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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10770 ***
+
+THE FORMER PHILIPPINES THRU FOREIGN EYES
+
+Edited by Austin Craig
+
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+Among the many wrongs done the Filipinos by Spaniards, to be charged
+against their undeniably large debt to Spain, one of the greatest,
+if not the most frequently mentioned, was taking from them their
+good name.
+
+Spanish writers have never been noted for modesty or historical
+accuracy. Back in 1589 the printer of the English translation of Padre
+Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza's "History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of
+China" felt it necessary to prefix this warning: * * * the Spaniards
+(following their ambitious affections) do usually in all their writings
+extoll their own actions, even to the setting forth of many untruthes
+and incredible things, as in their descriptions of the conquistes of
+the east and west Indies, etc., doth more at large appeare.
+
+Of early Spanish historians Doctor Antonio de Morga seems the single
+exception, and perhaps even some of his credit comes by contrast,
+but in later years the rule apparently has proved invariable. As
+the conditions in the successive periods of Spanish influence were
+recognized to be indicative of little progress, if not actually
+retrogressive, the practice grew up of correspondingly lowering the
+current estimates of the capacity of the Filipinos of the conquest, so
+that always an apparent advance appeared. This in the closing period,
+in order to fabricate a sufficient showing for over three centuries
+of pretended progress, led to the practical denial of human attributes
+to the Filipinos found here by Legaspi.
+
+Against this denial to his countrymen of virtues as well as
+rights, Doctor Rizal opposed two briefs whose English titles
+are "The Philippines A Century Hence" and "The Indolence of the
+Filipino." Almost every page therein shows the influence of the young
+student's early reading of the hereinafter-printed studies by the
+German scientist Jagor, friend and counsellor in his maturer years,
+and the liberal Spaniard Comyn. Even his acquaintance with Morga,
+which eventually led to Rizal's republication of the 1609 history
+long lost to Spaniards, probably was owing to Jagor, although the
+life-long resolution for that action can be traced to hearing of Sir
+John Bowring's visit to his uncle's home and the proposed Hakluyt
+Society English translation then mentioned.
+
+The present value and interest of these now rare books has suggested
+their republication, to make available to Filipino students a course
+of study which their national hero found profitable as well as to
+correct the myriad misconceptions of things Philippine in the minds
+of those who have taken the accepted Spanish accounts as gospel truths.
+
+Dr. L. V. Schweibs, of Berlin, made the hundreds of corrections,
+many reversing the meanings of former readings, which almost
+justify calling the revised Jagor translation a new one. Numerous
+hitherto-untranslated passages likewise appear. There have been
+left out the illustrations, from crude drawings obsolete since
+photographic pictures have familiarized the scenes and objects,
+and also the consequently superfluous references to these. No other
+omission has been allowed, for if one author leaned far to one side in
+certain debatable questions the other has been equally partisan for the
+opposite side, except a cerement on religion in general and discussion
+of the world-wide social evil were eliminated as having no particular
+Philippine bearing to excuse their appearance in a popular work.
+
+The early American quotations of course are for comparison with the
+numerous American comments of today, and the two magazine extracts
+give English accounts a century apart. Virchow's matured views have
+been substituted for the pioneer opinions he furnished Professor Jagor
+thirty years earlier, and if Rizal's patron in the scientific world
+fails at times in his facts his method for research is a safe guide.
+
+Finally, three points should constantly be borne in mind: (1) allowance
+must be made for the lessening Spanish influence, surely more foreign
+to this seafaring people than the present modified Anglo-Saxon
+education, and so more artificial, i.e., less assimilable, as well
+as for the removal of the unfavorable environment, before attempting
+to from an opinion of the present-day Filipino from his prototype
+pictured in those pages; (2) foreign observers are apt to emphasize
+what is strange to them in describing other lands than their own and to
+leave unnoted points of resemblance which may be much more numerous;
+(3) Rizal's judgment that his countrymen were more like backward
+Europeans than Orientals was based on scientific studies of Europe's
+rural districts and Philippine provincial conditions as well as of
+oriental country life, so that it is entitled to more weight than
+the commoner opinion to the contrary which though more popular has
+been less carefully formed.
+
+University of the Philippines,
+
+Manila, March 11th, 1916.
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+Jagor's Travels in the Philippines 1
+
+(The out-of-print 1875 English translation corrected from the original
+German text)
+
+State of the Philippines in 1810. By Tomas de Comyn 357
+
+(William Walton's 1821 translation modernized)
+
+Manila and Sulu in 1842. By Com. Chas. Wilkes, U.S.N. 459
+
+(Narrative of U. S. Exploring Expedition 1838-42, Vol. 5)
+
+Manila in 1819. By Lieut. John White, U.S.N. 530
+
+(From the "History of a Voyage to the China Sea")
+
+The Peopling of the Philippines. By Doctor Rudolf Virchow 536
+
+(O. T. Mason's translation; Smithsonian Institution 1899 Report)
+
+People and Prospects of the Philippines. By An English Merchant,
+1778, and A Consul, 1878 550
+
+(From Blackwood's and the Cornhill Magazine)
+
+Filipino Merchants of the Early 1890s. By F. Karuth, F.R.G.S. 552
+
+
+
+
+The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes
+
+PART I
+
+Jagor's Travels in the Philippines
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+[Difference from European time.] When the clock strikes twelve in
+Madrid, [1] it is 8 hours, 18 minutes, and 41 seconds past eight
+in the evening at Manila; that is to say, the latter city lies 124°
+40' 15'' to the east of the former (7 hours, 54 minutes, 35 seconds
+from Paris). Some time ago, however, while the new year was being
+celebrated in Madrid, it was only New Year's eve at Manila.
+
+[Magellan's mistake in reckoning.] As Magellan, who discovered the
+Philippines in his memorable first circumnavigation of the globe,
+was following the sun in its apparent daily path around the world,
+every successive degree he compassed on his eastern course added
+four minutes to the length of his day; and, when he reached the
+Philippines, the difference amounted to sixteen hours. This, however,
+apparently escaped his notice, for Elcano, the captain of the only
+remaining vessel, was quite unaware, on his return to the longitude
+of his departure, why according to his ship's log-book, he was a day
+behind the time of the port which he had reached again by continuously
+sailing westward. [2] [3]
+
+[Change to the Asian day.] The error remained also unheeded in the
+Philippines. It was still, over there the last day of the old year,
+while the rest of the world was commencing the new one; and this state
+of things continued till the close of 1844, when it was resolved,
+with the approval of the archbishop, to pass over New Year's eve for
+once altogether. [4] Since that time the Philippines are considered
+to lie no longer in the distant west, but in the far east, and are
+about eight hours in advance of their mother country. The proper field
+for their commerce, however, is what is to Europeans the far west;
+they were colonized thence, and for centuries, till 1811, they had
+almost no other communication with Europe but the indirect one by
+the annual voyage of the galleon between Manila and Acapulco. Now,
+however, when the eastern shores of the Pacific are at last beginning
+to teem with life, and, with unexampled speed, are pressing forward to
+grasp their stupendous future, the Philippines will no longer be able
+to remain in their past seclusion. No tropical Asiatic colony is so
+favorably situated for communication with the west coast of America,
+and it is only in a few matters that the Dutch Indies can compete with
+them for the favors of the Australian market. But, [Future in American
+and Australian trade.] on the other hand, they will have to abandon
+their traffic with China, whose principal emporium Manila originally
+was, as well as that with those westward-looking countries of Asia,
+Europe's far east, which lie nearest to the Atlantic ports.  [5] [6]
+
+[Commercially in the New World.] When the circumstances mentioned
+come to be realized, the Philippines, or, at any rate, the principal
+market for their commerce, will finally fall within the limits of
+the western hemisphere, to which indeed they were relegated by the
+illustrious Spanish geographers at Badajoz.
+
+[The Pope's world-partitive.] The Bull issued by Alexander VI, [7]
+on May 4, 1493, which divided the earth into two hemispheres, decreed
+that all heathen lands discovered in the eastern half should belong
+to the Portuguese; in the western half to the Spaniards. According to
+this arrangement, the latter could only claim the Philippines under
+the pretext that they were situated in the western hemisphere. The
+demarcation line was to run from the north to the south, a hundred
+leagues to the south-west of all the so-called Azores and Cape
+de Verde Islands. In accordance with the treaty of Tordesillas,
+negotiated between Spain and Portugal on June 7, 1494, and approved
+by Julius II, in 1506, this line was drawn three hundred and seventy
+leagues west of the Cape de Verde Islands.
+
+[Faulty Spanish and Portuguese geography.] At that time Spanish and
+Portuguese geographers reckoned seventeen and one-half leagues to a
+degree on the equator. In the latitude of the Cape de Verde Islands,
+three hundred and seventy leagues made 21° 55'. If to this we add
+the longitudinal difference between the westernmost point of the
+group and Cadiz, a difference of 18° 48', we get 40° 43' west, and
+139° 17' east from Cadiz (in round numbers 47° west and 133° east),
+as the limits of the Spanish hemisphere. At that time, however,
+the existing means for such calculations were entirely insufficient.
+
+[Extravagant Spanish claims thru ignorance.] The latitude was measured
+with imperfect astrolabes, or wooden quadrants, and calculated from
+very deficient tables; the variation of the compass, moreover, was
+almost unknown, as well as the use of the log. [8] Both method and
+instruments were wanting for useful longitudinal calculations. It was
+under these circumstances that the Spaniards attempted, at Badajoz,
+to prove to the protesting Portuguese that the eastern boundary line
+intersected the mouths of the Ganges, and proceeded to lay claim to
+the possession of the Spice Islands.
+
+[Spain's error in calculation.] The eastern boundary should, in
+reality, have been drawn 46 1/2° further to the east, that is to
+say, as much further as it is from Berlin to the coast of Labrador,
+or to the lesser Altai; for, in the latitude of Calcutta 46 1/2°
+are equivalent to two thousand five hundred and seventy-five nautical
+miles. Albo's log-book gives the difference in longitude between the
+most eastern islands of the Archipelago and Cape Fermoso (Magellan's
+Straits), as 106° 30', while in reality it amounts to 159° 85'.
+
+[Moluccan rights sold to Portugal.] The disputes between the Spaniards
+and the Portuguese, occasioned by the uncertainty of the eastern
+boundary--Portugal had already founded a settlement in the Spice
+Islands--were set at rest by an agreement made in 1529, in which
+Charles V. abandoned his pretended rights to the Moluccas in favor
+of Portugal, for the sum of 350,000 ducats. The Philippines, at that
+time, were of no value.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+[Foreign mail facilities.] The distance from Manila to Hongkong is
+six hundred fifty nautical miles, and the course is almost exactly
+south-east. The mail steamer running between the two ports makes the
+trip in from three to four days. This allows of a fortnightly postal
+communication between the colony and the rest of the world. [9]
+
+[Slight share in world commerce.] This small steamer is the only thing
+to remind an observer at Hongkong, a port thronged with the ships of
+all nations, that an island so specially favored in conditions and
+fertility lies in such close proximity.
+
+[Little commerce with Spain.] Although the Philippines belong to Spain,
+there is but little commerce between the two countries. Once the
+tie which bound them was so close that Manila was wont to celebrate
+the arrival of the Spanish mail with Te Deums and bell-ringing, in
+honor of the successful achievement of so stupendous a journey. Until
+Portugal fell to Spain, the road round Africa to the Philippines was
+not open to Spanish vessels. The condition of the overland route
+is sufficiently shown by the fact that two Augustinian monks who,
+in 1603, were entrusted with an important message for the king,
+and who chose the direct line through Goa, Turkey, and Italy, needed
+three years for reaching Madrid. [10]
+
+[Former Spanish ships mainly carried foreign goods.] The trade by
+Spanish ships, which the merchants were compelled to patronize in
+order to avoid paying an additional customs tax, in spite of the
+protective duties for Spanish products, was almost exclusively
+in foreign goods to the colony and returning the products of the
+latter for foreign ports. The traffic with Spain was limited to the
+conveyance of officials, priests, and their usual necessaries, such as
+provisions, wine and other liquors; and, except a few French novels,
+some atrociously dull books, histories of saints, and similar works.
+
+[Manila's fine bay.] The Bay of Manila is large enough to contain the
+united fleets of Europe; it has the reputation of being one of the
+finest in the world. The aspect of the coast, however, to a stranger
+arriving, as did the author, at the close of the dry season, falls
+short of the lively descriptions of some travellers. The circular bay,
+one hundred twenty nautical miles in circumference, the waters of
+which wash the shores of five different provinces, is fringed in the
+neighborhood of Manila by a level coast, behind which rises an equally
+flat table land. The scanty vegetation in the foreground, consisting
+chiefly of bamboos and areca palms, was dried up by the sun; while in
+the far distance the dull uniformity of the landscape was broken by
+the blue hills of San Mateo. In the rainy season the numerous unwalled
+canals overflow their banks and form a series of connected lakes,
+which soon, however, change into luxuriant and verdant rice-fields.
+
+[City's appearance mediaeval European.] Manila is situated on both
+sides of the river Pasig. The town itself, surrounded with walls and
+ramparts, with its low tiled roofs and a few towers, had, in 1859,
+the appearance of some ancient European fortress. Four years later
+the greater part of it was destroyed by an earthquake.
+
+[The 1863 earthquake.] On June 3, 1863, at thirty-one minutes past
+seven in the evening, after a day of tremendous heat while all Manila
+was busy in its preparations for the festival of Corpus Christi,
+the ground suddenly rocked to and fro with great violence. The
+firmest buildings reeled visibly, walls crumbled, and beams snapped
+in two. The dreadful shock lasted half a minute; but this little
+interval was enough to change the whole town into a mass of ruins,
+and to bury alive hundreds of its inhabitants. [11] A letter of
+the governor-general, which I have seen, states that the cathedral,
+the goverment-house, the barracks, and all the public buildings of
+Manila were entirely destroyed, and that the few private houses which
+remained standing threatened to fall in. Later accounts speak of
+four hundred killed and two thousand injured, and estimate the loss
+at eight millions of dollars. Forty-six public and five hundred and
+seventy private buildings were thrown down; twenty-eight public and
+five hundred twenty-eight private buildings were nearly destroyed,
+and all the houses left standing were more or less injured.
+
+[Damage in Cavite.] At the same time, an earthquake of forty seconds'
+duration occurred at Cavite, the naval port of the Philippines,
+and destroyed many buildings.
+
+[Destruction in walled city.] Three years afterwards, the Duc
+d'Alencon (Lucon et Mindanao; Paris, 1870, S. 38) found the traces
+of the catastrophe everywhere. Three sides of the principal square
+of the city, in which formerly stood the government, or governor's,
+palace, the cathedral, and the townhouse, were lying like dust heaps
+overgrown with weeds. All the large public edifices were "temporarily"
+constructed of wood; but nobody then seemed to plan anything permanent.
+
+[Former heavy shocks.] Manila is very often subject to earthquakes;
+the most fatal occurred in 1601; in 1610 (Nov. 30); in 1645 (Nov. 30);
+in 1658 (Aug. 20); in 1675; in 1699; in 1796; in 1824; in 1852; and
+in 1863. In 1645, six hundred [12], or, according to some accounts,
+three thousand [13] persons perished, buried under the ruins of their
+houses. Their monastery, the church of the Augustinians, and that of
+the Jesuits, were the only public buildings which remained standing.
+
+[Frequent minor disturbances.] Smaller shocks, which suddenly set
+the hanging lamps swinging, occur very often and generally remain
+unnoticed. The houses are on this account generally of but one story,
+and the loose volcanic soil on which they are built may lessen the
+violence of the shock. Their heavy tiled roofs, however, appear
+very inappropriate under such circumstances. Earthquakes are also
+of frequent occurrence in the provinces, but they, as a rule, cause
+so little damage, owing to the houses being constructed of timber or
+bamboo, that they are never mentioned.
+
+[Scanty data available.] M. Alexis Perrey (Mém. de l'Académie de
+Dijon, 1860) has published a list, collected with much diligence from
+every accessible source, of the earthquakes which have visited the
+Philippines, and particularly Manila. But the accounts, even of the
+most important, are very scanty, and the dates of their occurrence very
+unreliable. Of the minor shocks, only a few are mentioned, those which
+were noticed by scientific observers accidentally present at the time.
+
+[The 1610 catastrophe.] Aduarte (I. 141) mentions a tremendous
+earthquake which occurred in 1610. I briefly quote his version of
+the details of the catastrophe, as I find them mentioned nowhere else.
+
+"Towards the close of November, 1610, on St. Andrew's Day, a more
+violent earthquake than had ever before been witnessed, visited
+these Islands; its effects extended from Manila to the extreme end
+of the province of Nueva Segovia (the whole northern part of Luzon),
+a distance of 200 leagues. It caused great destruction over the entire
+area; in the province of Ilocos it buried palm trees, so that only the
+tops of their branches were left above the earth's surface; through
+the power of the earthquake mountains were pushed against each other;
+it threw down many buildings, and killed a great number of people. Its
+fury was greatest in Nueva Segovia, where it opened the mountains, and
+created new lake basins. The earth threw up immense fountains of sand,
+and vibrated so terribly that the people, unable to stand upon it,
+laid down and fastened themselves to the ground, as if they had been
+on a ship in a stormy sea. In the range inhabited by the Mendayas a
+mountain fell in, crushing a village and killing its inhabitants. An
+immense portion of the cliff sank into the river; and now, where the
+stream was formerly bordered by a range of hills of considerable
+altitude, its banks are nearly level with the watercourse. The
+commotion was so great in the bed of the river that waves arose like
+those of the ocean, or as if the water had been lashed by a furious
+wind. Those edifices which were of stone suffered the most damage,
+our church and the convent fell in, etc., etc."
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+[Customhouse red tape.] The customs inspection, and the many
+formalities which the native minor officials exercised without any
+consideration appear all the more wearisome to the new arrival when
+contrasted with the easy routine of the English free ports of the
+east he has just quitted. The guarantee of a respectable merchant
+obtained for me, as a particular favor, permission to disembark after
+a detention of sixteen hours; but even then I was not allowed to take
+the smallest article of luggage on shore with me.
+
+[Shelter for shipping.] During the south-west monsoon and the stormy
+season that accompanies the change of monsoons, the roadstead is
+unsafe. Larger vessels are then obliged to seek protection in the
+port of Cavite, seven miles further down the coast; but during the
+north-east monsoons they can safely anchor half a league from the
+coast. All ships under three hundred tons burden pass the breakwater
+and enter the Pasig, where, as far as the bridge, they lie in serried
+rows, extending from the shore to the middle of the stream, and bear
+witness by their numbers, as well as by the bustle and stir going on
+amongst them, to the activity of the home trade.
+
+[Silting up of river mouth.] In every rain-monsoon, the Pasig river
+sweeps such a quantity of sediment against the breakwater that just
+its removal keeps, as it seems, the dredging machine stationed there
+entirely occupied.
+
+[Few foreign vessels.] The small number of the vessels in the
+roadstead, particularly of those of foreign countries, was the more
+remarkable as Manila was the only port in the Archipelago that had any
+commerce with foreign countries. It is true that since 1855 three other
+ports, to which a fourth may now be added, had gotten this privilege;
+but at the time of my arrival, in March, 1859, not one of them had
+ever been entered by a foreign vessel, and it was a few weeks after
+my visit that the first English ship sailed into Iloilo to take in
+a cargo of sugar for Australia. [14]
+
+[Antiquated restrictions on trade.] The reason of this peculiarity
+laid partly in the feeble development of agriculture, in spite of the
+unexampled fertility of the soil, but chiefly in the antiquated and
+artificially limited conditions of trade. The customs duties were
+in themselves not very high. They were generally about seven per
+cent. upon merchandise conveyed under the Spanish flag, and about
+twice as much for that carried in foreign bottoms. When the cargo
+was of Spanish production, the duty was three per cent. if carried
+in national vessels, eight per cent. if in foreign ships. The latter
+were only allowed, as a rule, to enter the port in ballast. [15]
+
+[Discouragements for foreign ships.] As, however, the principal wants
+of the colony were imported from England and abroad, these were either
+kept back till an opportunity occurred of sending them in Spanish
+vessels, which charged nearly a treble freight (from £4 to £5 instead
+of from £1 1/2, to £2 per ton), and which only made their appearance
+in British ports at rare intervals, or they were sent to Singapore and
+Hongkong, where they were transferred to Spanish ships. Tonnage dues
+were levied, moreover, upon ships in ballast, and upon others which
+merely touched at Manila without unloading or taking in fresh cargo;
+and, if a vessel under such circumstances landed even the smallest
+parcel, it was no longer rated as a ship in ballast, but charged on the
+higher scale. Vessels were therefore forced to enter the port entirely
+devoid of cargo, or carrying sufficient to cover the expense of the
+increased harbor dues; almost an impossibility for foreign ships,
+on account of the differential customs rates, which acted almost as a
+complete prohibition. The result was that foreign vessels came there
+only in ballast, or when summoned for some particular object.
+
+[Export taxes.] The exports of the colony were almost entirely
+limited to its raw produce, which was burdened with an export duty
+of three per cent. Exports leaving under the Spanish flag were only
+taxed to the amount of one per cent.; but, as scarcely any export
+trade existed with Spain, and as Spanish vessels, from their high
+rates of freight, were excluded from the carrying trade of the world,
+the boon to commerce was a delusive one.  [16]
+
+[Laws drove away trade.] These inept excise laws, hampered with a
+hundred suspicious forms, frightened away the whole carrying trade
+from the port; and its commission merchants were frequently unable
+to dispose of the local produce. So trifling was the carrying trade
+that the total yearly average of the harbor dues, calculated from
+the returns of ten years, barely reached $10,000.
+
+[Manila's favorable location.] The position of Manila, a central
+point betwixt Japan, China, Annam, the English and Dutch ports of
+the Archipelago and Australia, is in itself extremely favorable
+to the development of a world-wide trade. [17] At the time of the
+north-eastern monsoons, during our winter, when vessels for the sake of
+shelter pass through the Straits of Gilolo on their way from the Indian
+Archipelago to China, they are obliged to pass close to Manila. They
+would find it a most convenient station, for the Philippines, as we
+have already mentioned, are particularly favorably placed for the
+west coast of America.
+
+[The 1869 reform.] A proof that the Spanish Ultramar minister fully
+recognizes and appreciates these circumstances appears in his decree,
+of April 5, 1869, which is of the highest importance for the future
+of the colony. It probably would have been issued earlier had not the
+Spanish and colonial shipowners, pampered by the protective system,
+obstinately struggled against an innovation which impaired their
+former privileges and forced them to greater activity.
+
+[Bettered conditions.] The most noteworthy points of the decree are
+the moderation of the differential duties, and their entire extinction
+at the expiration of two years; the abrogation of all export duties;
+and the consolidation of the more annoying port dues into one single
+charge.
+
+[Pre-Spanish foreign commerce.] When the Spaniards landed in the
+Philippines they found the inhabitants clad in silks and cotton stuffs,
+which were imported by Chinese ships to exchange for gold-dust,
+sapan wood, [18] holothurian, edible birds' nests, and skins. The
+Islands were also in communication with Japan, Cambodia, Siam, [19]
+the Moluccas, and the Malay Archipelago. De Barros mentions that
+vessels from Luzon visited Malacca in 1511. [20]
+
+[Early extension under Spain.] The greater order which reigned in
+the Philippines after the advent of the Spaniards, and still more the
+commerce they opened with America and indirectly with Europe, had the
+effect of greatly increasing the Island trade, and of extending it
+beyond the Indies to the Persian Gulf. Manila was the great mart for
+the products of Eastern Asia, with which it loaded the galleons that,
+as early as 1565, sailed to and from New Spain (at first to Navidad,
+after 1602 to Acapulco), and brought back silver as their principal
+return freight. [21]
+
+[Jealousy of Seville monopolists.] The merchants in New Spain and Peru
+found this commerce so advantageous, that the result was very damaging
+to the exports from the mother country, whose manufactured goods were
+unable to compete with the Indian cottons and the Chinese silks. The
+spoilt monopolists of Seville demanded therefore the abandonment of a
+colony which required considerable yearly contributions from the home
+exchequer, which stood in the way of the mother country's exploiting
+her American colonies, and which let the silver of His Majesty's
+dominions pass into the hands of the heathen. Since the foundation of
+the colony they had continually thrown impediments in its path. [22]
+Their demands, however, were vain in face of the ambition of the
+throne and the influence of the clergy; rather, responding to the
+views of that time the merchants of Peru and New Spain were forced,
+in the interests of the mother country, to obtain merchandise from
+China, either directly, or through Manila. The inhabitants of the
+Philippines were alone permitted to send Chinese goods to America,
+but only to the yearly value of $250,000. The return trade was limited
+to $500,000. [23]
+
+[Prohibition of China trading.] The first amount was afterwards
+increased to $300,000, with a proportionate augmentation of the
+return freight; but the Spanish were forbidden to visit China, so
+that they were obliged to await the arrival of the junks. Finally,
+in 1720, Chinese goods were strictly prohibited throughout the
+whole of the Spanish possessions in both hemispheres. A decree of
+1734 (amplified in 1769) once more permitted trade with China, and
+increased the maximum value of the annual freightage to Acapulco to
+$500,000 (silver) and that of the return trade to twice the amount.
+
+[Higher limit on suspension of galleon voyages.] After the galleons to
+Acapulco, which had been maintained at the expense of the government
+treasury, had stopped their voyages, commerce with America was
+handled by merchants who were permitted in 1820, to export goods
+up to $750,000 annually from the Philippines and to visit San Blas,
+Guayaquil and Callao, besides Acapulco.
+
+[ British occupation inspired new wants.] This concession, however,
+was not sufficient to compensate Philippine commerce for the injuries
+it suffered through the separation of Mexico from Spain. The possession
+of Manila by the English, in 1762, made its inhabitants acquainted with
+many industrial products which the imports from China and India were
+unable to offer them. To satisfy these new cravings Spanish men-of-war
+were sent, towards the close of 1764, to the colony with products of
+Spanish industries, such as wine, provisions, hats, cloth, hardware,
+and fancy articles.
+
+[Manila oppositions to trade innovations.] The Manila merchants,
+accustomed to a lucrative trade with Acapulco, strenuously resisted
+this innovation, although it was a considerable source of profit to
+them, for the Crown purchased the Indian and Chinese merchandise for
+its return freights from Manila at double their original value. In
+1784, however, the last of these ships arrived.
+
+[Subterfuges of European traders.] After the English invasion,
+European vessels were strictly forbidden to visit Manila; but as
+that city did not want to do without Indian merchandise, and could
+not import it in its own ships, it was brought there in English and
+French bottoms, which assumed a Turkish name, and were provided with
+an Indian sham-captain.
+
+[The "Philippine Company" monopoly.] In 1785, the Compañía de Filipinas
+obtained a monopoly of the trade between Spain and the colony, but it
+was not allowed to interfere with the direct traffic between Acapulco
+and Manila. The desire was to acquire large quantities of colonial
+produce, silk, indigo, cinnamon, cotton, pepper, etc., in order to
+export it somewhat as was done later on by the system of culture in
+Java; but as it was unable to obtain compulsory labor, it entirely
+failed in its attempted artificial development of agriculture.
+
+[Losses by bad management.] The Compañía suffered great losses through
+its erroneous system of operation, and the incapacity of its officials
+(it paid, for example, $13.50 for a picul of pepper which cost from
+three to four dollars in Sumatra).
+
+[Entrance of foriegn ships and firms.] In 1789 foreign ships were
+allowed to import Chinese and Indian produce, but none from Europe. In
+1809 an English commercial house obtained permission to establish
+itself in Manila. [24] In 1814, after the conclusion of the peace
+with France, the same permission, with greater or less restrictions,
+was granted to all foreigners.
+
+[Trade free but port charges discriminating.]  In 1820 the direct
+trade between the Philippines and Spain was thrown open without any
+limitations to the exports of colonial produce, on the condition
+that the value of the Indian and Chinese goods in each expedition
+should not exceed $50,000. Ever since 1834, when the privileges
+of the Compañía expired, free trade has been permitted in Manila;
+foreign ships, however, being charged double dues. Four new ports
+have been thrown open to general trade since 1855; and in 1869 the
+liberal tariff previously alluded to was issued.
+
+[Port's importance lessened under Spain.]  Today, after three centuries
+of almost undisturbed Spanish rule, Manila has by no means added to the
+importance it possessed shortly after the advent of the Spaniards. The
+isolation of Japan and the Indo-Chinese empires, a direct consequence
+of the importunities and pretensions of the Catholic missionaries, [25]
+the secession of the colonies on the west coast of America, above all
+the long continuance of a distrustful commercial and colonial policy--a
+policy which exists even at the present day--while important markets,
+based on large capital and liberal principles, were being established
+in the most favored spots of the British and Dutch Indies; all these
+circumstances have contributed to this result and thrown the Chinese
+trade into other channels. The cause is as clear as the effect,
+yet it might be erroneous to ascribe the policy so long pursued to
+short-sightedness. The Spaniards, in their schemes of colonisation,
+had partly a religious purpose in view, but the government discovered
+a great source of influence in the disposal of the extremely lucrative
+colonial appointments. The crown itself, as well as its favorites,
+thought of nothing but extracting the most it could from the colony,
+and had neither the intention or the power to develop the natural
+wealth of the country by agriculture and commerce. Inseparable from
+this policy, was the persistent exclusion of foreigners. [26] It seemed
+even more necessary in the isolated Philippines than in America to cut
+off the natives from all contact with foreigners, if the Spaniards had
+any desire to remain in undisturbed possession of the colony. In face,
+however, of the developed trade of today and the claims of the world
+to the productive powers of such an extraordinarily fruitful soil, the
+old restrictions can no longer be maintained, and the lately-introduced
+liberal tariff must be hailed as a thoroughly well-timed measure.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+[Galleon story sidelight on colonial history.]  The oft-mentioned
+voyages of the galleons betwixt Manila and Acapulco hold such a
+prominent position in the history of the Philippines, and afford
+such an interesting glimpse into the old colonial system, that their
+principal characteristics deserve some description.
+
+[Chinese part in galleon trade.]  In the days of Morga, towards the
+close of the sixteenth century, from thirty to forty Chinese junks
+were in the habit of annually visiting Manila (generally in March);
+towards the end of June a galleon used to sail for Acapulco. The trade
+with the latter place, the active operations of which were limited to
+the three central months of the year, was so lucrative, easy, and safe,
+that the Spaniards scarcely cared to engage in any other undertakings.
+
+[Favoritism in allotment of cargo space.]  As the carrying power of
+the annual galleon was by no means proportioned to the demand for
+cargo room, the governor divided it as he deemed best; the favorites,
+however, to whom he assigned shares in the hold, seldom traded
+themselves, but parted with their concessions to the merchants.
+
+[Division of space and character of cargo.] According to De Guignes,
+[27] the hold of the vessel was divided into 1,500 parts, of which
+the majority were allotted to the priests, and the rest to favored
+persons. As a matter of fact, the value of the cargo, which was
+officially limited to $600,000, was considerably higher. It chiefly
+consisted of Indian and Chinese cottons and silk stuffs (amongst
+others fifty thousand pairs of silk stockings from China), and gold
+ornaments. The value of the return freight amounted to between two
+and three millions of dollars.
+
+[Profit in trade.] Everything in this trade was settled beforehand;
+the number, shape, size, and value of the bales, and even their selling
+price. As this was usually double the original cost, the permission
+to ship goods to a certain amount was equivalent, under ordinary
+circumstances, to the bestowal of a present of a like value. These
+permissions or licenses (boletas) were, at a later period, usually
+granted to pensioners and officers' widows, and to officials, in lieu
+of an increase of salary; these favorites were forbidden, however,
+to make a direct use of them, for to trade with Acapulco was the
+sole right of those members of the Consulado (a kind of chamber of
+commerce) who could prove a long residence in the country and the
+possession of a capital of at least $8,000.
+
+[Evasion of regulations.] Legentil, the astronomer, gives a full
+description of the regulations which prevailed in his day and the
+manner in which they were disobeyed. The cargo consisted of a thousand
+bales, each composed of four packets, [28] the maximum value of each
+packet being fixed at $250. It was impossible to increase the amount of
+bales, but they pretty generally consisted of more than four packets,
+and their value so far exceeded the prescribed limits, that a boleta
+was considered to be worth from $200 to $225. The officials took good
+care that no goods should be smuggled on board without a boleta. These
+were in such demand, that, at a later period, Comyn [29] saw people
+pay $500 for the right to ship goods, the value of which scarcely
+amounted to $1,000. The merchants usually borrowed the money for these
+undertakings from the obras pias, charitable foundations, which, up
+to our own time, fulfil in the Islands the purposes of banks. [30]
+In the early days of the trade, the galleon used to leave Cavite in
+July and sail with a south-westerly wind beyond the tropics, until
+it met with a west wind at the thirty-eighth or [Route outward.]
+fortieth parallel. [31] Later on the vessels were ordered to leave
+Cavite with the first south-westerly winds to sail along the south
+coast of Luzon, through San Bernardino straits, and to continue along
+the thirteenth parallel of north latitude [32] as far to the east as
+possible, until the north-easterly trade wind compelled them to seek a
+north-west breeze in higher latitudes. They were then obliged to try
+the thirtieth parallel as long as possible, instead of, as formerly,
+the thirty-seventh. The captain of the galleon was not permitted
+to sail immediately northward, although to have done so would have
+procured him a much quicker and safer passage, and would have enabled
+him to reach the rainy zone more rapidly. To effect the last, indeed,
+was a matter of the greatest importance to him, for his vessel,
+overladen [Water-supply crowded out by cargo.]  with merchandise,
+had but little room crowded out for water; and although he had
+a crew of from four hundred to six hundred hands to provide for,
+he was instructed to depend upon the rain he caught on the voyage;
+for which purpose, the galleon was provided with suitable mats and
+bamboo pails. [33]
+
+[Length of voyage.] Voyages in these low latitudes were, owing to the
+inconstancy of the winds, extremely troublesome, and often lasted five
+months and upwards. The fear of exposing the costly, cumbrous vessel
+to the powerful and sometimes stormy winds of the higher latitudes,
+appears to have been the cause of these sailing orders.
+
+[California landfall.] As soon as the galleon had passed the great
+Sargasso shoal, it took a southerly course, and touched at the
+southern point of the Californian peninsula (San Lucas), where news
+and provisions awaited it. [34] In their earlier voyages, however,
+they must have sailed much further to the north, somewhere in the
+neighborhood of Cape Mendocino, and have been driven southward in sight
+of the coast; for Vizcaino, in the voyage of discovery he undertook
+in 1603, from Mexico to California, found the principal mountains and
+capes, although no European had ever set his foot upon them, already
+christened by the galleons, to which they had served as landmarks.
+[35]
+
+[Speedy return voyage.] The return voyage to the Philippines was an
+easy one, and only occupied from forty to sixty days. [36] The galleon
+left Acapulco in February or March, sailed southwards till it fell in
+with the trade wind (generally in from 10° to 11° of north latitude),
+which carried it easily to the Ladrone Islands, and thence reached
+Manila by way of Samar. [37]
+
+[Galleon's size and armament.] A galleon was usually of from twelve
+hundred to fifteen hundred tons burden, and carried fifty or sixty
+guns. The latter, however, were pretty generally banished to the
+hold during the eastward voyage. When the ship's bows were turned
+towards home, and there was no longer any press of space, the guns
+were remounted.
+
+[Capture of "Santa Anna".] San Augustin says of the Santa Anna, which
+Thomas Candish captured and burnt in 1586 off the Californian coast:
+"Our people sailed so carelessly that they used their guns for ballast;
+.... the pirate's venture was such a fortunate one that he returned
+to London with sails of Chinese damask and silken rigging." The cargo
+was sold in Acapulco at a profit of 100 per cent., and was paid for
+in silver, cochineal, quicksilver, etc. [Value of return freight]
+The total value of the return freight amounted perhaps to between
+two and three million dollars, [38] of which a quarter of a million,
+at least, fell to the king.
+
+[Gambling rather than commerce] The return of a galleon to Manila,
+laden with silver dollars and new arrivals, was a great holiday
+for the colony. A considerable portion of the riches they had won
+as easily as at the gaming table, was soon spent by the crew; when
+matters again returned to their usual lethargic state. It was no
+unfrequent event, however, for vessels to be lost. They were too
+often laden with a total disregard to seaworthiness, and wretchedly
+handled. It was favor, not capacity, that determined the patronage
+of these lucrative appointments. [39] Many galleons fell into the
+hands of English and Dutch cruisers. [40] ["Philippine Company"
+and smugglers cause change.] But these tremendous profits gradually
+decreased as the Compañía obtained the right to import Indian
+cottons, one of the principal articles of trade, into New Spain by
+way of Vera Cruz, subject to a customs duty of 6 per cent; and when
+English and American adventurers began to smuggle these and other
+goods into the country. [41] [Spanish coins in circulation on China
+coast.] Finally, it may be mentioned that Spanish dollars found their
+way in the galleons to China and the further Indies, where they are
+in circulation to this day.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+[The walled city of Manila.] The city proper of Manila, inhabited by
+Spaniards, Creoles, the Filipinos directly connected with them, and
+Chinese, lies, surrounded by walls and wide ditches, on the left or
+southern bank of the Pasig, looking towards the sea. [42] It is a hot,
+dried-up place, full of monasteries, convents, barracks, and government
+buildings. Safety, not appearance, was the object of its builders. It
+reminds the beholder of a Spanish provincial town, and is, next to Goa,
+the oldest city in the Indies. Foreigners reside on the northern bank
+of the river; in Binondo, the headquarters of wholesale and retail
+commerce, or in the pleasant suburban villages, which blend into
+a considerable whole. [Population.] The total population of city
+and suburbs has been estimated, perhaps with some exaggeration,
+at 200,000. [Bridges.] A handsome old stone bridge of ten arches
+serves as the communication between the two banks of the Pasig,
+which, more recently, has also been spanned by an iron suspension
+bridge. [43] Very little intercourse exists between the inhabitants
+of Manila and Binondo. [Friction between classes.] Life in the city
+proper cannot be very pleasant; pride, envy, place-hunting, and caste
+hatred, are the order of the day; the Spaniards consider themselves
+superior to the creoles, who, in their turn, reproach the former with
+the taunt that they have only come to the colony to save themselves
+from starvation. A similar hatred and envy exists between the whites
+and the mestizos. This state of things is to be found in all Spanish
+colonies, and is chiefly caused by the colonial policy of Madrid,
+which always does its best to sow discord between the different races
+and classes of its foreign possessions, under the idea that their
+union would imperil the sway of the mother country. [44]
+
+[Few large landowners.] In Manila, moreover, this state of things was
+rendered worse by the fact that the planter class, whose large landed
+possessions always give it a strong interest in the country of its
+inhabitance, was entirely wanting. At the present day, however, the
+increasing demand for the produce of the colony seems to be bringing
+about a pleasant change in this respect. [Spaniards transient.] The
+manner in which the Spanish population of the Islands was affected
+by the gambling ventures of the galleons, at one time the only
+source of commercial wealth, is thus described by Murillo Velarde
+(page 272):--"The Spaniards who settle here look upon these Islands
+as a tavern rather than a permanent home. If they marry, it is by the
+merest chance; where can a family be found that has been settled here
+for several generations? The father amasses wealth, the son spends it,
+the grandson is a beggar. The largest capitals are not more stable than
+the waves of the ocean, across the crests of which they were gathered."
+
+[Discomforts and the high cost of living.] There is nothing like
+the same amount of sociability amongst the foreigners in Binondo as
+prevails in English and Dutch colonies; and scarcely any intercourse at
+all with the Spaniards, who envy the strangers and almost seem to look
+upon the gains the latter make in the country as so many robberies
+committed upon themselves, its owners. Besides all this, living is
+very expensive, much more so than in Singapore and Batavia. To many,
+the mere cost of existence seems greatly out of proportion to their
+official salaries. The (European style) houses, which are generally
+spacious, are gloomy and ugly, and not well ventilated for such a
+climate. Instead of light jalousies, they are fitted with heavy sash
+windows, which admit the light through thin oyster shells, forming
+small panes scarcely two square inches in area, and held together by
+laths an inch thick. The ground floors of the houses are, on account
+of the great damp, sensibly enough, generally uninhabited; and are
+used as cellars, stables, and servant's offices.
+
+[Native houses comfortable and unchanged.] The unassuming, but for
+their purposes very practical houses, of boards, bamboos, and (nipa)
+palm leaves, are supported on account of the damp on isolated beams
+or props; and the space beneath, which is generally fenced in with
+a railing, is used as a stable or a warehouse; such was the case
+as early as the days of Magellan. These dwellings [45] are very
+lightly put together. La Pérouse estimates the weight of some of them,
+furniture and all, at something less than two hundred pounds. Nearly
+all these houses, as well as the huts of the natives, are furnished
+with an azotea, that is, an uncovered space, on the same level as the
+dwelling, which takes the place of yard and balcony. The Spaniards
+appear to have copied this useful contrivance from the Moors, but the
+natives were acquainted with them before the arrival of the Europeans,
+for Morga mentions similar batalanes.
+
+[Neglected river and canals offensive.] In the suburbs nearly every
+hut stands in its own garden. The river is often quite covered with
+green scum; and dead cats and dogs surrounded with weeds, which look
+like cabbage-lettuce, frequently adorn its waters. In the dry season,
+the numerous canals of the suburbs are so many stagnant drains,
+and at each ebb of the tide the ditches around the town exhibit a
+similar spectacle.
+
+[Dreary and unprogressive life.] Manila offers very few opportunities
+for amusement. There was no Spanish theatre open during my stay there,
+but Tagalog plays (translations) were sometimes represented. The town
+possessed no club, and contained no readable books. Never once did
+the least excitement enliven its feeble newspapers, for the items
+of intelligence, forwarded fortnightly from Hongkong, were sifted by
+priestly censors, who left little but the chronicles of the Spanish
+and French courts to feed the barren columns of the local sheets. [46]
+The pompously celebrated religious festivals were the only events
+that sometimes chequered the wearisome monotony.
+
+[Cock-fighting.] The chief amusement of the Filipinos is cock-fighting,
+which is carried on with a passionate eagerness that must strike every
+stranger. Nearly every man keeps a fighting cock. Many are never seen
+out of doors without their favorite in their arms; they pay as much
+as $50 and upwards for these pets, and heap the tenderest caresses
+on them. The passion for cock-fighting can well be termed a national
+vice; but the practice may have been introduced by the Spaniards, or
+the Mexicans who accompanied them, as, in a like manner, the habit of
+smoking opium among the Chinese, which has become a national curse,
+was first introduced by the English. [Probably Malay Custom.] It is,
+however, more probable that the Malays brought the custom into the
+country. In the eastern portion of the Philippines, cock-fighting
+was unknown in the days of Pigafetta. The first cock-fight he met
+with was at Palawan. "They keep large cocks, which from a species of
+superstition, they never eat, but keep for fighting purposes. Heavy
+bets are made on the upshot of the contest, which are paid to the
+owner of the winning bird." [47] The sight is one extremely repulsive
+to Europeans. [The cockpit.] The ring around the cockpit is crowded
+with men, perspiring at every pore, while their countenances bear
+the imprint of the ugliest passions. Each bird is armed with a sharp
+curved spur, three inches long capable of making deep wounds, and which
+always causes the death of one or both birds by the serious injuries it
+inflicts. If a cock shows symptoms of fear and declines the encounter,
+it is plucked alive. Incredibly large sums, in proportion to the means
+of the gamblers, are wagered on the result. [Its bad influence.] It
+is very evident that these cock-fights must have a most demoralising
+effect upon a people so addicted to idleness and dissipation, and so
+accustomed to give way to the impulse of the moment. Their effect
+is to make them little able to resist the temptation of procuring
+money without working for it. The passion for the game leads many
+to borrow at usury, to embezzlement, to theft, and even to  highway
+robbery. The land and sea pirates, of whom I shall speak presently,
+are principally composed of ruined gamesters. [48]
+
+[Feminine attractiveness.] In the comeliness of the women who
+lend animation to its streets Manila surpasses all other towns in
+the Indian Archipelago. Mallat describes them in glowing colors. A
+charming picture of Manila street life, full of local color, is given
+in the very amusing Aventures d'un Gentilhomme Breton. [49]
+
+[Mestizas.] How many of the prettiest Filipinas are of perfectly
+unmixed blood, it is, I confess, difficult to decide. Many of them
+are very fair and of quite an European type, and are thereby easily
+distinguished from their sisters in the outlying provinces. The
+immediate environs of Manila can boast many beautiful spots, but
+they are not the resort of the local rank and fashion, the object
+of whose daily promenade is the display of their toilettes, and not
+the enjoyment of nature. In the hot season, all who can afford it
+are driven every evening along the [The Luneta.] dusty streets to
+a promenade on the beach, which was built a short time back, where
+several times a week the band of a native regiment plays fairly good
+music, and there walk formally up and down. All the Spaniards [The
+Angelas.] are in uniform or in black frock coats. When the bells ring
+out for evening prayer, carriages, horsemen, pedestrians, all suddenly
+stand motionless; the men take off their hats, and everybody appears
+momentarily absorbed in prayer.
+
+[Botanical gardens.] The same governor who laid out the promenade
+established a botanical garden. It is true that everything he planted
+in it, exposed on a marshy soil to the full heat of a powerful sun,
+soon faded away; but its ground was enclosed and laid out, and though
+it was overgrown with weeds, it had at least received a name. At
+present it is said to be in better condition. [50]
+
+[Pretty girls in gay garments.] The religious festivals in the
+neighborhood of Manila are well worth a visit, if only for the sake
+of the numerous pretty Filipinas and mestizas in their best clothes
+who make their appearance in the evening and promenade up and down
+the streets, which are illuminated and profusely decked with flowers
+and bright colors. They offer a charming spectacle, particularly
+to a stranger lately arrived from Malaysia. The Filipinas are very
+beautifully formed. They have luxuriant black hair, and large dark
+eyes; the upper part of their bodies is clad in a homespun but often
+costly material of transparent fineness and snow-white purity; and,
+from their waist downwards, they are wrapped in a brightly-striped
+cloth (saya), which falls in broad folds, and which, as far as the
+knee, is so tightly compressed with a dark shawl (lapis), closely drawn
+around the figure, that the rich variegated folds of the saya burst
+out beneath it like the blossoms of a pomegranate. This swathing only
+allows the young girls to take very short steps, and this timidity of
+gait, in unison with their downcast eyes, gives them a very modest
+appearance. On their naked feet they wear embroidered slippers of
+such a small size that their little toes protrude for want of room,
+and grasp the outside of the sandal. [51]
+
+[Dress of the poorer women.] The poorer women clothe themselves in a
+saya and in a so-called chemise, which is so extremely short that it
+frequently does not even reach the first fold of the former. In the
+more eastern islands grown-up girls and women wear, with the exception
+of a Catholic amulet, nothing but these two garments, which are,
+particularly after bathing, and before they get dried by the sun,
+nearly transparent.
+
+[Men's clothing.] A hat, trousers, and a shirt worn outside them,
+both made of coarse Guinara cloth, compose the dress of the men of
+the poorer classes. The shirts worn by the wealthy are often made
+of an extremely expensive home-made material, woven from the fibers
+of the pineapple or the banana. Some of them are ornamented with
+silk stripes, some are plain. They are also frequently manufactured
+entirely of jusi (Chinese floret silk), in which case they will not
+stand washing, and can only be worn once. The hat (salacot), a round
+piece of home-made plaiting, is used as both umbrella and sunshade,
+and is often adorned with silver ornaments of considerable value. [The
+"Principales".] The principalia class enjoy the special privilege
+of wearing short jackets above their shirts, and are usually easily
+recognizable by their amusing assumption of dignity, and by the faded
+cylindrical hats, yellow with age, family heirlooms, constantly
+worn. [The dandies.] The native dandies wear patent leather shoes
+on their naked feet, tight-fitting trousers of some material striped
+with black and white or with some other glaringly-contrasted colors,
+a starched plaited shirt of European make, a chimney-pot silk hat,
+and carry a cane in their hands. [The servants.] The servants waiting
+at dinner in their white starched shirts and trousers are by no means
+an agreeable spectacle, and I never realised the full ludicrousness
+of European male costume till my eye fell upon its caricature,
+exemplified in the person of a "Manila dandy."
+
+[Mestiza costume.] The mestizas dress like the Filipinas, but do not
+wear the tapis, and those of them who are married to Europeans are
+generally clad in both shoes and stockings. Many of the mestizas are
+extremely pretty, but their gait drags a little, from their habit of
+wearing slippers. As a rule they are prudent, thrifty, and [Clever
+business women.] clever business women, but their conversation is
+often awkward and tedious. Their want of education is, however, not
+the cause of this latter failing, for Andalusian women who never learn
+anything but the elementary doctrines of Christianity, are among the
+most charming creatures in the world, in their youth. [Ill at ease
+in society.] Its cause lies rather in this equivocal position; they
+are haughtily repelled by their white sisters, whilst they themselves
+disown their mother's kin. They are wanting in the ease, in the tact,
+that the women of Spain show in every relation of existence.
+
+[Mestizos.] The mestizos, particularly those born of Chinese and Tagal
+mothers, constitute the richest and the most enterprising portion of
+the native population. They are well acquainted with all the good and
+bad qualities of the Filipino inhabitants, and use them unscrupulously
+for their own purposes.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+[Native distrust of Europeans.] A Scotch merchant to whom I brought
+a letter of introduction invited me with such cordiality to come
+and stay with him, that I found myself unable to refuse. While thus
+living under the roof and protection of one of the wealthiest and most
+respected men in the city, the cabmen I employed insisted on being
+paid beforehand every time I rode in their vehicles. This distrust was
+occasioned by the scanty feeling of respect most of the Europeans in
+Manila inspired in the minds of the natives. Many later observations
+confirmed this impression. What a different state of things exists
+in Java and Singapore! The reason, however, is easily explained.
+
+[Dutch and English stand well in their colonies.] The Dutch are as
+little able as the English to acclimatize themselves in tropical
+countries. They get all they can out of countries in which they are
+only temporary sojourners, the former by forced service and monopoly,
+the latter by commerce. In both cases, however, the end is accomplished
+by comparatively few individuals, whose official position and the
+largeness of whose undertakings place them far above the mass of the
+population. In Java, moreover, the Europeans constitute the governing
+classes, the natives the governed; and even in Singapore where both
+races are equal before the law the few white men understand how to mark
+the difference of race so distinctively that the natives without demur
+surrender to them, though not by means of the law, the privileges of a
+higher caste. The difference of religion does but widen the gap; and,
+finally, every European there speaks the language of the country, while
+the natives are totally ignorant of that spoken by the foreigners.
+
+[Dutch colonials well educated.] The Dutch officials are educated at
+home in schools specially devoted to the East Indian service. The art
+of managing the natives, the upholding of prestige, which is considered
+the secret of the Dutch power over the numerous native populations,
+forms an essential particular in their education. The Dutch, therefore,
+manage their intercourse with the natives, no matter how much they
+intend to get out of them, in strict accordance with customary usage
+(adat); they never wound the natives' amor propio and never expose
+themselves in their own mutual intercourse, which remains a sealed
+book to the inhabitants.
+
+[Spanish officials undesirables.] Things are different in the
+Philippines. With the exception of those officials whose stay is
+limited by the rules of the service, or by the place-hunting that
+ensues at every change in the Spanish ministry, few Spaniards who
+have once settled in the colony ever return home. It is forbidden
+to the priests, and most of the rest have no means of doing so. A
+considerable portion of them consist of subaltern officers, soldiers,
+sailors, political delinquents and refugees whom the mother-country
+has got rid of; and not seldom of adventurers deficient both in means
+and desire for the journey back, for their life in the colony is far
+pleasanter than that they were forced to lead in Spain. These latter
+arrive without the slightest knowledge of the country and without
+being in the least prepared for a sojourn there. Many of them are so
+lazy that they won't take the trouble to learn the language even if
+they marry a daughter of the soil. Their servants understand Spanish,
+and clandestinely watch the conversation and the actions, and become
+acquainted with all the secrets, of their indiscreet masters, to
+whom the Filipinos remain an enigma which their conceit prevents them
+attempting to decipher.
+
+[Spanish lack of prestige deserved.] It is easy to understand how
+Filipino respect for Europeans must be diminished by the numbers of
+these uneducated, improvident, and extravagant Spaniards, who, no
+matter what may have been their position at home, are all determined
+to play the master in the colony. [Social Standing of Filipinos thus
+enhanced.] The relative standing of the Filipinos naturally profits
+by all this and it would be difficult to find a colony in which
+the natives, taken all in all, feel more comfortable than in the
+Philippines. They have adopted the religion, the manners, and the
+customs of their rulers; and though legally not on an equal footing
+with the latter, they are by no means separated from them by the
+high barriers with which, not to mention Java, the churlish reserve
+of the English has surrounded the natives of the other colonies.
+
+[Spanish-Filipino bonds of union.] The same religion, a similar form
+of worship, an existence intermixed with that of the indigenous
+population, all tend to bring the Europeans and the Indians
+together. That they have done so is proved by the existence of the
+proportionately very numerous band of mestizos who inhabit the Islands.
+
+[Latin races better for colonists in the tropics.] The Spaniards
+and the Portuguese appear, in fact, to be the only Europeans who
+take root in tropical countries. They are capable of permanent and
+fruitful amalgamation [52] with the natives. [53]
+
+[Initiative and individuality missing.] The want of originality, which
+among the mestizos, appears to arise from their equivocal position,
+is also to be found among the natives. Distinctly marked national
+customs, which one would naturally expect to find in such an isolated
+part of the world, are sought for in vain, and again and again the
+stranger remarks that everything has been learned and is only a veneer.
+
+[A compromise civilization.] As Spain forcibly expelled the
+civilization of the Moors, and in Peru that of the Incas, so in the
+Philippines it has understood how to set aside an equally well-founded
+one, by appropriating in an incredible manner, in order to take root
+itself the more quickly, all existing forms and abuses. [54]
+
+[Imitation instilled and self-respect banished.] The uncivilized
+inhabitants of the Philippines quickly adopted the rites, forms,
+and ceremonies of the strange religion, and, at the same time, copied
+the personal externalities of their new masters, learning to despise
+their own manners and customs as heathenish and barbarian. Nowadays,
+forsooth, they sing Andalusian songs, and dance Spanish dances; but
+in what sort of way? They imitate everything that passes before their
+eyes without using their intelligence to appreciate it. It is this
+which makes both themselves and their artistic productions wearisome,
+devoid of character, and, I may add, unnatural, in spite of the skill
+and patience they devote to them. These two peculiarities, moreover,
+are invariably to be found amongst nations whose civilization is but
+little developed; the patience so much admired is often nothing but
+waste of time and breath, quite out of proportion to the end in view,
+and the skill is the mere consequence of the backward state of the
+division of labor.
+
+[Educated Filipino unnatural.] If I entered the house of a well-to-do
+Filipino, who spoke Spanish, I was received with the same phrases his
+model, a Spaniard, would employ; but I always had the feeling that it
+was out of place. In countries where the native population remains
+true to its ancient customs this is not the case; and whenever I
+have not been received with proper respect, I have remarked that the
+apparent fact proceeded from a difference in social forms, not more
+to be wondered at than a difference in weights and measures. In Java,
+and particularly in Borneo and the Moluccas, the utensils in daily use
+are ornamented with so refined a feeling for form and color, that they
+are praised by our artists as patterns of ornamentation and afford
+a proof that the labor is one of love, and that it is presided over
+by an acute intelligence. [Native art-sense spoiled.] Such a sense
+of beauty is seldom to be met with in the Philippines. Everything
+there is imitation or careless makeshift. Even the piña embroideries,
+which are fabricated with such wonderful patience and skill, and
+are so celebrated for the fineness of the work, are, as a rule,
+spiritless imitations of Spanish patterns. One is involuntarily
+led to these conclusions by a comparison of the art products of the
+Spanish-American communities with those of more barbarous races. The
+Berlin Ethnographical Museum contains many proofs of the facts I have
+just mentioned.
+
+[Indolence from absence of incentive.] The oars used in the
+Philippines are usually made of bamboo poles, with a board tied to
+their extremities with strips of rattan. If they happen to break, so
+much the better; for the fatiguing labor of rowing must necessarily
+be suspended till they are mended again.
+
+[Carelessness from lack of responsibility.] In Java the carabao-carts,
+which are completely covered in as a protection against the rain,
+are ornamented with many tasteful patterns. The roofless wagons used
+in the Philippines are roughly put together at the last moment. When
+it is necessary to protect their contents from the wet, an old pair
+of mats is thrown over them, more for the purpose of appeasing the
+prejudices of the "Castilians" than really to keep off the rain.
+
+[Weakened character and want of dignity.] The English and the Dutch are
+always looked upon as strangers in the tropics; their influence never
+touches the ancient native customs which culminate in the religion of
+the country. But the populations whom the Spaniards have converted to
+their religion have lost all originality, all sense of nationality;
+yet the alien religion has never really penetrated into their inmost
+being, they never feel it to be a source of moral support, and it is
+no accidental coincidence that they are all more or less stamped with
+a want of dignity....
+
+[Spanish rule not benevolent, but beneficial.] With the exception of
+this want of national individuality, and the loss of the distinguishing
+manners and customs which constitute the chief charm of most eastern
+peoples, the Filipino is an interesting study of a type of mankind
+existing in the easiest natural conditions. The arbitrary rule of
+their chiefs, and the iron shackles of slavery, were abolished by the
+Spaniards shortly after their arrival; and peace and security reigned
+in the place of war and rapine. The Spanish rule in these Islands was
+always a mild one, not because the laws, which treated the natives
+like children, were wonderfully gentle, but because the causes did
+not exist which caused such scandalous cruelties in Spanish America
+and in the colonies of other nations.
+
+[Circumstances have favored the Filipinos.] It was fortunate for
+the Filipinos that their islands possessed no wealth in the shape of
+precious metals or valuable spices. In the earlier days of maritime
+traffic there was little possibility of exporting the numerous
+agricultural productions of the colony; and it was scarcely worth
+while, therefore, to make the most of the land. The few Spaniards
+who resided in the colony found such an easy method of making money
+in the commerce with China and Mexico, by means of the galleons,
+that they held themselves aloof from all economical enterprises,
+which had little attraction for their haughty inclinations, and
+would have imposed the severest labor on the Filipinos. Taking into
+consideration the wearisome and dangerous navigation of the time,
+it was, moreover, impossible for the Spaniards, upon whom their too
+large possessions in America already imposed an exhausting man-tax,
+to maintain a strong armed force in the Philippines. The subjection,
+which had been inaugurated by a dazzling military exploit, was chiefly
+accomplished by the assistance of the friar orders, whose missionaries
+were taught to employ extreme prudence and patience. The Philippines
+were thus principally won by a peaceful conquest.
+
+[Have fared better than the Mexicans.] The taxes laid upon the peoples
+were so trifling that they did not suffice for the administration
+of the colony. The difference was covered by yearly contributions
+from Mexico. The extortions of unconscientious officials were by no
+means conspicuous by their absence. Cruelties, however, such as were
+practised in the American mining districts, or in the manufactures
+of Quito, never occurred in the Philippines.
+
+[A land of opportunity.] Uncultivated land was free, and was at
+the service of any one willing to make it productive; if, however,
+it remained untilled for two years, it reverted to the crown. [55]
+
+[Low taxes.] The only tax which the Filipinos pay is the poll-tax,
+known as the tributo, which originally, three hundred years ago,
+amounted to one dollar for every pair of adults, and in a country
+where all marry early, and the sexes are equally divided, really
+constituted a family-tax. By degrees the tribute has been raised to
+two and one-sixteenth dollars. An adult, therefore, male or female,
+pays one and one-thirty-second dollar, and that from his sixteenth to
+his sixtieth year. Besides this, every man has to give forty days'
+labor every year to the State. This vassalage (polos y servicios)
+is divided into ordinary and extraordinary services: the first
+consists of the duties appertaining to a watchman or messenger, in
+cleaning the courts of justice, and in other light labors; the second
+in road-making, and similar heavier kinds of work, for the benefit
+of villages and provinces. The little use, however, that is made of
+these services, is shown by the fact that any one can obtain a release
+from them for a sum which at most is not more than three dollars. No
+personal service is required of women. A little further on, important
+details about the tax from official sources, which were placed at my
+disposal in the colonial office, appear in a short special chapter.
+
+[Fortunate factors.] In other countries, with an equally mild climate,
+and an equally fertile soil, the natives, unless they had reached a
+higher degree of civilization than that of the Philippine Islanders,
+would have been ground down by native princes, or ruthlessly plundered
+and destroyed by foreigners. In these isolated Islands, so richly
+endowed by nature, where pressure from above, impulse from within,
+and every stimulus from the outside are wanting, the satisfaction
+of a few trifling wants is sufficient for an existence with ample
+comfort. Of all countries in the world, the Philippines have the
+greatest claim to be considered a lotos-eating Utopia. The traveller,
+whose knowledge of the dolce far niente is derived from Naples,
+has no real appreciation of it; it only blossoms under the shade of
+palm-trees. These notes of travel will contain plenty of examples to
+support this. One trip across the Pasig gives a foretaste of life
+in the interior of the country. Low wooden cabins and bamboo huts,
+surmounted with green foliage and blossoming flowers, are picturesquely
+grouped with areca palms, and tall, feather-headed bamboos, upon its
+banks. Sometimes the enclosures run down into the stream itself, some
+of them being duck-grounds, and others bathing-places. The shore is
+fringed with canoes, nets, rafts, and fishing apparatus. Heavily-laden
+boats float down the stream, and small canoes ply from bank to bank
+between the groups of bathers. The most lively traffic is to be seen
+in the tiendas, large sheds, corresponding to the Javanese harongs,
+which open upon the river, the great channel for traffic.
+
+[River resorts.] They are a source of great attraction to the
+passing sailors, who resort to them for eating, drinking, and other
+convivialities; and while away the time there in gambling, betel
+chewing, and smoking, with idle companions of both sexes.
+
+[Sleeping pilots.] At times somebody may be seen floating down
+the stream asleep on a heap of coconuts. If the nuts run ashore,
+the sleeper rouses himself, pushes off with a long bamboo, and
+contentedly relapses into slumber, as his eccentric raft regains
+the current of the river. One cut of his bolo-knife easily detaches
+sufficient of the husk of the nuts to allow of their being fastened
+together; in this way a kind of wreath is formed which encircles and
+holds together the loose nuts piled up in the middle.
+
+[Labor-saving conditions.] The arduous labors of many centuries
+have left as their legacy a perfect system of transport; but in
+these Islands man can obtain many of his requirements direct with
+proportionately trifling labor, and a large amount of comfort for
+himself.
+
+[Easy food.] Off the Island of Talim, in the great Lagoon of Bay, my
+boatmen bought for a few cuartos several dozens of fish quite twelve
+inches long; and those which they couldn't eat were split open, salted,
+and dried by a few hours' exposure to the heat of the sun on the roof
+of the boat. When the fishermen had parted with their contemplated
+breakfast, they stooped down and filled their cooking-vessels with
+sand-mussels (paludina costata, 2.a G.), first throwing away the
+dead ones from the handfuls they picked up from the bottom of the
+shallow water.
+
+[River's importance.] Nearly all the dwellings are built by the water's
+edge. The river is a natural self-maintaining highway, on which loads
+can be carried to the foot of the mountains. The huts of the people,
+built upon piles, are to be seen thickly scattered about its banks,
+and particularly about its broad mouths. The appropriateness of
+their position is evident, for the stream is at once the very
+center of activity and the most convenient spot for the pursuit
+of their callings. At each tide the takes of fish are more or less
+plentiful, and at low-water the women and children may be seen picking
+up shell-fish with their toes, for practice has enabled them to use
+their toes as deftly as their fingers, or gathering in the sand-crabs
+and eatable seaweed.
+
+[Riverside gaiety.]  The riverside is a pretty sight when men, women,
+and children are bathing and frolicking in the shade of the palm-trees;
+and others are filling their water-vessels, large bamboos, which they
+carry on their shoulders, or jars, which they bear on their heads;
+and when the boys are standing upright on the broad backs of the
+carabaos and riding triumphantly into the water.
+
+[Coco-palms.] It is here too that the coco-palm most flourishes, a tree
+that supplies not only their food and drink, but also every material
+necessary for the construction of huts and the manufacture of the
+various articles which they use. While the greatest care is necessary
+to make those growing further inland bear even a little fruit, the
+palm-trees close to the shore, even when planted on wretched soil,
+grow plentiful crops without the slightest trouble. Has a palm-tree
+ever been made to blossom in a hothouse? Thomson [56] mentions that
+coco-trees growing by the sea-side are wont to incline their stems over
+the ocean, the waters of which bear their fruit to desert shores and
+islands, and render them habitable for mankind. Thus the coco-tree
+would seem to play an essential part in the ocean vagabondage of
+Malaysia and Polynesia.
+
+[Nipa-palms.] Close to the coco-trees grow clumps of the stunted
+nipa-palms, which only flourish in brackish waters; [57] their
+leaves furnish the best roof-thatching. Sugar, brandy, and vinegar
+are manufactured from their sap. Three hundred and fifty years ago
+Pigafetta found these manufactures in full swing, but nowadays
+they seem to be limited to the Philippines. Besides these, the
+pandanus-tree, from the leaves of which the softest mats are woven,
+is always found in near proximity to the shore.
+
+[Fertile fields.] Towards the interior the landscape is covered with
+rice-fields, which yearly receive a fresh layer of fertile soil,
+washed down from the mountains by the river, and spread over their
+surface by the overflowing of its waters; and which in consequence
+never require any fertilizer. [The carabao.] The carabao, the favorite
+domestic animal of the Malays, and which they keep especially for
+agricultural purposes, prefers these regions to all others. It loves
+to wallow in the mud, and is not fit for work unless permitted to
+frequent the water.
+
+[Bamboo.] Bamboos with luxuriant leafy tops grow plentifully by the
+huts in the rice-fields which fringe the banks of the river. In my
+former sketches of travel I have endeavored to describe how much
+this gigantic plant contributes to the comfort and convenience of
+tropical life. Since then I have become acquainted with many curious
+purposes to which it is turned, but to describe them here would be
+out of place.  [58] I may be allowed, however, to briefly cite a
+few examples showing what numerous results are obtained from simple
+means. Nature has endowed these splendid plants, which perhaps surpass
+all others in beauty, with so many useful qualities, and delivered
+them into the hands of mankind so ready for immediate use, that a
+few sharp cuts suffice to convert them into all kinds of various
+utensils. [Strength.] The bamboo possesses, in proportion to its
+lightness, an extraordinary strength; the result of its round shape,
+and the regularity of the joints in its stem. The parallel position and
+toughness of its fibers render it easy to split, and, when split, its
+pieces are of extraordinary pliability and elasticity. To the gravelly
+soil on which it grows it owes its durability, and its firm, even,
+and always clean surface, the brilliancy and color of which improve by
+use. [Convenience.] And finally, it is a great thing for a population
+with such limited means of conveyance that the bamboo is to be found
+in such abundance in all kinds of localities and of all dimensions,
+from a few millimeters to ten or fifteen centimeters in diameter,
+even sometimes to twice this amount; and that, on account of its
+unsurpassed floating power, it is pre-eminently fitted for locomotion
+in a country poor in roads but rich in watercourses. A blow with a bolo
+is generally enough to cut down a strong stem. [Usefulness.] If the
+thin joints are taken away, hollow stems of different thicknesses can
+be slid into one another like the parts of a telescope. From bamboos
+split in half, gutters, troughs, and roofing tiles can be made. Split
+into several slats, which can be again divided into small strips and
+fibers for the manufacture of baskets, ropes, mats, and fine plaiting
+work, they can be made into frames and stands. Two cuts in the same
+place make a round hole through which a stem of corresponding diameter
+can be firmly introduced. If a similar opening is made in a second
+upright, the horizontal stem can be run through both. Gates, closing
+perpendicularly or horizontally in frames moving without friction on
+a perpendicular or horizontal axis, can be made in this way.
+
+Two deep cuts give an angular shape to the stem; and when its two sides
+are wide enough apart to admit of a cross-stem being placed between
+them, they can be employed as roof-ridges or for the framework of
+tables and chairs; a quantity of flat split pieces of bamboo being
+fastened on top of them with chair-cane. These split pieces then
+form the seats of the chairs and the tops of the tables, instead of
+the boards and large bamboo laths used at other times. It is equally
+easy to make an oblong opening in a large bamboo in which to fit the
+laths of a stand.
+
+A couple of cuts are almost enough to make a fork, a pair of tongs
+or a hook.
+
+If one makes a hole as big as the end of one's finger in a large
+bamboo close under a joint, one obtains by fastening a small piece of
+cloth to the open end, a syphon or a filter. If a piece of bamboo is
+split down to the joint in strips, and the strips be bound together
+with others horizontally interlaced, it makes a conical basket. If
+the strips are cut shorter, it makes a peddler's pack basket. If
+a long handle is added, and it is filled with tar, it can be used
+as a signal torch. If shallower baskets of the same dimensions,
+but with their bottoms cut off or punched out, are placed inside
+these conical ones, the two together make capital snare baskets for
+crabs and fish. If a bamboo stem be cut off just below the joint,
+and its lower edge be split up into a cogged rim, it makes, when the
+partition of the joint is punched out, an earth-auger, a fountain-pipe,
+and many things of the kind.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+[Pleasures of travel.] Strangers travelling in the interior have
+daily fresh opportunities of enjoying the hospitality of nature. The
+atmosphere is so equitably warm that one would gladly dispense with
+all clothing except a sun-hat and a pair of light shoes. Should one
+be tempted to pass the night in the open air, the construction of a
+hut from the leaves of the palm and the fern is the work of a few
+minutes; [Village rest houses.] but in even the smallest village
+the traveller finds a "common house" (casa real), in which he can
+take up his quarters and be supplied with the necessaries of life
+at the market price. There too he will always meet with semaneros
+(those who perform menial duties) ready to serve him as messengers
+or porters for the most trifling remuneration. But long practice
+has taught me that their services principally consist in doing
+nothing. On one occasion I wanted to send a man who was playing
+cards and drinking tuba (fresh or weakly-fermented palm-sap) with his
+companions, on an errand. [Pleasant prison life.] Without stopping his
+game the fellow excused himself on the ground of being a prisoner,
+and one of his guardians proceeded in the midst of the intense heat
+to carry my troublesome message. Prisoners have certainly little
+cause to grumble. [Frequent floggings little regarded.] The only
+inconvenience to which they are exposed are the floggings which the
+local authorities very liberally dispense by the dozens for the most
+trifling offences. Except the momentary bodily pain, however, these
+appear in most cases to make little impression on a people who have
+been accustomed to corporal punishment from their youth upwards. Their
+acquaintances stand round the sufferers, while the blows are being
+inflicted, and mockingly ask them how it tastes.
+
+[Change from Malayan character.] A long residence amongst the earnest,
+quiet, and dignified Malays, who are most anxious for their honor,
+while most submissive to their superiors, makes the contrast in
+character exhibited by the natives of the Philippines, who yet belong
+to the Malay race, all the more striking. The change in their nature
+appears to be a natural consequence of the Spanish rule, for the same
+characteristics may be observed in the natives of Spanish America. The
+class distinctions and the despotic oppression prevalent under their
+former chiefs doubtless rendered the Filipinos of the past more like
+the Malays of today.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+[The familiar field for travellers.] The environs of Manila, the Pasig,
+and the Lagoon of Bay, which are visited by every fresh arrival in the
+colony, have been so often described that I have restricted myself
+to a few short notes upon these parts of the country, and intend to
+relate in detail only my excursions into the south-eastern provinces
+of Luzon, Camarines, and Albay, and the islands which lie to the east
+of them, Samar and Leyte. Before doing this, however, it will not be
+out of place to glance at the map and give some slight description
+of their geographical conditions.
+
+[Archipelago's great extent.] The Philippine Archipelago lies between
+Borneo and Formosa, and separates the northern Pacific Ocean from the
+China Sea. It covers fourteen and one-half degrees of latitude, and
+extends from the Sulu Islands in the south, in the fifth parallel of
+north latitude, to the Babuyans in the north in latitude 19° 30'. If,
+however, the Bashee or Batanes Islands be included, its area may be
+said to extend to the twenty-first parallel of north latitude. But
+neither southwards or northwards does Spanish rule extend to these
+extreme limits, nor, in fact, does it always reach the far interior
+of the larger islands. From the eastern to the western extremity of
+the Philippines the distance is about nine degrees of longitude. Two
+islands, Luzon, with an area of two thousand, and Mindanao, with one of
+more than one thousand five hundred square miles, are together larger
+than all the rest. The seven next largest islands are Palawan, Samar,
+Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Negros, and Cebu; of which the first measures
+about two hundred and fifty, and the last about one hundred square
+miles. Then come Bohol and Masbate, each about half the size of Cebu;
+twenty smaller islands, still of some importance; and numerous tiny
+islets, rocks, and reefs.
+
+[Favored by position and conditions.] The Philippines are extremely
+favored by their position and conditions. Their extension from
+north to south, over 16° of latitude, obtains for them a variety of
+climate which the Dutch Indies, whose largest diameter, their extent
+in latitude north and south of the equator being but trifling, runs
+from the east to the west, by no means enjoy. The advantages accruing
+from their neighborhood to the equator are added to those acquired
+from the natural variety of their climate; and the produce of both the
+torrid and temperate zones, the palm-tree and the fir, the pine-apple,
+the corn ear and the potato, flourish side by side upon their shores.
+
+[Harbors and water highways.] The larger islands contain vast inland
+seas, considerable navigable rivers, and many creeks running far
+into the interior; they are rich, too, in safe harbors and countless
+natural ports of refuge for ships in distress. Another attribute
+which, though not to be realized by a glance at the map, is yet one
+of the most fortunate the Islands possess, is the countless number
+of small streams which pour down from the inland hills, and open out,
+ere they reach the ocean, into broad estuaries; up these watercourses
+coasting vessels of shallow draught can sail to the very foot of the
+mountains and take in their cargo. [Soil and sea alike productive.] The
+fertility of the soil is unsurpassed; both the sea around the coasts
+and the inland lakes swarm with fish and shell-fish, while in the whole
+archipelago there is scarcely a wild beast to be found. It seems that
+only two civets happen to appear: Miro (paradoxurus philippinensis
+Tem.) and galong (viverra tangalunga Gray). Luzon surpasses all the
+other islands, not only in size, but in importance; and its fertility
+and other natural superiority well entitle it to be called, as it is
+by Crawfurd, "the most beautiful spot in the tropics."
+
+[Luzon.] The mainland of the isle of Luzon stretches itself in a
+compact long quadrangle, twenty-five miles broad, from 18° 40' north
+latitude to the Bay of Manila (14° 30'); and then projects, amid
+large lakes and deep creeks, a rugged promontory to the east, joined
+to the main continent by but two narrow isthmuses which stretch east
+and west of the large inland Lagoon of Bay. Many traces of recent
+upheavals betoken that the two portions were once separated and
+formed two distinct islands. The large eastern promontory, well-nigh
+as long as the northern portion, is nearly cut in half by two deep
+bays, which, starting from opposite points on the south-eastern
+and north-western coasts, almost merge their waters in the center
+of the peninsula; the Bay of Ragay, and the Bay of Sogod. In fact,
+the southern portion of Luzon may be better described as two small
+peninsulas lying next to one another in parallel positions, and joined
+together by a narrow neck of land scarcely three miles broad. Two small
+streams which rise nearly in the same spot and pour themselves into
+the two opposite gulfs, make the separation almost complete, and form
+at the same time the boundary between the province of Tayabas on the
+west, and that of Camarines on the east. The western portion, indeed,
+consists almost entirely of the first-named district, and the eastern
+is divided into the provinces of North Camarines, South Camarines,
+and Albay. The first of these three is divided from Tayabas by the
+boundary already mentioned, and from South Camarines by a line drawn
+from the southern shore of the Bay of San Miguel on the north to the
+opposite coast. The eastern extremity of the peninsula forms the
+province of Albay; separated from South Camarines by a line which
+runs from Donzol, on the south coast, northwards across the volcano
+of Mayon, and which then, inclining to the west, reaches the northern
+shore. A look at the map will make these explanations clearer.
