separate +and apart from one another like those of the night guardsmen. In this way +the entire body could receive the orders speedily and they were a source +of terror to all, because they were within one fortification. This was +the man whom Tiberius, because of the similarity of their characters, +took as his helper, elevating him to praetorial honors, which had never +yet been accorded to any of his peers; and he made him his adviser and +assistant in all matters. [In fine, he changed so much after the death +of Germanicus that whereas previously he was highly praised, he now +attracted even greater wonder.] + +[A.D.21 (a. u. 774)] + +[-20-] When Tiberius began to hold the consular office in company with +Drusus, men immediately began to prophecy destruction for Drusus from +this very circumstance. For there is not a man who was ever consul with +Tiberius that did not meet a violent death, but in the first place there +was Quintilius Varus, and next Gnaeus Piso, and then Germanicus himself, +who perished violently and miserably. The emperor was evidently doomed +to cause such ruin throughout his life: Drusus, his colleague at this +time, and Sejanus, who subsequently participated in the office, also +came to grief. + +While Tiberius was out of town, Gaius Lutorius Priscus,[4] a knight, who +took great pride in his poetic talents and had composed a notable funeral +oration over Germanicus for which he had received considerable money, was +charged with having composed a poem upon Drusus also, during the latter's +illness. For this he was tried in the senate, condemned and put to death. +Now Tiberius was vexed, not because the man had been punished, but +because the senators had inflicted death upon any one without his +approval. He therefore rebuked them and ordered a decree to be issued to +the effect that no person condemned by them be executed within ten days, +nor the document applying to his case be made public before the same +time. This was to ensure the possibility of his learning their decrees +in advance even while absent and of rendering a final decision on such +matters. + +[A.D. 22 (_a. u._ 775)] + +[-21-] After this, when his consulship had expired, he came to Rome and +prevented the consuls from acting as advocates to certain persons by +saying: "If I were consul, I should not do this." + +One of the praetors was accused of having uttered some impious word or +having committed some impious act against him, whereupon the man left the +senate and taking off his robe of office returned, demanding as a private +citizen to have the complaint lodged at once. At this the emperor showed +great grief and molested him no further. + +[A.D. 23 (_a. u._ 776)] + +The dancers he drove out of Rome and would allow them no place in which +to practice their profession, because they kept debauching the women and +stirring up tumults. + +He honored many men, and numbers of those who died, with statues and +public funerals. A bronze statue of Sejanus was erected in the theatre +during the life of the model. As a result, numerous images of this +minister were made by many persons and many encomiuma were spoken both in +the assembly and in the senate. The consuls themselves, besides the other +prominent citizens, regularly had recourse to his house just at dawn, and +communicated to him both all the private requests that any of them wished +to make of Tiberius and the public business which had to be taken up. +In brief, henceforth nothing of the kind was considered without his +knowledge. + +About this time one of the largest porticos in Rome began to lean to one +side and was set upright in a remarkable way by a certain architect +whose name no one knows, because Tiberius, jealous of his wonderful +achievement, would not permit it to be entered in the records. This +architect, accordingly, however he was called after strengthening the +foundations all about, so that they could not move out of position, and +surrounding all the rest of the arcade with thick fleeces and cloths, +ran ropes all over it and through it and by the pushing of many men and +machines brought it once more into its previous position. At the time +Tiberius both admired him and felt envious of him; for the former reason +he honored him with a present of money and for the latter he expelled +him from the city. Later, the exile approached him to make supplication +during the course of which he purposely let fall a crystal goblet, which +fell apart somehow or was broken, and then by passing his hands over +it showed it straightway intact; for this the suppliant hoped to have +obtained pardon, but instead the emperor put him to death. + +[-22-] Drusus, son of Tiberius, perished by poison. Sejanus, puffed up +by power and rank, in addition to his other overweening behavior finally +turned against Drusus and once struck him a blow with his fist. As this +gave the assailant reason to fear both Drusus and Tiberius, and inasmuch +as he felt sure that, if he could get the young man out of the way, he +could handle the elder very easily, he administered poison to the former +through the agency of those in attendance upon him and of Drusus's wife, +whom some name Livilla. [5] Sejanus was her paramour.--The guilt was +imputed to Tiberius because he altered none of his accustomed habits +either during the illness of Drusus or at his death and would not allow +others to alter theirs. But the story is not credible. This was his +regular behavior, as a matter of principle, in every case alike, +and furthermore he was attached to his son, the only one he had and +legitimate. Those that engineered his death he punished, some at once and +some later. At the time he entered the senate, delivered the appropriate +eulogy over his child, and departed homeward. + + Thus perished Sejanus's victim. Tiberius took his way to the + senate-house, where he lamented him publicly, put Nero and Drusus + (children of Germanicus) in charge of the senate, and exposed the body + of Drusus upon the rostra; and Nero, being his son-in-law, pronounced + an eulogy over him. This man's death proved a cause of death to many + persons, who were taxed with being pleased at his demise. Among the + large number of people who lost their lives was Agrippina, together + with her children, the youngest excepted. Sejanus had incensed + Tiberius greatly against her, anticipating that, when she and her + children were disposed of, he might have for his spouse Livia, wife of + Drusus, for whom he entertained a passion, and might wield supreme + power, since no successor would be found for Tiberius. The latter + detested his nephew as a bastard. Many others also did he banish or + destroy for different and ever different causes, for the most part + fictitious. + +Tiberius forbade those debarred from fire and water to make any will,--a +custom still observed. AElius Saturninus he brought before the senate for +trial on the charge of having recited some improper verses about him, and +the culprit having been found guilty was hurled from the Capitol. [-23-]I +might narrate many other such occurrences, if I were to go into all in +detail. But the general statement may suffice that many were slain by him +for such offences. And also this,--that he investigated carefully, case by +case, all the slighting remarks that any persons were accused of uttering +against him and then called himself all the ill names that other men +invented. Even if a person made some statement secretly and to a single +companion, he would publish this too, and actually had it entered on the +official records. Often he falsely added, from his own consciousness of +defects, what no one had even said as really spoken, in order that it +might be thought he had juster cause for his wrath. Consequently it came +to pass that he himself committed against himself all those outrages for +which he was wont to chastise other people on the ground of impiety; and +he likewise became subject to no little ridicule. For, if persons denied +having spoken certain phrases, he, by asserting and taking oath that it +had been said, wronged himself with greater show of reality. For this +reason some suspected that he was bereft of his senses. Yet he was not +generally believed to be insane simply for this behavior. All other +business he managed in a way quite beyond criticism. For instance, he +appointed a guardian over a certain senator that lived licentiously, as +he might have done for a child. Again, he brought Capito, procurator of +Asia, before the senate, and, after charging him with using soldiers and +acting in some other ways as if he had supreme command, he banished him. +In those days officials administering the imperial funds were allowed +to do nothing more than to levy the customary tribute, and they were +compelled, in the case of disputes, to stand trial in the Forum and +according to the laws, on an equal footing with private persons.--So +great were the contrasts in Tiberius's conduct. + +[A.D. 24 (_a. u._ 777)] + +[-24-] When the ten years of his office had expired, he did not ask any +vote for its resumption, for he had no wish to receive it piecemeal, as +Augustus had done. The decennial festival, however, was held. + +[A.D. 25 (_a. u._ 778)] + +Cremutius Cordus was forced to lay violent hands upon himself, because he +had come into collision with Sejanus. He was at the gates of old age and +had lived most irreproachably, so much so that no sufficient complaint +could be found against him and he was tried for the history which he +had long before composed regarding the deeds of Augustus and the latter +himself had read. The ground of censure was that he had praised Cassius +and Brutus and had attacked the people and the senate. Of Caesar and +Augustus he had spoken no ill, but at the same time had shown no +excessive respect for them. This was the complaint against him, and this +it was that caused his death as well as the burning of his works,--those +found in the city at this time being destroyed by the aediles, and those +abroad by the officials of each place. Later they were published again, +for his daughter Marcia in particular, as well as others, had hidden +copies, and they attracted much greater attention by reason of the +unhappy end of Cordus. + +About this time Tiberius exhibited to the senators his pretorian cohort +in the act of exercising, as if they were ignorant of his power; his +purpose was to make them more afraid of him, when they saw his defenders +so many and so strong. + +Besides these events of the time that seem worthy to chronicle in a +history, the people of Cyzicus were once more deprived of their freedom +because they had imprisoned certain Romans and because they had not +completed the herouem to Augustus that they had begun to build.--And the +emperor would certainly have put to death the man who sold the emperor's +statue along with his house and was brought to trial for the act, had not +the consul asked the ruler himself to give his vote first. Being ashamed +to appear partial to himself, he cast his ballot for acquittal. + +Also a senator, Lentulus, an excellent man naturally and now far advanced +in old age, was accused by some one of having plotted against the +emperor. Lentulus was present and burst out laughing. At this an uproar +arose in the senate, which was calmed by Tiberius saying: "I am no longer +worthy to live, if Lentulus, too, hates me." + + +[Footnote 1: Reading [Greek: epratten] (Boissevain) in place of the MS. +[Greek: eplatten].] + +[Footnote: 2: This was the name of a celebrated gladiator of the time. +(Compare Horace, Epistles, I, 18, 19.)] + +[Footnote 3: This is M. Pomponius Marcellus.] + +[Footnote 4: Reported elsewhere as _Clutorius_ or _Cluturius Priscus_. +The error may probably be referred to Dio as well as to Xiphilus, through +whom this particular chapter comes. (See Dessau, Prosop. Imp. Rom., I, +p.425)] + +[Footnote 5: The version of Zonaras says: "whom some record as Julia, +others as Livia." Inscriptions give her name as either _Claudia Livia_ or +_Livilla_. From these two pieces of evidence Boissevain with customary +acumen concludes that Dio's original words were probably: "whom some name +Livilla, and others Livia."] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +58 + +Tiberius withdraws to Capreae: Sabinus loses his life through the +treachery of Latiarius (chapter 1). + +About the death of Livia (chapter 2). + +Gallus is condemned to consume away by a slow death (chapter 3). + +Sejanus, puffed up by excessive honors, is put to death together with his +household and friends by the artifice of Tiberius (chapters 4-19). + +The method of selecting magistrates and of holding comitia (chapter 20). + +The lustfulness of Tiberius, his cruelty towards his own family and +others, and likewise his greed (chapters 21-25). + +About Artabanus, the Parthian King, and about Armenia (chapter 26). + +About the death of Thrasyllus (chapter 27). + +About the death of Tiberius (chapter 28). + +DURATION OF TIME. + +Cn. Lentulus Gaetulicus, C. Calvisius Sabinus. (A.D. 26 = a. u. 779 = +Thirteenth of Tiberius, from Aug. 19th.) + +M. Licinius Crassus, L. Calpurnius Piso. (A.D. 27 = a. u. 780 = +Fourteenth of Tiberius.) + +App. Iunius Silanus, P. Silius Nerva. (A.D. 28 = a. u. 781 = Fifteenth of +Tiberius.) + +L. Rubellius Geminus, C. Fufius Geminus. (A.D. 29 = a. u. 782 = Sixteenth +of Tiberius.) + +M. Vinicius Quartinus, L. Cassius Longinus. (A.D. 30 = a. u. 783 = +Seventeenth of Tiberius.) + +Tiberius Aug. (V), L. AElius Seianus. (A.D. 31 = a. u. 784 = Eighteenth of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Furius Camillus Scribonianus. (A.D. 32 = a. u. +785 = Nineteenth of Tiberius.) + +Serv. Sulpicius Galba, L. Cornelius Sulla, (A.D. 33 = a. u. 786 = +Twentieth of Tiberius.) + +L. Vitellius, Paulus Fabius Persicus. (A.D. 34 = a. u. 787 = Twenty-first +of Tiberius.) + +C. Cestius Gallus, M. Servilius Nonianus. (A.D. 35 = a. u. 788 = +Twenty-second of Tiberius.) + +Sex. Papinius, Q. Plautius. (A.D. 36 = a. u. 789 = Twenty-third of +Tiberius.) + +Cn. Acerronius Proculus, C. Pontius Nigrinus. (A.D. 37 = a. u. 790 = +Twenty-fourth of Tiberius, to March 26th.) + + +_(BOOK 57, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 26 (_a. u._ 779)] + +[-1-] He went away about this time from Rome and never returned to the +city at all, though he was ever on the point of doing so and kept sending +messages to that effect. + +[A.D. 27 (_a. u._ 780)] + + Much calamity could be laid by the Romans at his door, since + he wasted the lives of men alike for public service and for + private whim, as when he decided to expel the hunting + spectacles from the city. Consequently some persons attempted + to carry them on in the country outside and perished in the + ruins of their theatres, which had been loosely + constructed of rude planks. + +[A.D. 28 (_a. u._ 781)] + +It was now, too, that a certain Latiarius, a companion of Sabinus (one of +the most prominent men at Rome) and also in favor with Sejanus, concealed +senators in the ceiling of the apartment where his friend lived and led +Sabinus into conversation. By throwing out some of his usual remarks he +induced the other also to speak out freely all that he had in his mind. +It is the practice of such as wish to play the sycophant to take the lead +in some kind of abuse and to disclose some secret, intending that their +victim either for listening to them or for saying something similar may +find himself liable to indictment. To the sycophants, since they do it +with a purpose, freedom of speech involves no danger. They are regarded +as speaking so not because their words express their real sentiments but +because they wish to convict others. Their victims, however, are punished +for the smallest syllable out of the ordinary that they may utter. This +also happened in the present case. Sabinus was put in prison that very +day and subsequently perished without trial. His body was flung down the +Scalae Gemoniae and cast into the river. The affair was made more tragic by +the behavior of a dog of Sabinus that went with him to his cell, was +by him at his death, and at the end was thrown into the river with +him.--Such was the nature of this event. + +[Sidenote: A.D. 29 (_a. u._ 782)] + +[-2-] During this same period Livia also passed away at the age of +eighty-six. Tiberius paid her no visits while she was ill and did not +personally attend to her laying out. In fact, he made no arrangements at +all in her honor save the public funeral and images and some other small +matters of no importance. As for her being deified, he forbade that +absolutely. The senate, however, did not content itself with voting +merely the measures which he had ordained, but enjoined upon the women +mourning for her during the entire year, although it approved the course +of Tiberius in not abandoning even at this time the conduct of public +business. Furthermore they voted her an arch (as had never been done in +the case of any other woman), because she had preserved not a few of +them, had reared many children belonging to citizens, and had helped +find husbands for numerous girls,--for all of which acts some called her +Mother of her Country. She was buried in the mausoleum of Augustus. + +Tiberius would not pay a single one of her bequests to anybody. + +Among the many excellent utterances of hers that are related is one +concerned with the occasion when some men that were naked met her and on +that account fell under sentence of execution; she saved their lives by +saying that to chaste women such persons were no whit different from +statues. When some one asked her how and by what course of action she had +obtained such an influence over Augustus, she answered that it was by +being scrupulously chaste herself, doing willingly whatever pleased him, +not meddling with any of his business, and particularly by pretending +neither to hear of nor notice the favorites that were the objects of his +passion. Such was the character of Livia. The arch voted to her, however, +was not built for the reason that Tiberius promised to construct it +at his own expense. For, as he disliked to annul the decree by direct +command, he made it void in this way, by not allowing the work to be +undertaken out of the public funds nor attending to it himself. + +[A.D. 29 or 30] + +Sejanus was rising to still greater heights. It was voted that his +birthday should be publicly observed, and the mass of statues which the +senate and the equestrian order, the tribes and the foremost citizens set +up, would have passed any one's power to count. Separate envoys were sent +to both these "rulers" by the senate as well as the knights and also by +the people, who selected them from their own tribunes and aediles. For +both of them alike they offered prayers and sacrifices and they took +oaths by their Fortunes. + +[A.D. 30 (a. u. 783)] + +[-3-] Gallus, who married the wife of Tiberius and spoke his mind +regarding the empire, was the next object of the emperor's attack, for +which the right moment had been carefully selected. [Whether he really +believed that Sejanus would be emperor or whether it was out of fear of +Tiberius, he paid court to the former. It may indeed, have been a kind +of plot, to make the minister irksome to Tiberius and so accomplish his +ruin: but at any rate Gallus transacted the greater and more important +part of his business with him and made efforts to be one of the envoys. +Therefore the emperor sent a report about him to the senate, making among +other statements one to the effect that this man was jealous of his +friendship for Sejanus, although Gallus himself treated Syriacus as an +intimate friend. He did not make this known to Gallus, entertaining him +most hospitably instead.] Hence something most unusual befell him that +never happened to any one else. On the very same day he was banqueted at +the house of Tiberius, pledging him in the cup of friendship, and was +condemned before the senate. Indeed, a praetor was sent to imprison him +and lead him away for punishment. Yet Tiberius, though he had acted so, +did not permit his victim to die, in spite of the latter's wish for death +as soon as he learned the decree. Instead, he bade Gallus (in order to +make his lot still more dismal) to be of good cheer and instructed the +senate[1] that he should be guarded without bonds until the emperor +should reach the City; his object, as I said, was to make the prisoner +suffer for the longest possible time both from deprivation of his civic +rights and from terror. So it turned out. He was kept under the eyes of +the consuls of each year except when Tiberius held the office, in that +case he was guarded by the praetors, not to prevent his escape, but to +prevent his death. He had no companion or servant as associate, spoke to +no one, saw no one, except when he was compelled to take food. And what +he got was of such a quality and amount as neither to afford him any +pleasure or strength nor yet to allow him to die. This was the worst +feature of it. Tiberius did the same thing in the case of many others. +For instance, he had imprisoned one of his companions, and when there was +later talk about executing him, he said: "I have not yet made my peace +with him." Some one else, again, he had tortured very severely, and then +on ascertaining that the victim had been unjustly accused he had him +killed with all speed, remarking that he had been too terribly outraged +to find any satisfaction in living. Syriacus, who had neither committed +nor been charged with any wrong, but was renowned for his education, was +slain merely for the reason that Tiberius said he was a friend of Gallus. +[Sejanus brought false accusation also against Drusus, through the medium +of his wife. For, by maintaining illicit relations with practically all +the wives of the distinguished men, he learned what their husbands said +and did, and further made them his assistants by promises of marriage. +Now when Tiberius without discussion sent Drusus to Rome, Sejanus, +fearing that his position might be injured, persuaded Cassius [2] to busy +himself against him.] + +After exalting Sejanus to a high pinnacle of glory and making him a +member of his family by the alliance with Julia, daughter of Drusus, +Tiberius later killed him. + +[-4-] Now Sejanus was growing greater and more formidable all the time, +and his progress made the senators and the rest look up to him as if he +were actually emperor and esteem Tiberius lightly. When Tiberius learned +this, he did not regard the matter as a trivial one, fearing, indeed, +that they would hail his rival as emperor outright, and he did not +neglect it. Yet he did nothing openly, for Sejanus had won the entire +pretorian guard thoroughly to his own side and had gained the favor of +the senators partly by benefits, partly by implanting hopes, and partly +by intimidation. He had made all the attendants on Tiberius so entirely +his friends that absolutely everything the emperor did was at once +reported to him, whereas of what he did not a word reached Tiberius's +ears. Hence the latter appeared content to follow where Sejanus led, +appointed him consul, and termed him Sharer of his Cares, repeating often +the phrase "My Sejanus," and publishing the same by writing it to the +senate and the people. Men took this behavior as sincere and were +deceived, and so set up bronze statues all about to both alike, wrote +their names together in bulletins, and brought into the theatres gilded +chairs for both. Finally it was voted that they should together be made +consuls every four years and that a body of citizens should go out to +meet both alike whenever they entered Rome. In the end they sacrificed to +the images of Sejanus as to those of Tiberius. This was the way matters +stood with Sejanus. Now among the rest many famous men met an ill fate, +of whom was also Gaius Fufius Geminus. Being accused of the crime of +maiestas against Tiberius he took his will into the senate-chamber and +read it, showing that he had left his inheritance in equal portions to +his children and to his sovereign. As he was charged with weakness he +went home before any vote was reached. When he learned that the quaestor +had arrived to attend to his execution, he wounded himself and displaying +the wound to the official exclaimed: "Report to the senate that it is +thus one dies who is a man." Likewise, his wife, Mutilia Prisca, against +whom some complaint was made, made her way into the senate and there +stabbed herself with a dagger, which she had brought in secretly. + +Next he destroyed Mutilia and her husband together with two daughters on +account of her friendship for his mother. + +In the days of Tiberius all who accused any persons regularly received +money and large allotments both from the victims' property and from the +public treasury in addition to various honors. There were cases where +certain men who impudently threw others into a panic or recklessly passed +the death sentence upon them obtained in the one instance statues and +in the other triumphal honors. Hence several citizens who were really +illustrious and conquered the right to some such distinction would not +assume it out of reluctance to let any period of their lives betray even +a superficial similarity to the careers of those scoundrels. + +Tiberius, feigning sickness, sent Sejanus on to Rome with the assurance +that he should follow. He declared that in this separation a part of his +own body and soul was wrenched away from him: shedding tears he embraced +and kissed him, and Sejanus naturally was thereat the more elated. + +[A.D. 31 (a u. 784)] + +[-5-] By this time Sejanus was so imposing both in his haughtiness of +mind and in his immensity of power that, to make a long matter short, he +seemed to be the emperor and Tiberius a kind of island potentate because +the latter spent all his days in the island called Capreae. Then there was +rivalry and jostling about the great man's doors from the fear not merely +that a person might fail to be observed by his patron but that he might +appear among the last: for all the words and gestures, particularly of +those in front, were carefully watched. People who hold a prominent +position as the result of native worth are not given at all to seeking +signs of friendship from others, and in case anything of the sort is seen +to be wanting on the part of these others the persons in question are not +provoked, inasmuch as they have an innate consciousness that they are not +being looked down upon. Any, however, that hold an artificial rank are +extremely jealous of all such attentions, feeling them to be necessary to +render their position complete. If they fail to obtain them then they +are as irritated as if slander were being pronounced against them and as +angry as if they were the recipients of positive insult. Consequently +the world is more scrupulous in the case of such persons than (one might +almost say) in the case of emperors themselves. To the latter it is +ascribed as a virtue to pardon any one if an error is committed; but in +the self-made persons that course appears to argue an inherent weakness, +whereas to attack and to exact vengeance is thought to furnish proof of +great power. + +One morning, the first of the month, when all were gathered at Sejanus's +house, the couch placed in the small room where he received broke into +infinitesimal fragments under the weight of the throng seated upon it; +and, as he was leaving the house, a weasel darted through the midst of +them. After he had sacrificed on the Capitol and was now coming down to +the Forum, his servants that acted as body-guard turned aside along +the road leading to the prison, because the crowd prevented them from +escorting him, and as they descended the steps down which condemned +criminals were commonly cast they slipped and fell. Subsequently he took +the auspices and not one bird of good omen appeared, but crows flew and +cawed about him and then flew off all together to the jail, where they +alighted. + +[-6-] These prodigies neither Sejanus nor any one else laid to heart. +For, in view of the way things stood, not even if some god had plainly +foretold that so great a change would take place in a short time, would +any one have believed it. They swore by his Fortune as if they would +never be weary, and hailed him colleague of Tiberius, making this phrase +refer not to the consulship but to the supreme power. Tiberius was no +longer uninformed of aught that concerned his minister. He racked his +brains to see in what manner he might kill him, but, not finding any way +in which he might do this openly and safely, he treated both the man +himself and all the rest in a remarkable fashion, so as to gain an +accurate knowledge of their feeling. He sent many despatches of all kinds +regarding himself to Sejanus and to the senate incessantly, saying at one +time that he was poorly and just at the point of death, and again that +he was in exceedingly good health and would reach Rome directly. Now he +would strongly approve Sejanus and again vehemently denounce him. Some of +his companions he would honor to show his regard for him, and others he +would dishonor. Thus Sejanus, filled in turn with extreme elation +and extreme fear, was always in a flutter. He could not decide to be +terrified and for that reason attempt a revolution, inasmuch as he was +being honored, nor yet to become bold enough to attempt some desperate +venture inasmuch as he was frequently abased. Moreover, all the rest of +the people were getting to feel dubious, because they heard alternately +and at short intervals the most contrary reports, because they could no +longer justify themselves in either admiring or despising Sejanus, and +because they were wondering about Tiberius, thinking first that he was +going to die and then that his arrival was imminent. + +[-7-] Sejanus was disturbed by all this, and a great deal more by the +fact that from one of his statues at first a mass of smoke ascended in a +burst, and then, when the head was taken off to enable investigators to +see what was going on, a huge serpent darted up. Another head at once +replaced the former, and accordingly he was on the point of sacrificing +to himself (for sacrificing to himself was a regular part of his +program), when a rope was discovered coiled around the statue's neck. +Also a figure of Fortuna, made (as is said) in the time of Tullius, an +early king of Rome,--one which Sejanus at this time kept at his house and +took great pride in,--he saw turn away while he was sacrificing in +person ... and later others who had gone out in their company.