+
+[The monsoons.] There are two seasons in the Philippines, the wet and
+the dry. The south-west monsoon brings the rainy season, at the time of
+our summer, to the provinces which lie exposed to the south and west
+winds. On the northern and eastern coasts the heaviest downpours take
+place (in our winter months) during the north-eastern monsoons. The
+ruggedness of the country and its numerous mountains cause, in
+certain districts, many variations in these normal meteorological
+conditions. The dry season lasts in Manila from November till June
+(duration of the north-east monsoon); rain prevails during the
+remaining months (duration of the south-west monsoon). The heaviest
+rainfall occurs in September; March and April are frequently free from
+rain. From October to February inclusively the weather is cool and dry
+(prevalence of N.W., N., and N.E. winds); March, April, and May are
+warm and dry (prevalence of E.N.E., E., and E.S.E. winds); and from
+June till the end of September it is humid and moderately warm.
+
+There has been an observatory for many years past in Manila under
+the management of the Jesuits. The following is an epitome of the
+yearly meteorological report for 1867, for which I am indebted to
+Professor Dove:
+
+Barometrical readings.--The average height of the mercury was, in 1867,
+755.5; in 1865, 754.57; and in 1866, 753.37 millimeters.
+
+In 1867 the difference between the highest and lowest barometrical
+readings was not more than 13.96 millimetres, and would have been
+much less if the mercury had not been much depressed by storms in July
+and September. The hourly variations amounted to very few millimeters.
+
+Daily reading of the barometer.--The mercury rises in the early morning
+till about 9 a.m., it then falls up to 3 or 4 p.m., from then it rises
+again till 9 p.m., and then again falls till towards day-break. Both
+the principal atmospheric currents prevalent in Manila exercise
+a great influence over the mercury in the barometer; the northern
+current causes it to rise (to an average height of 756 millimeters),
+the southern causes it to fall (to about 753 millimeters).
+
+Temperature.--The heat increases from January till the end of May,
+and then decreases till December. Average yearly temperature, 27.9°
+C. The highest temperature ever recorded (on the 15th of April at 3
+p.m.) was 37.7° C.; the lowest (on the 14th of December and on the
+30th of January at 6 a.m.), 19.4° C. Difference, 18.3° C. [59]
+
+Thermometrical variations.--The differences between the highest
+and lowest readings of the thermometer were, in January, 13.9°;
+in February, 14.2°; in March, 15°; in April, 14.6°; in May, 11.1°;
+in June, 9.9°; in July, 9°; in August, 9°; in September, 10°; in
+October, 11.9°; in November, 11.8°; and in December, 11.7°.
+
+Coolest months.--November, December and January, with northerly winds.
+
+Hottest months.--April and May. Their high temperature is caused by
+the change of monsoon from the north-east to the south-west. The
+state of the temperature is most normal from June to September;
+the variations are least marked during this period owing to the
+uninterrupted rainfall and the clouded atmosphere.
+
+Daily variations of the thermometer.--The coolest portion of the day
+is from 6 to 7 a.m.; the heat gradually increases, reaches its maximum
+about 2 or 3 p.m., and then again gradually decreases. During some
+hours of the night the temperature remains unchanged, but towards
+morning it falls rapidly.
+
+[Winds.] The direction of the wind is very regular at all seasons
+of the year, even when local causes make it vary a little. In the
+course of a twelvemonth the wind goes around the whole compass. In
+January and February north winds prevail; in March and April they blow
+from the south-east; and in May, June, July, August, and September,
+from the south-west. In the beginning of October they vary between
+south-east and south-west, and settle down towards the close of the
+month in the north-east, in which quarter they remain tolerably fixed
+during the two following months. The two changes of monsoon always
+take place in April and May, and in October. As a rule, the direction
+of both monsoons preserves its equilibrium; but in Manila, which is
+protected towards the north by a high range of hills, the north-east
+monsoon is often diverted to the south-east and north-west. The same
+cause gives greater force to the south-west wind.
+
+[Sunshine and rain.] The sky is generally partially clouded; entirely
+sunny days are of rare occurrence, in fact, they only occur from
+January to April during the north-east monsoons. Number of rainy days
+in the year, 168. The most continuous and heaviest rain falls from
+June till the end of October. During this period the rain comes down
+in torrents; in September alone the rainfall amounted to 1.5 meters,
+nearly as much as falls in Berlin in the course of the whole year,
+3,072.8 millimeters of rain fell in the twelve month; but this is
+rather more than the average.
+
+The evaporation only amounted to 2,307.3 millimeters; in ordinary
+years it is generally about equal to the downfall, taking the early
+averages, not those of single months.
+
+The average daily evaporation was about 6.3 millimeters.
+
+[Storms.] The changes of monsoons are often accompanied with tremendous
+storms; during one of these, which occurred in September, the velocity
+of the wind was as much as thirty-seven or thirty-eight meters per
+second. An official report of the English vice-consul mentions a
+typhoon which visited the Islands on September 27, 1865, and which
+did much damage at Manila, driving seventeen vessels ashore.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+[Provinces and districts.] The Philippines are divided into provinces
+(P), and districts (D), each of which is administered by an alcalde of
+the 1st (A1), 2nd (A2), or 3rd class (A3) (de termino, de ascenso, de
+entrada); by a political and military governor (G), or by a commandant
+(C). In some provinces an alcalde of the 3rd class is appointed as
+coadjutor to the governor. These divisions are frequently changed.
+
+[Population.] The population is estimated approximately at about
+five millions.
+
+[Language and dialects.] In spite of the long possessions of the
+Islands by the Spaniards their language has scarcely acquired any
+footing there. A great diversity of languages and dialects prevails;
+amongst them the Bisayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicol, Pangasinan, and
+Pampangan are the most important.
+
+[Luzon Provinces and their languages and populations.]
+
+Island of Luzon
+
+Rank of     Rank of     Name            Prevailing  Population  Pueblos
+Official    District                    Dialect
+
+G.          P.          Abra            Ilocano         34,337        5
+A1.         P.          Albay           Bicol          330,121       34
+A2.         P.          Bataan          Tagalog,
+                                        Pampangan       44,794       10
+A1.         P.          Batangas        Tagalog        280,100
+            D.          Benguet         Igorot,
+                                        Ilocano,
+                                        Pangasinan       8,465
+            D.          Bontoc          Suflin,
+                                        Ilocano,
+                                        Igorot           7,052
+A1.         P.          Bulacan         Tagalog        240,341       23
+A1.         P.          Cagayan         Ibanag,
+                                        Itanes,
+                                        Idayan,
+                                        Gaddan,
+                                        Ilocano,
+                                        Dadaya,
+                                        Apayao,
+                                        Malaneg         64,437       16
+A2.         P.          Camarines Norte Tagalog,
+                                        Bicol           25,372        7
+A2(?)       P.          Camarines Sur   Bicol           81,047       31
+A3.         P.          Cavite          Spanish,
+                                        Tagalog        109,501       17
+A1.         P.          Ilocos Norte    Ilocano,
+                                        Tinguian       134,767       12
+A1.         P.          Ilocos Sur      Ilocano        105,251       18
+C.          D.          Infanta         Tagalog          7,813        2
+G.          P.          Isabela         Ibanag,
+                                        Gaddan,
+                                        Tagalog         29,200        9
+A1.         P.          Laguna          Tagalog,
+                                        Spanish        121,251       25
+            D.          Lepanto         Igorot,
+                                        Ilocano          8,851       48
+3A1.        P.          Manila          Tagalog,
+                                        Spanish,
+                                        Chinese        323,683       23
+C.          D.          Morong          Tagalog         44,239       12
+A2.         P.          Nueva Ecija     Tagalog,
+                                        Pangasinan,
+                                        Pampangan,
+                                        Ilocano         84,520       12
+A3.         P.          Nueva Vizcaya   Gaddan,
+                                        Ifugao,
+                                        Ibilao,
+                                        Ilongote        32,961        8
+A1.         P.          Pampanga        Pampangan,
+                                        Ilocano        193,423       24
+A1.         P.          Pangasinan      Pangasinan,
+                                        Ilocano        253,472       25
+            D.          Porac           Pampangan        6,950        1
+C.          D.          Principe        Tagalog,
+                                        Ilocano,
+                                        Ilongote         3,609        3
+            D.          Saltan          Gaddan           6,540
+A2.         P.          Tayabas         Tagalog,
+                                        Bicol           93,918       17
+            D.          Tiagan          Different
+                                        Igorot
+                                        dialects         5,723
+G.          P.          Union           Ilocano         88,024       11
+A2.         P.          Zambales        Zambal,
+                                        Ilocano,
+                                        Acta,
+                                        Pampangan,
+                                        Tagalog,
+                                        Pangasinan      72,936       16
+
+
+[Bisayas.]
+
+Islands between Luzon and Mindanao
+
+G a3.       P.          Antique (Panay) Bisayan         88,874       13
+G a3.       P.          Bohol           Bisayan        187,327       26
+            C.          Burias          Bicol            1,786        1
+G a3.       P.          Capiz (Panay)   Bisayan        206,288       26
+G a2.       P.          Cebu            Bisayan        318,715       44
+G a3.       P.          Iloilo (Panay)  Bisayan        565,500       35
+G a3.       P.          Leyte           Bisayan        170,591       28
+            D.          Masbate, Ticao  Bisayan         12,457        9
+A2.         P.          Mindoro         Tagalog         23,050       10
+G a3.       P.          Negros          Cebuan,
+                                        Panayan,
+                                        Bisayan        144,923       31
+            D.          Romblon         Bisayan         21,579        4
+G a3.       P.          Samar           Bisayan        146,539       28
+
+
+[Mindanao.]
+
+Mindanao
+            D.          Cotabato        Spanish,
+                                        Manobo           1,103        1
+G a3.       D.          Misamis (J)     Bisayan         63,639       14
+G a3.       D.          Surigao (J)                     24,104       12
+            D.          Zamboanga (J)   Mandaya,
+                                        Spanish          9,608        2
+G a3.       D.          Davao           Bisayan          1,537
+
+
+[Outlying Islands.]
+
+Distant Islands
+
+G a3.       P.          Batanes         Ibanag           8,381        6
+G a3.       P.          Calamianes      Coyuvo,
+                                        Agutaino Calamiano 17,703     5
+G.          P.          Marianas        Chamorro, Carolino 5,940      6
+
+
+[Unreliability of government reports.] The statistics of the above
+table are taken from a small work, by Sr. [Vicente] Barrantes,
+the Secretary-General of the Philippines; but I have arranged
+them differently to render them more easily intelligible to the
+eye. Although Sr. Barrantes had the best official materials at his
+disposal, too much value must not be attributed to his figures,
+for the sources from which he drew them are tainted with errors
+to an extent that can hardly be realized in Europe. For example,
+he derives the following contradictory statements from his official
+sources:--The population of Cavite is set down as 115,300 and 65,225;
+that of Mindoro as 45,630, and 23,054; that of Manila as 230,443,
+and 323,683; and that of Capiz as 788,947, and 191,818.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+[To Bulacan by steamer.]  My first excursion was to the province of
+Bulacan, on the northern shore of the Bay of Manila. A couple of
+hours brought the steamer to the bar of Binuanga (not Bincanga as
+it is called in Coello's map), and a third to Bulacan, the capital
+of the province, situated on the flat banks of an influent of the
+Pampanga delta. I was the only European passenger, the others were
+composed of Tagalogs, mestizos, and a few Chinese; the first more
+particularly were represented by women, who are generally charged with
+the management of all business affairs, for which they are much better
+fitted than the men. As a consequence, there are usually more women
+than men seen in the streets, and it appears to be an admitted fact
+that the female births are more numerous than the male. According,
+however, to the church-record which I looked through, the reverse was,
+at any rate in the eastern provinces, formerly the case.
+
+[Carromatas.]  At the landing-place a number of carromatas were waiting
+for us,--brightly painted, shallow, two-wheeled boxes, provided with
+an awning, and harnessed to a couple of horses, in which strangers
+with money to spend are quickly driven anywhere they may desire.
+
+[Town of Bulacan.]  The town of Bulacan contains from 11,000 to 12,000
+inhabitants; but a month before my arrival, the whole of it, with the
+exception of the church and a few stone houses, had been burnt to the
+ground. All were therefore occupied in building themselves new houses,
+which, oddly enough, but very practically, were commenced at the roof,
+like houses in a drawing. Long rows of roofs composed of palm-leaves
+and bamboos were laid in readiness on the ground, and in the meantime
+were used as tents.
+
+[Frequence of fires.]  Similar destructive fires are very common. The
+houses, which with few exceptions are built of bamboo and wood, become
+perfectly parched in the hot season, dried into so much touchwood by
+the heat of the sun. Their inhabitants are extremely careless about
+fire, and there are no means whatever of extinguishing it. If anything
+catches fire on a windy day, the entire village, as a rule, is utterly
+done for. During my stay in Bulacan, the whole suburb of San Miguel,
+in the neighborhood of Manila, was burnt down, with the exception of
+the house of a Swiss friend of mine, which owed its safety to the
+vigorous use of a private fire-engine, and the intermediation of a
+small garden full of bananas, whose stems full of sap stopped the
+progress of the flames.
+
+[To Calumpit by carriage.]  I travelled to Calumpit, a distance of
+three leagues, in the handsome carriage of an hospitable friend. The
+roads were good, and were continuously shaded by fruit-trees, coco and
+areca palms. The aspect of this fruitful province reminded me of the
+richest districts of Java; but the pueblos here exhibited more comfort
+than the desas there. The houses were more substantial; numerous roomy
+constructions of wood, in many cases, even, of stone, denoted in every
+island the residence of official and local magnates. But while even
+the poorer Javanese always give their wicker huts a smart appearance,
+border the roads of their villages with blooming hedges, and display
+everywhere a sense of neatness and cleanliness, there were here far
+fewer evidences of taste to be met with. I missed too the alun-alun,
+that pretty and carefully tended open square, which, shaded by waringa
+trees, is to be met with in every village in Java. And the quantity
+and variety of the fruit trees, under whose leaves the desas of Java
+are almost hidden, were by no means as great in this province, although
+it is the garden of the Philippines, as in its Dutch prototype.
+
+[Calumpit.]  I reached Calumpit towards evening, just as a procession,
+resplendent with flags and torches, and melodious with song, was
+marching round the stately church, whose worthy priest, on the strength
+of a letter of introduction from Madrid, gave me a most hospitable
+reception. Calumpit, a prosperous place of 12,250 inhabitants, is
+situated at the junction of the Quingua and Pampanga rivers, in an
+extremely fruitful plain, fertilized by the frequent overflowing of
+the two streams.
+
+[Mt. Arayat.]  About six leagues to the north-west of Calumpit,
+Mount Arayat, a lofty, isolated, conical hill, lifts its head. Seen
+from Calumpit, its western slope meets the horizon at an angle of 20°,
+its eastern at one of 25°; and the profile of its summit has a gentle
+inclination of from 4° to 5°.
+
+[Picking fish.]  At Calumpit I saw some Chinese catching fish in a
+peculiar fashion. Across the lower end of the bed of a brook which
+was nearly dried up, and in which there were only a few rivulets
+left running, they had fastened a hurdle of bamboo, and thrown up a
+shallow dam behind it. The water which collected was thrown over the
+dam with a long-handled winnowing shovel. The shovel was tied to a
+bamboo frame work ten feet high, the elasticity of which made the
+work much easier. As soon as the pool was emptied, the fisherman
+was easily able to pick out of the mud a quantity of small fish
+(Ophiocephalus vagus). These fishes, which are provided with peculiar
+organisms to facilitate respiration, at any rate, enabling them to
+remain for some considerable time on dry land, are in the wet season
+so numerous in the ditches, ponds, and rice-fields, that they can
+be killed with a stick. When the water sinks they also retire, or,
+according to Professor Semper, bore deeply into the ooze at the bottom
+of the watercourses, where, protected by a hard crust of earth from
+the persecutions of mankind, they sleep away the winter. This Chinese
+method of fishing seems well adapted to the habits of the fish. The
+circumstances that the dam is only constructed at the lower end of
+the watercourse, and that it is there that the fish are to be met
+with in the greatest numbers, seem to indicate that they can travel
+in the ooze, and that as the brooks and ditches get dried up, they
+seek the larger water channels.
+
+[To Baliwag.]  Following the Quingua in its upward and eastward
+course as it meandered through a well-cultivated and luxuriantly
+fertile country, past stone-built churches and chapels which grouped
+themselves with the surrounding palm-trees and bamboo-bushes into
+sylvan vignettes, Father Llano's four-horsed carriage brought me to
+the important town of Baliwag, the industry of which is celebrated
+beyond the limits of the province.
+
+[Board houses and their furniture.]  I visited several families and
+received a friendly reception from all of them. The houses were built
+of boards and were placed upon piles elevated five feet above the
+ground. Each consisted of a spacious dwelling apartment which opened on
+one side into the kitchen, and on the other on to an open space, the
+azotea; a lofty roof of palm-trees spread itself above the dwelling,
+the entrance to which was through the azotea. The latter was half
+covered by the roof I have just mentioned. The floor was composed
+of slats an inch in width, laid half that distance apart. Chairs,
+tables, benches, a cupboard, a few small ornaments, a mirror, and some
+lithographs in frames, composed the furniture of the interior. The
+cleanliness of the house and the arrangement of its contents testified
+to the existence of order and prosperity.
+
+[Tapis weaving.]  I found the women in almost all the houses occupied
+in weaving tapis, which have a great reputation in the Manila
+market. They are narrow, thickly-woven silk scarves, six varas in
+length, with oblique white stripes on a dark-brown ground. They are
+worn above the sarong.
+
+[Petaca cigar cases.]  Baliwag is also especially famous for its
+petaca [60]cigar-cases, which surpass all others in delicacy of
+workmanship. They are not made of straw, but of fine strips of Spanish
+cane, and particularly from the lower ends of the leaf-stalks of the
+calamusart, which is said to grow only in the province of Nueva Ecija.
+
+[Preparation of material.]  A bundle of a hundred selected stalks,
+a couple of feet long, costs about six reals. When these stalks have
+been split lengthways into four or five pieces, the inner wood is
+removed, till nothing but the outer part remains. The thin strips
+thus obtained are drawn by the hand between a convex block and a
+knife fixed in a sloping position, and between a couple of steel
+blades which nearly meet.
+
+[Costly weaving.]  It is a task requiring much patience and
+practice. In the first operation, as a rule, quite one-half of the
+stems are broken, and in the second more than half, so that scarcely
+twenty per cent of the stalks survive the final process. In very fine
+matting the proportionate loss is still greater. The plaiting is done
+on wooden cylinders. A case of average workmanship, which costs two
+dollars on the spot, can be manufactured in six days' uninterrupted
+labor. Cigar-cases of exceptionally intricate workmanship, made to
+order for a connoisseur, frequently cost upwards of fifty dollars.
+
+[Volcanic stone quarries.]  Following the Quingua from Baliwag up its
+stream, we passed several quarries, where we saw the thickly-packed
+strata of volcanic stone which is used as a building material. The
+banks of the river are thickly studded with prickly bamboos from
+ten to twelve feet high. The water overflows in the rainy season,
+and floods the plain for a great distance. Hence the many shells of
+large freshwater mussels which are to be seen lying on the earth which
+covers the volcanic deposit. The country begins to get hilly in the
+neighborhood of Tobog, a small place with no church of its own, and
+dependent for its services upon the priest of the next parish. The
+gentle slopes of the hills are, as in Java, cut into terraces and
+used for the cultivation of rice. Except at Lucban I have never
+observed similar sawas anywhere else in the Philippines. Several small
+sugar-fields, which, however, the people do not as yet understand
+how to manage properly, show that the rudiments of agricultural
+prosperity are already in existence. The roads are partly covered
+with awnings, beneath which benches are placed affording repose to
+the weary traveller. I never saw these out of this province. One
+might fancy oneself in one of the most fertile and thickly-populated
+districts of Java.
+
+[A convento and the parish priest.] I passed the night in a convento,
+as the dwelling of the parish priest is called in the Philippines. It
+was extremely dirty, and the priest, an Augustinian, was full of
+proselytish ardor. I had to undergo a long geographical examination
+about the difference between Prussia and Russia; was asked whether
+the great city of Nuremberg was the capital of the grand-duchy or of
+the empire of Russia; learnt that the English were on the point of
+returning to the bosom of the Catholic Church, and that the "others"
+would soon follow, and was, in short, in spite of the particular
+recommendation of Father Llanos, very badly received. Some little time
+afterwards I fell into the hands of two young Capuchins, who tried to
+convert me, but who, with the exception of this little impertinence,
+treated me capitally. They gave me pâtés de foie gras boiled in water,
+which I quickly recognized by the truffles swimming about in the
+grease. To punish them for their importunity I refrained from telling
+my hosts the right way to cook the pâtés, which I had the pleasure of
+afterwards eating in the forest, as I easily persuaded them to sell
+me the tins they had left. These are the only two occasions on which
+I was subjected to this kind of annoyance during my eighteen months'
+residence in the Philippines.
+
+[Arrangements for travellers.] The traveller who is provided
+with a passport is, however, by no means obliged to rely upon
+priestly hospitality, as he needs must do in many isolated parts of
+Europe. Every village, every hamlet, has its commonhouse, called casa
+real or tribunal, in which he can take up his quarters and be supplied
+with provisions at the market price, a circumstance that I was not
+acquainted with on the occasion of my first trip. The traveller is
+therefore in this respect perfectly independent, at least in theory,
+though in practice he will often scarcely be able to avoid putting
+up at the conventos in the more isolated parts of the country. In
+these the priest, perhaps the only white man for miles around, is
+with difficulty persuaded to miss the opportunity of housing such
+a rare guest, to whom he is only too anxious to give up the best
+bedroom in his dwelling, and to offer everything that his kitchen
+and cellar can afford. Everything is placed before the guest in such
+a spirit of sincere and undisguised friendliness, that he feels no
+obligation, but on the contrary easily persuades himself that he is
+doing his host a favor by prolonging his stay. Upon one occasion,
+when I had determined, in spite of an invitation from the padre,
+to occupy the casa real, just as I was beginning to instal myself,
+the priest appeared upon the scene with the municipal officials and a
+band of music which was in the neighborhood pending the preparations
+for a religious festival. He made them lift me up, chair and all,
+and with music and general rejoicing carried me off to his own house.
+
+[Kupang iron-foundry.] On the following day I paid a visit to Kupang,
+an iron-foundry lying to the N.N.E of Angat, escorted by two armed
+men, whose services I was pressed to accept, as the district had a bad
+reputation for robberies. After travelling three or four miles in a
+northerly direction, we crossed the Banauon, at that time a mere brook
+meandering through shingle, but in the rainy season an impetuous stream
+more than a hundred feet broad; and in a couple of hours we reached the
+iron-works, an immense shed lying in the middle of the forest, with
+a couple of wings at each end, in which the manager, an Englishman,
+who had been wrecked some years before in Samar, lived with his wife,
+a pretty mestiza. If I laid down my handkerchief, my pencil, or any
+other object, the wife immediately locked them up to protect them from
+the kleptomania of her servants. These poor people, whose enterprise
+was not a very successful one, had to lead a wretched life. Two years
+before my visit a band of twenty-seven robbers burst into the place,
+sacked the house, and threw its mistress, who was alone with her
+maid at the time, out of the window. She fortunately alighted without
+receiving any serious hurt, but the maid, whom terror caused to jump
+out of the window also, died of the injuries she received. The robbers,
+who turned out to be miners and residents in Angat, were easily caught,
+and, when I was there, had already spent a couple of years in prison
+awaiting their trial.
+
+[A negrito family.] I met a negrito family here who had friendly
+relations with the people in the iron-works, and were in the habit
+of exchanging the produce of the forest with them for provisions. The
+father of this family accompanied me on a hunting expedition. He was
+armed with a bow and a couple of arrows. The arrows had spear-shaped
+iron points a couple of inches long; one of them had been dipped
+into arrow-poison, a mixture that looked like black tar. The women
+had guitars (tabaua) similar to those used by the Mintras in the
+Malay peninsula. They were made of pieces of bamboo a foot long,
+to which strings of split chair-cane were fastened. [61]
+
+[Unwelcome hospitality.] Upon my return, to avoid spending the night
+at the wretched convento where I had left my servant with my luggage,
+I took the advice of my friends at the iron-works and started late,
+in order to arrive at the priest's after ten o'clock at night; for
+I knew that the padre shut up his house at ten, and that I could
+therefore sleep, without offending him, beneath the roof of a wealthy
+mestizo, an acquaintance of theirs. About half-past ten I reached
+the latter's house, and sat down to table with the merry women of
+the family, who were just having their supper. Suddenly my friend the
+parson made his appearance from an inner room, where with a couple of
+Augustinian friars, he had been playing cards with the master of the
+house. He immediately began to compliment me upon my good fortune,
+"for had you been but one minute later," said he, "you certainly
+wouldn't have got into the convento."
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+[The Lagoon of Bay.] My second trip took me up the Pasig to the great
+Lagoon of Bay. I left Manila at night in a banca, a boat hollowed out
+of a tree-trunk, with a vaulted roof made of bamboo and so low that it
+was almost impossible to sit upright under it, which posture, indeed,
+the banca-builder appeared to have neglected to consider. A bamboo
+hurdle placed at the bottom of the boat protects the traveller from
+the water and serves him as a couch. Jurien de la Gravière [62]
+compares the banca to a cigar-box, in which the traveller is so
+tightly packed that he would have little chance of saving his life
+if it happened to upset. The crew was composed of four rowers and
+a helmsman; their daily pay was five reals apiece, in all nearly
+seven pesos, high wages for such lazy fellows in comparison with
+the price of provisions, for the rice that a hard-working man ate in
+a day seldom cost more than seven centavos (in the provinces often
+scarcely six), and the rest of his food (fish and vegetables), only
+one centavo. We passed several villages and tiendas on the banks in
+which food was exposed for sale. My crew, after trying to interrupt
+the journey under all sorts of pretences, left the boat as we came to
+a village, saying that they were going to fetch some sails; but they
+forgot to return. At last, with the assistance of the night watchman
+I succeeded in hauling them out of some of their friends' houses,
+where they had concealed themselves. After running aground several
+times upon the sandbanks, we entered the land and hill-locked Lagoon
+of Bay, and reached Jalajala early in the morning.
+
+[The Pasig.] The Pasig forms a natural canal, about six leagues long,
+between the Bay of Manila and the Lagoon of Bay, a fresh water lake,
+thirty-five leagues in circumference, that washes the shores of three
+fertile provinces, Manila, Laguna and Cavite. Formerly large vessels
+full of cargo used to be able to sail right up to the borders of the
+lake; now they are prevented by sandbanks. Even flat-bottomed boats
+frequently run aground on the Napindan and Taguig banks. [63] Were
+the banks removed, and the stone bridge joining Manila to Binondo
+replaced by a swing bridge, or a canal made round it, the coasting
+vessels would be able to ship the produce of the lagoon provinces
+at the very foot of the fields in which they grow. The traffic would
+be very profitable, the waters would shrink, and the shallows along
+the shore might be turned into rice and sugar fields. A scheme of
+this kind was approved more than thirty years ago in Madrid, but it
+was never carried into execution. The sanding up of the river has,
+on the contrary, been increased by a quantity of fish reels, the
+erection of which has been favored by the Colonial Waterways Board
+because it reaped a small tax from them.
+
+[A famous plantation.] Jalajala, an estate which occupies the eastern
+of the two peninsulas which run southward into the lake, is one of
+the first places visited by strangers. It owes this preference to
+its beautiful position and nearness to Manila, and to the fantastic
+description of it by a former owner, De la Gironnière. The soil
+of the peninsula is volcanic; its range of hills is very rugged,
+and the watercourses bring down annually a quantity of soil from the
+mountains, which increases the deposits at their base. The shore-line,
+overgrown with grass and prickly sensitive-plants quite eight feet
+high, makes capital pasture for carabaos. Behind it broad fields of
+rice and sugar extend themselves up to the base of the hills. Towards
+the north the estate is bounded by the thickly-wooded Sembrano,
+the highest mountain in the peninsula; on the remaining sides it
+is surrounded with water. With the exception of the flat shore, the
+whole place is hilly and overgrown with grass and clumps of trees,
+capital pasture for its numerous herds--a thousand carabaos, one
+thousand five hundred to two thousand bullocks, and from six to seven
+hundred nearly wild horses. As we were descending one of the hills,
+we were suddenly surrounded by half-a-dozen armed men, who took us
+for cattle-thieves, but who, to their disappointment, were obliged
+to forego their expected chance of a reward.
+
+[Los Baños hot springs.] Beyond Jalajala, on the south coast of
+the Lagoon of Bay, lies the hamlet of Los Baños, so called from a
+hot spring at the foot of the Makiling volcano. Even prior to the
+arrival of the Spaniards, the natives used its waters as a remedy,
+[64] but they are now very little patronized. The shore of the lake is
+at this point, and indeed all round its circumference, so flat that it
+is impossible to land with dry feet from the shallowest canoe. It is
+quite covered with sand mussels. North-west of Los Baños there lies
+a small volcanic lake fringed with thick woods, called Dagatan (the
+enchanted lagoon of travellers), to distinguish it from Dagât, as the
+Tagals call the great Lagoon of Bay. I saw nothing of the crocodiles
+which are supposed to infest it, but we flushed several flocks of wild
+fowl, disturbed by our invasion of their solitude. From Los Baños I had
+intended to go to Lupang Puti (white earth), where, judging from the
+samples shown me, there is a deposit of fine white silicious earth,
+which is purified in Manila and used as paint. I did not reach the
+place, as the guide whom I had with difficulty obtained, pretended,
+after a couple of miles, to be dead beat. From the inquiries I made,
+however, I apprehend that it is a kind of solfatara. Several deposits
+of it appear to exist at the foot of the Makiling. [65]
+
+[Talim island.] On my return I paid a visit to the Island of
+Talim, which, with the exception of a clearing occupied by a few
+miserable huts, is uninhabited and thickly overgrown with forest and
+undergrowth. In the center of the Island is the Susong-Dalaga (maiden's
+bosom), a dolerite hill with a beautifully formed crest. Upon the
+shore, on a bare rock, I found four eggs containing fully developed
+young crocodiles. When I broke the shells the little reptiles made off.
+
+[M. de la Gironnière.] Although the south-west monsoons generally occur
+later in Jalajala than in Manila, it was already raining so hard that
+I decided to go to Calauan, on the southern shore of the lake, which
+is protected by Mount Makiling, and does not experience the effect of
+the rainy monsoons till later in the season. I met M. de la Gironnière
+in Calauan, the "gentilhomme Breton" who is so well known for telling
+the most terrible adventures. He had lately returned from Europe to
+establish a large sugar manufactory. His enterprise, however, was a
+failure. The house of the lively old gentleman, whose eccentricity
+had led him to adopt the dress and the frugal habits of the natives,
+was neither clean or well kept, although he had a couple of friends
+to assist him in the business, a Scotchman, and a young Frenchman
+who had lived in the most refined Parisian society.
+
+[Llanura de Imuc.] There were several small lakes and a few empty
+volcanic basins on the estate. To the south-west, not very far
+from the house, and to the left of the road leading to San Pablo,
+lies the Llanura de Imuc, a valley of dolerite more than a hundred
+feet deep. Large blocks of basalt enable one to climb down into the
+valley, the bottom of which is covered with dense growths. The center
+of the basin is occupied by a neglected coffee plantation laid out
+by a former proprietor. The density of the vegetation prevented my
+taking more precise observations. There is another shallower volcanic
+crater to the north of it. Its soil was marshy and covered with cane
+and grass, but even in the rainy season it does not collect sufficient
+water to turn it into a lake. It might, therefore, be easily drained
+and cultivated. To the south-west of this basin, and to the right
+of the road to San Pablo, lies the [Tigui-mere.] Tigui-mere. From a
+plain of whitish-grey soil, covered with concentric shells as large
+as a nut, rises a circular embankment with gently-sloping sides,
+intersected only by a small cleft which serves as an entrance, and
+which shows, on its edges denuded of vegetation, the loose rapilli of
+which the embankment is formed. The sides of this natural amphitheatre
+tower more than a hundred feet above its flat base. A path runs east
+and west right through the center. The northern half is studded with
+cocopalm trees and cultivated plants; the southern portion is full of
+water nearly covered with green weeds and slime. The ground consists
+of black rapilli.
+
+[Leaf imprints in lava.]  From the Tigui-mere I returned to the
+hacienda a bank formed of volcanic lava two feet in thickness
+and covered with indistinct impressions of leaves. Their state of
+preservation did not allow me to distinguish their species, but they
+certainly belonged to some tropical genus, and are, according to
+Professor A. Braun, of the same kind as those now growing there.
+
+There are two more small lakes half a league to the south-east. The
+road leading to them is composed of volcanic remains which cover the
+soil, and large blocks of lava lie in the bed of the stream.
+
+[Maycap Lake.]  The first of the two, the Maycap Lake, is entirely
+embanked with the exception of a small opening fitted with sluices
+to supply water to a canal; and from its northern side, which alone
+admits of an open view, the southern peak of San Cristobal may
+be seen, about 73° to the north-east. Its banks, which are about
+eighty feet high, rise with a gentle slope in a westerly direction,
+till they join Mount Maiba, a hill about 500 feet high. The soil,
+like that of the embankments of the other volcanic lakes, consists
+of rapilli and lava, and is thickly wooded.
+
+[Lake Palakpakan.]  Close by is another lake, Palakpakan, of nearly
+the same circumference, and formed in a similar manner (of black
+sand and rapilli). Its banks are from thirty to one hundred feet
+high. From its north-western edge San Cristobal lifts its head 70° to
+the northeast. Its waters are easily reached, and are much frequented
+by fishermen.
+
+[Palm brandy.]  About nine o'clock, a.m., I rode from Calauan to Pila,
+and thence in a northeasterly direction to Santa Cruz, over even,
+broad, and well-kept roads, through a palm-grove a mile long and a
+mile and a half broad, which extends down to the very edge of the
+lagoons. The products of these palm trees generally are not used
+for the production of oil but for the manufacture of brandy. Their
+fruit is not allowed to come to maturity; but the buds are slit open,
+and the sweet sap is collected  as it drips from them. It is then
+allowed to ferment, and subjected to distillation. [66] As the sap
+is collected twice a day, and as the blossoms, situated at the top
+of the tree, are forty or fifty feet above the ground, bamboos are
+fastened horizontally, one above the other, from one tree to another,
+to facilitate the necessary ascent and descent. The sap collector
+stands on the lower cross-piece while he holds on to the upper.
+
+[Bought by government.] The sale of palm-brandy was at the time of my
+visit the monopoly of the government, which retailed it in the Estanco
+(government sale rooms) with cigars, stamped paper, and religious
+indulgences. The manufacture was carried on by private individuals;
+but the whole of the brandy was of necessity disposed of to the
+administration, which, however, paid such a high price for it that
+the contractors made large profits.
+
+[Profit in manufacture.] I afterwards met a Spaniard in Camarines who,
+according to his own account, must have made considerable and easy
+gains from these contracts. He had bought palm-trees at an average
+price of five reals apiece (they usually cost more, though they can
+be sometimes purchased for two reals). Thirty-five palms will furnish
+daily at least thirty-six quarts of tuba (sugar-containing sap), from
+which, after fermentation and distillation, six quarts of brandy of
+the prescribed strength can be manufactured. One man is sufficient to
+attend to them, and receives for his trouble half the proceeds. The
+administration pays six cuartos for a quart of brandy. My friend the
+contractor was in annual receipt, therefore, from every thirty-five
+of his trees, of 360 × 1/2 × 5 cuartos = $40.50. As the thirty-five
+trees only cost him $21.875, his invested capital brought him in
+about 200 per cent.
+
+[Wine and liquor monopoly a failure.]  The proceeds of this monopoly
+(wines and liquors) were rated at $1,622,810 in the colonial budget for
+1861; but its collection was so difficult, and so disproportionately
+expensive, that it nearly swallowed up the whole profit. It caused
+espionage, robberies of all sorts, embezzlement, and bribery on a
+large scale. The retail of the brandy by officials, who are paid by a
+percentage on the consumption, did a good deal to injure the popular
+respect for the government. Moreover, the imposition of this improper
+tax on the most important industry of the country not only crippled
+the free trade in palms, but also the manufacture of raw sugar;
+for the government, to favor their own monopoly, had forbidden the
+sugar manufacturers to make rum from their molasses, which became
+in consequence so valueless that in Manila they gave it to their
+horses. The complaints of the manufacturers at last stirred up the
+administration to allow the manufacture of rum; but the palm-brandy
+monopoly remained intact. The Filipinos now drank nothing but rum,
+so that at last, in self-defence, the government entirely abandoned
+the monopoly (January, 1864). Since that, the rum manufacturers pay
+taxes according to the amount of their sale, but not upon the amount
+of their raw produce. In order to cover the deficit occasioned by
+the abandonment of the brandy monopoly, the government has made a
+small increase in the poll-tax. The practice of drinking brandy has
+naturally much increased; it is, however, a very old habit. [67] With
+this exception, the measure has had the most favorable consequences.
+
+[Santa Cruz.]  Santa Cruz is a lively, prosperous place (in 1865 it
+contained 11,385 inhabitants), through the center of which runs a
+river. As the day on which we passed through it was Sunday, the stream
+was full of bathers, amongst them several women, their luxuriant hair
+covered with broad-brimmed hats to shade them from the sun. From the
+ford the road takes a sharp turn and inclines first to the east and
+then to the south-east, till it reaches Magdalena, between which and
+Majaijai the country becomes hilly. Just outside the latter, a viaduct
+takes the road across a deep ravine full of magnificent ferns, which
+remind the traveller of the height--more than 600 feet--above the sea
+level to which he has attained. The spacious convento at Majaijai,
+built by the Jesuits, is celebrated for its splendid situation. The
+Lagoon of Bay is seen to extend far to the north-east; in the distance
+the Peninsula of Jalajala and the Island of Talim, from which rises
+the Susong-Dalaga volcano, terminate the vista. From the convento to
+the lake stretches an endless grove of coco-trees, while towards the
+south the slope of the distant high ground grows suddenly steeper,
+and forms an abruptly precipitous conical hill, intersected by deep
+ravines. This is the Banajao or Majaijai volcano, and beside it Mount
+San Cristobal rears its bell-shaped summit.
+
+[Scenery along Lucban-Maubon road.] As everybody was occupied with
+the preparations for an ensuing religious festival, I betook myself,
+through Lucban on the eastern shore, to Mauban, situated amidst
+deep ravines and masses of lava at the foot of Mount Majaijai. The
+vegetation was of indescribable beauty, and the miserable road
+was enlivened with cheerful knots of pedestrians hastening to the
+festival. [68]
+
+[Lucban.] I reached Lucban in three hours; it is a prosperous place
+of 13,000 inhabitants, to the north-east of Majaijai. A year after my
+visit it burnt to the ground. The agricultural produce of the district
+is not very important, owing to the mountainous nature of the country;
+but considerable industrial activity prevails there. The inhabitants
+weave fine straw hats from the fibre of the leaf of the buri palm-tree
+(corypha sp.), manufacture pandanus mats, and carry on a profitable
+trade at Mauban with the placer miners of North Camarines. The entire
+breadth of the road is covered with cement, and along its center flows,
+in an open channel, a sparkling rivulet.
+
+[Java-like rice fields.] The road from Lucban to Mauban, which is
+situated on the bay of Lamon, opposite to the Island of Alabat, winds
+along the narrow watercourse of the Mapon river, through deep ravines
+with perpendicular cliffs of clay. I observed several terrace-formed
+rice-fields similar to those so prevalent in Java, an infrequent
+sight in the Philippines. Presently the path led us into the very
+thick of the forest. Nearly all the trees were covered with aroides
+and creeping ferns; amongst them I noticed the angiopteris, pandanus,
+and several large specimens of the fan palm.
+
+[Mapon river.]  Three leagues from Lucban the river flows under a rock
+supported on prismatically shaped pillars, and then runs through a
+bed of round pebbles, composed of volcanic stone and white lime, as
+hard as marble, in which impressions of shell-fish and coral can be
+traced. Further up the river the volcanic rubble disappears, and the
+containing strata then consist of the marble-like pebbles cemented
+together with calcareous spar. These strata alternate with banks of
+clay and coarse-grained soil, which contain scanty and badly preserved
+imprints of leaves and mussel-fish. Amongst them, however, I observed
+a flattened but still recognizable specimen of the fossil melania. The
+river-bed must be quite five hundred feet above the level of the sea.
+
+[Bamboo raft ferry.] About a league beyond Mauban, as it was getting
+dusk, we crossed the river, then tolerably broad, on a wretched leaking
+bamboo raft, which sank at least six inches beneath the water under
+the weight of our horses, and ran helplessly aground in the mud on
+the opposite side.
+
+[Visitors to festival.] The tribunal or common-house was crowded with
+people who had come to attend the festival which was to take place
+on the following day. The cabezas wore, in token of their dignity,
+a short jacket above their shirts. A quantity of brightly decorated
+tables laden with fruit and pastry stood against the walls, and in
+the middle of the principal room a dining-table was laid out for
+forty persons.
+
+[Hospitality of tribunal.] A European who travels without a
+servant--mine had run away with some wages I had rashly paid
+him in advance--is put down as a beggar, and I was overwhelmed
+with impertinent questions on the subject, which, however, I left
+unanswered. As I hadn't had the supper I stood considerably in need of,
+I took the liberty of taking a few savory morsels from the meatpot,
+which I ate in the midst of a little knot of wondering spectators;
+I then laid myself down to sleep on the bench beside the table, to
+which a second set of diners were already sitting down. When I awoke
+on the following morning there were already so many people stirring
+that I had no opportunity of performing my toilet. I therefore betook
+myself in my dirty travelling dress to the residence of a Spaniard who
+had settled in the pueblo, and who received me in the most hospitable
+manner as soon as the description in my passport satisfied him that
+I was worthy of a confidence not inspired by my appearance.
+
+[Trade in molaze.] My friendly host carried on no trifling
+business. Two English ships were at that moment in the harbor, which
+he was about to send to China laden with molave, a species of wood
+akin to teak.
+
+[Butucan waterfall.] On my return I visited the fine waterfall of
+Butucan, between Mauban and Lucban, a little apart from the high
+road. A powerful stream flows between two high banks of rocky
+soil thickly covered with vegetation, and, leaping from a ledge
+of volcanic rock suddenly plunges into a ravine, said to be three
+hundred and sixty feet in depth, along the bottom of which it is
+hurried away. The channel, however, is so narrow, and the vegetation
+so dense, that an observer looking at it from above can not follow
+its course. This waterfall has a great similarity to that which falls
+from the Semeru in Java. Here, as there, a volcanic stream flowing over
+vast rocky deposits forms a horizontal watercourse, which in its turn
+is overshadowed with immense masses of rock. The water easily forces
+its way between these till it reaches the solid lava, when it leaves
+its high, narrow, and thickly-wooded banks, and plunges into the deep
+chasm it has itself worn away. The pouring rain unfortunately prevented
+me from sketching this fine fall. It was raining when I reached the
+convento of Majaijai, and it was still raining when I left it three
+days later, nor was there any hope of improvement in the weather for
+another month to come. "The wet season lasts for eight or nine months
+in Majaijai, and during the whole period scarcely a day passes without
+the rain falling in torrents."--Estado geograph.
+
+[Majaijai.] To ascend the volcano was under such circumstances
+impracticable. According to some notes written by the Majaijai
+priest, an ascent and survey of Mount Banajao was made on the 22nd
+of April, 1858, by Senors Roldan and Montero, two able Spanish naval
+officers, specially charged with the revision of the marine chart
+of the archipelago. From its summit they took observations of Manila
+cathedral, of Mayon, another volcano in Albay, and of the Island of
+Polillo. They estimated the altitude of Banajao to be seven thousand
+and twenty Spanish feet, and the depth of its crater to be seven
+hundred. The crater formerly contained a lake, but the last eruption
+made a chasm in its southern side through which the water flowed
+away. [69]
+
+[Calauan.] I reached Calauan in the pouring rain, wading through the
+soft spongy clay upon wretched, half-starved ponies, and found I must
+put off my water journey to Manila till the following day, as there
+was no boat on the lake at this point. The next morning there were no
+horses to be found; and it was not till the afternoon that I procured
+a cart and a couple of carabaos to take me to Santa Cruz, whence in the
+evening the market-vessel started for Manila. One carabao was harnessed
+in front; the other was fastened behind the cart in order that I might
+have a change of animals when the first became tired. Carabao number
+one wouldn't draw, and number two acted as a drag--rather useless
+apparatus on a level road--so I changed them. As soon as number two
+felt the load it laid down. A few blows persuaded it to pick itself up,
+when it deliberately walked to the nearest pool and dropped into it. It
+was with the greatest trouble that we unharnessed the cart and pushed
+it back on to the road, while our two considerate beasts took a mud
+bath. At last we reloaded the baggage, the carabaos were reharnessed in
+the original positions, and the driver, leaning his whole weight upon
+the nose-rope of the leading beast, pulled with might and main. To my
+great delight the animal condescended to slowly advance with the cart
+and its contents. [Pila.] At Pila I managed to get a better team, with
+which late in the evening, in the midst of a pouring rain, I reached
+a little hamlet opposite Santa Cruz. The market-vessel had left; our
+attempts to get a boat to take us across to the village only led to
+barefaced attempts at extortion, so I entered one of the largest of the
+hamlet's houses, which was occupied by a widow and her daughter. After
+some delay my request for a night's lodging was granted. I sent for
+some oil, to give me a little light, and something to eat. The women
+brought in some of their relations, who helped to prepare the food
+and stopped in the house to protect its owners. The next morning
+I crossed the river, teeming with joyous bathers, to Santa Cruz,
+and hired a boat there to take me across the lake to Pasig, and from
+thence to Manila. A contrary wind, however, forced us to land on the
+promontory of Jalajala, and there wait for the calm that accompanies
+the dawn. [Earthquake evidences.] Betwixt the extreme southern point
+of the land and the houses I saw, in several places, banks of mussels
+projecting at least fifteen feet above the surface of the water,
+similar to those which are so frequently found on the sea-coast;--a
+proof that earthquakes have taken place in this neighborhood.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+[To Albay by schooner.] Towards the end of August I started from
+Manila for Albay in a schooner which had brought a cargo of hemp and
+was returning in ballast. It was fine when we set sail; but on the
+following day the signs of a coming storm increased so rapidly that
+the captain resolved to return and seek protection in the small but
+secure harbor of Mariveles, a creek on the southern shore of Bataan,
+the province forming the western boundary of Manila bay. We reached
+it about two o'clock in the night after cruising about for fourteen
+hours before the entrance; and we were obliged to remain here at anchor
+for a fortnight, as it rained and stormed continuously for that period.
+
+[Mariveles.] The weather obliged me to limit my excursions to the
+immediate neighborhood of Mariveles. Unfortunately it was not till the
+close of our stay that I learnt that there was a colony of negritos in
+the mountains; and it was not till just before my departure that I got
+a chance of seeing and sketching a couple of them, male and female. The
+inhabitants of Mariveles have not a very good reputation. The place
+is only visited by ships which run in there in bad weather, when
+their idle crews spend the time in drinking and gambling. Some of
+the young girls were of striking beauty and of quite a light color;
+often being in reality of mixed race, though they passed as of pure
+Tagal blood. This is a circumstance I have observed in many seaports,
+and in the neighborhood of Manila; but, in the districts which are
+almost entirely unvisited by the Spaniards, the natives are much
+darker and of purer race.
+
+[Storm-bound shipping.] The number of ships which were seeking
+protection from the weather in this port amounted to ten, of which
+three were schooners. Every morning regularly a small pontin [70]
+used to attempt to set sail; but it scarcely got a look at the
+open sea before it returned, when it was saluted with the jeers and
+laughter of the others. It was hunger that made them so bold. The
+crew, who had taken some of their own produce to Manila, had spent
+the proceeds of their venture, and had started on their return voyage
+scantily provided with provisions, with the hope and intention of soon
+reaching their home, which they could have done with any favorable
+wind. Such cases frequently occur. A few natives unite to charter
+a small vessel, and load it with the produce of their own fields,
+which they set off to sell in Manila.
+
+[The straits.] The straits between the Islands resemble beautiful
+wide rivers with charming spots upon the banks inhabited by small
+colonies; and the sailors generally find the weather gets squally
+towards evening, and anchor till the morning breaks.
+
+[Filipino hospitality.] The hospitable coast supplies them with fish,
+crabs, plenty of mussels, and frequently unprotected coconuts. If it
+is inhabited, so much the better. Filipino hospitality is ample, and
+much more comprehensive than that practised in Europe. The crews are
+accommodated in the different huts. After a repast shared in common,
+and washed down by copious draughts of palm-wine, mats are streched
+on the floor; the lamps--large shells, fitted with rush wicks--are
+extinguished, and the occupants of the hut fall asleep together. Once,
+as I was sailing into the bay of Manila after a five day's cruise, we
+overtook a craft which had sailed from the same port as we had with a
+cargo of coconut oil for Manila, and which had spent six months upon
+its trip. It is by no means uncommon for a crew which makes a long
+stay in the capital to squander the whole proceeds of their cargo,
+if they have not done it before reaching town.
+
+[Coasting Luzon.] At last one evening, when the storm had quite passed
+away, we sailed out of Mariveles. A small, volcanic, pillar-shaped
+rock, bearing a striking resemblance to the Island of the Cyclops,
+off the coast of Sicily, lies in front of the harbor--like there, a
+sharp pyramid and a small, flat island. We sailed along the coast of
+Cavite till we reached Point Santiago, the southwestern extremity of
+Luzon, and then turned to the east, through the fine straits that lie
+between Luzon to the north and the Bisayan islands to the south. As
+the sun rose, a beautiful spectacle presented itself. To the north
+was the peak of the Taal volcano, towering above the flat plains of
+Batangas; and to the south the thickly-wooded, but rock-bound coast
+of Mindoro, the iron line of which was broken by the harbor of Porto
+Galera, protected from the fury of the waves by a small islet lying
+immediately before it. The waters around us were thickly studded with
+vessels which had taken refuge from the storm in the Bisayan ports,
+and were now returning to Manila.
+
+[Importance of straits.] These straits, which extend from the
+south-east to the northwest, are the great commercial highway of
+the Archipelago, and remain navigable during the whole year, being
+protected from the fury of the north-easterly winds by the sheltering
+peninsula of Luzon, which projects to the south-east, and by Samar,
+which extends in a parallel direction; while the Bisayan islands
+shield them from the blasts that blow from the south-west. The
+Islands of Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Cebu and Bohol, which Nature has
+placed in close succession to each other, form the southern borders
+of the straits; and the narrow cross channels between them form as
+many outlets to the Sea of Mindoro, which is bounded on the west
+by Palawan, on the east by Mindanao, and on the south by the Sulu
+group. The eastern waters of the straits wash the coasts of Samar
+and Leyte, and penetrate through three small channels only to the
+great ocean; the narrow straits of San Bernardino, of San Juanico,
+and of Surigao. Several considerable, and innumerable smaller islets,
+lie within the area of these cursorily explained outlines.
+
+[Batangas coast.] A couple of bays on the south coast of Batangas
+offer a road-stead, though but little real protection, to passing
+vessels, which in stormy weather make for Porto Galera, in the Island
+of Mindoro, which lies directly opposite. A river, a league and a
+half in length, joins Taal, the principal port of the province, to
+the great inland sea of Taal, or Bombon. This stream was formerly
+navigable; but it has now become so sanded up that it is passable
+only at flood tides, and then only by very small vessels.
+
+[Batangas exports.] The province of Batangas supplies Manila with
+its best cattle, and exports sugar and coffee.
+
+A hilly range bounds the horizon on the Luzon side; the striking
+outlines of which enable one to conjecture its volcanic origin. Most
+of the smaller islands to the south appear to consist of superimposed
+mountainous ranges, terminating seaward in precipitous cliffs. The
+lofty and symmetrical peak of Mount Mayon is the highest point in the
+panoramic landscape. Towards evening we sighted Mount Bulusan, in the
+south-eastern extremity of Luzon; and presently we turned northwards,
+and sailed up the Straits of San Bernardino, which separate Luzon
+from Samar.
+
+[Bulusan like Vesuvius.] The Bulusan volcano, "which appears to have
+been for a long time extinct, but which again began to erupt in 1852,"
+[71] is surprisingly like Vesuvius in outline. It has, like its
+prototype, a couple of peaks. The western one, a bell-shaped summit,
+is the eruption cone. The eastern apex is a tall, rugged mound,
+probably the remains of a huge circular crater. As in Vesuvius, the
+present crater is in the center of the extinct one. The intervals
+between them are considerably larger and more uneven than the Atrio
+del Cavallo of the Italian volcano.
+
+[San Bernardino current.] The current is so powerful in the Straits
+of San Bernardino that we were obliged to anchor twice to avoid
+being carried back again. To our left we had continually in view the
+magnificent Bulusan volcano, with a hamlet of the same name nestling at
+the foot of its eastern slope in a grove of coco-trees, close to the
+sea. Struggling with difficulty against the force of the current, we
+succeeded, with the assistance of light and fickle winds, in reaching
+Legaspi, the port of Albay, on the following evening. Our skipper, a
+Spaniard, had determined to accomplish the trip as rapidly as possible.
+
+[A native captain.] On my return voyage, however, I fell into the hands
+of a native captain; and, as my cruise under his auspices presented
+many peculiarities, I may quote a few passages relating to it from
+my diary.... The skipper intended to have taken a stock of vegetables
+for my use, but he had forgotten them. He therefore landed on a small
+island, and presently made his reappearance with a huge palm cabbage,
+which, in the absence of its owner, he had picked from a tree he
+cut down for the purpose.... On another occasion the crew made a
+descent upon a hamlet on the north-western coast of Leyte to purchase
+provisions. Instead of laying in a stock for the voyage at Tacloban,
+the sailors preferred doing so at some smaller village on the shores
+of the straits, where food is cheaper, and where their landing gave
+them a pretext to run about the country. The straits of San Juanico,
+never more than a mile, and often only eight hundred feet broad,
+are about twenty miles in length: yet it often takes a vessel a week
+to sail up them; for contrary winds and an adverse current force it
+to anchor frequently and to lie to for whole nights in the narrower
+places. Towards evening our captain thought that the sky appeared
+very threatening, so he made for the bay of Navo, of Masbate. [An
+intermittent voyage.] There he anchored, and a part of the crew went
+on shore. The next day was a Sunday; the captain thought "the sky
+still appeared very threatening;" and besides he wanted to make some
+purchases. So we anchored again off Magdalena, where we passed the
+night. On Monday a favorable wind took us, at a quicker rate, past
+Marinduque and the rocky islet of Elefante, which lies in front of
+it. Elefante appears to be an extinct volcano; it looks somewhat like
+the Iriga, but is not so lofty. It is covered with capital pasture,
+and its ravines are dotted with clumps of trees. Nearly a thousand
+head of half-wild cattle were grazing on it. They cost four dollars
+a-piece; and their freight to Manila is as much more, where they sell
+for sixteen dollars. They are badly tended, and many are stolen by
+the passing sailors. My friend the captain was full of regret that the
+favorable wind gave him no opportunity of landing; perhaps I was the
+real obstacle. "They were splendid beasts! How easy it would be to put
+a couple on board! They could scarcely be said to have any real owners;
+the nominal proprietors were quite unaware how many they possessed,
+and the herd was continually multiplying without any addition from its
+masters. A man lands with a little money in his pocket. If he meets a
+herdsman, he gives him a dollar, and the poor creature thinks himself
+a lucky fellow. If not, so much the better. He can do the business
+himself; a barrel of shot or a sling suffices to settle the matter."
+
+[Plunder.] As we sailed along we saw coming towards us another vessel,
+the Luisa, which suddenly executed a very extraordinary tack; and in a
+minute or two its crew sent up a loud shout of joy, having succeeded
+in stealing a fishbox which the fishermen of Marinduque had sunk in
+the sea. They had lowered a hook, and been clever enough to grapple
+the rope of the floating buoy. Our captain was beside himself with
+envy of their prize.
+
+[Legaspi.] Legaspi is the principal port of the province of Albay. Its
+road-stead, however, is very unsafe, and, being exposed to the
+north-easterly storms, is perfectly useless during the winter. The
+north-east wind is the prevailing one on this coast; the south-west
+breeze only blows in June and July. The heaviest storms occur between
+October and January. They generally set in with a gentle westerly wind,
+accompanied with rain. The gale presently veers round to the north
+or the south, and attains the height of its fury when it reaches
+the north-east or the south-east. After the storm a calm generally
+reigns, succeeded by the usual wind of the prevailing monsoon. The
+lightly-built elastic houses of the country are capitally suited
+to withstand these storms; but roofs and defective houses are
+frequently carried away. The traffic between Manila and Legaspi is
+at its height between January and October; but during the autumn
+months all communication by water ceases. The letter-post, which
+arrives pretty regularly every week, is then the only link between
+the two places. At this season heavy packages can be sent only by
+a circuitous and expensive route along the south coast, and thence
+by water to Manila. Much more favorably situated for navigation is
+the port of [Sorsogon.] Sorsogon, the mouth of which opens to the
+west, and is protected by the Island of Bagalao, which lies in front
+of it. Besides its security as a harbor, it has the advantage of a
+rapid and unbroken communication with the capital of the archipelago,
+while vessels sailing from Legaspi, even at the most favorable time
+of the year, are obliged to go round the eastern peninsula of Luzon,
+and meet the principal current of the Straits of San Bernardino,
+frequently a very difficult undertaking; and, moreover, small vessels
+obliged to anchor there are in great danger of being captured by
+pirates. The country about Sorsogon, however, is not so fertile as
+the neighborhood of Legaspi.
+
+[A worthy official.] I took letters of introduction with me to both
+the Spanish authorities of the province; who received me in the most
+amiable way, and were of the greatest use to me during the whole of
+my stay in the vicinity. I had also the good fortune to fall in with
+a model alcalde, a man of good family and of most charming manners;
+in short, a genuine caballero. To show the popular appreciation of
+the honesty of his character, it was said of him in Samar that he
+had entered the province with nothing but a bundle of papers, and
+had left it as lightly equipped.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+[Daraga.] My Spanish friends enabled me to rent a house in Daraga,
+[72] a well-to-do town of twenty thousand inhabitants at the foot
+of the Mayon, a league and a half from Legaspi. The summit of this
+volcano was considered inaccessible until two young Scotchmen, Paton
+and Stewart by name, demonstrated the contrary. [73] Since then
+several natives have ascended the mountain, but no Europeans.
+
+[Ascent of Mayon.] I set out on September 25th, and passed the night,
+by the advice of Señor Muños, in a hut one thousand feet above the
+level of the sea, in order to begin the ascent the next morning with
+unimpaired vigor. But a number of idlers who insisted on following
+me, and who kept up a tremendous noise all night, frustrated the
+purpose of this friendly advice; and I started about five in the
+morning but little refreshed. The fiery glow I had noticed about the
+crater disappeared with the dawn. The first few hundred feet of the
+ascent were covered with a tall grass quite six feet high; and then
+came a slope of a thousand feet or so of short grass succeeded by a
+quantity of moss; but even this soon disappeared, and the whole of
+the upper part of the mountain proved entirely barren. We reached
+the summit about one o'clock. It was covered with fissures which
+gave out sulphurous gases and steam in such profusion that we were
+obliged to stop our mouths and nostrils with our handkerchiefs to
+prevent ourselves from being suffocated. We came to a halt at the
+edge of a broad and deep chasm, from which issued a particularly
+dense vapor. Apparently we were on the brink of a crater, but the
+thick fumes of the disagreeable vapor made it impossible for us to
+guess at the breadth of the fissure. The absolute top of the volcano
+consisted of a ridge, nearly ten feet thick, of solid masses of stone
+covered with a crust of lava bleached by the action of the escaping
+gas. Several irregular blocks of stone lying about us showed that the
+peak had once been a little higher. When, now and again, the gusts
+of wind made rifts in the vapor, we perceived on the northern corner
+of the plateau several rocky columns at least a hundred feet high,
+which had hitherto withstood both storm and eruption. I afterwards
+had an opportunity of observing the summit from Daraga with a capital
+telescope on a very clear day, when I noticed that the northern side
+of the crater was considerably higher than its southern edge.
+
+[The descent.] Our descent took some time. We had still two-thirds
+of it beneath us when night overtook us. In the hope of reaching
+the hut where we had left our provisions, we wandered about till
+eleven o'clock, hungry and weary, and at last were obliged to wait
+for daylight. This misfortune was owing not to our want of proper
+precaution, but to the unreliability of the carriers. Two of them,
+whom we had taken with us to carry water and refreshments, had
+disappeared at the very first; and a third, "a very trustworthy
+man," whom we had left to take care of our things at the hut, and
+who had been ordered to meet us at dusk with torches, had bolted,
+as I afterwards discovered, back to Daraga before noon. My servant,
+too, who was carrying a woolen blanket and an umbrella for me,
+suddenly vanished in the darkness as soon as it began to rain, and
+though I repeatedly called him, never turned up again till the next
+morning. We passed the wet night upon the bare rocks, where, as our
+very thin clothes were perfectly wet through, we chilled till our
+teeth chattered. As soon, however, as the sun rose we got so warm
+that we soon recovered our tempers. Towards nine o'clock we reached
+the hut and got something to eat after twenty-nine hours' fast.
+
+[A suspicious medal.] In the Trabajos y Hechos Nolables de la
+Soc. Econom. de los Amigos del Pais, for September 4th, 1823, it is
+said that "Don Antonio Siguenza paid a visit to the volcano of Albay
+on March 11th," and that the Society "ordered a medal to be struck in
+commemoration of the event, and in honor of the aforesaid Siguenza and
+his companions." Everybody in Albay, however, assured me that the two
+Scotchmen were the first to reach the top of the mountain. It is true
+that in the above notice the ascent of the volcano is not directly
+mentioned; but the fact of the medal naturally leads us to suppose
+that nothing less can be referred to. Arenas, in his memoir, says:
+"Mayon was surveyed by Captain Siguenza. From the crater to the base,
+which is nearly at the level of the sea, he found that it measured
+sixteen hundred and eighty-two Spanish feet or four sixty-eight and
+two-third meters." A little further on, he adds, that he had read
+in the records of the Society that they had had a gold medal struck
+in honor of Siguenza, who had made some investigations about the
+volcano's crater in 1823. He, therefore, appears to have had some
+doubt about Siguenza's actual ascent.
+
+[An early friar attempt.] According to the Franciscan records a couple
+of monks attempted the ascent in 1592, in order to cure the natives
+of their superstitious belief about the mountain. One of them never
+returned; but the other, although he did not reach the summit, being
+stopped by three deep abysses, made a hundred converts to Christianity
+by the mere relation of his adventures. He died in the same year,
+in consequence, it is recorded, of the many variations of temperature
+to which he was exposed in his ascent of the volcano.
+
+[Estimates of height] Some books say that the mountain is of
+considerable height; but the Estado Geografico of the Franciscans for
+1855, where one could scarcely expect to find such a thoughtless
+repetition of so gross a typographical error, says that the
+measurements of Siguenza give the mountain a height of sixteen
+hundred and eighty-two feet. According to my own barometrical reading,
+the height of the summit above the level of the sea was twenty-three
+hundred and seventy-four meters, or eighty-five hundred and fifty-nine
+Spanish feet.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+[An accident and a month's rest.] I sprained my foot so badly in
+ascending Mayon that I was obliged to keep the house for a month. Under
+the circumstances, I was not sorry to find myself settled in a roomy
+and comfortable dwelling. My house was built upon the banks of a
+small stream, and stood in the middle of a garden in which coffee,
+cacao, oranges, papayas, and bananas grew luxuriantly, in spite of
+the tall weeds which surrounded them. Several over-ripe berries had
+fallen to the ground, and I had them collected, roasted, mixed with
+an equal quantity of sugar, and made into chocolate; an art in which
+the natives greatly excel. With the Spaniards chocolate takes the
+place of coffee and tea, and even the mestizos and the well-to-do
+natives drink a great deal of it.
+
+[Cacao] The cacao-tree comes from Central America. It flourishes
+there between the 23rd parallel north and the 20th south latitude;
+but it is only at its best in the hottest and dampest climates. In
+temperate climates, where the thermometer marks less than 23° C.,
+it produces no fruit.
+
+[High quality.] It was first imported into the Philippines from
+Acapulco; either, according to Camarines, by a pilot called Pedro
+Brabo de Lagunas, in 1670; or, according to Samar, by some Jesuits,
+during Salcedo's government, between 1663 and 1668. Since then
+it has spread over the greater part of the Island; and, although
+it is not cultivated with any excessive care, its fruit is of
+excellent quality. The cacao of Albay, if its cheapness be taken into
+consideration, may be considered at least equal to that of Caracas,
+which is so highly-prized in Europe, and which, on account of its
+high price, generally is largely mixed with inferior kinds. [74]
+The bushes are usually found in small gardens, close to the houses;
+but so great is the native laziness that frequently the berries are
+allowed to decay, although the local cacao sells for a higher price
+than the imported. At Cebu and Negros a little more attention is paid
+to its cultivation; [Scanty production.] but it does not suffice to
+supply the wants of the colony, which imports the deficiency from
+Ternate and Mindanao. The best cacao of the Philippines is produced in
+the small Island of Maripipi, which lies to the north-west of Leyte;
+and it is difficult to obtain, the entire crop generally being long
+bespoke. It costs about one dollar per liter, whereas the Albay cacao
+costs from two to two and a half dollars per "ganta" (three liters).
+
+[Culture.] The natives generally cover the kernels, just as they
+are beginning to sprout, with a little earth, and, placing them
+in a spirally-rolled leaf, hang them up beneath the roof of their
+dwellings. They grow very rapidly, and, to prevent their being
+choked by weeds, are planted out at very short intervals. This
+method of treatment is probably the reason that the cacao-trees in
+the Philippines never attain a greater height than eight or ten feet,
+while in their native soil they frequently reach thirty, and sometimes
+even forty feet. The tree begins to bear fruit in its third or fourth
+year, and in its fifth or sixth it reaches maturity, when it usually
+yields a "ganta" of cacao, which, as I have mentioned, is worth from
+two to two and a half dollars, and always finds a purchaser. [75]
+
+[Neglect.] The profits arising from a large plantation would,
+therefore, be considerable; yet it is very rare to meet with one. I
+heard it said that the Economical Society had offered a considerable
+reward to any one who could exhibit a plantation of ten thousand
+berry-bearing trees; but in the Society's report I found no mention
+of this reward.
+
+[Damage by storms.] The great obstacles in the way of large plantations
+are the heavy storms which recur almost regularly every year,
+and often destroy an entire plantation in a single day. In 1856 a
+hurricane visited the Island just before the harvest, and completely
+tore up several large plantations by the roots; a catastrophe that
+naturally has caused much discouragement to the cultivators. [76]
+One consequence of this state of things was that the free importation
+of cacao was permitted, and people were enabled to purchase Guayaqual
+cacao at fifteen dollars per quintal while that grown at home cost
+double the money.
+
+[Diseases and pests.] The plant is sometimes attacked by a disease,
+the origin of which is unknown, when it suffers severely from certain
+noxious insects. [77] It is also attacked by rats and other predatory
+vermin; the former sometimes falling upon it in such numbers that
+they destroy the entire harvest in a single night. Travellers in
+America say that a well-kept cacao plantation is a very picturesque
+sight. In the Philippines, however, or at any rate in East Luzon,
+the closely-packed, lifeless-looking, moss-covered trees present a
+dreary spectacle. Their existence is a brief one. Their oval leaves,
+sometimes nearly a foot long, droop singly from the twigs, and form
+no luxuriant masses of foliage. Their blossoms are very insignificant;
+they are of a reddish-yellow, no larger than the flowers of the lime,
+and grow separately on long weedy stalks. The fruit ripens in six
+months. When it is matured, it is of either a red or a yellow tint,
+and is somewhat like a very rough gherkin. Only two varieties appear to
+be cultivated in the Philippines. [78] The pulp of the fruit is white,
+tender, and of an agreeable acid taste, and contains from eighteen
+to twenty-four kernels, arranged in five rows. These kernels are as
+large as almonds, and, like them, consist of a couple of husks and a
+small core. This is the cacao bean; which, roasted and finely ground,
+produces cacao, and with the addition of sugar, and generally of
+spice, makes chocolate. Till the last few years, every household
+in the Philippines made its own chocolate, of nothing but cacao
+and sugar. The natives who eat chocolate often add roasted rice to
+it. Nowadays there is a manufactory in Manila, which makes chocolate
+in the European way. The inhabitants of the eastern provinces are
+very fond of adding roasted pili nuts to their chocolate. [79]
+
+[Chocolate.] Europeans first learnt to make a drink from cacao in
+Mexico, where the preparation was called chocolatl. [80] Even so far
+back as the days of Cortes, who was a tremendous chocolate drinker,
+the cacao-tree was extensively cultivated. The Aztecs used the beans
+as money; and Montezuma used to receive part of his tribute in this
+peculiar coin. It was only the wealthy among the ancient Mexicans
+who ate pure cacao; the poor, on account of the value of the beans
+as coins, used to mix maize and mandioca meal with them. Even in our
+own day the inhabitants of Central America make use of the beans as
+small coins, as they have no copper money, nor smaller silver coins
+than the half-real. Both in Central America and in Orinoco there yet
+are many unpenetrated forests which are almost entirely composed of
+wild cacao-trees. I believe the natives gather some of their fruit,
+but it is almost worthless. By itself it has much less flavor than the
+cultivated kinds. Certainly it is not picked and dried at the proper
+season, and it gets spoilt in its long transit through the damp woods.
+
+[An uncertain venture.] Since the abolition of slavery, the crops in
+America have been diminishing year by year, and until a short time ago,
+when the French laid out several large plantations in Central America,
+were of but trifling value. According to F. Engel, a flourishing
+cacao plantation required less outlay and trouble, and yields more
+profit than any other tropical plant; yet its harvests, which do not
+yield anything for the first five or six years, are very uncertain,
+owing to the numerous insects which attack the plants. In short,
+cacao plantations are only suited to large capitalists, or to very
+small cultivators who grow the trees in their own gardens. Moreover,
+as we have said, since the abolition of slavery most of the plantations
+have fallen into decay, for the freed slaves are entirely wanting
+in industry.
+
+[Use in Europe.] The original chocolate was not generally relished
+in Europe. When, however, at a later period, it was mixed with sugar,
+it met with more approbation. The exaggerated praise of its admirers
+raised a bitter opposition amongst the opponents of the new drink;
+and the priests raised conscientious scruples against the use of so
+nourishing an article of food on fast days. The quarrel lasted till
+the seventeenth century, by which time cacao had become an everyday
+necessity in Spain. It was first introduced into Spain in 1520; but
+chocolate, on account of the monopoly of the Conquistadores, was for a
+long time secretly prepared on the other side of the ocean. In 1580,
+however, it was in common use in Spain, though it was so entirely
+unknown in England that, in 1579, an English captain burnt a captured
+cargo of it as useless. It reached Italy in 1606, and was introduced
+into France by Anne of Austria. The first chocolate-house in London
+was opened in 1657, and in 1700 Germany at last followed suit. [81]
+
+[Coffee.] The history of coffee in the Philippines is very similar
+to that of cacao. The plant thrives wonderfully, and its berry has
+so strongly marked a flavor that the worst Manila coffee commands as
+high a price as the best Java. In spite of this, however, the amount
+of coffee produced in the Philippines is very insignificant, and,
+until lately, scarcely deserved mention. According to the report of an
+Englishman in 1828, the coffee-plant was almost unknown forty years
+before, and was represented only by a few specimens in the Botanical
+Gardens at Manila. It soon, however, increased and multiplied, thanks
+to the moderation of a small predatory animal (paradoxurus musanga),
+which only nibbled the ripe fruit, and left the hard kernels (the
+coffee beans) untouched, as indigestible. The Economical Society
+bestirred itself in its turn by offering rewards to encourage the
+laying out of large coffee plantations. In 1837 it granted to M. de
+la Gironnière a premium of $1,000, for exhibiting a coffee plantation
+of sixty thousand plants, which were yielding their second harvest;
+and four premiums to others in the following year. But as soon as
+the rewards were obtained the plantations were once more allowed to
+fall into neglect. From this it is pretty evident that the enterprise,
+in the face of the then market prices and the artificially high rates
+of freight, did not afford a sufficient profit.
+
+[Exports.] In 1856 the exports of coffee were not more than seven
+thousand piculs; in 1865 they had increased to thirty-seven thousand,
+five hundred and eighty-eight; and in 1871, to fifty-three thousand,
+three hundred and seventy. This increase, however, affords no criterion
+by which to estimate the increase in the number of plantations,
+for these make no returns for the first few years after being laid
+out. In short, larger exports may be confidently expected. But even
+greatly increased exports could not be taken as correct measures
+of the colony's resources. Not till European capital calls large
+plantations into existence in the most suitable localities will the
+Philippines obtain their proper rank in the coffee-producing districts
+of the world.
+
+[Highest grades.] The best coffee comes from the provinces of
+Laguna, Batangas and Cavite; the worst from Mindanao. The latter,
+in consequence of careless treatment, is very impure, and generally
+contains a quantity of bad beans. The coffee beans of Mindanao are
+of a yellowish-white color and flabby; those of Laguna are smaller,
+but much firmer in texture.
+
+[French preference.] Manila coffee is very highly esteemed by
+connoisseurs, and is very expensive, though it is by no means so
+nice looking as that of Ceylon and other more carefully prepared
+kinds. It is a remarkable fact that in 1865 France, which imported
+only $21,000 worth of hemp from the Philippines, imported more than
+$200,000 worth of Manila coffee, a third of the entire coffee produce
+of the Islands. [82] Manila coffee is not much prized in London,
+and does not fetch much more than good Ceylon ($15 per cwt.). [83]
+This, however, is no reproach to the coffee, as every one acquainted
+with an Englishman's appreciation of coffee will allow.
+
+[Prices.] California, an excellent customer, always ready to give
+a fair price for a good article, will in time become one of its
+principal consumers. [84] In 1868, coffee in Manila itself cost
+an average of $16 per picul. [85] In Java, the authorities pay the
+natives, who are compelled to cultivate it, about $3.66 per picul.
+
+[Philippine exports.] Although the amount of coffee exported from the
+Philippines is trifling in comparison with the producing powers of the
+colony, it compares favorably with the exports from other countries.
+
+[Javan and Ceylon crops.] In my Sketches of Travel, I compared the
+decrease of the coffee produced in Java under the forced system of
+cultivation with the increase of that voluntarily grown in Ceylon,
+and gave the Javanese produce for 1858 as sixty-seven thousand tons,
+and the Cingalese as thirty-five thousand tons. Since that time the
+relative decrease and increase have continued; and in 1866 the Dutch
+Indies produced only fifty-six thousand tons, and Ceylon thirty-six
+thousand tons. [86]
+
+[Amateur scientists.] During my enforced stay in Daraga the natives
+brought me mussels and snails for sale; and several of them wished
+to enter my service, as they felt "a particular vocation for Natural
+History." At last my kitchen was always full of them. They sallied
+forth every day to collect insects, and as a rule were not particularly
+fortunate in their search; but this was of no consequence; in fact,
+it served to give them a fresh appetite for their meals. Some of the
+neighboring Spaniards paid me almost daily visits; and several of
+the native and mestizo dignitaries from a distance were good enough
+to call upon me, not so much for the purpose of seeing my humble self
+as of inspecting my hat, the fame of which had spread over the whole
+province. It was constructed in the usual judicious mushroom shape,
+covered with nito, [87] and its pinnacle was adorned with a powerful
+oil lamp, furnished with a closely fitting lid, like that of a dark
+lantern, so that it could be carried in the pocket. This last was
+particularly useful when riding about on a dark night.
+
+[Nito cigar cases.] In the neighboring pueblo cigar-cases were
+made out of this nito. They are not of much use as an article of
+commerce, and usually are only made to order. To obtain a dozen a
+would-be purchaser must apply to as many individuals, who, at the
+shortest, will condescend to finish one in a few months. The stalk
+of the fern, which is about as thick as a lucifer match, is split
+into four strips. The workman then takes a strip in his left hand,
+and, with his thumb on the back and his forefinger on the edge, draws
+the strips up and down against the knife blade until the soft pithy
+parts are cut away, and what remains has become fine enough for the
+next process. The cases are made on pointed cylindrical pieces of
+wood almost a couple of feet long. A pin is stuck into the center
+of the end of the cylinder, and the workman commences by fastening
+the strips of fern stalk to it. The size of the case corresponds to
+the  diameter of the roller, and a small wooden disk is placed in the
+bottom of the case to keep it steady while the sides are being plaited.
+
+[A Filipino theater.] When my ankle began to get better, my
+first excursion was to Legaspi, where some Filipinos were giving
+a theatrical performance. A Spanish political refugee directed
+the entertainment. On each side of the stage, roofed in with palm
+leaves, ran covered galleries for the dignitaries of the place; the
+uncovered space between these was set apart for the common people. The
+performers had chosen a play taken from Persian history. The language
+was Spanish, and the dresses were, to say the least, eccentric. The
+stage was erected hard by a public street, which itself formed part
+of the auditorium, and the noise was so great that I could only catch
+a word here and there. The actors stalked on, chattering their parts,
+which not one of them understood, and moving their arms up and down;
+and when they reached the edge of the stage, they tacked and went back
+again like ships sailing against the wind. Their countenances were
+entirely devoid of expression, and they spoke like automatons. If I
+had understood the words, the contrast between their meaning and the
+machine-like movements of the actors would probably have been droll
+enough; but, as it was, the noise, the heat, and the smoke were so
+great that we soon left the place.
+
+[An indifferent performance.] Both the theatrical performance and
+the whole festival bore the impress of laziness, indifference, and
+mindless mimicry. When I compared the frank cheerfulness I had seen
+radiating from every countenance at the religious holidays of Europe
+with the expressionless and immobile faces of the natives, I found it
+difficult to understand how the latter were persuaded to waste so much
+time and money upon a matter they seemed so thoroughly indifferent to.
+
+[Interest in festival.] Travellers have remarked the same want of
+gaiety amongst the Indians of America; and some of them ascribe it
+to the small development of the nervous system prevalent among these
+peoples, to which cause also they attribute their wonderful courage
+in bearing pain. But Tylor observes that the Indian's countenance is
+so different from ours that it takes us several years to rightly
+interpret its expression. There probably is something in both
+these explanations. And, although I observed no lively expression of
+amusement among my native friends at Legaspi, I noticed that they took
+the greatest possible pleasure in decorating their village, and that
+the procession which formed part of the festival had extraordinary
+charms for them. Every individual was dressed in his very best; and
+the honor of carrying a banner inspired those who attained it with the
+greatest pride, and raised an amazing amount of envy in the breasts of
+the remainder. Visitors poured in from all the surrounding hamlets, and
+erected triumphal arches which they had brought with them ready-made
+and which bore some complimentary inscription. I am obliged to confess
+that some of the holiday-makers were very drunk. The inhabitants of the
+Philippines have a great love for strong drink; even the young girls
+occasionally get intoxicated. When night came on, the strangers were
+hospitably lodged in the dwellings of the village. On such occasions
+native hospitality shows itself in a very favorable light. The door
+of every house stands open, and even balls take place in some of the
+larger hamlets. The Spanish and mestizo cavaliers, however, condescend
+to dance only with mestiza partners, and very seldom invite a pretty
+native girl to join them. The natives very rarely dance together; but
+in Samar I was present on one occasion at a by no means ungraceful
+native dance where "improvised" verses were sung. The male dancer
+compared his partner with a rose, and she answered he should be
+careful in touching it as a rose had thorns. This would have been
+thought a charming compliment in the mouth of an Andalusian.
+
+[Servant subterfuges.] The idle existence we spent in Daraga was so
+agreeable to my servants and their numerous friends that they were
+anxious I should stay there as long as possible; and they adopted some
+very ingenious means to persuade me to do so. Twice, when everything
+was prepared for a start the next morning, my shoes were stolen in the
+night; and on another occasion they kidnapped my horse. When a native
+has a particularly heavy load to carry, or a long journey to make,
+he thinks nothing of coolly appropriating the well-fed beast of some
+Spaniard; which, when he has done with it, he turns loose without
+attempting to feed it, and it wanders about till somebody catches
+it and stalls it in the nearest "Tribunal." There it is kept tied up
+and hungry until its master claims it and pays its expenses. I had a
+dollar to pay when I recovered mine, although it was nearly starved
+to death, on the pretence that it had swallowed rice to that value
+since it had been caught.
+
+[Petty robberies.] Small robberies occur very frequently, but they
+are committed--as an acquaintance, a man who had spent some time
+in the country, informed me one evening when I was telling him my
+troubles--only upon the property of new arrivals; old residents, he
+said, enjoyed a prescriptive freedom from such little inconveniences. I
+fancy some waggish native must have overheard our conversation, for
+early the next morning my friend, the old resident, sent to borrow
+chocolate, biscuits, and eggs of me, as his larder and his hen-house
+had been rifled during the night.
+
+[Daraga market.] Monday and Friday evenings were the Daraga market
+nights, and in fine weather always afforded a pretty sight. The
+women, neatly and cleanly clad, sat in long rows and offered their
+provisions for sale by the light of hundreds of torches; and, when
+the business was over, the slopes of the mountains were studded all
+over with flickering little points of brightness proceeding from the
+torches carried by the homeward-bound market women. Besides eatables,
+many had silks and stuffs woven from the fibers of the pine-apple
+and the banana for sale. These goods they carried on their heads;
+and I noticed that all the younger women were accompanied by their
+sweethearts, who relieved them of their burdens.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+[Change of season.] During the whole time I was confined to the
+house at Daraga, the weather was remarkably fine; but unfortunately
+the bright days had come to an end by the time I was ready to make a
+start, for the north-east monsoon, the sure forerunner of rain in this
+part of the Archipelago, sets in in October. In spite, however, of the
+weather, I determined to make another attempt to ascend the mountain
+at Bulusan. I found I could go by boat to Bacon in the Bay of Albay,
+a distance of seven leagues, whence I could ride to Gubat, on the east
+coast, three leagues further, and then in a southerly direction along
+the shore to Bulusan. An experienced old native, who provided a boat
+and crew, had appointed ten o'clock at night as the best time for
+my departure. Just as we were about to start, however, we were told
+that four piratical craft had been seen in the bay. In a twinkling,
+the crew disappeared, and I was left alone in the darkness; and it
+took me four hours with the assistance of a Spaniard to find them
+again, and make a fresh start. About nine o'clock in the morning we
+reached Bacon, whence I rode across a very flat country to San Roque,
+where the road leading to Gubat took a sharp turn to the south-east,
+and presently became an extremely bad one. After I had passed Gubat,
+my way lay along the shore; and I saw several ruined square towers,
+made of blocks of coral, and built by the Jesuits as a protection
+against the [Moro pirates.] Moros, or "Moors"--a term here applied to
+the pirates, because, like the Moors who were formerly in Spain, they
+are Mahometans. They come from Mindanao and from the north-west coast
+of Borneo. At the time of my visit, this part of the Archipelago was
+greatly infested with them; and a few days before my arrival they had
+carried off some fishermen, who were busy pulling their fish-stakes,
+close to Gubat. A little distance from the shore, and parallel to it,
+ran a coral reef, which during the south-west monsoon was here and
+there bare at low tide; but, when the north-east wind blew, the waves
+of the Pacific Ocean entirely concealed it. Upon this reef the storms
+had cast up many remains of marine animals, and a quantity of fungi,
+amongst which I noticed some exactly resembling the common sponge of
+the Mediterranean. They were just as soft to the touch, of a dark brown
+tint, as large as the fist, and of a conical shape. They absorbed water
+with great readiness, and might doubtless be made a profitable article
+of commerce. Samples of them are to be seen in the Zoological Museum at
+Berlin. As I went further on, I found the road excellent; and wooden
+bridges, all of which were in good repair, led me across the mouths
+of the numerous small rivers. But almost all the arches of the stone
+bridges I came to had fallen in, and I had to cross the streams they
+were supposed to span in a small boat, and make my horse swim after
+me. Just before I reached Bulusan, I had to cross a ravine several
+hundred feet deep, composed almost entirely of white pumice stone.
+
+[Bulusan.] Bulusan is so seldom visited by strangers that the
+"tribunal" where I put up was soon full of curiosity-mongers, who came
+to stare at me. The women, taking the places of honor, squatted round
+me in concentric rows, while the men peered over their shoulders. One
+morning when I was taking a shower-bath in a shed made of open bamboo
+work, I suddenly noticed several pairs of inquisitive eyes staring
+at me through the interstices. The eyes belonged exclusively to the
+gentler sex; and their owners examined me with the greatest curiosity,
+making remarks upon my appearance to one another, and seeming by no
+means inclined to be disturbed. Upon another occasion, when bathing in
+the open air in the province of Laguna, I was surrounded by a number of
+women, old, middle-aged, and young, who crowded round me while I was
+dressing, carefully inspected me, and pointed out with their fingers
+every little detail which seemed to them to call for special remark.
+
+[Storm damage.] I had travelled the last part of the road to Bulusan
+in wind and rain; and the storm lasted with little intermission during
+the whole night. When I got up in the morning I found that part of the
+roof of the tribunal had been carried away, that the slighter houses
+in the hamlet were all blown down, and that almost every dwelling in
+the place had lost its roof. This pleasant weather lasted during the
+three days of my stay. The air was so thick that I found it impossible
+to distinguish the volcano, though I was actually standing at its
+foot; and, as the weather-wise of the neighborhood could hold out no
+promise of a favorable change at that time of the year, I put off my
+intended ascent till a better opportunity, and resolved to return. A
+former alcalde, Peñeranda, was reported to have succeeded in reaching
+the top fifteen years before, after sixty men had spent a couple of
+months in building a road to the summit; and the ascent was said to
+have taken him two whole days. But an experienced native told me that
+in the dry season he thought four men were quite sufficient to open a
+narrow path to the plateau, just under the peak, in a couple of days;
+but that ladders were required to get on to the actual summit.
+
+[Arrival of assistance.] The day after my arrival the inspector of
+highways and another man walked into the tribunal, both of them wet to
+the skin and nearly blown to pieces. My friend the alcalde had sent
+them to my assistance; and, as none of us could attempt the ascent,
+they returned with me. As we were entering Bacon on our way back,
+we heard the report of cannon and the sound of music. Our servants
+cried out "Here comes the alcalde," and in a few moments he drove up
+in an open carriage, accompanied by an irregular escort of horsemen,
+Spaniards and natives, the latter prancing about in silk hats and
+shirts fluttering in the wind. The alcalde politely offered me a seat,
+and an hour's drive took us into Sorsogon.
+
+[Albay roads and bridges.] The roads of the province of Albay are good,
+but they are by no means kept in good repair: a state of things that
+will never be remedied so long as the indolence of the authorities
+continues. Most of the stone bridges in the district are in ruins,
+and the traveller is obliged to content himself with wading through a
+ford, or get himself ferried across upon a raft or in a small canoe,
+while his horse swims behind him. The roads were first laid down in the
+days of Alcalde Peñaranda, a retired officer of the engineer corps,
+whom we have already mentioned, and who deserves considerable praise
+for having largely contributed to the welfare of his province, and
+for having accomplished so much from such small resources. He took
+care that all socage service should be duly rendered, or that money,
+which went towards paying for tools and materials, should be paid
+in lieu of it. Many abuses existed before his rule; no real services
+were performed by anybody who could trace the slightest relationship
+to any of the authorities; and, when by chance any redemption money
+was paid, it went, often with the connivance of the alcalde of the
+period, into the pockets of the gobernadorcillos, instead of into the
+provincial treasury. Similar abuses still prevail all over the country,
+where they are not prevented by the vigilance of the authorities. The
+numerous population, and the prosperity which the province now enjoys,
+would make it an easy matter to maintain and complete the existing
+highways. The admirable officials of the district are certainly
+not wanting in good-will, but their hands are tied. Nowadays the
+alcaldes remain only three years in one province (in Peñaranda's
+time, they remained six); their time is entirely taken up with
+the current official and judicial business; and, just as they are
+beginning to become acquainted with the capabilities and requirements
+of their district, they are obliged to leave it. [Handicapped
+officials.] This shows the government's want of confidence in its
+own servants. No alcalde could now possibly undertake what Peñaranda
+accomplished. The money paid in lieu of socage service, which ought to
+be applied to the wants of the province in which the socage is due, is
+forwarded to Manila. If an alcalde proposes some urgent and necessary
+improvement, he has to send in so many tedious estimates and reports,
+which frequently remain unnoticed, that he soon loses all desire to
+attempt any innovation. Estimates for large works, to carry out which
+would require a considerable outlay, are invariably returned from
+headquarters marked "not urgent." [Funds diverted to Spain.] The fact
+is not that the colonial government is wanting in good-will, but that
+the Caja de Comunidad (General Treasury) in Manila is almost always
+empty, as the Spanish government, in its chronic state of bankruptcy,
+borrows the money and is never in a position to return it.
+
+[Sorsogon earthquake.] In 1840 Sorsogon suffered severely from an
+earthquake, which lasted almost continuously for thirty-five days. It
+raged with the greatest fury on the 21st of March. The churches, both
+of Sorsogon and of Casiguran, as well as the smallest stone houses,
+were destroyed; seventeen persons lost their lives, and two hundred
+were injured; and the whole neighborhood sank five feet below its
+former level.
+
+[Casiguran.] The next morning I accompanied the alcalde in a falua
+(felucca), manned by fourteen rowers, to Casiguran, which lies directly
+south of Sorsogon, on the other side of a small bay, of two leagues
+in breadth, which it took us an hour and a half to cross. The bay was
+as calm as an inland lake. It is almost entirely surrounded by hills,
+and its western side, which is open to the sea, is protected by the
+Island of Bagalao, which lies in front of it. As soon as we landed,
+we were received with salutes of cannon and music, and flags and
+shirts streamed in the wind. I declined the friendly invitation of the
+alcalde to accompany him any further; as to me, who had no official
+business to transact, the journey seemed nothing but a continually
+recurring panorama of dinners, lunches, cups of chocolate, music,
+and detonations of gunpowder.
+
+[Quicksilver.] In 1850 quicksilver was discovered on a part of the
+coast now covered by the sea. I examined the reported bed of the
+deposit, and it appeared to me to consist of a stratum of clay six feet
+in depth, superimposed over a layer of volcanic sand and fragments
+of pumice stone. An Englishman who was wrecked in this part of the
+Archipelago, the same individual I met at the iron works at Angat, had
+begun to collect it, and by washing the sand had obtained something
+like a couple of ounces. Somebody, however, told the priest of the
+district that quicksilver was a poison; and, as he himself told me,
+so forcibly did he depict the dangerous nature of the new discovery to
+his parishioners that they abandoned the attempt to collect it. Since
+then none of them have ever seen a vestige of mercury, unless it might
+be from some broken old barometer. Towards evening Mount Bulusan in
+the south-east, and Mount Mayon in the north-west, were visible for
+a short time. They are both in a straight line with Casiguran.
+
+[Sea's encroachments.] Every year the sea makes great inroads upon
+the coast at Casiguran; as far as I could decide from its appearance
+and from the accounts given me, about a yard of the shore is annually
+destroyed. The bay of Sorsogon is protected towards the north by a
+ridge of hills, which suddenly terminate, however, at its north-eastern
+angle; and through this opening the wind sometimes blows with great
+fury, and causes considerable havoc in the bay, the more particularly
+as its coast is principally formed of clay and sand.
+
+[Pirate rumors and robberies.] When I reached Legaspi again in the
+evening I learnt that the alarm about the pirates which had interrupted
+my departure had not been an idle one. Moros they certainly could
+not have been, for at that season none of the Mahometan corsairs
+could reach that part of the coast; but they were a band of deserters
+and vagabonds from the surrounding country, who in this part of the
+world find it more agreeable to pursue their freebooting career on
+sea than on land. During my absence they had committed many robberies
+and carried off several people. [88]
+
+[Real pirates.] The beginning of November is the season of storms;
+when water communication between Albay and Manila entirely ceases,
+no vessel daring to put out to sea, even from the south coast. On
+the 9th of the month, however, a vessel that had been given up for
+lost entered the port, after having incurred great perils and being
+obliged to throw overboard the greater part of its cargo. Within twelve
+days of its leaving the straits of San Bernardino behind it, a sudden
+storm compelled it to anchor amongst the Islands of Balicuatro. One
+of the passengers, a newly-arrived Spaniard, put off in a boat with
+seven sailors, and made for four small vessels which were riding at
+anchor off the coast; taking them for fishermen, whereas they were
+pirates. They fired at him as soon as he was some distance from his
+ship, and his crew threw themselves into the water; but both he and
+they were taken prisoners. The captain of the trading brig, fearing
+that his vessel would fall into their clutches, slipped anchor and put
+out to sea again, escaping shipwreck with the greatest difficulty. The
+pirates, as a rule, do not kill their prisoners, but employ them as
+rowers. But Europeans seldom survive their captivity: the tremendous
+labor and the scanty food are too much for them. Their clothes always
+being stripped off their back, they are exposed naked to all sorts
+of weather, and their sole daily support is a handful of rice.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+[Camarines.] No favorable change in the weather was expected in
+Albay before the month of January. It stormed and rained all day. I
+therefore determined to change my quarters to South Camarines, which,
+protected from the monsoon by the high range of hills running along
+its north-eastern boundary, enjoyed more decent weather. The two
+provinces of Camarines form a long continent, with its principal
+frontage of shore facing to the north-east and to the south-west;
+which is about ten leagues broad in its middle, and has its shores
+indented by many bays. From about the center of its north-eastern
+shore there boldly projects the Peninsula of Caramuan, connected with
+the mainland of Camarines by the isthmus of Isarog. The north-eastern
+portion of the two provinces contains a long range of volcanic hills;
+the south-western principally consisted, as far as my investigations
+permitted me to discover, of chalk, and coral reefs; in the midst
+of the hills extends a winding and fertile valley, which collects
+the waters descending from the slopes of the mountain ranges, and
+blends them into a navigable river, on the banks of which several
+flourishing hamlets have established themselves. This river is called
+the Bicol. The streams which give it birth are so abundant, and the
+slope of the sides of the valley, which is turned into one gigantic
+rice-field, is so gentle that in many places the lazy waters linger
+and form small lakes.
+
+[A chain of volcanoes.] Beginning at the south-eastern extremity, the
+volcanoes of Bulusan, Albay, Mazaraga, Iriga, Isarog, and Colasi--the
+last on the northern side of San Miguel bay--are situated in a straight
+line, extending from the south-east to the north-west. Besides these,
+there is the volcano of Buhi, or Malinao, a little to the north-east of
+the line. The hamlets in the valley I have mentioned are situated in
+a second line parallel to that of the volcanoes. The southern portion
+of the province is sparsely inhabited, and but few streams find their
+way from its plateau into the central valley. The range of volcanoes
+shuts out, as I have said, the north-east winds, and condenses their
+moisture in the little lakes scattered on its slopes. The south-west
+portion of Camarines, therefore, is dry during the north-east monsoon,
+and enjoys its rainy season during the prevalence of the winds that
+blow from the south-west. The so-called dry season which, so far as
+South Camarines is concerned, begins in November, is interrupted,
+however, by frequent showers; but from January to May scarcely a drop
+of rain falls. The change of monsoon takes place in May and June;
+and its arrival is announced by violent thunderstorms and hurricanes,
+which frequently last without cessation for a couple of weeks, and
+are accompanied by heavy rains. These last are the beginning of the
+wet season proper, which lasts till October. The road passes the
+hamlets of Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Oas and Polangui, situated
+in a straight line on the banks of the river Quinali, which, after
+receiving numerous tributary streams, becomes navigable soon after
+passing Polangui. Here I observed a small settlement of huts, which
+is called after the river. Each of the hamlets I have mentioned, with
+the exception of the last, has a population of about fourteen thousand
+souls, although they are situated not more than half a league apart.
+
+[Priestly assistance.] The convents in this part of the country are
+large, imposing buildings, and their incumbents, who were mostly old
+men, were most hospitable and kind to me. Every one of them insisted
+upon my staying with him, and, after doing all he could for me, passed
+me on to his next colleague with the best recommendations. I wished
+to hire a boat at Polangui to cross the lake of Batu, but the only
+craft I could find were a couple of barotos about eight feet long,
+hollowed out of the trunks of trees and laden with rice. To prevent
+my meeting with any delay, the padre purchased the cargo of one of
+the boats, on the condition of its being immediately unladen; and
+this kindness enabled me to continue my journey in the afternoon.
+
+[The priests' importance.] If a traveller gets on good terms with
+the priests he seldom meets with any annoyances. Upon one occasion
+I wished to make a little excursion directly after lunch, and at a
+quarter past eleven everything was ready for a start; when I happened
+to say that it was a pity to have to wait three-quarters of an hour
+for the meal. In a minute or two twelve o'clock struck; all work in
+the village ceased, and we sat down to table: it was noon. A message
+had been sent to the village bell-ringer that the Señor Padre thought
+he must be asleep, and that it must be long past twelve as the Señor
+Padre was hungry. Il est l'heure que votre Majesté désire.
+
+[Franciscan friars.] Most of the priests in the eastern provinces of
+Luzon and Samar are Franciscan monks (The barefooted friars of the
+orthodox and strictest rule of Our Holy Father St. Francis, in the
+Philippine Islands, of the Holy and Apostolic Province of St. Gregory
+the Great), brought up in seminaries in Spain specially devoted to the
+colonial missions. Formerly they were at liberty, after ten years'
+residence in the Philippines, to return to their own country; but,
+since the abolition of the monasteries in Spain, they can do this
+no longer, for they are compelled in the colonies to abandon all
+obedience to the rule of their order, and to live as laymen. They are
+aware that they must end their days in the colony, and regulate their
+lives accordingly. On their first arrival they are generally sent to
+some priest in the province to make themselves acquainted with the
+language of the country; then they are installed into a small parish,
+and afterwards into a more lucrative one, in which they generally
+remain till their death. Most of them spring from the very lowest
+class of Spaniards. A number of pious trusts and foundations in Spain
+enable a very poor man, who cannot afford to send his son to school,
+to put him into a religious seminary, where, beyond the duties of
+his future avocation, the boy learns nothing. If the monks were of
+a higher social grade, as are some of the English missionaries, they
+would have less inclination to mix with the common people, and would
+fail to exercise over them the influence they wield at present. The
+early habits of the Spanish monks, and their narrow knowledge of the
+world, peculiarly fit them for an existence among the natives. This
+mental equality, or rather, this want of mental disparity, has enabled
+them to acquire the influence they undoubtedly possess.
+
+[Young men developed by responsibility.] When these young men
+first come from their seminaries they are narrow-brained, ignorant,
+frequently almost devoid of education, and full of conceit, hatred of
+heretics, and proselytish ardor. These failings, however, gradually
+disappear; the consideration and the comfortable incomes they enjoy
+developing their benevolence. The insight into mankind and the
+confidence in themselves which distinguish the lower classes of the
+Spaniards, and which are so amusingly exemplified in Sancho Panza,
+have plenty of occasions to display themselves in the responsible
+and influential positions which the priests occupy. The padre is
+frequently the only white man in his village, probably the only
+European for miles around. He becomes the representative not only
+of religion, but of the government; he is the oracle of the natives,
+and his decisions in everything that concerns Europe and civilization
+are without appeal. His advice is asked in all important emergencies,
+and he has no one whom he in his turn can consult. Such a state
+of things naturally develops his brain. The same individuals who
+in Spain would have followed the plough, in the colonies carry out
+great undertakings. Without any technical education, and without any
+scientific knowledge, they build churches and bridges, and construct
+roads. [Poor architects.] The circumstances therefore are greatly in
+favor of the development of priestly ability; but it would probably
+be better for the buildings if they were erected by more experienced
+men, for the bridges are remarkably prone to fall in, the churches
+look like sheep-pens, and the roads soon go to rack and ruin. I
+had much intercourse in Camarines and Albay with the priests, and
+conceived a great liking for them all. As a rule, they are the most
+unpretending of men; and a visit gives them so much pleasure that
+they do all in their power to make their guest's stay as agreeable as
+possible. Life in a large convent has much resemblance to that of a
+lord of the manor in Eastern Europe. Nothing can be more unconstrained,
+more unconventional. A visitor lives as independently as in an hotel,
+and many of the visitors behave themselves as if it were one. I have
+seen a subaltern official arrive, summon the head servant, move into
+a room, order his meal, and then inquire casually whether the padre,
+who was an utter stranger to him, was at home.
+
+The priests of the Philippines have often been reproached with gross
+immorality. They are said to keep their convents full of bevies of
+pretty girls, and to lead somewhat the same sort of life as the Grand
+Turk. This may be true of the native padres; but I myself never saw,
+in any of the households of the numerous Spanish priests I visited,
+anything that could possibly cause the least breath of scandal. Their
+servants were exclusively men, though perhaps I may have noticed
+here and there an old woman or two. Ribadeneyra says:--"The natives,
+who observe how careful the Franciscan monks are of their chastity,
+have arrived at the conclusion that they are not really men, and
+that, though the devil had often attempted to lead these holy men
+astray, using the charms of some pretty Indian girl as a bait, yet,
+to the confusion of both damsel and devil, the monks had always
+come scathless out of the struggle." Ribadeneyra, however, is a very
+unreliable author; and, if his physiological mistakes are as gross as
+his geographical ones (he says somewhere that Luzon is another name
+for the island of Cebu!), the monks are not perhaps as fireproof as
+he supposes. At any rate, his description does not universally apply
+nowadays. The younger priests pass their existence like the lords of
+the soil of old; the young girls consider it an honor to be allowed to
+associate with them; and the padres in their turn find many convenient
+opportunities. They have no jealous wives to pry into their secrets,
+and their position as confessors and spiritual advisers affords them
+plenty of pretexts for being alone with the women. The confessional,
+in particular, must be a perilous rock-a-head for most of them. In
+an appendix to the "Tagal Grammar" (which, by-the-bye, is not added
+to the editions sold for general use) a list of questions is given
+for the convenience of young priests not yet conversant with the
+Tagal language. These questions are to be asked in the confessional,
+and several pages of them relate exclusively to the relations between
+the sexes.
+
+[Superiority over government officials.] As the alcaldes remain only
+three years in any one province, they never understand much of its
+language; and, being much occupied with their official business,
+they have neither the time nor the desire to become acquainted
+with the peculiarities of the districts over which they rule. The
+priest, on the other hand, resides continually in the midst of his
+parishioners, is perfectly acquainted with each of them, and even,
+on occasion, protects them against the authorities; his, therefore,
+is the real jurisdiction in the district. The position of the priests,
+in contradistinction to that of the government officials, is well
+expressed by their respective dwellings. The casas reales, generally
+small, ugly, and frequently half-ruined habitations, are not suited
+to the dignity of the chief authority of the province. The convento,
+on the contrary, is almost always a roomy, imposing, and well-arranged
+building. In former days, when governorships were sold to adventurers
+whose only care was to enrich themselves, the influence of the minister
+of religion was even greater than it is now. [89]
+
+[Former legal status.] The following extract from the General
+Orders, given by Le Gentil, will convey a clear idea of their former
+position:--
+
+"Whereas the tenth chapter of the ordinances, wherein the governor of
+Arandia ordained that the alcaldes and the justices should communicate
+with the missionary priests only by letter, and that they should never
+hold any interview with them except in the presence of a witness, has
+been frequently disobeyed, it is now commanded that these disobediences
+shall no longer be allowed; and that the alcaldes shall make it their
+business to see that the priests and ministers of religion treat the
+gobernadorcillos and the subaltern officers of justice with proper
+respect, and that the aforesaid priests be not allowed either to beat,
+chastise, or ill-treat the latter, or make them wait at table."
+
+[Alcaldes formerly in trade.] The former alcaldes who, without
+experience in official business, without either education or knowledge,
+and without either the brains or the moral qualifications for such
+responsible and influential posts, purchased their appointments from
+the State, or received them in consequence of successful intrigues,
+received a nominal salary from the government, and paid it tribute for
+the right to carry on trade. Arenas considered this tribute paid by the
+alcaldes as a fine imposed upon them for an infringement of the law;
+"for several ordinances were in existence, strenuously forbidding
+them to dabble in any kind of commerce, until it pleased his Catholic
+Majesty to grant them a dispensation." The latter sources of mischief
+were, however, abolished by royal decree in September and October,
+1844.
+
+[Their borrowed capital.] The alcaldes were at the same time governors,
+magistrates, commanders of the troops, and, in reality, the only
+traders in their province. [90] They purchased with the resources
+of the obras pias the articles required in the province; and they
+were entirely dependent for their capital upon these endowments,
+as they almost always arrived in the Philippines without any means
+of their own. The natives were forced to sell their produce to the
+alcaldes and, besides, to purchase their goods at the prices fixed
+by the latter. [91] In this corrupt state of things the priests were
+the only protectors of the unfortunate Filipinos; though occasionally
+they also threw in their lot with the alcaldes, and shared in the
+spoil wrung from their unfortunate flocks.
+
+[Improvement in present appointees.] Nowadays men with some knowledge
+of the law are sent out to the Philippines as alcaldes; the government
+pays them a small salary, and they are not allowed to trade. The
+authorities also attempt to diminish the influence of the priests by
+improving the position of the civil tribunals; a state of things they
+will not find easy of accomplishment unless they lengthen the period
+of service of the alcaldes, and place them in a pecuniary position
+that will put them beyond the temptation of pocketing perquisites. [92]
+
+In Huc's work on China I find the following passage, relating to the
+effects of the frequent official changes in China, from which many
+hints may be gathered:--
+
+[Similarity with Chinese conditions.] "The magisterial offices
+are no longer bestowed upon upright and just individuals and, as a
+consequence, this once flourishing and well-governed kingdom is day
+by day falling into decay, and is rapidly gliding down the path that
+leads to a terrible and, perhaps, speedy dissolution. When we seek
+to discover the cause of the general ruin, the universal corruption
+which too surely is undermining all classes of Chinese society, we are
+convinced that it is to be found in the complete abandonment of the
+old system of government effected by the Manchu dynasty. It issued
+a decree forbidding any mandarin to hold any post longer than three
+years in the same province, and prohibiting any one from possessing
+any official appointment in his native province. One does not form
+a particularly high idea of the brain which conceived this law; but,
+when the Manchu Tartars found that they were the lords of the empire,
+they began to be alarmed at their small numbers, which were trifling
+in comparison with the countless swarms of the Chinese; and they
+dreaded lest the influence which the higher officials would acquire
+in their districts might enable them to excite the populace against
+their foreign rulers.
+
+[Unidentified with country.] "The magistrates, being allowed to
+remain only a year or two in the same province, lived there like
+strangers, without acquainting themselves with the wants of the people
+they governed; there was no tie between them. The only care of the
+mandarins was to amass as much wealth as possible before they quitted
+their posts; and they then began the same game in a fresh locality,
+until finally they returned home in possession of a handsome fortune
+gradually collected in their different appointments. They were only
+birds of passage. What did it matter? The morrow would find them
+at the other end of the kingdom, where the cries of their plundered
+victims would be unable to reach them. In this manner the governmental
+policy rendered the mandarins selfish and indifferent. The basis
+of the monarchy is destroyed, for the magistrate is no longer a
+paternal ruler residing amongst and mildly swaying his children, but a
+marauder, who arrives no man knows whence, and who departs no one knows
+whither. The consequence is universal stagnation; no great undertakings
+are accomplished; and the works and labors of former dynasties are
+allowed to fall into decay. The mandarins say to themselves: 'Why
+should we undertake what we can never accomplish? Why should we sow
+that others may reap?'... They take no interest in the affairs of the
+district; as a rule, they are suddenly transplanted into the midst of
+a population whose dialect even they do not understand. [Dependence on
+interpreters.] When they arrive in their mandarinates they usually find
+interpreters, who, being permanent officieals and interested in the
+affairs of the place, know how to make their services indispensable;
+and these in reality are the absolute rulers of the district."
+
+[Importance of interpreters in Philippines.]  Interpreters are
+especially indispensable in the Philippines, where the alcaldes never
+by any chance understand any of the local dialects. In important
+matters the native writers have generally to deal with the priest,
+who in many cases becomes the virtual administrator of authority. He is
+familiar with the characters of the inhabitants and all their affairs,
+in the settlement of which his intimate acquaintance with the female
+sex stands him in good stead. An eminent official in Madrid told me
+in 1867 that the then minister was considering a proposal to abolish
+the restriction of office in the colonies to three years. [93]
+
+[Fear of officials' popularity.] The dread which caused this
+restriction, viz., that an official might become too powerful in some
+distant province, and that his influence might prove a source of danger
+to the mother country, is no longer entertained. Increased traffic
+and easier means of communication have destroyed the former isolation
+of the more distant provinces. The customs laws, the increasing demand
+for colonial produce, and the right conceded to foreigners of settling
+in the country, will give a great stimulus to agriculture and commerce,
+and largely increase the number of Chinese and European residents. Then
+at last, perhaps, the authorities will see the necessity of improving
+the social position of their officials by decreasing their number,
+by a careful selection of persons, by promoting them according to
+their abilities and conduct, and by increasing their salaries, and
+allowing them to make a longer stay in one post. The commercial
+relations of the Philippines with California and Australia are
+likely to become very active, and liberal ideas will be introduced
+from those free countries. Then, indeed, the mother country will
+have earnestly to consider whether it is advisable to continue its
+exploitation of the colony by its monopolies, its withdrawal of gold,
+and its constant satisfaction of the unfounded claims of a swarm of
+hungry place-hunters. [94]
+
+[Different English and Dutch policy.] English and Dutch colonial
+officials are carefully and expressly educated for their difficult
+and responsible positions. They obtain their appointments after
+passing a stringent examination at home, and are promoted to the
+higher colonial offices only after giving proofs of fitness and
+ability. What a different state of things prevails in Spain! When a
+Spaniard succeeds in getting an appointment, it is difficult to say
+whether it is due to his personal capacity and merit or to a series
+of successful political intrigues. [95]
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+[Batu.] In an hour and a half after leaving Polangui we reached Batu,
+a village on the north-western shore of the lake of the same name. The
+inhabitants, particularly the women, struck me by their ugliness
+and want of cleanliness. Although they lived close to the lake, and
+drew their daily drinking water from it, they never appeared to use
+it for the purpose of washing. The streets of the village also were
+dirty and neglected; a circumstance explained, perhaps, by the fact
+of the priest being a native.
+
+[The lake.] Towards the end of the rainy season, in November, the
+lake extends far more widely than it does in the dry, and overflows
+its shallow banks, especially to the south-west. A great number of
+water-plants grow on its borders; amongst which I particularly noticed
+a delicate seaweed [96], as fine as horse hair, but intertwined in such
+close and endless ramifications that it forms a flooring strong enough
+to support the largest waterfowl. I  saw hundreds of them hopping about
+and eating the shell fish and prawns, which swarmed amidst the meshes
+of the net-like seaweed and fell an easy prey to their feathered
+enemies. The natives, too, were in the habit of catching immense
+quantities of the prawns with nets made for the purpose. Some they
+ate fresh; and some they kept till they were putrid, like old cheese,
+and then used them as a relish to swallow with their rice. These
+small shell-fish are not limited to the Lake of Batu. They are caught
+in shoals in both the salt and the fresh waters of the Philippine
+and Indian archipelagos, and, when salted and dried by the natives,
+form an important article of food, eaten either in soup or as a kind
+of potted paste. They are found in every market, and are largely
+exported to China. I was unable to shoot any of the waterfowl, for
+the tangles of the seaweed prevented my boat from getting near them.
+
+[A neglected product.] When I revisited the same lake in February,
+I found its waters so greatly fallen that they had left a circular
+belt of shore extending all around the lake, in most places nearly a
+hundred feet broad. The withdrawal of the waters had compressed the
+tangled seaweed into a kind of matting, which, bleached by the sun,
+and nearly an inch thick, covered the whole of the shore, and hung
+suspended over the stunted bushes which, on my first visit, had
+been under water. I have never either seen elsewhere, or heard any
+one mention, a similar phenomenon. This stuff, which could be had
+for nothing, was excellent for rifle-stoppers and for the stuffing
+of birds, so I took a great quantity of it with me. This time the
+bird-hunting went well, too.
+
+The native priest of Batu was full of complaints about his
+parishioners, who gave him no opportunities of gaining an honest
+penny. "I am never asked for a mass, sir; in fact, this is such a
+miserable hole that it is shunned by Death itself. In D., where I was
+for a long time coadjutor, we had our couple of burials regularly
+every day at three dollars a head, and as many masses at a dollar
+apiece as we had time to say, besides christenings and weddings,
+which always brought a little more grist to the mill. But here
+nothing takes place, and I scarcely make anything." This stagnant
+state of things had induced him to turn his attention to commerce. The
+average native priest, of those I saw, could hardly be called a credit
+to his profession. Generally ignorant, often dissipated, and only
+superficially acquainted with his duties, the greater part of his
+time was given over to gambling, drinking, and other objectionable
+amusements. Little care was taken to preserve a properly decorous
+behavior, except when officiating in the church, when they read with
+an absurd assumption of dignity, without understanding a single
+word. The conventos are often full of girls and children, all of
+whom help themselves with their fingers out of a common dish. The
+worthy padre of Batu introduced a couple of pretty girls to me as
+his two poor sisters, whom, in spite of his poverty, he supported;
+but the servants about the place openly spoke of these young ladies'
+babies as being the children of the priest.
+
+[The native clergy.] The guiding principle of Spanish colonial
+policy--to set one class against another, and to prevent either from
+becoming too powerful--seems to be the motive for placing so many
+native incumbents in the parsonages of the Archipelago. The prudence of
+this proceeding, however, seems doubtful. A Spanish priest has a great
+deal of influence in his own immediate circle, and forms, perhaps,
+the only enduring link between the colony and the mother-country. The
+native priest is far from affording any compensation for the lack
+of either of these advantages. He generally is but little respected
+by his flock, and certainly does nothing to attach them to Spain;
+for he hates and envies his Spanish brethren, who leave him only the
+very worst appointments, and treat him with contempt.
+
+[Nabua.] I rode from Batu to Nabua over a good road in half an
+hour. The country was flat, with rice-fields on both sides of the
+road; but, while in Batu the rice was only just planted, in Nabua it
+already was almost ripe. I was unable to obtain any explanation of
+this incongruity, and know not how to account for such a difference
+of climate between two hamlets situated in such close proximity to
+one another, and separated by no range of hills. The inhabitants of
+both were ugly and dirty, and were different in these respects from
+the Tagalogs. Nabua, a place of 10,875 inhabitants, is intersected by
+several small streams, whose waters, pouring down from the eastern
+hills, form a small lake, which empties itself into the river
+Bicol. Just after passing the second bridge beyond Nabua the road,
+inclining eastwards, wends in a straight line to Iriga, a place lying
+to the south-west of the volcano of the same name.
+
+[Remontados.] I visited a small settlement of pagans situated on the
+slope of the volcano. The people of the plains call them indifferently
+Igorots, Cimarrons, Remontados, Infieles, or Montesinos. None
+of these names, however, with the exception of the two last, are
+appropriate ones. The first is derived from the term applied in the
+north of the Island to the mixed descendants of Chinese and Filipino
+parents. The word Cimarron (French, marrow) is borrowed from the
+American slave colonies, where it denoted negroes who escaped from
+slavery and lived in a state of freedom; but here it is applied to
+natives who prefer a wild existence to the comforts of village life,
+which they consider are overbalanced by the servitude and bondage
+which accompany them. The term Remontado explains itself, and has
+the same signification as Cimarron. As the difference between the
+two states--on account of the mildness of the climate, and the
+ease with which the wants of the natives are supplied--is far less
+than it would be in Europe, these self-constituted exiles are more
+frequently to be met with than might be supposed; the cause of their
+separation from their fellowmen sometimes being some offence against
+the laws, sometimes annoying debts, and sometimes a mere aversion to
+the duties and labors of village life. Every Filipino has an innate
+inclination to abandon the hamlets and retire into the solitude of
+the woods, or live isolated in the midst of his own fields; and it
+is only the village prisons and the priests--the salaries of the
+latter are proportionate to the number of their parishioners--that
+prevent him from gradually turning the pueblos into visitas, [97]
+and the latter into ranchos. Until a visit to other ranchos in the
+neighborhood corrected my first impression, I took the inhabitants of
+the slopes of the Iriga for cross-breeds between the low-landers and
+negritos. The color of their skin was not black, but a dark brown,
+scarcely any darker than that of Filipinos who have been much exposed
+to the sun; and only a few of them had woolly hair. The negritos whom
+I saw at Angat and Mariveles knew nothing whatever about agriculture,
+lived in the open air, and supported themselves upon the spontaneous
+products of nature; but the half-savages of the Iriga dwell in decent
+huts, and cultivate several vegetables and a little sugar-cane. No
+pure negritos, as far as I could ascertain, are to be met with in
+Camarines. A thickly-populated province, only sparsely dotted with
+lofty hills, would be ill-suited for the residence of a nomadic
+hunting race ignorant of agriculture.
+
+[Iriga settlements.] The ranchos on the Iriga are very accessible,
+and their inhabitants carry on a friendly intercourse with the
+lowlanders; indeed, if they didn't, they would have been long
+ago exterminated. In spite of these neighborly communications,
+however, they have preserved many of their own primitive manners and
+customs. The men go about naked with the exception of a cloth about the
+loins; and the women are equally unclad, some of them perhaps wearing
+an apron reaching from the hip to the knee. [98] In the larger ranchos
+the women were decently clad in the usual Filipino fashion. Their
+household belongings consisted of a few articles made of bamboo, a
+few calabashes of coconut-shell, and an earthen cooking-pot, and bows
+and arrows. [Poison arrows.] These latter are made very carefully,
+the shaft from reeds, the point from a sharp-cut bamboo, or from a
+palm-tree, with one to three sharp points. In pig-hunting iron-pointed
+poison arrows are used. [Crucifixes.] Although the Igorots are not
+Christians, they decorate their huts with crucifixes, which they use
+as talismans. If they were of no virtue, an old man remarked to me, the
+Spaniards would not employ them so numerously. [99] The largest rancho
+I visited was nominally under the charge of a captain, who, however,
+had little real power. At my desire he called to some naked boys idly
+squatting about on the trees, who required considerable persuasion
+before they obeyed his summons; but a few small presents--brazen
+earrings and combs for the women, and cigars for the men--soon put
+me on capital terms with them.
+
+[Mt. Iriga.] After a vain attempt to reach the top of the Iriga volcano
+I started for Buhi, a place situated on the southern shore of the lake
+of that name. Ten minutes after leaving Iriga I reached a spot where
+the ground sounded hollow beneath my horse's feet. A succession of
+small hillocks, about fifty feet high, bordered each side of the road;
+and towards the north I could perceive the huge crater of the Iriga,
+which, in the distance, appeared like a truncated cone. I had the
+curiosity to ascend one of the hillocks, which, seen from its summit,
+looked like the remains of some former crater, which had probably
+been destroyed by an earthquake and split up into these small mounds.
+
+[Advertising.]  When I got to Buhi the friendly priest had it
+proclaimed by sound of drum that the newly-arrived strangers wished
+to obtain all kinds of animals, whether of earth, of air, or of water;
+and that each and all would be paid for in cash. The natives, however,
+only brought us moths, centipedes, and other vermin, which, besides
+enabling them to have a good stare at the strangers, they hoped to
+turn into cash as extraordinary curiosities.
+
+[A church procession.]  The following day I was the spectator of a
+gorgeous procession. First came the Spanish flag, then the village
+kettle-drums, and a small troop of horsemen in short jackets and
+shirts flying in the wind, next a dozen musicians, and finally, as
+the principal figure, a man carrying a crimson silk standard. The
+latter individual evidently was deeply conscious of his dignified
+position, and his countenance eloquently expressed the quantity of
+palm wine he had consumed in honor of the occasion. He sat on his
+horse dressed out in the most absurd manner in a large cocked hat
+trimmed with colored paper instead of gold lace, with a woman's cape
+made of paper outside his coat, and with short, tight-fitting yellow
+breeches and immense white stockings and shoes. Both his coat and his
+breeches were liberally ornamented with paper trimmings. His steed,
+led by a couple of cabezas, was appointed with similar trappings. After
+marching through all the streets of the village the procession came
+to a halt in front of the church.
+
+[Papal concessions to Spain.] This festival is celebrated every year
+in commemoration of the concession made by the Pope to the King of
+Spain permitting the latter to appropriate to his own use certain
+revenues of the Church. The Spanish Throne consequently enjoys the
+right of conferring different indulgences, even for serious crimes, in
+the name of the Holy See. This right, which, so to speak, it acquired
+wholesale, it sells by retail to its customers (it formerly disposed
+of it to the priests) in the estanco, and together with its other
+monopolies, such as tobacco, brandy, lottery tickets, stamped paper,
+etc., all through the agency of the priests; without the assistance
+of whom very little business would be done. The receipts from the
+sale of these indulgences have always been very fluctuating. In 1819
+they amounted to $15,930; in 1839 to $36,390; and in 1860 they were
+estimated at $58,954. In the year 1844-5 they rose to $292,115. The
+cause of this large increase was that indulgences were then rendered
+compulsory; so many being alloted to each family, with the assistance
+and under the superintendence of the priests and tax-collectors who
+received a commission of five and eight per cent on the gross amount
+collected. [100]
+
+[Lake Buhi.] The Lake of Buhi (300 feet above the sea-level) presents
+an extremely picturesque appearance, surrounded as it is on all sides
+by hills fully a thousand feet high; and its western shore is formed by
+what still remains of the Iriga volcano. I was informed by the priests
+of the neighboring hamlets that the volcano, until the commencement
+of the seventeenth century, had been a closed cone, and that the
+lake did not come into existence till half of the mountain fell in,
+at the time of its great eruption. This statement I found confirmed
+in the pages of the Estado Geografico:--"On the fourth of January,
+1641--a memorable day, for on that date all the known volcanoes of
+the Archipelago began to erupt at the same hour--a lofty hill in
+Camarines, inhabited by heathens, fell in, and a fine lake sprang
+into existence upon its site. The then inhabitants of the village of
+Buhi migrated to the shores of the new lake, which, on this account,
+was henceforward called the Lake of Buhi."
+
+[1628 Camarines earthquake.] Perrey, in the Mémoires de l'Académie
+de Dijon, mentions another outbreak which took place in Camarines in
+1628: "In 1628, according to trustworthy reports, fourteen different
+shocks of earthquake occurred on the same day in the province of
+Camarines. Many buildings were thrown down, and from one large
+mountain which the earthquake rent asunder there issued such an
+immense quantity of water that the whole neighborhood was flooded,
+trees were torn up by the roots, and, in one hour, from the seashore
+all plains were covered with water (the direct distance to the shore
+is two and one-half leagues).  [101]
+
+[A mistranslation.] It is very strange that the text given in the
+footnote does not agree with A. Perrey's translation. The former does
+not mention that water came out of the mountains and says just the
+contrary, that trees, which were torn up by the roots, took the place
+of the sea for one hour on the shore, so that no water could be seen.
+
+[Unreliable authorities.] The data of the Estado Geografico are apt to
+create distrust as the official report on the great earthquake of 1641
+describes in detail the eruptions of three volcanoes, which happened at
+the same time (of these two were in the South of the Archipelago and
+one in Northern Luzon) while Camarines is not mentioned at all. This
+suspicion is further strengthened by the fact that the same author
+(Nierembergius) whose remarks on the eruptions of 1628 in Camarines
+are quoted, gives in another book of his a detailed report on the
+events of 1641 without mentioning this province. If one considers
+the indifference of the friars toward such events in Nature, it is
+not improbable that the eruptions of 1641 when a mountain fell in in
+Northern Luzon and a lake took its place, has been transferred on the
+Iriga. To illustrate the indifference it may be mentioned that even
+the padres living at the foot of the Albay could not agree upon the
+dates of its very last eruptions.
+
+[Another attempt at mountain climbing.] When I was at Tambong, a small
+hamlet on the shore of the lake belonging to the parochial district
+of Buhi, I made a second unsuccessful attempt to reach the highest
+point of the Iriga. We arrived in the evening at the southern point
+of the crater's edge (1,041 meters above the level of the sea by my
+barometrical observation), where a deep defile prevented our further
+progress. Here the Igorots abandoned me, and the low-landers refused
+to bivouac in order to pursue the journey on the following day; so I
+was obliged to return. Late in the evening, after passing through a
+coco plantation, we reached the foot of the mountain and found shelter
+from a tempest with a kind old woman; to whom my servants lied so
+shamelessly that, when the rain had abated, we were, in spite of
+our failure, conducted with torches to Tambong, where we found the
+palm-grove round the little hamlet magically illuminated with bright
+bonfires of dry coconut-leaves in honor of the Conquistadores del
+Iriga; and where I was obliged to remain for the night, as the people
+were too timorous or too lazy to cross the rough water of the lake.
+
+[Pineapple fiber preparations.] Here I saw them preparing the fiber
+of the pine-apple for weaving. The fruit of the plants selected
+for this purpose is generally removed early; a process which causes
+the leaves to increase considerably both in length and in breadth. A
+woman places a board on the ground, and upon it a pine-apple-leaf with
+the hollow side upwards. Sitting at one end of the board, she holds
+the leaf firmly with her toes, and scrapes its outer surface with a
+potsherd; not with the sharp fractured edge but with the blunt side
+of the rim; and thus the leaf is reduced to rags. In this manner a
+stratum of coarse longitudinal fiber is disclosed, and the operator,
+placing her thumb-nail beneath it, lifts it up, and draws it away
+in a compact strip; after which she scrapes again until a second
+fine layer of fiber is laid bare. Then, turning the leaf round, she
+scrapes its back, which now lies upwards, down to the layer of fiber,
+which she seizes with her hand and draws at once, to its full length,
+away from the back of the leaf. When the fiber has been washed, it is
+dried in the sun. It is afterwards combed, with a suitable comb, like
+women's hair, sorted into four classes, tied together, and treated like
+the fiber of the lupi. In this crude manner are obtained the threads
+for the celebrated web nipis de [Piña.] Piña, which is considered by
+experts the finest in the world. Two shirts of this kind are in the
+Berlin Ethnographical Museum (Nos. 291 and 292). Better woven samples
+are in the Gewerbe Museum of Trade and Commerce. In the Philippines,
+where the fineness of the work is best understood and appreciated,
+richly-embroidered costumes of this description have fetched more
+than $1,400 each. [102]
+
+[Rain prevents another ascent.] At Buhi, which is not sufficiently
+sheltered towards the north-east, it rained almost as much as at
+Daraga. I had found out from the Igorots that a path could be forced
+through the tall canes up to the summit; but the continual rain
+prevented me; so I resolved to cross the Malinao, returning along the
+coast to my quarters, and then, freshly equipped, descend the river
+Bicol as far as Naga.
+
+[Mountaineers' arrow poison.] Before we parted the Igorots prepared
+for me some arrow poison from the bark of two trees. I happened
+to see neither the leaves nor the blossoms, but only the bark. A
+piece of bark was beaten to pieces, pressed dry, wetted, and again
+pressed. This was done with the bare hand, which, however, sustained
+no injury. The juice thus extracted looked like pea-soup, and was
+warmed in an earthen vessel over a slow fire. During the process it
+coagulated at the edges; and the coagulated mass was again dissolved,
+by stirring it into the boiling fluid mass. When this had reached
+the consistency of syrup, a small quantity was scraped off the inner
+surface of a second piece of bark, and its juice squeezed into the
+vessel. This juice was a dark brown color. When the mass had attained
+the consistency of a thin jelly, it was scraped out of the pot with
+a chip and preserved on a leaf sprinkled with ashes. For poisoning
+an arrow they use a piece of the size of a hazel-nut, which, after
+being warmed, is distributed uniformly over the broad iron point;
+and the poisoned arrow serves for repeated use.
+
+[Sapa river.] At the end of November I left the beautiful lake of
+Buhi, and proceeded from its eastern angle for a short distance up
+the little river Sapa [103], the alluvial deposits of which form
+a considerable feature in the configuration of the lake. Across a
+marshy meadow we reached the base of the Malinao or Buhi mountain,
+the slippery clay of the lower slope merging higher up into volcanic
+sand. [Leeches.] The damp undergrowth swarmed with small leeches;
+I never before met with them in such numbers. These little animals,
+no stouter when streched out than a linen thread, are extraordinarily
+active. They attach themselves firmly to every part of the body,
+penetrating even into the nose, the ears, and the eyelids, where,
+if, they remain unobserved, they gorge themselves to such excess that
+they become as round as balls and look like small cherries. While they
+are sucking no pain is felt; but afterwards the spots attacked often
+itch the whole day long.  [104] [Fig-trees.] In one place the wood
+consisted for the most part of fig-trees, with bunches of fruit quite
+six feet in length hanging from the stems and the thicker branches;
+and between the trees grew ferns, aroids, and orchids. After nearly
+six hours' toil we reached the pass (841 meters above the sea level),
+and descended the eastern slope. The forest on the eastern side of
+the mountain is still more magnificent than that on the west. From a
+clearing we obtained a fine view of the sea, the Island of Catanduanes,
+and the plain of Tabaco. [Prison as hotel.]  At sunset we reached Tibi,
+where I quartered myself in the prison. This, a tolerably clean place,
+enclosed with strong bamboos, was the most habitable part of a long
+shed which supplied the place of the tribunal destroyed in a storm two
+years before. At Tibi I had an opportunity of sketching Mount Malinao
+(called also Buhi and Takit), which from this side has the appearance
+of a large volcano with a distinct crater. From the lake of Buhi it
+is not so clearly distinguishable.
+
+[Igabo hot spring.] Not far from Tibi, exactly north-east of Malinao,
+we found a small hot spring called Igabo. In the middle of a plot of
+turf encircled by trees was a bare spot of oval form, nearly a hundred
+paces long and seventy wide. The whole space was covered with stones,
+rounded by attrition, as large as a man's head and larger. Here
+and there hot water bubbled out of the ground and discharged into a
+little brook; beside it some women were engaged in cooking their food,
+which they suspended in nets in the hottest parts of the water. On the
+lower surfaces of some of the stones a little sulphur was sublimated;
+of alum hardly a trace was perceptible. In a cavity some caolin had
+accumulated, and was used as a stain.
+
+[Naglegbeng silicious springs.] From here I visited the stalactite
+springs, not far distant, of Naglegbeng. [105] I had expected to
+see a calcareous fountain, but found the most magnificent masses of
+silica of infinite variety of form; shallow cones with cylindrical
+summits, pyramidal flights of steps, round basins with ribbed margins,
+and ponds of boiling water. One spot, denuded of trees, from two
+to three hundred paces in breadth and about five hundred in length,
+was, with the exception of a few places overgrown with turf, covered
+with a crust of silicious dross, which here and there formed large
+connected areas, but was generally broken up into flaky plates by the
+vertical springs which pierced it. In numerous localities boiling
+hot mineral water containing silica was forcing itself out of the
+ground, spreading itself over the surface and depositing a crust,
+the thickness of which depended on its distance from the center
+point. In this manner, in the course of time, a very flat cone is
+formed, with a basin of boiling water in the middle. The continuous
+deposit of dross contracts the channel, and a less quantity of water
+overflows, while that close to the edge of the basin evaporates and
+deposits a quantity of fine silicious earth; whence the upper portion
+of the cone not only is steeper than its base, but frequently assumes
+a more cylindrical form, the external surface of which on account
+of the want of uniformity in the overflow, is ribbed in the form
+of stalactites. When the channel becomes so much obstructed that
+the efflux is less than the evaporation, the water ceases to flow
+over the edge, and the mineral dross, during the continual cooling
+of the water, is then deposited, with the greatest uniformity, over
+the inner area of the basin. When, however, the surface of the water
+sinks, this formation ceases at the upper portion of the basin; the
+interior wall thickens; and, if the channel be completely stopped up
+and all the water evaporated, there remains a bell-shaped basin as
+even as if excavated by the hand of man. The water now seeks a fresh
+outlet, and bursts forth where it meets with the least obstruction,
+without destroying the beautiful cone it has already erected. Many such
+examples exist. In the largest cones, however, the vapors generated
+acquire such power that, when the outlet is completely stopped up,
+they break up the overlying crust in concentrically radiating flakes;
+and the water, issuing anew copiously from the center, deposits a fresh
+crust, which again, by the process we have just described is broken
+up into a superimposed layer of flakes. In this manner are formed
+annular layers, which in turn are gradually covered by fresh deposits
+from the overflowing water. After the pyramid of layers is complete
+and the outlet stopped up, the water sometimes breaks forth on the
+slope of the same cone; a second cone is then formed near the first,
+on the same base. In the vicinity of the silicious springs are seen
+deposits of white, yellow, red, and bluish-grey clays, overlaying
+one another in narrow strata-like variegated marl, manifestly the
+disintegrated produce of volcanic rocks transported hither by rain
+and stained with oxide of iron. These clays perhaps come from the
+same rocks from the disintegration of which the silicious earth has
+been formed. Similar examples occur in Iceland and in New Zealand;
+but the products of the springs of Tibi are more varied, finer,
+and more beautiful than those of the Iceland Geysers.
+
+[A world wonder.] The wonderful conformations of the red cone are
+indeed astonishing, and hardly to be paralleled in any other quarter
+of the world. [106]
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+
+[Quinali river.] On my second journey in Camarines, which I undertook
+in February, I went by water from Polangui, past Batu, as far as
+Naga. The Quinali, which runs into the south-eastern corner of the
+lake of Batu, runs out again on the north side as the Bicol River,
+and flows in a north-westerly direction as far as the Bay of San
+Miguel. It forms the medium of a not inconsiderable trade between Albay
+and Camarines, particularly in rice; of which the supply grown in the
+former province does not suffice for the population, who consume the
+superfluity of Camarines. The rice is conveyed in large boats up the
+river as far as Quinali, and thence transported further on in carabao
+carts; and the boats return empty. During the dry season of the year,
+the breadth of the very tortuous Bicol, at its mouth, is a little over
+sixty feet, and increases but very gradually. There is considerable
+variety of vegetation upon its banks, and in animal life it is highly
+attractive. I was particularly struck with its numerous monkeys and
+water-fowl. [Plotus water-fowl.] Of the latter the Plotus variety
+was most abundant, but difficult to shoot. They sit motionless on
+the trees on the bank, only their thin heads and necks, like those
+of tree-snakes, overtopping the leaves. On the approach of the boat
+they precipitate themselves hastily into the water; and it is not
+until after many minutes that the thin neck is seen rising up again
+at some distance from the spot where the bird disappeared. The Plotus
+appears to be as rapid on the wing as it is in swimming and diving.
+
+[Naga.] In Naga, the chief city of South Camarines, I alighted at
+the tribunal, from which, however, I was immediately invited by the
+principal official of the district--who is famed for his hospitality
+far beyond the limits of his province--to his house, where I was loaded
+with civilities and favors. This universally beloved gentleman put
+everybody under contribution in order to enrich my collections, and did
+all in his power to render my stay agreeable and to further my designs.
+
+[Nueva Caceres.] Naga is the seat of a bishopric and of the provincial
+government. In official documents it is called Nueva Caceres, in
+honor of the Captain-General, D. Fr. de Sande, a native of Caceres,
+who about 1578 founded Naga (the Spanish town) close to the Filipino
+village. At the beginning of the seventeenth century it numbered
+nearly one hundred Spanish inhabitants; at the present time it hardly
+boasts a dozen. Murillo Velarde remarks (xiii, 272), in contrast
+to the state of things in America, that of all the towns founded in
+the Philippines, with the exception of Manila, only the skeletons,
+the names without the substance, have been preserved. The reason is,
+as has been frequently shown, that up to the present time plantations,
+and consequently proper settlers, have been wanting. Formerly Naga
+was the principal town of the whole of that district of Luzon lying
+to the east of Tayabas, which, on account of the increased population,
+was divided into the three provinces of North and South Camarines and
+Albay. The boundaries of these governmental districts, those between
+Albay and South Camarines more especially, have been drawn very
+arbitrarily; although, the whole of the territory, as is shown by the
+map, geographically is very well defined. [Land of the Bicols.] The
+country is named Camarines; but it might more suitably be called the
+country of the Bicols, for the whole of it is inhabited by one race,
+the Bicol-Filipinos, who are distinguished by their speech and many
+other peculiarities from their neighbors, the Tagals on the west,
+and the Bisayans on the islands to the south and east.
+
+[The Bicols.] The Bicols are found only in this district and in a
+few islands lying immediately in front of it. Of their coming hither
+no information is to be obtained from the comprehensive but confused
+histories of the Spanish monks. Morga considers them to be natives
+of the island; on the other hand, it is asserted by tradition that
+the inhabitants of Manila and its vicinity are descended from Malays
+who have migrated thither, and from the inhabitants of other islands
+and more distant provinces. [107] Their speech is midway between
+that of the Tagalogs and the Bisayans, and they themselves appear,
+in both their manners and customs, to be a half-breed between these
+two races. Physically and mentally they are inferior to the Tagalogs,
+and superior to the inhabitants of the eastern Bisayan Islands. [Bicol
+language.] Bicol is spoken only in the two Camarines, Albay, Luzon,
+the Islands of Masbate, Burias, Ticao, and Catanduanes, and in the
+smaller adjoining islands. The inhabitants of the volcanic mountain
+Isarog and its immediate neighborhood speak it in the greatest
+purity. Thence towards the west the Bicol dialect becomes more and
+more like Tagalog, and towards the east like Bisayan, until by degrees,
+even before reaching the boundaries of their ethnographical districts,
+it merges into these two kindred languages.
+
+[Rice cultivation.] In South Camarines the sowing of the rice in
+beds begins in June or July, always at the commencement of the rainy
+season; but in fields artificially watered, earlier, because thus the
+fruit ripens at a time when, the store in the country being small,
+its price is high. Although the rice fields could very well give two
+crops yearly, they are tilled only once. It is planted out in August,
+with intervals of a hand's-breadth between each row and each individual
+plant; and within four months the rice is ripe. The fields are never
+fertilized, and but seldom ploughed; the weeds and the stubble being
+generally trodden into the already soaked ground by a dozen carabaos,
+and the soil afterwards simply rolled with a cylinder furnished
+with sharp points, or loosened with the harrow (sorod). Besides the
+agricultural implements named above, there are the Spanish hatchet
+(azadon) and a rake of bamboo (kag-kag) in use. The harvest is
+effected in a peculiar manner. The rice which is soonest ripe is
+cut for ten per cent, that is, the laborer receives for his toil the
+tenth bundle for himself. At this time of year rice is very scarce,
+want is imminent, and labor reasonable. The more fields, however,
+that ripen, the higher become the reapers' wages, rising to twenty,
+thirty, forty, even fifty per cent; indeed, the executive sometimes
+consider it to be necessary to force the people to do harvest by
+corporal punishment and imprisonment, in order to prevent a large
+portion of the crop from rotting on the stalk. Nevertheless, in very
+fruitful years a part of the harvest is lost. The rice is cut halm by
+halm (as in Java) with a peculiarly-formed knife, or, failing such,
+with the sharp-edged flap of a mussel [108] found in the ditches of
+the rice-fields, which one has only to stoop to pick up.
+
+[Rice land production.] A quiñon of the best rice land is worth from
+sixty to one hundred dollars ($5.50 to $9 per acre). Rice fields on
+rising grounds are dearest, as they are not exposed to devastating
+floods as are those in the plain, and may be treated so as to insure
+the ripening of the fruit at the time when the highest price is to
+be obtained.
+
+[The harvest.] A ganta of rice is sufficient to plant four topones
+(1 topon = 1 loan); from which 100 manojos (bundles) are gathered,
+each of which yields half a ganta of rice. The old ganta of Naga,
+however, being equal to a modern ganta and a half, the produce
+may be calculated at 75 cavanes per quiñon, about 9 3/4 bushels per
+acre. [109] In books 250 cavanes are usually stated to be the average
+produce of a quiñon; but that is an exaggeration. The fertility of
+the fields certainly varies very much; but, when it is considered
+that the land in the Philippines is never fertilized, but depends,
+for the maintenance of its vitality, exclusively upon the overflowing
+of the mud which is washed down from the mountains, it may be believed
+that the first numbers better express the true average. In Java the
+harvest, in many provinces, amounts to only 50 cavanes per quiñon;
+in some, indeed, to three times this amount; and in China, with the
+most careful culture and abundant manure, to 180 cabanes.  [110]
+[Sweet potatoes.]  Besides rice, they cultivate the camote (sweet
+potato, Convolvulus batatas). This flourishes like a weed; indeed,
+it is sometimes planted for the purpose of eradicating the weeds from
+soil intended for coffee or cacao. It spreads out into a thick carpet,
+and is an inexhaustible storehouse to its owner, who, the whole year
+through, can supply his wants from his field. Gabi (Caladium), Ubi
+(Dioscorea), maize, and other kinds of grain, are likewise cultivated.
+
+[Cattle and horses.] After the rice harvest the carabaos, horses, and
+bullocks, are allowed to graze in the fields. During the rice culture
+they remain in the gogonales, cane-fields which arise in places once
+cultivated for mountain-rice and afterwards abandoned. (Gogo is the
+name of a cane 7 to 8 feet high, Saccharum sp.). Transport then is
+almost impossible, because during the rainy season the roads are
+impassable, and the cattle find nothing to eat. The native does
+not feed his beast, but allows it to die when it cannot support
+itself. In the wet season of the year it frequently happens that a
+carabao falls down from starvation whilst drawing a cart. A carabao
+costs from $7 to $10; a horse $10 to $20; and a cow $6 to $8. Very fine
+horses are valued at from $30 to $50, and occasionally as much as $80;
+but the native horses are not esteemed in Manila, because they have no
+stamina. The bad water, the bad hay, and the great heat of the place at
+once point out the reason; otherwise it would be profitable to export
+horses in favorable seasons to Manila, where they would fetch twice
+their value. According to Morga, there were neither horses nor asses
+on the Island until the Spaniards imported them from China and New
+Spain. [111] They were at first small and vicious. Horses were imported
+also from Japan, "not swift but powerful, with large heads and thick
+manes, looking like Friesland horses;" [112] and the breed improved
+rapidly. Those born in the country, mostly cross-breeds, drive well.
+
+[Black cattle.] Black cattle are generally in the hands of a few
+individuals; some of whom in Camarines possess from 1000 to 3000 head;
+but they are hardly saleable in the province, although they have been
+exported profitably for some years past to Manila. The black cattle
+of the province are small but make good beef. They are never employed
+for labor, and the cows are not milked. The Filipinos, who generally
+feed on fish, crabs, mussels, and wild herbs together with rice,
+prefer the flesh of the carabao to that of the ox; but they eat it
+only on feastdays.
+
+[Sheep.] The old race of sheep, imported by the Spaniards previous
+to this century, still flourishes and is easily propagated. Those
+occasionally brought from Shanghai and Australia are considered to be
+deficient in endurance, unfruitful, and generally short-lived. Mutton
+is procurable every day in Manila; in the interior, however, at
+least in the eastern provinces, very rarely; although the rearing
+of sheep might there be carried on without difficulty, and in many
+places most profitably; the people being too idle to take care of the
+young lambs, which they complain are torn to pieces by the dogs when
+they wander about free. The sheep appear to have been acclimatized
+with difficulty. Morga says that they were brought several times
+from New Spain, but did not multiply; so that in his time this kind
+of domestic animal did not exist. [Swine.] Pork is eaten by wealthy
+Europeans only when the hog has been brought up from the litter at
+home. In order to prevent its wandering away, it is usually enclosed
+in a wide meshed cylindrical hamper of bamboo, upon filling which
+it is slaughtered. The native hogs are too nauseous for food, the
+animals maintaining themselves almost entirely on ordure.
+
+[Guesses at history from language.] Crawfurd observes that the names
+of all the domestic animals in the Philippines belong to foreign
+languages, Those of the dog, swine, goat, carabao, cat, even of
+the fowl and the duck, are Malay or Javanese; while those of the
+horse, ox, and sheep, are Spanish. Until these animals were first
+imported from Malaysia, the aborigines were less fortunate in this
+respect than the Americans, who at least had the alpaca, llamanda,
+vicuña. The names likewise of most of the cultivated plants, such as
+rice, yams, sugar-cane, cacao and indigo, are said to be Malay, as
+well as those for silver, copper, and tin. Of the words relating to
+commerce, one-third are Malay; to which belong most of the terms used
+in trades, as well as the denominations for weights and measures, for
+the calendar--so far as it exists--and for numbers, besides the words
+for writing, reading, speaking, and narrative. On the other hand, only
+a small number of terms which refer to war are borrowed from the Malay.
+
+[Ancient Filipino civilization.] Referring to the degree of
+civilization which the Philippines possessed previous to their
+intercourse with the Malays, Crawfurd concludes from the purely
+domestic words that they cultivated no corn, their vegetable food
+consisting of batata(?) and banana. They had not a single domestic
+animal; they were acquainted with iron and gold, but with no other
+metal, and were clothed in stuffs of cotton and alpaca, woven by
+themselves. They had invented a peculiar phonetic alphabet; and their
+religion consisted in the belief in good and evil spirits and witches,
+in circumcision, and in somewhat of divination by the stars. They
+therefore were superior to the inhabitants of the South Sea, inasmuch
+as they possessed gold, iron, and woven fabrics, and inferior to them
+in that they had neither dog, pig, nor fowl.
+
+[Progress under Spain.] Assuming the truth of the above sketch of
+pre-Christian culture, which has been put together only with the help
+of defective linguistic sources, and comparing it with the present, we
+find, as the result, a considerable progress, for which the Philippines
+are indebted to the Spaniards. The influence of social relations has
+been already exhibited in the text. The Spaniards have imported the
+horse, the bullock, and the sheep; maize, coffee, sugar-cane, cacao,
+sesame, tobacco, indigo, many fruits, and probably the batata, which
+they met with in Mexico under the name of camotli. [113] From this
+circumstance the term camote, universal in the Philippines, appears
+to have had its origin, Crawfurd, indeed, erroneously considering
+it a native term. According to a communication from Dr. Witmack, the
+opinion has lately been conceived that the batata is indigenous not
+only to America, but also to the East Indies, as it has two names in
+Sanscrit, sharkarakanda and ruktaloo.
+
+[Slight industrial progress.] With the exception of embroidery, the
+natives have made but little progress in industries, in the weaving
+and the plaiting of mats; and the handicrafts are entirely carried
+on by the Chinese.
+
+[Rice and abaca exported.] The exports consist of rice and abaca. The
+province exports about twice as much rice as it consumes; a large
+quantity to Albay, which, less adapted for the cultivation of rice,
+produces only abaca; and a fair share to North Camarines, which is
+very mountainous, and little fertile. The rice can hardly be shipped
+to Manila, as there is no high road to the south side of the province,
+near to the principal town, and the transport by water from the north
+side, and from the whole of the eastern portion of Luzon, would
+immediately enhance the price of the product. [Chinese monopolize
+trade.]  The imports are confined to the little that is imported by
+Chinese traders. The traders are almost all Chinese who alone possess
+shops in which clothing materials and woolen stuffs, partly of native
+and partly of European manufacture, women's embroidered slippers,
+and imitation jewelry, may be obtained. The whole amount of capital
+invested in these shops certainly does not exceed $200,000. In the
+remaining pueblos of Camarines there are no Chinese merchants; and the
+inhabitants are consequently obliged to get their supplies from Naga.
+
+[Land for everybody.] The land belongs to the State, but is let to
+any one who will build upon it. The usufruct passes to the children,
+and ceases only when the land remains unemployed for two whole years;
+after which it is competent for the executive to dispose of it to
+another person.
+
+[Homes.] Every family possesses its own house; and the young husband
+generally builds with the assistance of his friends. In many places
+it does not cost more than four or five dollars, as he can, if
+necessary, build it himself free of expense, with the simple aid of
+the forest-knife (bolo), and of the materials to his hand, bamboo,
+Spanish cane, and palm-leaves. These houses, which are always built
+on piles on account of the humidity of the soil, often consist of a
+single shed, which serves for all the uses of a dwelling, and are the
+cause of great laxity and of filthy habits, the whole family sleeping
+therein in common, and every passer-by being a welcome guest. A fine
+house of boards for the family of a cabeza perhaps costs nearly $100;
+and the possessions of such a family in stock, furniture, ornaments,
+etc. (of which they are obliged to furnish an annual inventory),
+would range in value between $100 and $1,000. Some reach even as
+much as $10,000, while the richest family of the whole province is
+assessed at $40,000.
+
+[People not travellers.] In general it may be said that every pueblo
+supplies travellers, its own necessaries, and produces little more. To
+the indolent native, especially to him of the eastern provinces,
+the village in which he was born is the world; and he leaves it only
+under the most pressing circumstances. Were it otherwise even, the
+strictness of the poll-tax would place great obstacles in the way of
+gratifying the desire for travel, generated by that oppressive impost.
+
+[Meals.] The Filipino eats three times a day--about 7 a.m., 12, and at
+7 or 8 in the evening. Those engaged in severe labor consume at each
+meal a chupa of rice; the common people, half a chupa at breakfast, one
+at mid-day, and half again in the evening, altogether two chupas. Each
+family reaps its own supply of rice, and preserves it in barns, or
+buys it winnowed at the market; in the latter case purchasing only
+the quantity for one day or for the individual meals. The average
+retail price is 3 cuartos for 2 chupas (14 chupas for 1 real). To
+free it from the husk, the quantity for each single meal is rubbed in
+a mortar by the women. This is in accordance with an ancient custom;
+but it is also due to the fear lest, otherwise, the store should be
+too quickly consumed. The rice, however, is but half cooked; and
+it would seem that this occurs in all places where it constitutes
+an essential part of the sustenance of the people, as may be seen,
+indeed, in Spain and Italy. Salt and much Spanish pepper (capsicum)
+are eaten as condiments; the latter, originally imported from America,
+growing all round the houses. To the common cooking-salt the natives
+prefer a so-called rock-salt, which they obtain by evaporation from
+sea-water previously filtered through ashes; and of which one chinanta
+(12 lbs. German) costs from one and one-half to two reals. The
+consumption of salt is extremely small.
+
+[Buyo and cigars.] The luxuries of the Filipinos are buyo [114] and
+cigars--a cigar costing half a centavo, and a buyo much less. Cigars
+are rarely smoked, but are cut up into pieces, and chewed with the
+buyo. The women also chew buyo and tobacco, but, as a rule, very
+moderately; but they do not also stain their teeth black, like the
+Malays; and the young and pretty adorn themselves assiduously with
+veils made of the areca-nut tree, whose stiff and closely packed
+parallel fibers, when cut crosswise, form excellent tooth-brushes. They
+bathe several times daily, and surpass the majority of Europeans in
+cleanliness. Every native, above all things, keeps a fighting-cock;
+even when he has nothing to eat, he finds money for cock-fighting.
+
+[Household affairs.] The details of domestic economy may be summarized
+as follows:
+
+For cooking purposes an earthen pot is used, costing between 3 and 10
+cuartos; which, in cooking rice, is closed firmly with a banana-leaf,
+so that the steam of a very small quantity of water is sufficient. No
+other cooking utensils are used by the poorer classes; but those better
+off have a few cast-iron pans and dishes. In the smaller houses, the
+hearth consists of a portable earthen pan or a flat chest, frequently
+of an old cigar-* chest full of sand, with three stones which serve
+as a tripod. In the larger houses it is in the form of a bedstead,
+filled with sand or ashes, instead of a mattress. The water in small
+households is carried and preserved in thick bamboos. In his bolo
+(forest-knife), moreover, every one has an universal instrument,
+which he carries in a wooden sheath made by himself, suspended by a
+cord of loosely-twisted bast fibers tied round his body. This, and
+the rice-mortar (a block of wood with a suitable cavity), together
+with pestles and a few baskets, constitute the whole of the household
+[Furniture.] furniture of a poor family; sometimes a large snail,
+with a rush wick, is also to be found as a lamp. They sleep on a
+mat of pandanus (fan-palm, Corypha), when they possess one; if not,
+on the splittings of bamboo, with which the house is floored. By the
+poor oil for lighting is rarely used; but torches of resin, which
+last a couple of days, are bought in the market for half a cuarto.