[3] Most +men were suspicious of these circumstances, but since they did not know +the mind of Tiberius and further took into consideration the latter's +caprice and the unstable condition of affairs, they were divided in +sentiment. Privately they kept a sharp eye on their own safety, but +publicly they paid court to him, among other reasons because Tiberius +had joined to [him][4] as priests both Sejanus and his son. Moreover, they +had given him the proconsular authority and had likewise voted that word +be sent to all such as were consuls from year to year to emulate him in +their office. So Tiberius had honored him with the priesthoods, but he +did not send for him: instead, when his minister requested that he might +go to Campania, pleading as an excuse that his fiancee was ill, the +emperor directed him to stay where he was, giving as a reason that he +would himself arrive in Rome in almost no time. + +[-8-] As a result, then, of this, Sejanus was again gradually alienated +and his vexation was increased by the fact that Tiberius appointed Gaius +priest with the imperial commendation and gave some hints to the effect +that he should make the new appointee his successor in the empire. The +angry favorite would have begun rebellious measures, especially as the +soldiers were ready to obey him in everything, had he not perceived that +the populace was hugely pleased at what was said in regard to Gaius, +out of reverence for the memory of Germanicus his father. Sejanus had +previously thought that these persons, too, were on his side, and now, +finding them enthusiastic for Gaius, he became dejected. He felt sorry +that he had not shown open revolt during his consulship. The rest were +strongly influenced against him by the course of events [5] as also by +Tiberius's action in releasing soon after an enemy of Sejanus, chosen ten +years before to govern Spain and just now being tried on certain charges. +Because of Sejanus the emperor also granted temporary immunity from +such suits to such others as were going to govern any provinces or to +administer any similar public business. And in writing to the senate +about the death of Nero he used simply the name Sejanus, with no phrases +added as had been his custom. Moreover, he forbade offering sacrifice to +any human being (because sacrifice was often offered to this man) and +the introduction of any business looking to his own honor (because many +honorary measures were being passed for his rival's benefit). He had +forbidden this practice still earlier, but now, on account of Sejanus, he +renewed his injunction. For naturally, if he allowed nothing of the +sort to be done in his own case, he would not permit it in the case of +another. + +[-9-] In view of all this, the people began to look down on Sejanus more +and more, to the point of drawing aside at his approach and leaving him +alone,--and that openly, without pretence of concealment. When Tiberius +learned of it, his courage revived: he felt that he should have the +cooeperation of the people and the senate, and accordingly began an attack +upon his enemy. First, in order to take him off his guard to the fullest +possible extent, be spread a report that he would give him the office of +tribune. Then he despatched a communication against him to the senate by +the hands of Naevius Sertorius Macro, whom he had privately appointed to +command the body-guards and had instructed as to precisely what must be +done. The latter came by night into Rome as if on some different errand +and made known his message to Memmius Regulus, then consul (his colleague +sided with Sejanus), and to Graecinius Laco, commander of the night watch. +At dawn Macro ascended the Palatine, where there was to be a session of +the senate in the temple of Apollo. Encountering Sejanus, who had not yet +gone in, he saw that he was troubled at Tiberius's having sent him no +message, and encouraged him, telling him aside and in confidence that he +was bringing him the tribunician authority. Sejanus, overjoyed at +this, hastened to the senate-chamber. Macro sent away to the camp the +Pretorians that commonly surrounded the minister and the senate, after +revealing to them his right as leader to do so and declaring that he +brought documents from Tiberius that bestowed gifts upon them. Around +the temple he stationed the night watch in their stead, went in himself, +delivered his letter to the consuls, and went out before a word was read. +He then put Laco in charge of guard duty at that point, and himself +hurried to the camp to prevent any uprising. + +[-10-] Meanwhile the letter was read. It was a long one and contained +no wholesale denunciations of Sejanus but first some indifferent +matters, then a slight censure of his conduct, then something else, and +after that some further objection to him. At the close it said that two +senators that were very intimate with him must be punished and that +he himself must be kept guarded. Tiberius did not give them orders +outright to put him to death, not because such was not his desire, but +because he feared that some disturbance might be the result of it. But +since, as he said, he could not take the journey safely, he had sent for +one of the consuls. + +This was all that the composition disclosed. During the reading many +diverse utterances and expressions of countenance were observable. First, +before the people heard the letter, they were engaged in lauding the +man, whom they supposed to be on the point of receiving the tribunician +authority. They shouted their approval realizing in anticipation all +their hopes and making a demonstration to show that they would concur in +granting him honor. When, however, nothing of the sort was discovered, +but they kept hearing just the reverse of what they expected, they fell +into confusion and subsequently into deep dejection. Some of those seated +near him even withdrew. They now no longer cared to share the same seat +with the man whom previously they were anxious to claim as friend. Then +praetors and tribunes began to surround him to prevent his causing any +uproar by rushing out,--which he certainly would have done, if he had +been startled at the outset by any general tirade. As it was, he paid no +great heed to what was read from time to time, thinking it a slight +matter, a single charge, and hoping that nothing further, or at any rate +nothing serious in regard to him had been made a matter of comment. So +he let the time slip by and remained where he was. + +Meantime Regulus called him forward, but he paid no attention, not out +of contempt,--for he had already been humbled,--but because he was +unaccustomed to hearing any command given him. But when the consul +shouted at him a second and a third time, at the same time stretching out +his arm and saying: "Sejanus, come here!" he enquired blankly: "Are you +calling _me_?" So at last he stood up, and Laco, who had entered, +took his stand beside him. When finally the reading of the letter was +finished, all with one voice both denounced him and uttered threats, some +because they had been wronged, others through fear, some to disguise +their friendship for him and others out of joy at his downfall. Regulus +did not give all of them, however, a chance to vote, nor did he put the +question to any one regarding the man's death, for fear there should be +come opposition and a consequent disturbance; for Sejanus had numerous +relatives and friends. Hence, after asking one person's opinion and +obtaining a supporting vote in favor of imprisonment, he conducted +the former favorite out of the senate-chamber, and in company with the +other officials and with Laco led him down to the prison. + +[-11-] Then might one have obtained a clear and searching +insight into the weakness of man, so that self-conceit would have been +never again, under any conditions possible. Him whom at dawn they had +escorted to the senate-halls as one superior to themselves they were now +dragging to a cell as if no better than the worst. On him whom they once +deemed worthy of crowns they now heaped bonds. Him whom they were wont to +protect as a master they now guarded like a runaway slave, and +uncovered while he wore a headdress. Him whom they had adorned with the +purple-bordered toga they struck in the face. Whom they were wont to +adore and sacrifice to as to a god they were now leading to execution. +The crowd also assailed him, reproaching him violently for the lives he +had destroyed and jeering loudly at what had been hoped of him. All of +his images they hurled down, beat down, and pulled down, seeming to +feel that they were maltreating the man himself, and he thus became a +spectator of what he was destined to suffer. For the moment he was merely +cast into prison; but not much later,--that very day, in fact,--the +senate assembled in the temple of Concord not far from his cell, and +seeing the attitude of the populace and that none of the Pretorians was +near by it condemned him to death. On these orders he was executed and +his body cast down the Scalae Gemoniae, where the rabble abused it for +three whole days and afterward threw it into the river. His children +were put to death by special decree, the girl (whom he had betrothed +to the son of Claudius) having been first outraged by the public +executioner on the principle that it was unlawful for a virgin to meet +death in prison. His wife Apicata was not condemned, to be sure, but +on learning that her children were dead and after seeing their bodies +on the Stairs she withdrew and composed a statement regarding the +death of Drusus, directed against Livilla, the latter's wife, who had +been the cause of a quarrel between herself and her husband, resulting +in their separation. This document she forwarded to Tiberius and then +committed suicide. Thus the statement came to the hands of Tiberius, +and when he had obtained proof of the information he put to death +Livilla and all others therein mentioned. I have, indeed, heard that he +spared her out of regard for her mother Antonia, and that Antonia +herself voluntarily destroyed her daughter by starving her. At any +rate, that was later. + +[-12-] At this time a great uproar ensued in the City. The +populace slew any one it saw of those who had possessed great influence +with Sejanus and relying on him had committed acts of insolence. +The soldiers, too, in irritation because they had been suspected of +friendliness toward Sejanus and because the nightwatchmen had been +preferred before them in the confidence of the emperor, proceeded to +burn and plunder,--and this in spite of the fact that all officials were +guarding the entire city in accordance with the injunction of Tiberius. + +Not even the senate was quiet, but such members of it as had paid court +to Sejanus were greatly disturbed by dread of reprisals; and those who +had accused or borne witness against any persons were filled with fear +by the prevailing suspicion that they had destroyed their victims out of +regard for the minister instead of for Tiberius. Very small indeed +was the courageous element, which was unhampered by these terrors and +expected that Tiberius would become milder. For as usually happens, they +laid the responsibility for their previous misfortunes upon the dead man +and charged the emperor with few or none of them. Of the most of this +unjust treatment, they said, he had been ignorant, and he had been forced +into the rest against his will. Privately this was the disposition of +the various classes; publicly they voted, as if they had cast off some +tyranny, not to hold any mourning over the deceased and to have a statue +of Liberty erected in the Forum; also a festival was to be celebrated +under the auspices of all the magistrates and priests,--as had never +before occurred; and the day on which he died was to be made renowned +by annual horse-races and slaughters of wild beasts, directed by those +appointed to the four priesthoods and by the members of the Sodality of +Augustus. This, too, had never before been done. To celebrate the ruin of +the man whom they by the excess and novelty of their honors had led to +destruction they voted solemnities that were not customary even for the +gods. They comprehended so clearly that it was chiefly these honors +which had bereft him of his senses that they at once forbade explicitly +the giving of excessive marks of esteem to any one, as also the taking +of oaths in the name of any one other than the emperor. Yet though +they passed such votes, as if under a divine inspiration, they began +shortly after to fawn upon Macro and Laco. They gave them great sums +of money and to Laco the honors of ex-quaestors, while to Macro they +extended the honors of ex-praetors. Similarly[6] they allowed them +also to view spectacles in their company and to wear the toga +praetextata at the ludi votivi. The men did not accept these privileges, +however, for the recent example served as a deterrent. Nor would +Tiberius take any honor bestowed, though many were voted him, chief +among them being that he should begin from this time to be termed Father +of his Country and that his birthday should be marked by ten equestrian +contests and a senatorial banquet. Indeed, he gave notice anew that no +one should introduce any such motion.--These were the events happening in +the capital. + +[-13-] Tiberius for a time had certainly been in great fear +that Sejanus would occupy the City and sail against him, and so he had +prepared boats, to the end that, if anything of the sort should come to +pass, he might escape. He had commanded Macro,--or so some say,--if there +should be any uprising to bring Drusus before the senate and the people +and appoint him emperor. + +When he learned that his enemy was dead, he rejoiced, as was natural, yet +would not receive the embassy sent to congratulate him, though many +members of the senate and many of the knights and of the populace had +been despatched, as before. Indeed he even rebuffed the consul Regulus, +who had always been devoted to his interests and had come in accordance +with the emperor's own commands to see about his being conveyed in +safety to the City. + +[-14-] Thus perished Sejanus, who had attained greater power +than those who obtained his office before or after him (save Plautianus). +His relatives, his associates, and all the rest who had paid court to +him and had moved that honors be granted him were brought to trial. The +majority of them were convicted for the acts that had previously made +them objects of envy; and their fellow-citizens condemned them for the +measures which they themselves had previously voted. Numbers of men who +had been tried on various charges and acquitted were again accused and +convicted on the ground that they had been saved the first time as a +favor to the deceased. Accordingly, if no other complaint could be +brought against a person, the statement that he had been a friend of +Sejanus served to convict him,--as if, forsooth, Tiberius himself had not +been friendly with him, and caused others to become interested for his +sake. Among those who laid information in this way were the men who were +wont to pay court to Sejanus. Inasmuch as they knew thoroughly those who +were in the same position, they had no great trouble either in finding +them out or securing their conviction. So they, expecting to save +themselves by doing this, and to obtain honors and money besides, +accused others or else bore witness against them. But it proved that none +of their hopes was realized. They found themselves liable to the same +charges on which they had prosecuted others, and partly as a result of +them and partly on account of the general detestation of traitors perished +along with their companions. [-15-] Of those against whom charges were +brought many were present in person to hear their accusation and make +their defence, and some employed great frankness in so doing. Still, the +majority made away with themselves prior to their conviction. They did +this chiefly to avoid suffering insult and outrage. (For all who had +incurred any such charge, senators as well as knights, women as well as +men, were crowded together into the prison. After their condemnation +some underwent the penalty there and others were hurled from the +Capitol by the tribunes or the consuls. The bodies of all of them were +cast into the Forum and subsequently were thrown into the river.) But +their object was partly that their children might inherit their property. +Very few estates of such as voluntarily took themselves off before their +trial were confiscated, Tiberius in this way inviting men to become their +own murderers, that he might avoid the reputation of having killed +them; as if it were not far more fearful to compel a man to die by his +own hand than to deliver him to the executioner. [-16-] Most of the +estates of such as failed to die in this way were confiscated, only a +little or nothing at all even being given to their accusers. For he was +now giving far more[7] accurate attention to money. After this Tiberius +increased to one per cent. a tax which was already one-half of one +per cent. and proceeded to accept every inheritance left to him. And +in fact nearly every one left him something,--even those who made +away with themselves,--as they had to Sejanus while the latter lived. + +Also, with that same intention which had led him not to take possession +of the wealth of those who perished voluntarily, he made the senate +sponsor for every official summons, to the end that he might be free +from blame himself (for so he thought) and the senate pass sentence upon +itself as a wrongdoer.[8] By this means people came to be thoroughly +aware, during the time that they were being destroyed through one +another's agency, that their former troubles had emanated no more from +Sejanus than from Tiberius. For not only were the accusers of various +persons brought to trial, but those who had condemned them were in turn +sentenced. So it was that Tiberius spared no one, but kept using up +all the citizens one against another; no firm friendships existed any +longer[9]; but the unjust and the guiltless, the fearful and the fearless +stood on the same footing as regarded the investigation made into the +complaints about Sejanus. At length he saw fit to propose a kind of +amnesty for the sufferers, and so he gave permission to those who wished +to go into mourning for the deceased; and in addition he forbade that any +one should in any way be hindered from showing this respect to the memory +of any person,--for such prohibitory votes were frequently passed. Yet he +did not in fact confirm this edict, but after a brief space he punished +numbers on account of Sejanus and on other complaints: they were +generally charged with having outraged and murdered their nearest female +relatives. + +[A.D. 32(_a. u._ 785)] + +[-17-] Such was the state of affairs at this time, and there was not a +soul that could deny that he would be glad to feast on the emperor's +flesh. Now the next year, when Gnaeus Domitius and Camillus Scribonianus +became consuls, a very laughable thing happened. It had now long been the +custom for the members of the senate on the first of the year to take the +oath not man by man, but for one (as I have stated)[10] to take the oath +for them and the rest to express their acquiescence. This time, however, +they did not do so, but of their own motion, without any compulsion, they +were separately and individually pledged, as though this would make them +any more regardful of their oath. Previously for many years the emperor +had allowed matters to go on without a single person's swearing +allegiance to his acts of government: this I have mentioned. [11]--At +this time also there occurred something else still more laughable. + +[-18-] They voted that he should select as many of their number as he +liked and should employ twenty of them,--whomsoever the lot should +designate,--as guards with daggers as often as he entered the +senate-chamber. Of course, as the exterior of the building was watched by +the soldiers and no private citizen could come inside, their resolution +that a guard be given him amounted to a precaution against no one but +themselves, thus indicating that they were hostile. Naturally Tiberius +expressed his obligations to them and thanked them for their good +intentions, but he rejected their offer as being too much out of the +ordinary. He was not so simple as to give swords to the very men whom he +hated and by whom he was hated. Yet, as a result of this very measure +he began to grow suspicious of them,--for every act in contravention +of sincerity which one undertakes for the purpose of flattery breeds +suspicion,--and bidding a long adieu to their decrees he began to +honor the Pretorians both by addresses and with money, in spite of his +knowledge that they had been on the side of Sejanus, so that he might +find them more disposed to be employed against the senators. On occasion, +to be sure, he in turn commended the latter, when they voted that +funds from the public treasury be bestowed on the guardsmen. He kept +alternately deceiving the one party by his talk and winning over the +other party by his acts in a most effective way. For instance, Junius +Gallic had moved that a spectacle be provided in the meeting place of +the knights for those of the body-guard who had finished their term of +service: Tiberius did not merely banish him when the man was brought up +on this very charge of giving an impression that he was persuading the +soldiers to show good-will to the government rather than to the emperor; +no, but when he found that Junius was setting sail for Lesbos he deprived +him of a safe and comfortable existence there and delivered him to the +custody of the magistrates, as he had once done with Gallus. And in order +to assure the two classes still more fully how he felt toward both of +them he not long after asked the senate that Macro and some military +tribunes be deemed sufficient to conduct him to the senate-chamber. He +had no need of those persons, for he had no idea of ever entering the +city again, but what he wanted was to display his hatred of the senators +and show the latter the friendliness of the soldiers. The senators +actually granted this request. However, they attached to the decree a +clause that the escort should be searched on entering to make sure that +no one had a dagger hidden beneath his arm.--This resolution was passed +in the following year. + +[-19-] At this time he spared among some others who had been intimate +with Sejanus Lucius Caesianus,[12] a praetor, and Marcus Terentius, a +knight. He overlooked the behavior of the former, who at the Floralia to +ridicule Tiberius had had everything up to midnight done by baldheaded +men (because the emperor himself was also baldheaded) and had furnished +light to those leaving the theatre by the hands of five thousand boys +with shaven pates. Tiberius was so far from becoming angry at him that +he pretended not to have heard about it at all, though all baldheaded +persons were from then on called Caesiani, after this man. Terentius he +spared because when on trial for his friendship with Sejanus he not only +did not deny it but affirmed that he had worked for him and paid court to +him to the greatest possible extent for the reason that the minister was +so highly honored by Tiberius himself. "Consequently," he said, "if the +emperor did rightly in having such a friend, neither have I done any +wrong: and if my sovereign, who knows all things accurately, erred, what +wonder is it that I shared his deception? Our duty is to cherish all whom +he honors without concerning ourselves overmuch about the kind of men +they are, but making one thing determine our friendship for them,--the +fact that they please the emperor." The senate for these reasons +acquitted him and in addition rebuked his accusers. Tiberius concurred +with them. When Piso, the praefectus urbi, died, he honored him with a +public funeral,--a distinction granted also to others. In his place he +chose Lucius Lamia, whom he had long ago put in charge of Syria[13] and +was keeping at Rome. He took similar action, too, in the case of many +others, really caring nothing at all for them, but making an outward show +of honoring them.--Meantime Vitrasius Pollio, governor of Egypt died, and +he entrusted the province for a time to one Hiberus, a Caesarian. + +[A.D. 33 (_a. u._ 786)] + +[-20-] Now of the consuls Domitius held office the whole year +through,--for he was husband of Agrippina, the daughter of +Germanicus,--but the rest adapted themselves to the whims of Tiberius. +Some he elevated for a longer time and some for a shorter: some he +stopped before the end of their appointed term and others he allowed +to hold office beyond the limits designated. Not infrequently he would +appoint a man for an entire year and then depose him, setting up another +and still another in his place. Sometimes, after choosing certain +substitutes for third place, he would then have others become consuls +before them in the place of still others. These irregularities in the +case of the consuls occurred through practically his entire reign. Of the +candidates for the other offices he selected as many as he wished and +sent their names to the senate, recommending some to that body,--and +these were chosen, by acclamation,--but making others depend upon their +own claims or the assent of the senate or the decision of the lot. After +that, in order to follow out ancient precedent, such as belonged to +the people and the plebs went before one of these two bodies and were +announced: this is the same practice that is followed at present, +intended to produce at least an appearance of valid election. In case +there was ever a deficiency of candidates or they became involved in +irreconcilable strife, a smaller number was chosen.--The following year, +in which Servius Galba (that later became emperor) and Lucius Cornelius +held the consular title, fifteen praetors held office. This went on for +many years, so that sometimes sixteen and sometimes one or two less were +chosen. + +[-21-] The next move of Tiberius was to approach the capital and sojourn +in its environs; he did not, however, go within the walls, although +he was but thirty stades distant, so that he bestowed in marriage the +remaining daughters of Germanicus and also Julia, the daughter of Drusus. +Hence the city did not make a festival of their marriages, but everything +went on as usual: the senators met and decided judicial cases. For +Tiberius made an important point of their assembling as often as he would +have convened them, and insisted on their not arriving later or departing +earlier than the time fixed. He sent to the consuls many injunctions on +this head and once ordered certain statements to be read aloud by them. +He behaved in the same way in regard to certain other matters (just as if +he could not write directly to the senate!). To that body he sent in not +only the documents given him by the informers but also the confessions +under torture which Macro obtained, so that nothing was left in the hands +of the senators save the vote of condemnation. About this time, however, +a certain Vibullius Agrippa, a knight, swallowed poison from a ring and +died in the senate-house itself, and Nerva, who could no longer endure +the emperor's society, starved himself to death, his chief reason for +doing so being that Tiberius had reaffirmed the laws on contracts, +enacted by Caesar, which were sure to result in great loss of confidence +and upheaval; and although his chief repeatedly urged him to utter +some word,[14] he refused to answer. These events seemed to make some +impression on the emperor and he modified the situation, so far as it +pertained to loans, by giving two thousand five hundred myriads to the +public treasury under the arrangement that this money could be lent out +by the senatorial party without interest for three years to such as +desired it. He further commanded that the most notorious of those who had +steadily acted as accusers should be put to death on one day. And when a +man who belonged to the centurions wished to lodge information against +some one, he forbade that any person who had served in the army should do +so, although he allowed the privilege to knights and senators. + +[-22-] There is no denying that he received praise for his behavior in +these matters, and most of all because he would not accept a number of +honors that were voted to him for it. But the sensual orgies which he +carried on shamelessly with the individuals of highest rank, male and +female alike, caused ill to be spoken of him. For example, there was the +case of his friend Sextus Marius. Imperial favor had made this man so +rich and so powerful that when he was once at odds with a neighbor he +invited him to dine for two successive days. On the first he razed his +guest's dwelling entirely to the ground and on the next he rebuilt it on +a larger scale and in more elaborate style. The victim of his treatment +declared his ignorance of the perpetrators, whereupon Marius admitted +being responsible for both occurrences and added significantly: "This +shows you that I have both the knowledge and the power to repel attacks +and also to requite a kindness." This friend, then, who had sent his +daughter, a strikingly beautiful girl, to a place of refuge to prevent +her being outraged by Tiberius, was charged with having criminal +relations with her and for that reason destroyed both his daughter and +himself. All this covered the emperor with disgrace, and his connection +with the death of Drusus and Agrippina gave him a reputation for cruelty. +Men had been thinking all along that the whole of the previous action +against these two was due to Sejanus, and had been hoping that now their +lives would be spared; so, when they learned that they had been actually +murdered, they were exceedingly grieved, partly for the reasons mentioned +and partly because, so far from depositing their bones in the imperial +tomb, Tiberius ordered their remains to be hidden so carefully in the +earth that they might never be found. In addition to Agrippina, Munatia +Plancina was slain. Previous to this time, though he hated her (not on +account of Germanicus but for another reason), he yet allowed her to live +to prevent Agrippina from rejoicing at her death. + +[-23-] Besides doing this he appointed Gaius quaestor, though not of +first rank, promising him, however, that he would advance him to the +other office five years earlier than was customary. At the same time he +requested the senate not to make the young man conceited by numerous or +extraordinary honors, for fear the latter might go astray in one way or +another. He had, indeed, a descendant in the person of Tiberius, but him +he disregarded both on account of age (he was a mere child as yet) and +on account of the prevailing suspicion that this boy was not the son of +Drusus. He therefore clove to Gaius as the most eligible candidate for +sole ruler, especially as he felt sure that Tiberius would live but a +short time and would be murdered by that very man. There was no detail +of the character of Gaius of which he was in ignorance; indeed, he once +remarked to his successor, who was quarreling with Tiberius: "You will +kill him, and others will kill you." The emperor knew of no one else that +suited him so entirely, and at the same time he was well aware that the +man would be a thorough knave; yet the story obtains that he was glad to +give him the empire in order that his own crimes might find concealment +in the enormity of Gaius's offences and that the largest and the noblest +portion of what was left of the senate might perish after him. At all +events he is said to have often uttered the ancient saying: + + "When I am dead, let fire o'erwhelm the earth."