+
+[Clothing.] Their clothing requirements I ascertained to be these:
+A woman wears a camisa de guinára (a short shift of abacá fiber),
+a patadíon (a gown reaching from the hip to the ancles), a cloth,
+and a comb. A piece of guinára, costing 1 real, gives two shifts;
+the coarsest patadíon costs 3 reals; a cloth, at the highest, 1 real;
+and a comb, 2 cuartos; making altogether 4 reals, 12 cuartos. Women of
+the better class wear a camisa, costing between 1 and 2 r., a patadíon
+6 r., cloth between 2 and 3 r., and a comb 2 cu. The men wear a shirt,
+1 r., hose, 3 r., hat (tararura) of Spanish cane, 10 cu., or a salacot
+(a large rain-hat, frequently decorated), at least 2 r.--often,
+when ornamented with silver, as much as $50. At least three, but more
+commonly four, suits are worn out yearly; the women, however, taking
+care to weave almost the whole quantity for the family themselves.
+
+[Wages.] The daily wages of the common laborer are 1 real, without
+food; and his hours of work are from 6 to 12, and from 2 to 6
+o'clock. The women, as a rule, perform no field labor, but plant out
+the rice and assist in the reaping; their wages on both occasions
+being equal to those of the men. Wood and stone-cutters receive 1.5
+r. per day, and calkers 1.75 r.
+
+[Land leases.] The Tercio is a pretty general contract in the
+cultivation of the land. The owner simply lets arable land for the
+third part of the crop. Some mestizos possess several pieces of ground;
+but they are seldom connected together, as they generally acquire
+them as mortgages for sums bearing but a small proportion to their
+real value.
+
+[Family income.] Under the head of earnings I give the income of a
+small family. The man earns daily one real, and the woman, if she
+weaves coarse stuff, one-fourth real, and her food (thus a piece
+of guinára, occupying the labor of two days, costs half a real in
+weavers' wages). The most skilful female weaver of the finer stuffs
+obtains twelve reals per piece; but it takes a month to weave; and
+the month, on account of the numerous holy-days, must be calculated
+at the most as equal to twenty-four working days; she consequently
+earns one-fourth real per day and her food. For the knitting of the
+fibers of the ananas for the piña web (called sugot) she gets only
+an eighth of a real and her food.
+
+[Schools.] In all the pueblos there are schools. The schoolmaster
+is paid by the Government, and generally obtains two dollars per
+month, without board or lodging. In large pueblos the salary amounts
+to three dollars and a half; out of which an assistant must be
+paid. The schools are under the supervision of the ecclesiastics
+of the place. Reading and writing are taught, the writing copies
+being Spanish. The teacher, who has to teach his scholars Spanish
+exactly, does not understand it himself, while the Spanish officers,
+on the other hand, do not understand the language of the country;
+and the priests have no inclination to alter this state of things,
+which is very useful to them as a means of influence. Almost the only
+Filipinos who speak Spanish are those who have been in the service
+of Europeans. A kind of religious horn-book is the first that is
+read in the language of the country (Bicol); and after that comes the
+Christian Doctrine, the reading-book called Casayayan. On an average,
+half of all the children go to school, generally from the seventh
+to the tenth year. They learn to read a little; a few even write a
+little: but they soon forget it again. Only those who are afterwards
+employed as clerks write fluently; and of these most write well.
+
+Some priests do not permit boys and girls to attend the same school;
+and in this case they pay a second teacher, a female, a dollar a
+month. The Filipinos learn arithmetic very quickly, generally aiding
+themselves by the use of mussels or stones, which they pile in little
+heaps before them and then count through.
+
+[Marriage age.] The women seldom marry before the fourteenth year,
+twelve years being the legal limit. In the church-register of Polángui
+I found a marriage recorded (January, 1837) between a Filipino and a
+Filipina having the ominous name of Hilaria Concepción, who at the
+time of the performance of the marriage ceremony was, according to
+a note in the margin, only nine years and ten months old. Frequently
+people live together unmarried, because they cannot pay the expenses
+of the ceremony. [115]
+
+[Woman's work.] European females, and even mestizas, never seek
+husbands amongst the natives. The women generally are well treated,
+doing only light work, such as sewing, weaving, embroidery, and
+managing the household; while all the heavy labor, with the exception
+of the beating of the rice, falls to the men. [116]
+
+[A patriarch.] Instances of longevity are frequent amongst the
+Filipinos, particularly in Camarines. The Diario de Manila, of
+March 13th, 1866, mentions an old man in Darága (Albay) whom I knew
+well--Juan Jacob, born in 1744, married in 1764, and a widower
+in 1845. He held many public posts up to 1840, and had thirteen
+children, of whom five are living. He has one hundred and seventy
+direct descendants, and now, at one hundred and twenty-two years of
+age, is still vigorous, with good eyes and teeth. Extreme unction
+was administered to him seven times!
+
+[Snake bite and rabies remedy.] The first excretion of a new-born
+child is carefully preserved, and under the name of triaca (theriacum)
+is held to be a highly efficacious and universal remedy for the bites
+of snakes and mad dogs. It is applied to the wound externally, and
+at the same time is taken internally.
+
+[Infant mortality.] A large number of children die in the first two
+weeks after birth. Statistical data are wanting; but, according to the
+opinion of one of the first physicians in Manila, at least one-fourth
+die. This mortality must arise from great uncleanliness and impure air;
+since in the chambers of the sick, and of women lying-in, the doors
+and windows are so closely shut that the healthy become sick from
+the stench and heat, and the sick recover with difficulty. Every
+aperture of the house is closed up by the husband early during
+travail, in order that Patianac may not break in--an evil spirit
+who brings mischief to lying-in women, and endeavors to hinder the
+birth. The custom has been further maintained even amongst many
+who attach no belief to the superstition, but who, from fear of a
+draught of air through a hole, have discovered a new explanation for
+an old custom--namely, that instances of such practices occur amongst
+all people. [The itch.] One very widely-spread malady is the itch,
+although, according to the assurance of the physician above referred
+to, it may be easily subdued; and, according to the judgment of those
+who are not physicians and who employ that term for any eruptions
+of the skin, the natives generally live on much too low a diet; the
+Bicols even more than the Tagalogs. [117] Under certain conditions,
+which the physicians, on being questioned, could not define more
+precisely, the natives can support neither hunger nor thirst; of which
+fact I have on many occasions been a witness. It is reported of them,
+when forced into such a situation as to suffer from unappeased wants,
+that they become critically ill; and thus they often die.
+
+[Imitation mania.] Hence arises the morbid mania for imitation,
+which is called in Java Sakit-latar, and here Mali-mali. In Java many
+believe that the sickness is only assumed, because those who pretend
+to be afflicted with it find it to their advantage to be seen by newly
+arrived Europeans. Here, however, I saw one instance where indeed no
+simulation could be suspected. My companions availed themselves of
+the diseased condition of a poor old woman who met us in the highway,
+to practice some rough jokes upon her. The old woman imitated every
+motion as if impelled by an irresistible impulse, and expressed at
+the same time the most extreme indignation against those who abused
+her infirmity.
+
+[The sickness in Siberia.] In R. Maak's "Journey to the Amour," it is
+recorded:--"It is not unusual for the Maniagri to suffer also from a
+nervous malady of the most peculiar kind, with which we had already
+been made acquainted by the descriptions of several travellers. [118]
+This malady is met with, for the most part, amongst the wild people
+of Siberia, as well as amongst the Russians settled there. In the
+district of the Jakutes, where this affliction very frequently occurs,
+those affected by it, both Russians and Jakutes, are known by the
+name of 'Emiura;' but here (that is, in that part of Siberia where
+the Maniagri live) the same malady is called by the Maniagri 'Olon,'
+and by the Argurian Cossacks 'Olgandshi.' The attacks of the malady
+which I am now mentioning consist in this, that a man suffering
+from it will, if under the influence of terror or consternation,
+unconsciously, and often without the smallest sense of shame, imitate
+everything that passes before him. Should he be offended, he falls
+into a rage, which manifests itself by wild shrieks and raving;
+and he precipitates himself at the same time, with a knife or any
+other object which may fall to his hand, upon those who have placed
+him in this predicament. Amongst the Maniagri, women, especially the
+very aged, are the chief sufferers from this malady; and instances,
+moreover, of men who were affected by it are likewise known to me. It
+is worthy of remark that those women who returned home on account of
+this sickness were notwithstanding strong, and in all other respects
+enjoyed good health."
+
+[Running amuck.] Probably it is only an accidental coincidence that
+in the Malay countries Sakit-latar and Amok exist together, if not in
+the same individual, yet amongst the same people. Instances of Amok
+seem to occur also in the Philippines.  [119] I find the following
+account in the Diario de Manila of February 21, 1866: In Cavite,
+on February 18, a soldier rushed into the house of a school-teacher,
+and, struggling with him, stabbed him with a dagger, and then killed
+the teacher's son with a second stab. Plunging into the street, he
+stabbed two young girls of ten and twelve years of age and wounded a
+woman in the side, a boy aged nine in the arm, a coachman (mortally) in
+the abdomen, and, besides another woman, a sailor and three soldiers;
+and arriving at his barracks, where he was stopped by the sentry,
+he plunged the dagger into his own breast.
+
+[Regard for the sleeping.] It is one of the greatest insults to stride
+over a sleeping native, or to awaken him suddenly. They rouse one
+another, when necessity requires, with the greatest circumspection
+and by the slowest degrees. [120]
+
+[Sense of smell.] The sense of smell is developed amongst the
+natives to so great a degree that they are able, by smelling at the
+pocket-handkerchiefs, to tell to which persons they belong ("Reisesk.,"
+p. 39); and lovers at parting exchange pieces of the linen they may
+be wearing, and during their separation inhale the odor of the beloved
+being, besides smothering the relics with kisses. [121]
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+
+[A scientific priest-poet.] From Naga I visited the parish priest
+of Libmanan (Ligmanan), who, possessing poetical talent, and having
+the reputation of a natural philosopher, collected and named pretty
+beetles and shells, and dedicated the most elegant little sonnets. He
+favored me with the following narrative:--
+
+[Prehistoric remains] In 1851, during the construction of a road a
+little beyond Libmanan, at a place called Poro, a bed of shells was
+dug up under four feet of mould, one hundred feet distant from the
+river. It consisted of Cyrenae (C. suborbicularis, Busch.), a species
+of bivalve belonging to the family of Cyclades which occurs only in
+warm waters, and is extraordinarily abundant in the brackish waters of
+the Philippines. On the same occasion, at the depth of from one and
+a half to three and a half feet, were found numerous remains of the
+early inhabitants--skulls, ribs, bones of men and animals, a child's
+thighbone inserted in a spiral of brass wire, several stags' horns,
+beautifully-formed dishes and vessels, some of them painted, probably
+of Chinese origin; striped bracelets, of a soft, gypseous, copper-red
+rock, gleaming as if they were varnished; [122] small copper knives,
+but no iron utensils; and several broad flat stones bored through
+the middle; [123] besides a wedge of petrified wood, embedded in a
+cleft branch of a tree. The place, which to this day may be easily
+recognized in a hollow, might, by excavation systematically carried on,
+yield many more interesting results. What was not immediately useful
+was then and there destroyed, and the remainder dispersed. In spite of
+every endeavor, I could obtain, through the kindness of Señor Fociños
+in Naga, only one small vessel. Similar remains of more primitive
+inhabitants have been found at the mouth of the Bigajo, not far from
+Libmánan, in a shell-bed of the same kind; and an urn, with a human
+skeleton, was found at the mouth of the Perlos, west of Sitio de Poro,
+in 1840. At the time when I wrote down these statements of the priest,
+neither of us was familiar with the discoveries made within the last
+few years relating to the lake dwellings (pile villages); or these
+notes might have been more exact, although probably they would not
+have been so easy and natural.
+
+[Ancient Chinese jar.] Mr. W. A. Franks, who had the kindness to
+examine the vessel, inclines to the opinion that it is Chinese, and
+pronounces it to be of very great antiquity, without however, being
+able to determine its age more exactly; and a learned Chinese of the
+Burlingame Embassy expressed himself to the same effect. He knew only
+of one article, now in the British Museum, which was brought from Japan
+by Kaempfer, the color, glazing, and cracks in the glazing, of which
+(craqueles) corresponded precisely with mine. According to Kaempfer,
+the Japanese found similar vessels in the sea; and they value them
+very highly for the purpose of preserving their tea in them.
+
+Morga writes:--
+
+[Used as tea canisters.]  "On this island, Luzon, particularly in
+the provinces of Manila, Pampánga, Pangasinán, and Ilócos, very
+ancient clay vessels of a dark brown color are found by the natives,
+of a sorry appearance; some of a middling size, and others smaller;
+marked with characters and stamps. They are unable to say either when
+or where they obtained them; but they are no longer to be acquired, nor
+are they manufactured in the islands. The Japanese prize them highly,
+for they have found that the root of a herb which they call Tscha
+(tea), and which when drunk hot is considered as a great delicacy
+and of medicinal efficacy by the kings and lords in Japan, cannot be
+effectively preserved except in these vessels; which are so highly
+esteemed all over Japan that they form the most costly articles of
+their show-rooms and cabinets. Indeed, so highly do they value them
+that they overlay them externally with fine gold embossed with great
+skill, and enclose them in cases of brocade; and some of these vessels
+are valued at and fetch from two thousand tael to eleven reals. The
+natives of these islands purchase them from the Japanese at very high
+rates, and take much pains in the search for them on account of their
+value, though but few are now found on account of the eagerness with
+which they have been sought for."
+
+[Strict search in Japan.] When Carletti, in 1597, went from the
+Philippines to Japan, all the passengers on board were examined
+carefully, by order of the governor, and threatened with capital
+punishment if they endeavored to conceal "certain earthen vessels
+which were wont to be brought from the Philippines and other islands
+of that sea," as the king wished to buy them all.
+
+[Prized by Japanese.] "These vessels were worth as much as five,
+six, and even ten thousand scudi each; but they were not permitted
+to demand for them more then one Giulio (about a half Paolo)." In
+1615 Carletti met with a Franciscan who was sent as ambassador from
+Japan to Rome, who assured him that he had seen one hundred and
+thirty thousand scudi paid by the King of Japan for such a vessel;
+and his companions confirmed the statement. Carletti also alleges,
+as the reason for the high price, "that the leaf cia or tea, the
+quality of which improves with age, is preserved better in those
+vessels than in all others. The Japanese besides know these vessels by
+certain characters and stamps. They are of great age and very rare,
+and come only from Cambodia, Siam, Cochin-China, the Philippines,
+and other neighboring islands. From their external appearance they
+would be estimated at three or four quatrini (two dreier).... It is
+perfectly true that the king and the princes of that kingdom possess
+a very large number of these vessels, and prize them as their most
+valuable treasure and above all other rarities .... and that they boast
+of their acquisitions, and from motives of vanity strive to outvie one
+another in the multitude of pretty vessels which they possess. [124]
+
+[Found in Borneo.] Many travellers mention vessels found likewise
+amongst the Dyaks and the Malays in Borneo, which, from superstitious
+motives, were estimated at most exaggerated figures, amounting
+sometimes to many thousand dollars.
+
+[$3,500 for a jar] St. John [125] relates that the Datu of Tamparuli
+(Borneo) gave rice to the value of almost $3,500 for a jar, and that he
+possessed a second jar of almost fabulous value, which was about two
+feet high, and of a dark olive green. The Datu fills both jars with
+water, which, after adding plants and flowers to it, he dispenses
+[A speaking jar.] to all the sick persons in the country. But the
+most famous jar in Borneo is that of the Sultan of Brunei, which
+not only possesses all the valuable properties of the other jars
+but can also speak. St. John did not see it, as it is always kept
+in the women's apartment; but the sultan, a credible man, related to
+him that the jar howled dolefully the night before the death of his
+first wife, and that it emitted similar tones in the event of impending
+misfortunes. St. John is inclined to explain the mysterious phenomenon
+by a probably peculiar form of the mouth of the vessel, in passing over
+which the air-draught is thrown into resonant verberations, like the
+Aeolian harp. The vessel is generally enveloped in gold brocade, and
+is uncovered only when it is to be consulted; and hence, of course,
+it happens that it speaks only on solemn occasions. St. John states
+further that the Bisayans used formerly to bring presents to the
+sultan; in recognition of which they received some water from the
+sacred jar to sprinkle over their fields and thereby ensure plentiful
+harvests. When the sultan was asked whether he would sell his jar for
+$100,000, he answered that no offer in the world could tempt him to
+part with it.
+
+[Morga's description.] Morga's description suits neither the vessel
+of Libmánan nor the jar of the British Museum, but rather a vessel
+brought from Japan a short time ago to our Ethnographical Museum. This
+is of brown clay, small but of graceful shape, and composed of many
+pieces cemented together; the joints being gilt and forming a kind of
+network on the dark ground. How highly ancient pots of a similar kind,
+even of native origin, are esteemed in Japan down to the present day,
+is shown by the following certificate translated by the interpreter
+of the German Consulate:--
+
+[A consecrated jar.] "This earthen vessel was found in the porcelain
+factory of Tschisuka in the province of Odori, in South Idzumi,
+and is an object belonging to the thousand graves.... It was made
+by Giogiboosat (a celebrated Buddhist priest), and after it had been
+consecrated to heaven was buried by him. According to the traditions
+of the people, this place held grave mounds with memorial stones. That
+is more than a thousand years ago. ....In the pursuit of my studies,
+I remained many years in the temple Sookuk, of that village, and
+found the vessel. I carried it to the high priest Shakudjo, who
+was much delighted therewith and always bore it about with him as
+a treasure. When he died it fell to me, although I could not find
+it. Recently, when Honkai was chief priest, I saw it again, and
+it was as if I had again met the spirit of Shakudjo. Great was my
+commotion, and I clapped my hands with astonishment; and, as often
+as I look upon the treasure, I think it is a sign that the spirit of
+Shakudjo is returned to life. Therefore I have written the history,
+and taken care, of this treasure.--Fudji Kuz Dodjin."
+
+Baron Alexander von Siebold communicates the following:--
+
+[Tea societies.] The value which the Japanese attach to vessels of this
+kind rests upon the use which is made of them by the mysterious tea
+societies called Cha-no-yu. Respecting the origin of these societies,
+which still are almost entirely unknown to Europeans, different legends
+exist. They flourished, however, principally during the reign of the
+emperor Taikosama, who, in the year 1588, furnished the society of
+Cha-no-yu at Kitano near Myako with new laws. In consequence of the
+religious and civil wars, the whole of the people had deteriorated
+and become ungovernable, having lost all taste for art and knowledge,
+and holding only rude force in any esteem; brute strength ruling in the
+place of the laws. The observant Taikosama perceived that, in order to
+tame these rough natures, he must accustom them to the arts of peace,
+and thus secure prosperity to the country, and safety for himself and
+his successors. With this in view he recalled the Cha-no-yu society
+anew into life, and assembled its masters and those acquainted with
+its customs around him.
+
+[Their object.] The object of the Cha-no-yu is to draw man away
+from the influences of the terrestrial forces which surround him,
+to plant within him the feeling of complete repose, and to dispose
+him to self-contemplation. All the exercises of the Cha-no-yu are
+directed to this object.
+
+[Ceremonies.] Clothed in light white garments, and without weapons,
+the members of the Cha-no-yu assemble round the master's house, and,
+after resting some time in the ante-room, are conducted into a pavilion
+appropriated exclusively to these assemblies. This consists of the
+most costly kinds of wood, but is without any ornament which could
+possibly be abstracted from it; without color, and without varnish,
+dimly lighted by small windows thickly overgrown with plants, and
+so low that it is impossible to stand upright. The guests tread the
+apartment with solemn measured steps, and, having been received by
+him according to the prescribed formulas, arrange themselves in
+a half-circle on both sides of him. All distinctions of rank are
+abolished. The ancient vessels are now removed with solemn ceremonies
+from their wrappings, saluted and admired; and, with the same solemn
+and rigidly prescribed formulas, the water is heated on the hearth
+appropriated to the purpose, and the tea taken from the vessels and
+prepared in cups. The tea consists of the young green leaves of the
+tea-shrub rubbed to powder, and is very stimulating in its effect. The
+beverage is taken amidst deep silence, while incense is burning on
+the elevated pedestal of honor, toko; and, after the thoughts have
+thus been collected, conversation begins. It is confined to abstract
+subjects; but politics are not always excluded.
+
+[Reward of valor.] The value of the vessels employed in these
+assemblages is very considerable; indeed, they do not fall short of the
+value of our most costly paintings; and Taikosama often rewarded his
+generals with vessels of the kind, instead of land, as was formerly the
+practice. After the last revolution some of the more eminent Daimios
+(princes) of the Mikado were rewarded with similar Cha-no-yu vessels,
+in acknowledgment of the aid rendered to him in regaining the throne
+of his ancestors. The best of them which I have seen were far from
+beautiful, simply being old, weather-worn, black or dark-brown jars,
+with pretty broad necks, for storing the tea in; tall cups of cracked
+Craquelé, either porcelain or earthenware, for drinking the infusion;
+and deep, broad cisterns; besides rusty old iron kettles with rings,
+for heating the water: but they were enwrapped in the most costly
+silken stuffs, and preserved in chests lacquered with gold. Similar
+old vessels are preserved amongst the treasures of the Mikado and the
+Tycoon, as well as in some of the temples, with all the care due to the
+most costly jewels, together with documents relating to their history.
+
+[Yamtik and Visita Bicul.]  From Libmánan I visited the mountain,
+Yamtik (Amtik, Hantu), [126] which consists of lime, and contains
+many caverns. Six hours westward by water, and one hour S.S.W. on
+foot, brought us to the Visita Bícul, surrounded by a thousand little
+limestone hills; from which we ascended by a staircase of sinter in the
+bed of a brook, to a small cavern tenanted by multitudes of bats, and
+great long-armed spiders of the species Phrynus, known to be poisonous.
+[127]
+
+[Ant activities.] A thick branch of a tree lying across the road was
+perforated from end to end by a small ant. Many of the natives did
+not venture to enter the cave; and those who did enter it were in a
+state of great agitation, and were careful first to enjoin upon each
+other the respect to be observed by them towards Calapnitan.  [128]
+
+[Superstitions.] One of the principal rules was to name no object in
+the cave without adding "Lord Calapnitan's." Thus they did not bluntly
+refer to either gun or torch, but devoutly said "Lord C.'s gun," or
+"Lord C.'s torch." At a thousand paces from this lies another cave,
+"San Vicente," which contains the same insects, but another kind
+of bat. Both caves are only of small extent; but in Libmánan a very
+large stalactite cave was mentioned to me, the description of which,
+notwithstanding the fables mixed up with it, could not but have a true
+foundation. Our guides feigned ignorance of it; and it was not till
+after two days' wandering about, and after many debates, that they came
+to the decision, since I adhered to my purpose, to encounter the risk;
+when, to my great astonishment, they conducted me back to Calapnitan's
+cave; from which a narrow fissure, hidden by a projection of rock,
+led into one of the most gorgeous stalactite caves in the world. Its
+floor was everywhere firm and easy to the tread, and mostly dry; and
+it ran out into several branches, the entire length of which probably
+exceeds a mile; and the whole series of royal chambers and cathedrals,
+with the columns, pulpits, and altars which it contained, reflected
+no discredit upon its description. No bones or other remains were to
+be found in it. My intention to return subsequently with laborers,
+for the purpose of systematic excavation, was not carried out.
+
+[Unsuccessful climb.] I was not lucky enough to reach the summit of the
+mountain, upon which was to be found a lake, "from where else should
+the water come?" For two days we labored strenuously at different
+points to penetrate the thick forest; but the guide, who had assured
+the priest in Libmanan that he knew the road, now expressed himself
+to the contrary effect. I therefore made the fellow, who had hitherto
+been unburdened, now carry a part of the baggage as a punishment;
+but he threw it off at the next turning of the road and escaped,
+so that we were compelled to return. Stags and wild boars are very
+numerous in these forests; and they formed the principal portion of
+our meals, at which, at the commencement of our expedition, we had
+as many as thirty individuals; who, in the intervals between them,
+affected to search for snails and insects for me, but with success
+not proportionate to their zeal.
+
+[A clever pilfering servant.] Upon my departure from Daraga I took
+with me a lively little boy, who had a taste for the calling of a
+naturalist. In Libmanan he was suddenly lost, and with him, at the
+same time, a bundle of keys; and we looked for him in vain. The
+fact was, as I afterwards came to learn, that he went straight to
+Naga, and, identifying himself by showing the stolen keys, got the
+majordomo of my host to deliver to him a white felt hat; with which he
+disappeared. I had once seen him, with the hat on his head, standing
+before a looking-glass and admiring himself; and he could not resist
+the temptation to steal it.
+
+[Trip with Internal Revenue Collector.] In the beginning of March
+I had the pleasure of accompanying the Collector (Administrador) of
+Camarines and a Spanish head-man, who were travelling across Daet and
+Mauban to the chief town. At five p.m. we left Butungan on the Bicol
+River, two leagues below Naga, in a falúa of twelve oars, equipped
+with one 6-pounder and two 4-pounders, and reinforced by armed men;
+and about six we reached Cabusao, at the mouth of the Bicol, whence we
+put to sea about nine. The falua belonged to the collector of taxes,
+and had, in conjunction with another under the command of the alcalde,
+to protect the north coast of the province against smugglers and
+pirates, who at this time of the year are accustomed to frequent
+the hiding-places of the bay of San Miguel. Two similar gun-boats
+performed the duty on the south coast of the province.
+
+[Four volcanos.] Both the banks of the Bicol River are flat, and
+expand into broad fields of rice; and to the east are simultaneously
+visible the beautiful volcanos of Mayon, Iriga, Malina, and Isarog.
+
+At daybreak we reached the bar of Daet, and, after two hours'
+travelling, the similarly named chief city of the province of North
+Camarines, where we found an excellent reception at the house of
+the alcalde, a polished Navarrese; marred only by the tame monkey,
+who should have welcomed the guests of his master, turning his
+back towards them with studiously discourteous gestures, and going
+towards the door. However, upon the majordomo placing a spirit flask
+preserving a small harmless snake on the threshold, the monkey sprang
+quickly back and concealed himself, trembling, behind his master. [A
+danceless ball.] In the evening there was a ball, but there were no
+dancers present. Some Filipinas, who had been invited, sat bashfully
+at one end of the apartment and danced with one another when called
+upon, without being noticed by the Spaniards, who conversed together
+at the other end.
+
+[Spanish prejudice against bathing.] Our departure hence was delayed
+by festivities and sudden showers for about two days, after which the
+spirited horses of the alcalde carried us within an hour on a level
+road north-west, to Talisáy, and in another hour to Indang, where
+a bath and breakfast were ready. Up to this time I had never seen
+a bath-room in the house of a Spaniard; whereas with the Northern
+Europeans it is never wanting. The Spaniards appear to regard
+the bath as a species of medicine, to be used only with caution;
+many, even to the present day, look upon it as an institution not
+quite Christian. At the time of the Inquisition frequent bathing,
+it is known, was a characteristic of the Moors, and certainly was not
+wholly free from danger. In Manila, only those who live near the Pasig
+are the exceptions to the rule; and there the good or bad practice
+prevails of whole families bathing, in the company of their friends,
+in the open air.
+
+[An unfortified fort.] The road ends at Indáng. In two boats we went
+down the river till stopped by a bar, and there at a well-supplied
+table prepared for us by the kindness of the alcalde we awaited
+the horses which were being brought thither along a bad road by our
+servants. In the waste of Barre a tower, surrounded by two or three
+fishermen's huts and as many camarines, has been erected against the
+Moros, who, untempted by the same, seldom go so far westward, for
+it consists only of an open hut covered with palm-leaves--a kind of
+parasol--supported on stakes as thick as one's arm and fifteen feet
+high; and the two cannons belonging to it ought, for security, to be
+buried. We followed the sea-shore, which is composed of silicious sand,
+and covered with a carpet of creeping shore plants in full bloom. On
+the edge of the wood, to the left, were many flowering shrubs and
+pandanus with large scarlet-red flowers. After an hour we crossed the
+river Longos in a ferry, and soon came to the spur of a crystalline
+chain of mountains, which barred our road and extended itself into
+the sea as Point Longos. The horses climbed it with difficulty, and
+we found the stream on the other side already risen so high that we
+rode knee-deep in the water. After sunset we crossed singly, with
+great loss of time, in a miserable ferry-boat, over the broad mouth
+of the Pulundaga, where a pleasant road through a forest led us,
+in fifteen minutes, over the mountain-spur, Malanguit, which again
+projected itself right across our path into the sea, to the mouth
+of the Paracale. The long bridge here was so rotten that we were
+obliged to lead the horses over at wide intervals apart; and on the
+further side lies the place called Paracale, from which my companions
+continued their journey across Mauban to Manila.
+
+[Red lead.] Paracale and Mambulao are two localities well known to
+all mineralogists, from the red lead ore occurring there. On the
+following morning I returned to Longos; which consists of only a few
+miserable huts inhabited by gold-washers, who go about almost naked,
+probably because they are laboring during the greater part of the
+day in the water; but they are also very poor.
+
+[Gold mining.] The soil is composed of rubbish, decomposed fragments of
+crystalline rock, rich in broken pieces of quartz. The workmen make
+holes in the ground two and one-half feet long, two and one-half
+broad, and to thirty feet deep. At three feet below the surface
+the rock is generally found to contain gold, the value increasing
+down to eighteen feet of depth, and then again diminishing, though
+these proportions are very uncertain, and there is much fruitless
+search. The rock is carried out of the holes in baskets, on ladders
+of bamboo, and the water in small pails; but in the rainy season the
+holes cannot possibly be kept free from water, as they are situated
+on the slope of the mountain, and are filled quicker than they can
+be emptied. The want of apparatus for discharging water also accounts
+for the fact that the pits are not dug deeper.
+
+[A primitive rock breaker.] The breaking of the auriferous rock is
+effected with two stones; of which one serves as anvil, and the other
+as hammer. The former, which is slightly hollowed in the center, is
+laid flat upon the ground; and the latter, four by eight by eight
+inches in dimensions, and therefore of about twenty-five pounds
+weight, is made fast with rattan to the top of a slender young tree,
+which lies in a sloping position in a fork, and at its opposite end is
+firmly fixed in the ground. The workman with a jerk forces the stone
+that serves for hammer down upon the auriferous rock, and allows it
+to be again carried upwards by the elasticity of the young tree.
+
+[An arrastre.] The crushing of the broken rock is effected with
+an apparatus equally crude. A thick stake rises from the center
+of a circular support of rough-hewn stones (which is enclosed in
+a circle of exactly similar stones) having an iron pin at its top,
+to which a tree, bent horizontally in the middle, and downwards at
+the two ends, is fixed. Being set in motion by two carabaos attached
+in front, it drags several heavy stones, which are bound firmly to
+it with rattans, round the circle, and in this manner crushes the
+broken rock, which has been previously mixed with water, to a fine
+mud. The same apparatus is employed by the Mexican gold-washers,
+under the name of Rastra. [Gold-washing.] The washing-out of the mud
+is done by women. They kneel before a small wooden gutter filled with
+water up to the brim, and provided with boards, sloping downwards,
+in front of the space assigned to each woman; the gutter being cut
+out at these places in a corresponding manner, so that a very slender
+stream of water flows evenly across its whole breadth downwards over
+the board. With her hand the work-woman distributes the auriferous
+mud over the board, which, at the lower edge, is provided with a
+cross-piece; and, when the light sand is washed away, there remains a
+stratum consisting chiefly of iron, flint, and ore, which is taken up
+from time to time with a flat piece of board, and laid on one side;
+and at the end of the day's work, it is washed out in a flat wooden
+dish (batea), and, for the last time, in a coco-shell; when, if they
+are lucky, a fine yellow dust shows itself on the edge. [129] During
+the last washing the slimy juice of the Gogo is added to the water,
+the fine heavy sand remaining suspended therein for a longer time
+than in pure water, and thus being more easily separated from the
+gold-dust. [130]
+
+[The clean-up.] It is further to be mentioned that the refuse from
+the pits is washed at the upper end of the water-gutter, so that
+the sand adhering to the stones intended for pounding may deposit
+its gold in the gutter or on the washing-board. In order to melt
+the gold thus obtained into a lump, in which form it is bought by
+the dealers, it is poured into a small heart-shell (cardium), and,
+after being covered with a handful of charcoal, placed  in a potsherd;
+when a woman blows through a narrow bamboo-cane on the kindled coals,
+and in one minute the work is completed. [131]
+
+The result of many inquiries shows the profit per head to average
+not more than one and one-half reals daily. Further to the south-west
+from here, on the mountain Malaguit, are seen the ruins of a Spanish
+mining company; a heap of rubbish, a pit fifty feet deep, a large
+house fallen to ruin, and a stream-work four feet broad and six feet
+high. The mountain consists of gneiss much decomposed, with quartz
+veins in the stream-work, with the exception of the bands of quartz,
+which are of almost pure clay earth with sand.
+
+[Edible bird's nests.] On the sides hung some edible nests of the
+salangane, but not of the same kind as those found in the caverns
+on the south coast of Java. These, which are of much less value than
+the latter, are only occasionally collected by the Chinese dealers,
+who reckon them nominally at five cents each. We also found a few of
+the nest-building birds (Collocalia troglodytes, Gray). [132]
+
+[Abandoned workings.] Around lay so large a number of workings,
+and there were so many little abandoned pits, wholly or half fallen
+to ruin, and more or less grown over, that it was necessary to step
+between with great caution. Some of them were still being worked after
+the mode followed at Lóngos, but with a few slight improvements. The
+pits are twice as large as those excavated there, and the rock is
+lifted, up by a pulley to a cylindrical framework of bamboo, which
+is worked by the feet of a lad who sits on a bank higher up.
+
+[Lead and mica.] Ten minutes north of the village of Malaguit is
+a mountain in which lead-glance and red lead have been obtained;
+the rock consisting of micaceous gneiss much decomposed. There is
+a stream-work over one hundred feet in length. The rock appears to
+have been very poor.
+
+The highly prized red-lead ores have been found on the top of this same
+hill, N. 30° W. from the village. The quarry was fallen to ruin and
+flooded with rain, so that only a shallow hollow in the ground remained
+visible; and after a long search amongst the bushes growing there a few
+small fragments were found, on which [Chrome-lead ore.] chrome-lead
+ore was still clearly to be recognized. Captain Sabino, the former
+governor of Paracale, a well-informed Filipino, who, at the suggestion
+of the alcalde, accompanied me, had for some years caused excavations
+to be carried on, in order to find specimens for a speculator who had
+in view the establishment of a new mining company in Spain; but the
+specimens which were found had not been removed, as speculation in
+mines in the Philippines had, in the interval, fallen into discredit
+on the Exchange of Madrid; and as yet only a little box full of sand,
+out of a few small drusy cavities, has been fixed upon and pounded,
+to be sold as variegated writing-sand, after being carefully sifted.
+
+[A pretty fan-palm.] A peculiarly beautiful fan-palm grows on this
+hill. Its stem is from thirty to forty feet high, cylindrical and
+dark-brown, with white rings a quarter of an inch broad at distances of
+four inches, and, at similar intervals, crown-shaped bands of thorns
+two inches long. Near the crown-leaf the stem passes into the richest
+brown of burnt sienna.
+
+[Rooming in a powder-magazine.] Notwithstanding a very bad road, a
+pleasant ride carried us from Paracale to the sea-shore, and, through
+a beautiful wood, to Mambulao, which lies W. by N. I alighted at the
+tribunal, and took up my lodgings in the room where the ammunition was
+kept, as being the only one that could be locked. For greater security,
+the powder was stored in a corner and covered with carabao-hide;
+but such were my arrangements that my servant carried about a burning
+tallow light, and his assistant a torch in the hand. When I visited
+the Filipino priest, I was received in a friendly manner by a young
+girl who, when I offered my hand, thanked me with a bow, saying,
+"Tengo las sarnas" ("I have the itch"). The malady, which is very
+common in the Philippines, appears to have its focus in this locality.
+
+[Gneiss and crystalline rock.] A quarter of a league N.N.E. we came
+upon the ruins of another mining undertaking, the Ancla de Oro. Shaft
+and water-cutting had fallen in, and were thickly grown over; and
+only a few of the considerable buildings were still standing; and
+even those were ready to fall. In a circle some natives were busily
+employed, in their manner, collecting grains of gold. The rock is
+gneiss, weathered so much that it cannot be recognized; and at a
+thousand paces on the other side is a similar one, clearly crystalline.
+
+[Hornblende and hornblende slate.] Half a league N. by E. from Mambulao
+is the lead-mountain of Dinianan. Here also all the works were fallen
+in, choked with mud and grown over. Only after a long search were
+a few fragments found with traces of red-lead ore. This mountain
+consists of hornblende rock; in one place, of hornblende slate,
+with very beautiful large crystals.
+
+[Copper.] A league and a half S. from Mambulao a shallow hollow in
+the ground marks the site of an old copper-mine, which must have
+been eighty-four feet deep. Copper ores are found in several places
+in Luzon; and specimens of solid copper were obtained by me at the
+Bay of Luyang, N. of the Enseñada de Patag, in Caramuan.
+
+[Unsuccessful copper-mining.] Very considerable beds of copper ore
+occur in Mancayán, in the district of Lepanto, and in the central
+mountain-range of Luzon between Cagayán and Ilocos, which have been
+worked by a mining company in Manila since 1850; but the operations
+seem to have been most unsuccessful. In 1867 the society expended a
+considerable capital in the erection of smelting furnaces and hydraulic
+machinery; but until a very recent date, owing to local difficulties,
+particularly the want of roads, it has not produced any copper. [133]
+
+[Paying minus dividends.] In 1869 I heard, in London, that the
+undertaking had been given up. According to my latest information,
+however, it is certainly in progress; but the management have never,
+I believe, secured a dividend. The statement of 1872, in fact, shows
+a loss, or, as the Spaniards elegantly say, a dividendo pasivo.
+
+[Igorot-mining successful.] What Europeans yet appear unable to
+accomplish, the wild Igorots, who inhabit that trackless range of
+mountains, have carried on successfully for centuries, and to a
+proportionally larger extent; and this is the more remarkable as
+the metal in that district occurs only in the form of flints, which
+even in Europe can be made profitable only by particular management,
+and not without expense.
+
+[Long-established and considerable.] The copper introduced into
+commerce by the Igorots from 1840 to 1855, partly in a raw state,
+partly manufactured, is estimated at three hundred piculs yearly. The
+extent of their excavations, and the large existing masses of slag,
+also indicate the activity of their operations for a long period
+of time.
+
+[Copper kettles attributed to Negritos.] In the Ethnographical Museum
+at Berlin is a copper kettle made by those wild tribes. Meyer,
+who brought it, states that it was made by the Negritos in the
+interior of the island, and certainly with hammers of porphyry, as
+they have no iron; and that he further found, in the collection of
+the Captain General of the Philippines, a large shallow kettle of
+three and one-half feet in diameter, which had been bought for only
+three dollars; whence it may be inferred that, in the interior of
+the island, the copper occurs in large masses, and probably solid;
+for how could those rude, uncultivated negritos understand the art
+of smelting copper?
+
+[Copper-working a pre-Spanish art.] The locality of these rich
+quarries was still unknown to the Governor, although the copper
+implements brought thence had, according to an official statement
+of his in 1833, been in use in Manila over two centuries. It is
+now known that the copper-smiths are not Negritos but Igorots; and
+there can be no question that they practiced this art, and the still
+more difficult one of obtaining copper from flint, for a long period
+perhaps previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. They may possibly
+have learnt them from the Chinese or Japanese. The chief engineer,
+Santos [134], and many others with him, are of opinion that this
+race is descended from the Chinese or Japanese, from whom he insists
+that it acquired not only its features (several travellers mention
+the obliquely placed eyes of the Igorots), its idols, and some of
+its customs, but also the art of working in copper. At all events,
+the fact that a wild people, living isolated in the mountains,
+should have made such progress in the science of smelting, is of
+so great interest that a description of their procedure by Santos
+(essentially only a repetition of an earlier account by Hernandez,
+in the Revista Minera, i. 112) will certainly be acceptable.
+
+[The Igorots' Method.] The present mining district acquired by the
+society mentioned, the Sociedad Minero-metalurgica Cantabrofilipina
+de Mancayan, was divided amongst the Igorots into larger or smaller
+parcels strictly according to the number of the population of the
+adjacent villages, whose boundaries were jealously watched; and
+the possessions of each separate village were again divided between
+certain families; whence it is that those mountain districts exhibit,
+at the present day, the appearance of a honeycomb. To obtain the ore,
+they made cavities, in which they lighted fires in suitable spots,
+for the purpose of breaking the rock into pieces by means of the
+elasticity of the heated water contained in the crevices, with the
+additional assistance of iron implements. The first breaking-up of
+the ore was done in the stream-work itself, and the dead heaps lay
+piled up on the ground, so that, in subsequent fires, the flame of
+the pieces of wood always reached the summit; and by reason of the
+quality of the rock, and the imperfection of the mode of procedure,
+very considerable down-falls frequently occurred. The ores were divided
+into rich and quartziferous; the former not being again melted, but
+the latter being subjected to a powerful and persistent roasting,
+during which, after a part of the sulphur, antimony, and arsenic
+had been exhaled, a kind of distillation of sulphate of copper and
+sulphate of iron took place, which appeared as "stone," or in balls
+on the surface of the quartz, and could be easily detached. [135]
+
+[The Smelter.] The furnace or smelting apparatus consisted of a round
+hollow in clayey gound, thirty centimeters in diameter and fifteen
+deep; with which was connected a conical funnel of fire-proof stone,
+inclined at an angle of 30°, carrying up two bamboo-canes, which were
+fitted into the lower ends of two notched pine-stems; in these two
+slips, covered all over with dry grass or feathers, moved alternately
+up and down, and produced the current required for the smelting.
+
+[Smelting.] When the Igorots obtained black copper or native copper by
+blasting, they prevented loss (by oxidation) by setting up a crucible
+of good fire-proof clay in the form of a still; by which means it was
+easier for them to pour the metal into the forms which it would acquire
+from the same clay. The furnace being arranged, they supplied it
+with from eighteen to twenty kilograms of rich or roasted ore, which,
+according to the repeated experiments of Hernandez, contained twenty
+per cent of copper; and they proceeded quite scientifically, always
+exposing the ore at the mouth of the funnel, and consequently to the
+air-drafts, and placing the coals at the sides of the furnace, which
+consisted of loose stones piled one over another to the height of fifty
+centimeters. The fire having been kindled and the blowing apparatus,
+already described, in operation, thick clouds of white, yellow, and
+orange-yellow smoke were evolved from the partial volatilization of the
+sulphur, arsenic, and antimony, for the space of an hour; but as soon
+as only sulphurous acid was formed, and the heat by this procedure
+had attained its highest degree, the blowing was discontinued and
+the product taken out. This consisted of a dross, or, rather, of the
+collected pieces of ore themselves, which, on account of the flinty
+contents of the stones composing the funnel, were transformed by the
+decomposition of the sulphurous metal into a porous mass, and which
+could not be converted into dross nor form combinations with silicious
+acid, being deficient in the base as well as in the requisite heat;
+and also of a very impure "stone," of from four to five kilograms
+weight, and containing from fifty to sixty per cent of copper.
+
+[The copper "stone".] Several of these "stones" were melted down
+together for the space of about fifteen hours, in a powerful fire;
+and by this means a great portion of the three volatile substances
+above named was again evolved; after which they placed them, now heated
+red-hot, in an upright position, but so as to be in contact with the
+draught; the coals, however, being at the sides of the furnace. After
+blowing for an hour or half-an-hour, they thus obtained, as residuum,
+a silicate of iron with antimony and traces of arsenic, a "stone"
+containing from seventy to seventy-five per cent of copper, which they
+took off in very thin strips, at the same time using refrigerating
+vessels; and at the bottom of the hollow there remained, according
+as the mass was more or less freed from sulphur, a larger or smaller
+quantity (always, however, impure) of black copper.
+
+[Purifying the product.] The purified stones obtained by this second
+process were again made red-hot by placing them between rows of wood,
+in order that they might not melt into one another before the fire
+had freed them from impurities.
+
+The black copper obtained from the second operation, and the stones
+which were re-melted at the same time, were then subjected to a
+third process in the same furnace (narrowed by quarry stones and
+provided with a crucible); which produced a residuum of silicious
+iron and black copper, which was poured out into clay moulds, and
+in this shape came into commerce. This black copper contained from
+ninety-two to ninety-four per cent of copper, and was tinged by a
+carbonaceous compound of the same metal known by its yellow color,
+and the oxide on the surface arising from the slow cooling, which will
+occur notwithstanding every precaution; and the surface so exposed
+to oxidation they beat with green twigs. When the copper, which had
+been thus extracted with so much skill and patience by the Igorots,
+was to be employed in the manufacture of kettles, pipes, and other
+domestic articles, or for ornament, it was submitted to another
+process of purification, which differed from the preceding only in
+one particular, that the quantity of coals was diminished and the
+air-draught increased according as the process of smelting drew near
+to its termination, which involved the removal of the carbonaceous
+compound by oxidation. Santos found, by repeated experiment, that even
+from ores of the mean standard of twenty per cent, only from eight to
+ten per cent of black copper was extracted by the third operation; so
+that between eight to twelve per cent still remained in the residuum
+or porous quartz of the operation.
+
+[Tagalog women traders.] It was difficult to procure the necessary
+means of transport for my baggage on the return journey to Paracale,
+the roads being so soaked by the continuous rains that no one would
+venture his cattle for the purpose. In Mambulao the influence of
+the province on its western border is very perceptible, and Tagalog
+is understood almost better than Bicol; the Tagalog element being
+introduced amongst the population by women, who with their families
+come here, from Lucban and Mauban, in the pursuit of trade. They buy up
+gold, and import stuffs and other wares in exchange. The gold acquired
+is commonly from fifteen to sixteen carats, and a mark determines
+its quality. The dealers pay on the average $11 per ounce; but when,
+as is usually the case, it is [Miners uncertain returns.] offered in
+smaller quantities than one ounce, only $10. [136] They weigh with
+small Roman scales, and have no great reputation for honesty.
+
+North Camarines is thinly inhabited, the population of the mining
+districts having removed after the many undertakings which were
+artificially called into existence by the mining mania had been
+ruined. The goldwashers are mostly dissolute and involved in debt,
+and continually expecting rich findings which but very seldom occur,
+and which, when they do occur, are forthwith dissipated;--a fact
+which will account for champagne and other articles of luxury being
+found in the shops of the very poor villagers.
+
+Malaguit and Matango, during the dry season, are said to be connected
+by an extremely good road; but, when we passed, the two places were
+separated by a quagmire into which the horses sank up to their middle.
+
+[Labo.] In Labo, a little village on the right bank of the river Labo
+(which rises in the mountain of the same name), the conditions to
+which we have adverted are repeated--vestiges of the works of former
+mining companies fast disappearing, and, in the midst, little pits
+being worked by the natives. Red lead has not been found here, but
+gold has been, and especially "platinum," which some experiments
+have proved to be lead-glance. The mountain Labo appears from its
+bell-shape and the strata exposed in the river bed to consist of
+trachytic hornblende. Half a league W.S.W., after wading through mud
+a foot deep, we reached the mountain Dallas where lead-glance and
+gold were formerly obtained by a mining company; and to the present
+day gold is obtained by a few natives in the usual mode.
+
+[Wild Cat Mining.] Neither in the latter province, nor in Manila, could
+I acquire more precise information respecting the histories of the
+numerous unfortunate mining enterprises. Thus much, however, appears
+certain, that they were originated only by speculators, and never
+properly worked with sufficient means. They therefore, of necessity,
+collapsed so soon as the speculators ceased from their operations.
+
+[Small output.] North Camarines yields no metal with the exception
+of the little gold obtained by the natives in so unprofitable a
+manner. The king of Spain at first received a fifth, and then a
+tenth, of the produce; but the tax subsequently ceased. In Morga's
+time the tenth amounted on an average to $10,000 ("which was kept
+quite secret"); the profit, consequently, to above $100,000. Gemelli
+Carreri was informed by the governor of Manila that gold to the value
+of $200,000 was collected annually without the help of either fire or
+quicksilver, and that Paracale, in particular, was rich in gold. No
+data exist from which I could estimate the actual rate of produce; and
+the answers to several inquiries deserve no mention. The produce is,
+at all events, very small, as well on account of the incompleteness
+of the mode of procedure as of the irregularity of labor, for the
+natives work only when they are compelled by necessity.
+
+[Indang.] I returned down the stream in a boat to Indang, a
+comparatively flourishing place, of smaller population but more
+considerable trade than Daet; the export consisting principally of
+abacá, and the import of rice.
+
+[Storms.] An old mariner, who had navigated this coast for many
+years, informed me that the same winds prevail from Daet as far as
+Cape Engaño, the north-east point of Luzon. From October to March
+the north-east wind prevails, the monsoon here beginning with north
+winds, which are of short duration and soon pass into the north-east;
+and in January and February the east winds begin and terminate
+the monsoon. The heaviest rains fall from October to January, and
+in October typhoons sometimes occur. Beginning from the north or
+north-east, they pass to the north-west, where they are most violent;
+and then to the north and east, sometimes as far as to the south-east,
+and even to the south. In March and April, and sometimes in the
+beginning of May, shifting winds blow, which bring in the south-west
+monsoon; but the dry season, of which April and May are the driest
+months, is uninterrupted by rain. Thunder storms occur from June to
+November; most frequently in August. During the south-west monsoon
+the sea is very calm; but in the middle of the north-east monsoon all
+navigation ceases on the east coast. In the outskirts of Baler rice
+is sown in October, and reaped in March and April. Mountain rice is
+not cultivated.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+
+[On foot to San Miguel bay.] Sending my baggage from Daet to Cabusao
+in a schooner, I proceeded on foot, by the road to that place, to
+the coast on the west side of the Bay of San Miguel. We crossed the
+mouth of the river in a boat, which the horses swam after; but they
+were soon abandoned from unfitness. At the mouth of the next river,
+Sacavin, the water was so high that the bearers stripped themselves
+naked and carried the baggage over on their heads. In simple jacket
+and cotton hose, I found this precaution needless; indeed, according
+to my experience, it is both refreshing and salutary to wear wet
+clothes, during an uniformly high temperature; besides which, one
+is thereby spared many a spring over ditches, and many a roundabout
+course to avoid puddles, which, being already wet through, we no longer
+fear. After having waded over eight other little rivers we were obliged
+to leave the shore and pursue the road to Colasi along steep, slippery,
+forest paths, the place lying right in the middle of the west side of
+the bay. The sea-shore was very beautiful. Instead of a continuous and,
+at the ebb, ill-smelling border of mangroves, which is never wanting in
+those places where the land extends into the sea, the waves here reach
+the foot of the old trees of the forest, many of which were washed
+underneath. Amongst the most remarkable was a fringe of stately old
+Barringtoni, covered with orchids and other epiphytes--gorgeous trees
+when in flower; the red stamens, five inches long, with golden yellow
+anthers like tassels, depending from the boughs; and their fruit, of
+the size of the fist, is doubly useful to the fisherman, who employs
+them, on account of their specific gravity, in floating his nets, and
+beats them to pieces to stupefy the fish. The foremost trees stood bent
+towards the sea, and have been so deflected probably for a long time,
+like many others whose remains still projected out of the water. The
+destruction of this coast appears to be very considerable. Amongst
+the climbing palms one peculiar kind was very abundant, the stem of
+which, as thick as the arm, either dragged itself, leafless, along
+the ground, or hung in arches above the branches, carrying a crown
+of leaves only at its extremity; while another, from its habitat the
+common calamus, had caryota leaves. Wild boars are very plentiful here;
+a hunter offered us two at one real each.
+
+[Colasi.] The direction of the flat coast which extends N.N.W. to
+S.S.E. from the point of Daet is here interrupted by the little peak
+of Colasi, which projects to the east, and has grown so rapidly
+that all old people remember it to have been lower. In the Visita
+Colasi, on the northern slope of the mountain, the sea is so rough
+that no boat can live in it. The inhabitants carry on fishing; their
+fishing-grounds lie, however, on the southern slope of the mountain,
+in the sheltered bay of Lalauigan, which we reached after thee hours'
+journey over the ridge.
+
+[By sea to Cabusao.] A four-oared baroto, hired at this place,
+as the weather was favorable, was to have conveyed us in two hours
+to Cabusao, the port of Naga; but the wind swung round, and a storm
+ensued. Thoroughly wet and not without loss, we ran to Barceloneta,
+a visita situated at a third of the distance. The intelligent Teniente
+of Colasi, whom we met here, also confirmed the fact of the rapid
+growth of the little peak.
+
+[Unreliable excuses.] In opposition to my wish to ascend the mountain,
+great obstacles were said to exist when every one would be occupied
+in preparations for the Easter festival, which would hardly occur
+during the succeeding weeks. As these objections did not convince me,
+a more substantial reason was discovered the next morning. Inland
+shoes are excellent for the mud, and particularly for horseback;
+but for climbing mountains, or rough ground, they would not last a
+day; and the one remaining pair of strong European shoes, which I
+reserved for particular purposes, had been given away by my servant,
+who did not like climbing mountains, on the pretext they were very
+much too heavy for me.
+
+[A shipwrecked family.] The shore from Barceloneta to Cabusao is of
+the same character as the Daet-Colasi but running north and south;
+the ground, sandy clay, is covered with a thick stratum of broken
+bivalves. The road was very difficult, as the high tide forced us to
+climb between the trees and thick underwood. On the way we met an
+enterprising family who had left Daet with a cargo of coconuts for
+Naga, and had been wrecked here; saving only one out of five tinajas
+of oil, but recovering all the nuts. [137] They were living in a
+small hastily-run-up hut, upon coconuts, rice, fish, and mussels,
+in expectation of a favorable wind to return. There were several
+varieties of shore-birds; but my gun would not go off, although
+my servant, in expectation of a hunt, had cleaned it with especial
+care. As he had lost the ramrod whilst cleaning it, the charge was
+not withdrawn before we reached Cabusao, when it was discovered that
+both barrels were full of sand to above the touchhole.
+
+[Making palm-sugar.] The coast was still more beautiful than on the
+preceding day, particularly in one place where the surge beat against a
+wood of fan-palms (Corypha sp.). On the side facing the sea, in groups
+or rows stood the trees, bereft of their crowns, or lying overthrown
+like columns amid the vast ruins of temples (one of them was three feet
+in diameter); and the sight immediately reminded me of Pompeii. I could
+not account for the bareness of the trunks, until I discovered a hut in
+the midst of the palms, in which two men were endeavoring to anticipate
+the waves in their work of destruction by the preparation of sugar
+(tunguleh). For this purpose, after stripping off the leaves (this
+palm flowering at the top), the upper end of the stem is cut across,
+the surface of the incision being inclined about five degrees towards
+the horizon, and, near its lower edge, hollowed out to a very shallow
+gutter. The juice exudes over the whole surface of the cut, with the
+exception of the intersected exterior petioles, and, being collected
+in the shallow channel, is conducted by a piece of banana-leaf,
+two inches broad, and four inches long, into a bamboo-cane attached
+to the trunk. In order to avert the rain from the saccharine issue,
+which has a faint, pleasantly aromatic flavor as of barley-sugar,
+all the trees which have been tapped are provided with caps formed of
+bent and folded palm-leaves. The average daily produce of each tree is
+four bamboos, the interior of which is about three inches and a half
+in diameter. When removed, they are full to about eighteen inches;
+which gives somewhat more than ten quarts daily.
+
+[The money side.] The produce of each tree of course is very
+unequal. Always intermittent, it ceases completely after two months--at
+the utmost, three months; but, the proportion of those newly cut to
+those cut at an earlier date being the same, the yield of the incisions
+is about equal. The juice of thirty-three palms, after evaporation in
+an iron pan immediately upon each collection, produces one ganta, or
+(there being four such collections) four gantas, daily; the weekly
+result being twenty gantas, or two tinajas of sugar, each worth two
+dollars and a half on the spot. This statement, derived from the people
+themselves, probably shows the proportion somewhat more unfavorable
+than it really is; still, according to the opinion of an experienced
+mestizo, the difference cannot be very considerable. Assuming the above
+figures as correct, however, one of these magnificent trees would give
+about one dollar and two-thirds, or, after deducting the laborers'
+wages one real per diem, about a thaler and two-thirds; not a large
+sum truly; but it is some consolation to know that, even if man did
+not interfere, these trees would in process of time fall victims to
+the breakers, and that, even if protected against external ravages,
+they are doomed to natural extinction after once producing fruit.
+
+[Neglected roads.] Cabusao lies in the southern angle of San Miguel
+Bay which is, almost on every side, surrounded by high mountains, and
+affords good anchorage for ships. From here I repaired across Naga to
+the south coast. Four leagues from Naga, in the heart of Ragay, on the
+southern border of Luzon, is the small but deep harbor of Pasacao; and
+two hours by water conducted us to the intermediate Visita Pamplona,
+whence the route is pursued by land. The still-existing remnant of the
+old road was in a miserable condition, and even at that dry season
+of the year scarcely passable; the bridges over the numerous little
+ditches were broken down, and in many places, right across the road,
+lay large stones and branches of trees which had been brought there
+years before to repair the bridges, and, having been unused, have
+ever since continued to obstruct the road.
+
+[A French planter.] In Quitang, between Pamplona and Pasacao, where two
+brooks unite themselves into one little river debouching at the latter
+place, a young Frenchman had established a hacienda. He was contented
+and hopeful, and loudly praised the industry and friendliness of his
+people. Probably because they make fewer exactions, foreigners, as a
+rule, seem to agree better with the natives than Spaniards. Of these
+exactions, the bitterest complaints are rife of the injustice of the
+demands made upon the lower classes in the settlement of their wages;
+which, if they do not immediately find the necessary hands for every
+employment, do not correspond with the enhanced value of the products;
+and, according to them, the natives must even be driven from public
+employments, to labor in their service. [138]
+
+[The Filipino as a laborer.] The Filipino certainly is more independent
+than the European laborer, because he has fewer wants and, as a native
+landowner, is not compelled to earn his bread as the daily laborer of
+another; yet, with reference to wages, it may be questioned whether
+any colony whatever offers more favorable conditions to the planter
+than the Philippines. In Dutch India, where the prevalence of monopoly
+almost excludes private industry, free laborers obtain one-third of a
+guilder--somewhat more than one real, the usual wages in the wealthy
+provinces of the Philippines (in the poorer it amounts to only the
+half); and the Javanese are not the equals of the Filipinos, either
+in strength, or intelligence, or skill; and the rate of wages in all
+the older Slave States is well known. For the cultivation of sugar and
+coffee, Mauritius and Ceylon are obliged to import foreign laborers
+at great expense, and to pay them highly; and yet they are successful.
+
+[Pasacao.] From Quitang to Pasacao the road was far worse than
+it had heretofore been; and this is the most important road in
+the province! Before reaching Pasacao, evident signs are visible,
+on the denuded sides of the limestone, of its having been formerly
+washed by the sea. Pasacao is picturesquely situated at the end of the
+valley which is intersected by the Itulan, and extends from Pamplona,
+between wooded mountains of limestone, as far as the sea. The ebb tides
+here are extremely irregular. From noon to evening no difference was
+observable, and, when the decrease just became visible, the tide rose
+again. Immediately to the south, and facing the district, the side of a
+mountain, two thousand feet high and above one thousand feet broad, had
+two years ago given way to the subterranean action of the waves. The
+rock consists of a tough calcareous breccia, full of fragments of
+mussels and corals; but, being shoeless, I could not remain on the
+sharp rock sufficiently long to make a closer examination.
+
+[A beautiful coast.] For the same reason, I was obliged to leave
+the ascent of the Yamtik, which I had before vainly attempted from
+Libmanan, unaccomplished from this point, although I had the advantage
+of the company of an obliging French planter in a boat excursion in a
+north-westerly direction along the coast. Here our boat floated along
+over gardens of coral, swarming with magnificently colored fishes;
+and after two hours we reached a cavern in the limestone, Suminabang,
+so low that one could stir in it only by creeping; which contained a
+few swallows and bats. On the Calebayan river, on the further side of
+Point Tanaun, we came upon a solitary shed, our night-quarters. Here
+the limestone range is interrupted by an isolated cliff on the left
+bank of the little river, consisting of a crystalline rock chiefly
+composed of hornblende; which moreover, on the side exposed to the
+water, is surrounded completely by limestone.
+
+[Cattle.] The surrounding mountains must swarm with wild boars. Under
+the thatched roof of our hut, which serves as a shelter to occasional
+hunters, more than a hundred and fifty lower jaw-bones were set
+up as hunting trophies. The place appeared as if created for the
+breeding of cattle. Soft with fodder grass, and covered with a few
+groups of trees, with slopes intersected by rustling brooks, it rose
+up out of the sea, and was encompassed by a steep wall of rock in
+the form of a semicircle; and here cattle would find grass, water,
+shade, and the protection of an enclosing rampart. While travelling
+along the coast, we had remarked a succession of similar localities,
+which however, from lack of enterprise and from the dread of pirates,
+were not utilized. As soon as our supper was prepared, we carefully
+extinguished our fire, that it might not serve as a signal to the
+vagabonds of the sea, and kept night watches.
+
+[A delusive cave.] On the following morning we intended to visit
+a cave never before entered; but, to our astonishment, we found
+no proper cavern, but only an entrance to a cavern a few feet in
+depth. Visible from a distance, it must often have been passed by
+the hunters, although, as we were assured by our companions--who
+were astonished at the delusion---no one had ventured to enter it
+from stress of superstitious terror.
+
+[Isolation of fertile regions.] The north coast of Camarines,
+as I have frequently mentioned, is, during the north-east monsoon,
+almost unapproachable; while the south coast, screened by the outlying
+islands, remains always accessible. The most fertile districts of the
+eastern provinces, which during summer export their produce by the
+northern ports, in the winter often remain for months cut off from
+all communication with the chief town, because there is no road over
+the small strip of land to the south coast. How much has been done by
+Nature, and how little by man, to facilitate this intercourse, is very
+evident when we reflect upon the condition of the road to Pasacao,
+lately described, in connection with the condition of matters in the
+east, as shown by the map.
+
+[River highways.] Two rivers, one coming from the north-west,
+and the other from the south-east, and both navigable before they
+reach the borders of the province, flow through the middle of it in
+a line parallel with the coast (taking no account of its windings),
+and, after their junction, send their waters together through the
+estuary of Cabusao into the Bay of San Miguel. The whole province,
+therefore, is traversed through its center by two navigable rivers,
+which, as regards commerce, form only one.
+
+[Cabusao and Pasacao harbors.] But the harbor of Cabusao, at the bottom
+of the Bay of San Miguel, is not accessible during the north-east
+monsoon, and has this further disadvantage, that the intercourse of
+the whole of the eastern part of Luzon with Manila can be carried
+on only by a very circuitous route. On the south coast, on the other
+hand, is the harbor of Pasacao, into which a navigable little river,
+above a mile in width, discharges itself; so that the distance between
+this river highway and the nearest point of the Bicol River amounts to
+a little more than a mile. The road connecting the two seas, laid out
+by an active alcalde in 1847, and maintained up to 1852, was however,
+at the date of my inquiry, in so bad a condition that a picul of abacá
+paid two reals freight for this short distance, in the dry season; and
+in the wet season it could not be forwarded for double the price. [139]
+
+[Bad roads raise freights.] Many similar instances may be brought
+forward. In 1861 the English vice-consul reported that in Iloilo a
+picul of sugar had risen more than 2 r. in price (as much as the cost
+of freight from Iloilo to Manila), in consequence of the bad state
+of the road between the two places, which are only one league asunder.
+
+[Social and political reasons for bad roads.] If, without reference to
+transport by sea, the islands were not favored in so extraordinary a
+manner by innumerable rivers with navigable mouths, a still greater
+proportion of their produce would not have been convertible into
+money. The people, as well as the local authorities, have no desire
+for roads, which they themselves construct by forced labor, and,
+when completed, must maintain by the same method; for, when no roads
+are made, the laborers are so much more easily employed in private
+operations. Even the parish priests, generally, are as little favorable
+to the planning of commercial intercourse, by means of which trade,
+prosperity, and enlightenment would be introduced into the country,
+and their authority undermined. Indeed the Government itself, up
+to within a short time since, favored such a state of affairs; for
+bad roads belong to the essence of the old Spanish colonial policy,
+which was always directed to effect the isolation of the separate
+provinces of their great transmarine possessions, and to prevent the
+growth of a sense of national interest, in order to facilitate their
+government by the distant mother country.
+
+[Spanish economic backwardness.] Besides, in Spain itself matters
+are no better. The means of communication there are so very deficient
+that, as an instance, merchandise is sent from Santander to Barcelona,
+round the whole Iberian peninsula, in preference to the direct route,
+which is partly accomplished by railway. [140] In Estremadura the hogs
+were fed with wheat (live animals can be transported without roads),
+while at the same time the seaports were importing foreign grain. [141]
+The cause of this condition of affairs in that country is to be sought
+less in a disordered state of finance, than in the enforcement of
+the Government maxim which enjoins the isolation of separate provinces.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+
+[Mt. Isaróg.] The Isaróg (pronounced Issaró) rises up in the middle
+of Camarines, between San Miguel and Lagonoy bays. While its eastern
+slope almost reaches the sea, it is separated on its western side by
+a broad strip of inundated land from San Miguel Bay. In circumference
+it is at least twelve leagues; and its height 1,966 meters. [142]
+Very flat at its base, it swells gradually to 16°, and higher up
+to 21° of inclination, and extends itself, in its western aspect,
+into a flat dome-shaped summit. But, if viewed from the eastern side,
+it has the appearance of a circular chain of mountains rent asunder
+by a great ravine. On Coello's map this ravine is erroneously laid
+down as extending from south to north; its bearing really is west to
+east. Right in front of its opening, and half a league south from Goa,
+lies the pretty little village of Rungus, by which it is known. The
+exterior sides of the mountain and the fragments of its large crater
+are covered with impenetrable wood. Respecting its volcanic eruptions
+tradition says nothing.
+
+[Primitive mountaineers.] The higher slopes form the dwelling-place
+of a small race of people, whose independence and the customs
+of a primitive age have almost entirely separated them from the
+inhabitants of the plain. One or two Cimarrons might occasionally
+have been attracted hither, but no such instance is remembered. The
+inhabitants of the Isaróg are commonly, though mistakenly, called
+Igorots; and I retain the name, since their tribal relationship has not
+yet been accurately determined; they themselves maintaining that their
+ancestors always dwelt in that locality. There are some who, in the
+opinion of the parish priest of Camarines, speak the Bicol language
+in the purest manner. Their manners and customs are very similar,
+in many respects, to what they were on the arrival of the Spaniards;
+and sometimes they also remind one of those prevailing among the Dyaks
+of Borneo at the present day. [143] These circumstances give rise to
+the conjecture that they may be the last of a race which maintained
+its independence against the Spanish rule, and probably also against
+the little tyrants who ruled over the plain before the arrival of the
+Europeans. When Juan de Salcedo undertook his triumphal march round
+North Luzon he found everywhere, at the mouths of the rivers, seafaring
+tribes living under many chieftains who, after a short struggle, were
+slain by the superior discipline and better arms of the Spaniards,
+or submitted voluntarily to the superior race; but he did not succeed
+in subduing the independent tribes in the interior; and these are
+still to be found in all the larger islands of the Philippine group.
+
+[Similarity to Indian Archipelago conditions.] Similar conditions are
+found in many places in the Indian Archipelago. The Malays, carrying
+on trade and piracy, possess the shore, and their language prevails
+there; the natives being either subdued by them, or driven into the
+forests, the inaccessibility of which ensures to them a miserable
+but independent existence. [144]
+
+[Policy of non-intercourse with heathens.] In order to break down
+the opposition of the wild races, the Spanish Government forbade
+its subjects, under the penalty of one hundred blows and two years
+of forced labor, "to trade or to have any intercourse with the
+heathens in the mountains who pay no tribute to his Catholic Majesty,
+for although they would exchange their gold, wax, etc., for other
+necessaries, they will never change for the better." Probably this
+law has for centuries directly contributed to save the barbarians,
+notwithstanding their small numbers, from complete extermination;
+for free intercourse between a people existing by agriculture,
+and another living principally by the chase, speedily leads to the
+destruction of the latter.
+
+[Christian Mountaineers' villages.] The number of the Igorots of the
+Isaróg however, been much diminished by deadly battles between the
+different ranchos, and by the marauding expeditions which, until
+a short time since, were annually undertaken by the commissioners
+of taxes, in the interest of the Government monopoly, against
+the tobacco fields of the Igorots. Some few have been "pacified"
+(converted to Christianity and tribute); in which case they are obliged
+to establish themselves in little villages of scattered huts, where
+they can be occasionally visited by the priest of the nearest place;
+and, in order to render the change easier to them, a smaller tax than
+usual is temporarily imposed upon such newly-obtained subjects.
+
+[Tobacco monopoly wars.] I had deferred the ascent of the mountain
+until the beginning of the dry season of the year; but I learned in
+Naga that my wish was hardly practicable, because the expeditions
+against the ranchos of the mountain, which I have already mentioned,
+usually occurred about this time. As the wild people could not
+understand why they should not cultivate on their own fields a plant
+which had become a necessity to them, they saw in the Cuadrilleros,
+not functionaries of a civilized State, but robbers, against whom
+they were obliged to defend themselves by force; and appearances
+contributed no less to confirm them in their error; for these did
+not content themselves with destroying the plantations of tobacco,
+but the huts were burnt to the ground, the fruit-trees hewn down, and
+the fields laid waste. Such forays never occurred without bloodshed,
+and often developed into a little war which was carried on by the
+mountaineers for a long time afterwards, even against people who were
+entirely uninterested in it--Filipinos and Europeans. The expedition
+this year was to take place in the beginning of April; the Igorots
+consequently were in a state of great agitation, and had, a few
+days previously, murdered a young unarmed Spaniard in the vicinity
+of Mabotoboto, at the foot of the mountain, by bringing him to the
+ground with a poisoned arrow, and afterwards inflicting twenty-one
+wounds with the wood-knife (bolo).
+
+[A policy of peace.] Fortunately there arrived soon after a countermand
+from Manila, where the authorities seemed to have been gradually
+convinced of the harmful tendency of such violent measures. It could
+not be doubted that this intelligence would quickly spread amongst the
+ranchos; and, acting upon the advice of the commandant (upon whom,
+very much against his inclination, the conduct of the expedition
+had devolved), I lost no time in availing myself of the anticipated
+season of quiet. The Government have since adopted the prudent method
+of purchasing the tobacco, which is voluntarily cultivated by the
+Igorots, at the ordinary rate, and, where practicable, encouraging
+them to lay out new fields, instead of destroying those in existence.
+
+[A populous fertile district.] The next day at noon I left Naga on
+horseback. The pueblos of Mogarao, Canaman, Quipayo, and Calabanga, in
+this fertile district follow so thickly upon one another that they form
+an almost uninterrupted succession of houses and gardens. Calabanga
+lies half a league from the sea, between the mouths of two rivers,
+the more southerly of which is sixty feet broad and sufficiently deep
+for large trading vessels. [145]
+
+[A bare plain and wretched village.] The road winds round the foot
+of the Isaróg first to the north-east and then to the east. Soon the
+blooming hedges cease, and are succeeded by a great bare plain, out of
+which numerous flat hillocks raise themselves. Both hills and plain,
+when we passed, served for pasturage; but from August to January they
+are sown with rice; and fields of batata are occasionally seen. After
+four hours we arrived at the little village of Maguiring (Manguirin),
+the church of which, a tumble-down shed, stood on an equally naked
+hillock; and from its neglected condition one might have guessed that
+the priest was a native.
+
+[Many mountain water courses.] This hillock, as well as the others
+which I examined, consisted of the débris of the Isaróg, the more
+or less decomposed trachytic fragments of hornblende rock, the
+spaces between which were filled up with red sand. The number of
+streams sent down by the Isaróg, into San Miguel and Lagonoy bays,
+is extraordinarily large. On the tract behind Maguiring I counted, in
+three-quarters of an hour, five considerable estuaries, that is to say,
+above twenty feet broad; and then, as far as Goa, twenty-six more;
+altogether, thirty-one: but there are more, as I did not include
+the smallest; and yet the distance between Maguiring and Goa, in
+a straight line, does not exceed three miles. This accounts for
+the enormous quantity of steam with which this mighty condenser is
+fed. I have not met with this phenomenon on any other mountain in so
+striking a manner. One very remarkable circumstance is the rapidity
+with which the brimming rivulets pass in the estuaries, enabling them
+to carry the trading vessels, sometimes even ships, into a main stream
+(if the expression may be allowed), while the scanty contributions
+of their kindred streams on the northern side have scarcely acquired
+the importance of a mill-brook. These waters, from their breadth, look
+like little rivers, although in reality they consist of only a brook,
+up to the foot of the mountain, and of a river's mouth in the plain;
+the intermediate part being absent.
+
+[Comparison with Javan Mountain district.] The country here is
+strikingly similar to the remarkable mountain district of the
+Gelungúng, described by Junghuhn; [146] yet the origin of these
+rising grounds differs in some degree from that of those in Java. The
+latter were due to the eruption of 1822, and the great fissure in the
+wall of the crater of the Gelungúng, which is turned towards them,
+shows unmistakably whence the materials for their formation were
+derived; but the great chasm of the Isaróg opens towards the east,
+and therefore has no relation to the numberless hillocks on the
+north-west of the mountain. Behind Maguiring they run more closely
+together, their summits are flatter, and their sides steeper; and they
+pass gradually into a gently inclined slope, rent into innumerable
+clefts, in the hollows of which as many brooks are actively employed
+in converting the angular outlines of the little islands into these
+rounded hillocks. The third river behind Maguiring is larger than
+those preceding it; on the sixth lies the large Visita of Borobod;
+and on the tenth, that of Ragay. The rice fields cease with the hill
+country, and on the slope, which is well drained by deep channels,
+only wild cane and a few groups of trees grow. Passing by many
+villages, whose huts were so isolated and concealed that they might
+remain unobserved, we arrived at five o'clock at Tagunton; from which
+a road, practicable for carabao carts, and used for the transport of
+the abacá grown in the district, leads to Goa; and here, detained by
+sickness, I hired a little house, in which I lay for nearly four weeks,
+no other remedies offering themselves to me but hunger and repose.
+
+[Useful friends.] During this time I made the acquaintance of some
+newly-converted Igorots, and won their confidence. Without them I would
+have had great difficulty in ascending the mountains as well as to
+visit their tribe in its farms without any danger. [147] When, at last,
+I was able to quit Goa, my friends conducted me, as the first step,
+to their settlement; where, having been previously recommended and
+expected, I easily obtained the requisite number of attendants to take
+into their charge the animals and plants which were collected for me.
+
+[A heathen Mountaineers' settlement.] On the following morning the
+ascent was commenced. Even before we arrived at the first rancho,
+I was convinced of the good report that had preceded me. The master
+of the house came towards us and conducted us by a narrow path to his
+hut, after having removed the foot-lances, which projected obliquely
+out of the ground, but were dexterously concealed by brushwood and
+leaves. [148] A woman employed in weaving, at my desire, continued
+her occupation. The loom was of the simplest kind. The upper end,
+the chain-beam, which consists of a piece of bamboo, is fixed to
+two bars or posts; and the weaver sits on the ground, and to the two
+notched ends of a small lath, which supplies the place of the weaving
+beam, hooks on a wooden bow, in the arch of which the back of the
+lath is fitted. Placing her feet against two pegs in the ground and
+bending her back, she, by means of the bow, stretches the material
+out straight. A netting-needle, longer than the breadth of the web,
+serves instead of the weaver's shuttle, but it can be pushed through
+only by considerable friction, and not always without breaking the
+chains of threads. A lath of hard wood (caryota), sharpened like a
+knife, represents the trestle, and after every stroke it is placed
+upon the edge; after which the comb is pushed forward, a thread put
+through, and struck fast, and so forth. The web consisted of threads
+of the abacá, which were not spun, but tied one to another.
+
+[A giant fern hedge.] The huts I visited deserve no special
+description. Composed of bamboos and palm-leaves, they are not
+essentially different from the dwellings of poor Filipinos; and in
+their neighborhood were small fields planted with batata, maize,
+caladium and sugar-cane, and enclosed by magnificent polypody
+ferns. One of the highest of these, which I caused to be felled for
+the purpose, measured in the stem nine meters, thirty centimeters;
+in the crown, two meters, twelve centimeters; and its total length
+was eleven meters, forty-two centimeters or over thirty-six feet.
+
+[Simple stringed instruments.] A young lad produced music on a kind of
+lute, called baringbau; consisting of the dry shaft of the scitamina
+stretched in the form of a bow by means of a thin tendril instead of
+gut. Half a coco shell is fixed in the middle of the bow, which, when
+playing, is placed against the abdomen, and serves as a sounding board;
+and the string when struck with a short wand, gave out a pleasing
+humming sound, realizing the idea of the harp and plectrum in their
+simplest forms. Others accompanied the musician on Jews' harps of
+bamboos, as accurate as those of the Mintras on the Malay Peninsula;
+and there was one who played on a guitar, which he had himself made,
+but after a European pattern. The hut contained no utensils besides
+bows, arrows, and a cooking pot. The possessor of clothes bore them
+on his person. I found the women as decently clad as the Filipino
+Christian women, and carrying, besides, a forest knife, or bolo. As
+a mark of entire confidence, I was taken into the tobacco fields,
+which were well concealed and protected by foot-lances; and they
+appeared to be carefully looked after.
+
+[The people and their crops.] The result of my familiarity with
+this people, both before and after this opportunity, may be briefly
+summed up: They live on the higher slopes of the mountain, never,
+indeed, below 1,500 feet; each family by itself. It is difficult to
+ascertain how many of them there may now be, as but little intercourse
+takes place amongst them. In the part of the mountain belonging to
+the district of Goa, their number is estimated at about fifty men
+and twenty women, including the children: but twenty years before
+the population was more numerous. Their food consists principally
+of batata, besides some gabi (caladium). A little maize is likewise
+cultivated, as well as some ubi (dioscorea), and a small quantity of
+sugar-cane for chewing.
+
+[Batatas.] In laying out a batata field, a wood is partially cleared,
+the earth loosened with the blunt forest knife (bolo), and the bulbs
+or layers then planted; and within four months the harvest begins,
+and continues uninterruptedly from the time the creeping plant strikes
+root and forms tubers. [Rotation of crops.] After two years, however,
+the produce is so much diminished that the old plants are pulled up,
+in order to make room for new ones obtained from the runners. The
+field is then changed, or other fruits cultivated thereon, but with
+the addition of manure. A piece of land, fifty brazas long, and thirty
+wide, is sufficient for the support of a family. Only occasionally in
+the wet season does this resource fail, and then they resort to gabi,
+which appears to be as easily cultivated on wet as on dry ground,
+but is not so profitable as batata. The young shoots of the gabi are
+planted at distances of a vara, and if consumed in a proper manner,
+ought not to be cropped till after a year. Each family kills weekly
+one or two wild hogs. Stags are rare, although I obtained a fine
+pair of horns; and they do not use the skin. Bows and arrows are
+used in hunting; some poisoned, and some not. Every rancho keeps
+dogs, which live principally on batata, and also cats to protect the
+fields against rats; and they also have poultry, [Game cocks a Spanish
+innovation.] but no game cocks; which, having been first introduced
+into the Philippines by the Spaniards are seldom if ever, wanting in
+the huts of the Filipinos; but the inhabitants of the Isaróg are as
+yet free from this passion.
+
+[Trade.] The few products of a more advanced civilization which they
+require, they obtain by the sale of the spontaneous productions of
+their forests, chiefly wax and resin (pili), [149] apnik, dagiangan
+(a kind of copal), and some abacá. Wax, which is much in request
+for church solemnities, fetches half a dollar per catty; and resin
+averages half a real per chinanta. Business is transacted very
+simply. Filipinos, having intercourse with the Igorots, make a
+contract with them; and they collect the products and bring them
+to a place previously agreed on, where the Filipinos receive them,
+after paying down the stipulated price.
+
+[Religion.] Physicians and magicians, or persons supposed to be
+possessed of secret powers, are unknown; every one helps himself. In
+order to arrive at a clear understanding of their religious views,
+a longer intercourse would be necessary. But they certainly believe
+in one God, or, at least, say so, when they are closely questioned
+by Christians; and have also loosely acquired several of the external
+practices of Catholicism, which they employ as spells.
+
+[Respect for women and aged.] Hunting and hard labor constitute the
+employment of man in general, as well as in the Philippines. The
+practice of employing women as beasts of burden--which, although
+it exists among many of the peoples of Europe, for example, the
+Basques, Wallachians, and Portuguese, is almost peculiar to barbarous
+nations,--seems to have been lost in the Philippines as far back
+as the time of its discovery by the Spaniards; and even among the
+wild people of the Isaróg, the women engage only in light labor,
+and are well treated. Every family supports its aged and those unfit
+for labor. [Medicine.] Headaches and fevers were stated to me as the
+prevalent maladies; for which burnt rice, pounded and mixed to a pap
+with water, is taken as a remedy; and in case of severe headache they
+make an incision in the forehead of the sufferer. Their prevalence is
+explained by the habit of neutralizing the ill effects of drinking
+water in excess, when they are heated, by the consumption of warm
+water in large doses; and the rule holds with regard to coco-water;
+the remedy for immoderate use of which is warm coco-water. Their
+muscular power is small, and they are not able to carry more than
+fifty pounds weight to any considerable distance.
+
+[Manufactures.] Besides the chase and agriculture, their occupations
+are restricted to the manufacture of extremely rude weapons, for which
+they purchase the iron, when required, from the Filipinos, and of
+the coarse webs made by the women, and of wicker work. Every father
+of a family is master in his own house, and acknowledges no power
+higher than himself. In the event of war with neighboring tribes,
+the bravest places himself at the head, and the rest follow him as
+long as they are able; there is no deliberate choosing of a leader.
+
+[Death customs.] On the whole, they are peaceful and honorable towards
+each other, although the idle occasionally steal the fruits of the
+fields; and, should the thief be caught, the person robbed punishes
+him with blows of the rattan, without being under any apprehensions
+of vengeance in consequence. If a man dies, his nearest kinsmen
+go out to requite his death by the death of some other individual,
+taken at random. The rule is strictly enforced. For a dead man a man
+must be killed; for a woman a woman; and for a child a child. Unless,
+indeed, it be a friend they encounter, the first victim that offers
+is killed. Latterly, however, owing to the unusual success attained by
+some of them in representing the occurrence of death as an unavoidable
+destiny, the custom is said to have fallen into desuetude; and the
+relatives do not exact the satisfaction. This was easy in the case
+of the deceased being an ordinary person; but, to the present day,
+vengeance is required in the event of the death of a beloved child or
+wife. If a man kills a woman of another house, her nearest kinsman
+endeavors to kill a woman of the house of the murderer; but to the
+murderer himself he does nothing; and the corpse of the victim thus
+slain as a death-offering is not buried, nor is its head cut off; and
+her family, in their turn, seek to avenge the death by murder. This
+is reckoned the most honorable course. Should the murderer, however,
+be too strong to be so overcome, any weaker person, be it who it may,
+is slain in retaliation; and hence, probably, the comparatively small
+number of women.
+
+[Marriage.] Polygamy is permitted; but even the most courageous
+and skilful seldom or never have more than one wife. A young man
+wishing to marry commissions his father to treat with the father
+of the bride as to the price; which latterly has greatly increased;
+but the average is ten bolos, costing from four to six reals each,
+and about $12 in cash; and the acquisition of so large a sum by
+the sale of wax, resin, and abacá, often takes the bridegroom two
+years. The bride-money goes partly to the father, and partly to the
+nearest relations; every one of whom has an equal interest. If there
+should be many of them, almost nothing remains for the father, who
+has to give a great feast, on which occasion much palm-wine is drunk.
+
+[Sexual crimes.] Any man using violence towards a girl is killed by
+her parents. If the girl was willing, and the father hears of it,
+he agrees upon a day with the former, on which he is to bring the
+bride's dowry; which should he refuse to do, he is caught by the
+relations, bound to a tree, and whipped with a cane. Adultery is
+of most rare occurrence; but, when it does take place, the dowry is
+returned either by the woman, who then acquires her freedom, or by
+the seducer, whom she then follows. The husband has not the right to
+detain her, if he takes the money, or even if he should refuse it;
+but the latter contingency is not likely to arise, since that sum of
+money will enable him to buy for himself a new wife.
+
+[Basira ravine.] In the afternoon we reached a vast ravine, called
+"Basira," 973 meters above Uacloy, and about 1,134 meters above
+the sea, extending from south-east to north-west between lofty,
+precipitous ranges, covered with wood. Its base, which has an
+inclination of 33°, consists of a naked bed of rock, and, after every
+violent rainfall, gives issue to a torrent of water, which discharges
+itself violently. Here we bivouacked; and the Igorots, in a very short
+time, built a hut, and remained on the watch outside. At daybreak
+the thermometer stood at 13.9° R. [150]
+
+[At the summit.] The road to the summit was very difficult on account
+of the slippery clay earth and the tough network of plants; but the
+last five hundred feet were unexpectedly easy, the very steep summit
+being covered with a very thick growth of thinly leaved, knotted, mossy
+thibaudia, rhododendra, and other dwarf woods, whose innumerable tough
+branches, running at a very small height along the ground and parallel
+to it, form a compact and secure lattice-work, by which one mounted
+upwards as on a slightly inclined ladder. The point which we reached *
+* * was evidently the highest spur of the horseshoe-shaped mountain
+side, which bounds the great ravine of Rungus on the north. The top
+was hardly fifty paces in diameter, and so thickly covered with trees
+that I have never seen its like; we had not room to stand. My active
+hosts, however, went at once to work, though the task of cutting a path
+through the wood involved severe labor, and, chopping off the branches,
+built therewith, on the tops of the lopped trees, an observatory, from
+which I should have had a wide panoramic view, and an opportunity for
+taking celestial altitudes, had not everything been enveloped in a
+thick mist. The neighboring volcanoes were visible only in glimpses,
+as well as San Miguel Bay and some lakes in the interior. Immediately
+after sunset the thermometer registered 12.5° R. [151]
+
+[The descent.] On the following morning it was still overcast; and
+when, about ten o'clock, the clouds became thicker, we set out on
+our return. It was my intention to have passed the night in a rancho,
+in order next day to visit a solfatara which was said to be a day's
+journey further; but my companions were so exhausted by fatigue that
+they asked for at least a few hours' rest.
+
+[Ferns and orchids.] On the upper slope I observed no palms with the
+exception of calamus; but polypodies (ferns) were very frequent, and
+orchids surprisingly abundant. In one place all the trees were hung,
+at a convenient height, with flowering aërids; of which one could have
+collected thousands without any trouble. The most beautiful plant
+was a Medinella, of so delicate a texture that it was impossible to
+preserve it.
+
+[Carbonic acid spring.] Within a quarter of an hour north-east
+of Uacloy, a considerable spring of carbonic acid bursts from the
+ground, depositing abundance of calcareous sinter. Our torches were
+quickly extinguished, and a fowl covered with a cigar-box died in
+a few minutes, to the supreme astonishment of the Igorots, to whom
+these phenomena were entirely new.
+
+[Farewell to mountaineers.] On the second day of rest, my poor hosts,
+who had accompanied me back to Uacloy, still felt so weary that they
+were not fit for any undertaking. With naked heads and bellies they
+squatted in the burning sun in order to replenish their bodies with
+the heat which they had lost during the bivouac on the summit; for
+they are not allowed to drink wine. When I finally left them on the
+following day, we had become such good friends that I was compelled
+to accept a tamed wild pig as a present. A troop of men and women
+accompanied me until they saw the glittering roofs of Maguiring,
+when, after the exchange of hearty farewells, they returned to their
+forests. The natives whom I had taken with me from Goa had proved
+so lazy and morose that nearly the whole task of making the path
+through the forest had fallen upon the Igorots. From sheer laziness
+they threw away the drinking water of which they were the porters;
+and the Igorots were obliged to fetch water from a considerable
+distance for our bivouac on the summit. In all my troublesome marches,
+I have always done better with Cimarrons than with the civilized
+natives. The former I have found obliging, trustworthy, active and
+acquainted with localities, while the latter generally displayed the
+opposite qualities. It would, however, be unjust to form a conclusive
+opinion as to their comparative merits from these facts; for the
+wild people are at home when in the forest; what they do is done
+voluntarily, and the stranger, when he possesses their confidence, is
+treated as a guest. [Forced labor.] But the Filipinos are reluctant
+companions, Polistas, who, even when they receive a high rate of
+wages, consider that they are acting most honorably when they do as
+little as possible. At any rate, it is no pleasure to them to leave
+their village in order to become luggage-porters or beaters of roads
+on fatiguing marches in impracticable districts, and to camp out in
+the open air under every deprivation. For them, still more than for
+the European peasant, repose is the most agreeable refreshment. The
+less comfort any one enjoys at home, the greater is the reluctance
+with which he leaves it; and the same thing may be observed in Europe.
+
+[A petition for liquors.] As the Igorots were not permitted to
+have cocoa-palms for the preparation of wine, vinegar and brandy,
+so that they might not infringe the monopoly of the government,
+they presented me with a petition entreating me to obtain this
+favor for them. The document was put together by a Filipino writer
+in so ludicrously confused a manner that I give it as a specimen of
+Philippine clerkship. [152] At all events, it had the best of results,
+for the petitioners were accorded twice as much as they had prayed for.
+
+[Winds and planting season.] The south-west monsoon lasts in this
+region (district of Goa) from April to October. April is very calm
+(navegación de señoras). From June to August the south-west winds
+blow steadily; March, April, and May are the driest months; there are
+shifting winds in March and the beginning of April; while from October
+to December is the time of storms; "S. Francisco (4th October) brings
+bad weather." Rice is planted in September and reaped in February.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+
+[Mt. Iriga.] From the Isarog I returned through Naga and Nabua to
+Iriga, the ascent of which I at length accomplished.
+
+[The ascent.] The chief of the Montesinos had received daily rations
+for twenty-two men, with whom he professed to make a road to the
+summit; but when, on the evening of the third day, he came himself
+to Iriga, in order to fetch more provisions, on the pretext that
+the work still required some time for execution, I explained that
+I should endeavor to ascend the mountain on the following morning,
+and requested him to act as guide. He consented, but disappeared,
+together with his companions, during the night; the Filipinos in
+the tribunal having been good enough to hold out the prospect of
+severe punishment in case the work performed should not correspond
+to the working days. After fruitless search for another guide,
+we left Buhi in the afternoon, and passed the night in the rancho,
+where we had previously been so hospitably received. The fires were
+still burning, but the inhabitants, on our approach, had fled. About
+six o'clock on the following morning the ascent began. After we had
+gone through the forest, by availing ourselves of the path which we
+had previously beaten, it led us through grass three or four feet
+in height, with keen-edged leaves; succeeded by cane, from seven
+to eight feet high, of the same habitat with our Arundo phragmites
+(but it was not in flower), which occupied the whole of the upper
+part of the mountain as far as the edge. Only in the ravine did the
+trees attain any height. The lower declivities were covered with
+aroids and ferns; towards the summit were tendrils and mosses; and
+here I found a beautiful, new, and peculiarly shaped orchid. [153]
+The Cimarrons had cut down some cane; and, beating down our road for
+ourselves with bolos, we arrived at the summit a little before ten
+o'clock. It was very foggy. In the hope of a clear evening or morning
+I caused a hut to be erected, for which purpose the cane was well
+fitted. The natives were too lazy to erect a lodging for themselves,
+or to procure wood for a watchfire. They squatted on the ground,
+squeezed close to one another to warm themselves, ate cold rice,
+and suffered thirst because none of them would fetch water. Of the
+two water-carriers whom I had taken with me, one had "inadvertently"
+upset his water on the road, and the other had thrown it away "because
+he thought we should not require it."
+
+[Altitude.] I found the highest points of the Iriga to be 1,212
+meters, 1,120 meters above the surface of the Buhi Lake. From Buhi
+I went to Batu.
+
+[Changes in Batu Lake.] The Batu Lake (one hundred eleven meters
+above the sea) had sunk lower since my last visit in February. The
+carpet of algae had increased considerably in breadth, its upper
+edge being in many places decomposed; and the lower passed gradually
+into a thick consistency of putrid water-plants (charae, algae,
+pontederiae, valisneriae, pistiae, etc.), which encompassed the
+surface of the water so that only through a few gaps could one reach
+the bank. Right across the mouth of the Quinali lies, in the lake,
+a bar of black mud, the softest parts of which were indicated by some
+insignificant channels of water. As we could not get over the bar in
+a large boat, two small skiffs were bound together with a matting of
+bamboo, and provided with an awning. By means of this contrivance,
+which was drawn by three strong carabaos (the whole body of men with
+evident delight and loud mirth wading knee-deep in the black mud
+and assisting by pushing behind) we succeeded, as if on a sledge,
+in getting over the obstacle into the river; which on my first visit
+overflowed the fields in many places, till the huts of the natives
+rose out of the water like so many ships: but now (in June) not one
+of its channels was full. We were obliged in consequence to continue
+our sledge journey until we were near to Quinali.
+
+[Ascent of Mt. Mazaraga.] At Ligao I alighted at a friendly Spaniard's,
+a great part of the place, together with the tribunal and convent,
+having been burnt down since my last visit. After making the necessary
+preparations, I went in the evening to Barayong, a little rancho
+of Cimarrons at the foot of the Mazaraga, and, together with its
+inhabitants, ascended the mountain on the following morning. The
+women also accompanied us for some distance, and kept the company in
+good humor; and when, on the road, a Filipino who had been engaged
+for the purpose wished to give up carrying a bamboo full of water,
+and, throwing it away, ran off, an old woman stepped forward in his
+stead, and dragged the water cheerfully along up to the summit. This
+mountain was moister than any I had ever ascended, the Semeru in
+Java, in some respects, excepted; and half-way up I found some rotten
+rafflesia. [154] Two miserable-looking Cimarron dogs drove a young
+stag towards us, which was slain by one of the people with a blow
+of his bolo. The path ceased a third of the way up, but it was not
+difficult to get through the wood. The upper portion of the mountain,
+however, being thickly overgrown with cane, again presented great
+obstacles. About twelve we reached the summit-level, which, pierced by
+no crater, is almost horizontal, smoothly arched, and thickly covered
+with cane. [Altitude.] Its height is 1,354 meters. In a short time the
+indefatigable Cimarrons had built a fine large hut of cane: one room
+for myself and the baggage, a large assembly-room for the people,
+and a special apartment for cooking. Unfortunately the cane was so
+wet that it would not burn. In order to procure firewood to cook the
+rice, thick branches were got out of the wood, and their comparatively
+dry pith extracted with great labor. The lucifer-matches, too, were
+so damp that the phosphorus was rubbed away in friction; but, being
+collected on blotting-paper, and kneaded together with the sulphurous
+end of the match-wood, it became dry and was kindled by friction. Not
+a trace of solid rock was to be seen. All was obstructed by a thick
+overgrowth from where the path ceased, and the ground covered with
+a dense bed of damp wood-earth. The following morning was fine, and
+showed a wide panorama; but, before I had completed my drawing, it
+again became misty; and as, after several hours of waiting, the heavens
+were overspread with thick rain-clouds, we set out on our return.
+
+[Butterflies.] Numerous butterflies swarmed around the summit. We
+could, however, catch only a few, as the passage over the cane-stubble
+was too difficult for naked feet; and, the badly-stitched soles of
+two pairs of new shoes which I had brought from Manila having dropped
+off some time before I reached the summit, I was compelled to perform
+the journey to Ligao barefoot.
+
+[Native contempt for private Spaniards.] On the following day my
+Spanish host went twice to the tribunal to procure the carabao carts
+which were necessary for the furtherance of my collections. His
+courteous request was unsuccessful; but the command of the parish
+priest, who personally informed the Gobernadorcillo in his house,
+was immediately obeyed. The Filipino authorities have, as a rule, but
+little respect for private Spanish people, and treat them not seldom
+with open contempt. An official recommendation from the alcalde is
+usually effectual, but not in all the provinces; for many alcaldes do
+hurt to their own authority by engaging the assistance or connivance of
+the native magistrates in the furtherance of their personal interests.
+
+[Giant bats.] I here shot some panikes, great bats with wings nearly
+five feet wide when extended, which in the day time hang asleep from
+the branches of trees, and, among them, two mothers with their young
+sucking ones uninjured. It was affecting to see how the little animals
+clung more and more firmly to the bodies of their dying parents,
+and how tenderly they embraced them even after these were dead. The
+apparent feeling, however, was only self-interest at bottom, for,
+when their store of milk was exhausted, the old ones were treated
+without respect, like empty bottles. As soon as the young ones were
+separated, they fed on bananas, and lived several days, until I at
+length placed them in spirits.
+
+[A muddy dry season.] Early in the morning I rode on the priest's
+horse to Legaspi, and in the evening through deep mud to the alcalde
+at Albay. We were now (June) in the middle of the so-called dry season,
+but it rained almost every day; and the road between Albay and Legaspi
+was worse than ever. During my visit information arrived from the
+commandant of the faluas on the south coast that, as he was pursuing
+two pirate vessels, [Power of Moro pirates.] six others suddenly made
+their appearance, in order to cut off his return; for which reason he
+bad quickly made his way back. The faluas are very strongly manned, and
+provided with cannon, but the crews furnished by the localities on the
+coast are entirely unpractised in the use of fire-arms, and moreover
+hold the Moros in such dread that, if the smallest chance offers of
+flight, they avail themselves of it to ensure their safety by making
+for the land. The places on the coast, destitute of other arms than
+wooden pikes, were completely exposed to the pirates, who had firmly
+established themselves in Catanduanes, Biri, and several small islands,
+and seized ships with impunity, or robbed men on the land. Almost daily
+fresh robberies and murders were announced from the villages on the
+shore. During a plundering expedition the men caught are employed at
+the oars and at its close sold as slaves; and, on the division of the
+spoil, one of the crew falls to the share of the dato (Moro chief) who
+fitted out the vessel. [155] The coasting vessels in these waters, it
+is true, are mostly provided with artillery, but it is generally placed
+in the hold of the ship, as no one on board knows how to use it. If
+the cannon be upon deck, either the powder or the shot is wanting;
+and the captain promises to be better prepared next time. [156] The
+alcalde reported the outrages of the pirates by every post to Manila,
+as well as the great injury done to trade, and spoke of the duty of the
+[No protection from Government.] Government to protect its subjects,
+especially as the latter were not permitted to use fire-arms; [157] and
+from the Bisayan Islands came the same cry for help. The Government,
+however, was powerless against the evil. If the complaints were indeed
+very urgent, they would send a steamer into the waters most infested;
+but it hardly ever came in sight of pirates, although the latter were
+carrying on their depredations close in front and behind.
+
+[Government steamer easily eluded.] At Samars, the principal town,
+I subsequently met with a Government steamer, which for fourteen days
+past had been nominally engaged in cruising against the pirates; but
+the latter, generally forewarned by their spies, perceive the smoke
+of the steamers sufficiently soon to slip away in their flat boats;
+and the officers knew beforehand that their cruise would have no
+other result than to show the distressed provinces that their outcry
+was not altogether unnoticed. [158]
+
+[Steam gunboats more successful.] Twenty small steam gunboats of light
+draught had shortly before been ordered from England, and were nearly
+ready. The first two indeed arrived soon after in Manila (they had to
+be transported in pieces round the Cape), and were to be followed by
+the rest; and they were at one time almost successful in delivering
+the archipelago from these burdensome pests; [159] at least, from
+the proscribed Moros who came every year from the Sulu Sea, mostly
+from the island of Tawitawi, arriving in May at the Bisayas, and
+continuing their depredations in the archipelago until the change
+of the monsoon in October or November compelled them to return.
+[160] [Renegades join pirates and bandits.] In the Philippines they
+gained new recruits among vagabonds, deserters, runaway criminals,
+and ruined spendthrifts; and from the same sources were made up the
+bands of highway robbers (tulisanes), which sometimes started up,
+and perpetuated acts of extraordinary daring. Not long before my
+arrival they had made an inroad into a suburb of Manila, and engaged
+with the military in the highways. Some of the latter are regularly
+employed in the service against the tulisanes. The robbers are not,
+as a rule, cruel to their victims when no opposition is offered.  [161]
+
+[Plants from Berlin.] In Legaspi I found awaiting me several chests
+with tin lining, which had been sixteen months on their passage by
+overland route, instead of seven weeks, having been conveyed from
+Berlin by way of Trieste, on account of the Italian war. Their
+contents, which had been intended for use in the Philippines
+exclusively, were now for the most part useless. In one chest there
+were two small flasks with glass stoppers, one filled with moist
+charcoal, and the other with moist clay, both containing seeds of the
+Victoria Regia and tubers of red and blue nymphae (water-lily). Those
+in the first flask were spoiled, as might have been expected; but in
+that filled with moist clay two tubers had thrown out shoots of half an
+inch in length, and appeared quite sound. I planted them at once, and
+in a few days vigorous leaves were developed. One of these beautiful
+plants, which had been originally intended for the Buitenzorg Garden
+in Java, remained in Legaspi; the other I sent to Manila, where,
+on my return, I saw it in full bloom. In the charcoal two Victoria
+seeds had thrown out roots above an inch in length, which had rotted
+off. Most likely they had been torn up by the custom-house inspectors,
+and had afterwards rotted, for the neck of the bottle was broken,
+and the charcoal appeared as if it had been stirred. I communicated
+the brilliant result of his mode of packing to the Inspector of the
+Botanical Gardens at Berlin, who made a second consignment direct
+to Java, which arrived in the best condition; so that not only the
+Victoria, but also the one which had been derived in Berlin from an
+African father and an Asiatic mother, now adorn the water-basins of
+Java with red pond-roses (the latter plants probably those of the
+Philippines also).
+
+[Carpentering difficulties.] Being compelled by the continuous rain to
+dry my collections in two ovens before packing them, I found that my
+servant had burned the greater part, so that the remains found a place
+in a roomy chest which I purchased for a dollar at an auction. This
+unfortunately lacked a lid; to procure which I was obliged, in the
+first place, to liberate a carpenter who had been imprisoned for a
+small debt; secondly, to advance money for the purchase of a board
+and the redemption of his tools out of pawn; and even then the work,
+when it was begun, was several times broken off because previous claims
+of violent creditors had to be discharged by labor. In five days the
+lid was completed, at the cost of three dollars. It did not last long,
+however, for in Manila I had to get it replaced by a new one.
+
+[Off to Samar.] At Legaspi I availed myself of an opportunity to reach
+the island of Samar in a small schooner. It is situated south-east
+from Luzon, on the farther side of the Strait of San Bernardino,
+which is three leagues in breadth. At the moment of my departure,
+to my great regret, my servant left me, "that he might rest a little
+from his fatigue," for Pepe was good-natured, very skilful, and
+always even-tempered. [Losing a clever assistant.] He had learned
+much from the numerous Spanish soldiers and sailors resident in
+Cavite, his native place, where he used to be playfully called the
+"Spaniard of Cavite." Roving from one place to another was his
+delight; and he quickly acquired acquaintances. He knew especially
+how to gain the favor of the ladies, for he possessed many social
+accomplishments, being equally able to play the guitar and to milk
+the carabao-cows. When we came to a pueblo, where a mestiza, or even a
+"daughter of the country" (creole), dwelt, he would, when practicable,
+ask permission to milk a cow; and after bringing the señora some
+of the milk, under pretext of being the interpreter of my wishes,
+he would maintain such a flow of ingeniously courteous conversation,
+praising the beauty and grace of the lady, and most modestly allowing
+his prodigious travelling adventures to be extracted from him, that
+both knight and esquire beamed with brilliant radiance. A present
+was always welcome, and brought us many a little basket of oranges;
+and carabao milk is excellent with chocolate: but it seemed as if
+one seldom has the opportunity of milking a cow. Unfortunately Pepe
+did not like climbing mountains, and when he was to have gone with
+me he either got the stomach-ache or gave away my strong shoes, or
+allowed them to be stolen; the native ones, however, being allowed
+to remain untouched, for he knew well that they were fit only for
+riding, and derived comfort from the fact. In company with me he
+worked quickly and cheerfully; but, when alone, it became tedious to
+him. Particularly he found friends, who hindered him, and then he would
+abandon his skinning of the birds, which therefore became putrid and
+had to be thrown away. Packing was still more disagreeable to him, and
+consequently he did it as quickly as possible, though not always with
+sufficient care, as on one occasion he tied up, in one and the same
+bundle, shoes, arsenic-soap, drawings, and chocolate. Notwithstanding
+trifling faults of this kind, he was very useful and agreeable to me;
+but he did not go willingly to such an uncivilized island as Samar;
+and when he received his wages in full for eight months all in a lump,
+and so became a small capitalist, he could not resist the temptation
+to rest a little from his labors.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+
+[Samar.] The island of Samar, which is of nearly rhomboidal outline,
+and with few indentations on its coasts, stretches from the north-west
+to the south-east from 12° 37' to 10° 54' N.; its mean length being
+twenty-two miles, its breadth eleven, and its area two hundred and
+twenty square miles. It is separated on the south by the small strait
+of San Juanico from the island of Leyte, with which it was formerly
+united into one province. At the present time each island has its
+separate governor.
+
+[Former names.] By the older authors the island is called Tendaya,
+Ibabao, and also Achan and Filipina. In later times the eastern
+side was called Ibabao, and the western Samar, which is now the
+official denomination for the whole island, the eastern shore being
+distinguished as the Contracosta. [162]
+
+[Seasons and weather.] As on the eastern coasts of Luzon, the
+north-east monsoon here exceeds that from the south-west in duration
+and force, the violence of the latter being arrested by the islands
+lying to the southwest, while the north-east winds break against
+the coasts of these easterly islands with their whole force, and the
+additional weight of the body of water which they bring with them from
+the open ocean. In October winds fluctuating between north-west and
+north-east occur; but the prevalent ones are northerly. In the middle
+of November the north-east is constant; and it blows, with but little
+intermission, from the north until April. This is likewise the rainy
+season, December and January being the wettest, when it sometimes
+rains for fourteen days without interruption. In Lauang, on the north
+coast, the rainy season lasts from October to the end of December. From
+January to April it is dry; May, June, and July are rainy; and August
+and September, again, are dry; so that here there are two wet and
+two dry seasons in the year. From October to January violent storms
+(baguios or typhoons) sometimes occur. Beginning generally with a
+north wind, they pass to the north-west, accompanied by a little rain,
+then back to the north, and with increasing violence to the north-east
+and east, where they acquire their greatest power, and then moderate
+to the south. Sometimes, however, they change rapidly from the east
+to the south, in which quarter they first acquire their greatest force.
+
+[Winds and storms.] From the end of March to the middle of June
+inconstant easterly winds (N.E.E. and S.E.) prevail, with a very
+heavy sea on the east coast. May is usually calm; but in May and
+June there are frequent thunderstorms, introducing the south-west
+monsoon, which though it extends through the months of July, August,
+and September, is not so constant as the north-east. The last-named
+three months constitute the dry season, which, however, is often
+interrupted by thunderstorms. Not a week, indeed, passes without rain;
+and in many years a storm arises every afternoon. At this season of
+the year ships can reach the east coast; but during the north-east
+monsoon navigation there is impossible. These general circumstances
+are subject to many local deviations, particularly on the south and
+west coasts, where the uniformity of the air currents is disturbed
+by the mountainous islands lying in front of them. According to
+the Estado geografico of 1855, an extraordinarily high tide, called
+dolo, occurs every year at the change of the monsoon in September or
+October. It rises sometimes sixty or seventy feet, and dashes itself
+with fearful violence against the south and east coasts, doing great
+damage, but not lasting for any length of time. The climate of Samar
+and Leyte appears to be very healthy on the coasts; in fact, to be
+the best of all the islands of the archipelago. Dysentery, diarrhoea,
+and fever occur less frequently than in Luzon, and Europeans also
+are less subject to their attacks than in that place.
+
+[Only the coast settled.] The civilized natives live almost solely
+on its coasts, and there are also Bisayans who differ in speech and
+manners from the Bicols in about the same degree that the latter do
+from the Tagalogs. Roads and villages are almost entirely wanting
+in the interior, which is covered with a thick wood, and affords
+sustenance to independent tribes, who carry on a little tillage
+(vegetable roots and mountain rice), and collect the products of the
+woods, particularly resin, honey, and wax, in which the island is
+very rich.
+
+[A tedious but eventful voyage.] On the 3rd of July we lost sight
+of Legaspi, and, detained by frequent calms, crawled as far as
+Point Montufar, on the northern edge of Albay, then onwards to the
+small island of Viri, and did not reach Lauang before evening of
+the 5th. The mountain range of Bacon (the Pocdol of Coello), which
+on my previous journeys had been concealed by night or mist, now
+revealed itself to us in passing as a conical mountain; and beside
+it towered a very precipitous, deeply-cleft mountain-side, apparently
+the remnant of a circular range. After the pilot, an old Filipino and
+native of the country, who had made the journey frequently before,
+had conducted us, to begin with, to a wrong port, he ran the vessel
+fast on to the bar, although there was sufficient water to sail into
+the harbor conveniently.
+
+[Lauang.] The district of Lauang (Lahuan), which is encumbered with
+more than four thousand five hundred inhabitants, is situated at an
+altitude of forty feet, on the south-west shore of the small island
+of the same name, which is separated from Samar by an arm of the
+Catubig. According to a widely-spread tradition, the settlement was
+originally in Samar itself, in the middle of the rice-fields, which
+continue to the present day in that place, until the repeated inroads
+of sea-pirates drove the inhabitants, in spite of the inconvenience
+attending it, to protect themselves by settling on the south coast
+of the little island, which rises steeply out of the sea. [163] The
+latter consists of almost horizontal banks of tufa, from eight to
+twelve inches in thickness. The strata being continually eaten away
+by the waves at low watermark, the upper layers break off; and thus
+the uppermost parts of the strata, which are of a tolerably uniform
+thickness, are cleft by vertical fissures, and look like the walls of
+a fortress. Pressed for space, the church and the convent have taken
+up every level bit of the rock at various heights; and the effect of
+this accommodation of architecture to the requirements of the ground,
+though not designed by the architect, is most picturesque.
+
+[Deterioration in the town.] The place is beautifully situated; but the
+houses are not so frequently as formerly surrounded by little gardens
+while there is a great want of water, and foul odors prevail. Two or
+three scanty springs afford a muddy, brackish water, almost at the
+level of the sea, with which the indolent people are content so that
+they have just enough. Wealthy people have their water brought from
+Samar, and the poorer classes are sometimes compelled, by the drying-up
+of the springs, to have recourse to the same place. The spring-water
+is not plentiful for bathing purposes; and, sea-bathing not being in
+favor, the people consequently are very dirty. Their clothing is the
+same as in Luzon; but the women wear no tapis, only a camisa (a short
+chemise, hardly covering the breast), and a saya, mostly of coarse,
+stiff guinara, which forms ugly folds, and when not colored black
+is very transparent. But dirt and a filthy existence form a better
+screen than opaque garments. The inhabitants of Lauang rightly,
+indeed, enjoy the reputation of being very idle. Their industry is
+limited to a little tillage, even fishing being so neglected that
+frequently there is a scarcity of fish. In the absence of roads by
+land, there is hardly any communication by water; and trade is mostly
+carried on by mariners from Catbalogan, who exchange the surplus of
+the harvests for other produce.
+
+From the convent a view is had of part of the island of Samar, the
+mountain forms of which appear to be a continuation of the horizontal
+strata. In the centre of the district, at the distance of some miles,
+a table mountain, famous in the history of the country, towers
+aloft. [The Palapat revolt.] The natives of the neighboring village
+of Palapat retreated to it after having killed their priest, a too
+covetous Jesuit father, and for years carried on a guerilla warfare
+with the Spaniards until they were finally overpowered by treachery.
+
+[Pirate outrages.] The interior of the country is difficult to
+traverse from the absence of roads, and the coasts are much infested
+by pirates. Quite recently several pontins and four schooners,
+laden with abacá, were captured, and the crews cruelly murdered,
+their bodies having been cut to pieces. This, however, was opposed
+to their general practice, for the captives are usually employed at
+the oars during the continuance of the foray, and afterwards sold as
+slaves in the islands of the Sulu sea. It was well that we did not
+encounter the pirates, for, although we carried four small cannons
+on board, nobody understood how to use them. [164]
+
+[Electing officers.]  The governor, who was expected to conduct the
+election of the district officials in person, but was prevented
+by illness, sent a deputy. As the annual elections are conducted
+in the same manner over the whole country, that at which I was
+present may be taken as typical of the rest. It took place in the
+common hall; the governor (or his deputy) sitting at the table,
+with the pastor on his right hand, and the clerk on his left--the
+latter also acting as interpreter; while Cabezas de Barangay, the
+gobernadorcillo, and those who had previously filled the office, took
+their places all together on benches. First of all, six cabezas and
+as many gobernadorcillos are chosen by lot as electors; the actual
+gobernadorcillo is the thirteenth, and the rest quit the hall. After
+the reading of the statutes by the president, who exhorts the electors
+to the conscientious performance of their duty, the latter advance
+singly to the table, and write three names on a piece of paper. Unless
+a valid protest be made either by the parish priest or by the electors,
+the one who has the most votes is forthwith named gobernadorcillo for
+the coming year, subject to the approval of the superior jurisdiction
+at Manila; which, however, always consents, for the influence of the
+priest would provide against a disagreeable election. The election of
+the other functionaries takes place in the same manner, after the new
+gobernadorcillo has been first summoned into the hall, in order that,
+if he have any important objections to the officers then about to be
+elected, he may be able to make them. The whole affair was conducted
+very quietly and with dignity. [165]
+
+[Unsatisfactory forced labor.] On the following morning, accompanied
+by the obliging priest, who was followed by nearly all the boys
+of the village, I crossed over in a large boat to Samar. Out of
+eleven strong baggage porters whom the governor's representative had
+selected for me, four took possession of some trifling articles and
+sped away with them, three others hid themselves in the bush, and
+four had previously decamped at Lauang. The baggage was divided and
+distributed amongst the four porters who were detained, and the little
+boys who had accompanied us for their own pleasure. We followed the
+sea-shore in a westerly direction, and at a very late hour reached the
+nearest visita (a suburban chapel and settlement) where the priest
+was successful, after much difficulty, in supplying the places of
+the missing porters. On the west side of the mouth of the Pambujan
+a neck of land projects into the sea, which is a favorite resort
+of the [A pirate base.] sea-pirates, who from their shelter in the
+wood command the shore which extends in a wide curve on both sides,
+and forms the only communication between Lauang and Catarman. Many
+travellers had already been robbed in this place; and the father, who
+was now accompanying me thus far, had, with the greatest difficulty,
+escaped the same danger only a few weeks before.
+
+The last part of our day's journey was performed very cautiously. A
+messenger who had been sent on had placed boats at all the mouths of
+rivers, and, as hardly any other Europeans besides ecclesiastics are
+known in this district, I was taken in the darkness for a Capuchin in
+travelling attire; the men lighting me with torches during the passage,
+and the women pressing forward to kiss my hand. I passed the night
+on the road, and on the following day reached Catarman (Caladman on
+Coello's map), a clean, spacious locality numbering 6,358 souls, at
+the mouth of the river of the same name. Six pontins from Catbalogan
+awaited their cargoes of rice for Albay. The inhabitants of the north
+coast are too indifferent sailors to export their products themselves,
+and leave it to the people of [Catbalogan monopoly of interisland
+traffic.] Catbalogan, who, having no rice-fields, are obliged to find
+employment for their activity in other places.
+
+[A changed river and a new town.] The river Catarman formerly emptied
+further to the east, and was much choked with mud. In the year 1851,
+after a continuous heavy rain, it worked for itself, in the loose
+soil which consists of quartz sand and fragments of mussels, a new
+and shorter passage to the sea--the present harbor, in which ships
+of two hundred tons can load close to the land; but in doing so it
+destroyed the greater part of the village, as well as the stone church
+and the priest's residence. In the new convent there are two salons,
+one 16.2 by 8.8, the other 9 by 7.6 paces in dimensions, boarded with
+planks from a single branch of a dipterocarpus (guiso). The pace is
+equivalent to 30 inches; and, assuming the thickness of the boards,
+inclusive of waste, to be one inch, this would give a solid block of
+wood as high as a table (two and one-half feet), the same in breadth,
+eighteen feet in length, and of about one hundred and ten cubic
+feet. [166] The houses are enclosed in gardens; but some of them only
+by fencing, within which weeds luxuriate. At the rebuilding of the
+village, after the great flood of water, the laying out of gardens
+was commanded; but the industry which is required to preserve them is
+often wanting. Pasture grounds extend themselves, on the south side
+of the village, covered with fine short grass; but, with the exception
+of some oxen and sheep belonging to the priest, there are no cattle.
+
+[Up the river.] Still without servants, I proceeded with my baggage in
+two small boats up the river, on both sides of which rice-fields and
+coco-groves extended; but the latter, being concealed by a thick border
+of Nipa palms and lofty cane, are only visible occasionally through
+the gaps. The sandy banks, at first flat, became gradually steeper,
+and the rock soon showed itself close at hand, with firm banks of sandy
+clay containing occasional traces of indistinguishable petrifactions. A
+small mussel [167] has pierced the clay banks at the water-line, in
+such number that they look like honeycombs. About twelve we cooked
+our rice in an isolated hut, amongst friendly people. The women whom
+we surprised in dark ragged clothing of guinara drew back ashamed,
+and soon after appeared in clean chequered sayas, with earrings of
+brass and tortoise-shell combs. When I drew a little naked girl, the
+mother forced her to put on a garment. About two we again stepped into
+the boat, and after rowing the whole night reached a small visita,
+Cobocobo, about nine in the forenoon. The rowers had worked without
+interruption for twenty-four hours, exclusive of the two hours'
+rest at noon, and though somewhat tired were in good spirits.
+
+[Salta Sangley ridge.] At half-past two we set out on the road over
+the Salta Sangley (Chinese leap) to Tragbucan, which, distant about a
+mile in a straight line, is situated at the place where the Calbayot,
+which empties on the west coast at Point Hibaton, becomes navigable for
+small boats. By means of these two rivers and the short but troublesome
+road, a communication exists between the important stations of Catarman
+on the north coast, and Calbayot on the west coast. The road, which
+at its best part is a small path in the thick wood uninvaded by the
+sun, and frequently is only a track, passes over slippery ridges of
+clay, disappearing in the mud puddles in the intervening hollows, and
+sometimes running into the bed of the brooks. The watershed between
+the Catarman and Calbayot is formed by the Salta Sangley already
+mentioned, a flat ridge composed of banks of clay and sandstone,
+which succeed one another ladder-wise downwards on both its sides,
+and from which the water collected at the top descends in little
+cascades. In the most difficult places rough ladders of bamboo are
+fixed. I counted fifteen brooks on the north-east side which feed the
+Catarman, and about the same number of feeders of the Calbayot on the
+south-west side. About forty minutes past four we reached the highest
+point of the Salta Sangley, about ninety feet above the sea; and at
+half-past six we got to a stream, the highest part of the Calbayot,
+in the bed of which we wandered until its increasing depth forced us,
+in the dark, laboriously to beat out our path through the underwood
+to its bank; and about eight o'clock we found ourselves opposite the
+visita Tragbucan. The river at this place was already six feet deep,
+and there was not a boat. After shouting entreaties and threats for
+a long time, the people, who were startled out of sleep by a revolver
+shot, agreed to construct a raft of bamboo, on which they put us and
+our baggage. The little place, which consists of only a few poor huts,
+is prettily situated, surrounded as it is by wooded hillocks on a
+plateau of sand fifty feet above the reed-bordered river.
+
+[On the Calbayot River.] Thanks to the activity of the teniente of
+Catarman who accompanied me, a boat was procured without delay, so
+that we were able to continue our journey about seven o'clock. The
+banks were from twenty to forty feet high; and, with the exception of
+the cry of some rhinoceros birds which fluttered from bough to bough
+on the tops of the trees, we neither heard nor saw a trace of animal
+life. About half-past eleven we reached Taibago, a small visita,
+and about half-past one a similar one, Magubay; and after two hours'
+rest at noon, about five o'clock, we got into a current down which
+we skilfully floated, almost without admitting any water. The river,
+which up to this point is thirty feet broad, and on account of many
+projecting branches of trees difficult to navigate, here is twice as
+broad. About eleven at night we reached the sea, and in a complete
+calm rowed for the distance of a league along the coast to Calbayot,
+the convent at which place affords a commanding view of the islands
+lying before it.
+
+A thunderstorm obliged us to postpone the journey to the chief town,
+Catbalogan (or Catbalonga), which was seven leagues distant, until
+the afternoon. In a long boat, formed out of the stem of one tree,
+and furnished with outriggers, we travelled along the shore, which
+is margined by a row of low-wooded hills with many small visitas;
+and as night was setting in we rounded the point of Napalisan,
+a rock of trachytic conglomerate shaped by perpendicular fissures
+with rounded edges into a series of projections like towers,
+which rises up out of the sea to the height of sixty feet, like
+a knight's castle. [Catbalogan.] At night we reached Catbalogan,
+the chief town of the island, with a population of six thousand,
+which is picturesquely situated in the middle of the western border,
+in a little bay surrounded by islands and necks of land, difficult
+to approach and, therefore, little guarded. Not a single vessel was
+anchored in the harbor.
+
+The houses, many of which are of boards, are neater than those
+in Camarines; and the people, though idle, are more modest, more
+honorable, more obliging, and of cleaner habits, than the inhabitants
+of South Luzon. Through the courtesy of the governor I quickly obtained
+a roomy dwelling, and a servant who understood Spanish. [An ingenious
+mechanic.] Here I also met a very intelligent Filipino who had acquired
+great skill in a large variety of crafts. With the simplest tools he
+improved in many points on my instruments and apparatus, the purpose
+of which he quickly comprehended to my entire satisfaction, and gave
+many proofs of considerable intellectual ability.
+
+[The flying monkey.] In Samar the flying monkey or lemur (the kaguang
+of the Bisayans--galeopithecus) is not rare. These animals, which are
+of the size of the domestic cat, belong to the quadrumana; but, like
+the flying squirrels, they are provided with a bird-like membrane,
+which, commencing at the neck, and passing over the fore and hinder
+limbs, reaches to the tail; by means of which they are able to glide
+from one tree to another at a very obtuse angle. [168] Body and
+membrane are clothed with a very short fur, which nearly equals the
+chinchilla in firmness and softness, and is on that account in great
+request. While I was there, six live kaguangs arrived as a present for
+the priest (three light grey, one dark brown, and two greyish brown;
+all with irregularly distributed spots); and from these I secured a
+little female with her young.
+
+[A hasty and unfounded judgment.] It appeared to be a very harmless,
+awkward animal. When liberated from its fetters, it remained lying
+on the ground with all its four limbs stretched out, and its belly
+in contact with the earth, and then hopped in short awkward leaps,
+without thereby raising itself from the ground, to the nearest wall,
+which was of planed boards. Arrived there, it felt about it for a long
+time with the sharp claw, which is bent inwards, of its fore-hand,
+until at length it realized the impossiblity of climbing it at any
+part. It succeeded by means of a corner or an accidental crevice in
+climbing a foot upwards, and fell down again immediately, because it
+had abandoned the comparatively secure footing of its hinder limbs
+before its fore-claws had obtained a firm hold. It received no hurt,
+as the violence of the fall was broken by the flying membrane which
+was rapidly extended. These attempts, which were continued with steady
+perseverance, showed an astonishing deficiency of judgment, the animal
+endeavoring to do much more than was in its power to accomplish. All
+its endeavors, therefore, were unsuccessful, though made without
+doing itself any hurt--thanks to the parachute with which Nature
+had provided it. Had the kaguang not been in the habit of relying
+so entirely on this convenient contrivance, it probably would have
+exercised its judgment to a greater extent, and formed a more correct
+estimate of its ability. The animal repeated its fruitless efforts so
+often that I no longer took any notice of it, and after some time it
+disappeared: but I found it again in a dark corner, under the roof,
+where it would probably have waited for the night in order to continue
+its flight. Evidently it had succeeded in reaching the upper edge of
+the boarded wall by squeezing its body between this and the elastic
+covering of bamboo hurdle-work which lay firmly imposed upon it;
+so that the poor creature, which I had rashly concluded was stupid
+and awkward, had, under the circumstances, manifested the greatest
+possible skill, prudence, and perseverance.
+
+[A promise of rare animals and wild people.] A priest who was
+present on a visit from Calbigan promised me so many wonders in his
+district--abundance of the rarest animals, and Cimarrones uncivilized
+in the highest degree--that I accompanied him, on the following day,
+in his journey home. In an hour after our departure we reached the
+little island of Majava, which consists of perpendicular strata of
+a hard, fine-grained, volcanic tufa, with small, bright crystals of
+hornblende. The island of Buat (on Coello's map) is called by our
+mariners Tubigan. In three hours we reached Umauas, a dependency
+of Calbigan. It is situated, fifty feet above the sea, in a bay,
+before which (as is so often the case on this coast) a row of small
+picturesque islands succeed one another, and is exactly four leagues
+from Catbalogan. But Calbigan, which we reached towards evening, is
+situated two leagues N.N.E. from Umauas, surrounded by rice-fields,
+forty feet above the river of the same name, and almost a league and
+a half from its mouth. A tree with beautiful violet-blue panicles
+of blossoms is especially abundant on the banks of the Calbigan,
+and supplies a most valuable wood for building purposes in the
+Philippines. It is considered equal to teak, like which it belongs
+to the class verbenaceae; and its inland name is [Molave.] molave
+(Vitex geniculata, Blanco).
+
+[Serpent-charmers.] According to the statements of credible men,
+there are serpent-tamers in this country. They are said to pipe the
+serpents out of their holes, directing their movements, and stopping
+and handling them at will, without being injured by them. The most
+famous individual amongst them, however, had been carried off by
+the sea-pirates a short time before; another had run away to the
+Cimarronese in the mountains; and the third, whose reputation did not
+appear to be rightly established, accompanied me on my excursion,
+but did not justify the representations of his friends. He caught
+two poisonous serpents, [169] which we encountered on the road, by
+dexterously seizing them immediately behind the head, so that they were
+incapable of doing harm; and, when he commanded them to lie still,
+he took the precaution of placing his foot on their necks. In the
+chase I hurt my foot so severely against a sharp-pointed branch which
+was concealed by the mud that I was obliged to return to Catbalogan
+without effecting my object. The inhabitants of Calbigan are considered
+more active and circumspect than those on the west coast, and they are
+praised for their honesty. I found them very skilful; and they seemed
+to take an evident pleasure in making collections and preparing plants
+and animals, so that I would gladly have taken with me a servant from
+the place; but they are so reluctant to leave their village that all
+the priest's efforts to induce one to ride with us were fruitless.
+
+[A coral garden.] At a short distance north-west from Catbalogan a most
+luxuriant garden of corals is to be observed in less than two fathoms,
+at the ebb. On a yellow carpet of calcareous polyps and sponges,
+groups of leather-like stalks, finger-thick, lift themselves up like
+stems of vegetable growth; their upper ends thickly covered with polyps
+(Sarcophyton pulmo Esp.), which display their roses of tentacula wide
+open, and resplendent with the most beautiful varying colors, looking,
+in fact, like flowers in full bloom. Very large serpulites extend
+from their calcareous tubes, elegant red, blue, and yellow crowns of
+feelers, and, while little fishes of marvellously gorgeous color dart
+about in this fairy garden, in their midst luxuriantly grow delicate,
+feathered plumulariae.
+
+[Ornamental but useless forts.] Bad weather and the flight of my
+servant, who had gambled away some money with which he had been
+entrusted, at a cock-fight, having detained me some days in the
+chief town, I proceeded up the bay, which extends southwards from
+Catbalogan and from west to east as far as Paranas. Its northern
+shore consists of ridges of earth, regular and of equal height,
+extending from north to south, with gentle slopes towards the west,
+but steep declivities on the east, and terminating abruptly towards
+the sea. Nine little villages are situated on this coast between
+Catbalogan and Paranas. From the hollows, amidst coco and betel
+palms, they expand in isolated groups of houses up the gentle western
+slopes, and, on reaching the summit, terminate in a little castle,
+which hardly affords protection against the pirates, but generally
+forms a pretty feature in the landscape. In front of the southern
+edge of the bay, and to the south-west, many small islands and wooded
+rocks are visible, with the mountains of Leyte in the high-ground,
+constituting an ever-shifting series of views.
+
+[Paranas.] As the men, owing to the sultry heat, the complete calm,
+and almost cloudless sky, slept quite as much as they rowed, we
+did not reach Paranas before the afternoon. It is a clean village,
+situated on a declivity between twenty and a hundred and fifty feet
+above the sea. The sides, which stand perpendicularly in the sea,
+consist of grey banks of clay receding landwards, and overspread
+with a layer of fragments of mussels, the intervals between which
+are filled up with clay, and over the latter is a solid breccia,
+cemented with lime, composed of similar fragments. In the clay banks
+are well-preserved petrifactions, so similar in color, habitat, and
+aspect to many of those in the German tertiary formations that they
+might be taken for them. The breccia also is fossil, probably also
+tertiary; at all events, the identity of the few species which were
+recognisable in it--Cerithium, Pecten, and Venus--with living species
+could not be determined. [170]
+
+[A canal through the bog.] On the following morning I proceeded
+northwards by a small canal, through a stinking bog of rhizophora
+(mangroves), and then continued my journey on land to Loquilocun,
+a little village which is situated in the forest. Half-way we passed
+through a river, twenty feet broad, flowing east to west, with steep
+banks rendered accessible by ladders.
+
+[Hammock-travelling.] As I still continued lame (wounds in the feet are
+difficult to heal in warm countries), I caused myself to be carried
+part of the way in the manner which is customary hereabouts. The
+traveller lies on a loose mat, which is fastened to a bamboo frame,
+borne on the shoulders of four robust polistas. About every ten
+minutes the bearers are relieved by others. As a protection against
+sun and rain, the frame is furnished with a light roof of pandanus.
+
+[Poor roads.] The roads were pretty nearly as bad as those at the
+Salta Sangley; and, with the exception of the sea-shore, which is
+sometimes available, there appear to be none better in Samar. After
+three hours we reached the Loquilocun, which, coming from the north,
+here touches its most southerly point, and then flows south-east to
+the great ocean. Through the kind care of the governor, I found two
+small boats ready, which were propelled with wonderful dexterity by
+two men squatted at the extreme ends, and [Running the rapids.] glided
+between the branches of the trees and rocks into the bed of the rapid
+mountain torrent. Amidst loud cheers both the boats glided down a
+cascade of a foot and a half in height without shipping any water.
+
+[Loquilocun.] The little village of Loquilocun consists of three
+groups of houses on three hillocks. The inhabitants were very friendly,
+modest, and obliging, and so successful in collecting that the spirits
+of wine which I had with me was quickly consumed. In Catbalogan
+my messengers were able with difficulty to procure a few small
+flasks. Through the awkward arrangements of a too obliging friend,
+my own stores, having been sent to a wrong address, did not reach
+me until some months afterwards; and the palm-wine, which was to be
+bought in Samar, was too weak. One or two boats went out daily to fish
+for me; but I obtained only a few specimens, which belonged to almost
+as many species and genera. Probably the bad custom of poisoning the
+water in order to kill the fish (the pounded fruit of a Barringtonia
+here being employed for the purpose) is the cause of the river being
+so empty of fish.
+
+[Numerous small streams.] After a few days we left the little place
+about half-past nine in the forenoon, packed closely in two small
+boats; and, by seven minutes past one when we reached an inhabited
+hut in the forest, we had descended more than forty streams of a
+foot and a foot and a half and more in depth. The more important of
+them have names which are correctly given on Coello's map; and the
+following are their distances by the watch:--At ten o'clock we came
+to a narrow, rocky chasm, at the extremity of which the water falls
+several feet below into a large basin; and here we unloaded the boats,
+which hitherto had, under skilful management, wound their way, like
+well-trained horses, between all the impediments in the bed of the
+river and over all the cascades and waves, almost without taking any
+water; only two men remaining in each boat, who, loudly cheering,
+shot downwards; in doing which the boats were filled to the brim.
+
+[Jasper and Coal.] Opposite this waterfall a bank of rubbish had been
+formed by the alluvium, in which, besides fragments of the subjacent
+rock, were found well-rounded pieces of jasper and porphyry, as well
+as some bits of coal containing several pyrites, which had probably
+been brought during the rain from higher up the river. Its origin was
+unknown to the sailors. From fifty-six minutes past eleven to twelve
+o'clock there was an uninterrupted succession of rapids, which were
+passed with the greatest dexterity, without taking in water. Somewhat
+lower down, at about three minutes past twelve, we took in so much
+water that we were compelled to land and bale it out. At about fifteen
+minutes past twelve, we proceeded onwards, the river now being on
+the average sixty feet broad. On the edge of the wood some slender
+palms, hardly ten feet high, were remarkable by their frequency,
+and many phalaenopses by their display of blossoms, which is of
+rare occurrence. Neither birds nor apes, nor serpents were observed;
+but large pythons, as thick as one's leg are said to be not unfrequent.
+
+[Big pythons.] About thirty-six minutes past twelve we reached one
+of the most difficult places--a succession of waves, with many rocks
+projecting out of the water, between which the boats, now in full
+career, and with rapid evolutions, glided successfully. The adventure
+was accomplished with equal skill by the two crews, who exerted their
+powers to the utmost. At seventeen minutes past one we arrived at
+[Dini portage.] Dini, the most considerable waterfall in the whole
+distance; and here we had to take the boats out of the water; and,
+availing ourselves of the lianas which hung down from the lofty forest
+trees like ropes, we dragged them over the rocks. At twenty-one minutes
+past two we resumed our journey; and from twenty-two minutes past to
+half past eight we descended an irregular stair composed of several
+ledges, shipping much water. Up to this point the Loquilocun flowed in
+a rocky bed, with (for the most part) steep banks, and sometimes for
+a long distance under a thick canopy of boughs, from which powerful
+tendrils and ferns, more than a fathom in length, were suspended. Here
+the country was to some extent open; flat hillocks, with low underwood,
+came to view, and, on the north-west, loftier wooded mountains. The
+last two hours were notable for a heavy fall of rain, and, about half
+past five, we reached a solitary house occupied by friendly people,
+where we took up our quarters for the night.
+
+[Down the river.] On the following morning the journey was continued
+down the river. Within ten minutes we glided past the last waterfall,
+between white calcareous rocks of a kind of marble, covered with
+magnificent vegetation. Branches, completely covered with phalaenopses
+(P. Aphrodite, Reichb. fls.), projected over the river, their flowers
+waving like large gorgeous butterflies over its foaming current. Two
+hours later the stream became two hundred feet broad, and, after
+leaping down a ladder of fifty meters in height from Loquilocun,
+it steals away in gentle windings through a flat inundated country
+to the east coast; forming a broad estuary, on the right bank of
+which, half a league from the sea, the district of Jubasan or Paric
+(population 2,300) is situated. The latter give their names to the
+lower portion of the stream. Here the excellent fellows of Loquilocun
+left me in order to begin their very arduous return journey.
+
+[Along the coast.] Owing to bad weather, I could not embark for Tubig
+(population 2,858), south of Paric, before the following day; and,
+being continually hindered by difficulties of land transit, I proceeded
+in the rowboat along the coast to Borongan (population 7,685), with
+the equally intelligent and obliging priest with whom I remained
+some days, and then continued my journey to Guiuan (also Guiuang,
+Guiguan), the most important district in Samar (population 10,781),
+situated on a small neck of land which projects from the south-east
+point of the island into the sea.
+
+[A tideland spring.] Close to the shore at the latter place
+a copious spring bursts out of five or six openings, smelling
+slightly of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is covered by the sea during
+the flow, but is open during the ebb, when its salt taste is hardly
+perceptible. In order to test the water, a well was formed by sinking
+a deep bottomless jar, and from this, after the water had flowed for
+the space of half an hour, a sample was taken, which, to my regret,
+was afterwards lost. The temperature of the water of the spring, at
+eight o'clock in the forenoon, was 27.7°; of the atmosphere, 28.7°;
+of the sea-water, 31.2°C. The spring is used by the women to dye
+their sarongs. The materials, after being steeped in the decoction
+of a bark abounding in tannin (materials made of the abacá are first
+soaked in a calcareous preparation), and dried in the sun, are placed
+in the spring during the ebb, taken out during the flow, re-dried,
+dipped in the decoction of bark, and again, while wet, placed in the
+spring; and this is repeated for the space of three days; when the
+result is a durable, but ugly inky black (gallussaures, oxide of iron).
+
+[East Indian monkeys.] At Loquilocun and Borongan I had an opportunity
+of purchasing two live macaques. [171] These extremely delicate
+and rare little animals, which belong to the class of semi-apes,
+are, as I was assured in Luzon and Leyte, to be found only in
+Samar, and live exclusively on charcoal. My first "mago" was, in the
+beginning, somewhat voracious, but he disdained vegetable food, and was
+particular in his choice of insects, devouring live grasshoppers with
+delight. [172] It was extremely ludicrous, when he was fed in the day
+time, to see the animal standing, perched up perpendicularly on his two
+thin legs with his bare tail, and turning his large head--round as a
+ball, and with very large, yellow, owl-like eyes--in every direction,
+looking like a dark lantern on a pedestal with a circular swivel. Only
+gradually did he succeed in fixing his eyes on the object presented
+to him; but, as soon as he did perceive it, he immediately extended
+his little arms sideways, as though somewhat bashful, and then, like
+a delighted child, suddenly seizing it with hand and mouth at once,
+he deliberately tore the prey to pieces. During the day the mago
+was sleepy, short-sighted, and, when disturbed, morose; but with
+the decreasing daylight he expanded his pupils, and moved about in
+a lively and agile manner, with rapid noiseless leaps, generally
+sideways. He soon became tame, but to my regret died after a few
+weeks; and I succeeded only for a short time in keeping the second
+little animal alive.
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+
+[Pearl divers from the Carolines.] In Guiuan I was visited by some
+Micronesians, who for the last fourteen days had been engaged at
+Sulangan on the small neck of land south-east from Guiuan, in diving
+for pearl mussels (mother-of-pearl), having undertaken the dangerous
+journey for the express purpose. [173]
+
+[Hardships and perils of their voyage.] They had sailed from Uleai
+(Uliai, 7° 20' N., 143°57' E. Gr.) in five boats, each of which had a
+crew of nine men and carried forty gourds full of water, with coconuts
+and batata. Every man received one coconut daily, and two batatas,
+which they baked in the ashes of the coco shells; and they caught
+some fish on the way, and collected a little rain-water. During
+the day they directed their course by the sun, and at night by
+the stars. A storm destroyed the boats. Two of them sank, together
+with their crews, before the eyes of their companions, and of these,
+only one--probably the sole individual rescued--two weeks afterwards
+reached the harbor of Tandag, on the east coast of Mindanao. The
+party remained at Tandag two weeks, working in the fields for hire,
+and then proceeded northwards along the coast to Cantilang, 8° 25' N.;
+Banouan (called erroneously Bancuan by Coello), 9° 1' N.; Taganaan, 9°
+25' N.; thence to Surigao, on the north point of Mindanao; and then,
+with an easterly wind, in two days, direct to Guiuan. In the German
+translation of Captain Salmon's "History of the Oriental Islands"
+(Altona, 1733), it is stated that:
+
+[Castaways from the Pelews.] "Some other islands on the east of
+the Philippines have lately been discovered which have received
+the name of the New Philippines because they are situated in the
+neighborhood of the old, which have been already described. Father Clan
+(Clain), in a letter from Manila, which has been incorporated in the
+'Philosophical Transactions,' makes the following statement respecting
+them:--It happened that when he was in the town of Guivam, on the
+island of Samar, he met twenty-nine Palaos (there had been thirty,
+but one died soon after in Guiuan), or natives of certain recently
+discovered islands, who had been driven thither by the east winds,
+which prevail from December to May. According to their own statement,
+they were driven about by the winds for seventy days, without getting
+sight of land, until they arrived opposite to Guivam. When they
+sailed from their own country, their two boats were quite full,
+carrying thirty-five souls, including their wives and children;
+but several had died miserably on the way from the fatigue which
+they had undergone. When some one from Guivam wished to go on board
+to them, they were thrown into such a state of terror that all who
+were in one of the boats sprang overboard, along with their wives
+and children. However, they at last thought it best to come into
+the harbor; so they came ashore on December 28, 1696. They fed on
+coconuts and roots, which were charitably supplied to them, but
+refused even to taste cooked rice, which is the general food of the
+Asiatic nations. [Previous castaways.] Two women who had previously
+been cast away on the same islands acted as interpreters for them....
+
+[Lived by sea-fishing and rain water.] "The people of the country
+went half naked, and the men painted their bodies with spots and
+all kinds of devices.... As long as they were on the sea they lived
+on fish, which they caught in a certain kind of fish-basket, with a
+wide mouth but tapering to a point at the bottom, which was dragged
+along underneath the boats; and rain-water, when they could catch it
+(or, as is stated in the letter itself, preserved in the shells of the
+coconut), served them for drink. When they were about to be taken into
+the presence of the Father, whom, from the great respect which was
+shown to him, they took for the governor, they colored their bodies
+entirely yellow, an operation which they considered highly important,
+as enabling them to appear as persons of consideration. They are very
+skilful divers, and now and then find pearls in the mussels which
+they bring up, which, however, they throw away as useless things."
+
+[Not the first time for one.] But one of the most important parts of
+Father Clain's letter has been omitted by Capt. Salmon:--"The oldest
+of these strangers had once before been cast away on the coast of
+the province of Caragan, on one of our islands (Mindanao); but as he
+found only heathens (infidels), who lived in the mountains or on the
+desert shore, he returned to his own country."
+
+[Yap camotes from Philippines.] In a letter from Father Cantova to
+Father d'Aubenton, dated from Agdana (i.e. Agaña, of the Marianne
+Islands), March 20, 1722, describing the Caroline and Pelew Islands,
+it is said:--"The fourth district lies to the west. Yap (9° 25' N.,
+138° 1' E. Gr.), [174] which is the principal island, is more than
+forty leagues in circumference. Besides the different roots which
+are used by the natives of the island instead of bread, there is the
+batata, which they call camote, and which they have acquired from
+the Philippines, as I was informed by one of our Caroline Indians,
+who is a native of the island. He states that his father, named
+Coorr, ... three of his brothers, and himself had been cast away in
+a storm on one of the provinces in the Philippines, which was called
+Bisayas; that a missionary of our society (Jesus) received them in a
+friendly manner ... that on returning to their own island they took
+with them the seeds of different plants, amongst others the [Other
+arrivals of Micronesians.] batata, which multiplied so fast that they
+had sufficient to supply the other islands of the Archipelago with
+them." Murillo Velarde states that in 1708 some Palaos were wrecked
+in a storm on Palapag (north coast of Samar); and I personally had
+the opportunity, in Manila, of photographing a company of Palaos and
+Caroline islanders, who had been the year before cast on the coast of
+Samar by foul weather. Apart from the question of their transport,
+whether voluntary or not, these simply were six examples, such
+as still occur occasionally, of Micronesians cast up on the shore
+of the Philippines; and probably it would not be difficult to find
+several more; but how often, both before and after the arrival of the
+Spaniards, might not vessels from those islands have come within the
+influence of the north-east storms, and been driven violently on the
+east coast of the Philippines without any record of such facts being
+preserved? [175] Even as, on the west side of the Archipelago, the
+type of the race seems to have been modified by its long intercourse
+with China, Japan, Lower India, and later with Europe, so likewise may
+Polynesian [Possible influence on Filipinos.] influences have operated
+in a similar manner on the east side; and the further circumstance
+that the inhabitants of the Ladrones [176] and the Bisayans [177]
+possess the art of coloring their teeth black, seems to point to
+early intercourse between the Bisayans and the Polynesians. [178]
+
+[A futile sea voyage in an open boat.] At Guiuan I embarked on board
+an inconveniently cranky, open boat, which was provided with an awning
+only three feet square, for Tacloban, the chief town of Leyte. After
+first experiencing an uninterrupted calm, we incurred great danger
+in a sudden tempest, so that we had to retrace the whole distance
+by means of the oars. The passage was very laborious for the crew,
+who were not protected by an awning (temperature in the sun 35° R.,
+of the water 25° R. [179]), and lasted thirty-one hours, with few
+intermissions; the party voluntarily abridging their intervals of rest
+in order to get back quickly to Tacloban, which keeps up an active
+intercourse with Manila, and has all the attractions of a luxurious
+city for the men living on the inhospitable eastern coast. [Beauty
+of Samar-Leyte strait.]  It is questionable whether the sea anywhere
+washes over a spot of such peculiar beauty as the narrow strait which
+divides Samar from Leyte. On the west it is enclosed by steep banks
+of tuff, which tolerate no swamps of mangroves on their borders. There
+the lofty primeval forest approaches in all its sublimity close to the
+shore, interrupted only here and there by groves of cocos, in whose
+sharply defined shadows solitary huts are to be found; and the steep
+hills facing the sea, and numerous small rocky islands, are crowned
+with little castles of blocks of coral. At the eastern entrance of
+the strait the south coast of Samar consists of white limestone,
+like marble, but of quite modern date, which in many places forms
+precipitous cliffs. [180] At Nipa-Nipa, a small hamlet two leagues from
+Basey, they project into the sea in a succession of picturesque rocks,
+above one hundred feet in height, which, rounded above like a dome,
+thickly covered with vegetation, and corroded at the base by the waters
+of the sea, rise out of the waves like gigantic mushrooms. A peculiar
+atmosphere of enchantment pervades this locality, whose influence upon
+the native mariner must be all the more powerful when, fortunately
+escaping from the billows outside and the buffeting of the north-east
+wind, he suddenly enters this tranquil place of refuge. No wonder
+that superstitious imagination has peopled the place with spirits.
+
+[Burial caves.] In the caverns of these rocks the ancient Pintados
+interred the corpses of their heroes and ancestors in well-locked
+coffins, surrounded by those objects which had been held in the highest
+regard by them during life. Slaves were also sacrificed by them at
+their obsequies, in order that they might not be without attendance
+in the world of shadows; [181] and the numerous coffins, implements,
+arms, and trinkets, protected by superstitious terrors, continued to
+be undisturbed for centuries. No boat ventured to cross over without
+the observance of a religious ceremony, derived from heathen times,
+to propitiate the spirits of the caverns who were believed to punish
+the omission of it with storm and ship-wreck.
+
+[Objects destroyed but superstition persists.] About thirty years ago
+a zealous young ecclesiastic, to whom these heathen practices were an
+abomination, determined to extirpate them by the roots. With several
+boats well equipped with crosses, banners, pictures of saints, and
+all the approved machinery for driving out the Devil, he undertook
+the expedition against the haunted rocks, which were climbed amidst
+the sounds of music, prayers, and the reports of fireworks. A whole
+pailful of holy water first having been thrown into the cave for the
+purpose of confounding the evil spirits, the intrepid priest rushed
+in with elevated cross, and was followed by his faithful companions,
+who were fired with his example. A brilliant victory was the reward
+of the well-contrived and carefully executed plot. The coffins were
+broken to fragments, the vessels dashed to pieces, and the skeletons
+thrown into the sea; and the remaining caverns were stormed with like
+results. The objects of superstition have indeed been annihilated,
+but the superstition itself survives to the present day.
+
+[Skulls from a rock near Basey.] I subsequently learned from the
+priest at Basey that there were still some remains on a rock, and
+a few days afterwards the worthy man surprised me with several
+skulls and a child's coffin, which he had had brought from the
+place. Notwithstanding the great respect in which he was held by his
+flock, he had to exert all his powers of persuasion to induce the
+boldest of them to engage in so daring an enterprise. A boat manned
+by sixteen rowers was fitted out for the purpose; with a smaller crew
+they would not have ventured to undertake the journey. On their return
+home a thunderstorm broke over them, and the sailors, believing it to
+be a punishment for their outrage, were prevented only by the fear
+of making the matter worse from throwing coffin and skulls into the
+sea. Fortunately the land was near, and they rowed with all their
+might towards it; and, when they arrived, I was obliged to take the
+objects out of the boat myself, as no native would touch them.
+
+[The cavern's contents.] Notwithstanding, I was the next morning
+successful in finding some resolute individuals who accompanied
+me to the caverns. In the first two which we examined we found
+nothing; the third contained several broken coffins, some skulls,
+and potsherds of glazed and crudely painted earthenware, of which,
+however, it was impossible to find two pieces that belonged to each
+other. A narrow hole led from the large cavern into an obscure space,
+which was so small that one could remain in it only for a few seconds
+with the burning torch. This circumstance may explain the discovery,
+in a coffin which was eaten to pieces by worms, and quite mouldered
+away, of a well-preserved skeleton, or rather a mummy, for in many
+places there were carcasses clothed with dry fibers of muscle and
+skin. It lay upon a mat of pandanus, which was yet recognizable, with
+a cushion under the head stuffed with plants, and covered with matting
+of pandanus. There were no other remains of woven material. The coffins
+were of three shapes and without any ornament. Those of the first form,
+which were of excellent molave-wood, showed no trace of worm-holes or
+decay, whereas the others had entirely fallen to dust; and those of
+the third kind, which were most numerous, were distinguishable from
+the first only by a less curved form and inferior material.
+
+[Impressive location of burial cave.] No legend could have supplied
+an enchanted royal sepulchre with a more suitable approach than that
+of the last of these caverns. The rock rises out of the sea with
+perpendicular sides of marble, and only in one spot is to be observed
+a natural opening made by the water, hardly two feet high, through
+which the boat passed at once into a spacious court, almost circular,
+and over-arched by the sky, the floor of which was covered by the sea,
+and adorned with a garden of corals. The steep sides are thickly hung
+with lianas, ferns, and orchids, by help of which one climbs upwards
+to the cavern, sixty feet above the surface of the water. To add to
+the singularity of the situation, we also found at the entrance to
+the grotto, on a large block of rock projecting two feet above the
+ground, [A sea snake.] a sea-snake, which tranquilly gazed at us,
+but which had to be killed, because, like all genuine sea-snakes,
+it was poisonous. Twice before I had found the same species in
+crevices of rock on the dry land, where the ebb might have left it;
+but it was strange to meet with it in this place, at such a height
+above the sea. It now reposes, as Platurus fasciatus Daud., in the
+Zoological Museum of the Berlin University.
+
+[Chinese dishers from a cave.] In Guiuan I had an opportunity of
+purchasing four richly painted Chinese dishes which came from a
+similar cavern, and a gold signet ring; the latter consisting of a
+plate of gold, originally bent into a tube of the thickness of a quill
+with a gaping seam, and afterwards into a ring as large as a thaler,
+which did not quite meet. The dishes were stolen from me at Manila.
+
+[Burial caves.] There are similar caverns which have been used
+as burial-places in many other localities in this country; on the
+island of Andog, in Borongan (a short time ago it contained skulls);
+also at Batinguitan, three hours from Borongan, on the banks of a
+little brook; and in Guiuan, on the little island of Monhon, which is
+difficult of approach by reason of the boisterous sea. In Catubig
+trinkets of gold have been found, but they have been converted
+into modern articles of adornment. One cavern at Lauang, however,
+is famous over the whole country on account of the gigantic, flat,
+compressed skulls, without sutures, which have been found in it.
+[182] It will not be uninteresting to compare the particulars here
+described with the statements of older authors; and for this reason
+I submit the following extracts:--
+
+[Embalming.] Mas (Informe, i. 21), who does not give the sources of
+his information, thus describes the customs of the ancient inhabitants
+of the archipelago at their interments:--They sometimes embalmed
+their dead with aromatic substances * * * and placed those who were
+of note in chests carved out of a branch of a tree, and furnished
+with well-fitted lids * * * The coffin was placed, in accordance with
+the wish of the deceased, expressed before his death, either in the
+uppermost room of the house, where articles of value were secreted,
+or under the dwelling-house, in a kind of grave, which was not
+covered, but enclosed with a railing; or in a distant field, or on
+an elevated place or rock on the bank of a river, where he might be
+venerated by the pious. A watch was set over it for a certain time,
+lest boats should cross over, and the dead person should drag the
+living after him.