[15] + +Often, also, he declared Priam fortunate, because that king involved his +country and his throne in his own utter ruin. These records about him are +given a semblance of reality by what took place in those days. Such a +multitude of the senators and of others lost their lives that out of +the officials chosen by lot the ex-praetors held the governorship of the +provinces for three years and the ex-consuls for six, owing to the lack +of persons to succeed them. And what name could one properly give to the +elected magistrates, whom from the first he allowed to hold office for an +unusually long time? + +Now among those who died at this time was also Gallus. Tiberius himself +said that only then (and scarcely even so) did he become reconciled with +him. Thus it was that contrary to the usual custom he inflicted upon some +life as a punishment and bestowed upon others death as a kindness. + +[A.D. 34 (_a. u._ 787)] + +[-24-] The twentieth year of the emperor's reign now came in, and he +himself though he sojourned in the vicinity of Albanum and Tusculum did +not enter the City; the consuls, Lucius Vitellius and Fabius Persicus, +celebrated the second ten-year period. The senators so termed it in +preference to "twenty-year period" to signify that they were granting +him the leadership of the State again, as had been done in the case +of Augustus. Punishment overtook them at the same time that they were +celebrating the appropriate festival. This time none of those accused +was acquitted, but all were convicted,--the majority from documents +contributed by Tiberius and the statements under torture obtained by +Macro, the rest by what these two suspected they were planning. It was +rumored that the real reason why Tiberius did not come to Rome was to +avoid being disgraced while present by the sentences of condemnation. +Among various persons who perished either at the hands of the +executioners or by their own acts was Pomponius Labeo. He, who had once +governed Moesia for eight years after his praetorship, was, with his wife, +indicted for receiving bribes and voluntarily destroyed both her and +himself. Mamercus AEmilius Scaurus, on the other hand, who had never +governed anybody nor received bribes, was convicted because of a tragedy +and fell a victim to a worse fate than any he had depicted. Atreus was +the name of the composition, and in the manner of Euripides[16] it +advised some one of the subjects of that monarch to endure the folly of +the ruling prince. Tiberius, when he heard of it, declared that the verse +had been composed against him at this juncture and that "Atreus" was +merely a pretence used on account of that monarch's bloodthirstiness. +And adding quietly "I will have him play the part of Ajax," he brought +pressure to bear to make him commit suicide. The above was not the +accusation made against him; instead, he was charged with having kept up +a _liaison_ with Livilla. Many others had been punished on her account, +some with good reason and some as the result of blackmail. + +[-25-] While matters at Rome were in this condition, the subject +territory was not quiet either. The very moment a certain youth who +declared he was Drusus appeared in the region of Greece and Ionia, the +cities both received him enthusiastically and supported his cause. He +would have proceeded to Syria and taken possession of the legions, had +not some one recognized him and putting an end to his success taken him +to Tiberius. + +[A.D. 35 (_a. u._ 788)] After this Gaius Gallus and Marcus Servilius +became consuls. Tiberius was at Antium holding fete in honor of the +nuptials of Gaius. Not even for such a purpose would he enter Rome, +because of the case of one Fulcinius Trio. The latter, who had been a +friend of Sejanus but had stood high in the favor of Tiberius on account +of his readiness at blackmail, was, when accused, delivered up for +punishment; and through fear he slew himself beforehand after abusing +roundly both the emperor and Macro in his testament. His children did not +dare to publish it, but Tiberius, learning what had been written, ordered +it to be presented before the senate. Little did he trouble himself +about such matters. Sometimes he would voluntarily give to the public +denunciations of his conduct that were being kept secret, as another man +would eulogies. Indeed, he took all that Drusus had uttered in distress +and misfortune, and this, too, he sent in to the senate.--So much, then, +for the death of Trio. Poppaeus Sabinus, who had governed both the Mysias +and Macedonia besides during almost all the reign of Tiberius up to this +time, withdrew from life with the greatest good-will before any charge +could be brought against him. He was succeeded by Regulus with equal +authority. For, according to some reports, Macedonia and Achaea were both +assigned to the new ruler without lots being cast for them. + +[A.D. 36 (_a. u._ 789)] + +[-26-] About the same period Artabanus the Parthian after the death of +Artaxias bestowed Armenia upon his son Arsaces. When no vengeance fell +upon him from Tiberius for this move, he made an attempt upon Cappadocia +and treated the Parthians, too, rather haughtily. Consequently some +revolted from him and went on an embassy to Tiberius, asking a king for +themselves from among those serving as hostages. He sent them at once +Phraates, son of Phraates, and at the death of the latter (which occurred +on the way) Tiridates, who was himself also of the royal race. To insure +his securing the throne as easily as possible the emperor wrote orders to +Mithridates the Iberian to invade Armenia, so that Artabanus should leave +home and assist his son. Things turned out as planned, but the reign of +Tiridates lasted only a short time, for Artabanus got the Scythians on +his side and had no great difficulty in expelling him. So much for the +Parthian affairs.--Armenia fell into the hands of Mithridates, son of +Mithridates the Iberian, of course, and a brother of Pharasmanes, who +became king of the Iberians after him.--When Sextus Papinius became +consul with Quintus Plautius, the Tiber inundated a large part of the +City so that it remained under water, and a much more extensive section +in the vicinity of the hippodrome and the Aventine was devastated by +fire. In view of these disasters Tiberius gave two thousand five hundred +myriads to those who had suffered any loss. + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +And if Egyptian affairs also touch Roman interests at all, it might be +mentioned that that year the phoenix was seen. All these events were +thought to foreshadow the death of Tiberius. Thrasyllus died at this very +time and the emperor himself in the following spring, in the consulship +of Gnaeus Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus. It chanced that Macro had +plotted against Domitius and numerous others and had devised complaints +and tortures against them. Not all that were accused, however, were put +to death, because Thrasyllus handled Tiberius very cleverly. Concerning +himself he stated very accurately both the day and the hour in which he +should die, but he falsely declared that the emperor would live ten more +years, in order that the latter, feeling he had a moderately long time to +live, might be in no hurry to kill them. The issue justified the plan. +Thinking that it would be possible for him later to do whatever he liked +at his leisure, he made no haste in any way and showed no anger when the +senate, in consideration of the opposition to the tortures expressed by +the magistrates, postponed the sentencing of the prisoners. Yet pitiable +scenes were not wanting. One woman wounded herself, was carried into +the senate and from there to prison, where she died. Lucius Arruntius, +distinguished both for his age and for his education, destroyed himself +voluntarily when Tiberius was already sick and was not thought likely to +recover. The man was aware of the evil character of Gaius and desired to +depart before he should taste of it, saying: "I can not in my old +age become the slave of a new master like him." Still others were +saved,--some who had actually been condemned but were not permitted to +die before the expiration of ten days, and others because their trial was +again put off when the judges learned that Tiberius was seriously ailing. + +[-28-] He passed away at Misenum before he could learn anything of this. +He had been sick for a considerable time, but expecting to live, as +Thrasyllus had foretold, he neither consulted physicians nor changed his +way of life; wasting away gradually as he was, in old age and subject to +a sickness that was not severe, he would often all but expire and then +recover strength again. These changes would cause Gaius and the rest +first great pleasure, when they thought he was going to die, and then +great fear, when they thought he would live. His successor, therefore, +fearing that his health might actually be restored, refused his requests +for anything to eat, on the ground that he would be injured, and +pretending that he needed warmth wrapped many thick cloths about him. In +this way he smothered him, with a certain amount of help, to be sure, +from Macro. The latter, as Tiberius was already seriously ill, was paying +his court to the young man, particularly as he had before this succeeded +in making him fall in love with his own wife, Ennia Thrasylla. Tiberius +suspecting this had once said: "You understand well when to abandon the +setting, and hasten to the rising sun." + +So Tiberius, who possessed the most varied virtues, the most varied +vices, and followed each set in turn as if the other did not exist, +passed away in this fashion on the twenty-sixth day of March.[17] He had +lived seventy-seven years, four months, nine days, of which he had spent +as ruler twenty-two years, seven months and seven days. A public funeral +was accorded him and a eulogy, delivered by Gaius. + + +[Footnote 1: Supplying here (as did Sylburgius, to fill a gap in the +sense) ... [GREEK: echeleuse chahi tae boulae]....] + +[Footnote 2: The consul of A.D. 30, either _C. Cassius Longinus_ or his +brother _L. Cassius Longinus_.] + +[Footnote 3: A gap in the MS. exists, as indicated.] + +[Footnote 4: A corrupt reading for which no wholly satisfactory +substitute has been offered.] + +[Footnote 5: The predicate of this clause has fallen out in the MS., and +the restoration is on lines suggested by Bekker.] + +[Footnote 6: Reading (with Mommsen) [Greek: outo] for [Greek: auto].] + +[Footnote 7: Reading [Greek: aedae polu] (Stephanus, Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 8: Using Boissevain's reading [Greek: adikousaes] (from Reiske) +in preference to the MS. [Greek: diadikousaes].] + +[Footnote 9: A small gap. The text filled and context amended by Kuiper.] + +[Footnote 10: Evidently the previous reference was in a passage now lost, +between Bk. 57, ch. 17, sect. 8, and Bk. 58, ch. 7, sect. 2 of the Codex +Marcianus (Boissevain).] + +[Footnote 11: Compare Book Fifty-seven, chapter eight.] + +[Footnote 12: Caesianus and Caesiani are conjectures of Boissevain, the MS. +being corrupt. The person meant is _L. Apronius Caesianus_ (consul A.D. +39).] + +[Footnote 13: A correction of Casaubon's for "the army" (MS.), which +seems senseless.] + +[Footnote 14: The phrase yields no particular sense and is probably +corrupt, but a correction is not easy. "To state his reasons" has been +suggested; and a very slight change in the Greek produces "to eat +something" another conjecture.] + +[Footnote 15: Probably from the _Bellerophon_ of Euripides.] + +[Footnote 16: Compare Euripides, Phoenician Maidens, verse 393.] + +[Footnote 17: Dio is in error. The date was really about ten days +earlier.] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +59 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +About Gaius Caesar, called also Caligula (chapters 1-6). How the Herouem +of Augustus was sanctified (chapter 7). How the Mauritanias began to be +governed by Romans (chapter 25). How Gaius Caesar died (chapters 29, 30). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gnaeus Acerronius and +Pontius Nigrinus, together with three additional years, in which there +were the following magistrates here enumerated. + +M. Aquilius C. F. Iulianus, and P. Nonius M. F. Asprenas. (A.D. 38 = a. +u. 791 = Second of Gaius.) + +C. Caesar Germanicus (II), L. Apronius L. F. Caesianus. (A.D. 39 = a. u. +792 = Third of Gaius, from March 26th.) + +C. Caesar (III). (A.D. 40 = a. u. 793 = Fourth of Gaius.) + +C. Caesar (IV), Cn. Sentius Cn. F. Saturninus. (A.D. 41 = a. u. 794 = +Fifth of Gaius, to Jan. 24th.) + +This last year is not counted, because most of the events in it are +recorded in the sixtieth book. + + +_(BOOK 59, BOISSEVAIN)_ + +[A.D. 37 (_a. u._ 790)] + +[-1-] This, then, is the tradition about Tiberius. His successor was +Gaius, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who was known also, as I have +stated, by the nicknames of Germanicus and Caligula. Tiberius had left +the empire partly in charge of his grandson Tiberius; but Gaius had his +will carried to the senate by Macro and caused it to be declared null +and void by the consuls and the rest (with whom he had made previous +arrangements) on the ground that the author of the document had not been +of sound mind. This was evidenced by his allowing a mere boy to rule +them, who had not yet the right even to enter the senate. Thus did Gaius +at this time separate the lad from imperial office, and later in spite of +having adopted him he slew him. Of no avail was the fact that Tiberius in +his testament, still extant, had written the same words over in a number +of ways, as if this would lend them some force, nor yet that all of it +had been at this time read aloud by Macro before the senatorial body. For +no injunction can have weight against the intentional misunderstanding or +the power of one's successors. Tiberius suffered the same treatment he +had accorded to his mother's wishes, save that he discharged none of the +obligations imposed by her will in the case of any person, whereas all +his bequests were paid to all the beneficiaries, save to his grandson. +This, of course, made it perfectly plain that the whole fault found with +the will had been invented on account of the lad. Gaius need not have +published it, since he was not unacquainted with the contents, but +inasmuch as many knew what was in it and it seemed likely that he himself +on the one hand or the senate on the other would be blamed for its +suppression, he chose rather to have the latter body overthrow it than to +conceal the document. + +[-2-] At the same time by paying all the bequests of the dead emperor, as +if they were his own, to every one concerned he gained among the many a +certain reputation for nobility of character. In company with the senate +he inspected the Pretorians while they were busy with exercises and +distributed to them the two hundred and fifty denarii apiece that had +been bequeathed, and he added as a gift as many more. To the people he +paid the one thousand one hundred and twenty-five myriads (this was the +amount bequeathed to them) and in addition the sixty denarii per man +which they had failed to receive on the occasion of his enrollment among +the iuvenes,--this with interest amounting to fifteen denarii more. He +also settled the bequests to the citizen force, to the night-watchmen, to +those of the regular army outside Italy, and to any other army of native +Romans in the smaller forts,--that is, the citizens proper received one +hundred twenty-five denarii each, and all the rest seventy-five. + +He behaved in this same way also in regard to Livia's will, executing all +the provisions of it. If he had spent the rest of his money with equal +propriety, he would nave been thought prudent and munificent. Sometimes, +through fear of the people and the soldiers, he did so act, but it +was mostly through whims. At such times he discharged not only the +obligations of Tiberius but those of his great-grandmother, and debts +owing to private individuals as well as to others. As it was, he lavished +boundless sums upon dancers (whose recall he at once effected), upon +horses, upon gladiators and everything of that sort; and so in an +inconceivably short time he had exhausted the treasures, which had grown +so great, and at the same time convicted himself of having done it +through a sort of easy-going temper and indecision. He had found +accumulated five myriad myriads, seven thousand five hundred denarii, or +(according to others) eight myriad myriads, two thousand five hundred, +and yet could not keep any part of it to the third year, but actually in +the second season fell in need of a great deal besides. + +[-3-] He went through the same process of deterioration, too, in almost +all other respects. At first he seemed a most democratic person and would +send no letters either to the people or to the senate nor assume any of +the titles of sovereignty; yet he became most dictatorial, so that he +took in one day all those honors which Augustus had with difficulty +secured, voted one by one, during the long extent of his reign, some of +which Tiberius had refused to accept at all. He postponed nothing except +the title of _Father_, and that he acquired after no long time. Though +he had proved himself the most libidinous of men, had seduced one +woman already betrothed and had dragged others from their husbands, he +afterward hated them all save one. And he would certainly have detested +her, had he lived any longer. Toward his mother, his sisters, and his +grandmother Antonia he conducted himself in the most dutiful manner +possible. The last named he immediately saluted as Augusta and appointed +her priestess of Augustus, giving her at once all the privileges +pertaining to the vestal virgins. To his sisters he assigned these honors +of the vestal virgins, the right to witness horse-races in the same +section of seats with him, and the right to have uttered in their behalf +as well the prayers which were annually offered by the magistrates and +the priests for his welfare and that of the State, and the oaths of +allegiance sworn to his empire. He set sail himself and with his own +hands collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his +brothers that had died: wearing the purple-bordered toga and attended +by some lictors, as at a triumph, he deposited these in the monument +of Augustus. All measures voted against them he canceled, all who had +plotted against them he chastised, and recalled such as were in exile on +their account.--Now, though he had done all this, he showed himself +the most impious of men in the case both of his grandmother and of his +sisters. The former, because she had rebuked him for something, he forced +to seek death by her own hand; and after ravishing all his sisters he +shut two of them up on an island: the third had previously died. Again in +the matter of Tiberius (whom he also termed "grandfather"), he asked that +he might receive from the senate the same honors as Augustus; but these +were not immediately voted, for the senators could not endure to honor +that tyrant, nor did they make bold to dishonor him because they were +not yet clearly acquainted with the character of their young lord, and +consequently postponed everything until the latter should be present: +so then Gaius bestowed upon him no mark of notice other than a public +funeral, after bringing the body into the City by night and having it +laid out at daybreak. And though he did make a speech over it, he did +not say so much in praise of Tiberius as he did to remind the people of +Augustus and Germanicus, comparing himself meanwhile with them. + +[-4-] Gaius inevitably went so by contraries in every matter that he not +only emulated but even surpassed his predecessor's licentiousness and +bloodthirstiness, for which he had censured him; but of the qualities he +had praised in him he imitated not one. Though he had been the first to +insult him, the first to abuse him, so that others thinking to please +him in this way made use of rather heedless freedom of speech, he later +lauded and magnified Tiberius, going to the point of punishing some for +what they had said. These, as enemies of the former emperor, he hated for +their injurious remarks, and he hated equally those who in way praised +Tiberius, as being the latter's friends. + +Though he had put an end to complaints arising from maiestas, he made +these the cause of many persons' downfall. Though according to his own +account he dismissed the anger that he felt toward those who had united +against his father and his mother and his brothers (and burned their +letters), he yet put to death great numbers of them on the basis of +evidence contained in such documents. He did, to be sure, really destroy +some papers, but not those which held definite incontrovertible proof; of +these he made copies. Besides, though he at first forbade any one to set +up his images, he went on to manufacture the statues himself. Whereas +once he requested the annulment of a decree that sacrifice should be +offered to his Fortune, and had this action of his inscribed on a tablet, +he afterward ordered temples and sacrifices to be prepared for him as for +some god. He delighted by turns in vast throngs of men and in solitude; +he grew angry if requests were preferred, or if they were not preferred. +He would start out on enterprises with the greatest amount of dash, and +then carry them through in the most sluggish manner. He both spent money +most unsparingly and showed a thoroughly sordid spirit in exacting it. He +was alike irritated and pleased both at those who flattered him and at +those who spoke their own minds. Many who were guilty of great crimes +he neglected to punish and many who had done no wrong he ruthlessly +slaughtered. Among his associates he made some the recipients of +excessive adulation and others of excessive insult. Consequently, no one +knew either what to say or how to act toward him, but all who met with +success obtained it as the result of chance rather than of rational +calculation. + +[-5-] That was the kind of emperor into whose hands the Romans had now +fallen. Hence the deeds of Tiberius, though they were felt to have been +most grievous, were still as far superior to those of Gaius as the deeds +of Augustus were to those of his successor. For Tiberius always held the +power in his own hands and used other people to help him carry out +his wishes: Gaius, on the other hand, was ruled by charioteers and by +gladiators; he was the slave of dancers and other theatrical performers. +Indeed, he always kept Apelles, the most famous of the tragedians of that +day, with him even in public. Thus he by himself and they by themselves +did without let or hindrance all that such persons when given power would +naturally dare to do. Everything that could help theatrical productions +he arranged and settled on the slightest pretext in the most expensive +manner, and compelled praetors and consuls to do the same, so that almost +every day some performance of the kind was sure to be given. Originally +he was but a spectator and listener at these and would take sides for and +against various performers like one of the mob; and sometimes, if he were +irritated at his opponents, he would not visit the spectacle. But as time +went on he came to imitate and contend in many events, driving chariots, +fighting duels, giving exhibitions of dancing, and acting in tragedy. +This became his regular practice. And one night he urgently summoned +the leaders of the senate as if to some important deliberation and then +danced before them. + +[-6-] Now in that year that Tiberius died and Gaius entered upon office +in his stead he first began to show great deference to the senators on an +occasion when knights were present at the meeting and also some of the +populace. He promised to share his power with them and do whatever would +please them, calling himself meanwhile their son and nursling. He was +then twenty-five years old, lacking five months, four days. After this he +freed those who were in prison, among whom was Quintus Pomponius, who for +seven whole years after his consulship had been kept in a cell suffering +abuse. Gaius did away with the complaints for maiestas, on account of +which he saw that most of the prisoners were suffering, and heaped up (or +so he pretended) and burned the documents pertaining to their cases that +Tiberius had left behind. He also declared: "I have done this, that +no matter how much I might wish to bear malice toward any one; for my +mother's and my brothers' sake, I might still be unable to punish him." +For this he was commended because it was expected that _he_ at all events +would speak the truth; by reason of his youth it was not thought possible +that he could be guilty of duplicity in thought or speech. And he still +further increased their hopes by ordering that the celebration of the +Saturnalia extend over five days, and by taking from each of those +enjoying an allowance of grain only an as instead of the denarius which +they were wont to give an emperor for the manufacture of images. + +It was voted that he should at once become consul by the removal of +Proculus and Nigrinus, who were holding office at the time, and that he +should thereafter be consul annually. However, he did not accept the +offer, but instead waited until the two officials completed the six +months' term for which they had been appointed, and then became consul +himself, taking his uncle Claudius as a colleague. The latter, who had +previously been ranked among the knights and after the death of Tiberius +had been sent as an envoy to Gaius in behalf of that order, now for the +first time after living forty-six years became both consul and senator at +once. The behavior of Gaius in these matters appeared satisfactory and +to his actions corresponded the speech which he delivered in the +senate-house on entering upon his consulship. In it he denounced Tiberius +for each of the crimes of which he was commonly accused and made many +announcements about his own line of conduct; and the senate, fearing +that he might change, issued a decree that his statements should be read +annually. + +[-7-] Soon after, clad in the triumphal garb, he dedicated the herouem of +Augustus. Boys of the noblest families, both of whose parents had to be +living, together with maidens similarly circumstanced, sang the hymn, +and the senators with their wives as well as the people were banqueted. +Entertainments of all sorts were given. There were exhibitions involving +music, and horseraces took place on two days,--twenty heats the first +day and forty [1] more the second, because the former was the emperor's +birthday and the latter that of Augustus. He had a similar number of +events on many other occasions, as seemed good to him. Hitherto not more +than ten[2] events had been usual, but this time he finished four hundred +bears together with an equal number of beasts from Libya. The boys of +noble birth performed "Troy" on horseback, and six horses drew the +triumphal car on which he was borne. This was an innovation. + +In the races he did not give the signals to the charioteers in person, +but viewed the spectacle from a front seat with his brothers and his +fellow-priests of the Augustan order. He was always greatly displeased +if any one was absent from the theatre or left in the middle of the +performance, and so, in order that no one might have an excuse for +not attending, he postponed all lawsuits and suspended all periods of +mourning. Thus, women bereft of their husbands were allowed to marry even +before the appointed time, unless, indeed, they were pregnant. In order +to enable people to come without formality and to save them the trouble +of greeting him (for previously those who met the emperor on the streets +always saluted him), he forbade any one's doing this again. Those who +chose might come barefoot to the spectacles. It had been from very +ancient times the custom for persons to do this who held court in the +summer; the practice had been frequently followed by Augustus at the +summer festivals but had been abandoned by Tiberius. + +It was at this period that the senators first began sitting upon cushions +instead of the bare boards, and that they were allowed to wear caps to +the theatre, Thessalian fashion, to avoid distress from the sun's rays. +And whenever the sun was particularly severe, they used instead of the +theatre the Diribitorium, which was furnished with benches.