+
+[Burial customs.] According to Gaspar San Agustín (p. 169), the
+dead were rolled up in cloths, and placed in clumsy chests, carved
+out of a block of wood, and buried under their houses, together with
+their jewels, gold rings, and some plates of gold over the mouth and
+eyes, and furnished with provisions, cups, and dishes. They were also
+accustomed to bury slaves along with men of note, in order that they
+might be attended in the other world.
+
+"Their chief idolatry consisted in the worship of those of their
+ancestors who had most distinguished themselves by courage and genius,
+whom they regarded as deities * * * * They called them humalagar,
+which is the same as manes in the Latin * * * Even the aged died under
+this conceit, choosing particular places, such as one on the island of
+Leyte, which allowed of their being interred at the edge of the sea,
+in order that the mariners who crossed over might acknowledge them
+as deities, and pay them respect." (Thévenot, Religieux, p. 2.)
+
+[Slaves sacrificed.] "They did not place them (the dead) in the earth,
+but in coffins of very hard, indestructible wood * * * Male and female
+slaves were sacrificed to them, that they should not be unattended
+in the other world. If a person of consideration died, silence was
+imposed upon the whole of the people, and its duration was regulated
+by the rank of the deceased; and under certain circumstances it was
+not discontinued until his relations had killed many other persons
+to appease the spirit of the dead." (Ibid., p. 7.)
+
+"For this reason (to be worshipped as deities) the oldest of them
+chose some remarkable spot in the mountains, and particularly on
+headlands projecting into the sea, in order to be worshipped by the
+sailors." (Gemelli Careri, p. 449.)
+
+[Basey and its river.] From Tacloban, which I chose for my headquarters
+on account of its convenient tribunal, and because it is well supplied
+with provisions, I returned on the following day to Samar, and then
+to Basey, which is opposite to Tacloban. The people of Basey are
+notorious over all Samar for their laziness and their stupidity, but
+are advantageously distinguished from the inhabitants of Tacloban by
+their purity of manners. Basey is situated on the delta of the river,
+which is named after it. We proceeded up a small arm of the principal
+stream, which winds, with a very slight fall, through the plain;
+the brackish water, and the fringe of nipa-palms which accompanies
+it, consequently extending several leagues into the country. Coco
+plantations stretch behind them; and there the floods of water
+(avenidas), which sometimes take place in consequence of the narrow
+rocky bed of the upper part of the river, cause great devastation,
+as was evident from the mutilated palms which, torn away from their
+standing-place, rise up out of the middle of the river. After five
+hours' rowing we passed out of the flat country into a narrow valley,
+with steep sides of marble, which progressively closed in and became
+higher. In several places they are underwashed, cleft, and hurled over
+each other, and with their naked side-walls form a beautiful contrast
+to the blue sky, the clear, greenish river, and the luxuriant lianas,
+which, attaching themselves to every inequality to which they could
+cling, hung in long garlands over the rocks.
+
+[A frontage.] The stream became so rapid and so shallow that the party
+disembarked and dragged the boat over the stony bed. In this manner
+we passed through a sharp curve, twelve feet in height, formed by two
+rocks thrown opposite to each other, into a tranquil oval-shaped basin
+of water enclosed in a circle of limestone walls, inclining inwards,
+of from sixty to seventy feet in height; on the upper edge of which a
+circle of trees permitted only a misty sunlight to glimmer through the
+thick foliage. A magnificent gateway of rock, fifty to sixty feet high,
+and adorned with numerous stalactites, raised itself up opposite the
+low entrance; and through it we could see, at some distance, the upper
+portion of the river bathed in the sun. [A beautiful grotto.] A cavern
+of a hundred feet in length, and easily climbed, opened itself in the
+left side of the oval court, some sixty feet above the surface of the
+water; and it ended in a small gateway, through which you stepped on
+to a projection like a balcony, studded with stalactites. From this
+point both the landscape and the rocky cauldron are visible, and
+the latter is seen to be the remainder of a stalactitic cavern, the
+roof of which has fallen in. The beauty and peculiar character of the
+place have been felt even by the natives, who have called it Sogoton
+(properly, a bay in the sea). In the very hard limestone, which is
+like marble, I observed traces of bivalves and multitudes of spines of
+the sea-urchin, but no well-defined remains could be knocked off. The
+river could still be followed a short distance further upwards; and in
+its bed there were disjointed fragments of talcose and chloritic rocks.
+
+[Fishing.] A few small fishes were obtained with much difficulty;
+and amongst them was a new and interesting species, viviparous. [183]
+An allied species (H. fluviatilis, Bleeker) which I had two years
+previously found in a limestone cavern on Nusa Kambangan, in Java,
+likewise contained living young ones. The net employed in fishing
+appears to be suited to the locality, which is a shallow river, full of
+transparent blocks. It is a fine-meshed, longish, four-cornered net,
+having its ample sides fastened to two poles of bamboo, which at the
+bottom were provided with a kind of wooden shoes, which curve upwards
+towards the stems when pushed forwards. The fisherman, taking hold of
+the upper ends of the poles, pushes the net, which is held obliquely
+before him, and the wooden shoes cause it to slide over the stones,
+while another person drives the fish towards him.
+
+[Fossil beds.] On the right bank, below the cavern, and twenty
+feet above the surface of the water, there are beds of fossils,
+pectunculus, tapes, and placuna, some of which, from the fact of
+their barely adhering by the tip, must be of very recent date. I
+passed the night in a small hut, which was quickly erected for me,
+and on the following day attempted to pass up the river as far as the
+limits of the crystalline rock, but in vain. In the afternoon we set
+out on our return to Basey, which we reached at night.
+
+[Recent elevation of coast.] Basey is situated on a bank of clay,
+about fifty feet above the sea, which towards the west elevates itself
+into a hill several hundred feet in height, and with steep sides. At
+twenty-five to thirty feet above the sea I found the same recent beds
+of mussels as in the stalactitic cavern of Sogoton. From the statements
+of the parish priest and of other persons, a rapid elevation of the
+coasts seems to be taking place in this country. Thirty years ago
+ships could lie alongside the land in three fathoms of water at the
+flood, whereas the depth at the same place now is not much more than
+one fathom. Immediately opposite to Basey lie two small islands,
+Genamok and Tapontonan, which, at the present time, appear to be
+surrounded by a sandbank at the lowest ebb-tide. Twenty years ago
+nothing of the kind was to be seen. Supposing these particulars to
+be correct, we must next ascertain what proportion of these changes
+of level is due to the floods, and how much to volcanic elevation;
+which, if we may judge by the neighboring active solfatara at Leyte,
+must always be of considerable amount.
+
+[Crocodiles.] As the priest assured us, there are crocodiles in the
+river Basey over thirty feet in length, those in excess of twenty
+feet being numerous. The obliging father promised me one of at least
+twenty-four feet, whose skeleton I would gladly have secured; and he
+sent out some men who are so practised in the capture of these animals
+that they are dispatched to distant places for the purpose. Their
+contrivance for capturing them, which I, however, never personally
+witnessed, consists of a light raft of bamboo, with a stage, on which,
+several feet above the water, a dog or a cat is bound. Alongside
+the animal is placed a strong iron hook, which is fastened to the
+swimming bamboo by means of fibers of abacá. The crocodile, when
+it has swallowed the bait and the hook at the same time, endeavors
+in vain to get away, for the pliability of the raft prevents its
+being torn to pieces, and the peculiar elasticity of the bundle of
+fibers prevents its being bitten through. The raft serves likewise
+as a buoy for the captured animal. According to the statements of
+the hunters, the large crocodiles live far from human habitations,
+generally selecting the close vegetation in an oozy swamp, in which
+their bellies, dragging heavily along, leave trails behind them which
+betray them to the initiated. After a week the priest mentioned that
+his party had sent in three crocodiles, the largest of which, however,
+measured only eighteen feet, but that he had not kept one for me,
+as he hoped to obtain one of thirty feet. His expectation, however,
+was not fulfilled.
+
+[Ignatius bean.] In the environs of Basey the Ignatius bean grows
+in remarkable abundance, as it also does in the south of Samar and
+in some other of the Bisayan islands. It is not met with in Luzon,
+but it is very likely that I have introduced it there unwittingly. Its
+sphere of propagation is very limited; and my attempts to transplant
+it to the Botanical Garden of Buitenzorg were fruitless. Some large
+plants intended for that purpose, which during my absence arrived
+for me at Daraga, were incorporated by one of my patrons into his
+own garden; and some, which were collected by himself and brought
+to Manila, were afterwards lost. Every effort to get these seeds
+(kernels), which are used over the whole of Eastern Asia as medicine,
+to germinate miscarried, they having been boiled before transmission,
+ostensibly for their preservation, but most probably to secure the
+monopoly of them.
+
+[Strychnine.] According to Flueckinger, [184] the gourd-shaped
+berry of the climbing shrub (Ignatia amara, L. Strychnos Ignatii,
+Berg. Ignatiana Philippinica. Lour.) contains twenty-four irregular
+egg-shaped seeds of the size of an inch which, however, are not so
+poisonous as the Ignatius beans, which taste like crack-nuts. In
+these seeds strychnine was found by Pelletier and Caventou in 1818,
+as it subsequently was in crack-nuts. The former contained twice as
+much of it as the latter, viz. one and a half per cent; but, as they
+are four times as dear, it is only produced from the latter.
+
+[Cholera and snake-bite cure.] In many households in the Philippines
+the dangerous drug is to be found as a highly prized remedy, under the
+name of Pepita de Catbalonga. Gemelli Careri mentions it, and quotes
+thirteen different uses of it. Dr. Rosenthal ("Synopsis Plantarum
+Diaphor." p. 363) says:--"In India it has been employed as a remedy
+against cholera under the name of Papecta." Papecta is probably a
+clerical error. In K. Lall Dey's "Indigenous Drugs of India," it is
+called Papeeta, which is pronounced Pepita in English; and Pepita is
+the Spanish word for the kernel of a fruit. It is also held in high
+estimation as an antidote for the bite of serpents. Father Blanco
+("Flora of the Philippines," 61), states that he has more than once
+proved its efficacy in this respect in his own person; but he cautions
+against its employment internally, as it had been fatal in very many
+cases. It should not be taken into the mouth, for should the spittle
+be swallowed, and vomiting not ensue, death would be inevitable. The
+parish priest of Tabaco, however, almost always carried a pepita in
+his mouth. From 1842 he began occasionally to take an Ignatius bean
+into his mouth as a protection against cholera, and so gradually
+accustomed himself to it. When I met him in 1860 he was quite well,
+and ascribed his health and vigor expressly to that habit. According to
+his communication, in cases of cholera the decoction was successfully
+administered in small doses introduced into tea; but it was most
+efficacious when, mixed with brandy, it was applied as a liniment.
+
+[Superstitions regarding the "Bisayan" bean.] Huc also ("Thibet,"
+I. 252) commends the expressed juice of the kouo-kouo (Faba
+Ign. amar.) both for internal and external use, and remarks that it
+plays a great part in Chinese medicine, no apothecary's shop being
+without it. Formerly the poisonous drug was considered a charm, as
+it is still by many. Father Camel [185] states that the Catbalogan
+or Bisayan-bean, which the Indians call Igasur or Mananaog (the
+victorious), was generally worn as an amulet round the neck, being
+a preservative against poison, contagion, magic, and philtres, so
+potent, indeed, that the Devil in propia persona could not harm the
+wearer. Especially efficacious is it against a poison communicated by
+breathing upon one, for not only does it protect the wearer, but it
+kills the individual who wishes to poison him. Camel further mentions
+a series of miracles which superstition ascribed to the Ignatius bean.
+
+[Coconuts.] On the southern half of the eastern border, on the shore
+from Borongan by Lauang as far as Guiuan, there are considerable
+plantations of cocos, which are most imperfectly applied to the
+production of oil. From Borongan and its visitas twelve thousand
+pitchers of coconut oil are yearly exported to Manila, and the nuts
+consumed by men and pigs would suffice for at least eight thousand
+pitchers. As a thousand nuts yield eight pitchers and a half, the
+vicinity of Borongan alone yields annually six million nuts; for
+which, assuming the average produce at fifty nuts, one hundred-twenty
+thousand fullbearing palms are required. The statement that their
+number in the above-mentioned district amounts to several millions
+must be an exaggeration.
+
+[Getting coco oil.] The oil is obtained in a very rude manner. The
+kernel is rasped out of the woody shell of the nut on rough boards,
+and left to rot; and a few boats in a state of decay, elevated on posts
+in the open air, serve as reservoirs, the oil dropping through their
+crevices into pitchers placed underneath; and finally the boards are
+subjected to pressure. This operation, which requires several months
+for its completion, yields such a bad, dark-brown, and viscid product
+that the pitcher fetches only two dollars and a quarter in Manila,
+while a superior oil costs six dollars. [186]
+
+[Oil factory.] Recently a young Spaniard has erected a factory
+in Borongan for the better preparation of oil. A winch, turned by
+two carabaos, sets a number of rasps in motion by means of toothed
+wheels and leather straps. They are somewhat like a gimlet in form,
+and consist of five iron plates, with dentated edges, which are
+placed radiating on the end of an iron rod, and close together,
+forming a blunt point towards the front. The other end of the rod
+passes through the center of a disk, which communicates the rotary
+motion to it, and projects beyond it. The workman, taking a divided
+coconut in his two hands, holds its interior arch, which contains the
+oil-bearing nut, with a firm pressure against the revolving rasp, at
+the same time urging with his breast, which is protected by a padded
+board, against the projecting end of the rod. The fine shreds of the
+nut remain for twelve hours in flat pans, in order that they may be
+partially decomposed. They are then lightly pressed in hand-presses;
+and the liquor, which consists of one-third oil and two-thirds water,
+is caught in tubs, from which, at the end of six hours, the oil,
+floating on the surface, is skimmed off. It is then heated in iron
+pans, containing 100 liters, until the whole of the water in it has
+evaporated, which takes from two to three hours. In order that the
+oil may cool rapidly, and not become dark in color, two pailfuls of
+cold oil, freed from water, are poured into it, and the fire quickly
+removed to a distance. The compressed shreds are once more exposed
+to the atmosphere, and then subjected to a powerful pressure. After
+these two operations have been twice repeated, the rasped substance
+is suspended in sacks between two strong vertical boards and crushed
+to the utmost by means of clamp screws, and repeatedly shaken up. The
+refuse serves as food for pigs. The oil which runs from the sacks is
+free from water, and is consequently very clear, and is employed in
+the cooling of that which is obtained in the first instance. [187]
+
+[Limited output.] The factory produces fifteen hundred tinajas of
+oil. It is in operation only nine months in the year; from December to
+February the transport of nuts being prevented by the tempestuous seas,
+there being no land communication. The manufacturer was not successful
+in procuring nuts from the immediate vicinity in sufficient quantity
+to enable him to carry on his operations without interruption, nor,
+during the favorable season of the year, could he lay up a store for
+the winter months, although he paid the comparatively high price of
+three dollars per thousand.
+
+[Illogical business.] While the natives manufactured oil in the manner
+just described, they obtained from a thousand nuts three and a half
+pots, which, at six reals each, fetched twenty-one reals; that is three
+reals less than was offered them for the raw nuts. These data, which
+are obtained from the manufacturers, are probably exaggerated, but
+they are in the main well founded; and the traveller in the Philippines
+often has the opportunity of observing similar anomalies. For example,
+in Daet, North Camarines, I bought six coconuts for one cuarto, at
+the rate of nine hundred and sixty for one dollar, the common price
+there. On my asking why no oil-factory had been erected, I received
+for answer that the nuts were cheaper singly than in quantities. In
+the first place, the native sells only when he wants money; but he
+knows that the manufacturer cannot well afford to have his business
+suspended; so, careless of the result, he makes a temporary profit,
+and never thinks of ensuring for himself a permanent source of income.
+
+[Sugar venders.] In the province of Laguna, where the natives prepare
+coarse brown sugar from sugar-cane, the women carry it for leagues to
+the market, or expose it for sale on the country roads, in small loaves
+(panoche), generally along with buyo. Every passenger chats with the
+seller, weighs the loaf in the hand, eats a bit, and probably passes
+on without buying any. In the evening the woman returns to her home
+with her wares, and the next day repeats the same process.
+
+[Disproportionate prices.] I have lost my special notes, but I
+remember that in two cases at least the price of the sugar in these
+loaves was cheaper than by the picul. Moreover, the Government of the
+day anticipated the people in setting the example, by selling cigars
+cheaper singly than in quantities.
+
+[Uncertain trading.] In Europe a speculator generally can calculate
+beforehand, with the greatest certainty, the cost of production of any
+article; but in the Philippines it is not always so easy. Independently
+of the uncertainty of labor, the regularity of the supply of raw
+material is disturbed, not only by laziness and caprice, but also
+by jealousy and distrust. The natives, as a rule, do not willingly
+see Europeans settle amongst them and engage successfully in local
+operations which they themselves do not understand how to execute; and
+in like manner the creoles are reserved with foreigners, who generally
+are superior to them in capital, skill, and activity. Besides jealousy,
+suspicion also plays a great part, and this influences the native
+as well against the mestizo as against the Castilian. Enough takes
+place to the present day to justify this feeling; but formerly, when
+the most thrifty subjects could buy governorships, and shamelessly
+fleece their provinces, such outrageous abuses are said to have been
+permitted until, in process of time, suspicion has become a kind of
+instinct amongst the Filipinos.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+
+[Leyte.] The island of Leyte, between 9° 49' and 11° 34' N., and
+124° 7' and 125° 9' E. Gr., is above twenty-five miles in length,
+and almost twelve miles broad, and contains one hundred seventy
+square miles. As I have already remarked, it is divided from Samar
+only by the small strait of San Juanico. The chief town, Tacloban or
+Taclobang, lies at the eastern entrance of this strait, with a very
+good harbor and uninterrupted communication with Manila, and has
+consequently become the chief emporium of trade to Leyte, Biliran,
+and South and East Samar. [188]
+
+[Obliging Spanish officials.] The local governor likewise showed me
+much obliging attention; indeed, almost without exception I have,
+since my return, retained the most agreeable remembrances of the
+Spanish officials; and, therefore, if fitting opportunity occurred,
+I could treat of the improprieties of the Administration with greater
+impartiality.
+
+[Locusts.] In the afternoon of the day after my arrival at Tacloban, on
+a sudden there came a sound like the rush of a furious torrent; the air
+became dark, and a large cloud of locusts swept over the place. [189]
+I will not again recount that phenomenon, which has been so often
+described, and is essentially the same in all quarters of the globe,
+but will simply remark that the swarm, which was more than five hundred
+feet in width, and about fifty feet in depth, its extremity being
+lost in the forest, was not thought a very considerable one. It caused
+vigilance, but not consternation. Old and young eagerly endeavored to
+catch as many of the delicate creatures as they could, with cloths,
+nets, and flags, in order, as Dampier relates, "to roast them in
+an earthen pan over fire until their legs and wings drop off, and
+their heads and backs assume the color of boiled crabs;" after which
+process he says they had a pleasant taste. In Burma at the present day,
+they are considered as delicacies at the royal court. [190]
+
+[Plan for their extermination.] The locusts are one of the greatest
+plagues of the Philippines, and sometimes destroy the harvest of entire
+provinces. The Legislación Ultramarina (iv. 504) contains a special
+edict respecting the extirpation of these devastating pests. As soon
+as they appear, the population of the invaded localities are to be
+drawn out in the greatest possible numbers, under the conduct of the
+authorities, in order to effect their destruction. The most approved
+means for the attainment of this object are set forth in an official
+document referring to the adoption of extraordinary measures in cases
+of public emergency; and in this the locusts are placed midway between
+sea-pirates and conflagrations. Of the various means that have been
+contrived against the destructive creatures, that, at times, appear
+in incredible numbers, but have been as frequently ineffectual as
+otherwise, only a few will be now mentioned. On April 27, 1824,
+the Sociedad Economica determined to import the bird, the martin
+(Gracula sp.), "which feeds by instinct on locusts." In the autumn
+of the following year the first consignment arrived from China; in
+1829 a second; and in 1852 again occurs the item of $1,311 for martins.
+
+[Tacloban to Tanauan.] On the following day I proceeded with the
+priest of Dagami (there are roads in Leyte) from Tacloban southwards
+to Palos and Tanauan, two flourishing places on the east coast. Hardly
+half a league from the latter place, and close to the sea, a cliff
+of crystal lime rock rises up out of the sandy plain, which was level
+up to this point. It is of a greyish-green quartzose chlorite schist,
+from which the enterprising Father had endeavored, with a perseverance
+worthy of better success, to procure lime by burning. After an ample
+breakfast in the convent, we proceeded in the afternoon to Dagami,
+and, on the next day, to Burauen. [191]
+
+[A pleasing people.] The country was still flat. Coco-groves and
+rice-fields here and there interrupted the thick forest; but the
+country is thinly inhabited, and the people appear more cheerful,
+handsomer, and cleaner than those of Samar. South of Burauen rises
+the mountain ridge of Manacagan, on the further slope of which is a
+large solfatara, which yields sulphur for the powder manufactory in
+Manila, and for commerce. A Spanish sailor accompanied me. Where the
+road passed through swamp we rode on carabaos. The pace of the animals
+is not unpleasant, but the stretching across the broad backs of the
+gigantic carabaos of the Philippines is very fatiguing. A quarter of an
+hour beyond Burauen we crossed the Daguitan, which flows south-west to
+north-east, and is a hundred feet broad, its bed being full of large
+volcanic blocks; and, soon after, a small river in a broad bed; and,
+some hundred paces farther, one of a hundred and fifty feet in breadth;
+the two latter being arms of the Burauen. They flow from west to east,
+and enter the sea at Dulag. The second arm was originated only the
+preceding year, during a flood.
+
+[The height of hospitality.] We passed the night in a hut on
+the northern slope of the Manacagan, which the owner, on seeing
+us approach, had voluntarily quitted, and with his wife and child
+sought other lodgings. The customs of the country require this when
+the accommodation does not suffice for both parties; and payment for
+the same is neither demanded nor, except very rarely, tendered.
+
+[Up the Manacagan.] About six o'clock on the following morning we
+started; and about half-past six climbed, by a pleasant path through
+the forest, to the ridge of the Manacagan, which consists of trachytic
+hornblende; and about seven o'clock we crossed two small rivers flowing
+north-west, and then, by a curve, reached the coast at Dulag. From the
+ridge we caught sight, towards the south, of the great white heaps
+of débris of the mountain Danan glimmering through the trees. About
+nine o'clock we came through the thickly-wooded crater of the Kasiboi,
+and, further south, to some sheds in which the sulphur is smelted.
+
+[Sulphur.] The raw material obtained from the solfatara is bought in
+three classes: firstly, sulphur already melted to crusts; secondly,
+sublimated, which contains much condensed water in its interstices;
+and thirdly, in the clay, which is divided into the more or less
+rich, from which the greatest quantity is obtained. Coconut oil,
+which is thrown into flat iron pans holding six arrobas, is added to
+the sulphurous clay, in the proportion of six quarts to four arrobas,
+and it is melted and continually stirred. The clay which floats on
+the surface, now freed from the sulphur, being skimmed off, fresh
+sulphurous clay is thrown into the cauldron, and so on. In two or
+three hours six arrobas of sulphur, on an average, may be obtained
+in this manner from twenty-four arrobas of sulphurous clay, and,
+poured into wooden chests, it is moulded into blocks of about four
+arrobas. Half the oil employed is recovered by throwing the clay
+which has been saturated with it into a frame formed by two narrow
+bamboo hurdles, placed at a sharp angle. The oil drops into a sloping
+gutter of bamboo which is placed underneath, and from that flows into a
+pot. The price of the sulphur at Manila varies between [Prices.] $1.25
+and $4.50 per picul. I saw the frames, full of clay, from which the
+oil exuded; but the operation itself I did not, unfortunately, then
+witness, and I cannot explain in what manner the oil is added. From
+some experiments made on a small scale, therefore under essentially
+different conditions, and never with the same material, it appeared
+that the oil accelerates the separation of the sulphur, and retards
+the access of the air to the sulphur. In these experiments, the sulphur
+contained in the bottom of the crucible was always colored black by the
+separation of charcoal from the oil, and it was necessary to purify it
+by distillation beforehand. Of this, however, the smelters at Leyte
+made no mention, and they even had no apparatus for the purpose,
+while their sulphur was of a pure yellow color.
+
+[Hot spring.] Some hundreds of paces further south, a hot spring
+(50° R.), [192] twelve feet broad, flows from the east, depositing
+silicious sinter at its edges.
+
+[A solfatara.] As we followed a ravine stretching from north to south,
+with sides one hundred to two hundred feet in height, the vegetation
+gradually ceased, the rock being of a dazzling white, or colored by
+sublimated sulphur. In numerous places thick clouds of vapor burst from
+the ground, with a strong smell of sulphurated water. At some thousand
+paces further, the ravine bends round to the left (east), and expands
+itself to the bay; and here numerous silicious springs break through
+the loose clay-earth, which is permeated with sulphur. This solfatara
+must formerly have been much more active than it is now. The ravine,
+which has been formed by its destruction of the rock, and is full
+of lofty heaps of débris, may be one thousand feet in breadth, and
+quite five times as long. At the east end there are a number of small,
+boiling quagmires, which, on forcing a stick into the matted ground,
+send forth water and steam. In some deep spots further west, grey,
+white, red, and yellow clays have been deposited in small beds over
+each other, giving them the appearance of variegated marls.
+
+[Petrifying water] To the south, right opposite to the ridge which
+leads to Burauen, may be seen a basin twenty-five feet broad, in a
+cavern in the white decomposed rock, from which a petrifying water
+containing silicious acid flows abundantly. The roof of the cavern is
+hung with stalactites, which either are covered with solid sulphur,
+or consist entirely of that substance.
+
+[Danan solfatara.] On the upper slope of the Danan mountain, near
+to the summit, so much sulphur is deposited by the vapors from the
+sulphurated water that it may be collected with coconut shells. In
+some crevices, which are protected against the cooling effects of
+the atmospheric air, it melts together in thick, brown crusts. The
+solfatara of Danan is situated exactly south of that below, at
+the end of the ravine of the Kasiboi. The clay earth, from which
+the silicic acid has been washed out by the rains, is carried into
+the valley, where it forms a plain, the greater part of which is
+occupied by a small lake, Malaksan (sour), slightly impregnated with
+sulphuric acid. Its surface, which, by reason of the very flat banks,
+is protected against the weather, I found to be about five hundred
+paces long and one hundred broad. From the elevation of the solfatara,
+a rather large fresh-water lake, surrounded by wooded mountains, is
+seen through a gap, exactly south, which is named Jaruanan. The night
+was passed in a ruined shed at the south-east of the lake Malaksan;
+and on the following morning we climbed the south side of the mountain
+ridge and, skirting the solfatara of the Danan, arrived in an hour
+and a half at lake Jaruanan.
+
+[Jaruanan Lake.] This lake, as well as the Malaksan, inspires
+the natives with superstitious fear on account of the suspicious
+neighborhood of the solfatara, and therefore has not been profaned by
+either mariner, fisher, or swimmer, and was very full of fish. For the
+purpose of measuring its depth, I had a raft of bamboos constructed;
+and when my companions saw me floating safely on the lake, they
+all, without exception, sprang into it, and tumbled about in the
+water with infinite delight and loud outcries, as if they wished
+to indemnify themselves for their long abstinence; so that the raft
+was not ready before three o'clock. The soundings at the centre of
+the basin, which was, at the southern edge, steeper than on the
+north, gave thirteen brazas, or over twenty-one meters of depth;
+the greatest length of the lake amounted to nearly eight hundred
+varas (six hundred and sixty-eight meters), and the breadth to about
+half as much. As we returned in the evening, by torchlight, over the
+crest of the mountain to our night-quarters at the lake, we passed
+by the very modest dwelling-place of a married pair. Three branches,
+projecting outwards from the principal trunk of a tree, and lopped at
+equal points, sustained a hut of bamboos and palm-leaves of eight feet
+square. A hole in the floor formed the entrance, and it was divided
+into a chamber and ante-chamber, and four bamboo poles supported,
+above and below, two layers of bamboos, one of which furnished a
+balcony, and the other a shop in which betel was sold.
+
+[To Dulag.] The day after my return to Burauen an obliging Spanish
+merchant drove me through the fertile plain of volcanic sand, on
+which rice, maize, and sugar-cane were cultivated, to Dulag, which
+lies directly to the west, on the shore of the tranquil sea. The
+distance (according to Coello three leagues) hardly amounts to two
+leagues. From this place, Point Guiuan, the south point of Samar,
+appears like an island separated from the mainland, and further south
+(N. 102° 4' to 103° 65° S.) Jomonjol is seen, the first island of the
+Archipelago sighted by Magellan on April 16, 1521. At Dulag, my former
+companion joined us in order to accompany us on the journey to the
+Bito Lake. The arrangement of transportation and of provisions, and,
+still more, the due consideration of all the propositions of three
+individuals, each of whose claims were entitled to equal respect,
+occupied much time and required some address. We at length sailed
+in a large casco (barge) southwards along the coast to the mouth
+of the river [Up Mayo River.] Mayo, which, according to the map and
+the information there given, is said to come from the Bito Lake. We
+proceeded upwards in a boat, but were informed at the first hut that
+the lake could be reached only by making a long circuit through swampy
+forest; when most of our party proposed to return. Various reasons
+besides the want of unanimity in the conduct of our adventure, which
+had proceeded thus far, delayed our arrival at Abuyog until eleven
+o'clock at night. In the first place, on our way, we had to cross a
+small branch of the Mayo, and after that the Bito River. The distance
+of the latter from Abuyog (extravagantly set down on Coello's map)
+amounts to fourteen hundred brazas, according to the measurement of
+the gobernadorcillo, which is probably correct. [193]
+
+[An unpromising road.] The following day, as it rained heavily, was
+employed in making inquiries respecting the road to the Bito Lake. We
+received very varied statements as to the distance, but all agreed
+in painting the road thither in a discouraging light. A troublesome
+journey of at least ten hours appeared to us to be what most probably
+awaited us.
+
+[Bito Lake.] On the morrow, through a pleasant forest road, we reached
+in an hour the Bito River, and proceeded in boats, which we met
+there, up the river between flat sandy banks covered with tall cane
+and reeds. In about ten minutes, some trees fallen right across the
+stream compelled us to make a circuit on land, which in half an hour
+brought us again to the river, above the obstacles. Here we constructed
+rafts of bamboo, upon which, immersed to the depth of half a foot,
+the material being very loosely adjusted, we reached the lake in ten
+minutes. We found it covered with green confervae; a double border
+of pistia and broad-leaved reed grasses, six to seven feet high,
+enclosing it all round. On the south and west some low hillocks rose
+up, while from the middle it appeared to be almost circular, with a
+girdle of forest. Coello makes the lake much too large (four instead
+of one square mile), and its distance from Abuyog can be only a little
+over a league. With the assistance of a cord of lianas tied together,
+and rods placed in a line, we found its breadth five hundred and
+eighty-five brazas or nine hundred and seventy-seven meters, (in the
+broadest part it might be a little over one thousand meters); and the
+length, as computed from some imperfect observations, one thousand
+and seven brazas (sixteen hundred and eighty meters), consequently
+less than one square mile. Soundings showed a gently inclined basin,
+eight brazas, or over thirteen meters, deep in the middle. I would
+gladly have determined the proportions with more accuracy; but want of
+time, the inaccessibility of the edge of the bank, and the miserable
+condition of our raft, allowed of only a few rough measurements.
+
+[A forest home.] Not a trace of human habitations was observable
+on the shore; but a quarter of an hour's distance from the northern
+edge we found a comfortable hut, surrounded by deep mud and prickly
+calamus, the tenants of which, however, were living in plenty, and
+with greater conveniences than many dwellers in the villages. We were
+very well received and had fish in abundance, as well as tomatoes,
+and capsicum to season them with, and dishes of English earthenware
+out of which to eat them.
+
+[Snaring swine.] The abundance of wild swine had led the settlers
+to invent a peculiar contrivance, by which they are apprised of
+their approach even when asleep, and guided to their trail in the
+darkness. A rope made of strips of banana tied together, and upwards
+of a thousand feet in length, is extended along the ground, one end
+of which is attached to a coconut shell, full of water, which is
+suspended immediately over the sleeping-place of the hunter. When a
+pig comes in contact with the rope, the water is overturned by the
+jerk upon the sleeper, who, seizing the rope in his hand, is thereby
+conducted to his prey. The principal employment of our hosts appeared
+to be fishing, which is so productive that the roughest apparatus
+is sufficient. There was not a single boat, but only loosely-bound
+rafts of bamboo, on which the fishers, sinking, as we ourselves did
+on our raft, half a foot deep, moved about amongst the crocodiles,
+which I never beheld in such numbers and of so large a size as in
+this lake. Some swam about on the surface with their backs projecting
+out of the water. It was striking to see the complete indifference
+with which even two little girls waded in the water in the face of
+the great monsters. Fortunately the latter appeared to be satisfied
+with their ample rations of fish. Four kinds of fish are said to be
+found in the lake, amongst them an eel; but we got only one. [194]
+
+[A secret still.] Early on the following morning our native attendants
+were already intoxicated. This led to the discovery of another
+occupation of the settlers, which I do not hesitate to disclose
+now that the Government monopoly has been abolished. They secretly
+distilled palm-brandy and carried on a considerable trade in it; and
+this also explained to me why the horrors of the road to the Mayo River
+and to Abuyog had been painted in such warm colors. [195] We returned
+on our rafts to the place where we had found them, a distance of
+about fifteen hundred feet; and onwards, through wild cane with large
+clusters of flowers (Saccharum sp.), sixteen feet high, east by north,
+we got to our boats, and then to the bar, whence, after a march of an
+hour and a half, we reached Abuyog. From Abuyog we returned by water to
+Dulag, and by land to Burauen, where we arrived at night, sooner than
+our hostlers had expected, for we caught them sleeping in our beds.
+
+[Tobacco prohibition.] Not long ago much tobacco was cultivated in this
+country, and was allowed to be sold to the peasantry under certain
+conditions; but recently it was forbidden to be sold, except by the
+Government, who themselves determined its value at so very low a rate
+that the culture of tobacco has almost entirely ceased. As the tobacco
+company, however, had already erected stores and appointed collectors,
+the knowing ones rightly foresaw that these steps would be followed by
+compulsory labor, even as it occurred in other places. The east coast
+of Leyte is said to be rising while the west is being destroyed by the
+sea, and at Ormog the sea is said to have advanced about fifty ells
+[196] in six years.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+
+[The Bisayans.] The Bisayans--at least the inhabitants of the
+Islands of Samar and Leyte (I have not become closely acquainted
+with any others)--belong to one race. [197] They are, physically and
+intellectually, in character, dress, manners and customs, so similar
+that my notes, which were originally made at different points of
+the two Islands, have, after removal of the numerous repetitions,
+fused into one, which affords a more complete picture, and affords,
+at the same time, opportunity for the small differences, where they
+do occur, to stand out more conspicuously.
+
+[Mountaineers.] There are no Negritos either in Samar or Leyte, but
+Cimarronese, who pay no tribute, and who do not live in villages,
+but independently in the forests. Unfortunately I have had no personal
+intercourse with them, and what I have learned respecting them from the
+Christian inhabitants of Samar is too uncertain to be repeated. But it
+does seem certain that all these Cimarronese or their ancestors have
+traded with the Spaniards, and that their religion has appropriated
+many Catholic forms. Thus, when planting rice, and, according to
+ancient practices, setting apart some of the seed to be offered in
+the four corners of the field as sacrifice, they are accustomed to
+repeat some mutilated Catholic prayers, which they appear to consider
+as efficacious as their old heathenish ones. Some have their children
+baptized as well, as it costs nothing; but, save in these respects,
+they perform no other Christian or civil obligations. They are very
+peaceable, neither making war with one another, nor having poisoned
+arrows. Instances of Cimarronese, who go over to Christianity and
+village life, together with tribute and servitude, are very rare;
+and the number of the civilized, who return to the forests in order
+to become Cimarronese, is, on the other hand, very inconsiderable
+indeed--still smaller than in Luzon, as the natives, from the dull,
+almost vegetating life which they lead, are not easily brought into
+such straitened circumstances as to be compelled to leave their
+village, which, still more than in Luzon, is all the world to them.
+
+[Rice-farming.] The culture of rice follows the seasons of the year. In
+some places where there are large fields the plough (arado) and the
+sod-sod (here called surod) are employed; but, almost universally, the
+rice-field is only trodden over by carabaos in the rainy season. Sowing
+is done on the west coast in May and June, planting in July and August,
+and reaping from November to January. One ganta of seed-corn gives two,
+sometimes from three to four, cabanes (i.e., fifty, seventy-five,
+and a hundred fold). In the chief town, Catbalogan, there are but
+very few irrigated fields (tubigan, from tubig, water), the produce
+of which does not suffice for the requirements, and the deficiency
+is made up from other places on the coasts of the Island. On the
+other hand, Catbalogan produces abaca, coconut oil, wax, balate
+(edible holothuria, sea cucumber), dried fish, and woven stuffs. On
+the north and east coasts sowing takes place from November to January,
+and reaping six months later. During the remaining six months the field
+serves as pasture for the cattle; but in many places rice culture goes
+on even during these months, but on other fields. A large portion of
+this rice is frequently lost on account of the bad weather.
+
+[Land tenure.] Purchases of land are seldom made, it being generally
+acquired by cultivation, by inheritance, or forfeiture. In Catbalogan
+the best rice land was paid for at the rate of one dollar for a ganta
+of seed-corn, and, on the north coast of Lauang, a field producing
+yearly one hundred cabanes was purchased for thirty dollars. Reckoning,
+as in Naga, one ganta of seed-corn at four loanes, and seventy-five
+cabanes of produce at one quiñon, the eastern rice land costs, in
+the first instance, three thalers and a third, in the second three
+thalers. The owner lets the bare property out on leases, and receives
+one-half the harvest as rent. [198] The cultivation of rice in Leyte
+is conducted as in Samar, but it has given way to the cultivation of
+abacá; the governors, while they were allowed to trade, compelled
+the natives to devote a part of their fields and of their labor to
+it. Should a peasant be in arrears, it is the prevalent custom in
+the country for him to pay to the dealer double the balance remaining
+due at the next harvest.
+
+[Mountain rice.] Mountain-rice culture, which in Catbalogan is almost
+the only cultivation, requires no other implement of agriculture
+than the bolo to loosen the soil somewhat, and a sharp stick for
+making holes at distances of six inches for the reception of five or
+six grains of rice. Sowing is done from May to June, weeding twice,
+and five months later it is cut stalk by stalk; the reaper receiving
+half a real daily wages and food. The produce is between two and three
+cabanes per ganta, or fifty to seventy fold. The land costs nothing,
+and wages amount to nearly five reals per ganta of seed-corn. After a
+good harvest the caban fetches four reales; but just before the harvest
+the price rises to one dollar, and often much higher. The ground is
+used only once for dry rice; camote (batata), abacá, and caladium being
+planted on it after the harvest. Mountain rice is more remunerative
+than watered rice about in the proportion of nine to eight.
+
+[Other products.] Next to rice the principal articles of sustenance
+are camote (convolvulus batatas), ubi (dioscorea), gabi (caladium),
+palauan (a large arum, with taper leaves and spotted stalk). Camote
+can be planted all the year around, and ripens in four months; but
+it takes place generally when the rice culture is over, when little
+labor is available. When the cultivation of camote is retained,
+the old plants are allowed to multiply their runners, and only the
+tubers are taken out of the ground. But larger produce is obtained by
+cleaning out the ground and planting anew. From eighteen to fifteen
+gantas may be had for half a real.
+
+[Abacá.] Although there are large plantations of abacá, during my
+visit it was but little cultivated, the price not being sufficiently
+remunerative.
+
+[Tobacco.] Tobacco also is cultivated. Formerly it might be sold in
+the country, but now it has to be delivered to the government.
+
+[Balao oil.] A resinous oil (balao or malapajo) is found in Samar
+and Albay, probably also in other provinces. It is obtained from a
+dipterocarpus (apiton), one of the loftiest trees of the forest, by
+cutting in the trunk a wide hole, half a foot deep, hollowed out into
+the form of a basin, and from time to time lighting a fire in it, so as
+to free the channels, through which it flows, of obstructions. The oil
+thus is collected daily and comes into commerce without any further
+preparation. Its chief application is in the preservation of iron
+in shipbuilding. Nails dipped in the oil of the balao, before being
+driven in, will, as I have been assured by credible individuals,
+defy the action of rust for ten years; but it is principally used as a
+varnish for ships, which are painted with it both within and without,
+and it also protects wood against termites and other insects. The
+balao is sold in Albay at four reals for the tinaja of ten gantas (the
+liter at eight pence). A cement formed by the mixture of burnt lime,
+gum elemi, and coconut oil, in such proportions as to form a thick
+paste before application, is used for the protection of the bottoms
+of ships; and the coating is said to last a year. [199] [Wax.] Wax
+is bartered by the Cimarronese. The whole of Samar annually yields
+from two hundred to three hundred piculs, whose value ranges between
+twenty-five and fifty dollars per picul, while in Manila the price
+is generally five to ten dollars higher; but it fluctuates very much,
+as the same product is brought from many other localities and at very
+irregular intervals of time.
+
+[Scarcity of stock.] There is hardly any breeding of cattle,
+notwithstanding the luxuriant growth of grasses and the absence of
+destructive animals. Horses and carabao are very rare, and are said
+to have been introduced late, not before the present century. As in
+Samar there are hardly any other country roads than the seashore and
+the shallow beds of rivers (it is better in the north of Leyte),
+the carabao is used only once every year in treading over the
+earth of the rice-field. During the year he roams at large on the
+pastures, in the forest, or on a small island, where such exists,
+in the neighborhood. Some times in the year one may see several
+carabaos, attached to the large trunk of a tree, dragging it to the
+village. Their number, consequently, is extremely small. Carabaos
+which tread the rice land well are worth as much as ten dollars. The
+mean price is three dollars for a carabao, and five to six dollars
+for a caraballa. Horned cattle are only occasionally used as victims
+at festivals. The property of several owners, they are very limited in
+number, and live half-wild in the mountains. There is hardly any trade
+in them, but the average price is three dollars for a heifer, and five
+or six dollars for a cow. [Swine.] Almost every family possesses a pig;
+some, three or four of them. A fat pig costs six or seven dollars,
+even more than a cow. Many Filipino tribes abstain strictly from beef;
+but pork is essential to their feasts. Grease, too, is so dear that
+from three to four dollars would, under favorable circumstances,
+be got on that account for a fat animal. [Sheep and goats.] Sheep
+and goats thrive well, and propagate easily, but also exist only in
+small numbers, and are hardly utilized either for their wool or their
+flesh. Creoles and mestizos are for the most part too idle even to
+keep sheep, preferring daily to eat chicken. The sheep of Shanghai,
+imported by the governor of Tacloban, also thrive and propagate
+famously. [Poultry.] A laying hen costs half a real, a rooster the
+same, and a game cock as much as three dollars, often considerably
+more. Six or eight hens, or thirty eggs, may be bought for one real.
+
+[Cost of food.] A family consisting of father, mother, and five
+children requires daily nearly twenty-four chupas of palay (rice in
+the husk), which, after winnowing, comes to about twelve chupas. This
+at the average price of four reals per cavan costs about half a
+real. The price, however, varies. Sometimes, after the harvest, it
+is three reals per cavan; before it, ten; and in Albay, even about
+thirty reals. Then about three cuartos are wanted for extras (as fish,
+crabs, vegetables, etc.), which, however, are generally collected
+by the children; and, lastly, for oil two cuartos, buyo one cuarto,
+tobacco three cuartos (three leaves for one cuarto), the latter being
+smoked, not chewed. A woman consumes half as much buyo and tobacco
+as a man. Buyo and tobacco are less used in Leyte than in Samar.
+
+[Clothing cost.] For clothing a man requires yearly--four rough
+shirts of guinara, costing from one to two reals; three or four pairs
+of trousers, at one to two and a half reals; two kerchiefs for the
+head, at one and a half real (hats are not worn on the south and west
+coasts), and for the church festivals generally one pair of shoes,
+seven reals; one fine shirt, a dollar or more; and fine pantaloons,
+at four reals. A woman requires--four to six camisas of guinara,
+at one real; two to three sayas of guinara, at three to four reals,
+and one or two sayas of European printed cotton, at five reals; two
+head-kerchiefs at one and a half to two reals; and one or two pairs
+of slippers (chinelas) to go to mass in, at two reals and upwards.
+
+[Women's extras.] The women generally have, besides, a fine camisa
+costing at least six reals; a mantilla for churchgoing, six reals
+(it lasts four years); and a comb, two cuartos. Many also have under
+skirts (nabuas), two pieces at four reals, and earrings of brass
+and a rosary, which last articles are purchased once for all. In the
+poorer localities, Lauang for instance, only the home-woven guinaras
+are worn; and there a man requires--three shirts and three pairs of
+trousers, which are cut out of three pieces of guinara, at two reals,
+and a salacot (hat), generally home made, worth half a real; while a
+woman uses yearly--four sayas, value six reals; and a camisa, with a
+finer one for the festivals, eight reals. Underskirts are not worn;
+and the clothing of the children may be estimated at about half of
+the above rates.
+
+[Household furniture.] For household furniture a family has a cooking
+pot [200] of unglazed burnt clay, imported by ships from Manila, the
+cost of which is fixed by the value of its contents in rice; a supply
+of bamboo-canes; seven plates, costing between two and five cuartos;
+a carahai (iron pan), three to four reals; coconut shells serving
+for glasses; a few small pots, altogether half a real; a sundang,
+four to six reals, or a bolo (large forest knife), one dollar; and
+a pair of scissors (for the women), two reals. The loom, which every
+household constructs for itself of bamboo of course costs nothing.
+
+[Wages.] The rate of daily wages, in the case of Filipino employers,
+is half a real, without food; but Europeans always have to give
+one real and food, unless, by favor of the gobernadorcillo, they
+get polistas at the former rate, which then regularly goes into the
+public coffers. An ordinary carpenter earns from one to two reals;
+a skilful man, three reals daily. The hours of work are from six to
+noon, and from two to six in the evening.
+
+[Industries.] Almost every village has a rude smith, who understands
+the making of sundangs and bolos; but the iron and the coal required
+for the purpose must be supplied with the order. No other work in
+metal is executed. With the exception of a little ship-building,
+hardly any other pursuit than weaving is carried on; the loom is
+rarely wanting in a household. Guinara, i.e., stuff made of the abacá,
+is manufactured, as well as also some piña, or figured silk stuffs,
+the silk being brought from Manila, and of Chinese origin. All these
+fabrics are made in private homes; there are no factories.
+
+[Barter.] In places where rice is scarce the lower class of people
+catch fish, salt and dry them, and barter them for rice. In the
+chief towns purchases are made with the current money; but, in the
+interior, where there is hardly any money, fabrics and dried fish are
+the most usual means of exchange. Salt is obtained by evaporating
+the seawater in small iron hand-pans (carahais), without previous
+evaporation in the sun. The navigation between Catbalogan and Manila
+continues from December to July, and in the interval between those
+months the ships lie dismantled under sheds. [Communication.] There
+also is communication by the coast eastwards to Guian, northwards
+to Catarman, and sometimes to Lauang. The crews consist partly of
+natives, and partly of foreigners, as the natives take to the sea
+with great reluctance; indeed, almost only when compelled to leave
+their villages. Samar has scarcely any other means of communication
+besides the navigation of the coast and rivers, the interior being
+roadless; and burdens have to be conveyed on the shoulders. An
+able-bodied porter, who receives a real and a half without food,
+will carry three arrobas (seventy-five pounds at most) six leagues in
+a day, but he cannot accomplish the same work on the following day,
+requiring at least one day's rest. A strong man will carry an arroba
+and a half daily for a distance of six leagues for a whole week.
+
+[No markets.] There are no markets in Samar and Leyte; so that whoever
+wishes to buy seeks what he requires in the houses, and in like manner
+the seller offers his goods.
+
+[Debts.] A Filipino seeking to borrow money has to give ample security
+and pay interest at the rate of one real for every dollar per month
+(twelve and one-half per cent. monthly); and it is not easy for
+him to borrow more than five dollars, for which sum only he is
+legally liable. Trade and credit are less developed in eastern and
+northern Samar than in the western part of the island, which keeps
+up a more active communication with the other inhabitants of the
+Archipelago. There current money is rarely lent, but only its value
+in goods is advanced at the rate of a real per dollar per mensem. If
+the debtor fails to pay within the time appointed, he frequently
+has to part with one of his children, who is obliged to serve the
+lender for his bare food, without wages, until the debt has been
+extinguished. I saw a young man who had so served for the term of
+five years, in liquidation of a debt of five dollars which his father,
+who had formerly been a gobernadorcillo in Paranas, owed to a mestizo
+in Catbalogan; and on the east coast a pretty young girl, who, for
+a debt of three dollars due by her father, had then, for two years,
+served a native, who had the reputation of being a spendthrift. I was
+shown in Borongan a coconut plantation of three hundred trees, which
+was pledged for a debt of ten dollars about twenty years ago, since
+which period it had been used by the creditor as his own property;
+and it was only a few years since that, upon the death of the debtor,
+his children succeeded, with great difficulty, in paying the original
+debt and redeeming the property. It is no uncommon thing for a native
+to borrow two dollars and a half from another in order to purchase
+his exemption from the forty days of annual service, and then,
+failing to repay the loan punctually, to serve his creditor for a
+whole year. [201]
+
+[People of Samar and Leyte.] The inhabitants of Samar and Leyte,
+who are at once idler and filthier than those of Luzon, seem to be
+as much behind the Bicols as the latter are behind the Tagalogs. In
+Tacloban, where a more active intercourse with Manila exists, these
+qualities are less pronounced, and the women, who are agreeable,
+bathe frequently. For the rest, the inhabitants of the two islands
+are friendly, obliging, tractable, and peaceable. Abusive language or
+violence very rarely occurs, and, in case of injury, information is
+laid against the offender at the tribunal. Great purity of manners
+seems to prevail on the north and west coasts, but not on the east
+coast, nor in Leyte. External piety is universally conspicuous, through
+the training imparted by the priests; the families are very united,
+and great influence is wielded by the women, who are principally
+engaged in household employments, and are tolerably skilful in weaving,
+and to whom only the lighter labors of the field are assigned. The
+authority of the parents and of the eldest brother is supreme, the
+younger sisters never venturing to oppose it; women and children are
+kindly treated.
+
+[Leyte.] The natives of Leyte, clinging as strongly to their native
+soil as those of Samar, like them, have no partiality for the sea,
+though their antipathy to it is not quite so manifest as that of the
+inhabitants of Samar. [202]
+
+[Public charity not accepted.] There are no benevolent institutions
+in either of the two islands. Each family maintains its own poor
+and crippled, and treats them tenderly. In Catbalogan, the chief
+town of the island, with five to six thousand inhabitants, there
+were only eight recipients of charity; but in Albay mendicants are
+not wanting. In Lauang, when a Spaniard, on a solemn festival, had
+caused it to be proclaimed that he would distribute rice to the poor,
+not a single applicant came forward. The honesty of the inhabitants of
+Samar is much commended. Obligations are said to be contracted almost
+always without written documents, and never forsworn, even if they
+make default in payment. Robberies are of rare occurrence in Samar,
+and thefts almost unknown. There are schools also here in the pueblos,
+which accomplish quite as much as they do in Camarines.
+
+[Amusements.] Of the public amusements cock-fighting is the chief,
+but it is not so eagerly pursued as in Luzon. At the church festivals
+they perform a drama translated from the Spanish, generally of
+a religious character; and the expense of the entertainment is
+defrayed by voluntary contributions of the wealthy. The chief vices
+of the population are play and drunkenness; in which latter even
+women and young girls occasionally indulge. The marriage feasts,
+combining song and dance, often continue for several days and
+nights together, where they have a sufficient supply of food and
+drink. [Suitor's service.] The suitor has to serve in the house
+of the bride's parents two, three, and even five years, before he
+takes his bride home; and money cannot purchase exemption from this
+onerous restriction. He boards in the house of the bride's parents
+who furnish the rice, but he has to supply the vegetables himself.
+[203] At the expiration of his term of service he builds, with the
+assistance of his relations and friends, the house for the family
+which is about to be newly established.
+
+[Morals.] Though adultery is not unknown, jealousy is rare, and
+never leads to violence. The injured individual generally goes with
+the culprit to the minister, who, with a severe lecture to one,
+and words of consolation to the other, sets everything straight
+again. Married women are more easily accessible than girls, whose
+prospect of marriage, however, it seems is not greatly diminished
+by a false step during single life. While under parental authority
+girls, as a rule, are kept under rigid control, doubtless in order
+to prolong the time of servitude of the suitor. External appearance
+is more strictly regarded among the Bisayans than by the Bicols and
+Tagalogs. Here also the erroneous opinion prevails, that the number of
+the women exceeds that of the men. Instances occur of girls of twelve
+being mothers; but they are rare; and though women bear twelve or
+thirteen children, many of these, however, do not live. [Great infant
+mortality.] So much so is this the case, that families of more than
+six or eight children are very rarely met with.
+
+[Superstitions.] Superstition is rife. Besides the little church images
+of the Virgin, which every Filipina wears by a string round the neck,
+many also have heathen amulets, of which I had an opportunity of
+examining one that had been taken from a very daring criminal. It
+consisted of a small ounce flask, stuffed full of vegetable root
+fibres, which appeared to have been fried in oil. This flask, which is
+prepared by the heathen tribes, is accredited with the virtue of making
+its owner strong and courageous. The capture of this individual was
+very difficult; but, as soon as the little flask was taken from him,
+he gave up all resistance, and allowed himself to be bound. In almost
+every large village there are one or more [Ghouls.] Asuang families who
+are generally dreaded and avoided, and regarded as outlaws, and who
+can marry only amongst themselves. They have the reputation of being
+cannibals. [204] Perhaps they are descended from such tribes? At any
+rate, the belief is very general and firmly  rooted; and intelligent
+old natives when questioned by me on the subject, answered that they
+certainly did not believe that the Asuangs ate men at the present time,
+but that their forefathers had assuredly done so. [205]
+
+[Ancient Literature.] Of ancient legends, traditions, or ballads,
+it is stated that there are none. It is true they have songs at their
+dances, but these are spiritless improvisations, and mostly in a high
+key. They have not preserved any memorials of former civilization. "The
+ancient Pintados possessed no temples, every one performing his
+anitos in his own house, without any special solemnity"--(Morga,
+f. 145 v). Pigafetta (p. 92) certainly mentions that the King of Cebu,
+after his conversion to Christianity, caused many temples built on the
+seashore to be destroyed; but these might only have been structures of
+a very perishable kind. [Festivals and shrines.] On certain occasions
+the Bisayans celebrated a great festival, called Pandot, at which
+they worshipped their gods in huts, which were expressly built for the
+purpose, covered with foliage, and adorned with flowers and lamps. They
+called these huts simba or simbahan (the churches are so called to the
+present day), "and this is the only thing which they have similar to a
+church or a temple"--(Informe, I., i., 17). According to Gemelli Careri
+they prayed to some particular gods, derived from their forefathers,
+who are called by the Bisayans Davata (Divata), and by the Tagalogs
+Anito; one anito being for the sea and another for the house, to
+watch over the children. [206] [Ancestor worship.] In the number of
+these anitos they placed their grandfathers and great-grandfathers,
+whom they invoked in all their necessities, and in whose honor they
+preserved little statues of stone, wood, gold, and ivory, which they
+called liche or laravan. Amongst their gods they also reckoned all
+who perished by the sword, or were killed by lightning, or devoured
+by crocodiles, believing that their souls ascended to heaven on a
+bow which they called balangas. Pigafetta thus describes the idols
+which were seen by him:--"They are of wood, and concave, or hollow,
+without any hind quarters, with their arms extended, and their legs
+and feet bent upwards. They have very large faces, with four powerful
+teeth like boars' tusks, and are painted all over." [207]
+
+In conclusion, let me take a brief account of the religion of the
+ancient Bisayans from Fr. Gaspar San Agustin (Conquest, 169):
+
+[Old religion.] The daemon, or genius, to whom they sacrificed was
+called by them Divata, which appears to denote an antithesis to the
+Deity, and a rebel against him. Hell was called Solad, and Heaven
+(in the language of the educated people) Ologan * * * The souls of
+the departed go to a mountain in the province of Oton, [208] called
+Medias, where they are well entertained and served. The creation of
+the universe is thus explained. [Creation myth.] A vulture hovering
+between heaven and earth finds no place to settle himself upon,
+and the water rises towards heaven; whereupon Heaven, in its wrath,
+creates islands. The vulture splits a bamboo, out of which spring man
+and woman, who beget many children, and, when their number becomes
+too great, drive them out with blows. Some conceal themselves in the
+chamber, and these become the Datos; others in the kitchen, and these
+become the slaves. The rest go down the stairs and become the people.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+
+[Ports of entry.] In 1830 seven new ports were opened as an experiment,
+but, owing to great frauds in the charges, were soon afterwards
+closed again. In 1831 a custom-house was established at Zamboanga,
+on the south-west point of Mindanao; and in 1855 Sual, in the Gulf
+of Lingayen, one of the safest harbors on the west coast of Luzon,
+and Iloilo in Panay, were thrown open; and in 1863 Cebu, on the island
+of the same name, for the direct communication with foreign countries.
+
+[Old Zamboanga fort.] Before 1635 the Spaniards had established
+a fort at Zamboanga, which, although it certainly could not
+wholly prevent the piratical excursions against the colonies, yet
+considerably diminished them. [209] Until 1848 from eight hundred
+to fifteen hundred individuals are stated to have been carried off
+yearly by the Moros. [210] The establishment of this custom-house
+has, therefore, been based upon political rather than commercial
+motives, it being found desirable to open an easily accessible
+place to the piratical states of the Sulu Sea for the disposal of
+their products. [Exports.] Trade, up to the present date, is but
+of very inconsiderable amount, the exports consisting chiefly of a
+little coffee (in 1871 nearly six thousand piculs), which, from bad
+management, is worth thirty per cent. less than Manila coffee, and of
+the collected products of the forest and of the water, such as wax,
+birds'-nests, tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible
+holothuria. This trade, as well as that with Sulu, is entirely in the
+hands of the Chinese, who alone possess the patience, adaptiveness,
+and adroitness which are required for the purpose.
+
+[Sual's foreign trade.] Sual is specially important for its exports
+of rice; and its foreign trade is therefore affected by the results of
+the harvests in Saigon, Burma, and China. In 1868, when the harvests in
+those countries turned out good, Sual carried on only a coasting trade.
+
+[Cebu.] Cebu (with a population of 34,000) is the chief town of the
+island of the same name, the seat of Government and of the bishop of
+the Bisayas, and within forty-eight hours from Manila by steamer. It
+is as favorably situated with regard to the eatern portion of the
+Bisayan group as Iloilo is for the western, and is acquiring increased
+importance as the emporium for its products. Sugar and tobacco are
+obtained from Bohol; rice from Panay; abacá from Leyte and Mindanao;
+and coffee, wax, Spanish cane, and mother-of-pearl from Misamis
+(Mindanao). Its distance from Samar is twenty-six, from Leyte two
+and a half, from Bohol four, and from Negros eighteen miles.
+
+[Cebu island.] The island of Cebu extends over seventy-five square
+miles. A lofty mountain range traverses it from north to south,
+dividing the east from the west side, and its population is
+estimated at 340,000,--4,533 to the square mile. The inhabitants
+are peaceable and docile; thefts occur very seldom, and robberies
+never. Their occupations are agriculture, fishing, and weaving for
+home consumption. Cebu produces sugar, tobacco, maize, rice, etc.,
+and in the mountains potatoes; but the rice produced does not suffice
+for their requirements, there being only a little level land, and
+the deficiency is imported from Panay.
+
+[Land tenure.] The island possesses considerable beds of coal, the
+full yield of which may now be looked for, as the duty on export was
+abandoned by a decree of the 5th of May, 1869. [211] While in Luzon
+and Panay the land is for the most part the property of the peasantry,
+in Cebu it mostly belongs to the mestizos, and is let out by them,
+in very small allotments, upon lease. The owners of the soil know how
+to keep the peasants in a state of dependence by usurious loans; and
+one of the results of this abuse is that agriculture in this island
+stands lower than in almost any other part of the archipelago. [212]
+[Customhouse data.] The entire value of the exports in 1868 amounted
+to $1,181,050; of which sugar to the value of $481,127, and abacá to
+the value of $378,256; went to England, abacá amounting to $112,000
+to America, and tobacco to $118,260 to Spain. The imports of foreign
+goods, mostly by the Chinese, come through Manila, where they
+purchase from the foreign import houses. The value of these imports
+amounted in 1868 to $182,522; of which $150,000 were for English
+cotton stuffs. The entire imports of the island were estimated at
+$1,243,582, and the exports at $226,898. Among the importations
+were twenty chests of images, a sign of the deeply-rooted worship
+of the Virgin. Formerly the products for exportation were bought up
+by the foreign merchants, mostly Chinese mestizos; but now they are
+bought direct from the producers, who thus obtain better prices in
+consequence of the abolition of the high brokerages. To this and to
+the energy of the foreign merchants, under favorable circumstances,
+is the gradual improvement of agriculture principally to be ascribed.
+
+[Iloilo.] Iloilo is the most important of the newly opened ports,
+being the central point of the Bisayan group, and situated in one
+of the most thickly populated and industrious provinces. Nicholas
+Loney [213] estimates the export of goods woven from the fiber of
+the piña, from Iloilo, and the neighboring provinces, at about one
+million dollars annually. The harbor is excellent, being completely
+protected by an island which lies immediately before it; and at high
+tide there is about twelve feet of water close in shore for vessels
+to lie in. On account of the bar, however, ships of a deeper draught
+than this are obliged to complete their loading outside. Previous
+to the opening of the new harbors, all the provinces were compelled
+as well to bring their products intended for exportation to Manila,
+as to receive from the same place their foreign imports; the cost
+of which therefore was greatly increased through the extra expenses
+incurred by the double voyage, reloading, brokerage, and wharfage
+charges. According to a written account by N. Loney, it is shown how
+profitable, even after a few years, the opening of Iloilo has been to
+the provinces immediately adjoining--the islands of Panay and Negros.
+
+[Sugar.] The higher prices which can be obtained for directly
+exported sugar, combined with the facility and security of the
+trade as contrasted with the late monopoly enjoyed by Manila, have
+occasioned a great extension of the cultivation of that article. Not
+only in Iloilo, but also in Antique and Negros, many new plantations
+have arisen, and the old ones have been enlarged as much as possible;
+and not less important has been the progress in the manufacture. In
+1857 there was not one iron mill to be found on the island; so that,
+in working with the wooden mill, about thirty per cent. of the sap
+remained in the cane, even after it had thrice passed through. The
+old wooden presses, which were worked by steam or carabaos, have now
+been supplanted by new ones; and these the native planters have no
+difficulty in obtaining, as they can get them on credit from the
+warehouses of the English importers. Instead of the old Chinese
+cast-iron pans which were in use, far superior articles have been
+imported from Europe; and many large factories worked by steam-power
+and with all modern improvements have been established. In agriculture,
+likewise, creditable progress is noticeable. Improved ploughs, carts,
+and farming implements generally, are to be had in plenty. These
+changes naturally show how important it was to establish at different
+points, extending over two hundred miles of the Archipelago, commercial
+centers, where it was desirable that foreigners should settle. Without
+these latter, and the facilities afforded to credit which thereby
+ensued, the sudden rise and prosperity of Iloilo would not have been
+possible, inasmuch as the mercantile houses in that capital would have
+been debarred from trading with unknown planters in distant provinces,
+otherwise than for ready money. A large number of half-castes, too,
+who before traded in manufactured goods purchased in Manila, were
+enabled after this to send their goods direct to the provinces, to the
+foreign firms settled there; and as, ultimately, neither these latter
+nor the Chinese retail dealers could successfully compete with them,
+the result has been that, as much to their own profit as to that of the
+country, they have betaken themselves to the cultivation of sugar. In
+this manner important plantations have been established in Negros,
+which are managed by natives of Iloilo: but there is a scarcity of
+laborers on the island.
+
+[Land disputes.] Foreigners now can legally acquire property, and
+possess a marketable title; in which respect the law, until a very
+recent period, was of an extremely uncertain nature. Land is to be
+obtained by purchase, or, when not already taken up, by "denuncia"
+(i.e. priority of claim). In such case, the would-be possessor of
+the land must enter into an undertaking in the nearest of the native
+Courts to cultivate and keep the said land in a fit and serviceable
+condition. Should no other claim be put in, notice is thereupon given
+of the grant, and the magistrate or alcalde concludes the compact
+without other cost than the usual stamp duty.
+
+[Lack of capital for large plantations.] Many mestizos and natives,
+not having the necessary capital to carry on a large plantation
+successfully, sell the fields which they have already partially
+cultivated to European capitalists, who are thus relieved of all the
+preliminary tedious work. Evidently the Colonial Government is now
+sincerely disposed to favor the laying out of large plantations.
+
+[Lack of roads.] The want of good roads is particularly felt: but, with
+the increase of agriculture, this defect will naturally be remedied;
+and, moreover, most of the sugar factories are situated on rivers which
+are unnavigable even by flat freight boats. The value of land in many
+parts of the country has doubled within the last ten years. [214]
+
+[Sugar prices.] Up to 1854 the picul of sugar was worth in Iloilo from
+$1.05 to $1.25 and seldom over $2.00 in Manila; in 1866, $3.25; and
+in 1868, $4.75 to $5.00 in Iloilo. The business in Iloilo therefore
+shows an increase of $1.75 per picul. [215]
+
+[Negros.] At the end of 1856 there were as many as twenty Europeans
+established on the island of Negros as sugar planters, besides a
+number of mestizos. Some of them were working with steam machinery
+and vacuum pans. The general rate of pay is from $2.05 to $3.00 per
+month. On some plantations the principle of acsa, i.e. part share,
+is in operation. The owner lets out a piece of ground, providing
+draught cattle and all necessary ploughing implements, to a native,
+who works it, and supplies the mill with the cut cane, receiving as
+payment a share, generally a third, of the product. In Negros the
+violet cane is cultivated, and in Manila the white (Otaheiti). The
+land does not require manuring. On new ground, or what we may term
+virgin soil, the cane often grows to a height of thirteen feet. A vast
+improvement is to be observed in the mode of dress of the people. Piña
+and silk stuffs are beoming quite common. Advance in luxury is always
+a favorable sign; according to the increase of requirements, industry
+flourishes in proportion.
+
+[The future sugar market.] As I have already mentioned,
+California, Japan, China, and Australia appear designed by nature
+to be the principal consumers of the products of the Philippine
+Islands. Certainly at present England is the best customer; but
+nearly half the account is for sugar, in consequence of their own
+custom duties. Sometimes it happens that not more than one-fourth of
+the sugar crop is sufficiently refined to compete in the Australian
+and Californian markets with the sorts from Bengal, Java, and the
+Mauritius; the remaining three-fourths, if particularly white, must
+perforce undertake the long voyage to England, despite the high freight
+and certain loss on the voyage of from ten to twelve per cent. through
+the leakage of the molasses. The inferior quality of the Philippine
+sugar is at once perceived by the English refiners, and is only taxed
+at 8s. per cwt., while purer sorts pay 10s. to 12s. [216]
+
+[A valuable by-product.] In this manner the English customs favor the
+inferior qualities of manufactured sugar. The colonial Government
+did not allow those engaged in the manufacture of sugar to distil
+rum from the molasses until the year 1862. They had, therefore,
+little inducement to extract, at a certain expense, a substance the
+value on which they were not permitted to realize; but under ordinary
+circumstances the distillation of the rum not only covered the cost
+of refining, but gave, in addition, a fair margin of profit.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+
+[Manila hemp.] One of the most interesting productions of the island
+is Manila hemp. The French, who, however, hardly use it, call it
+"Silk-Plant," because of its silky appearance.
+
+The natives call the fiber bandala, and in commerce (generally
+speaking) abacá, just as the plant from which it is obtained.
+
+[Abacá.] The latter is a wild species of banana growing in the
+Philippine Islands, known also as Arbol de Cañamo (hemp-tree), Musa
+textilis, Lin. It does not differ in appearance to any great extent
+from the edible banana (Musa paradisiaca), one of the most important
+plants of the torrid zone, and familiar to us as being one of our
+most beautiful hot-house favorites.
+
+[Undetermined plant relations.] Whether this and the "musae"
+(M. troglodytarum, M. sylvestris, and others), frequently known,
+too, as M. textilis, are of the same species, has not yet been
+determined. The species Musaceae are herbaceous plants only. The
+outer stem consists of crescent-shaped petioles crossing one another
+alternately, and encircling the thin main stem. These petioles contain
+a quantity of bast fiber, which is used as string, but otherwise is
+of no commercial value. The serviceable hemp fiber has, up to the
+present time, been exclusively obtained from the southern portion of
+the Philippines.
+
+[Abacá districts.] The southern Camarines and Albay are favorably
+adapted for the cultivation of this plant, as are also the islands
+of Samar and Leyte, and the adjacent islands; and Cebu likewise,
+although a portion of the so-called "Cebu hemp" comes from Mindanao. In
+Negros the bast-banana thrives only in the south, not in the north;
+and Iloilo, which produces most of the hemp cloth (guinara), is
+obliged to import the raw material from the eastern district, as it
+does not flourish in the island of Panay. In Capiz, it is true, some
+abacá may be noticed growing, but it is of trifling value. Hitherto
+all attempts, strenuous though the efforts were, to acclimatize the
+growth of hemp in the western and northern provinces have failed. The
+plants rarely grow as high as two feet, and the trouble and expense
+are simply unremunerative. This failure may be accounted for by the
+extreme dryness prevailing during many months of the year, whereas
+in the eastern provinces plentiful showers fall the whole year round.
+
+[Peculiar to the Philippines.] The great profit which the Manila
+hemp has yielded in the few years since its production, however, has
+given encouragement to still further experiments; so that, indeed,
+it will shortly be shown whether the cultivation of abacá is to be
+confined to its present limited area, while the edible species of
+banana has spread itself over the whole surface of the earth within
+the tropics. On the volcanic mountains of Western Java a species
+of the Musaceae grows in great luxuriance. The Government has not,
+however, made any real effort to cultivate it, and what has been done
+in that respect has been effected, up to the present date, by private
+enterprise. Various writers have stated that abacá is to be obtained
+in the north of the Celebes. Bickmore, however, says positively that
+the inhabitants having made great efforts in attempting its successful
+cultivation, have abandoned it again in favor of the cultivation of
+coffee, which is found to be far more profitable. [217] According to
+previous statements, Guadaloupe appears to be able to produce abacá
+(fiber of the M. textilis?); [218] and Pondicherry and Guadaloupe
+have produced fabrics woven from abacá, and French Guiana stuffs
+from the fiber of the edible banana; [219] all these, however, are
+only experiments.
+
+[Superiority of fiber.] Royle affirms that the Manila hemp (abacá
+fiber) excels the Russian in firmness, lightness, and strength in
+tension, as well as in cheapness, and has only the one disadvantage
+that ropes made from it become stiff in wet weather. The reason,
+however, is found in the manner in which it is spun, and may be
+avoided by proper preparation. [220] Through the better preparation
+of the raw material in Manila by means of adequate machinery, these
+difficulties have been overcome; but abacá no longer has the advantage
+of superior cheapness, as the demand has increased much faster than
+the supply. During the year 1859 it was worth from £22 to £25 per ton;
+in 1868, £45 per ton; while Russian hemp fetched £31 per ton. Thus
+in nine years it rose to double its value.
+
+[Banana varieties.] In Albay there are about twelve varieties
+of the best banana cultivated, which are particularly favored by
+the qualities of the soil. The cultivation is extremely simple,
+and entirely independent of the seasons. The plants thrive best on
+the slopes of the volcanic mountains (in which Albay and Camarines
+abound), in open spaces of the woods protected by the trees, which
+cast their shadows to an extent of about sixty feet. In exposed level
+ground they do not thrive so well, and in marshy land not at all.
+
+[Cultivation.] In the laying out of a new plantation the young shoots
+are generally made use of, which sprout so abundantly from the roots
+that each individual one soon becomes a perfect plant. In favorable
+ground the custom is to allow a distance of about ten feet between
+each plant; in poor ground six feet. The only care necessary is
+the extermination of the weeds, and clearing away the undergrowth
+during the first season; later on, the plants grow so luxuriantly
+and strongly that they entirely prevent the growth of anything
+else in their vicinity. The protection afforded by the shade of the
+trees at this period is no longer required, the young buds finding
+sufficient protection against the sun's rays under cover of the
+fan-like leaves. Only in exceptional cases, contrary to the usual
+practice, are the plants raised from seed. The fruit, when ready,
+is cut off and dried, though care must be taken that it is not over
+ripe; otherwise the kernels will not germinate. These latter are about
+the size of peppercorns; and the extraction of them in the edible
+species almost always brings about decay. Two days before sowing,
+the kernels are taken out of the fruit, and steeped overnight in
+water; on the following day they are dried in a shady place; and on
+the third day they are sown in holes an inch deep in fresh, unbroken,
+and well-shaded forest ground, allowing six inches distance between
+each plant and row. After a year the seedlings, which are then about
+two feet high, are planted out, and tended in the same way as the
+suckers. [Differences with abacá.] While many of the edible bananas
+bear fruit after one year, and a few varieties even after six months,
+the abacá plant requires on an average three years to produce its
+fiber in a proper condition; when raised from suckers four years;
+and raised from year-old seedlings, even under the most favorable
+conditions, two years.
+
+[Cutting.] On the first crop, only one stalk is cut from each bush;
+but later on the new branches grow so quickly that they can be cut
+every two months. [221] After a few years the plants become so strong
+and dense that it is scarcely possible to push through them. Bast is
+in its best condition at the time of blossoming; but, when the price
+of the fiber happens to stand high in the market, this particular
+time is not always waited for.
+
+[Prejudice against cutting after blossoming.] Plants which have
+blossomed cease to be profitable in any way, by reason of the fiber
+becoming too weak--a matter of too great nicety for the unpractical
+consumers on the other side of the Atlantic to decide upon, and one
+in which, despite inquiries and careful inspections, they might be
+deceived. There really is no perceptible reason why the fiber should
+become weaker through fructification, which simply consists in the fact
+of the contents of the vascular cells changing into soluble matter,
+and gradually oozing away, the consequence of which is that the cells
+of the fiber are not replenished. These, on the contrary, acquire
+additional strength with the age of the plant, because the emptied
+cells cling so firmly together, by means of a certain resinous deposit,
+that it is impossible to obtain them unbroken without a great deal of
+trouble. The idea may have erroneously arisen from the circumstance
+that, previously to drying, as with hemp, the old plants were picked
+out, and allowed to be thrown away, though not without considerably
+increasing the rate of pay, which already consumed the greater part
+of the general expenses. [222]
+
+[Extracting the fiber.] In order to obtain the bast, the stalk above
+ground is closely pruned and freed from leaves and other encumbrances;
+each leaf is then singly divided into strips--a cross incision being
+made through the membrane on the inner or concave side, and connected
+by means of the pulpy parts (the parenchym) clinging together. In
+this manner as much as possible of the clear outer skin only remains
+behind. Another method is to strip the bast from the undivided stem. To
+effect this the operator makes an oblique incision in the skin of
+the under part of the stalk, drawing the knife gradually to the tip,
+and stripping off the whole length as broad a piece as possible; and
+the operation is repeated as many times as practicable. This method
+of handling is more productive than the one previously described;
+but, on the other hand, it takes considerably more time, and for
+that reason is not often practised. The strips of bast are then drawn
+under a knife, the blade of which is three inches broad by six long,
+fastened at one end to the extremity of a flexible stick so that it
+is suspended perpendicularly over a well-smoothed block, and at the
+other end to a handle connected by means of a cord to a treadle, which
+can be pressed firmly down, as occasion requires. The workman draws
+the bast, without any regard to quality, between the knife and block,
+commencing in the middle, and then from side to side. The knife must
+be free from notches, or all indentations, according to the direction
+of Father Blanco. [223]
+
+[Laborers' work and wages.] Three hired-men usually get twenty-five
+pounds per day. One worker cuts up the stalks, strips off the leaves,
+and attends to the supply; the second, frequently a boy, spreads out
+the strips; and the third draws them under the knife. A single plant
+has been known to yield as much as two pounds of fiber; but the most
+favorable average rarely affords more than one pound, and plants grown
+in indifferent soil scarcely a sixth of that quantity. The plantations
+are worked either by the owner or by day-laborers, who, when the market
+prices are very low, take half share of the crop harvested by them. In
+these cases an industrious workman may obtain as much as one picul in
+a week. During my stay exceptionally low prices ruled--sixteen and
+one-half reals per picul undelivered. The workman could, therefore,
+in six days earn half the amount, viz., eight and a quarter reals at
+a rate of one and three-eighths reals per day. The day's pay at that
+time was half a real, and board a quarter of a real, making together
+three-quarters of a real.