--This was +what Gaius did in his consulship, which he held two months and twelve +days. The remainder of the six months' term he surrendered to the men +previously appointed for it. [-8-] It was after this that he fell sick, +but instead of dying himself he managed to cause the death of Tiberius, +who had been registered among the iuvenes, had been given the title of +Princeps Iuventutis, and finally had been adopted into his family.[3] The +complaint brought against the lad was that he had prayed and expected +that Gaius might die. This charge proved the destruction of many others, +too. The same ruler who gave to Antiochus son of Antiochus the district +of Commagene, which his father had held, and likewise the coast districts +of Cilicia, and had freed Agrippa (grandson of Herod, who had been +imprisoned by Tiberius), and had put him in charge of his grandfather's +domain, not only deprived Agrippa's brother (or else his son) of his +paternal fortune but furthermore had him murdered, without making any +communication about him to the senate. Later he took similar action in a +number of other cases. + +Now the young Tiberius perished on suspicion of having utilized the +emperor's illness as an occasion for conspiracy. On the other hand, there +were Publius Afranius Potitus, a plebeian, who in a burst of foolish +servility had promised not only of his own free will but under oath that +he would give his life to have Gaius recover, and a certain Atanius +Secundus, a knight, who announced that in the event of a favorable +outcome he would fight as a gladiator. These, instead of the money which +they hoped to receive from him in return for offering to die in exchange +for his life, were compelled to keep their promises so as not to +perjure themselves. That was the cause of these men's death. Again, his +father-in-law Marcus Silanus, though he had made no promise and taken +no oath, nevertheless, because his virtue and his relationship made him +displeasing to the emperor and subjected him to extreme insults, for +this reason committed suicide. Tiberius had held him in such honor as to +refuse always to try a case that was appealed from his jurisdiction and +to refer all such disputes back to him again. But Gaius abused him in +every way and had such a high opinion of him that he called him "the +golden sheep." Now Silanus on account of his age and his reputation was +accorded by all the consuls the honor of casting his vote first; and to +prevent his doing so any longer Gaius had abolished the custom of having +some of the ex-consuls vote first or second according to the pleasure of +those who put the vote. He arranged that such persons should cast their +votes on the same footing as the rest and in the same order as they had +held the office. Moreover, he put aside his victim's daughter to marry +Cornelia Orestilla, whom he had actually seized during the marriage +festival which she was celebrating with her betrothed, Gaius Calpurnius +Piso. Before two months had elapsed he banished both of them on the +ground that they had carnal knowledge of each other. He allowed Piso to +take with him ten slaves, and then when the latter asked for more he +let him employ as many as he liked, saying: "You will have just so many +soldiers." + +[A.D. 38 (_a. u._ 791)] + +[-9-] The next year Marcus Julianus and Publius Nonius, regularly +appointed, became consuls. Oaths pertaining to the acts of Tiberius were +not introduced and for this reason are not used nowadays either. No +one numbers Tiberius among the emperors in the list of members of his +house.[4] But in regard to Augustus and Gaius they took the oaths which +had regularly been the custom and others to the effect that they would +hold Gaius and his sisters in greater respect than themselves and their +children, and they offered prayers for all of them alike. + +On the very first day of the new year one Machaon, a slave, climbed upon +the couch of Jupiter Capitolinus and after uttering from that place many +dire prophecies killed a little dog which he had brought in with him and +slew himself. + +The following good deeds must be set down to the credit of Gaius. He +published, as Augustus had done, all the accounts of public funds, which +had not been made known during the time Tiberius was out of the city. He +helped the soldiers extinguish a conflagration and assisted those who +suffered loss by it. As the equestrian order pined from lack of men he +summoned the foremost men from every office, even abroad, and enrolled +them with due regard to their relatives and their wealth. Some of them he +allowed to wear the senatorial costume occasionally even before they had +held any office through which we enter the senate, on the strength of +their hopes to secure admission to that body. Previously it would seem +that only those who had been born in the senatorial order were allowed to +do this. These deeds caused pleasure to all. But this action in restoring +the elections to the populus and the plebs, rescinding the decisions of +Tiberius about these matters, and in abolishing the one per cent. +tax, and again in scattering at some gymnastic contest tickets and +distributing very large gifts to such as secured them,--these actions, +though they delighted the lower classes, grieved the sensible, who +reflected that even if the offices fell once more into the hands of the +general public, still, in case the existing funds should be exhausted and +private sources of income fail, many dreadful disasters would result. + +[-10-] The performances of his next to be enumerated elicited the censure +of all without distinction. He caused very great numbers of men to fight +as gladiators, forcing them to contend both separately and in groups, +drawn up in a kind of military formation: he requested permission from +the senate to do this, and again,--something quite contrary to the spirit +of the enacted law that he might do whatsoever he pleased,--he asked +leave to put to death a number of persons, among them twenty-six knights, +some of whom had already devoured their living, while others had merely +practiced gladiatorial combat. It was not the number of those who +perished that was so bad (though it was bad enough) but his frenzied +delight in their slaughter and his never satisfied gazing at the scene of +blood. The same trait of cruelty led him once, when there was a shortage +of condemned criminals to be given to the beasts, to order some of the +mob that stood near the benches to be seized and thrown to them. And to +prevent the possibility of their making an outcry or attacking him orally +he had their tongues cut out first of all. One of the prominent knights, +too, he compelled to fight in single combat on the charge of insult +offered to his mother Agrippina, and when the man proved victorious +handed him over to the accusers and had him slain. The same person's +father, though guilty of no wrong, he confined in a cage (as he had +confined numerous others), and there put an end to him.--These contests +he at first conducted in the Saepta, after excavating [5] the entire site +and filling it with water, to enable him to bring in one ship. Later he +transferred his operations to another place, where he tore down a large +number of massive buildings and set up benches. The theatre of Taurus +he held in contempt. All this behavior, expenditures and murders alike, +subjected him to criticism. + +He was further blamed for compelling Macro together with Ennia to cause +their own death, remembering neither the latter's affection nor the +former's benefits, which had gained for him among other advantages the +sole possession of the empire. The fact that he had appointed Macro to +govern Egypt had not the slightest influence. He even involved him in +a scandal (of which the greatest share belonged to Gaius himself), by +bringing against him besides all the rest a complaint that he had played +the pander. Before long many others were condemned and executed, and +some were executed prior to their conviction. Nominally they suffered on +account of some wrong done to his parents or his brothers or the rest who +had perished with those relatives as an excuse, but really on account +of their property. For the treasury had been exhausted and he had no +resources. Such persons were convicted by witnesses against them and by +the documents which he once declared he had burned. Again, the disease +which had attacked him the previous year and the death of his sister +Drusilla brought about the ruin of others, since,--to omit graver +cases,--whoever had entertained or had greeted any one or had bathed on +the days in question incurred punishment. + +[-11-] The nominal spouse of Drusilla was Marcus Lepidus, at once the +favorite and lover of the emperor, but Gaius also treated her as a +concubine. When her death occurred at this time, her husband delivered +the eulogy but it was her brother who accorded her a public funeral. The +Pretorians with their commander and the equestrian order by itself +ran about the pyre [6] and the boys of noble birth performed the Troy +exercise about her tomb; all the honors that had been given to Livia were +voted to her, and it was further decreed that she should be declared +immortal, that a figure in gold representing her be set up in the +senate-house, and that in the temple of Venus in the Forum there should +be dedicated with equal honors a statue of her as large as that of the +goddess. Moreover, a separate shrine should be built for her and twenty +priests [7] not only men but also women should do her honor. Women, as +often as they gave testimony, should swear by her and on her birthday a +festival equal to the Megalensia should be celebrated and the senate and +the knights should hold a banquet. She straightway received the name +Panthea and was declared worthy of divine honors in all the cities. A +certain Livius Geminus, a senator, stated on oath, invoking destruction +upon himself and his children if he spoke falsely, that he had seen her +ascending into heaven and holding converse with the gods; and he called +all the other gods and Panthea herself to witness. For his declaration he +received twenty-five myriads. Besides all this Gaius showed her honor in +not having the festivals which were then due to take place celebrated +either at their appointed time (except as mere formalities) or at any +later date. All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed +pleasure at anything, as being grieved, or behaved as if they were +glad.[9] They were charged with malice either in failing to mourn her +(this was disrespect to her as a mortal) or in bewailing her (this was +disrespect to her as a goddess). One single occurrence gives the key to +all the transactions of that time. The emperor charged with impiety and +put to death a man who had sold warm water. [-12-] Having allowed a few +days to elapse he married Lollia Paulina and he compelled no less a +person than her husband, Memmius Regulus, to betroth her to him so that +he might not break the law in taking her without a betrothal. But almost +in a trice he had driven her away, too. + +Meantime he granted to Soaimus the land of the Arabian Ituraeans, to Cotys +Lesser Armenia and later parts of Arabia, to Rhoemetalces the possessions +of Cotys, and to Polemon son of Polemon his ancestral domain,--all these +upon the vote of the senate. The ceremony took place in the Forum, where +he sat upon the rostra in a chair between the consuls; some say he used +silken awnings. Soon after he caught sight of a lot of mud in an alley +and ordered that it be cast into the toga of Flavius Vespasian, who was +aedile at the time and had charge of keeping alleys clean. This event was +regarded at the moment as of no particular importance, but later, when +Vespasian, who took charge of a state in confusion and turmoil, had +reduced the same to order, it seemed to have been due to some divine +prompting and to have signified that Gaius had entrusted the city to him +unconditionally for its amelioration. + +[A.D. 39 (_a. u._ 792)] + +[-13-] He now became consul again, and though he prevented the priest +of Jupiter from taking the oath in the senate (for at this time they +regularly did so privately, as in the days of Tiberius), he himself both +when he entered upon office and when he relinquished it took the oath +like the rest upon the rostra, which had been made larger than before. +Thirty days was the duration of his tenure (whereas he let his colleague +Lucius Apronius hold office for six months), and his successor was +Sanguinius Maximus, praefectus urbi. During this and the following period +numbers of the foremost men perished in fulfillment of a sentence of +condemnation (for many who had been released from prison were punished +for the very reasons that had led to their imprisonment by Tiberius), +and many others in gladiatorial combats. There was nothing happening but +slaughter. The emperor no longer made any concessions to the populace, +opposing instead absolutely everything it wished, and consequently the +people, too, resisted all his desires. The talk and actions usual at such +a juncture with an angry ruler on one side and a hostile folk on the +other were plainly in evidence. The contest between them, however, was +not an equal one. The people could do nothing outside of discussion and +showing their feelings by their demeanor, whereas Gaius dragged many of +his opponents away while they were witnessing performances at the theatre +and arrested many more after they had left the building. The chief causes +for his rage were first that they did not show enthusiasm in attending; +he made his appearance at a different hour on different occasions, +sometimes not till nightfall, and they were worn out waiting for him: +second, that they did not always applaud the performances that pleased +him and sometimes even showed favor to objects of his dislike. Again, it +vexed him mightily to have them cry out in their efforts to extol him: +"Young Augustus!" He felt that he was not being congratulated upon being +emperor while so young, but was being censured for holding at his age +so great a domain. His regular conduct was as described. Once he said +threateningly to the whole people: "How I wish you had one neck!" At +another time, when he was showing some of his usual irritation, the +populace in displeasure ceased to notice the spectacle, and turned +against the informers, and with loud shouts demanded their surrender. +Gaius, indignant, vouchsafed them no answer, but committing to others +the conduct of the games withdrew into Campania. Later he returned to +celebrate the birthday of Drusilla, brought into the hippodrome on a +wagon her statue drawn by[10] elephants and gave the people a free show +for two days. The first day, besides the equestrian contests, he had five +hundred bears slaughtered, and on the second a like number of Libyan +beasts was used up. Athletes struggled in the pancratium at many +different points in the city. The populace was feasted and presents were +given to the senators and their wives. + + * * * * * + +[-14-] At the same time that he authorized these murders, apparently +because he was so very poor, he devised another kind of transaction. He +took the surviving combatants and sold them at an excessive valuation to +the consuls, the praetors, and the rest, meeting with acquiescence from +some and compelling others, who objected strenuously, to carry out his +wishes at the horse-races; and most of all he imposed upon the ones +especially selected by lot for this purpose, for he had ordered that two +praetors, just as it might happen, should be allotted to take charge of +the gladiatorial games. He himself sat on the auctioneer's platform and +kept outbidding them. Many also came from outside to bid against +them, particularly because he allowed such as wished to employ a +greater number of gladiators than the law permitted and because he +often had recourse to them himself. So people bought them for large +sums, some through need of the men, others thinking they should +gratify him, and the largest number (in case they were reputed to be +property-holders) out of a wish to avail themselves of this pretext for +spending some of their substance and thus by becoming poorer save +their lives. + +Yet, in spite of this action of his, he afterward put out of the way by +poison the best and most famous of these slaves. He did the same also in +the case of rival horses and charioteers, being greatly devoted to the +party that wore the frog green and from this color was called the Party +of the Leek. Even now the place where the chariots practiced is called +Galanum. One of the horses, that he named Incitatus, he invited to +dinner, offered him golden barley, and drank his health in wine from gold +goblets. He took oaths by the same beast's Guardian Spirit and Presiding +Fortune and promised besides that he would appoint him consul. This he +would certainly have done, too, if he had lived longer. + +[-15-] Now formerly for the purpose of providing funds it had been voted +that all those persons who had wished to leave anything to Tiberius +and were alive should at their death bestow the same upon Gaius. The +publication of a decree was deemed necessary to prevent its seeming that +he could break the laws in securing by inheritance such gifts; for he +had at the time neither wife nor children. But at the time of which I am +speaking he proceeded to levy for himself without any vote absolutely all +the property of men who had served among the centurions and had after the +triumph which his father celebrated left it to somebody other than the +emperor. When not even this sufficed, he hit upon the following third +means of raising money. There was a senator, Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, +who had noticed that the roads during the reign of Tiberius were in bad +condition and was always nagging the road commissioners about it and +furthermore kept making a nuisance of himself before the senate regarding +the matter. Gaius took him as a confederate and through him attacked +all those, alive or dead, who had ever been road commissioners and had +received money for repairing the highways. He fined both them and the men +who had secured any contracts from them, on the pretence that they had +spent nothing. For this help Corbulo was at the time made consul, +but later, in the reign of Claudius, he was accused and his conduct +investigated. Claudius made no further demands for any sums still owing +and after collecting what had been paid in, partly from the treasury and +partly from Corbulo, he returned it to the persons who had been fined. +All that was later. At this time these unfortunates one by one and +practically everybody else in the City were, as one might say, despoiled. +Of those who possessed anything there was no one,--not a man nor a +woman,--who got off scot free. Though he allowed some of the more elderly +persons to live, yet by calling them his fathers, grandfathers, mothers, +and grandmothers, he got revenue from them during their lifetime and +inherited their property when they died. + +[-16-] Up to this time he was always speaking ill of Tiberius before +everybody, and so far from rebuking others who criticised him privately +or publicly he enjoyed their language. But now he entered the +senate-house and eulogized his predecessor at length, besides severely +rebuking the senate and the people, saying that they did wrong in finding +fault with him. "I may do even this," he said, "in my capacity as +emperor, but you are not only unjust but also guilty of impiety[11] to +take such an attitude toward one who ruled you." Thereupon he considered +separately the case of each man who had lost his life and showed to his +own satisfaction that the senators had been responsible for the death of +most of them; some, he alleged, they had killed by accusation, some by +damning evidence, and all by sentence of condemnation. This he proved +by having some freedmen read it from those very documents which he once +declared he had burned. And he told them besides: "In case Tiberius +really did do wrong, you ought not to have honored him while he lived, +and at any rate, by Jupiter, you ought not to repudiate what you often +said and voted. But you both behaved toward him with fickleness and again +after filling Sejanus with conceit and spoiling him you put him to death, +and therefore I ought not either to expect any decent treatment from +you." After some such remarks he represented in his speech Tiberius +himself as saying to him: "All this that you have said has been good and +true. Therefore have no affection nor mercy for any one of them. They all +hate you: they all pray for your death. They will murder you if they can. +Hence do not stop to consider what acts of yours will please them and +heed none of their talk. Rather, have regard to your own pleasure and +safety solely, since that has the most just claim. In this way you +will suffer no harm and will enjoy all supremest pleasures. You will, +moreover, be honored by them whether they so desire or not. If you follow +a different course, it will be useless, and beyond an empty reputation +you will gain no advantage, but become the victim of plots and perish +ingloriously. No man living is ruled of his own free will, but the +element which is kept in fear, whatever its size, waits upon the stronger +element, whereas if it attains to courage, it always wreaks vengeance +upon the other, which has now become the weaker." + +At the close of this address Gaius reintroduced the complaints for +maiestas, ordered his commands to be inscribed upon a bronze tablet and +rushing hastily from the senate-house proceeded the same day to the +suburbs of the capital. The senate and the people were filled with great +fear as they thought of the denunciations against Tiberius, which they +had often uttered, and of the many surprises his speech had had in store +for them. Temporarily their alarm and dejection prevented them from +saying a word or transacting any business. Next day they assembled again, +praised Gaius unstintedly as a most sincere and pious ruler, and thanked +him profusely that they had not perished like others. Accordingly, +they voted annually to sacrifice cattle to the Spirit of Kindness that +animated him both on the anniversary of the day he had read this matter +just mentioned and on those belonging to the Palatium[12]: on such +occasions his image in gold was to be conducted to the Capitol and hymns +sung in its honor by the boys of noblest birth. They granted him also +the right to celebrate a lesser triumph, as though he had defeated some +enemies. This was what they voted at that meeting: later they added to it +extensively on almost every pretext. + +[-17-] Gaius took no heed of the celebration mentioned; it seemed to him +to be no great thing to drive a horse on land: but he had a desire to +ride horseback through the sea in a way, by bridging over the water +between Puteoli and Bauli. This locality is opposite the City, twenty-six +stades distant. Boats for the bridge were partly brought together and +partly built new for the purpose. For the number it had proved possible +to collect in a brief space of time was insufficient, although all +feasible vessels had been gathered, and it was principally this fact that +caused a serious famine in Italy and Rome. In joining these boats not +merely a passageway was constructed but resting places and waiting rooms +were built along in it, and these had running water fit for drinking. +When it was ready, he put on the breastplate of Alexander (or so he +said), and over it a purple silk chlamys, containing much gold and many +precious stones from India. He furthermore girt on a sword, took a +shield, and donned a garland of oak leaves. Next he offered sacrifice +to Neptune and some other gods and to Envy (in order, he said, that no +jealousy might attend him), and entered the passage from the end at +Bauli, taking with him great numbers of armed horsemen and foot soldiers; +and he made a fierce dash into the city as if he were after some enemies. +There he rested the following day, as though seeking respite from battle, +and wearing a gold-spangled tunic he returned on a chariot over the same +bridge. He was drawn by race-horses that were most competent to gain +victories. A long train of what was apparently spoils accompanied him, +among them Darius, one of the Arsacidae, belonging to the group of +Parthians then serving as hostages. His friends and associates in +beflowered robes followed him on vehicles, as did the army and the rest +of the throng, which was decked out according to individual taste. Of +course, in the midst of such a campaign and after so magnificent a +victory he had to deliver a bit of an harangue: so he ascended a platform +which had likewise been erected at about the center of the bridge. First +he extolled himself as one who had undertaken a great enterprise; next +he praised the soldiers as men exhausted by the dangers they had faced, +adding the significant statement that they had traversed the sea on foot. +For this gallantry he gave them money and afterward for the rest of the +day and all through the night they enjoyed a banquet,--he on the bridge, +as though some island, and they at anchor on other boats. Light in +abundance shone upon them from the place itself and abundant light +besides from the mountains. For since the place was crescent-shaped, fire +was exhibited from all sides, as might be done in a theatre, so that no +one could notice the darkness. It was his wish to make the night day, as +he had made the sea land. When he had become full to excess of food and +strong drink, he threw numbers of his companions off the bridge into the +sea and sank many of the rest by making a circuitous attack upon them in +boats that had rams. Some perished, but the majority though drunk managed +to save themselves. The reason was that the sea showed itself extremely +smooth and tranquil both while the bridge was being put together and +while the other events were taking place. This, too, caused the emperor +some elation, and he said that even Neptune was afraid of him. As for +Darius and Xerxes, he made all manner of fun of them, inasmuch as he had +bridged over a far vaster expanse of sea than they. + +[-18-] The final episode in the career of that bridge, which I shall now +relate, proved another source of death to many. Inasmuch as the emperor +had exhausted his revenues in the construction he fell to plotting against +many more persons because of their property. He presided at trials both +privately and in company with the entire senate. That body also tried +some cases by itself, yet it had not full powers and there were many +appeals from its decisions. The decisions of the senate were merely +made public, but when any men were condemned by Gaius their names were +bulletined, as though he feared they might not learn their fate. These +met their punishment some in prison and others by being hurled from the +Capitoline. Still others killed themselves beforehand. There was no +safety even for such as left the country, but many of them, too, lost +their lives either on the road or while in banishment It is not worth +while to burden my readers unduly by going into the details of most of +these cases, but I may stop to notice Calvisius Sabinus, one of the +foremost men in the senate. He had recently come from governing Pannonia, +and he and his wife Cornelia were both indicted. The charge against +her was that she had visited some military posts and had watched some +soldiers practicing. These two did not stand trial but despatched +themselves before the time set. The same is to be recorded of Titius +Rufus, against whom a complaint was lodged that he had said the senate +had one thing in their minds but uttered something different. Also one +Junius Priscus, a praetor, was accused on various charges, but his death +was really due to the supposition that he was wealthy. Gaius, on learning +that he possessed nothing worth causing his death for, made this +remarkable statement: "He fooled me and perished uselessly when he might +as well have lived." + +[-19-] Among these men put on trial at this time Domitius Afer +encountered danger from an unexpected source and secured his preservation +in a still more remarkable way. Gaius was incensed against him (if for no +other reason) because in the reign of Tiberius he had accused a woman who +was related to the emperor's mother Agrippina. Later the woman had met +Afer and as she saw that out of embarrassment he stood aside from her +path she called to him and said (referring to the matter): "Never mind, +Domitius: it wasn't you, but Agamemnon, that caused me these troubles." +[13] Just about this time Afer had set up an image of the emperor and had +placed upon it an inscription showing that Gaius in his twenty-seventh +year was already consul for the second time. This vexed the latter, who +felt that undue notice was being given to his youth and his transgression +of the law. So for this action, for which Afer had looked to be honored, +he brought him before the senate and read a long speech against him. +Gaius always maintained that he surpassed all living orators, and knowing +that his adversary was an extremely gifted speaker he strove on this +occasion to excel him. He would certainly have put Afer to death, if the +latter had entered into the least competition with him. As it was, +the man made no answer or defence, but pretended to be astonished and +overcome by the cleverness of Gaius, and repeating the accusation point +by point he praised it as though he were some listener and not on trial. +When opportunity was given him to speak, he took to supplicating and +bewailing his lot; finally he threw himself on the earth and lying there +prostrate he besought his accuser, apparently fearing him as an orator +rather than as Caesar. In this way the latter when he saw and heard what I +have described was melted, for he thought that he had really overwhelmed +Domitius by the eloquence of his address. For this reason, then, and on +account of Callistus the freedman, whom he was wont to honor and whose +favor Domitius had courted, he ceased his anger. And when Callistus later +blamed him for having accused the man in the first place, the emperor +answered: "It would not have been right for me to hide such a speech." +So Domitius was saved by being convicted of no longer being a skillful +speaker. + +On the other hand Lucius Annaeus Seneca, who was superior in wisdom to all +the Romans of his day and to many other great men, came very near being +ruined, though he had done no wrong and there was no suspicion of such +a thing, but just because he pled a case well in the senate while his +sovereign was present. Gaius ordered him to be put to death, but let +him go because he believed what one of his female associates said, that +Seneca had a bad case of consumption and would die before a great while. + +[-20-] Directly he appointed Domitius consul and removed those who held +the office at the time: this he did because they had not proclaimed a +thanksgiving on the occasion of his birthday (the praetors had held a +horse-race and had slaughtered some beasts, but that happened every year) +whereas they had celebrated a festival to commemorate the victory of +Augustus over Antony. In order to find an accusation against them he +chose to figure as a descendant of Antony rather than of Augustus. He had +beforehand told those who shared his secrets that whichever the consuls +did they would certainly get into trouble, whether they offered sacrifice +as a mark of joy over Antony's disaster or whether they went without +sacrificing on such an occasion as the victory of Augustus. It was for +these reasons, then, that he summarily dismissed these officials and +broke to pieces their fasces. One of them took it so much to heart that +he killed himself. + +Domitius was chosen as the emperor's colleague nominally by the people +but actually by Gaius himself. The latter had, to be sure, restored +the elections to the populace, but they had become rather lax in the +performance of their duties because for a long time now they had enjoyed +none of the privileges of freemen; and as a rule no more office-seekers +presented themselves than were needed to fill vacant places, or if ever +there was an excessive number the outcome had been all arranged among +themselves. Thus the appearance of a democracy was preserved but none of +the proper results was secured; and this led Gaius himself to abolish the +elections again. After this things went on precisely as in the reign of +Tiberius. Sometimes fifteen praetors were chosen and again one more or +less, as it might happen. + +Such was the action he took regarding the elections. In general he +maintained a malignant and suspicious attitude toward quite everything +that went on, as witness his banishing Carrina Secundus the orator +because the latter had delivered in a gymnasium a speech against tyrants. +Also, when Lucius Piso, son of Plancina and Gnaeus Piso, chanced to +become governor of Africa, the emperor feared that pride might lead him +to revolt, particularly since he was to have a large force made up of +both citizens and foreigners. Hence the province was divided in two and +the military force together with the Nomads in the immediate vicinity was +assigned to a different official. That arrangement lasts to this day. + +[-21-] Gaius had now spent practically all the money in Rome and the rest +of Italy, gathered from every source from which he could in any way get +it, and as no resource that was of any value or practicable could be +found there, his expenses became a source of great annoyance to him. +Therefore he set out for Gaul, declaring hostilities against the Celtae +on the ground that they were showing some uneasiness, but in reality his +purpose was to get money from that region and Spain, where wealth was +also abundant. However, he did not make an outright declaration of his +destination, but went first to one of the suburbs and then suddenly +started on his journey, taking with him many dancers, gladiators, horses, +women, and the rest of the rout. When he reached the section he had in +view he did no damage to any of the enemy;--as soon as he had proceeded +a short distance beyond the Rhine he turned back, and next he started +apparently to conduct a campaign against Britain, but turned back from +the ocean's edge, showing no little vexation at his lieutenants because +they won some slight success;--among the subject peoples, however, and +among the allies and the citizens he wrought the greatest imaginable +havoc. In the first place he despoiled property holders on any and every +excuse, and second, individuals and cities brought him "voluntarily" +large gifts. He kept on murdering victims, alleging that some were +rebelling and others conspiring. The general complaint against them all +was that they were rich. The fact that he attended to the selling of +their possessions in person enabled him to obtain far greater sums than +would otherwise have been the case. Everybody was compelled to buy them, +under all sorts of conditions and for much more than their value, for the +reasons I have mentioned. Accordingly, he sent also for the finest and +most precious heirlooms of the government and auctioned them off, selling +with them the fame of the persons who had once used them. He would make +some comment on each one, such as "This belonged to my father," "this to +my mother," "this to my grandfather," "this to my great-grandfather," +"this Egyptian piece belonged to Antony--became a prize of Augustus." +Meantime he incidentally showed the necessity of selling them, so that no +one dared to appear to be indigent, and he sold with each article some +valuable association. + +[-22-] In spite of all this he did not secure any surplus. He kept up his +expenditures both for the objects that regularly interested him, +producing some spectacles at Lugdunum, and also for the army. For the +number of soldiers he had gathered amounted to twenty myriads, or, as +some say, to twenty-five myriads. Seven times was he named imperator by +them (just as pleased him), though he had won no battle and slain no +enemy. To be sure, he did once by a ruse seize and make prisoners a few +of the latter, but it was his own people whom he wasted most, striking +some of them down individually and butchering others _en masse_. Once he +saw a crowd either of prisoners or some other persons and gave orders (in +the cant phrase) that they should all be slain from baldhead to baldhead. +Another time he was playing dice and, finding that he had no money, +called for the census of the Gauls and ordered the wealthiest of them to +be put to death. Then he returned to his fellow gamblers and said: "Here +you are playing for a few denarii, while I have collected nearly fifteen +thousand myriads." So these men perished without consideration. Indeed, +one of them, Julius Sacerdos, who was fairly well off but not so +extremely wealthy as naturally to become the object of attack, +nevertheless fell a victim because of a similarity of names. This shows +how carelessly everything went. + +Others who perished I need not cite by name, simply mentioning enough +to satisfy the requirements of my record. One, then, that he killed was +Gastulicus Lentulus, a man of good reputation in every way, who had been +governor of Germany for ten years; his death was due to the fact that the +soldiers liked him. Another that he murdered was Lepidus, that lover and +favorite of his, husband of Drusilla, the man who together with Gaius had +maintained criminal relations with the emperor's other sisters Agrippina +and Julia, the man whom he had permitted to stand for office five years +earlier than the laws allowed, whom he also declared he should leave +to succeed him as emperor. To celebrate the event he gave the soldiers +money, as though he had worsted some hostile force, and sent three +daggers to Mars the Avenger in Rome. His sisters for their connection +with Lepidus he deported to the Portian islands, having first written +to the senate a great deal of outrageous and brutal comment upon them. +Agrippina was given the victim's bones in a jar and ordered to keep it in +her bosom throughout the entire journey and bring it back to Rome again. +Also, since many honors had been voted to these women on the emperor's +account, the emperor forbade any distinction being awarded to any of his +relatives again. + +[-23-] He sent to the senate at the time a report of the matter as if he +had escaped some great plot, for he was always pretending to be in danger +and to be leading a miserable existence. The senators on being apprised +of the facts passed several complimentary votes and granted him a lesser +triumph; they sent envoys to announce this, some of whom were chosen by +lot, but Claudius by election. That also displeased the emperor to such +an extent that he again forbade anything approaching praise or honor +being given to his relatives. He felt, too, that he had not been honored +as he deserved, and indeed he never made any account of the honors +granted him. It irritated him to have small distinctions voted, since +that implied a slight, and greater distinctions irritated him because +then he was deprived of the possibility of winning still higher prizes. +He did not wish it to seem that anything that brought him honors was in +the senators' power,--that would make them stronger than he,--nor again +that they should have the right to grant such a thing to him, as if they +had power and he was inferior to them. For this reason he ofttimes found +fault with various gifts, on the ground that they did not increase his +splendor but rather diminished his power. Being of this mind he used to +become angry at those who did him honor if in any case it seemed that +they had voted him less than he deserved. So capricious was he that no +one could easily suit him. + +Accordingly, for the reasons mentioned he would not receive all of those +ambassadors, affecting to mistrust that they were spies, but chose out +a few and sent the rest back before they reached Gaul. Those that he +admitted to his presence were not accorded any august reception; indeed, +he would have killed Claudius, had he not entertained a contempt for him, +since the latter partly by nature and partly with intention gave the +impression of great stupidity. Others were again sent, more in number +(for he had complained among other points of the smallness of the first +embassy), and they made the announcement that many marks of distinction +had been voted to him: these he received gladly, even going out to meet +them, for which action he received fresh honors at their hands. This, +however, was somewhat later. + +At the time under discussion Gaius divorced Paulina on the pretext that +she was barren, but really because he had had enough of her, and married +Milonia Caesonia. She had formerly been his mistress, but now as she was +pregnant he chose to make her his wife and have her bear him a child a +month later. The people of Rome were disturbed by this behavior and were +still further disturbed because a number of trials were hanging over +their heads as a result of the friendship they had shown for his sisters +and for the men who had been murdered: even some aediles and praetors were +compelled to resign their offices and stand trial.--Meantime they also +suffered from the excessive heat. This grew so extremely severe that +curtains were stretched across the Forum.--Among the men exiled at this +time Ofonius Tigillinus was banished on the charge of having had a +_liaison_ with Agrippina. + +[-24-] All this, however, did not distress the people so much as their +expectation that the cruelty and licentiousness of Gaius would go to +still greater lengths. They were particularly troubled on ascertaining +that King Agrippa and King Antiochus were with him, like two +tyrant-trainers. + +[A.D. 40 (_a. u._ 793)] + +As a consequence, while he was consul for the third time no tribune nor +praetor dared to convene the senate. For he had no colleague; though this, +as some think, was not intentional, but the regular appointee died and no +one else in so short a period of time as was available could be brought +forward in the comitia to fill his place. Moreover, the praetors who +attend to the affairs of the consuls, whenever the latter are out of +town, ought to have administered all business pending. But at this +period, in order not to appear to have acted for the emperor, they +performed none of their duties. The senators in a body ascended the +Capitoline, offered their sacrifices, and did obeisance to the chair +of Gaius located in the temple. Furthermore, according to a custom +prevailing in the time of Augustus, they deposited money, [14] making a +show of giving it to the emperor himself. Their practice was similar also +in the following year. At the time of the events just narrated they came +together in the senate-house after these proceedings, without any person +having convened them, but accomplished nothing, wasting the whole day in +laudations of Gaius and prayers in his behalf. Since they had no love +for him nor any wish that he should survive, they simulated both these +feelings to all the greater extent, as if hoping in this way to disguise +their real sentiments. On the third day devoted to prayers they came +together in response to an announcement of a meeting made by all the +praetors in a written notice: still, they transacted no business on this +day nor again on the next until on the twelfth day word was brought that +Gaius had resigned his office. Then at last the men who had been elected +for subsequent service succeeded to the position and administered the +business that fell to them. It was voted among other measures that the +same honors should be given to the birthdays of Tiberius and of Drusilla +as to that of Augustus. The actor folk also celebrated a festival, +provided a spectacle, and set up and dedicated images of Gaius and +Drusilla.--This was in accordance with a letter of Gaius. Whenever he +wished any business brought up he communicated in writing a small portion +of it to all the senators, but most of it to the consuls, and then +sometimes ordered this to be read in the senate.--So much for the +transactions of the senate. + +[-25-] Meanwhile Gaius sent for Ptolemaeus, the son of Juba, and on +ascertaining that he was wealthy put him to death and a number of others +with him. Also when he reached the ocean and was to all appearances about +to conduct a campaign in Britain and had drawn up all the soldiers on the +beach, he embarked on the triremes but after putting out a little from +the land he sailed back again. Next he took his seat on a high platform +and gave his soldiers the watchword as if for battle, while the +trumpeters urged them on. All of a sudden, however, he ordered them to +gather the shells. Having secured these "spoils" (you see he needed booty +for the celebration of his triumph) he became immensely elated, assuming +that he had enslaved the ocean itself; and he gave his soldiers many +presents. The shells he took back to Rome for the purpose of exhibiting +the spoils to the people there as well. The senate did not see how it +could remain inactive in the face of this procedure, inasmuch as it +learned he was in an exalted frame of mind, nor yet again how it could +praise him. For, when anybody bestows great praise or extraordinary +honors for a small success or none at all, that person becomes suspected +of making a mock and jest of the affair. Still, for all that, when +Gaius entered the City he came very near devoting the whole senate to +destruction because it had not voted him divine honors. But he contented +himself with assembling the populace, upon whom he showered from a raised +position quantities of silver and gold. Many perished in the effort to +seize it; for, as some say, he had mixed small knife-blades in with the +coin. + + As a result of his adulteries he repeatedly received the titles of + imperator and Germanicus and Britannicus no less than if he had subdued + Gaul and Britain entire. + + Since this was his manner of life, he was destined inevitably to be + plotted against. He was on the lookout for an attack and arrested + Anicius Cerealius and his son Sextus Papinius, whom he put to the + torture. And inasmuch as the former would not utter a word, he + persuaded Papinius (by promising him safety and immunity) to denounce + certain persons (whether truly or falsely); he then straightway + put to death both Cerealius and the rest before his very eyes. + There was a Betilienus Bassus whom he had ordered killed, and + he compelled Capito, the man's father, to be present at his son's + execution, though Capito was not guilty of any crime and had received + no court summons. When the father enquired if he would allow him + to shut his eyes, Gaius ordered him to be slain likewise. He, finding + himself in danger, pretended to have been one of the plotters and + promised that he would disclose the names of all the rest; and he + named the companions of Gaius and those who abetted his licentiousness + and cruelty. He would have brought destruction upon many persons, + had he not by laying further information against the prefects, and + Callistus and Caesonia, aroused distrust. So he was put to death, but + this very act paved the way for the ruin of Gaius. For the emperor + privately summoned the prefects and Callistus and said to them: + "I am but one and you are three; and I am defenceless, whereas + you are armed: hence, if you hate and desire to kill me, slay me at + once." The general consequences were that he came to regard himself + as an object of hatred, and believing that they were vexed at his + behavior he harbored suspicion against them and wore a sword at his + side when in the City; and to forestall any harmony of action on their + part he attempted to embroil them one with another by pretending to + make a confidant of each one separately and talking to him about the + rest until they obtained a notion of his designs and left him a prey + to the conspirators. + + The same emperor ordered the senate to convene and affected to + grant its members amnesty, saying that there were only a very few + against whom he still retained his anger. This expression doubled the + anxiety of each one of them, for everybody was thinking of himself. + +[-26-] Another person, named Protogenes, assisted the emperor in all his +projects, and carried continually on his person two books, of which he +called the one "sword" and the other "dagger." This Protogenes once +entered the senate as if on some indifferent business and when all, as +was to be expected, saluted and greeted him, he darted a kind of sinister +glance at Scribonius Proculus and said: "Do you, too, greet me, though +you hate the emperor so?" On hearing this all those present surrounded +their fellow senator and tore him to pieces and voted [some festivals +to Gains as also] that the emperor should have a high platform in the +senate-house to prevent any one's approaching him, besides enjoying the +use of a military guard even there. [They resolved further that his +statues should be guarded. + +Pleased at this Gaius laid aside his anger toward them and with a buoyant +spirit promised them some money. Pomponius, who was said to have plotted +against him, he released, inasmuch as he had been betrayed by a friend. +And, as the man's mistress when tortured would not utter a word, he did +her no further harm and even gave her an honorary gift of money. Gaius +was praised for this partly through fear and partly sincerely, and] as +some called him hero and others god, he fairly went out of his head. Even +before this he was in the habit of demanding that he be given superhuman +regard and said that he had intercourse with the Moon Goddess and was +crowned by Victory. He also pretended to be Jupiter and took this as a +pretext for having carnal knowledge of various women, especially his +sisters. Again he would often figure as [Neptune, because he had bridged +so great an expanse of sea, or perhaps as] Juno and Diana and Venus. +[He would impersonate Hercules, Bacchus, Apollo, and all the other +divinities, not merely males but also females.] As fast as he changed the +names he would assume all the rest of the attributes that belonged to +them, [so that he might seem to resemble them]. Now he would be seen in +feminine guise, holding a wine-cup and thyrsus, again with masculine +trappings he would carry a club and lion-skin: [or perhaps a helmet +and shield]. He would make up first with smooth chin and later on as a +bearded man. Sometimes he wielded a trident and on other occasions he +brandished the thunderbolt. He would array himself like a maiden equipped +for [hunting or] war, and after a brief interval would come forth as a +woman. Thus he could make changes with careful attention to details by +the variety of his dress and by what he attached to or threw over it, and +he was anxious to appear to be anything rather than a human being [and +an emperor]. Once a certain Gaul, espying him on a, high platform +transacting business in the guise of Jupiter, laughed aloud. Gaius +called to him and asked: "What do I seem to you to be?" And the other +answered--I shall tell his exact words--: "A big pack of foolishness." Yet +the man met no dire fate, for he was a shoemaker. Persons of such rank as +Gaius can bear the frankness of the common herd more easily than that of +those who hold high position.--Now this was the attire he would +assume whenever he pretended to be some god; and there were suitable +supplications, prayers, and sacrifices offered to it. [-27-] Otherwise, +he usually appeared in public in silk and triumphal dress. Very few were +those whom he would kiss. To most of the senators even he extended his +hand or foot for homage. Consequently the men who were kissed by him +thanked him for it even in the senate, though all might see him kissing +dancers every day. [And these divine honors paid him came not only from +the many, accustomed at all times to flatter, but from those who really +pretended to be something.] + +Take the case of Lucius Vitellius, not of low birth nor without sense, a +man who, on the contrary, had become famous by his governorship of Syria. +In addition to his other brilliant exploits as an official he spoiled +a plot of Artabanus in that region. He encountered the latter, who had +suffered no punishment for Armenia, already close to the Euphrates and +terrified him by his sudden appearance. He then induced him to come to +a conference and finally compelled him to sacrifice to the images of +Augustus and Gaius. Furthermore he made a peace with him that was +advantageous for the Romans and secured his children as hostages. This +Vitellius, then, was summoned by Gaius to be put to death. The complaint +against him was the same as the Parthians had against their king whom +they expelled. Jealousy made him the object of hatred, and fear the +object of plots. [For every power stronger than himself Gaius entertained +hatred, and he was suspicious of whatever was successful, feeling sure +that it would ultimately attack him.] But Vitellius saved his life by +somehow presenting himself in such a way as to appear of less importance +than his reputation would lead one to expect. He fell at the emperor's +feet shedding tears of lamentation, all the time saluting him frequently +as divine and paying him worship; at last he vowed that should he survive +he would sacrifice to Gaius. By this behavior he so mollified the +offended monarch and won his good-will that he not only managed to +survive but came to be regarded as one of his lord's most intimate +friends. On one occasion Gaius declared he was enjoying converse with the +Moon Goddess, and when he asked Vitellius if he could see the goddess +with him, the other kept his eyes fixed on the ground, as if overcome by +amazement. In a half whisper he answered: "Only you gods, master, may +behold one another."--So Vitellius from these beginnings, later came to +surpass all others in adulation. + +[-28-] [Gaius gave orders that in Miletus of the province of Asia a +certain tract of land should be set apart for his worship. His avowed +reason for choosing this city was that Diana had preempted Ephesus, +Augustus Pergamum, and Tiberius Smyrna. The truth of the matter, however, +was that he had conceived a desire to appropriate to his own use the +large and extremely beautiful temple which the Milesians were building to +Apollo. Thereupon he went to still greater lengths and built actually in +Rome itself one temple of his own that was accorded him by vote of the +senate, and another at his private expense on the Capitoline.] He also +planned a kind of dwelling on the Capitol, in order, as he said, that he +might live in the same house with Jupiter. However, he disdained taking +second place in this union of households and found fault with the god for +occupying the Capitol before him: accordingly, he hastened to construct +another temple on the Palatine and by way of a statue for it thought he +should like to change that of Olympian Jove so as to resemble himself. +This he found impossible, for the boat built to bring it was shattered by +thunderbolts, and loud laughter was plainly heard as often as any persons +approached the pedestal to take hold of it. So after hurling threats at +the obdurate image he set up a new one of himself.--The temple of the +Dioscuri in the Roman Forum he cut in two and made through it an approach +to the Palatine running right between the statues, to the end (these +were at all events his words) that he might have the Dioscuri for +gate-keepers. Assuming the name of Dialius [15] he attached Caesonia his +wife, Claudius, and other persons who were very wealthy to his service as +priests, receiving from each one two hundred and fifty myriads for this +honor. He also consecrated himself to his own service and appointed his +horse a fellow-priest. Dainty and expensive birds were daily sacrificed +to him; he had a contrivance by which he defied the thunder with +answering peals and could send return flashes when it lightened. Likewise +whenever a bolt fell, he would in turn hurl a javelin at a rock, +repeating each time the words of Homer: "Either lift me or I will thee." +[16] [When thirty days after her marriage Caesonia brought forth a +little daughter, he pretended that this, too, had come about through +supernatural means and gave himself airs on the fact that in so few days +after becoming a husband he was a father. He gave the child the name of +Drusilla, and taking her up to the Capitol placed her on the knees of +Jupiter, with the implication that she was his child, and put her in +charge of Minerva to be suckled.] This god, then, this Jupiter,--[he +was called by the latter name so much that it even found its way into +documents,--at the same time that all this took place was collecting +money in most shameful and most frightful ways.] One may, to be sure, +[leave out of account the wares and the taverns, the brothels [17] and +the courts, the artisans and the wage-earning slaves] and other such +sources from [every single one of] which he gathered funds; but how can +one escape mentioning the rooms set apart in the very palace and +the wives of the foremost men as well as the children of the most +aristocratic families that he shut up in these rooms and foully abused, +sparing absolutely no one in his greed for such victims, meeting with no +resistance from some [who wished to avoid showing any displeasure] but +seizing others quite against their will? [Yet these proceedings did not +displease the mob very much, but they rather delighted with him in his +licentiousness and in the fact that] he also would throw himself on the +heap of gold and silver collected from these persons and roll in it. +[When, however, after enacting severe laws in regard to the taxes he +inscribed them in exceedingly small letters on a tablet which he then +hung up aloft so as to make sure that it should be read as little as +possible and that many through ignorance of what was bidden or forbidden +should make themselves liable to the penalties thereof, the people +straightway ran together excitedly into the hippodrome and raised fierce +shouts.] + +Once the people had come together in the hippodrome and were objecting +to his conduct, and he had them cut down by the soldiers. In this way he +imposed silence upon them all. + +[A.D. 41 (a. u. 794)] + +[-29-] As he continued to show insanity in every way, a plot was formed +against him by Cassius Chairea and Cornelius Sabinus, though they were +holding tribuneships in his pretorian guard. A number were in the +conspiracy and privy to what was being done, among whom were Callistus +and the prefect. + +Practically all of his courtiers were interested, both in their own +behalf and for the common good. Any who did not take part in the +conspiracy still refused to reveal it, though they knew of it and were +glad to see a plot formed against him. + +But the men who actually killed Gaius were those mentioned. It is worth +noting, besides, that Chairea was an old-fashioned sort of man and had a +private cause for anger. Gaius was in the habit of nicknaming him "sissy" +(though he was the hardiest of men) and whenever it came the turn of +Chairea to command would give him some such watchword as "yearning" or +"Venus." Again, an oracle had a short time before warned Gaius to beware +of Cassius. The former, supposing that it had reference to Gaius Cassius, +governor of Asia at the time, because he was a descendant of that Cassius +who had slain Caesar, had him brought as a prisoner. The person whose +future conduct the divinity was really indicating to the emperor, +however, was this Cassius Chairea. Likewise a certain Egyptian, +Apollonius, foretold in his native land what happened to him. For this +speech he was sent to Rome and was brought before the emperor the day on +which the latter was destined to die; his punishment was postponed till a +little later, and in this way his life was saved. + +The deed was done as follows: Gaius was celebrating a festival in the +palace and was attending to the production of a spectacle. In the course +of this he was himself both eating and drinking and was feasting the rest +of the company. Pomponius Secundus, consul at the time, was taking his +fill of the food as he sat by the emperor's feet, and at the same time +kept continually bending over to shower kisses upon them. Gaius himself +decided that he wanted to dance and act as a tragedian. The followers of +Chairea could endure it no longer. As he went out of the theatre to see +the boys of most noble lineage whom he had imported from Greece and Ionia +to sing the hymn composed in his honor, the conspirators wounded him, +then intercepted him in a narrow passage and killed him. When he fell to +the ground none of those present would keep his hands off him but they +all savagely stabbed the lifeless corpse again and again. Some chewed +pieces of his flesh. His wife and daughter were immediately slain. + +So Gaius, who accomplished all these exploits in three years, nine +months, and twenty-eight days, learned by actual experience that he was +not a god. + + Now he was openly spurned by those who had been accustomed to + do him reverence even when absent. His blood was spilled by persons + who were wont to speak and to write of him as "Jove" and "god." + His statues and his images were dragged from their pedestals, for the + people in particular retained a lively remembrance of the distress they + had endured. + + All the soldiers in the Germanic division raised an outcry and their + remonstrance extended to the point of indulging in slaughter. + +Those who stood by remembered the words once spoken by him to the +populace: "How I wish you had but one neck!" and made it plain to him +that it was he who had but one neck, whereas they had many hands. And +when the pretorian guard, filled with consternation, began running about +and demanding who had slain Gaius, Valerius Asiaticus, an ex-consul, took +a remarkable mode of bringing them to their senses, in that he climbed +up to a conspicuous place and cried out: "I only wish I had killed him!" +This alarmed them so that they stopped their outcry. + + All such persons as in any way acknowledged the authority of the + senate obeyed their oaths and became once more quiet.