+
+[Profit.]
+
+
+                                        By daily pay.   Half share.
+
+The workman therefore earned daily                   0.75 r. or     1.375 r.
+Wages amounted to per picul                         12. 6 r. or     8. 25 r.
+Profit of the planters after deduction of the wages  3. 9 r. or     8. 25 r.
+
+
+[Lupis and bandala.] The edges of the petioles, which contain much
+finer fiber than the middle parts, are separately divided into strips
+an inch wide, and with strong pressure are drawn several times under
+the knife. This substance, which is called lupis, is in high request,
+being employed in the native weaving; while is chiefly used for ships'
+rigging. [224]
+
+[Grades of Lupis.] Lupis, according to the fineness of the fiber,
+is sorted into four classes--first, Binani; second, Totogna; third,
+Sogotan; and fourth, Cadaclan. A bundle of these is then taken up in
+the left hand, and, while with the right the first three sorts are
+inserted between the fingers, the fourth is held between the thumb and
+forefinger. This last description is no longer used in fine weaving,
+and is therefore sold with bandala. After the fine sorts have been
+pounded in a rice-mortar, in order to render the fiber soft and
+pliable, they are severally knotted into one another, and converted
+into web.
+
+[Lupis fabrics.] Generally the first sort is worked as woof with the
+second as warp, and the third as warp with the second as woof. The
+fabrics so woven are nearly as fine as piña fabrics (Nipis de Piña),
+and almost equal the best quality of cambric; and, notwithstanding
+the many little nodules occasioned by the tangling of the fiber,
+which may be discerned on close inspection, are clearer and stouter,
+and possess a warmer yellowish tint. [225] As to these last three
+qualities--purity, flexibility, and color--they stand in relation to
+cambric somewhat as cardboard to tissue-paper.
+
+[Weaving.] Weaving such fabrics on very simple looms is exceedingly
+troublesome as the fibers, which are not spun but twisted, very
+frequently break. The finest stuffs require so great an amount of
+dexterity, patience, and time in their preparation, and for that reason
+are so expensive, that they would find no purchasers in Europe where
+there is the competition of cheap, machine-made goods. Their fine,
+warm yellowish color also is objected to by the European women, who are
+accustomed to linen and calicoes strongly blued in the washing. In the
+country, however, high prices are paid for them by the rich mestizos,
+who understand the real goodness of their qualities.
+
+[Bandala fabrics.] The fibers of the inner petioles, which are softer
+but not so strong as the outer, are called tupus, and sold with
+bandala, or mixed with tapis and used in the native weaving. Bandala
+also serves for weaving purposes; and, in that portion of the
+Archipelago where the native abacá plantations are, the entire dress
+of both sexes is made of coarse guinara. Still coarser and stronger
+fabrics are prepared for the European market, such as crinoline and
+stiff muslin used by dressmakers.
+
+[A Pre-Spanish product.] Before the arrival of the Spaniards the
+natives wore stuffs from abacá; which became an important article of
+export only some few decades since. This is in great measure due to
+the enterprising spirit of two American firms, and would not have been
+attained without great perseverance and liberal pecuniary assistance.
+
+[Unbusinesslike early methods.] The plants flourish without any care
+or attention, the only trouble being to collect the fiber; and, the
+bounteousness of Nature having provided them against want, the natives
+shirk even this trouble when the market price is not very enticing. In
+general low prices are scarcely to be reckoned on, because of the
+utter indifference of the laborers, over whom the traders do not
+possess enough influence to keep them at work. Advances to them are
+made both in goods and money, which the creditor must repay either
+by produce from his own plantation or by giving an equivalent in
+labor. [226] As long as the produce stands high in price, everything
+goes on pretty smoothly, although even then, through the dishonesty of
+the workers and the laziness, extravagance, and mercantile incapacity
+of the middlemen, considerable loss frequently ensues. If, however,
+prices experience any considerable fall, then the laborers seek in any
+and every way to get out of their uncomfortable position, whilst the
+percentage of profit secured to the middleman is barely sufficient
+to cover the interest on his outlay. Nevertheless, they must still
+continue the supplies, inasmuch as they possess no other means of
+securing payment of their debt in the future. The laborers, in their
+turn, bring bitter complaints against the agents, to the effect that
+they are forced to severe labor, unprofitable to themselves, through
+their acceptance of advances made to them at most exorbitant rates; and
+the agents (generally mestizos or creoles) blame the crafty, greedy,
+extortionate foreigners, who shamelessly tempt the lords of the soil
+with false promises, and bring about their utter ruin. [Change to a
+safer basis.] As a general rule, the "crafty foreigner" experiences
+a considerable diminution of his capital. It was just so that one of
+the most important firms suffered the loss of a very large sum. At
+length, however, the Americans, who had capital invested in this trade,
+succeeded in putting an end to the custom of advances, which hitherto
+had prevailed, erected stores and presses on their own account,
+and bought through their agents direct from the growers. All earlier
+efforts tending in this direction had been effectually thwarted by
+the Spaniards and creoles, who considered the profits derived from
+the country, and especially the inland retail trade, to be their own
+by prescriptive right. They are particularly jealous of the foreign
+intruders, who enrich themselves at their expense; consequently they
+place every obstacle in their way. If it depended upon the will of
+these people, all foreigners would be ejected from the country--the
+Chinese alone, as workmen (coolies), being allowed to remain. [227]
+
+[Anti-Chinese feeling.] The same feeling was exhibited by the natives
+towards the Chinese, whom they hated for being industrious and
+trustworthy workers. All attempts to carry out great undertakings
+by means of Chinese labor were frustrated by the native workmen
+intimidating them, and driving them away either by open violence or
+by secret persecution; and the Colonial authorities were reproached
+for not affording suitable protection against these and similar
+outrages. That, as a rule, great undertakings did not succeed in the
+Philippines, or at least did not yield a profit commensurate with
+the outlay and trouble, is a fact beyond dispute, and is solely to
+be ascribed to many of the circumstances related above. [Good work
+for good pay.] There are those, however, who explain these mishaps
+in other ways, and insist upon the fact that the natives work well
+enough when they are punctually and sufficiently paid. The Government,
+at any rate, appears gradually to have come to the conclusion that
+the resources of the country cannot be properly opened up without
+the assistance of the capital and enterprise of the [Tardy justice
+to foreigners.] foreigners; and, therefore, of late years it has not
+in any way interfered with their establishment. In 1869 their right
+of establishment was tardily conceded to them by law.
+
+[Abacá production and prospects.] At this period the prospects of the
+abacá cultivation seemed very promising; and since the close of the
+American war, which had the effect of causing a considerable fall in
+the value of this article in America, the prices have been steadily
+increasing. It is stated (on authority) that, in 1840, 136,034 piculs
+of abacá, to the value of $397,995 were exported, the value per picul
+being reckoned at about $2.09. The rate gradually rose and stood
+between four and five dollars--and, during the civil war, reached the
+enormous sum of nine dollars per picul--the export of Russian hemp
+preventing, however, a further rise. This state of affairs occasioned
+the laying out of many new plantations, the produce of which, when
+it came on the market, after three years, was valued at $3.50 per
+picul, in consequence of the prices having returned to their normal
+condition; and even then it paid to take up an existing plantation,
+but not to lay out a new one. This rate continued until 1860, since
+which time it has gradually risen (only during the American civil
+war was there any stoppage), and it now stands once more as high as
+during the civil war; and there is no apparent prospect of a fall so
+long as the Philippines have no competitors in the trade. In 1865 the
+picul in Manila never cost less than $7 which two years previously
+was the maximum value; and it rose gradually, until $9.50 was asked
+for ordinary qualities. The production in many provinces had reached
+the extreme limit; and a further increase, in the former at least,
+is impossible, as the work of cultivation occupies the whole of the
+male population--an evidence surely that a suitable recompense will
+overcome any natural laziness of the natives. [228]
+
+An examination of the following table will confirm the accuracy of
+these views:--
+
+[Export of "Manila hemp."]
+
+Export of Abacá (In Piculs).
+
+To                  1861    1864    1866    1868    1870    1871
+
+Great Britain       198,954 226,258  96,000 125,540 131,180 143,498
+North America,
+Atlantic Ports      158,610 249,106 280,000 294,728 327,728 285,112
+California            6,600   9,426      --  14,200  15,900  22,500
+Europe                  901   1,134      --     200     244     640
+Australia                16   5,194      --  21,244  11,434   6,716
+Singapore             2,648   1,932      --   3,646   1,202   2,992
+China                 5,531     302      --      --     882   2,294
+
+Total               273,260 493,352 406,682 460,588 488,570 463,752
+
+Commercial Report
+Prussian Consular Report
+Belgian Consular Report
+English Consular Report
+Market Report, T.H. & Co.
+
+
+[Large local consumption.] The consumption in the country is not
+contained in the above schedule, and is difficult to ascertain; but
+it must certainly be very considerable, as the natives throughout
+entire provinces are clothed in guinara, the weaving of which for
+the family requirements generally is done at home.
+
+[Sisal-hemp.] Sisal, also sisal-hemp, or, as it is sometimes known,
+Mexican grass, has for some years past been used in the trade in
+increasing quantities as a substitute for abacá, which it somewhat
+resembles in appearance, though wanting that fine gloss which the
+latter possesses. It is somewhat weaker, and costs from £5 to £10 less
+per ton; it is only used for ships' rigging. The refuse from it has
+been found an extremely useful adjunct to the materials ordinarily
+used in the manufacture of paper. The Technologist for July, 1865,
+calls attention to the origin of this substitute, in a detailed
+essay differing essentially from the representations contained in the
+"U. S. Agricultural Report" published at Washington in 1870; and the
+growing importance of the article, and the ignorance prevailing abroad
+as to its extraction, may render a short account of it acceptable. The
+description shows the superior fineness of the abacá fiber, but not
+its greater strength. [229]
+
+[Varieties of sisal.] Sisal-hemp, which is named after the export
+harbor of Sisal (in the north-western part of the peninsula), is by
+far the most important product of Yucatan; and this rocky, sun-burnt
+country seems peculiarly adapted to the growth of the fiber. In Yucatan
+the fiber is known as jenequem, as indeed the plant is obtained from
+it. Of the latter there are seven sorts or varieties for purposes of
+cultivation; only two, the first and seventh, are also to be found
+in a wild state. First, Chelem, apparently identical with Agave
+angustifolia; this ranks first. Second, Yaxci (pronounced Yachki;
+from yax, green, and tri, agave), the second in order; this is used
+only for fine weaving. Third, Sacci (pronounced Sakki; sack, white),
+the most important and productive, supplying almost exclusively the
+fiber for exportation; each plant yields annually twenty-five leaves,
+weighing twenty-five pounds, from which is obtained one pound of clear
+fiber. Fourth, Chucumci, similar to No. 3, but coarser. Fifth, Babci;
+the fiber very fair, but the leaves rather small, therefore not very
+productive. Sixth, Citamci (pronounced Kitamki; kitam, hog); neither
+good nor productive. Seventh, Cajun or Cajum, probably Fourcroya
+cubensis; leaves small, from four to five inches long.
+
+[Machine-spinning.] The cultivation of sisal has only in recent times
+been prosecuted vigorously; and the extraction of the fiber from the
+leaves, and the subsequent spinning for ships' rigging, are already
+done by steam-machinery. This occupation is especially practiced by
+the Maya Indians, a memorial of the Toltecs, who brought it with them
+upon their emigration from Mexico, where it was in vogue long before
+the arrival of the Spaniards.
+
+[Profit.] The sisal cultivation yields an annual profit of 95 per
+cent. A mecate, equal to five hundred seventy-six square yards (varas),
+contains sixty-four plants, giving sixty-four pounds of clear fiber,
+of the value of $3.84; which, after deducting $1.71, the cost of
+obtaining it, leaves $2.13 remaining. The harvesting commences from
+four to five years after the first laying out of the plantation,
+and continues annually for about fifty or sixty years.
+
+[Banana substitute unsatisfactory.] In tropical countries there
+is scarcely a hut to be seen without banana trees surrounding it;
+and the idea presented itself to many to utilize the fiber of these
+plants, at that time entirely neglected, which might be done by the
+mere labor of obtaining it; besides which, the little labor required
+for their proper cultivation is quickly and amply repaid by their
+abundant fruitfulness. [230]
+
+This idea, however, under the existing circumstances, would certainly
+not be advantageous in the Philippines, as it does not pay to obtain
+bast from the genuine abacá plant as soon as it has borne fruit. The
+fiber of the edible banana might very well be used as material for
+paper-making, though obtaining it would cost more than the genuine
+bandala.
+
+[Fiber-extracting machinery.] In the Report of the Council of the
+Society of Arts, London, May 11, 1860, attention was called to a
+machine invented by F. Burke, of Montserrat, for obtaining fiber from
+banana and other endogenous plants. While all the earlier machines
+worked the fiber parallelwise, this one operated obliquely on it;
+the consequence of which was that it was turned out particularly
+clear. With this machine, from seven to nine per cent. of fibrous
+substance may be obtained from the banana. The Tropical Fiber Company
+have sent these machines to Demerara, also to Java and other places,
+with the design of spinning the fiber of the edible banana, and also
+to utilize some portions of the plant as materials in the manufacture
+of paper. Proofs have already been brought forward of fiber obtained
+in this manner in Java, the value of which to the spinner has been
+reckoned at from £20 to £25. It does not appear, however, that these
+promising experiments have led to any important results; at least,
+the consular reports which have come to hand contain no information
+on the subject. In the obtaining of bandala in the Philippines this
+machine has not yet been used; nor has it even been seen, though the
+English consul, in his latest report, complains that all the hitherto
+ingeniously constructed machines have proved virtually useless.
+
+The bast of the edible banana continues still to be used in the
+Philippines, notwithstanding that the plants, instead of being grown,
+as in many parts of America, in large well-tended gardens, are here
+scattered around the huts; but the forwarding of the raw material,
+the local transport, and the high freightage will always render this
+material too expensive for the European market (considering always its
+very ordinary quality)--£10 per ton at the very least; while "Sparto
+grass" (Lygaeum spartum, Loeffl.), [Paper-making materials.] which
+was imported some few years since in considerable quantities for
+the purpose of paper-making, costs in London only £5 per ton. [231]
+The jute (Corchurus casularis) coffee-sacks supply another cheap paper
+material. These serve in the fabrication of strong brown packing paper,
+as the fiber will not stand bleaching. According to P. Symmonds,
+the United States in recent years have largely used bamboo. The rind
+of the Adansonia digitata also yields an extremely good material;
+in particular, paper made entirely from New Zealand flax deserves
+consideration, being, by virtue of its superior toughness, eminently
+suited for "bill paper."
+
+[Preferability of discarded cloth.] It must not be overlooked that, in
+the manufacture of paper, worn linen and cotton rags are the very best
+materials that can be employed, and make the best paper. Moreover,
+they are generally to be had for the trouble of collecting them,
+after they have once covered the cost of their production in the
+form of clothing materials; when, through being frayed by repeated
+washings, they undergo a preparation which particularly adapts them
+to the purpose of paper-making.
+
+[Increasing use of wood and straw.] The more paper-making progresses,
+the more are ligneous fibers brought forward, particularly wood and
+straw, which produce really good pastes; all the raw materials being
+imported from a distance. That England takes so much sparto is easily
+explained by the fact that she has very little straw of her own,
+for most of the grain consumed by her is received from abroad in a
+granulated condition.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+
+[Tobacco revenue.] Of all the productions of the country tobacco is
+the most important, so far (at least) as concerns the Government,
+which have the cultivation of this plant, its manipulation, and sale,
+the subjects of an extensive and strictly guarded monopoly, and derives
+a very considerable portion of the public revenue therefrom. [232]
+As to the objections raised against this revenue on the score of its
+being opposed to justice and morality, many other sources of revenue in
+the colonial budget might be condemned (such as the poll-tax, gaming
+and opium licenses, the brandy trade, and the sale of indulgences);
+yet none is so invidious and pernicious as the tobacco monopoly.
+
+[Injustice of the monopoly.] Often in the course of this narrative
+of my travels I have had occasion to commend the clemency of the
+Spanish Government. In glaring contrast therewith, however, stands the
+management of the tobacco regulations. They appropriated the fields of
+the peasantry without the slightest indemnification--fields which had
+been brought under cultivation for their necessary means of sustenance;
+forced them, under penalty of bodily punishment, to raise, on the
+confiscated property, an article which required an immense amount
+of trouble and attention, and which yielded a very uncertain crop;
+and they then valued the harvested leaves arbitrarily and without any
+appeal, and, in the most favorable case, paid for them at a nominal
+price fixed by themselves. To be paid at all, indeed, appears to have
+been a favor, for it has not been done in full now for several years in
+succession. Spain regularly remains indebted to the unlucky peasants
+in the amount of the miserable pittance allowed, from one year's end
+to another. The Government ordered the officials to exact a higher
+return from the impoverished population of the tobacco districts; and
+even rewarded informers who, after pointing out fields already owned,
+but which were considered suitable to the cultivation of tobacco,
+were installed into possession of the proclaimed lands in the place
+of the original owners.
+
+For proofs of these accusations, one need only peruse a few paragraphs
+contained in the following stringent regulations, entitled "General
+Instructions," [233] and, further, a few extracts from the official
+dispatches of Intendant-General Agius to the Colonial Minister:-- [234]
+
+[Résumé of regulations] Cap. 25, § 329. The compulsory system of
+cultivation in Cagayan, New Vizcaya, Gapan, Igorots, and Abra to
+remain in force.
+
+§ 331. The Director-General of the Government is authorized to
+extend compulsory labor to the other provinces, or to abolish it
+where already introduced. These instructions may be altered wholly
+or in part as occasion requires.
+
+§ 332. Prices may be either increased or lowered.
+
+§ 337. Claims or actions concerning the possession of tobacco
+lands pending before the usual tribunal shall not prevent such
+lands from being used for the purposes of tobacco cultivation, the
+present proprietor being under strict obligation to continue the
+cultivation either in person or by substitute. (If he omits to do so,
+the magistrate or judge takes upon himself to appoint such substitute.)
+
+§ 351. The collectors have received denuncies, i.e. information,
+that land adapted to tobacco growing is lying fallow, and that it is
+private property. In case such land is really suitable to the purposes
+of tobacco cultivation, the owners thereof are hereby summoned to
+cultivate the same with tobacco in preference to anything else. At
+the expiration of a certain space of time the land in question
+is to be handed over to the informer. Be it known, however, that,
+notwithstanding these enactments, the possessory title is not lost to
+the owner, but he is compelled to relinquish all rights and usufruct
+for three years.
+
+Cap. 27, § 357. An important duty of the collector is to insure the
+greatest possible extension of the tobacco cultivation upon all
+suitable lands, but in particular upon those which are specially
+convenient and fertile. Lands which, although suitable for tobacco
+growing, were previously planted with rice or corn, shall, as far
+as practicable, be replaced by forest clearings, in order, as far as
+possible, to prevent famine and to bring the interests of the natives
+into harmony with those of the authorities.
+
+§ 351. In order that the work which the tobacco cultivation requires
+may not be neglected by the natives, and that they may perform the
+field work necessary for their sustenance, it is ordered that every
+two persons working together shall, between them cultivate eight
+thousand square varas, that is, two and one-half acres of tobacco land.
+
+§ 362. Should this arrangement fail to be carried out either through
+age, sickness, or death, it shall be left to the priest of the district
+to determine what quantity of work can be accomplished by the little
+children, having regard to their strength and number.
+
+§ 369. Every collector who consigns from his district 1,000 fardos
+more than in former years, shall receive for the overplus a double
+gratuity, but this only where the proportion of first-class leaves
+has not decreased.
+
+§ 370. The same gratuity will be bestowed when there is no diminution
+in bulk, and one-third of the leaves is of first-class quality.
+
+The following sections regulate the action of the local authorities:--
+
+§ 379. Every governor must present annually a list, revised by the
+priest of the district, of all the inhabitants in his district of both
+sexes, and of those of their children who are old enough to help in
+the fields.
+
+§ 430. The officers shall forward the emigrants on to Cagayan and
+Nueva Vizcaya, and will be entrusted with $5 for that purpose, which
+must be repaid by each individual, as they cannot be allowed to remain
+indebted in their province.
+
+§ 436. Further it is ordered by the Buen Gobierno (good government)
+that no Filipino shall be liable for a sum exceeding $5, incurred
+either as a loan or a simple debt. Thus the claim of a higher sum
+can not impede emigration.
+
+§ 437. The Hacienda (Public Treasury) shall pay the passage money
+and the cost of maintenance from Ilocos.
+
+§ 438. They are to be provided with the means of procuring cattle,
+tools, etc., until the first harvest (although the Indian is only
+liable for $5).
+
+§ 439. Such advances are, it is true, personal and individual; but,
+in the case of death or flight of the debtor, the whole village is
+to be liable for the amount due.
+
+[Tobacco from Mexico.] Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, L.) was introduced
+into the Philippines soon after the arrival of the Spaniards by the
+missionaries, who brought the seed with them from Mexico. [235] The
+soil and climate being favorable to its production, and the pleasure
+derived from it being speedily discovered by the natives, naturally
+assisted in its rapid adoption. Next to the Cuban tobacco and a
+few sorts of Turkish [236]it is admitted to be the best; and in the
+colony it is asserted by competent judges that it would soon surpass
+all others, if the existing regulations were abolished and free trade
+established. There can be no doubt in the minds of impartial observers
+that the quality and quantity of the produce might be considerably
+increased by such a change; on the other hand, many of the prejudiced
+officials certainly maintain the direct contrary. The real question is,
+to what extent these expectations may be realized in the fulfilment of
+such a measure; of course, bearing in mind that the judgment is swayed
+by a strong desire for the abolition of a system which interferes at
+present with their prospects of gain. But the fact is that, even now,
+the native grown tobacco, notwithstanding all the defects inseparable
+from an illicit trade, is equal to that produced by the [High grade
+of Philippine product.] Government officials in their own factories,
+and is valued at the same rate with many of the Havana brands; and
+the Government cigars of the Philippines are preferred to all others
+throughout Eastern Asia. Indeed, rich merchants, to whom a difference
+of price is no object, as a rule take the Manila cigars before Havanas.
+
+[Manila tobacco handicapped.] According to Agius ("Memoria," 1871), in
+the European market the Manila tobacco was admitted to be without any
+rival, with the sole exception of the Vuelta abajo of Cuba; and most
+certainly in the Asiatic and Oceanic ports its superior quality was
+undisputed, as the Havana tobacco loses its flavor on the long voyage
+to these countries; but now, from year to year, it is surely losing its
+reputation. If, then, the Manila cigars have not hitherto succeeded in
+making themselves acceptable in Europe on account of their inferiority,
+the blame is attributable simply to the system of compulsory labor,
+and the chronic insolvency of the Insular Treasury, whilst the produce
+of other tobacco countries has steadily progressed in quality in
+consequence of free competition. The fame of the Manila cigars may
+also have suffered in some slight measure from the wide-spread,
+though perfectly erroneous, idea that they contained opium.
+
+[Hampered by government restrictions.] How greatly the produce might be
+increased by means of free trade is shown under other circumstances by
+the example of Cuba. At the time when the Government there monopolized
+the tobacco trade, the crops were only partly sufficient to cover
+the home consumption; whereas, at the present time, Cuba supplies
+all the markets of the world. [237] The decision of Captain-General
+De la Gandara upon this question is in the highest degree worthy
+of notice. In a MS. Report to the Colonial Minister, March, 1858,
+concerning a measure for rendering the regulations of the tobacco
+monopoly still more stringent, he says: "If the tobacco cultivation
+is placed without restriction into the hands of private traders,
+we shall most probably, in a few years, be in a position to command
+nearly all the markets in the world." Most of the islands produce
+tobacco. According to the quality of the produce, the tobacco
+provinces rank in the following order: First, Cagayan and Isabela;
+Second, Igorots; Third, Island of Mindanao; Fourth, Bisayas; Fifth,
+Nueva Ecija.
+
+[Origin of monopoly.] From the Government Order, dated November 20,
+1625, it is evident that even at that early period the sale of betel
+nut, palm spirit (toddy), tobacco, etc., was a Government monopoly: but
+it does not seem to have been very strictly carried out. The tobacco
+monopoly, as it stands at present, the whole trade of which from the
+sowing of the seedling plants to the sale of the manufactured article
+is exclusively in the hands of the Government, was first introduced by
+Captain-General José Basco y Vargas. And a Government Order, under date
+of January 9, 1780 (confirmed by Departmental Regulations, December
+13, 1781), further enacted that the tobacco regulations should be
+extended to the Philippine Islands, in like manner as in all Spanish
+possessions in this and the other hemisphere (de uno y otto mundo).
+
+[Governor Basco's innovations.] Before the administration of this
+very jealous Governor, for a period of two hundred years the colony
+received annual contributions from New Spain (Situado de Nueva
+España). In order to relieve the Spanish Exchequer, from this charge
+Basco introduced (at that time national economic ideas prevailed of
+making the natural resources of a State supply its immediate wants)
+a plan upon which, fifty years later, Java modelled its "Culture
+System." In the Philippines, however, the conditions for this system
+were less favorable. In addition to the very slight submissiveness
+of the population, there were two great obstacles in the opposition
+of the priests and the want of trustworthy officials. Of all the
+provincial trades brought into existence by the energy of Basco, the
+indigo cultivation is the only one that remains in the hands of private
+individuals, the tobacco trade still being a Government monopoly. [238]
+Basco first of all confined the monopoly to the provinces immediately
+contiguous to the capital, in all of which the cultivation of tobacco
+was forbidden under penalty of severe punishment, except by persons
+duly authorized and in the service of the Government. [239] In the
+other provinces the cultivation was to a certain extent permitted;
+but the supply remaining after deduction of what was consumed in each
+province was to be sold to the Government only.
+
+[Speculation with public funds.] In the Bisayas the magistrates
+purchased the tobacco for the Government and paid for it at the rate
+previously fixed by the Government factories at Manila; and they
+were allowed to employ the surplus money of the Government treasury
+chest for this purpose. A worse system than this could scarcely be
+devised. Officials, thinking only of their own private advantage,
+suffered no competition in their provinces, employed their official
+power to oppress the producer to the utmost extent, and thereby
+naturally checked the production; and the Government treasury chest
+consequently suffered frequent losses through bankruptcies, inasmuch
+as the magistrates, who drew a salary of $600 and paid a license
+of from $100 to $300 for the right of trading, in order to make
+money quickly, engaged in the most hazardous speculations. In 1814
+this stupid arrangement was first put an end to; and forthwith the
+tobacco supplies from the Bisayas increased, through the competition
+of the private dealers, who then, for the first time, had the power of
+purchase; and from 1839 the planters were empowered to obtain higher
+prices than those afforded by the greedy monopolizing magistrates. At
+present, the following general regulations are in force, subject,
+however, to continual variation in details.
+
+[Changes bring improvement.] By a Departmental Order, September 5,
+1865, the cultivation of tobacco was permitted in all the provinces,
+though the produce was allowed to be sold only to the Government at
+the price regulated by them. The wholesale purchases are made in Luzon
+and the adjacent islands in fardos, [240] by "colleccion," that is,
+direct through the finance officials, who have the management of
+the plants from the sowing; but in the Bisayas by acopio; that is,
+the Government officials buy up the tobacco tendered by the growers
+or speculators by the cwt.
+
+[Different usages in Bisayas and Mindanao.] In the Bisayas and in
+Mindanao everybody is allowed to manufacture cigars for his own
+particular use, though trade therein is strictly prohibited; and
+advances to the tobacco growers are also made there; while in Luzon
+and the neighboring islands the Government provides seed and seedling
+plants. Here, however, no land which is adapted to the cultivation
+of tobacco is allowed to be used for any other purpose of agriculture.
+
+[Crude system of grading.] As the Financial Administration is
+unable to classify the tobacco at its true value, as might be done
+were free competition permitted, they have adopted the expedient of
+determining the price by the size of the leaves; the care necessary
+to be bestowed upon the training of the plants in order to produce
+leaves of the required size being at least a guarantee of a certain
+amount of proper attention and handling, even if it be productive of
+no other direct good. [241]
+
+[Burden knowingly increased.] It is well known at Madrid how the
+tobacco monopoly, by oppressing the wretched population, interferes
+with the prosperity of the colony; yet, to the present day, the
+Government measures have been so arranged as to exact a still larger
+gain from this very impolitic source of revenue.
+
+["Killing the goose that lays the golden egg."] A Government Order of
+January, 1866, directed the tobacco cultivation in the Philippines to
+be extended as much as possible, in order to satisfy the requirements
+of the colony, the mother country, and also the export trade;
+and in the memorial already quoted, "reforms" are proposed by the
+Captain-General, in the spirit of the goose with golden eggs. By
+grafting new monopolies upon those already existing, he believes that
+the tobacco produce can be increased from 182,102 cwt. (average of
+the years 1860 to 1857) to 500,000, and even 800,000 cwt. Meantime,
+with a view to obtaining increased prices, the Government resolved
+to export the tobacco themselves to the usual markets for sale; and
+in the year 1868 this resolution was really carried out. It was sent
+to London, where it secured so favorable a market that it was at once
+decreed that no tobacco in Manila should thenceforth be sold at less
+than $25 per cwt. [242] This decree, however, referred only to the
+first three qualities, the quantity of which decreased in a relative
+measure with the increased pressure upon the population. Even in
+the table annexed to the record of La Gandara this is very clearly
+shown. Whilst the total produce for 1867 stood at 176,018 cwt. (not
+much under the average of the years 1860 to 1857, viz., 182,102 cwt.),
+the tobacco of the first class had decreased in quantity since 1862
+from over 13,000 to less than 5,000 cwt.
+
+[Gift to Spain of unusable tobacco.] The fourth, fifth, and sixth
+classes, the greater part of which would before have been burnt, but
+which now form no inconsiderable portion of the total crop, are in the
+open markets positively unsaleable, and can be utilized only in the
+form of a bonus to Spain, which annually receives, under the title of
+atenciones á la peninsula, upwards of 100,000 cwt. If the colony were
+not compelled to pay half the freight of these gifts, Spain would
+certainly ask to be relieved of these "marks of attention." Seeing
+that, according to the decision of the chief of the Government, the
+greater portion of this tobacco is of such inferior quality that it
+can find no purchaser at any price, it is impossible that its value
+should cover either the cost of carriage or the customs duty. Moreover,
+this tobacco tribute is a great burden on the colonial budget; which,
+in spite of all deficits, is charged with the expenses attending the
+collection of the tobacco, its packing, its cost of local transport,
+and half the expense of its carriage to Europe.
+
+[De La Gandara's proposed reforms.] Dated in March, 1871,--the
+beginning of a Golden Age, if De La Gandara's plans had been carried
+out and his expectations realized,--there exists an excellent
+statement from the Intendant-General addressed to the Minister of
+Colonies pointing out plainly to the chief of the Government the
+disadvantages arising from this mode of administration, and urging the
+immediate repeal of the monopoly. In the next place proof was adduced,
+supported by official vouchers, that the profits derived from the
+tobacco monopoly were much smaller than usual. The total average
+receipts of the tobacco administration for the five years 1855 to
+1869, according to official accounts, amounted to $5,367,262; for the
+years 1866 to 1870, only $5,240,935. The expenses cannot be accurately
+estimated, inasmuch as there are no strict accounts obtainable; if,
+however, the respective expenses charged in the colonial budget are
+added together, they amount to $3,717,322 of which $1,812,250 is for
+purchase of raw tobacco.
+
+[Slight real profit from monopoly.] Besides these expenses pertaining
+exclusively to the tobacco administration there are still many other
+different items to be taken into account; yet the cost incurred in
+this branch of the service would be saved, if not altogether, at
+least largely, if the State surrendered the tobacco monopoly. The
+total of the disbursements must certainly, at the very lowest, be
+estimated at $4,000,000; so, therefore, the State receives only a net
+profit of $1,357,000; but even this is not to be reckoned on in the
+future, for if the Government does not speedily cease carrying on this
+trade, they will be forced into a very considerable and unavoidable
+expense. To begin with, they must erect new factories and warehouses;
+better machinery must be bought; wages will have to be considerably
+increased; and, above all, means must be devised to pay off the
+enormous sum of $1,600,000 in which the Government is indebted to the
+peasants for the crops of 1869 and 1870, and to assure cash payments
+for future harvests. "This is the only possible mode of preventing
+the decay of the tobacco cultivation in the different provinces,
+as well as relieving the misery of the wretched inhabitants."
+
+[Suffering and law-breaking thru the monopoly.] Later Agius proved
+how trifling in reality the arrears were on account of which the
+Government was abandoning the future of the colony, and showed the
+misfortunes, of which I shall mention, these briefly, only a few,
+resulting from the monopoly. He represented that the people of the
+tobacco district, who were the richest and most contented of all in the
+Archipelago, found themselves plunged into the deepest distress after
+the increase of the Government dues. They were, in fact, far more
+cruelly treated than the slaves in Cuba, who, from self-interested
+motives, are well-nourished and taken care of; whereas in this case,
+the produce of compulsory labor has to be delivered to the State at an
+arbitrarily determined price; and even this price is paid only when
+the condition of the treasury, which is invariably in difficulties,
+permits. Frequently their very means of subsistence failed them,
+in consequence of their being forbidden to carry on the cultivation;
+and the unfortunate people, having no other resources for the relief
+of their pressing necessities, were compelled to alienate the debtor's
+bond, which purchased the fruits of their enforced toil but had been
+left unpaid. Thus, for an inconsiderable deficit of about $1,330,000,
+the whole population of one of the richest provinces is thrown into
+abject misery; a deep-rooted hatred naturally arises between the people
+and their rulers; and incessant war ensues between the authorities
+and their subjects. Besides which, an extremely dangerous class of
+smugglers have recently arisen, who even now do not confine themselves
+to mere smuggling, but who, on the very first opportunity presented by
+the prevailing discontent, will band themselves together in one solid
+body. The official administrators, too, are charged with gross bribery
+and corruption; which, whether true or not, occasions great scandal,
+and engenders increasing disrespect and distrust of the colonial
+administration as well as of the Spanish people generally. [243]
+
+[Growing opposition to the monopoly.] The preceding memorial has
+been not only written, but also printed; and it seems to indicate
+that gradually in Spain, and also in wider circles, people are
+becoming convinced of the untenableness of the tobacco monopoly;
+yet, in spite of this powerful review, it is considered doubtful by
+competent judges whether it will be given up so long as there are any
+apparent or appreciable returns derived therefrom. These acknowledged
+evils have long been known to the Colonial Government; but, from
+the frequent changes of ministers, and the increasing want of money,
+the Government is compelled, so long as they are in office, to use
+all possible means of obtaining profits, and to abstain from carrying
+out these urgent reforms lest their own immediate downfall should be
+involved therein. Let us, however, cherish the hope that increased
+demand will cause a rise in the prices; a few particularly good crops,
+and other propitious circumstances, would relieve at once the Insular
+Treasury from its difficulties; and then the tobacco monopoly might be
+cheerfully surrendered. One circumstance favorable to the economical
+management of the State that would be produced by the surrender of
+the tobacco monopoly would be the abolition of the numerous army of
+officials which its administration requires. This might, however,
+operate reversely in Spain. The number of place-hunters created
+must be very welcome to the ministers in power, who thus have the
+opportunity of providing their creatures with profitable places,
+or of shipping off inconvenient persons to the Antipodes from the
+mother-country, free of cost. The colony, be it known, has not only
+to pay the salaries, but also to bear the cost of their outward and
+homeward voyages. Any way, the custom is so liberally patronized that
+occasionally new places have to be created in order to make room for
+the newly-arrived nominees. [244]
+
+[Wholesale rate highter than retail government.] At the time of
+my visit, the royal factories could not turn out a supply of cigars
+commensurate with the requirements of commerce; and this brought about
+a peculiar condition of things; the wholesale dealer, who purchased
+cigars in very considerable quantities at the government auctions,
+paying higher than the retail rates at which he could buy them
+singly in the estancia. In order, therefore, to prevent the merchants
+drawing their stocks from the estancias, it was determined that only
+a certain quantity should be purchased, which limit no merchant dared
+exceed. A very intricate system of control, assisted by espionage,
+had to be employed in seeing that no one, through different agents and
+different estancias, collected more than the authorised supply; and
+violation of this rule, when discovered, was punished by confiscation
+of the offender's stock. Everybody was free to purchase cigars in the
+estancia, but nobody was permitted to sell a chest of cigars to an
+acquaintance at cost price. Several Spaniards with whom I have spoken
+concerning these strange regulations maintained them to be perfectly
+just, as otherwise all the cigars would be carried off by foreigners,
+and they would not be able themselves in their own colony to smoke
+a decent cigar.
+
+[Money juggling.] There was, as I afterwards learnt, a still more
+urgent reason for the existence of these decrees. The government
+valued their own gold at sixteen dollars per ounce, while in commerce
+it fetched less, and the premium on silver had, at one time, risen
+to thirty-three per cent. Moreover, on account of the insufficient
+quantity of copper money for minor currency, the small change
+frequently gained a premium on the silver dollar, so much so that by
+every purchaser not less than half a dollar was realized. In exchanging
+the dollar from five to fifteen per cent discount was charged; it was
+profitable, therefore, to purchase cigars in the estancias with the
+gold ounce, and then to retail them in smaller quantities nominally
+at the rate of the estancias. Both premiums together might in an
+extreme case amount to as much as forty-three per cent. [245]
+
+[Directions for cultivating tobacco] Not being able to give a
+description of the cultivation of tobacco from personal knowledge
+and experience, I refer the reader to the following short extract
+from the Cartilla Agricola:--
+
+Directions for preparing and laying out the seed beds.--A suitable
+piece of land is to be enclosed quadrilaterally by boundaries,
+ploughed two or three times, cleared of all weeds and roots, made
+somewhat sloping, and surrounded by a shallow ditch, the bed of
+which is to be divided by drains about two feet wide. The soil of
+the same must be very fine, must be ground almost as fine as powder,
+otherwise it will not mix freely and thoroughly with the extremely
+fine tobacco seed. The seed is to be washed, and then suspended in
+cloths during the day, in order to allow the water to run off; after
+which it is to be mixed with a similar quantity of ashes, and strewn
+carefully over the bed. The subsequent successful results depend
+entirely upon the careful performance of this work. From the time
+the seed first begins to sprout, the beds must be kept very clean, in
+dry weather sprinkled daily, and protected from birds and animals by
+brambles strewn over, and by means of light mats from storms and heavy
+rains. After two months the plants will be between five and six inches
+high, and generally have from four to six leaves; they must then be
+replanted. This occurs, supposing the seed-beds to have been prepared
+in September, about the beginning or the middle of November. A second
+sowing takes place on the 15th of October, as much as a precaution
+against possible failure, as for obtaining plants for the lowlands.
+
+Concerning the land most advantageous to the tobacco and its
+cultivation. Replanting of the seedlings.--Land must be chosen of
+middling grain; somewhat difficult, calciferous soil is particularly
+recommended, when it is richly fertilized with the remains of
+decayed plants, and not less than two feet deep; and the deeper the
+roots are inserted the higher will the plant grow. Of all the land
+adapted to the tobacco cultivation, that in Cagayan is the best,
+as from the overflowing of the large streams, which occurs every
+year, it is laid under water, and annually receives a new stratum
+of mud, which renders the soil particularly productive. Plantations
+prepared upon such soil differ very materially from those less
+favored and situated on a higher level. In the former the plants
+shoot up quickly as soon as the roots strike; in the latter they
+grow slowly and only reach a middling height. Again in the fertile
+soil the plants produce quantities of large, strong, juicy leaves,
+giving promise of a splendid harvest. In the other case the plants
+remain considerably smaller and grow sparsely. Sometimes, however,
+even the lowlands are flooded in January and February, and also in
+March, when the tobacco has already been transplanted, and grown to
+some little height. In that event everything is irreparably lost,
+particularly if the flood should occur at a time when it is too late
+to lay out new plantations. High-lying land also must, therefore, be
+cultivated, in the hope that by very careful attention it may yield
+a similar return. In October these fields must be ploughed three or
+four times, and harrowed twice or thrice. On account of the floods,
+the lowlands cannot be ploughed until the end of December, or the
+middle of January; when the work is light and simple. The strongest
+plants in the seed-beds are chosen, and set in the prepared grounds
+at a distance of three feet from each other, care being taken that
+the earth clinging to the roots is not shaken off.
+
+Of the care necessary to be bestowed upon the plants.--In the east a
+little screen, formed by two clods, is to be erected, with a view to
+protecting the plant from the morning sun, and retaining the dew for
+a longer time. The weeds to be carefully exterminated, and the wild
+shoots removed. A grub which occasionally appears in great numbers is
+particularly dangerous. Rain is very injurious immediately before the
+ripening, when the plants are no longer in a condition to secrete the
+gummy substance so essential to the tobacco, which, being soluble in
+water, would be drawn off by the action of the rain. Tobacco which has
+been exposed to bad weather is always deficient in juice and flavor,
+and is full of white spots, a certain sign of its bad quality. The
+injury is all the greater the nearer the tobacco is to its ripening
+period; the leaves hanging down to the ground then decay, and must
+be removed. If the subsoil is not deep enough, a carefully tended
+plant will turn yellow, and nearly wither away. In wet seasons this
+does not occur so generally, as the roots in insufficient depth are
+enabled to find enough moisture.
+
+Cutting and manipulation of the leaves in the drying shed.--The
+topmost leaves ripen first; they are then of a dark yellow color, and
+inflexible. They must be cut off as they ripen, collected into bundles,
+and brought to the shed in covered carts. In wet or cloudy weather,
+when the nightly dews have not been thoroughly evaporated by the sun,
+they must not be cut. In the shed the leaves are to hang upon cords or
+split Spanish cane, with sufficient room between them for ventilation
+and drying. The dried leaves are then laid in piles, which must not
+be too big, and frequently turned over. Extreme care must be taken
+that they do not become overheated and ferment too strongly. This
+operation, which is of the utmost importance to the quality of the
+tobacco, demands great attention and skill, and must be continued
+until nothing but an aromatic smell of tobacco can be noticed coming
+from the leaves; but the necessary skill for this manipulation is only
+to be acquired by long practice, and not from any written instructions.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+
+[Importance of Chinese.] An important portion of the population
+remains to be discussed, viz. the Chinese, who are destined to play a
+remarkable part, inasmuch as the development of the land-cultivation
+demanded by the increasing trade and commercial intercourse can be
+affected only by Chinese industry and perseverance. Manila has always
+been a favorite place for Chinese immigrants; and neither the hostility
+of the people, nor oppressing and prohibitory decrees for a long time
+by the Government, not even the repeated massacres, have been able
+to prevent their coming. The position of the Islands, south-east of
+two of the most important of the Chinese provinces, must necessarily
+have brought about a trade between the two countries very early, as
+ships can make the voyage in either direction with a moderate wind,
+as well in the south-west as the north-east monsoon. [Early Chinese
+Associations.] In a few old writers may even be found the assertion
+that the Philippine Islands were at one time subject to the dominion of
+China; and Father Gaubil (Lettres Edifiantes) mentions that Jaung-lo
+(of the Ming dynasty) maintained a fleet consisting of 30,000 men,
+which at different times proceeded to Manila. The presence of their
+ships as early as the arrival of Magellan in the extreme east
+of the archipelago, as well as the China plates and earthenware
+vessels discovered in the excavations, plainly show that the trade
+with China had extended far earlier to the most distant islands of
+the archipelago. It formed the chief support of the young Spanish
+colony, and, after the rise of the Encomiendas, was nearly the only
+source of its prosperity. It was feared that the junks would offer
+their cargoes to the Dutch if any obstacle was put in the way of
+their coming to Manila. The colony certainly could not maintain its
+position without the "Sangleys," [246] who came annually in great
+numbers in the junks from China, and spread all over the country and
+in the towns as [Industrial and commercial activity.] shopkeepers,
+artisans, gardeners, and fishermen; besides which, they were the
+only skillful and industrious workers, as the Filipinos under the
+priestly domination had forgotten altogether many trades in which
+they had engaged in former times. I take these facts from Morga.
+
+[Unsuccessful attempts at restriction.] In spite of all this, the
+Spaniards have, from the very commencement, endeavored rigorously to
+limit the number of the Chinese; who were then, as they are now, envied
+and hated by the natives for their industry, frugality, and cunning, by
+which means they soon became rich. They were an abomination, moreover,
+in the eyes of the priests as being irreclaimable heathens, whose
+example prevented the natives from making progress in the direction
+of Christianity; and the government feared them on account of the
+strong bond of union existing between them, and as being subjects of
+so powerful a nation, whose close proximity threatened the small body
+of Spaniards with destruction. [247] Fortunately for the latter, the
+Ming dynasty, which at that time was hastening to its downfall, did
+not think of conquest; but wickedly disposed powers which sprang into
+existence upon their downfall brought the colony into extreme danger.
+
+[Limahong and the Mandarins' visit.] In the attack of the noted pirate,
+Limahong, in 1574, they escaped destruction only by a miracle; and
+soon new dangers threatened them afresh. In 1603 a few mandarins came
+to Manila, under the pretence of ascertaining whether the ground
+about Cavite was really of gold. They were supposed to be spies,
+and it was concluded, from their peculiar mission, that an attack
+upon the colony was intended by the Chinese.
+
+[Early massacre of Chinese.] The archbishop and the priests incited
+the distrust which was felt against the numerous Chinese who were
+settled in Manila. Mutual hate and suspicion arose; both parties feared
+one another and prepared for hostilities. The Chinese commenced the
+attack; but the united forces of the Spaniards, being supported by
+the Japanese and the Filipinos, twenty-three thousand, according
+to other reports twenty-five thousand, of the Chinese were either
+killed or driven into the desert. When the news of this massacre
+reached China, a letter from the Royal Commissioners was sent to the
+Governor of Manila. That noteworthy document shows in so striking a
+manner how hollow the great government was at that time that I have
+given a literal translation of it at the end of this chapter.
+
+[Chinese laborers limited.] After the extermination of the Chinese,
+food and all Chinese other necessaries of life were difficult to
+obtain on account of the utter unreliability of the natives for work;
+but by 1605 the number of Chinese [248] had again so increased that
+a decree was issued limiting them to six thousand, "these to be
+employed in the cultivation of the country;" while at the same time
+their rapid increase was taken advantage of by the captain-general
+for his own interest, as he exacted eight dollars from each Chinaman
+for permission to remain. In 1539 the Chinese population had risen to
+thirty thousand, according to other information, to forty thousand,
+when they revolted and were reduced to seven thousand. "The natives,
+who generally were so listless and indifferent, showed the utmost
+eagerness in assisting in the [Another massacre.] massacre of the
+Chinese, but more from hatred of this industrious people than from
+any feeling of friendship towards the Spaniards." [249]
+
+[The pirate Kog-seng.] The void occasioned by this massacre was
+soon filled up again by Chinese immigrants; and in 1662 the colony
+was once more menaced with a new and great danger, by the Chinese
+pirate Kog-seng, who had under his command between eighty and one
+hundred thousand men, and who already had dispossessed the Dutch
+of the Island of Formosa. He demanded the absolute submission of
+the Philippines; his sudden death, however, saved the colony, and
+occasioned a fresh outbreak of fury against the Chinese settlers in
+Manila, a great number of whom were butchered in their own "quarter"
+(ghetto). [250] Some dispersed and hid themselves; a few in their
+terror plunged into the water or hanged themselves; and a great number
+fled in small boats to Formosa. [251]
+
+[Another expulsion.] In 1709 the jealousy against the Chinese once
+more had reached such a height that they were accused of rebellion,
+and particularly of monopolizing the trades, and, with the exception
+of the most serviceable of the artisans and such of them as were
+employed by the Government, they were once again expelled. Spanish
+writers praise the salutariness of these measures; alleging that
+"under the pretence of agriculture the Chinese carry on trade; they
+are cunning and careful, making money and sending it to China, so that
+they defraud the Philippines annually of an enormous amount." Sonnerat,
+however, complains that art, trade, and commerce had not recovered
+from these severe blows; though, he adds, fortunately the Chinese,
+in spite of prohibitory decrees, are returning through the corrupt
+connivance of the governor and officials.
+
+[Thrifty traders.] To the present day they are blamed as being
+monopolists, particularly by the creoles; and certainly, by means
+of their steady industry and natural commercial aptitude, they
+have appropriated nearly all the retail trade to themselves. The
+sale of European imported goods is entirely in their hands; and the
+wholesale purchase of the produce of the country for export is divided
+between the natives, creoles, and the Chinese, the latter taking about
+one-half. Before this time only the natives and creoles were permitted
+to own ships for the purpose of forwarding the produce to Manila.
+
+In 1757 the jealousy of the Spaniards broke out again in the form
+of a new order from Madrid, directing the expulsion of the Chinese;
+and in 1759 the decrees of banishment, which were repeatedly evaded,
+were carried into effect: but, as the private interests of the
+officials did not happen to coincide with those of the creole traders,
+the consequence was that "the Chinese soon streamed back again in
+incredible numbers," and made common cause with the English upon
+their invasion in 1762. [252] [Anda's and 1819 massacres.] Thereupon,
+Sr. Anda commanded "that all the Chinese in the Philippine Islands
+should be hanged," which order was very generally carried out. [253]
+The last great Chinese massacre took place in 1819, when the aliens
+were suspected of having brought about the cholera by poisoning
+the wells. The greater part of the Europeans in Manila also fell
+victims to the fury of the populace, but the Spaniards generally were
+spared. The prejudice of the Spaniards, especially of the creoles,
+had always been directed against the Chinese tradesmen, who interfered
+unpleasantly with the fleecing of the natives; and against this class
+in particular were the laws of limitation aimed. They would willingly
+have let them develop the country by farming but the hostility of
+the natives generally prevented this.
+
+[Expulsion of merchants from Manila.] A decree, issued in 1804,
+commanded all Chinese shopkeepers to leave Manila within eight days,
+only those who were married being allowed to keep shops; and their
+residence in the provinces was permitted only upon the condition
+that they confined themselves entirely to agriculture. Magistrates
+who allowed these to travel in their districts were fined $200; the
+deputy-governor $25; and the wretched Chinese were punished with from
+two to three years' confinement in irons.
+
+In 1839 the penalties against the Chinese were somewhat mitigated,
+but those against the magistrates were still maintained on account
+of their venality. In 1843 Chinese ships were placed upon terms of
+equality with those of other foreign countries (Leg. Ult., II.,
+476). In 1850 Captain-General Urbiztondo endeavored to introduce
+Chinese colonial farming, and with this object promised a reduction
+of the taxes to all agricultural immigrants. Many Chinese availed
+themselves of this opportunity in order to escape the heavy poll-tax;
+but in general they soon betook themselves to trading once more.
+
+[Oppressive taxation.] Of late years the Chinese have not suffered
+from the terrible massacres which used formerly to overtake them;
+neither have they suffered banishment; the officials being content to
+suppress their activity by means of heavy and oppressive taxes. For
+instance, at the end of 1867 the Chinese shopkeepers were annually
+taxed $50 for permission to send their goods to the weekly market;
+this was in addition to a tax of from $12 to $100 on their occupations;
+and at the same time they were commanded thenceforth to keep their
+books in Spanish (English Consular Report, 1859).
+
+[Excellent element in population.] The Chinese remain true to their
+customs and mode of living in the Philippines, as they do everywhere
+else. When they outwardly embrace Christianity, it is done merely to
+facilitate marriage, or from some motive conducive to their worldly
+advantage; and occasionally they renounce it, together with their
+wives in Manila, when about to return home to China. Very many of
+them, however, beget families, are excellent householders, and their
+children in time form the most enterprising, industrious, and wealthy
+portion of the resident population.
+
+[Formidable competitors.] Invigorated by the severe struggle for
+existence which they have experienced in their over-populated
+country, the Chinese appear to preserve their capacity for labor
+perfectly unimpaired by any climate. No nation can equal them in
+contentedness, industry, perseverance, cunning, skill, and adroitness
+in trades and mercantile matters. When once they gain a footing, they
+generally appropriate the best part of the trade to themselves. In
+all parts of external India they have dislodged from every field
+of employment not only their native but, progressively, even their
+European competitors. Not less qualified and successful are they in
+the pursuance of agriculture than in trade. The emigration from the
+too thickly peopled empire of China has scarcely begun. As yet it is
+but a small stream, but it will by-and-by pour over all the tropical
+countries of the East in one mighty torrent, completely destroying all
+such minor obstacles as jealous interference and impotent precaution
+might interpose.
+
+[Sphere of futureinflunce.] Over every section of remote India,
+in the South Sea, in the Indian Archipelago, in the states of South
+America, the Chinese seem destined, in time, either to supplant every
+other element, or to found a mixed race upon which to stamp their
+individuality. In the Western States of the Union their number is
+rapidly on the increase; and the factories in California are worked
+entirely by them, achieving results that cannot be accomplished by
+European labor.
+
+[Mongolian vs. Caucasion in America.] One of the most interesting of
+the many questions of large comprehensiveness which connect themselves
+with the penetration of the Mongolian race into America, which up
+till now it had been the fashion to regard as the inheritance of the
+Caucasians, is the relative capacity of labor possessed by both these
+two great races, who in the Western States of America have for the
+first time measured their mutual strength in friendly rivalry. Both
+are there represented in their most energetic individuality; [254]
+and every nerve will be strained in carrying on the struggle, inasmuch
+as no other country pays for labor at so high a rate.
+
+[Efficiency and reliability of Chinese labor.] The conditions, however,
+are not quite equal, as the law places certain obstacles in the way of
+the Chinese. The courts do not protect them sufficiently from insult,
+which at times is aggravated into malicious manslaughter through
+the ill-usage of the mob, who hate them bitterly as being reserved,
+uncompanionable workers. Nevertheless, the Chinese immigrants take
+their stand firmly. The western division of the Pacific Railway has
+been chiefly built by the Chinese, who, according to the testimony of
+the engineers, surpass workmen of all other nationalities in diligence,
+sobriety, and good conduct. What they lack in physical power they
+make up for in perseverance and working intelligently together. The
+unique and nearly incredible performance that took place on April 28,
+1859, when ten miles of railway track were laid in eleven working
+hours along a division of land which had in no way been prepared
+beforehand, was accomplished by Chinese workmen; and indeed only by
+them could it have been practicable. [255]
+
+[Chinese cleverness and industry.] Of course, the superiority of the
+European in respect Chinese of the highest intellectual faculties is
+not for a moment to be doubted; but, in all branches of commercial
+life in which cleverness and perservering industry are necessary to
+success, the Chinese certainly appear entitled to the award. To us
+it appears that the influx of Chinese must certainly sooner or later
+kindle a struggle between capital and labor, in order to set a limit
+upon demands perceptibly growing beyond moderation.
+
+[Chinese problem in America.] The increasing Chinese immigration
+already intrudes upon the attention of American statesmen questions of
+the utmost social and political importance. What influence will this
+entirely new and strange element exercise over the conformation of
+American relations? Will the Chinese found a State in the States, or go
+into the Union on terms of political equality with the other citizens,
+and form a new race by alliance with the Caucasian element? These
+problems, which can only be touched upon here in a transitory form,
+have been dealt with in a masterly manner by Pumpelly, in his work
+Across America and Asia, published in London in 1870.
+
+
+Letter of the Commissary-General of Chinchew to Don Pedro De Acuña,
+Governor of the Philippines
+
+To the powerful Captain-General of Luzon:
+
+"Having been given to understand that the Chinese who proceeded to
+the kingdom of Luzon in order to buy and sell had been murdered by
+the Spaniards, I have investigated the motives for these massacres,
+and begged the Emperor to exercise justice upon those who had engaged
+in these abominable offences, with a view to security in the future.
+
+"In former years, before my arrival here as royal commissioner, a
+Chinese merchant named Tioneg, together with three mandarins, went
+with the permission of the Emperor of China from Luzon to Cavite,
+for the purpose of prospecting for gold and silver; which appears to
+have been an excuse, for he found neither gold nor silver; I thereupon
+prayed the Emperor to punish this imposter Tioneg, thereby making
+patent the strict justice which is exercised in China.
+
+"It was during the administration of the ex-Viceroy and Eunuchs
+that Tioneg and his companion, named Yanglion, uttered the untruth
+already stated; and subsequently I begged the Emperor to transmit
+all the papers bearing upon the matter, together with the minutes
+of Tioneg's accusation; when I myself examined the before-mentioned
+papers, and knew that everything that the accused Tioneg had said
+was utterly untrue.
+
+"I wrote to the Emperor and stated that, on account of the untruth
+which Tioneg had been guilty of, the Castilians entertained the
+suspicion that he wished to make war upon them, and that they,
+under this idea, had murdered more than thirty thousand Chinese in
+Luzon. The Emperor, complying with my request, punished the accused
+Yanglion, though he omitted to put him to death; neither was Tioneg
+beheaded or confined in a cage. The Chinese people who had settled in
+Luzon were in no way to blame. I and others discussed this with the
+Emperor in order to ascertain what his pleasure was in this matter,
+as well as in another, namely, the arrival of two English ships on
+the coast of Chinchew (Fukien or Amoy district)--a very dangerous
+circumstance for China; and to obtain His Imperial Majesty's decision
+as to both these most serious matters.
+
+"We also wrote to the Emperor that he should direct the punishment of
+both these Chinese; and, in acknowledging our communication, he replied
+to us, in respect to the English ships which had arrived in China,
+that in case they had come for the purpose of plundering, they should
+be immediately commanded to depart thence for Luzon; and, with regard
+to the Luzon difficulty, that the Castilians should be advised to give
+no credence to rogues and liars from China; and both the Chinese who
+had discovered the harbor to the English should be executed forthwith;
+and that in all other matters upon which we had written to him, our
+will should be his. Upon receipt of this message by us--the Viceroy,
+the Eunuch, and myself--we hereby send this our message to the Governor
+of Luzon, that his Excellency may know the greatness of the Emperor
+of China and of his Empire, for he is so powerful that he commands
+all upon which the sun and moon shine, and also that the Governor of
+Luzon may learn with what great wisdom this mighty empire is governed,
+and which power no one for many years has attempted to insult, although
+the Japanese have sought to disturb the tranquillity of Korea, which
+belongs to the Government of China. They did not succeed, but on the
+contrary were driven out, and Korea has remained in perfect security
+and peace, which those in Luzon well know by report.
+
+"Years ago, after we learnt that so many Chinese perished in Luzon
+on account of Tioneg's lies, many of us mandarins met together,
+and resolved to leave it to the consideration of the Emperor to
+take vengeance for so great a massacre; and we said as follows:--The
+country of Luzon is a wretched one, and of very little importance. It
+was at one time only the abode of devils and serpents; and only
+because (within the last few years) so large a number of Chinese
+went thither for the purpose of trading with the Castilians has it
+improved to such an extent; in which improvement the accused Sangleyes
+materially assisted by hard labor, the walls being raised by them,
+houses built, and gardens laid out, and other matters accomplished
+of the greatest use to the Castilians; and now the question is, why
+has no consideration been paid for these services, and these good
+offices acknowledged with thanks, without cruelly murdering so many
+people? And although we wrote to the King twice or thrice concerning
+the circumstances, he answered us that he was indignant about the
+before-mentioned occurrences, and said for three reasons it is not
+advisable to execute vengeance, nor to war against Luzon. The first
+is that for a long time till now the Castilians have been friends
+of the Chinese; the second, that no one can predict whether the
+Castilians or the Chinese would be victorious; and the third and last
+reason is, because those whom the Castilians have killed were wicked
+people, ungrateful to China, their native country, their elders,
+and their parents, as they have not returned to China now for very
+many years. These people, said the Emperor, he valued but little for
+the foregoing reasons; and he commanded the Viceroy, the Eunuch, and
+myself, to send this letter through those messengers, so that all in
+Luzon may know that the Emperor of China has a generous heart, great
+forbearance, and much mercy, in not declaring war against Luzon; and
+his justice is indeed manifest, as he has already punished the liar
+Tioneg. Now, as the Spaniards are wise and intelligent, how does it
+happen that they are not sorry for having massacred so many people,
+feeling no repentance thereat, and also are not kinder to those of the
+Chinese who are still left? Then when the Castilians show a feeling of
+good-will, and the Chinese and Sangleyes who left after the dispute
+return, and the indebted money is repaid, and the property which was
+taken from the Sangleyes restored, then friendship will again exist
+between this empire and that, and every year trading-ships shall come
+and go; but if not, then the Emperor will allow no trading, but on the
+contrary will at once command a thousand ships of war to be built,
+manned with soldiers and relations of the slain, and will, with the
+assistance of other peoples and kingdoms who pay tribute to China, wage
+relentless war, without quarter to any one; and upon its conclusion
+will present the kingdom of Luzon to those who do homage to China.
+
+"This letter is written by the Visitor-General on the 12th of the
+second month."
+
+A contemporary letter of the Ruler of Japan forms a somewhat notable
+contrast:--
+
+
+Letter of Daifusama, Ruler of Japan
+
+"To the Governor Don Pedro de Acuña, in the year 1605:
+
+"I have received two letters from your Excellency, as also all the
+donations and presents described in the inventory. Amongst them was
+the wine made from grapes, which I enjoyed very much. In former years
+your Excellency requested that six ships might come here, and recently
+four, which request I have always complied with.
+
+"But my great displeasure has been excited by the fact that of the four
+ships upon whose behalf your Excellency interposed, one from Antonio
+made the journey without my permission. This was a circumstance of
+great audacity, and a mark of disrespect to me. Does your Excellency
+wish to send that ship to Japan without my permission?
+
+"Independently of this, your Excellency and others have many times
+discussed with me concerning the antecedents and interests of Japan,
+and many other matters, your requests respecting which I cannot comply
+with. This territory is called Xincoco, which means 'consecrated to
+Idols,' which have been honored with the highest reverence from the
+days of our ancestor until now, and whose actions I alone can neither
+undo nor destroy. Wherefore, it is in no way fitting that your laws
+should be promulgated and spread over Japan; and if, in consequence
+of these misunderstandings, your Excellency's friendship with the
+empire of Japan should cease, and with me likewise, it must be so,
+for I must do that which I think is right, and nothing which is
+contrary to my own pleasure.
+
+"Finally, I have heard it frequently said, as a reproach, that many
+Japanese--wicked, corrupt men--go to your kingdom, remaining there
+many years, and then return to Japan. This complaint excites my anger,
+and therefore I must request your Excellency henceforth not to allow
+such persons to return in the ships which trade here. Concerning the
+remaining matters, I trust your Excellency will hereafter employ your
+judgment and circumspection in such a manner as to avoid incurring
+my displeasure for the future."
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+
+[Spain's discovery and occupation.] The Philippines were discovered
+by Magellan on the 16th of March, 1521--St. Lazarus' day. [256]
+But it was not until 1564, [257] after many previous efforts had
+miscarried, that Legaspi, who left New Spain with five ships, took
+possession of the Archipelago in the name of Philip II. The discoverer
+had christened the islands after the sanctified Lazarus. This name,
+however, never grew into general use; [Numerous names.] the Spaniards
+persistently calling them the Western Islands--Islas del Poniente;
+and the Portuguese, Islas del Oriente. Legaspi gave them their present
+name [258] in honor of Philip II, who, in his turn, conferred upon
+them the again extinct name of New Castile. [259] Legaspi first of
+all annexed Cebu, and then Panay; and six years later, in 1571, he
+first sub dued Manila, which was at that time a village surrounded by
+palisades, and commenced forthwith the construction of a fortified
+town. The subjection of the remaining territory was effected so
+quickly that, upon the death of Legaspi (in August, 1572), all the
+western parts were in possession of the Spaniards. [Mindanao and
+Sulu independent.] Numerous wild tribes in the interior, however,
+the Mahomedan states of Mindanao and the Sulu group, for example,
+have to this day preserved their independence. The character of
+the people, as well as their political disposition, favored the
+occupancy. There was no mighty power, no old dynasty, no influential
+priestly domination to overcome, no traditions of national pride to
+suppress. The natives were either heathens, or recently proselytized
+superficially to Islamism, and lived under numerous petty chiefs, who
+ruled them despotically, made war upon one another, and were easily
+subdued. Such a community was called Barangay; and it forms to this
+day, though in a considerably modified form, the foundation of the
+constitutional laws. [Spanish improvemnts.] The Spaniards limited the
+power of the petty chiefs, upheld slavery, and abolished hereditary
+nobility and dignity, substituting in its place an aristocracy
+created by themselves for services rendered to the State; but they
+carried out all these changes very gradually and cautiously. [260]
+The old usages and laws, so long as they did not interfere with the
+natural course of government, remained untouched and were operative
+by legal sanction; and even in criminal matters their validity was
+equal to those emanating from the Spanish courts. To this day the
+chiefs of Barangay, with the exception of those bearing the title
+of "Don," have no privileges save exemption from the poll-tax and
+socage service. [Unthinking policy of greed.] They are virtually
+tax-collectors, excepting that they are not paid for such service,
+and their private means are made responsible for any deficit. The
+prudence of such a measure might well be doubted, without regard to
+the fact that it tempts the chiefs to embezzlement and extortion;
+and it must alienate a class of natives who would otherwise be a
+support to the Government.
+
+[High character of early administrators.] Since the measures adopted in
+alleviation of the conquest and occupancy succeeded in so remarkable
+a manner, the governors and their subordinates of those days, at a
+time when Spain was powerful and chivalrous, naturally appear to have
+been distinguished for wisdom and high spirit. Legaspi possessed both
+qualities in a marked degree. Hardy adventurers were tempted there,
+as in America, by privileges and inducements which power afforded
+them; as well as by the hope, which, fortunately for the country, was
+never realized, of its being rich in auriferous deposits. In Luzon,
+for instance, Hernando Riquel stated that there were many goldmines in
+several places which were seen by the Spaniards; "the ore is so rich
+that I will not write any more about it, as I might possibly come under
+a suspicion of exaggerating; but I swear by Christ that there is more
+gold on this island than there is iron in all Biscay." [Conquerors
+on commission.] They received no pay from the kingdom; but a formal
+right was given them to profit by any territory which was brought into
+subjection by them. Some of these expeditions in search of conquest
+were enterprises undertaken for private gain, others for the benefit
+of the governor; and such service was rewarded by him with grants of
+lands, carrying an annuity, offices, and other benefits (encomiendas,
+oficios y aprovechamientos). The grants were at first made for three
+generations (in New Spain for four), but were very soon limited
+to two; when De los Rios pointed this out as being a measure very
+prejudicial to the Crown, "since they were little prepared to serve
+his Majesty, as their grand-children had fallen into the most extreme
+poverty." After the death of the feoffee the grant reverted to the
+State; and the governor thereupon disposed of it anew.
+
+[The feudal "encomiendas."] The whole country at the outset was
+completely divided into these livings, the defraying of which formed by
+far the largest portion of the expenses of the kingdom. Investitures of
+a similar nature existed, more or less, in a territory of considerable
+extent, the inhabitants of which had to pay tribute to the feoffee;
+and this tribute had to be raised out of agricultural produce, the
+value of which was fixed by the feudal lord at a very low rate, but
+sold by him to the Chinese at a considerable profit. The feudal lords,
+moreover, were not satisfied with these receipts, but held the natives
+in a state of slavery, until forbidden by a Bull of Pope Gregory XIV,
+dated April 18, 1591. Kafir and negro slaves, whom the Portuguese
+imported by way of India, were, however, still permitted.
+
+[Extortions of encomenderos.] The original holders of feudal tenures
+amassed considerable booty therefrom. Zuñiga relates that as early
+as the time of Lavezares, who was provisional governor between 1572
+and 1575, he visited the Bisayas and checked the covetousness of
+the encomenderos, so that at least during his rule they relaxed
+their system of extortion. Towards the end of Sande's government
+(1575-80) a furious quarrel broke out between the priests and the
+encomenderos; the first preached against the oppression of the
+latter, and memorialized Philip II thereon. The king commanded that
+the natives should be protected, as the extortionate greed of the
+feudal chiefs had exceeded all bounds; and the natives were then at
+liberty to pay their tribute either in money or in kind. The result of
+this well-intentioned regulation appears to have produced a greater
+assiduity both in agriculture and trade, "as the natives preferred
+to work without coercion, not on account of extreme want." [Salcedo
+"most illustrious of the conquerors."] And here I may briefly refer to
+the achievements of Juan de Salcedo, the most illustrious of all the
+conquerors. Supported by his grandfather, Legaspi, with forty-five
+Spanish soldiers, he fitted out an expedition at his own expense,
+embarked at Manila, in May, 1572, examined all parts of the west coast
+of the island, landed in all the bays which were accessible to his
+light-draught ships, and was well received by the natives at most of
+the places. He generally found great opposition in penetrating into
+the interior; yet he succeeded in subduing many of the inland tribes;
+and when he reached Cape Bojeador, the north-west point of Luzon, the
+extensive territory which at present forms the provinces of Zambales,
+Pangasinan, and Ilocos Notre and Sur, acknowledged the Spanish
+rule. The exhaustion of his soldiers obliged Salcedo to return. In
+Vigan, the present capital of Ilocos Sur, he constructed a fort, and
+left therein for its protection his lieutenant and twenty-five men,
+while he himself returned, accompanied only by seventeen soldiers, in
+three small vessels. In this manner he reached the Cagayan River, and
+proceeded up it until forced by the great number of hostile natives to
+retreat to the sea. Pursuing the voyage to the east coast, he came down
+in course of time to Paracale, where he embarked in a boat for Manila,
+was capsized, and rescued from drowning by some passing natives.
+
+["The Cortes of the Philippines."] In the meantime Legaspi had died,
+and Lavezares was provisionally carrying on the government. Salcedo
+heard of this with vexation at being passed over; but, when he
+recovered from his jealousy, he was entrusted with the subjugation of
+Camarines, which he accomplished in a short time. In 1574 he returned
+to Ilocos, in order to distribute annuities among his soldiers, and to
+receive his own share. While still employed upon the building of Vigan,
+he discovered the fleet of the notorious Chinese pirate, Limahong, who,
+bent upon taking possession of the colony, was then passing that part
+of the coast with sixty-two ships and a large number of soldiers. He
+hastened at once, with all the help which he could summon together in
+the neighborhood, to Manila, where he was nominated to the command of
+the troops, in the place of the already deposed master of the forces;
+and he drove the Chinese from the town, which they had destroyed. They
+then withdrew to Pangasinan, and Salcedo burnt their fleet; which
+exploit was achieved with very great difficulty. In 1576 this Cortes
+of the Philippines died. [261]
+
+[Commercial importance of early Manila.] Apart from the priests, the
+first-comers consisted only of officials, soldiers, and sailors; and to
+them, naturally, fell all the high profits of the China trade. Manila
+was their chief market, and it also attracted a great portion of the
+external Indian trade, which the Portuguese had frightened away from
+Malacca by their excessive cruelty. The Portuguese, it is true, still
+remained in Macao and the Moluccas: but they wanted those remittances
+which were almost exclusively sought after by the Chinese, viz.,
+the silver which Manila received from New Spain.
+
+[Spain and Portugal united.] In 1580 Portugal, together with all
+its colonies, was handed over to the Spanish Crown; and the period
+extending from this event to the decay of Portugal (1580-1640)
+witnessed the Philippines at the height of their power and prosperity.
+
+[Manila as capital of a vast empire.] The Governor of Manila ruled
+over a part of Mindanao, Sulu, the Moluccas, Formosa, and the original
+Portuguese possessions in Malacca and India. "All that lies between
+Cape Singapore and Japan is subject to Luzon; their ships cross the
+ocean to China and New Spain, and drive so magnificent a trade that,
+if it were only free, it would be the most extraordinary that the
+world could show. It is incredible what glory these islands confer
+upon Spain. The Governor of the Philippines treats with the Kings of
+Cambodia, Japan, China. The first is his ally, the last his friend;
+and the same with Japan. He declares war or peace, without waiting
+for the command from distant Spain." [262] [Dutch opposition.] But
+the Dutch had now begun the struggle, which they managed to carry
+on against Philip II in every corner of the world; and even in 1510
+De Los Rios complained that he found the country very much altered
+through the progress and advance made by the Dutch; also that the Moros
+of Mindanao and Sulu, feeling that they were supported by Holland,
+were continually in a state of discontent.
+
+[Decline of colony.] The downfall of Portugal occasioned the loss of
+her colonies once more. Spanish policy, the government of the priests,
+and the jealousy of the Spanish merchants and traders especially,
+did everything that remained to be done to prevent the development
+of agriculture and commerce--perhaps, on the whole, fortunately,
+for the natives.
+
+[Philippine history unimportant and unsatisfactory.] The
+subsequent history of the Philippines is, in all its particulars,
+quite as unsatisfactory and uninteresting as that of all the other
+Spanish-American possessions. Ineffectual expeditions against pirates,
+and continual disputes between the clerical and secular authorities,
+form the principal incidents. [263]
+
+[Undesirable emigrants from Spain.] After the first excitement of
+religious belief and military renown had subsided, the minds of those
+who went later to these outlying possessions, consisting generally as
+they did of the very dregs of the nation, were seized with an intense
+feeling of selfishness; and frauds and speculations were the natural
+sequence. The Spanish writers are full of descriptions of the wretched
+state of society then existing, which it is unnecessary to repeat here.
+
+[English occupation.] The colony had scarcely been molested by
+external enemies, with the exception of pirates. In the earliest time
+the Dutch had engaged occasionally in attacks on the Bisayas. But
+in 1762 (during the war of the Bourbon succession) an English fleet
+suddenly appeared before Manila, and took the surprised town without
+any difficulty. The Chinese allied themselves with the English. A
+great insurrection broke out among the Filipinos, and the colony,
+under the provisional government of a feeble archbishop, was for a
+time in great danger. It was reserved for other dignitaries of the
+Church and Anda, an energetic patriot, to inflame the natives against
+the foreigners; and the opposition incited by the zealousness of the
+priests grew to such an extent that the English, who were confined in
+the town, were actually glad to be able to retreat. In the following
+year the news arrived from Europe of the conclusion of peace; but
+in the interval this insurrection, brought about by the invasion,
+had rapidly and considerably extended; and it was not suppressed
+until 1765, when the work was accomplished by creating enmity among
+the different tribes. [264] But this was not done without a loss to
+the province of Ilocos of two hundred sixty-nine thousand two hundred
+and seventy persons--half of the population, as represented by Zuñiga.
+
+[Many minor uprisings from local grievances.] Severity and want of
+tact on the part of the Government and their instruments, as well as
+bigoted dissensions have caused many revolts of the natives; yet none,
+it is true, of any great danger to the Spanish rule. The discontent
+has always been confined to a single district, as the natives do
+not form a united nation; neither the bond of a common speech nor
+a general interest binding the different tribes together. The state
+communications and laws among them scarcely reach beyond the borders
+of the villages and their dependencies.