--While the + overthrow of Gaius was thus being accomplished, the consuls Sentius + and Secundus forthwith transferred the funds from the treasure-chambers + to the Capitol. They stationed most of the senators and + plenty of soldiers as guards over it to prevent any plundering being + done by the populace. So these men in company with the prefects + and the circle of Sabinus and Chairea deliberated as to what should + be done. + + +[Footnote 1: Emended by Boissevain from the "four" of the MS.] + +[Footnote 2: Boissevain restores the MS. "ten" in place of the "twelve" +of Robert Estienne.] + +[Footnote 3: Compare Suetonius, Life of Gaius, chapter 15.] + +[Footnote 4: This sentence is unintelligible and doubtless the MS. is +corrupt. No editor has offered a wholly satisfactory emendation, though +by comparing Book Sixty, chapter 4, the sense would seem to require: "no +one, in taking the oath, mentions the name of Tiberius in the number of +the emperors."] + +[Footnote 5: Reading (with Boissevain) [Greek: exoruxas] for [Greek: +dioruxas].] + +[Footnote 6: This predicate is supplied on the suggestion of Boissevain. +In the MS. an evident gap of a few words exists.] + +[Footnote 7: Adopting the emendation of Buecheler, [Greek: ieraes +eichosin].] + +[Footnote 9: Boissevain remarks that this sentence may be interpreted to +mean "All persons incurred equal censure whether they showed pleasure +at [decrees passed in her honor], as being grieved [at her death], or +behaved as if they were glad [that she had become a goddess]," but adds +that the text is open to suspicion.] + +[Footnote: 10 Reading [Greek: up] (a suggestion of Boissevain's) in place +of [Greek: hep] Compare Book Sixty-one, chapter 16.] + +[Footnote 11: Inserting with Bekker [Greek: alla chai asebeite.]] + +[Footnote 12: This expression is obscure. Fabricius thought it contained +a reference to the Palatine Games, and Boissevain queries whether we +should read "at the _spectacles_ belonging to the Palatium."] + +[Footnote 13: This is a quotation of the speech made by Achilles to the +heralds whom Agamemnon despatches to the hero's hut in pursuance of the +threat previously uttered that he (Agamemnon) will take Briseis, favorite +of Achilles, in lieu of Chryseis, surrendered to her father. (From +Homer's Iliad, Book I, verse 335.)] + +[Footnote 14: Sc. "in it"? (Boissevain)] + +[Footnote 15: According to Boissevain, this is very probably a MS. error +for _Jupiter Latiaris_.] + +[Footnote 16: From Homer's Iliad, Book Twenty-three, verse 724.] + +[Footnote 17: Reading (with Reiske) pornas for ornas] + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +60 + +Claudius is made emperor: his faults and excellencies (chapters 1-7). + +He restores their kingdoms to Antiochus, to both the Mithridates, to +Agrippa, to Herod, and enlarges the size of the same (chapter 8). + +The Chatti, Chauci, Mauri are overcome (chapters 8, 9). + +Certain regulations: the harbor of Ostia: Lake Fucinus to empty into the +Tiber (chapters 10-13). + +Assassinations instituted: crimes of Messalina and the freedmen (chapters +14-18). + +Britain is partially subdued (chapters 19-23). + +Certain regulations: outrages of Messalina: the causes of her demise +(chapters 24-31). + +Agrippina is wed: she at once enacts the role of a Messalina: at length +she murders Claudius (chapters 32-35). + +These events occurred during the remainder of the consulship of C. Caesar +(4th) and Cn. Sentius Saturninus, together with 13 other years in which +the following held the consulship. + +Claudius Caesar Aug. (II), C. Caecina Largus. (A.D. 42 = a. u. 795 = Second +of Claudius, from Jan. 24th.) + +Claudius Caesar Aug. (III), L. Vitellius (II). (A.D. 43 = a. u. 796 = +Third of Claudius.) + +L. Quinctius Crispinus (II), M. Statilius Taurus. (A.D. 44 = a. u. 797 = +Fourth of Claudius.) + +M. Vinicius (II), T. Statilius Taurus Corvinus. (A.D. 45 = a. u. 798 = +Fifth of Claudius.) + +Valerius Asiaticus (II), M. Iunius Silanus. (A.D. 46 = a. u. 799 = Sixth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Caesar Aug. (IV), L. Vitellius (III). (A.D. 47 = a. u. 800 = +Seventh of Claudius.) + +A. Vitellius, L. Vipsanius. (A.D. 48 = a. u. 801 = Eighth of Claudius.) + +C. Pompeius Longinus Gallus, Q. Veranius. (A.D. 49 = a. u. 802 = Ninth of +Claudius.) + +C. Antistius Vetus, M. Suillius Nervilianus. (A.D. 50 = a. u. 803 = Tenth +of Claudius.) + +Claudius Caesar Aug. (V), Ser. Cornelius Orfitus. (A.D. 51 = a. u. 804 = +Eleventh of Claudius.) + +Cornelius Sulla Faustus, L. Salvius Otho Titianus. (A.D. 52 = a. u. 805 = +Twelfth of Claudius.) + +Dec. Iunius Silanus Torquatus, Q. Haterius Antoninus. (A.D. 53 = a. u. +806 = Thirteenth of Claudius.) + +M. Asinius Marcellus, Manius Acilius Aviola. (A.D. 54 = a. u. 807 = +Fourteenth of Claudius--to October 13th.) + + +_(BOOK 60, BOISSEVAIN.)_ + +[A.D. 41 (_a. u._ 794)] + +[-1-] When Gaius perished in the manner described, the consuls despatched +guards to every quarter of the city and gathered the senate on the +Capitol, where many diverse opinions were uttered. Some favored a +democracy, some a monarchy; some were for choosing this man, and others +that. Therefore they spent the rest of the day and the whole night +without accomplishing anything. Meanwhile some soldiers who had entered +the palace for the purpose of making spoil of something or other found +Claudius hidden away in a dark corner. He was attending Gaius when the +latter came out of the theatre, and at this time through fear of the +confusion had crouched down out of the way. At first, the men thinking +that he was some one else and perhaps had something worth taking dragged +him out. Afterwards, on recognizing him, they hailed him as emperor and +conducted him to the camp. Then in company with their comrades they +delivered to him the entire power of government, inasmuch as he was of +the imperial race and was regarded as suitable. In spite of his shrinking +and remonstrance the more he attempted to avoid the honor and to resist +the more did the soldiers in turn insist upon not accepting an emperor +from others but upon their own right to establish such a sovereign over +the entire world. Hence, with a show of reluctance, he yielded. The +consuls for a time sent tribunes and others forbidding him to assume any +such authority and to submit to the jurisdiction of the people and the +senate and the laws; but, when their attendant soldiers left them in the +lurch, then finally they too yielded and voted him all the remaining +privileges pertaining to sole rulership. + +[-2-] So it was that Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, the son of +Drusus child of Livia, obtained the imperial power without having been +previously tested at all in any position of authority, save only that he +had been consul. He was fifty years of age. In mental development he was +by no means inferior, having been through a sufficient education to do +a little history writing, but physically he was frail, and his head and +hands shook a little. Hence his voice was also faltering and he did not +himself read all the measures that he introduced before the senate but +would give them to the quaestor to read,--though at first, at least, +he was regularly present. Whatever he did read in person he generally +recited sitting down. He was the first of the Romans, too, to employ a +covered chair,--which has led to the present custom which prescribes that +not only the emperors be carried in chairs but we ex-consuls, as well. +Before this time, Augustus, Tiberius, and some others used to be carried +sometimes in litters such as women even at the present day affect. These +infirmities, however, were not the cause of nearly so much trouble to +him as were the freedmen and women with whom he associated; for more +conspicuously than any of his peers he was ruled by slaves and by women. +From a child he had been reared with careful nursing and in the midst of +terror and had for that reason feigned simplicity to a greater extent +than was really true this fact he himself admitted in the senate: and as +he had lived for a long time with his grandmother Livia and for another +long period with his mother Antonia and again with liberti, and moreover +had had several amours with women, he had acquired no qualities becoming +a freeman, but although ruler of all the Romans and their subjects he was +himself nothing more nor less than a slave. They would take advantage of +him particularly when he was inclined to drink and sexual intercourse, +for in both these directions he was quite insatiable and on such +occasions was exceedingly easy to master. Moreover, he was afflicted by +cowardice, which frequently roused in him so great alarm that he could +not calculate anything as he ought. They anticipated this failing of his, +too, and it was no inconsiderable help toward getting the better of him. +By frightening him half to death they would reap great benefits, and in +other people they inspired so much fear that--to give an epitome of the +situation--once when a number were on the same day invited to dinner by +Claudius and again by his dependents, the guests neglected him on +some indifferent pretext and presented themselves at the feast of his +companions. + +[-3-] Though, generally speaking, he was the sort of character described, +still he performed not a few valuable services whenever he was free from +the influences mentioned and was master of himself. I shall take up his +acts in detail. + +All honors voted to him he immediately accepted, except the title +"Father," and this he afterward took: yet he did not at once enter the +senate, but delayed as late as the thirtieth day. The fact that he had +seen Gaius perish as he did and now learned that some other candidates, +presumably superior to himself, had been proposed for emperor by the +senatorial body made him a little timid. Therefore he exercised great +caution at all points and caused all men and women who approached him to +be searched, for fear they might have a dagger. At banquets he made sure +there were some soldiers present,--a custom which, set by him, continues +to this day. That of invariable search was brought to an end by +Vespasian. He put to death Chairea and some others in spite of his +pleasure at the death of Gaius. In other words he looked far ahead to +ensure his own safety, and was not so much grateful to the man for having +by his deed enabled him to get the empire as he was displeased at the +idea of any one assassinating an emperor. He acted in this matter not as +an avenger of Gaius but as one who had caught a person plotting against +himself. As a sequel to this murder Sabinus also died by his own hand, +not choosing to survive after his comrade had been executed. + +As for all other citizens who had openly shown their eagerness for +a democracy or had been regarded as eligible for the supreme power. +Claudius so far from bearing malice toward them gave them honors and +offices. In plainer terms than any ruler that ever lived he promised +them immunity,--therein imitating the example of the Athenians,[1] as +he said,--and it was no mere promise, but he afforded it in fact. He +abolished complaints of maiestas alike for things written and things +done and punished no one on any such charge for either earlier or later +offences. He invented no complaint for the sake of persecuting those who +had wronged or insulted him when he was a private citizen; and there were +many who had done this, particularly as he was deemed of no importance, +and to please either Tiberius or Gaius. If, however, he found them guilty +of some other crime, he would take vengeance on them also for their +former abuse. [-4-] The taxes introduced in the reign of Gaius and +whatever other measures had led to denunciation of the latter's acts were +done away with by Claudius, not all at once but as opportunity offered. +He also brought back such persons as Gaius had unjustly exiled,---among +others the latter's sisters Agrippina and Julia,--and restored to them, +their property. Of those imprisoned,--and a very great number were in +this predicament,--he liberated such as were suffering for maiestas or +any similar complaints, but real criminals he punished. + +He investigated the cases very carefully, in order that those who had +committed crimes should not be released on account of the victims of +blackmail, nor yet the latter be ruined on account of the former. Nearly +every day either in company with the entire senate or alone he would sit +on a platform trying cases, generally in the Forum, but occasionally +elsewhere. In fact, he renewed the custom of having men sit as his +colleagues, which had been abandoned ever since Tiberius withdrew to the +island. Very often he joined the consuls and the praetors and especially +those having charge of the finances in their investigations, and some few +matters he turned over entirely to the various courts. He destroyed the +poisons (which were found in great variety among the effects of Gaius); +and the books of Protogenes (who was put to death) together with the +documents which Gaius pretended to have burned but which were actually +found in the imperial archives he showed to the senators and gave them to +the latter, to the very men who had written them, no less than to those +against whom they had been written, to read: afterward he burned them up. +Yet, when the senate manifested a desire to dishonor Gaius, he personally +prevented such a measure from being voted, but on his own responsibility +caused all of his predecessor's images to disappear by night. Hence the +name of Gaius does not occur in the list of emperors whom we mention +in oaths and prayers any more than that of Tiberius. Neither of them, +however, suffered any official disgrace. + +[-5-] Accordingly, the unjust institutions set up by Gaius and by others +on his account Claudius overturned. To Drusus his father and Antonia +his mother he offered horse-races on their birthdays, putting off to +different days the festivals which would occur on the same dates, in +order that there should not be two celebrations at once. His grandmother +Livia was not only honored by equestrian contests, but was deified, and +he set up a statue to her in the temple of Augustus, charging the vestal +virgins with the duty of offering sacrifice in proper form. He also +ordered that women should use her name in taking oaths. + +Though he paid such reverence to his ancestors, he himself would accept +nothing beyond the names pertaining to his office. On the first day of +August, to be sure,--his birthday,--there were equestrian contests, but +not on his account: it was because the temple of Mars had been dedicated +on that day, which had consequently been distinguished thereafter by +annual contests. + +Beside moderation in this respect he further forbade any one's worshiping +him or offering him any sacrifice; he checked the many excessive +acclamations accorded him; and he accepted only one image,--of +silver,--and two statues, of bronze and stone, that had been voted to +him at the start. All such expenditures, he declared, were useless and +furthermore inflicted great loss and great annoyance upon the city. All +the temples and all the rest of the public works had been filled with +statues and votive offerings, so that he said he should have to make it +a matter of thought what to do with them. He forbade the praetors' giving +gladiatorial games and ordained that any one else who superintended them +in any place whatsoever should not allow to be written or reported the +statement that such games were being held for the emperor's preservation. +He became so used to settling all these matters by considering the merits +of each case rather than according to the dictates of custom that he +adopted the same attitude toward other departments of life. For instance, +when this year he betrothed one of his daughters to Lucius Junius Silanus +and gave the other in marriage to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, he did nothing +out of the common to commemorate the occasion, but attended the courts +in person on those days and convened the senate as usual. He ordered his +sons-in-law temporarily to hold office among the viginti viri, and later +to act as prefects of the city at the Feriae. After a long interval he +gave them the right to stand for the other offices five years sooner than +was customary. + +Gaius had despoiled this Pompeius of his title _Magnus_ and came very +near killing him because he was so named. Yet out of contempt for him, +since he was still but a boy, he did not go to such extremes, and merely +abolished the offending epithet, saying that it was not safe for any one +to be called Magnus. Claudius now restored to him this title and gave him +his daughter to wife. + +[-6-] These were certainly commendable actions. In addition, when at one +time in the senate the consuls came down from their seats to talk with +him, he rose in turn and went to meet them. In Naples he lived entirely +like a private citizen. He and his associates while there adopted the +Greek manner of life invariably; at the musical entertainments he would +wear cloak and military boots, and at the gymnastic exercises a purple +robe and golden crown. His action, moreover, in regard to money was +remarkable, for he forbade any one to bring him contributions, as had +been customary in the reigns of Augustus and of Gaius, and he refused +to allow any person to name him as heir if such person possessed any +relatives whatever. Indeed, the funds that had been confiscated by +government order during the period of Tiberius and Gaius he gave back +either to the victims themselves, if they still survived, or otherwise to +their children. + +It had been the custom[2] that if any slightest detail were carried out +contrary to precedent on the occasion of the games these should be given +over again, as I have stated. But since such occasions were frequent, +occurring a third, fourth, fifth, and sometimes tenth time, and this +partly by accident but generally by intention on the part of those +benefited by these happenings, he enacted a law that on only one day +should the equestrian contests take place a second time; in fact, +however, he usually abrogated this privilege also. The schemers +henceforth easily avoided falling into irregularities, as they gained +very little by so doing. + +In the matter of the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by +reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a +tumult to bar them from the City, he decided not to drive them out, but +ordered them to follow that mode of life prescribed by their ancestral +custom and not to assemble in numbers.--The clubs instituted by Gaius he +disbanded.--Also, seeing that there was no use in forbidding the populace +to do certain things unless their daily life should be reorganized, +he abolished the taverns where they were wont to gather and drink and +commanded that no dressed meat nor warm water[3] should be sold. Some who +disobeyed this ordinance were punished. + +He restored to the various cities the statues which Gaius was in the +habit of requiring them to send, restored also to the Dioscuri +their temple and to Pompey the right of naming the theatre. On the +stage-building of the latter he inscribed also the name of Tiberius, +because that emperor had rebuilt the structure when it was burned. His +own name he had chiseled there likewise (not because he had reared it +but because he had dedicated it), but on no other part of the edifice. +Likewise he did not wear the triumphal garb the entire time of the games, +though permission was voted to him, but appeared in it merely to +offer sacrifice; the rest of the festival he superintended in the +purple-bordered garment. + +[-7-] He introduced in the orchestra among others knights and women who +were his peers, who had been accustomed in the reign of Gaius so to +appear regularly. The reason was not that he liked their performance, +but that he wanted a proof of their past behavior. Certainly none of them +was again marshaled on the stage during the era of Claudius. The Pyrrhic +dance, which the boys sent for by Gaius were practicing, they were +allowed to perform once, were honored with citizenship for it, and were +then dismissed. Others, in turn, chosen from among the retinue, then gave +exhibitions.--This was what took place in theatrical circles. + +In the hippodrome twelve camels and horses had one contest, and three +hundred bears together with an equal number of Libyan beasts were +slaughtered. Previous to this time the different classes in attendance +had watched the spectacle each from its own special location,--senators, +knights, and populace; thus it had come to be a regular practice, yet no +definite positions had been assigned to them. [-8-] It was at this time +that Claudius marked off the space which still belongs to the senate, +and furthermore he allowed those senators who chose to view the sights +somewhere else and even in citizen's dress. After this he banqueted the +senators and their wives, the knights, and likewise the tribes. + +Next he restored Commagene to Antiochus, for Gaius, though he had himself +given him the district, had taken it away again; and Mithridates the +Iberian, whom Gaius had summoned only to imprison, he sent home again to +resume his sovereignty. To another Mithridates, a lineal descendant of +Mithridates the Great, he granted Bosporus, giving to Polemon some land +in Cilicia in place of it. He enlarged the domain of Agrippa of Palestine +(who, happening to be in Rome, had helped him become emperor), and +bestowed on him consular honors. To the latter's brother Herod he gave +pretorial dignities and some authority. They were allowed to enter the +senate and to express their thanks to him in Greek.--Now these were the +acts of Claudius himself, and they were lauded by all. + +But certain other deeds were done at this time of an entirely different +nature by his freedmen and by his wife, Valeria Messalina. She became +enraged at her niece Julia because the latter neither paid her honor nor +flattered her; and she was also jealous because the girl was extremely +beautiful and had been the only one to enjoy the favor of Claudius +several times. Accordingly, she had her banished by bringing against her +among other complaints that of adultery (for which Annius Seneca was also +exiled) and after a while she succeeded in procuring Julia's death. As +for the freedmen, it was they who persuaded Claudius to accept triumphal +honors for his deeds in Mauretania, though he had not been successful and +had not yet attained imperial power when the end of the war came. This +same year, however, Sulpicius Galba overcame the Chatti, and Publius +Gabinius conquered the Cauchi[4] beside winning fame in other ways; for +instance, he recovered a military eagle, the only one left among the +enemy from the catastrophe of Varus. Through the exploits of both of +these men Claudius received a title of imperator that had some foundation +in fact. + +[A.D. 42 (_a. u._ 795)] + +[-9-] The next year the same Moors were again subdued in fighting with +him. Suetonius Paulinus, one of the ex-praetors, overran their country +as far as the Atlantic. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, one of the peers, making a +subsequent campaign, advanced at once against their general Salabus and +conquered him two separate times. And when the latter after leaving a few +soldiers near the frontier to hold back any who might pursue took refuge +in the sandy part of the country, Geta ventured to follow him. First +stationing a part of his army opposite the hostile detachment that was +awaiting him he provided himself with as much water as was feasible, and +pushed forward. When this supply gave out and no more could be found, +he was caught in an exceedingly unpleasant position. The barbarians, +especially since through habit they can endure thirst an exceedingly long +time, and through knowledge of the country can always get _some_ water, +had no trouble in maintaining themselves. The Romans, for the opposite +reasons, found it impossible to advance and difficult to withdraw. While +Geta was in a dilemma as to what he should do, one of the natives who was +at peace with the invaders persuaded him to make use of incantations and +enchantments, telling him that as a result of such procedure abundant +water had frequently been granted them. No sooner had he taken this +advice than so much rain burst from heaven as to allay the soldiers' +thirst entirely, beside scaring the enemy, who thought the gods were +assisting the Roman. Consequently they came to terms voluntarily and +ended their warfare.--After these events Claudius divided the Moors who +were in subjection into two districts, namely, the country about Tengis +and that about Caesarea, these cities giving their names to the whole +region; and he appointed two knights as governors. At this same period +certain parts of Numidia also were involved in warfare by neighboring +barbarians, and when the latter had been conquered returned to a state of +repose. + +[-10-] The office of consul Claudius held in conjunction with Gaius +Largus. He allowed the latter to continue consul for a whole year, but as +for himself he remained a magistrate only two months at this time. He had +the rest swear to the deeds of Augustus, and was himself sworn, but in +regard to his own deeds he allowed no such procedure on the part of any +one. On leaving the office he took the oath again, like other people. +This was always his practice, every time he was consul. + +About this period certain speeches of Augustus and Tiberius were being +read according to decree on the first of the month, and when they had +kept the senators busy till evening he ended the reading, declaring that +it was sufficient for them to be engraved on tablets. + +Some praetors who were entrusted with the administration of the funds +having incurred charges, he did not take legal measures against them, but +made the rounds of those who sold goods and let buildings, and corrected +whatever he deemed to be abuses. This he did also on numerous other +occasions.--There were likewise peculiarities in the appointment of the +praetors, for their number was now fourteen or eighteen or somewhere +between, just as it happened.--Beside this action with reference to the +finances he established a board of three ex-praetors to collect debts +owing the government, granting them lictors and the usual force of +assistants. + +[-11-] On the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of +abundant provisions not only for that particular crisis, but for all +succeeding time. Practically all food used by the Romans was imported, +and yet the region near the mouth of the Tiber had no safe landing-places +nor suitable harbors, so that their mastery of the sea was rendered +useless. Save for such staples as were brought in during their season +and stored in warehouses nothing from abroad could be had in the winter +season; and if any one risked a voyage, he was almost sure to meet with +disaster. Being cognizant of these facts Claudius undertook to build +a harbor and would not be turned aside, though the architects on his +enquiring how great the expense would be replied: "You don't want to do +this." So sure were they that the great disbursements necessary would +cause him to rein in his ambition if he should learn beforehand the exact +amount. He, however, desired a work worthy of the dignity and greatness +of Rome, and he brought it to a successful conclusion. In the first place +he excavated a very considerable piece of land, constructed quays on all +sides of it, and let the sea into it. Next in the sea itself he heaped +huge mounds on both sides of the entrance to this place,--mounds that +enclosed a large body of water. Between these breakwaters he reared an +island and planted on it a tower with a beacon light.--This harbor, then, +still so called in local parlance, was created by him at this period. He +had another project to make an outlet into the Liris from Lake Fucina, in +the Marsian country, to the end that the land around it might be tilled +and the river be rendered more navigable. But the expenditure was all to +no purpose. + +He made a number of laws, most of which I have no need to mention; but +here are some of the regulations that he introduced. He had the governors +who were chosen by lot set out before the first day of April; for it was +their habit to delay a long time in the City. And he would not +permit those chosen by election to express any thanks to him in the +senate,--this had been a kind of custom with them,--but he said: "These +persons ought not to thank me, as if they were so eager for office, but I +them, because they cheerfully help me bear the burden of government: +and if they acquit themselves well in office, I shall praise them still +more." Such men as by reason of insufficient means were not able to be +senators he allowed to ask permission to retire, and he admitted some +of the knights to tribuneships: the rest of them, without exception, he +forced to attend the senate as often as notice was sent them. He was +so severe upon those who were remiss in this matter that some killed +themselves. + +[-12-] In other respects he was sociable and considerate in his dealings +with them. He would visit them when sick and be a partner in their +merrymakings. A certain tribune beat a slave of his in public, but +Claudius did the offender himself no harm, only depriving him of his +assistants, and these he restored not long afterward. Another of his +slaves was sent to the Forum and severely scourged, because he had +insulted a prominent man. In the senate the emperor would himself +regularly rise in case the rest had been standing for a long time. On +account of his ill health, as I related, he frequently remained seated +and read his advice, if asked for it. He allowed Lucius Sulla to sit on +the praetors' bench because this man, being unable by reason of age to +hear anything from his own seat, had stood up. The day on which a year +previous he had been declared emperor he did nothing unusual, except to +give the Pretorians twenty-five denarii, and this he continued to do +every year thereafter. Some of the praetors, however, of their own free +will and not by any decree publicly celebrated that day and also the +birthday of Messalina. Not all of them did this, but as many as chose. +This shows what freedom they had. You may see how really moderate +Claudius was in all such matters from the fact that when a son was born +to him,--called at that time Claudius Tiberius Germanicus but later also +_Britannicus_,--he did not make the occasion in any way conspicuous and +would not allow him to be named Augustus nor Messalina Augusta. + +[-13-]He was constantly arranging gladiatorial games, taking a degree of +pleasure in them that aroused criticism. Very few beasts were destroyed, +but a great many human beings, some of whom fought with one another +whereas others were devoured by animals. The emperor hated vehemently +the freed slaves who in the reigns of Tiberius and Gaius had conspired +against their masters, as well as those who extorted blackmail from +people or had borne false witness against any persons. The majority of +these he got rid of in the manner mentioned, though some of them he +punished by other methods. A great many he delivered up to the vengeance +of their masters. So great did the number become of those who died a +public death that the statue of Augustus, erected on the scene, was +turned to face in another direction, both to prevent its being thought +that _he_ was viewing the slaughter and to avoid having the statue +always covered up. For this act Claudius was well laughed at when people +reflected how he sated himself with the sights that he did not think +proper for even the inanimate bronze to behold. It might be noted +particularly that he used to delight greatly even at lunch time in +watching those who were incidentally cut down in the middle of the +spectacle. Yet a lion that had been trained to eat men and on this +account greatly pleased the crowd he ordered killed on the principle +that it was not fitting for Romans to gaze on such a sight. He received +abundant praise, however, for appearing in the people's midst at the +spectacle, for giving them all they wanted, and for his employing a +herald so very little and announcing most events by notices written on +boards. + +[-14-] After he had become accustomed, then, to feast his fill on blood +and slaughter, he had recourse more readily to other kinds of killings. +The Caesarians and Messalina were really responsible for this. Whenever +they desired to obtain any one's death, they would terrify him, with the +result that they would be allowed to do everything they chose. Often, +when in a moment of sudden alarm his momentary terror had led him to +order some one's death, afterward, when he recovered and came to his +senses, he would search for the man and on learning what had happened +would be grieved and repent. He began this series of slaughters with +Gaius Appius Silanus. This man, who was of very noble family and at the +time was governor of Spain, he had sent for, pretending that he wanted to +see him about something, had married him to Messalina's mother, and had +for some time held him in honor among his dearest and closest friends. +Then he suddenly killed him. The reason was that Silanus had offended +Messalina, the most abandoned and lustful of women, in refusing to lie +with her, and by the slight shown the empress had alienated Narcissus, +the emperor's freedman. As they had no true charge to bring against him, +nor even one that would be believed, Narcissus invented a dream in which +he declared he had seen Claudius murdered by the hand of Silanus. So just +before dawn, while the emperor was still in bed, he came all of a tremble +to tell him the dream, and Messalina by expatiating on it made it worse. +Thus Silanus perished just because of a vision. + +[-15-] After the latter's death the Romans at once lost confidence in +Claudius, and Annius Vinicianus with some others formed a plot against +him. The chief conspirator had been one of those proposed at the death of +Gaius for the imperial office, and it was partly fear inspired by this +fact that caused him to rebel. As he possessed no considerable force, +however, he sent to Furius Camillus Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia, +who had a large body of native and foreign troops. Camillus, who was +inclined to the project of his own accord, was induced to revolt at the +same time, particularly because he had been spoken of for emperor. When +so much had been accomplished, many senators and knights joined the ranks +of Annius. They did him no good, however,[5] for the soldiers, because +Camillus proffered them the name of _populus_ and promised that he would +restore to them their ancient freedom, suspected that they should have +troubles and changes of government again and would therefore no longer +obey him. Then in terror he fled from them, and coming to the island Issa +he there met a voluntary death. Claudius for a time was quite cowed +with fear and was ready at a demand from Camillus to withdraw from his +sovereignty voluntarily. Later he recovered courage and rewarded his +soldiers among other methods by having the citizen legions (the seventh +and the eleventh) named the Claudian, and the Faithful, and the Pious, +by the senate itself. Then he made reprisals upon those who had plotted +against him and on this charge put many to death, among them a praetor, +who first had to resign his office. Numbers, of whom Vinicianus was one, +committed suicide, for Messalina and Narcissus and all the latter's +fellow freedmen seized this opportunity to wreak their direst vengeance. +They employed slaves and liberti, for instance, and informers against +their own masters. These masters and others of undoubted nobility, +foreigners and citizens alike, not only plebeians, but some of the +knights and senators, were put to the torture in spite of the fact that +Claudius at the very beginning of his reign had sworn not to torture any +free citizen. + +[-16-] Many men therefore at this time and many women incurred +punishment. Some of the latter met their fate right in the prison, and +when they were to die were actually led in chains upon a scaffold, like +captives, and their bodies like those of others were thrown down the +Scalae Gemoniae. Of those who were executed outside the prison only +the heads were exhibited in that place. Some of the most guilty, +nevertheless, either through favoritism or by the use of money saved +their necks with the help of Messalina and of the Caesarians following +Narcissus. All the children of those who perished were granted immunity +and some received money. Trials were held in the senate-house in the +presence of Claudius, his prefects, and his freedmen. With a consul on +each side he made his report to the senators while seated upon a chair +of state or on a bench. Next he himself went to his accustomed seat and +chairs were set for his escort. This same program was followed also at +the other most important functions. + +It was at this time that a certain Galaesus, a freedman of Camillus, was +brought into the senate and talked with the utmost frankness on a variety +of subjects. The following remark of his is worth instancing. Narcissus +had taken the floor and said to him: "What would you have done, Galaesus, +if Camillus had become monarch?" He replied: "I should have stood behind +him and said nothing." So he became famous for this speech, and Arria +for something quite different. The latter, who was wife of Caecina Paetus, +refused to live after he had been put to death, although, being on very +intimate terms with Messalina, she might have occupied a position of some +honor. Moreover, when her husband showed cowardice, she strengthened his +resolution. She took the sword and gave herself a wound, then handed it +to him, saying: "See, Paetus, I feel no pain."--These two persons, then, +were accorded praise, for by reason of the long succession of woes +matters had now come to such a pass that excellence no longer meant +anything else than dying nobly. + +The attitude of Claudius in bringing destruction upon them and others is +indicated by his forever giving to the soldiers as a watchword this verse +about its being necessary "In one's first anger to ward off the foe." [6] +He kept throwing out many other hints of that sort in Greek both to them +and to the senate, with the result that those who could understand any +of them laughed at him. These were some of the happenings of that +period.--And the tribunes at the death of one of their number themselves +convened the senate for the purpose of appointing a tribune to succeed +him,--this in spite of the fact that the consuls were accessible. + +[A.D. 43 (_a. u._ 796)] + +[-17-] When Claudius now became consul again,--it was the third time,--he +put an end to many sacrifices and many feast days. For, as the greater +part of the year was given up to them, no small damage was done to public +business. Beside curtailing the number of these he retrenched in all the +other ways that he could. What had been given away by Gaius without any +justice or reason he demanded back from the recipients; but he gave back +to the road commissioners all that his predecessor had exacted in fines +on account of Corbulo. Moreover, he gave notice to magistrates chosen by +lot, since they were even now slow about leaving the City, that they must +commence their journey before the middle of April came. He reduced to +servitude the Lycians, who rising in revolt had slain some Romans, and +merged them in the prefecture of Pamphylia. During the investigation, +which was conducted in the senate-house, he put a question in the Latin +tongue to one of the envoys who had originally been a Lycian but had been +made a Roman. As the man did not understand what was said, he took away +his citizenship, saying that it was not proper for a person to be a Roman +who had no knowledge of Roman speech. A great many other persons unworthy +of citizenship were excluded from its privileges, whereas he granted it +to some quite without restrictions, either individuals or large bodies of +men. And inasmuch as practically everywhere Romans were esteemed above +foreigners, many sought the franchise by personal application to the +emperor and many bought it from Messalina and the Caesarians. For this +reason, though the right was at first bartered only for great sums, it +later was so cheapened by the facility with which it could be obtained +that it came to be said that if a person only gave a man some broken +glassware he might become a citizen. + +This behavior, then, subjected the emperor to no end of jests, but he +received praise for such actions as the following. Many persons were all +the time becoming objects of blackmail, some because they did not use +Claudius's proper title and others because they were going to leave him +nothing when they died,--the blackmailers asserting that it was necessary +for those who obtained citizenship from him to do both of these things. +The emperor now stepped in and forbade that any one should be called +to account for such negligence.--Now Messalina and his freedmen kept +offering for sale and peddling out not merely the franchise, and military +posts, and positions as procurator, and governmental offices, but +everything in general to such an extent that all necessaries grew +scarce[7]; and Claudius was forced to muster the populace on the Campus +Martius and there from a platform to ordain what the prices of wares +should be. + +Claudius himself wearing a chlamys gave a contest of armed men at the +camp. His son's birthday was observed voluntarily by the praetors with +a kind of spectacle that they produced and with dinners. This was once +afterward repeated, too,--at least by all of them that chose. + +[-18-] Meanwhile Messalina was exhibiting her own licentious tendencies +and was forcing the other women of her circle to show themselves equally +unchaste. Many of them she caused to commit adultery in the very palace, +while their husbands were present and observed what took place. Such men +she loved and cherished, and crowned with honors and offices: but others, +who would not submit to this humiliation, she hated and brought to +destruction in every possible way. These deeds, however, though of such +a character and carried on so openly, for a long while never came to the +notice of Claudius. Messalina gave him some attractive housemaids +for bedfellows and intercepted those who were able to afford him any +information,--some by kindness and some by punishments. Thus, at this +period, she succeeded in putting out of the way Catonius Justus, captain +of the pretorian guard, before he could carry out his intention of +telling the emperor something about these doings. And becoming jealous +of Julia, daughter of Drusus son of Tiberius, and later wife of Nero +Germanicus, just as she had been of the other Julia, she compassed her +death.--It was about then, also, that one of the knights on the charge of +having conspired against Claudius was hurled down, the Capitoline by the +tribunes and the consuls. + +[-19-] At the same time that these events were happening in the City +Aulus Plautius, a senator of great renown, made a campaign against +Britain. The cause was that a certain Bericus, who had been ejected from +the island during a revolution, had persuaded Claudius to send a body of +troops there. This Plautius after he was made general had difficulty in +leading his army beyond Gaul. The soldiers objected, on the ground that +their operations were to take place outside the limits of the known +world, and would not yield him obedience until the arrival of Narcissus, +sent by Claudius, who mounted the tribunal of Plautius and tried to +address them. This made them more irritated than ever and they would not +allow the newcomer to say a word, but all suddenly shouted together the +well-known phrase: "Ho! Ho! the Saturnalia!" (For at the festival of +Saturn slaves celebrate the occasion by donning their masters' dress.) +After this they at once followed Plautius voluntarily, but their delay +had brought the expedition late in the season. Three divisions were made, +in order that they might not be hindered in advancing (as might happen +to a single force), and some of them in their voyage across became +discouraged because they were buffeted into a backward course, whereas +others acquired confidence from the fact that a flash of light starting +from the east shot across to the west, the direction in which they were +sailing. So they came to anchor on the shore of the island and found no +one to oppose them. The Britons as a result of their inquiries had not +expected that they would come and had therefore not assembled beforehand. +Nor even at this time would they come into closer conflict with the +invaders, but took refuge in the swamps and in the forests, hoping to +exhaust their opponents in some other way, so that the latter as in +the days of Julius Caesar would sail back empty-handed. [-20-] Plautius +accordingly had considerable trouble in searching for them.--They were +not free and independent but were parceled out among various kings.--When +at last he did find them, he conquered first Caratacus and next +Togodumnus, children of Cynobelinus, who was dead. After the flight of +those kings he attached by treaty a portion of the Bodunni, ruled by a +nation of the Catuellani. Leaving a garrison there he advanced farther. +On reaching a certain river, which the barbarians thought the Romans +would not be able to cross without a bridge,--a conviction which led them +to encamp in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank,--he sent ahead +Celtae who were accustomed to swim easily in full armor across the most +turbulent streams. These fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, but instead +of shooting at any of the men confined themselves to wounding the horses +that drew their chariots and consequently in the confusion not even the +mounted warriors could save themselves. Plautius sent across also Fiavius +Vespasian, who afterward obtained the imperial office, and his brother +Sabinus, a lieutenant of his. So they likewise got over the river in some +way and killed numbers of the foe, who were not aware of their approach. +The survivors, however, did not take to flight, and on the next day +joined issue with them again. The two forces were rather evenly matched +until Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, at the risk of being captured, managed to +conquer the barbarians in such a way that he received triumphal honors +without having ever been consul. + +Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it +empties into the ocean and the latter's flood-tide forms a lake. This +they crossed easily because they knew where the firm ground in this +locality and the easy passages were; but the Romans in following them up +came to grief at this spot. However, when the Celtae swam across again and +some others had traversed a bridge a little way up stream, they assailed +the barbarians from many sides at once and cut down large numbers of +them. In pursuing the remainder incautiously they got into swamps from +which it was not easy to make one's way out, and in this way lost many +men. + +[-21-] Shortly after Togodumnus perished, but the Britons so far from +yielding stood together all the more closely to avenge his death. Because +of this fact and his previous mishap Plautius became alarmed, and instead +of advancing farther proceeded to guard what he had already gained and +sent for Claudius. He had been notified to do this in case he met with +any particularly stubborn resistance, and a large reinforcement for the +army, consisting partly of elephants, had been assembled in advance. + +When the message reached him, Claudius entrusted domestic affairs +(including the management of the soldiers) to his colleague Vitellius, +whom he had caused to become consul like himself for the entire six +months' period, and started himself on the expedition. He sailed down the +river to Ostia, and from there followed the coast to Massilia. Thence +advancing partly by land and partly along the water courses he came to +the ocean and crossed over to Britain, where he joined the legions that +were waiting for him near the Thames. Taking charge of these he crossed +the stream, and encountering the barbarians, who had gathered at his +approach, he defeated them in a pitched battle and captured Camulodunum, +the capital of Cynobelinus. Next he extended his authority over numerous +tribes, in some cases by treaty, in others by force, and was frequently, +contrary to precedent, saluted as imperator. The usual practice is that +no single person may receive this title more than once from one and the +same war. He deprived those he conquered of their arms and assigned them +to the attention of Plautius, bidding him to subjugate the regions that +were left. Claudius himself now hastened back to Rome, sending ahead the +news of the victory by his sons-in-law, Magnus and Silanus. + +[-22-] The senate on learning of his achievement gave him the title of +Britannicus and allowed him to celebrate a triumph. + +[A.D. 44 (_a. u._ 796)] + +They voted also that there should be an animal festival commemorating the +event and that an arch bearing a trophy should be erected in the City and +a second in Gaul, because it was from that district that he had set sail +in crossing over to Britain. They bestowed on his son the same honorific +title as upon him, so that Claudius was known in a way as Britannicus +Proper. Messalina was granted the same privilege of front seats as Livia +had enjoyed and also the use of the carpentum. These were the honors +bestowed upon the imperial family. + +The memory of Gaius disgusted the senators so much that they resolved +that all the bronze coinage which had his image stamped upon it should +be melted down. Though this was done, yet the bronze was converted to no +better use, for Messalina made statues of Mnester the dancer out of it. +Inasmuch as the latter had once been on intimate terms with Gaius, +she made this offering as a mark of gratitude for his consenting to a +_liaison_ with her. She had been madly enamored of him, and when she +found herself unable in any way either by promises or by frightening him +to persuade him to have intercourse with her, she had a talk with +her husband and asked him that the man might be forced to obey her, +pretending that she wanted his help for some different purpose. Claudius +accordingly told him to do whatsoever he should be ordered by Messalina. +On these terms he agreed to enjoy her, alleging that he had been +commanded to do so by her husband. Messalina adopted this same method +with numerous other men, and committed adultery feigning that Claudius +knew what was taking place and countenanced her unchastity. + +[-23-] Portions of Britain, then, were captured at this time in the +manner described. After this, during the second consulship of Gaius +Crispus and the first of Titus Statilius, Claudius came to Rome at the +end of a six months' absence from the city (of which time he had spent +only sixteen days in Britain) and celebrated his triumph. In this he +followed the well-established precedents, even to the extent of ascending +the steps of the Capitol on his knees, with his sons-in-law supporting +him on each side. He granted to the senators taking part with him in the +procession triumphal honors, and this not merely to the ex-consuls ... +for he was accustomed to do that most lavishly on other occasions and +with the slightest excuse. Upon Rufrius Pollio the prefect he bestowed an +image and a seat in the senatorial body as often as he would enter that +assembly with him. And to avoid having it thought that he was making any +innovation, he declared that Augustus had done this in the case of a +certain Valerius, a Ligurian. He also increased the dignity of Laco +(formerly praefectus vigilum but now procurator of the Gauls) by this same +mark of esteem and in addition by the honors belonging to ex-consuls. + +Having finished this business he held the festival following the triumph +and assumed for the occasion some of the consular authority. It took +place in both the theatres at once. In the course of the spectacle he +would frequently absent himself while others superintended it in his +place. He had announced as many horse-races as could find place in a +day, but they amounted to not more than ten altogether. For between the +separate courses bears were slaughtered and athletes struggled. Boys sent +for from Asia also executed the Pyrrhic dance. The performers in the +theatre gave, with the consent of the senate, another festival likewise +intended to commemorate the victory. All this was done on account of +the successes in Britain, and to the end that other nations might more +readily capitulate it was voted that all the agreements which Claudius or +the lieutenants representing him should make with any peoples should be +binding, the same as if sanctioned by the senate and the people. + +[-24-] Achaea and Macedonia, which ever since Tiberius became emperor had +belonged to elected governors, Claudius now returned to the choice by +lot. And abolishing the office of "praetor charged with the administration +of funds" he put the business in the hands of quaestors as it had been of +old; and these were not annual magistrates, as was the case with them +previously and with the praetors subsequently, but the same two men +attended to their duties for three entire years. Some of these secured a +praetorship immediately afterward and others drew a salary the amount of +which depended on the impression of efficiency they had created while in +office. + +The quaestors, then, were given charge of the treasury in place of +governorships in Italy outside of the City; for he did away with all of +the latter. To compensate the praetors he entrusted to their care several +kinds of judicial cases which the consuls were previously accustomed to +try. Those serving as soldiers, since by law they could not have wives, +were granted the privileges of married men. Marcus Julius Cottius +received an increase in his ancestral domain (which included the Alps +named after him) and was now for the first time called king. The Rhodians +were deprived of their liberty because they had impaled certain Romans. +And Umbonius Silio, governor of Baetica, was summoned and ejected from the +senate because he had sent so little grain to the soldiers then serving +in Mauretania. At least, this was the accusation brought against him. In +reality it was not so at all, but his treatment was due to his having +offended some of the freedmen. So he brought together all his furniture, +considerable in amount and very beautiful, in the auction room as if he +were going to call for bids on all of it: but he sold only his senatorial +dress. By this he showed that he had received no deadly blow and could +enjoy life as a private citizen.--Beside these events of the time +the weekly market was transferred to a different day because of some +religious rites. That happened, too, on many other occasions. + +[A.D. 45 _(a. u._ 798)] + +[-25-] following year Marcus Vinicius for the second and Statilius +Corvinus for the first time entered upon the office of consul. Claudius +himself took all the customary oaths in detail, but prevented the rest +from taking oath separately. Accordingly, as in earlier times, one man +who was a praetor and second who was a tribune and one each of the other +officials repeated the oaths for those of the same grade. This custom was +followed for several years. + +Now since the City was becoming filled with numbers of images,--for those +who wished might without restrictions appear in public in a painting or +in bronze or stone,--he had most of those already existing set somewhere +else and for the future forbade that any private citizen be allowed to +follow the practice, unless the senate should grant permission or except +he had built or repaired some public work. Such persons and their +relatives might have their likenesses set up in the places in question. + +Having banished the governor of a certain province for venality the +emperor confiscated to public uses all the extra funds that the man had +gathered in office. Again, to prevent these persons eluding those who +wished to bring them to trial, he would give to nobody one office +immediately after another. This had been the custom in earlier days also, +to the end that any one without difficulty might institute a suit against +them in the intervening period; indeed, those whose terms had expired and +who were granted leave of absence from the City might not even take these +absences in succession, since it was intended that, if officials should +be guilty of any irregularity, they should not gain the further benefit +of escaping investigation by either continuous office or continuous +absence. The custom had, however, fallen out of use. So carefully did +Claudius guard against both possibilities that he would not without out +some delay allow even an official who was his colleague to be chosen by +lot for the governorship of a province that would naturally belong to +him. Still, he allowed some of them to govern for two years and sometimes +he would send elected magistrates. Persons who preferred a request to +leave Italy for a time were given permission by Claudius himself without +action of the senate; yet, in order to appear to be doing it under some +form of law, he ordered that a decree to the effect be issued. Votes +of this sort were also passed the following year. At the time under +consideration he arranged the votive festival which he had promised in +commemoration of his campaign. To the populace supported by public dole +he gave seventy-five denarii in every case and in some cases more, so +that for a few it amounted to three hundred twelve and a half. He did +not, however, distribute all of it in person, but his sons-in-law also +took part, because the distribution lasted several days and he was +anxious to use them in holding court. + +In the case of the Saturnalia he put back the fifth day which had been +appointed by Gaius but was later abolished. [-26-] and inasmuch as the +sun was to undergo an eclipse on his birthday, he feared that some +disturbance might result,--for already certain other portents had +occurred,--and therefore he gave notice beforehand not only that there +would be an eclipse and when and for how long, but also the reasons for +which this would necessarily take place. They are as follows: + +The moon, which revolves lower down than the sun (or so it is believed), +either directly below him or perhaps with Mercury and likewise Venus +intervening, has a longitudinal movement just like him, and a higher and +lower movement just like him, but furthermore a latitudinal movement such +as nowhere belongs to the sun under any circumstances. When, therefore, +she gets in a direct line with him over our heads and passes under his +blaze, then she obscures his beams that extend toward the earth, for +some to a greater, for some to a less degree, but does not conceal his +presence for even the briefest moment. For since the sun has a light of +his own he can never surrender it, and consequently, when the moon is +not directly in people's way so as to throw a shadow over him, he always +appears entire. + +This, then, is what happens to the sun and it was made public by Claudius +at the time mentioned. With regard to the moon, however,--for it is not +irrelevant to speak of lunar phenomena also, since once I have broached +this subject,--as often as she gets directly opposite the sun (and she +only takes such a position with reference to him at full moon, whereas +he takes it with reference to her at the season of new moon), a conical +shadow falls upon the earth. This occurs whenever in her motion to and +from us her revolution takes her between the sun and the earth; then she +is deprived of the sun's light and appears by herself just as she really +is. Such are the conditions of the case. + +[A.D. 46 (a. u. 799)] + +[-27-] At the close of that year Valerius Asiaticus for the second time +and also Marcus Silanus became consuls. The latter held office for the +period for which he was elected. Asiaticus, however, though elected to +serve for the whole year (as was done in other cases), failed to do so +and resigned voluntarily. Some others had done this, though mostly by +reason of poverty. The expenses connected with the horse-races had +greatly increased, for generally there was a series of twenty-four +contests. But Asiaticus withdrew simply by reason of his wealth, which +also proved his destruction. Inasmuch as he was extremely well-to-do and +by being consul a second time had aroused the dislike and jealousy of +many, he desired in a way to overthrow himself, feeling that by so +doing he would be less likely to encounter danger. Still he was +deceived.--Vinicius, on the other hand, suffered no harm from Claudius, +for though he was an illustrious man he managed by keeping quiet and +minding his own business to preserve his life; but he perished by poison +administered by Messalina. She suspected that he had killed his wife +Julia and was angry because he refused to have intercourse with her. He +was duly accorded a public funeral and eulogies,--an honor which had been +granted to many. + +Asinius Gallus, half-brother of Drusus by the same mother, conspired +against Claudius but instead of being put to death was banished. The +reason perhaps was that he made ready no army and collected no funds in +advance but was emboldened merely by his extreme folly, which led him to +think that the Romans would submit to having him rule them on account +of his family. But the chief cause was that he was a very small and +unshapely person and was therefore held in contempt, incurring ridicule +rather than danger. + +[-28-]The people were truly loud in praise of Claudius for his +moderation, and also, by Jupiter, at the fact that he showed displeasure +when a certain man sought the aid of the tribunes against the person who +had freed him, asking and securing thus a helper in his cause. Both the +man in question and those associated with him in the proceedings were +punished; and the emperor further forbade rendering assistance to persons +in this way against their former masters, on pain of being deprived of +the right to bring suit against others. Per contra, people were vexed at +seeing him so much the slave of his wife and freedmen. This feeling was +especially marked on an occasion when Claudius himself and all the rest +were anxious to kill Sabinus (former governor of the Celtae in the reign +of Gains) in a gladiatorial fight, but the latter approached Messalina +and she saved him. They were also irritated at her having withdrawn +Mnester from the theatre and keeping him with her. But whenever any talk +about his not dancing sprang up among the people, Claudius would appear +surprised and make various apologies, taking oath that he was not at his +house. The populace, believing him to be really ignorant of what was +going on, was grieved to think that he alone was not cognizant of what +was being done in the imperial apartments,--behavior so conspicuous +that news of it had already traveled to the enemy. They were unwilling, +however, to reveal to him the state of affairs, partly through awe of +Messalina and partly to spare Mnester. For he pleased the people as much +by his skill as he did the empress by his beauty. With his abilities in +dancing he combined great cleverness of repartee, so that once when the +crowd with mighty enthusiasm begged him to perform a famous pantomime, he +dared to come to the front of the stage and say: + + "To do this, friends, I may not try; + Orestes' bedfellow am I." + +This, then, was the relation of Claudius to these matters. + +As the number of lawsuits was now beyond reckoning and persons summoned +would now no longer put in an appearance because they expected to be +defeated, he gave written notice that by a given day he should decide the +case against them, by default, so that they would lose it even if absent. +And there was no deviation from this rule. + + Mithridates king of the Iberians[8] undertook to rebel and was engaged + in preparations for a war against the Romans. His mother, + however, opposed him and since she could not win him over by persuasion, + determined to take to flight: he then became anxious to conceal + his project, and so, while himself continuing preparations, he sent + his brother Cotys on an embassy to convey a friendly message to + Claudius. But Cotys proved a treacherous ambassador and told the + emperor all, and he was made king of Iberia in place of Mithridates. + +[A.D. 47, (a. u. 800)] + +[-29-]The following year, the eight hundredth anniversary of the founding +of the city of Rome, Claudius became consul for the fourth and Lucius +Vitellius for the third time. Claudius now ejected some members of +the senate, the majority of whom were not sorry to be driven out but +willingly stood aside on account of their poverty. Likewise he brought +in a number to fill their places. Among these he summoned with haste +one Surdinius Gallus, qualified to be a senator, who had emigrated to +Carthage, and said to him: "I will bind you with golden fetters." Gallus, +therefore, fettered by his rank, remained at home. + +Although Claudius visited dire punishment upon the freedmen of others, in +case he caught them in any crime, he was very lenient with his own. One +day an actor in the theatre uttered this well-worn saying: + + "A knave who prospers scarce can be endured,"[9] + +whereupon the whole assemblage looked at Polybius, the emperor's +freedman. He, undismayed, shouted out: "The same poet, however, says:-- + + 'Who once were goatherds now have royal power.'" [9] + +and suffered no harm for his behavior. + +Information was laid that some persons were plotting against Claudius, +but in the majority of instances he paid no attention, saying: "It +doesn't do to adopt the same defensive tactics against a flea as against +a beast of prey." Asiaticus, however, was tried before him and came very +near being acquitted. He entered a general denial, declaring: "I have +no knowledge of nor acquaintance with any of these persons who are +testifying against me." Then the soldier who stated he had been an +associate of his, being asked which one Asiaticus was, pointed out a +baldheaded man that happened to be standing near him. Baldness was the +only thing of which he was sure about Asiaticus. This event occasioned +much laughter and Claudius was on the point of freeing him, when +Vitellius to please Messalina made the statement that he had been sent +for by the prisoner, who requested the privilege of deciding the manner +of death to be visited upon him. Hearing this, Claudius believed that on +account of a guilty conscience Asiaticus had really condemned himself and +accordingly had him executed. + +Among many others who were calumniated by Messalina he put to death +Asiaticus and likewise Magnus, his son-in-law. Asiaticus had property, +and the family of Magnus as well as his close relationship were irksome. +Of course, they were nominally convicted on different charges from these. + +This year a new island, not large, made its appearance by the side of the +island Thera. + +Claudius, monarch of the Romans, published a law to the effect that no +senator might journey above seven mile-posts from the City without the +monarch's express orders.[10] + +Moreover, since many persons would afford their sick slaves no care, +but drove them out of their houses, a law was passed that all slaves +surviving such an experience should be free. + +He also prohibited anybody's driving through the City [sic] seated in a +vehicle.[11] + +[-30-]Vespasian in Britain had been hemmed in by the barbarians and was +in danger of annihilation, but his son Titus becoming alarmed about his +father managed by unusual daring to break through the enclosing line; he +then pursued and destroyed the fleeing enemy. Plautius for his skillful +handling of the war with Britain and his successes in it both received +praise from Claudius and obtained an ovation. [In the course of the armed +combat of gladiators many foreign freedmen and British captives fought. +The number of men receiving their finishing blow in this part of the +spectacle was large, and he took pride in the fact.] + +Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo as praetor in Celtica organized the forces and +damaged among other barbarians the Cauchi, as they are commonly called. +While in the midst of the enemy's country he was recalled by Claudius, +who on ascertaining his valor and his discipline would not allow him to +climb to any greater heights. Corbulo learning this turned back, giving +vent only to the following exclamation:--"How fortunate were those who +became praetors in the days of old!" He implied that the latter had been +permitted to exhibit their prowess without danger whereas his progress +had been blocked by the emperor on account of jealousy. Yet even so he +obtained a triumph. Being again entrusted with an army he trained it no +less thoroughly, and as the nations were at peace he had the men dig +a trench all the way across from the Rhine to the Meuse, as much as a +hundred and seventy stadia long, the purpose of which was to prevent the +rivers flowing back and causing inundations at the flood tide of the +ocean. + +[A.D. 48 (a. u. 801)] + +When a grandson was borne to him by his daughter Antonia (whom, after the +death of Magnus, he had given in marriage to Cornelius Faustus Sulla, +brother of Messalina), he had the good sense not to allow any decree to +be passed in honor of the occasion. + +Messalina and her freedmen swelled with importance. There were three of +the latter in particular who divided the ruling power among themselves: +Callistus, who had been given charge of the records of value; Narcissus, +who presided over the letters and hence wore a dagger at his belt; and +Pallas, to whom the administration of funds had been entrusted. + +[-31-] Messalina, as if it did not satisfy her to play the adulteress and +harlot,--for besides her usual shameful behavior she sometimes carried +on a regular brothel in the palace, serving as a prostitute herself and +compelling women of highest rank to do the same,--now conceived a desire +to have many husbands, that is, with the legal title. [And she would have +entered upon a legal contract with all those who enjoyed her favors, had +she not been detected and destroyed in her very first attempt. For a time +all the Caeesarians were on good terms with her and everything they did +was with one mind. But when she slandered and killed Polybius, after +herself making repeated advances to him, they no longer trusted her. As a +result, deserted by their good-will, she perished.] She registered Gaius +Silius [son of the Silius slain by Tiberius] as her husband, celebrated +the marriage in costly fashion, bestowed a royal residence upon him, and +gathered in it all the most valuable of Claudius's heirlooms. Finally she +declared him consul. Now all this though [even previously] heard and seen +by everybody [else] continued to escape the notice of Claudius. So when +he went down to Ostia to inspect the grain supply, and she was left +behind in Rome on the pretext of being ill, she got up a banquet of no +little renown and carried on a most licentious revel. Then Narcissus, +having got Claudius alone, conveyed to him through the medium of +concubines information of all that was taking place. [And by frightening +him with the idea that Messalina was going to kill him also and set up +Silius as emperor in his place, he persuaded him to arrest and torture +several persons.] The moment this was done the emperor hastened back in +person to the city; and entering just as he was he put to death Mnester +with many others and then slew Messalina [after she had retreated into +the gardens of Asiaticus, which more than anything else were the cause of +her ruin.] + +[A.D. 48-54] + +After her Claudius destroyed also his own slave for insulting one of the +prominent men. + +[A.D. 49 (a. u. 802)] + +After a little he married his niece Agrippina, mother of Domitius, who +was surnamed Nero. She had beauty and had been in the habit of consulting +him constantly and being in his company alone because he was her uncle, +though she was rather more free in her conduct toward him than would +properly become a niece. [And for this reason he executed Silanus, +feeling that he was plotting against him.] [Yet Silanus was regarded as +an upright man and was honored by Claudius to the extent of receiving +triumphal honors while still a boy, being betrothed to the emperor's +daughter Octavia, and becoming praetor long before the age ordained. He +was allowed to give the festival that fell to his lot at the expense of +Claudius, and during it the latter asked some favors of him as if he were +himself the mere head of some party[12] and uttered any shouts that he +saw other people wished him to utter. Yet in spite of all this Claudius +had become such a slave to the women that on their account he killed both +his sons-in-law.] + + On the heels of this occurrence Vitellius came forward in the senate with + a declaration that the good of the State required Claudius to marry. He + indicated Agrippina as a suitable person in this emergency and suggested + that they force him to the marriage. Then the senators rose and came + to Claudius and "compelled" him to marry. They also passed a decree + permitting Romans to wed their nieces, a union formerly prohibited. + +[-32-] As soon as Agrippina had become settled in the palace, she gained +complete control of Claudius; for she possessed in an unusual degree the +quality of _savoir faire_. Likewise she won the devotion of all those who +were at all fond of him, partly by fear and partly by benefits conferred. +[At length she caused his son Britannicus to be brought up as if he +were no relation of the emperor. The other child, who had betrothed the +daughter of Sejanus, was dead. She made Domitius at this time son-in-law +of Claudius and later actually had him adopted. She accomplished these +ends partly by causing the freedmen to persuade Claudius and partly by +seeing to it beforehand that the senate, the populace, and the soldiers +should always concur to favor her demands. This son Agrippina] was +training for the assumption of imperial office and was having educated +under Seneca. She gathered for him an inconceivable amount of wealth, +omitting not one of the most humble and least influential citizens in her +search for money, paying court to every one who was in the least degree +well-off and murdering many for this very reason. In addition, she +destroyed out of jealousy some of the foremost women and put to death +Lollia Paulina because the latter had cherished some hope of being +married to Claudius. As she did not recognize the woman's head when it +was brought to her, she opened with her own hand the mouth and inspected +the teeth, which had certain peculiarities. + + Mithridates, king of the Iberians; was defeated in a conflict with + a Roman army. Despairing of his life he begged that a hearing be + granted him to show cause why he should not be summarily executed + or led in the procession of triumph. This right having been accorded + him Claudius received him in Rome, standing on a tribunal, and addressed + threatening language to him. The king throughout replied + in an unabashed manner and concluded his remarks with "I was not + carried to you, but made the journey: if you doubt it, release me and + try to find me." + +[-33-] She [sc. Agrippina] quickly became a second Messalina, and chiefly +because she obtained from the senate among other honors the right to use +the carpentum at festivals. + +[A.D. 50 (a. u. 803)] + + Subsequently Claudius applied to Agrippina the additional title of + _Augusta_. + +When Claudius had adopted her son Nero and had made him his son-in-law +(by disowning his daughter and introducing her into another family so +that he might not have the name of uniting brother and sister), a mighty +portent occurred. All that day the sky seemed to be on fire. + + Agrippina banished also Calpurnia, one of the most distinguished + ladies in the land, or perhaps even caused her death (as one version + of the story reports), because Claudius had admired and commended + her beauty. + + [A.D. 51 (a. u. 804)] + + When Nero (for this is the name for him that has won its way into + favor) was registered among the iuvenes, the day that he was registered + the Divine Power shook the earth for long distances and by + night struck terror to the hearts of all men without exception. + +[-32-] [While Nero was growing up, Britannicus received neither honor nor +care. Agrippina, indeed, either drove away or killed those who showed any +zeal in his behalf. Sosibius, to whom his bringing up and education +had been entrusted, she caused to be slain on the pretext that he was +plotting against Nero. After that she delivered the boy to the charge of +persons who suited her and did him all the harm she could. She would not +let him visit his father nor appear before the people, but kept him in a +kind of imprisonment, though without bonds.] + +Dio, 61st Book: "Since the prefects Crispinus and Lusius Veta would not +yield to her in every matter, she ousted them from office." + +[A.D. 51-52] + +[-33-] [No one attempted any kind of reprisal upon Agrippina, for, to be +brief, she had more power than Claudius himself and gave greetings in +public to those who desired it. This fact was entered on the records.] + + She possessed all powers, since she dominated Claudius and had + made sure of the devotion of Narcissus and Pallas. (Callistus, after + rising to great heights of influence, was dead.) + + [A.D. 52 (a. u. 805)] + + The astrologers were banished from the entire expanse of Italy, and + their disciples were punished. + + Carnetacus, a barbarian chieftain who was captured and brought to + Rome and received his pardon at the hands of Claudius, then, after + his liberation, wandered about the city; and on beholding its brilliance + and its size he exclaimed: "Can you, who own these things and things + like them, still yearn for our miserable tents?" + +Claudius conceived a wish to have a naval battle in a certain lake[13]; +so, after building a wooden wall around it and setting up benches, +he gathered an enormous multitude. Claudius and Nero were arrayed in +military costume. Agrippina wore a beautiful chlamys woven with gold, and +the rest of the people whatever pleased their fancy. Those who were to +take part in this sea-fight were condemned criminals, and each side had +fifty ships, one party being called Rhodians and the other Sicilians. +First they drew close together and after uniting at one spot they +addressed Claudius in this fashion: "Salve, imperator, morituri +salutamus."[14] Since this afforded them no salvation and they were still +ordered to fight, they used simple smashing tactics and took very good +care not to harm each other. This went on until they were cut down by +outside force. [Somewhat later the Fucinian Lake caved in and Narcissus +was severely criticised for it. He presided over the undertaking, and +it was thought that after spending a great deal less than he had +received[15] he had then purposely contrived the collapse, in order that +his villainy might go undetected.] + +[A.D. 52-53] + +About Narcissus there is a story of how openly, he used to make sport of +Claudius. One day when the latter was holding court the Bithynians raised +a great outcry against Junius Cilo, their governor, because, as +they asserted, he had taken very considerable bribes. Claudius not +understanding on account of their noise asked the bystanders what they +were saying. Thereupon, instead of telling him the truth, Narcissus said: +"They are expressing their gratitude to Junius." Claudius, believing him, +rejoined: "Why, he shall have charge of them two years more!" + +Agrippina often attended her husband in public, when he was transacting +ordinary business, or when he was hearing ambassadors; she sat upon a +separate platform. This was surely one of the most remarkable sights of +the time. + +On one occasion when a certain orator, Julius Gallicus, was pleading a +case, Claudius grew vexed and ordered that he be cast into the Tiber, +near the banks of which he chanced to be holding court. Domitius Afer, +who as an advocate had the greatest ability of his contemporaries, made +a very neat joke on this. A man whom Gallicus had disappointed came to +Domitius for assistance, whereupon the latter said to him: "And who told +you I could swim better than he can?" + + Later Claudius fell sick, and Nero entered the senate to promise a + horse-race in case Claudius should regain his health. Agrippina was + leaving no stone unturned to make him popular with the masses and to + cause him to be regarded as the only natural successor to the imperial + throne. Hence it was that she selected the equestrian contest, on which + they doted especially, for Nero to promise in the event of Claudius's + recovery (an outcome against which she sincerely prayed).--Again, after + instigating a riot over the sale of bread she persuaded Claudius to make + known to the populace by public bulletin and to write to the senate + that, if he should die, Nero was fully capable of administering public + interests. In consequence of this he became a power and his name was on + everybody's lips, whereas in regard to Britannicus numbers did not know + of his existence and all others regarded him as idiotic and epileptic; + for this was the declaration that Agrippina gave out.--Well, Claudius + became convalescent and Nero conducted the horse-race in a sumptuous + manner; now, too, he married Octavia, a new circumstance to cause him a + feeling of manly dignity. + + [A.D. 53-54] + + Nothing seemed to satisfy Agrippina, though all rights + which Livia had possessed were bestowed upon her also and a number of + additional honors had been decreed. She, wielding equal power with + Claudius, desired to have his title outright; and once, when a blaze had + spread over the city to a considerable distance, she accompanied him in + the work of rescue. + + [A.D. 54 (a. u. 807)] + +[-34-] Claudius was irritated by Agrippina's actions, of which he now +began to become aware, and sought to find his son Britannicus. The boy, +however, was purposely kept out of his sight by the empress most of the +time, for she was doing everything conceivable to secure the right of +succession for Nero, since he was her own son by her former husband +Domitius. Claudius, who displayed his affection whenever he met +Britannicus, was not disposed to endure her behavior and made +preparations to put an end to her power, to register his son among the +iuvenes, and appoint him as heir to the empire. + +This news alarmed Agrippina, who decided to anticipate the emperor's +project by poisoning him. Since, however, by reason of the great quantity +of wine he was forever drinking and his general habits of life, which all +emperors adopt for their protection, he could not easily be harmed, she +sent for a drug-woman named Lucusta, a recent captive renowned for the +desired skill, and obtaining from her a poison whose effect was sure she +put it in one of the vegetables called[16] mushrooms. Then she herself +ate of the others in the dish but made her husband eat the one which had +the poison; for it was the largest and finest of them. The victim of this +plot was carried out of the banquet apparently quite overcome by strong +drink, but that had happened many times before. During the night the +poison took effect and he passed away, without having been able to say +or hear a word. It was the thirteenth of October, and he had lived +sixty-three years, two months, and thirteen days, having been emperor +thirteen years, eight months and twenty days. Agrippina's rapid vengeance +had been aided by the fact that before her attempt she had despatched +Narcissus to Campania, feigning that he needed to take the waters there +for his gout. Had he been present, she would never have done the deed, +such extreme care did he take of his master. His death followed hard upon +that of Claudius, and he left behind him a reputation for power unequaled +by any man of that age. His property amounted to more than ten thousand +myriads, and cities and kings were dependent upon him. Even when he was +on the point of being slain, he managed to execute a brilliant coup. He +had charge of the correspondence of Claudius and had in his possession +letters containing secret information against Agrippina and others: all +of these he burned before his death. + + And he was slain beside the tomb of Messalina,--a coincidence + manifestly intended by chance, to satisfy her vengeance. + +[-35-] In such fashion did Claudius meet his end. It seemed that +indications of this event were given in advance by the comet star, which +was seen over a wide expanse of territory, by the shower of blood, by the +bolt that descended upon the standards of the Pretorians, by the +opening of its own accord of the temple of Jupiter Victor, by the +swarming of bees in the camp, and by the fact that one representative of +each political office died. The emperor received the state burial and +all the other honors obtained by Augustus. Agrippina and Nero feigned +sorrow for the man whom they had killed, and elevated to heaven him +whom they had carried out in a state of collapse from the banquet. On +this point Lucius Junius Gallic, brother of Seneca, was the author of a +most witty saying. Seneca himself had composed a work that he called +Gourdification,--a word made on the analogy of "deification"; and his +brother is credited with expressing a great deal in one short sentence. +For whereas the public executioners were accustomed to drag the bodies +of those killed in prison to the Forum with large hooks, and thence +hauled them to the river, he said that Claudius must have been raised to +heaven with a hook. Nero has also left us a remark not unworthy of +record. He declared mushrooms to be the food of the gods, because +Claudius by means of a mushroom had become a god. + + +[Footnote:1 A reference to Book Forty-four, chapter 26 (the Return of the +"Party of the Peiraeus").] + +[Footnote 2: Adopting Canter's emendation. [Greek: eithismenou] for the +unintelligible [Greek: ois men oute] of the MSS.] + +[Footnote 3: The drinking of warm water ranked among the ancients as a +luxurious practice. (Compare the end of chapter 14, Book Fifty-seven, and +the end of chapter 11, Book Fifty-nine.)] + +[Footnote 4: An emendation by Leunclavius, based on Suetonius, Life of +Claudius, chapter 24 (fin.).] + +[Footnote 5: A small gap in the MS. is here filled according to Oddey.] + +[Footnote 6: A line of Homer's occurring in the Iliad once (XXIV, 369) +and in the Odyssey twice (XVI, 72, and XXI, 133).] + +[Footnote 7: Because monopolies of selling them had been conceded for +huge sums to avaricious tradesmen.] + +[Footnote 8: This is an error. Mithridates of Bosporus is the person +actually meant.] + +[Footnotes 9: These two quotations are to be found in Kock (_Fragmenta +Comicorum Graecorum_) Vol. III, p. 499. They are Nos. 487 and 488 of +the [Greek: Adespota Opoteras]. Kock sees no reason for assigning them +specifically to the New Comedy (as Meineke has done).] + +[Footnote 10: For a further discussion of this isolated statement (from +Suidas) see Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, III, p. 912, note 1.] + +[Footnote 11: From an examination of Suetonius, Life of Claudius, chapter +25, it seems likely that Dio wrote "cities" (plural), referring to all +the Italian towns.] + +[Footnote 12: "Of charioteers" is undoubtedly the sense.] + +[Footnote 13: The same _locus Fucinus_ that is presently mentioned +again.] + +[Footnote 14: "Hail, emperor, we about to die salute thee."] + +[Footnote 15: This verb is a mere conjecture by one of the editors. The +MS. reading, "he had hoped," is, of course, corrupt.] + +[Footnote 16: Dio probably says "called" here because the Greek word he +uses for "mushrooms" has many other meanings, such as snuff of a wick, +scab, knob, etc.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. 4, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 10883.txt or 10883.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/8/8/10883/ + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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