+
+[Danger from mestizos and creoles.] A consideration of far more
+importance to the distant metropolis than the condition of the
+constantly excited natives, who are politically divided among
+themselves, and really have no steady object in view, is the attitude
+of the mestizos and creoles, whose discontent increases in proportion
+to their numbers and prosperity. The military revolt which broke
+out in 1823, the leaders of which were two creoles, might easily
+have terminated fatally for Spain. The latest of all the risings of
+the mestizos seems to have been the most dangerous, not only to the
+Spanish power, but to all the European population. [265]
+
+[Cavite 1872 mutiny.] On the 20th of January, 1872, between eight and
+nine in the evening, the artillery, marines, and the garrison of the
+arsenal revolted in Cavite, the naval base of the Philippines, and
+murdered their officers; and a lieutenant who endeavored to carry the
+intelligence to Manila fell into the hands of a crowd of natives. The
+news therefore did not reach the capital until the next morning, when
+all the available troops were at once dispatched, and, after a heavy
+preliminary struggle, they succeeded the following day in storming
+the citadel. A dreadful slaughter of the rebels ensued. Not a soul
+escaped. Among them was not a single European; but there were many
+mestizos, of whom several were priests and lawyers. Though perhaps
+the first accounts, written under the influence of terror, may have
+exaggerated many particulars, yet both official and private letters
+agree in describing the conspiracy as being long contemplated, widely
+spread, and well planned. The whole fleet and a large number of troops
+were absent at the time, engaged in the expedition against Sulu. A
+portion of the garrison of Manila were to rise at the same time as
+the revolt in Cavite, and thousands of natives were to precipitate
+themselves on the caras blancas (pale faces), and murder them. The
+failure of the conspiracy was, it appears, only attributable to a
+fortunate accident--to the circumstance, namely, that a body of the
+rebels mistook some rocket fired upon the occasion of a Church festival
+for the agreed signal, and commenced the attack too soon. [266]
+
+[Summing up.] Let me be permitted, in conclusion, to bring together a
+few observations which have been scattered through the text, touching
+the relations of the Philippines with foreign countries, and briefly
+speculate thereon.
+
+[Credit due Spain.] Credit is certainly due to Spain for having
+bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively speaking
+highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars,
+had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state. The inhabitants of
+these beautiful islands, upon the whole, may well be considered to
+have lived as comfortably during the last hundred years, protected
+from all external enemies and governed by mild laws, as those of
+any other tropical country under native or European sway,--owing,
+in some measure, to the frequently discussed peculiar circumstances
+which protect the interests of the natives.
+
+[Friars an important factor.] The friars, also, have certainly had
+an essential part in the production of the results.
+
+[Their defects have worked out for good.] Sprung from the lowest
+orders, inured to hardship and want, and on terms of the closest
+intimacy with the natives, they were peculiarly fitted to introduce
+them to a practical conformity with the new religion and code
+of morality. Later on, also, when they possessed rich livings,
+and their devout and zealous interest in the welfare of the masses
+relaxed in proportion as their incomes increased, they materially
+assisted in bringing about the circumstances already described,
+with their favorable and unfavorable aspects. Further, possessing
+neither family nor good education, they were disposed to associate
+themselves intimately with the natives and their requirements;
+and their arrogant opposition to the temporal power generally arose
+through their connection with the natives. With the altered condition
+of things, however, all this has disappeared. The colony can no
+longer be kept secluded from the world. Every facility afforded for
+commercial intercourse is a blow to the old system, and a great step
+made in the direction of broad and liberal reforms. The more foreign
+capital and foreign ideas and customs are introduced, increasing
+the prosperity, enlightenment, and self-respect of the population,
+the more impatiently will the existing evils be endured.
+
+[Contrast with English colonies.] England can and does open her
+possessions unconcernedly to the world. The British colonies are
+united to the mother country by the bond of mutual advantage,
+viz. the production of raw material by means of English capital,
+and the exchange of the same for English manufactures. The wealth
+of England is so great, the organization of her commerce with the
+world so complete, that nearly all the foreigners even in the British
+possessions are for the most part agents for English business houses,
+which would scarcely be affected, at least to any marked extent,
+by a political dismemberment. It is entirely different with Spain,
+which possesses the colony as an inherited property, and without the
+power of turning it to any useful account.
+
+[Menaces to Spanish rule.] Government monopolies rigorously maintained,
+insolent disregard and neglect of the mestizos and powerful creoles,
+and the example of the United States, were the chief reasons of the
+downfall of the American possessions. The same causes threaten ruin
+to the Philippines: but of the monopolies I have said enough.
+
+[Growing American influence.] Mestizos and creoles, it is true, are
+not, as they formerly were in America, excluded from all official
+appointments; but they feel deeply hurt and injured through the
+crowds of place-hunters which the frequent changes of ministries
+send to Manila. The influence, also, of the American element is at
+least visible on the horizon, and will be more noticeable when the
+relations increase between the two countries. At present they are
+very slender. The trade in the meantime follows in its old channels to
+England and to the Atlantic ports of the United States. Nevertheless,
+whoever desires to form an opinion upon the future history of the
+Philippines, must not consider simply their relations to Spain,
+but must have regard to the prodigious changes which a few decades
+produce on either side of our planet.
+
+[Powerful neighbors] For the first time in the history of the world
+the mighty powers on both sides of the ocean have commenced to enter
+upon a direct intercourse with one another--Russia, which alone is
+larger than any two other parts of the earth; China, which contains
+within its own boundaries a third of the population of the world;
+and America, with ground under cultivation nearly sufficient to feed
+treble the total population of the earth. Russia's future role in
+the Pacific Ocean is not to be estimated at present.
+
+[China and America.] The trade between the two other great powers will
+therefore be presumably all the heavier, as the rectification of the
+pressing need of human labor on the one side, and of the corresponding
+overplus on the other, will fall to them.
+
+[Nearing predominance of the Pacific.] The world of the ancients was
+confined to the shores of the Mediterranean; and the Atlantic and
+Indian Oceans sufficed at one time for our traffic. When first the
+shores of the Pacific re-echoed with the sounds of active commerce,
+the trade of the world and the history of the world may be really
+said to have begun. A start in that direction has been made; whereas
+not so very long ago the immense ocean was one wide waste of waters,
+traversed from both points only once a year. From 1603 to 1769 scarcely
+a ship had ever visited California, that wonderful country which,
+twenty-five years ago, with the exception of a few places on the coast,
+was an unknown wilderness, but which is now covered with flourishing
+and prosperous towns and cities, served by a sea-to-sea railway, and
+its capital already ranking the third of the seaports of the Union;
+even at this early stage of its existence a central point of the
+world's commerce, and apparently destined, by the proposed junction
+of the great oceans, to play a most important part in the future.
+
+[The mission of America.] In proportion as the navigation of the west
+coast of America extends the influence of the American element over
+the South Sea, the captivating, magic power which the great republic
+exercises over the Spanish colonies [267] will not fail to make itself
+felt also in the Philippines, The Americans are evidently destined to
+bring to a full development the germs originated by the Spaniards. As
+conquerors of modern times, representing the age of free citizens in
+contrast to the age of knighthood, they follow with the plow and the
+axe of the pioneer, where the former advanced under the sign of the
+cross with their swords.
+
+[Superiority over Spanish system.] A considerable portion of
+Spanish-America already belongs to the United States, and has since
+attained an importance which could not possibly have been anticipated
+either under the Spanish Government or during the anarchy which
+followed. With regard to permanence, the Spanish system cannot for a
+moment be compared with that of America. While each of the colonies,
+in order to favor a privileged class by immediate gains, exhausted
+still more the already enfeebled population of the metropolis by the
+withdrawal of the best of its ability, America, on the contrary, has
+attracted to itself from all countries the most energetic element,
+which, once on its soil and, freed from all fetters, restlessly
+progressing, has extended its power and influence still further and
+further. The Philippines will escape the action of the two great
+neighboring powers all the less for the fact that neither they nor
+their metropolis find their condition of a stable and well-balanced
+nature.
+
+[Need of Philippine awakening.] It seems to be desirable for the
+Filipinos that the above-mentioned views should not speedily become
+accomplished facts, because their education and training hitherto
+have not been of a nature to prepare them successfully to compete
+with either of the other two energetic, creative, and progressive
+nations. They have, in truth, dreamed away their best days.
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+State of the Philippines in 1810
+
+By Tomas de Comyn
+
+[Population.] The enumeration of the natives for the assessment
+of tributes, in the manner ordained by the standing regulations
+of the Intendants of New Spain, is not observed in the Philippine
+Islands; nor indeed would this be an easy task. The wide extent of
+the twenty-seven provinces of which they are composed, scattered, as
+they are, through the great space comprehended between the southern
+part of Mindanao, and the almost desert islands known by the name of
+Batanes and Babuyanes, to the north of that of Luzon, presents almost
+insurmountable obstacles, and in some measure affords an excuse for
+the omission. Among these obstacles may be mentioned the necessity of
+waiting for the favorable monsoon to set in, in order to perform the
+several voyages from one island to the other; the encumbered state
+of the grounds in many parts, the irregular and scattered situations
+of the settlements and dwellings, the variety among the natives and
+their dialects, the imperfect knowledge hitherto obtained of the
+respective limits and extent of many districts, the general want of
+guides and auxiliaries, on whom reliance can be placed, and, above all,
+the extreme repugnance the natives evince to the payment of tributes,
+a circumstance which induces them to resort to all kinds of stratagems,
+in order to elude the vigilance of the collectors, and conceal their
+real numbers.
+
+[Estimates.] The quinquennial census, as regularly enjoined, being
+thus found impracticable, no other means are left than to deduce from
+the annual lists, transmitted by the district magistrates to the
+superintendent's office, and those formed by the parish curates, a
+prudent estimate of the total number of inhabitants subject to our laws
+and religion; yet these data, although the only ones, and also the most
+accurate it is possible to obtain, for this reason, inspire so little
+confidence, that it is necessary to use them with great caution. It is
+evident that all the district magistrates and curates do not possess
+the same degree of care and minuteness in a research so important,
+and the omission or connivance of their respective delegates, more
+or less general, renders it probable that the number of tributes,
+not included in the annual returns, is very considerable. If to
+this we add the leged exemptions from tribute, justly granted to
+various individuals for a certain number of years, or during the
+performance of special service, we shall easily be convinced of the
+imperfection of results, derived from such insecure principles. * * *
+I have carefully formed my estimates corresponding to the year 1810,
+and by confronting them with such data as I possess relating to the
+population of 1791, I have deduced the consoling assurance that,
+under a parity of circumstances, the population of these Islands,
+far from having diminished, has, in the interval, greatly increased.
+
+[Ratio to tributes.] From the collective returns recently made
+out by the district magistrates, it would appear that the total
+number of tributes amounts to 386,654, which multiplied by six and
+one-half produces the sum of 2,515,406, at which I estimate the
+total population, including old men, women and children. I ought
+here to observe, that I have chosen this medium of six and one-half
+between the five persons estimated in Spain and eight in the Indies,
+as constituting each family, or entire tribute; for although the
+prodigious fecundity of the women in the latter hemisphere, and the
+facility of maintaining their numerous offspring, both the effects
+of the benignity of the climate and their sober way of living,
+sufficiently warrant the conclusion, that a greater number of persons
+enter into the composition of each family, I have, in this case, been
+induced to pay deference to the observations of religious persons,
+intrusted with the care of souls, who have assured me that, whether
+it be owing to the great mortality prevailing among children, or
+the influence of other local causes, in many districts each family,
+or entire tribute, does not exceed four and one-half persons.
+
+[Foreigners and wild tribes.] To the above amount it is necessary to
+add 7,000 Sangleys (Chinese), who have been enumerated and subjected to
+tribute, for, although in the returns preserved in the public offices,
+they are not rated at more than 4,700, there are ample reasons for
+concluding, that many who are wandering about, or hidden in the
+provinces, have eluded the general census. The European Spaniards,
+and Spanish creoles and mestizos, do not exceed 4,000 persons, of both
+sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in
+America under the name of mulattos, quadroons, etc., although found
+in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three
+classes of pure natives, Chinese mestizos, and Chinese. Besides the
+above distinctions, various infidel and independent nations or tribes
+exist, more or less savage and ferocious, who have their dwellings in
+the woods and glens, and are distinguished by the respective names of
+Aetas, Ingolots, Negrillos, Igorots, Tinguianes, etc., nor is there
+scarcely a province in Luzon, that does not give shelter to some of
+those isolated tribes, who inhabit and possess many of the mountainous
+ranges, which ramificate and divide the wide and extended plains of
+that beautiful island.
+
+[Origin of race.] The original race by which the Philippines are
+peopled, is beyond doubt Malayan, and the same that is observed
+in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the other islands of this immense
+archipelago. The Philippine Islanders, very different from the
+Malabars, whose features possess great regularity, sweetness, and even
+beauty, only resemble the latter in color, although they excel them in
+stature, and the good proportion of their limbs. The local population
+of the capital, in consequence of its continual communication with
+the Chinese and other Asiatics, with the mariners of various nations,
+with the soldiery and Mexican convicts, who are generally mulattos,
+and in considerable numbers sent to the Islands yearly in the way
+of transportation, has become a mixture of all kinds of nations and
+features, or rather a degeneration from the primitive races.
+
+[Manila's population.] Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands,
+at present contains a population of from one hundred forty to one
+hundred fifty thousand inhabitants, of all classes; but it ought,
+however, to be understood, that in this computation are included
+the populous suburbs of Santa Cruz, San Fernando, Binondo, Tondo,
+Quiapo, San Sebastian, San Anton, and Sampaloc; for although each is
+considered as a distinct town, having a separate curate, and civil
+magistrate of its own, the subsequent union that has taken place rather
+makes them appear as a prolongation of the city, divided into so many
+wards and parishes, in the center of which their respective churches
+are built. Among the chief provincial towns, several are found to
+contain a population of from twenty to thirty thousand souls, and
+many not less than ten to twelve thousand. Finally, it is a generally
+received opinion that, besides the Moros and independent tribes, the
+total population of the Philippine Islands, subject to the authority
+of the king, is equal to three millions.
+
+[Cotton.] Among the varied productions of the Philippines, for many
+reasons, none is so deserving of attention as cotton. Its whiteness
+and find staple give to it such a superiority over that of the rest of
+Asia, and possibly of the world, that the Chinese anxiously seek it,
+in order pereferably to employ it in their most perfect textures,
+and purchase it thirty per cent dearer than the best from British
+India. Notwithstanding this extraordinary allurement, the vicinity
+of a good market, and the positive certainty that, however great the
+exportation, the growth can never equal the consumption and immense
+demand for this article, it has, nevertheless, hitherto been found
+impossible to extend and improve its cultivation, in such a way as to
+render it a staple commodity of the country. Owing to this lamentable
+neglect, is it, that the annual exportation does not exceed five
+thousand "arrobas" (125,000 lbs.) whereas the British import into
+China at the annual rate of 100,000 bales, or 1,200,000 "arrobas,"
+produced in their establishments at Bombay and Calcutta, and which,
+sold at the medium price of fifteen "taels," for one hundred thirty
+pounds, yield the net amount of $4,800,000.
+
+[Its advantages.] This want of attention to so important a branch
+of agriculture is the more to be regretted, as the Islands abound
+in situations peculiarly adapted for the cultivation of cotton, and
+the accidental failure of the crops in some provinces, might easily
+be made up by their success in others. The culture of this plant is
+besides extremely easy, as it requires no other labor than clearing
+the grounds from brush-wood, and lightly turning up the earth with a
+plough, before the seeds are scattered, which being done, the planter
+leaves the crop to its own chance, and in five months gathers abundant
+fruit, if, at the time the bud opens, it is not burnt by the north
+winds, or rotted with unseasonable showers.
+
+[Restricted cultivation.] The provinces of Ilocos and Batangas
+are the only ones in which the cultivation of cotton is pursued
+with any degree of zeal and care, and it greatly tends to enrich
+the inhabitants. This successful example has not, however, hitherto
+excited emulation in those of the other provinces; and thus the only
+production of the Philippine Islands, of which the excellence and
+superior demand in trade are as well known as its culture is easy,
+owing to strange fatality and causes which will be hereafter noticed,
+is left almost in a neglected state, or, at most, confined to the
+narrow limits of local consumption.
+
+[Indigo.] Pangasinan, Pampanga, Bataan, La Laguna, Tayabas and
+Camarines produce indigo of various classes, and, although its
+preparation or the extraction of the dye, is in most of the above
+provinces still performed in an equally imperfect manner, several
+small improvements have recently been made, which have bettered the
+quality, more particularly in La Laguna, the only district in which
+attempts have been made to imitate the process used in Guatemala,
+as well with regard to the construction and number of vats necessary,
+as the precipitation of the coloring particles--detached from the plant
+by the agitation of the water. In the other places, the whole of the
+operations are performed in a single vat, and the indigo obtained is
+not unfrequently impregnated with lime and other extraneous substances.
+
+[Increasing culture.] Whatever may have been the causes of this evident
+backwardness, from the period of the establishment of the Philippine
+Company in these Islands, and in consequence of the exertions of some
+of the directors to promote the cultivation of indigo, at that time
+very little known, the natives have slowly, though gradually, been
+reconciled to it; and discovering it to be one of the most advantageous
+branches of industry, although accompanied with some labor and exposed
+to the influence of droughts and excessive heats, as well as to the
+risks attendant on the extraordinary anticipation of the rainy seasons,
+have of late years paid more attention to it. The quintal of indigo
+of the first class costs the planter from $35 to $40 at most; and in
+the market of Manila it has been sold from $60 to $130, according to
+the quality and the greater or lesser demand for the article at the
+season. As, however, everything in this colony moves within a small
+circle, it is not possible to obtain large quantities for exportation;
+not only because of the risk in advancing the Indian sums of money
+on account of his crop, but also owing to the annual surplus seldom
+exceeding from two to two thousand five hundred distributed in many
+hands, and collected by numerous agents, equally interested in making
+up their return-cargoes.
+
+[Sugar.] The cultivation of the sugar-cane is more or less extended
+to all the provinces of these Islands, owing to its consumption among
+the natives being both great and general; but those of La Pampanga and
+Pangasinan are more particularly devoted to it. These two provinces
+alone annually produce about 550,000 arrobas (13,750,000 lbs.) of
+which one-third is usually exported in Chinese and other foreign
+vessels. In extraordinary seasons, the amount exported greatly
+exceeds the quantity above stated, as, for example, happened in the
+monsoon of 1796, when the planters came down to the port of Manila,
+and by contract exported upwards of nine millions weight, of the first
+and second qualities. The price of this article has experienced many
+variations of late years; but the medium may be estimated at $6 for one
+hundred twenty-five pounds of the first quality, and $5 for the second.
+
+[Method of Manufacture.] The superior quality of the sugar of
+the Philippines is acknowledged, when compared to that produced
+in the Island of Java, China, or Bengal; notwithstanding in the
+latter countries it may naturally be concluded that greater pains
+and care are bestowed on its manufacture. The pressure of the cane
+in the Philippine Islands is performed by means of two coarse stone
+cylinders, placed on the ground, and moved in opposite directions by
+the slow and unequal pace of a "carabao," a species of ox or buffalo,
+peculiar to this and other Asiatic countries. The juice is conveyed to
+an iron caldron, and in this the other operations of boiling, skimming
+and cleansing take place, till the crystallization or adhering of
+the sugar is completed. All these distinct parts of the process, in
+other colonies, are performed in four separate vessels, confided to
+different hands, and consequently experience a much greater degree of
+care and dexterity. After being properly clayed, the sugars acquire
+such a state of consistency that, when shipped in canvas bags, they
+become almost petrified in the course of the voyage, without moistening
+or purging, as I understand is the case with those of Bengal.
+
+[Silk.] Among the useful objects to which the Patriotic Society of
+Manila (Amigos del Pais) directed their attention, from the very
+moment of their formation, the planting of mulberry trees seems to
+have met with peculiar encouragement. The society rightly judged that
+the naturalization of so valuable a commodity as silk in these Islands
+would materially increase the resources of the colony, and there was
+reason to hope that, besides local consumption, the growth might in
+time be so much extended as to supply the wants of New Spain, which
+are not less than 80,000 lbs., amounting to from $350,000 to $400,000,
+conveyed there in the galleon annually sent to the port of Acapulco,
+by the Manila merchants, which article they are now compelled to
+contract for in China.
+
+[Mulberry trees.] The Society gave the first impulse to this laudable
+project, and then the governor of the Islands, Don José Basco, anxious
+to realize it, with this view sent Colonel Charles Conely on a special
+commission to the province of Camarines. This zealous officer and
+district magistrate, in the years 1786-1788 caused 4,485,782 mulberry
+trees to be planted in the thirty districts under his jurisdiction;
+and incalculable are the happy results which would have attended a
+plan so extensive, and commenced with so much vigor, if it could have
+been continued with the same zeal by his successor, and not at once
+destroyed, through a mistaken notion of humanity, with which, soon
+after the departure of Governor Basco, they proceeded to exonerate
+the Filipinos from all agricultural labor that was not free and
+spontaneous, in conformity, as was then alleged, to the general spirit
+of our Indian legislation. As it was natural to expect, the total
+abandonment of this valuable branch followed a measure so fatal, and
+notwithstanding the efforts subsequently made by the Royal Company, in
+order to obtain its restoration, as well in Camarines as the Province
+of Tondo, all their exertions were in vain, though it must be allowed
+that at the time several untoward circumstances contributed to thwart
+their anxious wishes. Notwithstanding this failure, the project, far
+from being deemed impracticable, would beyond all doubt succeed, and,
+under powerful patronage, completely answer the well-founded hopes of
+its original conceivers and promoters. The natives themselves would
+soon be convinced of the advantages to be derived from the possession
+of an article, in so many ways applicable to their own fine textures,
+and besides the variety of districts in the Islands, proved to be
+suitable to the cultivation of this interesting tree, it is a known
+fact that many of the old mulberry groves are still in existence.
+
+[Beeswax.] The Bisayas, Cagayan, and many other provinces, produce wax
+in considerable abundance, which the Indians collect from the natural
+hives formed in the cavities of the trees, and it is also brought down
+by the infidel natives from the mountains to the neighboring towns. The
+quality certainly is not the best, and notwithstanding attempts have
+been made to cleanse it from the extraneous particles with which it
+is mixed, it always leaves a considerable sediment on the lower part
+of the cakes, and never acquires an entire whiteness. Its consumption
+is great, especially in the capital, and after supplying the wants of
+the country, an annual surplus of from six hundred to eight hundred
+quintals is appropriated for exportation.
+
+[Neglected market.] This certainly might be converted into an article
+of extreme importance, especially for the kingdom of Peru, which
+in peaceable times receives its supplies from Spain, and even from
+the Island of Cuba; but for this purpose it would be necessary to
+adopt the plan recommended by the enlightened zeal of the Patriotic
+Society and previously encourage the establishment of artificial
+hives and the plantation of aromatic and flowering shrubs, which so
+easily attract and secure the permanency of the roving swarms, always
+ready to undertake fresh labors. This, as well as many other points,
+has hitherto been entirely overlooked.
+
+[Black pepper.] The production is cultivated in the Provinces of
+Tayabas, Batangas, and La Laguna, but in such small quantities, that,
+notwithstanding the powerful allurements of all kinds constantly held
+out by the Royal Company during the long period of twenty years,
+their agents have never been able to collect in more than about
+64,000 lbs. annually. After every encouragement, the most that
+has been attained with the natives, is confined to their planting
+in some districts fifty to one hundred pepper-vines round their
+huts, which they cultivate in the same way as they would plots of
+flowers, but without any other labor than supporting the plant with
+a proportioned stake, clearing the ground from weeds, and attending
+to daily irrigation.
+
+[A possibility.] This article therefore scarcely deserves a place
+amongst the flourishing branches of agriculture, at least till it has
+been raised from its present depressed state, and the grounds laid
+out in regular and productive pepper-groves. Till this is done, to
+a corresponding extent, it must also be excluded from the number of
+productions furnished by these Islands to commerce and exportation;
+more particularly if we consider that, notwithstanding the great
+fragrance of the grain, as well as its general superiority over the
+rest of Asia, so great a difference exists in the actual price, that
+this can never be compensated by its greater request in the markets of
+Europe, and much less enable it to compete with that of the British and
+Dutch, till its abundance has considerably lowered its primitive value.
+
+[Not popular.] Finally, although an infinity of grounds are to be found
+adapted to the rapid propagation of pepper-vines, as may easily be
+inferred from the analogy and proximity of the Philippine Islands to
+the others of this same archipelago, so well known for their growth
+of spices, it must be confessed that it is a species of culture by
+no means popular among the Philippine natives, and it would be almost
+requiring too much from their inconstancy of character, to wish them
+to dedicate their lands and time to the raising of a production which,
+besides demanding considerable care, is greatly exposed to injury,
+and even liable to be destroyed by the severity of the storms, which
+frequently mark the seasons. With difficulty would they be induced to
+wait five years before they were able to gather the uncertain fruits
+of their labor and patience. If, therefore, it should ever be deemed
+a measure of policy to encourage the growth of black pepper, it will
+be necessary for the government to order the commons belonging to each
+town, and adapted to this species of plantation, to be appropriated to
+this use, by imposing on the inhabitants the obligation of taking care
+of them, and drawing from the respective coffers of each community the
+necessary funds for the payment of the laborers, and the other expenses
+of cultivation. If this cannot be done, it will be necessary to wait
+till the general condition of the country is improved, when through
+the spirit of emulation, and the enterprises of the planters being duly
+patronized and supported, present difficulties may be overcome, and the
+progressive results of future attempts will be then found to combine
+the interests of individuals with the general welfare of the colony.
+
+[Coffee.] So choice is the quality of the coffee produced in the
+Island of Luzon, especially in the districts of Indang and Silang,
+in the province of Cavite, that if it is not equal to that of Mocha,
+I at least consider it on parallel with the coffee of Bourbon; but,
+as the consumption and cultivation are extremely limited, it cannot
+with any propriety be yet numbered among the articles contributing
+to the export-trade.
+
+[Cocoa.] Cocoa is something more attended to, in consequence of the
+use of chocolate being greatly extended among the natives of easy
+circumstances. That of the Island of Cebu, is esteemed superior to
+the cocoa of Guayaquil, and possibly it is not excelled by that of
+Soconusco. As, however, the quantity raised does not suffice for
+the local consumption, Guayaquil cocoa meets a ready sale, and is
+generally brought in return-cargo by the ships coming from Acapulco,
+and those belonging to the Philippine company dispatched from Callao,
+the shipping port of Lima.
+
+The cultivation of these two articles in the Philippines is on the
+same footing as that of pepper, which, as above stated, is rather an
+object of luxury and recreation than one of speculation among the
+Filipinos. The observations and rules pointed out in the preceding
+article, are, in a general sense, applicable to both these branches
+of industry.
+
+[Cinnamon.] Cinnamon groves, or trees of wild cinnamon, are to be
+found in every province. In Mindanao, a Dutchman, some years ago,
+was employed by orders of the government, in examining the forests
+and making experiments, with a view to discover the same tree of
+this species that has given so much renown to Ceylon; but, whether
+it was owing to a failure in the discovery, or, when the plant was
+found, as at the time was said to be the case, the same results were
+not produced, from the want of skill in preparing, or stripping off
+the bark; certain it is, that the laudable attempt totally failed,
+or rather the only advantage gained, has been the extracting from
+the bark and more tender parts of the branches of the tree, an oil
+or essence of cinnamon, vigorous and aromatic in the extreme.
+
+[Experiment in Laguna.] About the same time, a land-owner of the name
+Salgado, undertook to form an extensive plantation of the same species
+in the province of La Laguna, and succeeded in seeing upwards of a
+million cinnamon trees thrive and grow to a considerable size; but
+at last, he was reluctantly compelled to desist from his enterprise,
+by the same reasons which led to the failure of Mindanao.
+
+[Need of experienced cultivators.] These facts are of sufficient
+authority for our placing the cinnamon tree among the indigenous
+productions of the Philippine Islands and considering their general
+excellence above those of the same nature in the rest of Asia, it may
+reasonably be concluded that, without the tree being identically the
+same, the cinnamon with which it is clothed will be found finer than
+that yielded by the native plant of the Island of Ceylon, and this
+circumstance, consequently, holds out a hope that, in the course of
+time, it may become an article of traffic, as estimable as it would be
+new. In order, however, that this flattering prospect may be realized,
+it will be requisite for the government to procure some families,
+or persons from the above island, acquainted with the process of
+stripping off the bark and preparing the cinnamon, by dexterously
+offering allurements, corresponding to the importance of the service,
+which, although in itself it may probably be an extremely simple
+operation, as long as it is unknown, will be an insuperable obstacle
+to the propagation of so important an agricultural pursuit.
+
+[Nutmeg.] Two species of nutmeg are known here, the one in shape
+resembling a pigeon's egg, and the other of a perfectly spherical
+form; but both are wild and little aromatic, and consequently held
+in no great esteem.
+
+[Rice.] Rice is the bread and principal aliment of these natives, for
+which reason, although its cultivation is among the most disagreeable
+departments of husbandry, they devote themselves to it with astonishing
+constancy and alacrity, so as to form a complete contrast with their
+characteristic indifference in most other respects. This must, however,
+be taken as a certain indication of the possibility of training them
+up to useful labor; whenever they can be led on in a proper manner.
+
+[High yield.] The earth corresponds with surprising fertility to
+the labors of the Filipino, rewarding him, in the good seasons, with
+ninety, and even as high as one hundred per cent; a fact I have fully
+ascertained and of which I besides possess undoubted proofs, obtained
+from the parish-curates of La Pampanga. As, however, the provinces are
+frequently visited with dreadful hurricanes (called in the country,
+baguios), desolated by locusts, and exposed to the effects of the
+great irregularities of nature, which, in these climes, often acts
+in extreme, the crops of this grain are precarious, or at least,
+no reliance can be placed on a certain surplus allowing an annual
+exportation to China. On this account, rice cannot be placed in the
+list of those articles which give support to the external trade.
+
+[Dye and cabinet woods.] The "sibucao," or logwood, and ebony, in
+both which these islands abound, are the only woods in any tolerable
+request. The first is sold with advantage in Bengal, and the other
+meets a ready sale in the ports of China, in the absence of that
+brought from the Island of Bourbon, which is a quality infinitely
+superior. Both are however, articles of no great consumption, for,
+being bulky and possessing little intrinsic value, they will not
+bear the high charges of freight and other expenses, attendant on
+the navigation of the Asiatic seas, and can only suit the shipper,
+as cargo, who is anxious not to return to the above countries in
+ballast. Hence, as an object of export trade, these articles cannot
+be estimated at more than $30,000 per annum.
+
+[Timber.] I deem it superfluous to dwell on a multitude of other
+good and even precious woods in timber, with which the Philippine
+Islands are gifted, because this is a subject already sufficiently well
+understood, and a complete collection of specimens, as well as some
+large blocks, were besides transmitted some years ago to the king's
+dockyard. It may, however, be proper to remark, that the establishment
+near the capital for shipbuilding and masts, are much more expensive
+than is generally supposed, as well on account of the difficulties
+experienced in dragging the trees from the interior of the mountains
+to the water's edge, as the want of regularity and foresight with
+which these operations have been usually conducted. Besides these
+reasons, as it is necessary that the other materials requisite for
+the construction and complete armament of vessels of a certain
+force, should come from Europe, it is neither easy, nor indeed,
+would it be economical, as was erroneously asserted, to carry into
+effect the government project of annually building, in the colony,
+a ship of the line and a frigate. It ought further to be observed,
+that no stock of timber, cut at a proper season and well cured, has
+been lain in, and although the wages of the native carpenters and
+caulkers are moderate, no comparison whatever can be made between the
+daily work they perform, and that which is done in the same space of
+time in our dock-yards of Spain.
+
+[Ship building advantages.] Notwithstanding, however, the impediments
+above stated, as it is undeniable that abundance of suitable timber is
+to be obtained, and as the conveyance of the remainder of the necessary
+naval stores to the Philippine Islands is shorter and more economical
+than to the coast of California, it possibly might answer, at least,
+many mariners are of this opinion, in case it is deemed expedient to
+continue building at San Blas the brigs and corvettes necessary for the
+protection of the military posts and missions, situated along the above
+coasts, to order them preferably to be built in Cavite giving timely
+advice, and previously taking care to make the necessary arrangements.
+
+[Gold.] Gold abounds in Luzon and in many of the other islands; but as
+the mountains which conceal it are in possession of the pagan tribes,
+the mines are not worked; indeed it may be said they are scarcely
+known. These mountaineers collect it in the brooks and streamlets,
+and in the form of dust, offer it to the Christians who inhabit the
+neighboring plains, in exchange for coarse goods and fire-arms; and it
+has sometimes happened that they have brought it down in grains of one
+and two ounces weight. The natives of the province of Camarines partly
+devote themselves to the working of the mines of Mambulao and Paracale,
+which have the reputation of being very rich; but, far from availing
+themselves in the smallest degree of the advantages of art, they
+content themselves with extracting the ore by means of an extremley
+imperfect fusion, which is done by placing the mineral in shells and
+then heating them on embers. A considerable waste consequently takes
+place, and although the metal obtained is good and high colored,
+it generally, passes into the hands of the district-magistrate, who
+collects it at a price infinitely lower than it is worth in trade. It
+is a generally received opinion that gold mines are equally to be
+met with in the Province of Caraga, situated on the coasts of the
+great Island of Mindanao, where, as well as in other points, this
+metal is met with equal to twenty-two karats. The quantity, however,
+hitherto brought down from the mountains by the pagan tribes, and
+that obtained by the tributary Filipinos, has not been an object of
+very great importance.
+
+[Copper.] Well-founded reasons exist for presuming that, in
+the Province of Ilocos, mines of virgin copper exist, a singular
+production of nature, or at least, not very common, if the generality
+of combinations under which this metal presents itself in the
+rest of the globe, are duly considered. This is partly inferred
+from the circumstance of its having been noticed that the Igorots,
+who occasionally come down from the mountains to barter with the
+Christians, use certain coarse jars or vessels of copper, evidently
+made by themselves with the use of a hammer, without any art or
+regularity; and as the ignorance of these demi-savages is too great
+for them to possess the notions necessary for the separation of the
+component parts which enter into the combination of minerals, and much
+less for the construction of furnaces suitable to the smelting and
+formation of the moulds, it is concluded they must have found some
+vein of copper entirely pure, which, without the necessity of any
+other preparation, they have been able to flatten with the hammer and
+rendered maleable, so as to convert it into the rough vessels above
+spoken of.
+
+[Cinnabar.] The district-magistrate of Caraga, Don Augustin de Ioldi,
+received a special commission from the government to explore and
+obtain information respecting a mine of cinnabar, which was said
+to be situated under his jurisdiction; and I have been informed of
+another of the same species in the Island of Samar, the working of
+which has ceased for a considerable time, not because the prospect was
+unfavorable, but for the want of an intelligent person to superintend
+and carry on the operations. The utility of such a discovery is too
+obvious not to deserve, on the part of government, the most serious
+attention and every encouragement to render it available; and it is
+to be hoped that, as the first steps have already been taken in this
+important disclosure, the enterprise will not be abandoned, but, on
+the contrary, that exertions will be made to obtain aid and advice
+from the Miners' College of Mexico, as the best means of removing
+doubt, and acting with judgment in the affair.
+
+[Iron.] Iron in mineral form is to be found at various points on Luzon,
+and those engaged in working it, without the necessity of digging;
+collect the iron-bearing stones that constitute the upper stratum,
+these, when placed in fusion, generally yield about forty per cent
+clear metal. This is the case in the mountains of Angat, situated
+in the Province of Bulacan, and also in the vicinity of the Baliwag
+River. In Morong, however, belonging to the Province of La Laguna,
+where the cannon-ball factory is established, the ore yields under
+twenty-two per cent. Its quality is in general better than the Biscayan
+iron, according to formal experiments and a report, made in 1798 to
+Governor Don Rafael Maria de Aguilar, by two Biscayan master-smiths
+from the squadron of Admiral Alava. Witnesses to this test were the
+Count de Aviles and Don Felix de la Rosa, proprietors of the mines of
+Morong and Angat, and the factor of the Philippine Company, Don Juan
+Francisco Urroroz. Notwithstanding its advantages, this interesting
+branch of industry has not yet passed beyond the most rude principles
+and imperfect practice, owing to the want of correct information
+as to the best process, and scarcity of funds on the part of the
+proprietors to carry on their works. Without the aid of rolling or
+slitting mills, indeed unprovided with the most essential instruments,
+they have hitherto confined themselves to converting their iron into
+plow shares, bolos, hoes, and such other agricultural implements;
+leaving the Chinese of Amoy in quiet possession of the advantages
+of being allowed to market annual supplies of all kinds of nails,
+the boilers used on the sugar plantations, pots and pans, as well as
+other articles in this line, which might easily be manufactured in
+the Islands.
+
+[Sulphur.] In the Island of Leyte, abundance of sulphur is met with,
+and from thence the gunpowder works of Manila are supplied at very
+reasonable prices. Jaspers, cornelians and agates, are also found in
+profusion in many of these provinces; everything, indeed, promises
+varied mineral wealth worthy of exciting the curiosity and useful
+researches of mineralogists, who, unfortunately, have not hitherto
+extended their labors to these remote parts of the globe.
+
+[Pearls.] Pearl fisheries are, from time to time, undertaken off the
+coast of the Island of Mindanao, and also near smaller islands not
+far from Cebu, but with little success and less constancy, not because
+there is a scarcity of fine pearls of a bright color and considerable
+size, but on account of the divers' want of skill and their just dread
+of the sharks, which, in great numbers infest these seas. Amber is
+frequently gathered in considerable lumps in the vicinity of Samar and
+the other Visayan Islands as well as mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell,
+and red and black coral, of the latter kind of which, I have seen
+shafts as thick as my finger and six or eight feet long.
+
+[Estates.] The proprietors of estates in the Philippines are of
+four classes. The most considerable is that of the religious orders,
+Augustinians and Dominicans, who cultivate their respective lands on
+joint account, or let them out at a moderate ground-rent, which the
+planters pay in kind; but far from living in opulence, and accumulating
+the immense revenues some of the religious communities enjoy in
+America, they stand in need of all they earn and possess for their
+maintenance, and in order to be enabled to discharge the various duties
+and obligations annexed to the missions with which they are entrusted.
+
+[Spanish planters.] The second class comprehends the Spanish
+proprietors, whose number possibly does not exceed a dozen of persons,
+and even they labor under such disadvantages, and have to contend with
+so many obstacles, under the existing order of things, that, compelled
+to divide their lands into rice plantations, in consequence of this
+being the species of culture to which the natives are most inclined,
+and to devote a considerable portion of them to the grazing of horned
+cattle, no one of them is in a situation to give to agriculture the
+variety and extent desired, or to attain any progress in a pursuit
+which in other colonies rapidly leads to riches.
+
+[Filipino farmers.] The third consists of the principal mestizos
+and natives, and is in fact that which constitutes the real body of
+farming proprietors. In the fourth and last may be included all the
+other natives, who generally possess a small strip of land situated
+round their dwellings, or at the extremities of the various towns
+and settlements formed by the conquerors; besides what they may
+have obtained from their ancestors in the way of legal inheritance,
+which rights have been confirmed to them by the present sovereign of
+the colony.
+
+[Aids to agriculture.] It will beyond doubt, in some measure dissipate
+the distrust by which the Filipino is actuated, when the new and
+paternal exertions of the superior government, to ameliorate his
+present situation, are fully known, and when that valuable portion of
+our distant population is assured that their rights will henceforth be
+respected, and those exactions and compulsory levies which formerly
+so much disheartened them, are totally abolished. On the other
+hand, a new stimulus will be given by the living example and fresh
+impulse communicated to the provinces by other families emigrating
+and settling there, nurtured in the spirit and principles of those
+reforms in the ideas and maxims of government by which the present
+era is distinguished. A practical participation in these advantages
+will, most assuredly, awaken a spirit of enterprise and emulation
+that may be extremely beneficial to agriculture, and as the wants
+of the natives increase in proportion as they are enabled to know
+and compare the comforts arising out of the presence and extension
+of conveniences and luxuries in their own towns, they will naturally
+be led to possess and adopt them.
+
+[Plans for progress.] So salutary a change, however, can only be
+the work of time, and as long as the government confines itself
+to a system merely protecting, the effects must consequently be
+slow. As it is therefore necessary to put in action more powerful
+springs than the ordinary ones, it will be found expedient partly to
+relax from some of those general principles which apply to societies,
+differently constituted, or rather formed of other perfectly distinct
+elements. As relating to the subject under discussion, I fortunately
+discover two means, pointed out in the laws themselves, essentially
+just, and at the same time capable of producing in this populous
+colony, more than in any other, the desired results. The legislator,
+founding himself on the common obligation of the subject to contribute
+something in return for the protection he receives, and to co-operate
+in the increase of the power and opulence of the State, proscribes
+idleness as a crime, and points out labor as a duty; and although
+the regulations touching the natives breathe the spirit of humanity,
+and exhibit the wisdom with which they were originally formed, they
+nevertheless concur and are directed to this primary object. In them
+the distribution of vacant lands, as well as of the natives at fair
+daily wages to clear them, is universally allowed, and these it seems
+to me, are the means from an equitable and intelligent application
+of which the most beneficial consequences may be expected.
+
+[Confiscating unused lands.] The first cannot be attended with any
+great difficulty, because all the provinces abound in waste and vacant
+lands, and scarcely is there a district in which some are not to be
+found of private property completely uncultivated and neglected,
+and consequently susceptible, as above stated, of being legally
+transferred, for this reason alone, to the possession of an active
+owner. Let their nature however, be what it may, in their adjudication,
+it is of the greatest importance to proceed with uniformity, by
+consecrating, in a most irrevocable manner, the solemnity of all
+similar grants. Public interest and reason, in the Philippine Islands,
+require that in all such cases deference only should be paid to
+demands justly interposed, and formally established within a due and
+fixed period; but after full and public notice has been given by the
+respective judicial authorities, of the titles about to be granted,
+the counter claims the natives may seek to put in after the lapse of
+the period prefixed, should be peremptorily disregarded. Although at
+first sight this appears a direct infringement on the imprescriptible
+rights of property, it must be considered that in some cases individual
+interests ought to be sacrificed to the general good, and that the
+balance used, when treating of the affairs of State, is never of
+that rigid kind as if applied to those of minor consideration. The
+fact is, that by this means many would be induced to form estates,
+who have hitherto been withheld by the dread of involving themselves,
+and spending their money in law suits; at the same time the natives,
+gradually accustoming themselves to this new order of things, would
+lay aside that disposition to strife and contention, which forms so
+peculiar a trait in their character, and that antipathy and odium would
+also disappear with which they have usually viewed the agricultural
+undertakings of Spaniards.
+
+[Compulsory labor.] Proceeding to the consideration of the second
+means of accelerating the improvement of agriculture, viz., the
+distribution of the natives, it will suffice to say that it would be
+equally easy to show that it is absolutely necessary rigorously to
+carry into effect, in the Philippine Islands, whatever the laws on this
+subject prescribed, otherwise we must give up all those substantial
+hopes entertained of the felicity of the colony. We are no longer in
+a situation to be restricted to the removal of ordinary obstacles,
+and the season is gone by in which, as heretofore, it entered into
+our policy to employ no other than indirect stimulants--in order to
+incline the Filipino to labor. It is evident that admonitions and
+offers of reward no longer suffice; nor indeed have the advantageous
+terms proposed to them by some planters, with a view to withdraw
+the lower orders of the natives, such as the timauas and caglianes
+plebeians, from the idle indifference in which they are sunk, been of
+any avail. Their wants and wishes being easily supplied, the whole
+of their happiness seems to depend on quiet and repose, and their
+highest enjoyment on the pleasure of sleep. Energy, however, and a
+certain degree of severity must be employed, if permanent resources
+are to be called forth, and if the progressive settlement of European
+families and the formation of estates proportioned to the fertility
+of the soil and capabilities of the country are to enter into the
+views of government. In vain would grants and transfers of vacant and
+useless lands be made to new and enterprising proprietors, unless at
+the same time they can be provided with laborers, and experience every
+other possible facility, in order to clear, enclose, and cultivate
+them. Hence follows the indispensable necessity of appealing to the
+system of distributions, as above pointed out; for what class of
+laborers can be obtained in a country where the whites are so few,
+unless it be the natives? Should they object to personal service,
+should they refuse to labor for an equitable and daily allowance,
+by which means they would also cease to be burdens to the State
+and to society, are they not to be compelled to contribute by this
+means to the prosperity of which they are members; in a word, to
+the public good, and thus make some provision for old age? If the
+soldier, conveyed away from his native land, submits to dangers, and
+is unceasingly exposed to death in defence of the State, why should
+not the Filipino moderately use his strength and activity in tilling
+the fields which are to sustain him and enrich the commonwealth?
+
+[The undeveloped Philippines.] Besides, things in the Philippine
+Islands wear a very different aspect to what they do on the American
+continent, where, as authorized by the said laws, a certain number
+of natives may be impressed for a season, and sent off inland to a
+considerable distance from their dwellings, either for the purpose of
+agriculture, or working the mines, provided only they are taken care of
+during their journeys, maintained, and the price of their daily labor,
+as fixed by the civil authorities, regularly paid to them. The immense
+valleys and mountains susceptible of cultivation, especially in the
+Island of Luzon, being once settled, and the facilities of obtaining
+hands increased, such legal acts of compulsion, far from being any
+longer necessary, will have introduced a spirit of industry that
+will render the labors of the field supportable and even desirable;
+and in this occupation all the tributary natives of the surrounding
+settlements can be alternately employed, by the day or week, and thus
+do their work almost at the door of their own huts, and as it were
+in sight of their wives and children.
+
+[No legal obstacle to forced labor.] If, after what has been above
+stated, the apparent opposition obstacle to which at first sight
+strikes the eye, in Law 40, Title 12, Book 6, speaking on this subject,
+and expressly referring to the Philippine Islands, should be alleged,
+no more will be necessary than to study its genuine sense, or read it
+with attention, in order to be convinced of its perfect concordance
+with the essential parts of the other laws of the Indies, already
+quoted in explanation and support of the system of distributing
+the laborers. The above-mentioned law does indeed contain a strict
+recommendation to employ the Chinese and Japanese, not domiciliated,
+in preference to the natives, in the establishments for cutting timber
+and other royal works, and further enjoins that use is only to be made
+in emergencies, and when the preservation of the state should require
+it. It has, however, happened that, since the remote period at which
+the above was promulgated, not only all contracts and commerce have
+ceased, but also every communication with Japan has been interrupted,
+and for a number of years not a single individual of that ferocious
+race has existed in the Philippine Islands. With regard to the Chinese,
+who are supposed to be numerous in the capital, of late years they have
+diminished so much, that according to a census made by orders of the
+government in the year 1807, no more than four thousand seven hundred
+are found on the registers; and, if in consequence of their secreting
+themselves, or withdrawing into the interior, a third more might be
+added to the above amount, their total numbers would still remain
+very inconsiderable, and infinitely inferior to what is required,
+not only for the tillage of the estates, but even for the royal works.
+
+[Substitute laborers wanting.] As, therefore, the Japanese have totally
+disappeared, and the number of Chinese is evidently inadequate to the
+wants of agriculture, it almost necessarily follows that the practice
+of distributing the Filipino laborers, as allowed by the aforesaid
+laws of the Indies, under all circumstances, is the only alternate
+left. Even if, against the adoption of this measure, it should be
+attempted to urge the ambiguous sense of the concluding part of the
+second clause, it would be easy to comprehend its true intent and
+meaning, by referring to Law 1, Title 13, Book 5, which says:
+
+"That, considering the inconveniences which would arise from doing
+away with certain distributions of grounds, gardens, estates, and
+other plantations, in which the Indians are interested, as a matter
+on which the preservation of those distant dominions and provinces
+depends, it is ordained that compulsory labor, and such distributions
+as are advantageous to the public good, shall continue."
+
+After so pointed an explanation, and a manifestation so clear of
+the spirit of our legislation in this respect, all further comments
+would be useless, and no doubt whatever can be any longer entertained
+of the expediency, and even of the justice of putting the plan of
+well-regulated distributions in practice, as a powerful means to
+promote the agriculture, and secure to Spain the possession of these
+valuable dominions of the Indian Seas. ....
+
+[Manufactures.] .... It would be impossible to gainsay Don Juan
+Francisco Urroz, of the Philippine Company, in his detailed and
+accurate report to the managing committee in 1802, when he observes:
+
+"That the Philippine Islands, from time immemorial, were acquainted
+with, and still retain, that species of industry peculiar to the
+country, adapted to the customs and wants of the natives, and which
+constitutes the chief branch of their clothing. This, although
+confined to coarse articles, may in its class be called perfect, as
+far as it answers the end for which it is intended; and if an attempt
+were made to enumerate the quantity of mats, handkerchiefs, sheeting,
+and a variety of other cloths manufactured for this purpose only in
+the Provinces of Tondo, Laguna, Batangas, Ilocos, Cagayan, Camarines,
+Albay, Visaya, etc., immense supplies of each kind would appear, which
+give occupation to an incalculable number of looms, indistinctly worked
+by Indians, Chinese, and Sangleyan mestizos, indeed all the classes,
+in their own humble dwellings, built of canes and thatched with palm
+leaves, without any apparatus of regular manufacture."
+
+[Native cloth weaving.] With equal truth am I enabled to add, that the
+natural abilities of these natives in the manufacture of all kinds of
+cloths, fine as well as coarse, are really admirable. They succeed
+in reducing the harsh filaments of the palm-tree, known by the name
+of abaca, to such a degree of fineness, that they afterwards convert
+them into textures equal to the best muslins of Bengal. The beauty
+and evenness of their embroideries and open work excite surprise;
+in short, the damask table-cloths, ornamental weaving, textures of
+cotton and palm-fibres, intermixed with silk, and manufactured in the
+above-mentioned provinces, clearly prove how much the inhabitants of
+the Philippine Islands, in natural abilities and dexterity, resemble
+the other people of the Asiatic regions. It must nevertheless be
+allowed, that a want is noticed of that finish and polish which the
+perfection of art gives to each commodity; but this circumstance
+ought not to appear strange, if we consider that, entirely devoid of
+all methodical instruction, and ignorant also of the importance of
+the subdivision of labor, which contributes so greatly to simplify,
+shorten, and improve the respective excellence of all kinds of works,
+the same natives gin and clean the cotton, and then spin and weave it,
+without any other instruments than their hands and feet, aided only by
+the course and unsightly looms they themselves construct in a corner
+of their huts, with scarcely anything else than a few canes and sticks.
+
+[Aptitude for, but no development of, manufacturing.] From the
+preceding observations it may easily be deduced that, although
+the natives succeed in preparing, with admirable dexterity, the
+productions of their soil, and therewith satisfy the greatest part of
+their domestic wants, facts which certainly manifest their talents
+and aptitude to be employed in works of more taste and delicacy,
+manufacturing industry is nevertheless far from being generalized,
+nor can it be said to be placed with any degree of solidity on its
+true and proper basis. Hence arise those great supplies of goods
+annually imported into the country, for the purpose of making up the
+deficiencies of the local manufactures.
+
+[Improved methods and machinery needed.] The regular distribution or
+classification of the assemblage of operations which follow each other
+in graduation, from the rough preparation of the first materials, till
+the same have arrived at their perfect state of manufacture, instead
+of being practiced, is entirely unknown. The want of good machinery
+to free the cotton from the multitude of seeds with which it is
+encumbered, so as to perform the operation with ease and quickness, is
+the first and greatest obstacle that occurs; and its tediousness to the
+natives is so repugnant, that many sell their crops to others, without
+separating the seeds, or decline growing the article altogether, not
+to be plagued with the trouble of cleaning it. As the want of method
+is also equal to the superabundance or waste of time employed, the
+expenses of the goods manufactured increased in the same proportion,
+under such evident and great disadvantages; for which reason, far from
+being able to compete with those brought from China and British India,
+they only acquire estimation in the interior, when wanted to supply
+the place of the latter, or in cases of accidental scarcity.
+
+[Scanty exports.] In a word, the only manufactured articles annually
+exported from the Philippine Islands are eight to twelve thousand
+pieces exports of light sail cloth, two hundred thousand pounds of
+abaca cordage assorted, and six hundred carabao hides and deer skins,
+which can scarcely be considered in a tanned state/ for, although the
+Royal Company, from the time of their establishment, long continued to
+export considerable quantities of dimities, calicos, stripes, checks,
+and coverlids, as well as other cotton and silk goods, it was more
+with a view to stimulate the districts of Ilocos to continue in the
+habit of manufacturing, and thus introduce among the inhabitants of
+that province a taste for industry, than the expectation of gain by
+the sale of this kind of merchandise either in Spain or any of the
+sections of America. At length, wearied with the losses experienced by
+carrying on this species of mercantile operations, without answering
+the principal object in view, they resolved, for the time being,
+to suspend ventures attended with such discouraging circumstances.
+
+[Need of encouragement.] Notwithstanding so many impediments, it
+would not, however, be prudent in the government entirely to abandon
+the enterprise, and lose sight of the advantages the country offers,
+or indeed, to neglect turning the habitual facilities of the natives
+to some account. Far from there existing any positive grounds for
+despairing of the progress of manufacturing industry, it may justly
+be presumed that, whenever the sovereign, by adopting a different line
+of policy, shall allow the unlimited and indistinct settlement of all
+kinds of foreign colonists, and grant them the same facilities and
+protection enjoyed by national ones, they will be induced to flock to
+the Philippine Islands in considerable numbers, lured by the hope of
+accumulating fortunes in a country that presents a thousand attractions
+of every kind. Many, no doubt, will preferably devote themselves
+to commerce, others to agricultural undertakings and also to the
+pursuits of mining, but necessarily some will turn their attention
+and employ their funds in the formation of extensive manufactures,
+aided by intelligent instructors and suitable machinery. The
+newly-introduced information and arts being thus diffused, it is
+natural to expect they will be progressively adopted by a people
+already possessing a taste and genius for this species of labor,
+by which means manufacturing industry will soon be raised from the
+state of neglect and unprofitableness in which it is now left.
+
+[Internal commerce handicapped.] The circulation of the country
+productions and effects of all kinds among the inhabitants of the
+provinces, which, properly speaking, constitutes their internal
+commerce, is tolerably active and considerable. Owing to the great
+facilities of conveyance afforded by the number of rivers and lakes, on
+the margins of which the Filipinos are fond of fixing their dwellings,
+this commerce might be infinitely greater, if it was not obstructed
+by the monopoly of the magistrates in their respective districts
+and the unjust prerogative, exercised by the city, of imposing
+rates and arbitrary prices on the very persons who come to bring the
+supplies. Nevertheless, as the iniquituous operations of the district
+magistrates, however, active they may be, besides being restricted
+by their financial ability, regularly consist of arrangements to buy
+up only the chief articles, and those which promise most advantage,
+with least trouble; as that restless inquietude which impels man on,
+under the hope of bettering his condition, acts even amidst rigor of
+oppression, a certain degree of stimulus and scope is still left in
+favor of internal trade.
+
+[Inter-island traffic.] Hence it follows, that there is scarcely an
+island or province, that does not carry on some traffic or other,
+by keeping up relations with its neighbors, which sometimes extend
+as far as the capital; where, in proportion as the produce and raw
+materials find a ready market, returns suitable and adequate to the
+consumption of each place, respectively, are obtained. If, however, it
+would be difficult to form an idea, even in the way of approximation,
+of the exchanges which take place between the various provinces,
+a task that would render it necessary to enumerate them, one by one,
+it is equally so to make an estimate of the total amount of this class
+of operation carried on in Manila, their common center. Situated in
+the bottom of an immense bay, bathed by a large river, and the country
+round divided by an infinite number of streams and lakes descending
+from the provinces by which the capital is surrounded, the produce and
+effects are daily brought in and go out of suburbs so extended in a
+diversity of small vessels and canoes, without its being possible to
+obtain any exact account of the multiplicity of transactions carried
+on at one and the same time, in a city built on so large a scale.
+
+[Local markets.] Besides the traffic founded on ordinary consumption,
+the necessity of obtaining assortments of home-manufactured as well
+as imported goods, in order to supply the markets, known by the name
+of tianguis, and which are held weekly in almost every town, there
+is another species of speculation, peculiar to the rich natives
+and Sangley mestizos, an industrious race, and also possessed of
+the largest portion of the specie. This consists in the anticipated
+purchase of the crops of indigo, sugar, rice, etc., with a view to fix
+their own prices on the produce thus contracted for, when resold to the
+second hand. A propensity to barter and traffic, in all kinds of ways,
+is indeed universal among the natives, and as the principal springs
+which urge on internal circulation are already in motion, nothing
+more is wanting than at once to destroy the obstacles previously
+pointed out, and encourage the extension of luxury and comforts,
+in order that, by the number of the people's wants being increased,
+as well as the means of supplying them, the force and velocity of
+action may in the same proportion be augmented.
+
+[External commerce.] Under "External Commerce" generally are comprised
+the relations the Philippine Islands keep up with other nations, with
+the Spanish possessions in America, and with the mother country; or,
+in other words, the sum total of their imports and exports.
+
+[Outside deterrents.] Many are the causes which, within the last
+ten or twelve years, have influenced the mercantile relations of
+these Islands, and prevented their organization on permanent and
+known principles. The chief one, no doubt, has been the frequent and
+unforeseen changes, from peace to war, which have marked that unhappy
+period, and as under similar circumstances merchants, more than
+any other class of persons, are in the habit of acting on extremes,
+there have been occasions in which, misled by the exaggerated idea
+of the galleon of Acapulco, and anxious to avail themselves of the
+first prices, generally also the highest, foreign speculators have
+inundated Manila with goods, by a competition from all quarters; and
+others, owing to the channels being obstructed, when this market has
+experienced an absolute scarcity of commodities, as well as of funds
+necessary to continue the usual and almost only branch of commerce
+left. The frequent failure of the sugar and indigo crops, has also
+in many instances restrained the North Americans and other neutrals
+from coming to these Islands with cargoes, and induced them to prefer
+Java, where they are at all times sure of finding returns. Besides
+the influence of these extraordinary causes on the uncertainty
+and irregularity of external commerce, no small share must also be
+attributed to the strangeness of the peculiar constitution of the
+country, or the principles on which its trade is established.
+
+[Domestic discouragements.] Scarcely will it be believed, in the
+greater part of civilized Europe, that a Spanish colony exists between
+Asia and America, whose merchants are forbidden to avail themselves
+of their advantageous situation, and that, as a special favor only
+are they allowed to send their effects to Mexico, once a year, but
+under the following restrictions. It is a necessary condition, that
+every shipper shall be a member of the Board of Trade (Consulado),
+and therein entitled to a vote, which supposes a residence of some
+years in the country, besides the possession of property of his own to
+the amount of $8,000. He is compelled to join with the other members,
+in order to be enabled to ship his goods in bales of a determined
+form and dimensions, in one single vessel, arranged, fitted out,
+and commanded by officers of the royal navy, under the character of a
+war ship. He has also to contribute his proportion of $20,000, which,
+in the shape of a present, are given to the commander, at the end of
+every round voyage. He cannot in any way interfere in the choice or
+qualities of the vessel, notwithstanding his property is to be risked
+in her; and what completes the extravagance of the system, is, that
+before anything is done he must pay down twenty-five or forty per cent
+for freight, according to circumstances, which money is distributed
+among certain canons of the church, aldermen, subalterns of the army,
+and widows of Spaniards, to whom a given number of tickets or certified
+permits to ship are granted, either as a compensation for the smallness
+of their pay, or in the way of a privilege; but on express conditions
+that, although they themselves are not members of the Board of Trade,
+they shall not be allowed to negotiate and transfer them to persons
+not having that quality. In the custom house nothing being admitted
+unless the number of bales shipped are accompanied by corresponding
+permits, and as it besides frequently happens that there is a degree
+of competition between the parties seeking to try their fortune in
+this way, the original holders of the permits very often hang back,
+in such a manner that I have seen $500 offered for the transfer of
+a right to ship three bales, which scarcely contained goods to the
+amount of $1,000. Such, nevertheless, is the truth, and such the
+exact description of the famous Acapulco ship, which has excited so
+much jealousy among the merchants of Seville and Cadiz, and given
+rise to such an infinite number of disputes and lawsuits.
+
+[Business irregularities.] So complete a deviation from the rules
+and maxims usually received in trade, could not fail to produce
+in the Philippine Islands, as in fact it has, effects equally
+extraordinary with regard to those who follow this pursuit. The
+merchant of Manila is, in fact, entirely different from the one in
+Cadiz or Amsterdam. Without any correspondents in the manufacturing
+countries and consequently possessed of no suitable advices of the
+favorable variations in the respective markets, without brokers and
+even without regular books he seems to carry on his profession on
+no one fixed principle, and to have acquired his routine of business
+from mere habit and vague custom. His contracts are made out on stamped
+paper, and his bills or promissory notes no other than long and diffuse
+writings or bonds, of which the dates and amounts are kept more in
+the shape of bundles than by any due entry on his books; and what at
+once gives the most clear idea of this irregularity is the singular
+fact that, for the space of twenty-five and possibly fifty years,
+only one bankrupt has presented the state of his affairs to the Board
+of Trade, in conformity to the regulations prescribed by the general
+Statutes of Bankruptcy, whereas, numbers of cases have occurred in
+which these merchants have wasted or secreted the property of others
+with impunity. Hence have arisen those irregularities, subterfuges
+and disputes, in a word, the absence of all mercantile business
+carried on in a scrupulously punctual and correct manner. Hence, also,
+have followed that distrust and embarrassment with which commercial
+operations are attended, as well as the difficulty of calculating
+their fluctuations. On the other hand, as in order to send off an
+expedition by the annual ship to Acapulco, the previous consent
+of the majority of the incorporated merchants is necessary, before
+this point is decided, months are passed in intrigues and disputes,
+the peremptory period arrives, and if the articles wanted are in the
+market, they are purchased up with precipitation and paid for with
+the monies the shippers have been able to obtain at an interest from
+the administrators of pious and charitable funds. In this manner,
+compelled to act almost always without plan or concert, yet accustomed
+to gain in the market of Acapulco, notwithstanding so many impediments
+and the exorbitant premiums paid for the money lent, these merchants
+follow the strange maxim of risking little or no property of their
+own; and unaware, or rather, disregarding the importance of economy
+in the expenses and regularity of their general method of living,
+it is not possible they can ever accumulate large fortunes, or form
+solid and well-accredited houses.
+
+[Merchants discouraged.] Thus oppressed by a system, as unjust as it
+is absurd, and conducting their affairs in the way above described,
+it is not strange that these gentlemen, at the same time yielding to
+the indolence consequent on the climate, should neglect or behold with
+indifference all the other secondary resources which the supplying
+the wants of the country and the extensive scope and variety of its
+produce offer to the man of active mind. Hence it follows, as already
+observed, that the whole of the interior trade is at present absorbed
+by the principal natives, the Sangley mestizos of both sexes, and a
+few Chinese peddlers.
+
+[The outlook brightening.] Notwithstanding, however, the defective
+manner in which the generality of the merchants act, some already
+are beginning to distinguish themselves by the prudence of their
+conduct, by forwarding, in time, their orders to the manufacturers
+of India and China, and, in other respects guiding themselves by the
+principles which characterize the intelligent merchant. Finally, it
+is to be presumed that, as soon as the government shall have thrown
+down this singular and preposterous system that has been the cause of
+so many disorders, and proclaimed the unlimited freedom of Philippine
+commerce, the greater part of these people will rise up from the state
+of inaction in which they now live, and the relations of the colony
+will then assume the course and extent corresponding to its advantages
+of position. At least, if our national merchants should not act up
+to the impulse given to all kinds of mercantile enterprises by the
+beneficial hand of the sovereign, foreigners will not be wanting, who,
+relying on due toleration, will be induced to convey their fortunes
+and families to the Philippine Islands, and, vigorously encouraging
+the exportation of their valuable productions, amply secure the fruits
+of their laudable activity and well-combined speculations.
+
+[Capital employed in commerce.] Were a person, judging from the
+numbers constituting the body of registered merchants, and supposing
+all of them to possess the essential requisites prescribed by our
+commercial regulations, to form a prudent estimate of the amount of
+capital employed by them, his calculations would turn out extremely
+erroneous, for besides the case with which regulations of this kind
+are eluded, many are merely nominal traders, and there are others whose
+mercantile existence is purely artificial for they are sustained in a
+temporary manner, by means of a forced species of circulation peculiar
+to this country. This consists in obtaining the acquiescence of the
+administrators of pious and charitable funds, let out at interest,
+to renew the bonds they hold during other successive risks, waiting,
+as it were, till some fatal tempest has swallowed up the vessel in
+which these merchants suppose their property to be embarked, and
+at once cancel all their obligations. On the other hand, neither
+excessive expenses nor the shipment of large quantities of goods to
+Acapulco can in any way be taken as a just criterion whereby to judge
+of the fortunes of individuals; because, in the first, there is great
+uniformity, every one, more or less, enjoying, exteriorly, the same
+easy circumstances, notwithstanding the disparity of real property;
+and in the second, considerable fiction prevails, many persons
+shipping under the same mark, and even when the shipper stands alone,
+he might have been provided with the necessary funds from the pious
+and charitable establishments, possibly without risking a dollar
+of his own in the whole operation. Under circumstances so dubious,
+far from presuming to give a decided opinion on the subject, I am
+compelled to judge from mere conjectures, and guided only by the
+knowledge and experience I have been able to acquire during my long
+residence there. In conformity thereto, I am inclined to believe,
+that the total amount of capital belonging to and employed in the
+trade of the Philippine Islands, does not at present exceed two
+and a half million dollars, with evident signs of rapid decline, if
+the merchants do not in time abandon the ruinous systems of chiefly
+carrying on their speculations with money obtained at interest.
+
+[Large sums hoarded.] The two and a half million dollars thus
+attributed to the merchants, form, however, the smaller part of the
+funds distributed among the other classes, and the total amount of
+the circulating medium of the colony might be considered an object
+sufficiently worthy of being ascertained, owing to the great light
+it would throw on the present state of the inhabitants; but it is in
+vain to attempt any calculation of the kind, at least without the aid
+of data possessing a certain degree of accuracy. The only thing that
+can be affirmed is, that during the period of more than two hundred
+and fifty years which have elapsed since the conquest, the ingress of
+specie into the Philippine Islands has been constant. Their annual
+ships have seldom come from New Spain without bringing considerable
+sums in return, and if some of them have been lost, many others,
+without being confined to the one million of dollars constituting
+the ordinary amount of the permit, have not unfrequently come back
+with triple that sum; for which reason there are ample grounds of
+judging the estimates correct, which fix the total importation of
+dollars, during the whole of that long period of years, to be equal
+to four hundred millions. It may further be observed that, as in
+the Sangley mestizos economy and avarice compete with intelligence
+and activity in accumulating wealth and as they are scattered, among
+the principal islands, and in possession of the best lands and the
+most lucrative business of the interior, there are ample motives for
+presuming that these industrious and sagacious people have gradually,
+although incessantly, amassed immense sums in specie; but it would
+be impossible to point out their amount, distribution, or the secret
+places in which they are hoarded.
+
+[Pious and charitable funds' capital.] The assemblage of pious
+legacies, temporalities, and other funds and property placed under
+the care of several administrative committees, for purposes as well
+religious as charitable, constitute the chief capital employed in
+external trade; and notwithstanding the failures, which from time
+to time occur, the subsequent accumulation of the enormous premiums
+obtained for funds laid out in maritime speculations, both in time of
+peace and war, not only suffices to make up all losses of the above
+kind, but also to secure the punctual payment of such charitable
+pensions and other charges as are to be deducted from the respective
+profits of this species of stock, its total amount, according to an
+official report made by order of the head committee of the sinking
+fund, including temporalities, and Queen Maria of Austria's endowment
+for the College of Las Marianas, together with other funds of the same
+kind, not comprehended in the decree of abolition, at the commencement
+of the year 1809, amounted to $2,470,390, and as the sea-risks of that
+and the following year were successful, and the outstanding amounts
+punctually recovered, the aggregate sum, arising out of the above
+description of property, may now be estimated at more than three
+millions. Of these funds three distributions are generally made,
+viz., one part is appropriated to the China risks, at from twelve
+to eighteen per cent. premium, according to circumstances, and also
+those to Madras, Calcutta and Batavia, at from sixteen to twenty-two
+per cent. The second, which generally is in the largest proportion,
+is employed in risks to Acapulco, at various premiums, from 27 to 45
+per cent.; and the third is left in hand, as a kind of guarantee of
+the stability of the original endowments.
+
+[Coveted by Spanish treasury.] In the great exigencies of the Royal
+Treasury, experienced during the last years of the administration
+of Sr. Soler, the royal decree of Consolidación was extended to the
+Philippine Islands, under the pretext of guarding the funds belonging
+to public charities and religious endowments ... sea-risks, the
+income of which, when secured on good mortgages, does not generally
+exceed five per cent, many in Spain not yielding above four; but the
+remarkable difference between this plan and the one above described,
+together with various and other weighty reasons alleged by the
+administrators, caused the dreaded effect of this new regulation to
+be suspended, and whilst the head committee of Manila were consulting
+their doubts and requesting fresh instructions from the court at home,
+orders came out not to make any alteration in measures relating to
+this description of property.
+
+[Easy capital but lessened profits.] Accustomed, in their limited
+calculations, to identify the resources, offered by the funds belonging
+to this class of establishments, with the very existence of the
+colony, the needy merchants easily confound their personal with the
+general interest; and few stop to consider that the identical means
+of carrying on trade, without any capital of their own, although they
+have accidentally enriched a small number of persons, eventually have
+absorbed the principal profits, and possibly been the chief cause
+of the unflourishing state of the colony at large. Without fearing
+the charge of rashness, it may, in fact, be asserted, that if these
+charities and pious endowments had never existed, public prosperity
+in the Philippine Islands would, as in other parts, have been the
+immediate effect of the united efforts of the individual members
+of the community and of the experience acquired in the constant
+prosecution of the same object. As, however, a progress of this kind,
+although certain, must necessarily have been at first extremely
+slow, and as, on the other hand, the preference given to mercantile
+operations undertaken with the funds belonging to public charities,
+has its origin in the assemblage of vices so remarkable in the very
+organization of the body of Philippine merchants, any new measure on
+this subject might be deemed inconsistent, that at once deprived them
+of the use of resources on which they had been accustomed to rely,
+without removing those other defects which excuse, if not encourage,
+the continuation of the present system. Without, therefore, appealing
+to violent remedies, it is to be hoped that, in order to render plans
+of reform effectual, it will be sufficient, under more propitious
+circumstances, to see property brought from other countries to these
+Islands, as well as persons coming to settle in them, capable of
+managing it with that intelligence and economy required by trade. The
+competition of those who speculate at random would then cease, or
+what is the same, as money obtained at a premium could not then be
+laid out with the same advantages by the merchants as if it was their
+own, it will be necessary to renounce the fallacious profits held out
+by the public charities, till at least they are placed on a level
+with existing circumstances, and brought in to be of real service
+to the honorable planter and laborious merchant, in their accidental
+exigencies, ceasing to be, as hitherto, the indirect cause of idleness,
+dissipation, and the ruin of an infinite number of families.
+
+[Mercantile shipping.] The vessels which the district magistrates of
+the provinces employ in carrying on their trade with the capital and
+those belonging to some of the richer merchants, together with such as
+are owned by the natives and mestizos, on an approximate calculation,
+amount to twelve thousand tons, including ships, brigs, schooners,
+galleys, barges, etc. For the want of better data, this estimate
+is founded only on reasonable conjecture, aided by the advice of
+experienced persons, for although the greatest part of these vessels
+are built by the natives in the neighborhood of their own towns, no
+register is kept of their number and dimensions, nor do they carry
+with them the usual certificates. Those belonging to the merchants,
+that is, ships and brigs of a certain size, have already begun to
+frequent the ports of China, Java, the coast of Coromandel, Bengal,
+and the Isle of France, availing themselves of the lucrative freights
+which formerly enriched and encouraged foreign shipping. The other
+class of vessels, although perfectly adequate to the coasting trade,
+cannot in general be applied to larger enterprises, on account of
+their not being sufficiently strong and capacious. The seamen are
+not apprenticed, or as it is usually called, matriculated, but
+their frequent crossing from island to island, their familiarity
+with regional tempests, voyages to various parts of America, and
+the occupation of fishing followed by the inhabitants of the coast,
+serve to train up a large body of dexterous and able mariners who at
+all times can be had, without any compulsion, to complete the crews.
+
+[Need of nautical school.] The want of a public school for the
+teaching of navigation, is, however, sensibly felt, as well as great
+inconvenience from the scarcity of persons capable of being trusted
+with the command of vessels, and the ignorance that prevails of the
+waters of this dangerous Archipelago. Repeated royal orders have
+been sent over for the board of trade to proceed to the institution
+of so useful an establishment, and in the meantime, a medium has
+been resorted to in order to supply the deficiency, by allowing
+the free admission of foreign mates, provided they exhibit proofs
+of their acquaintance with navigation, and profess the Catholic
+worship. Shipowners nevertheless experience great difficulties,
+particularly at times when the Acapulco ship is fitting out, for
+although she is considered as a vessel of war, and commanded by
+officers of the royal navy, the plan of her equipment is so singular,
+that in addition, she requires the extra aid of one chief mate,
+and three under ones.
+
+[Royal Phillipine company.] The various modifications this corporate
+body has successively experienced, have, in great measure, changed
+the essence of its original constitution, and the remonstrances of
+its directors, founded on the experience of a long series of years, at
+length induced the government at home to sanction alterations dictated
+by existing circumstances. The project of raising these Islands
+from the neglected state in which they were, and in some measure to
+place them in contact with the mother country, accompanied by a wish
+to give a new and great impulse to the various branches of industry
+which constitute the importance of a colony, could not have been more
+laudable; but, as was afterwards seen, the instrument employed was
+not adequate to the object in view. At the same time that the company
+were charged to promote, and, by means of their funds, to vivify the
+agriculture and industry of these provinces, the necessary powers
+and facilities to enable them to reap the fruits of their sacrifices
+were withheld. The protection granted to this establishment, did not
+go beyond a general recommendation in favor of its enterprises, and,
+in short, far from enjoying the exclusive preponderance obtained at
+their commencement by all the other Asiatic companies, that of the
+Philippine Islands labored under particular disadvantages.
+
+[Local progress under adverse conditions.] Notwithstanding an
+organization so imperfect, scarcely had the agents of the new
+Company arrived at Manila, when they distributed through the country
+their numerous dependents, commissioned to encourage the natives
+by advances of money. They established subaltern factories in the
+Provinces of Ilocos, Bataan, Cavite, and Camarines; purchased lands;
+delivered out agricultural implements; founded manufacturies of cotton
+cloths; contracted for the crops of produce at very high prices;
+offered rewards and, in short, they put in motion every partial
+resources they were able to avail themselves of and their limited
+means allowed. It would be extremely easy for me, in this place,
+to enter a particular enumeration of the important services of this
+kind rendered by the company, and to exhibit, in the most evident
+point of view, the advantages thence derived to these Islands,
+if, besides being slightly touched upon in the preceding articles,
+this task had not been already ably performed by the Factor Don Juan
+Francisco Urroz, in his accurate report on this subject, addressed
+to the governing committee of the company, in 1803. In justice I will
+nevertheless observe, that this establishment, anxiously resolved to
+attain the end proposed, in spite of so many obstacles, constantly
+followed up its expensive system without being disheartened; nor
+did the contrarieties with which the Royal Audiencia, or High Court
+of Justice, frequently paralyzed its plans, the indifference of the
+governors, or the general opposition and jealousy of the other classes,
+in any way tend to relax its efforts, till at length, convinced of
+the impossibility of successfully contending, alone and without any
+other arms than its own reduced capital; and, on the other hand,
+well aware that a political body of this kind in vain seeks to unite
+within itself the triple and opposite characters of agriculturalist,
+manufacturer, and merchant, a determination was taken to alter the
+plan, and withdraw the factories established in the provinces, and
+by adopting a rigid economy and confining the operations in future
+to the purchase of such produce and manufactured articles as suited
+their trade, and were voluntarily brought by the natives to their
+stores, the expenses of the Company were curtailed, and a plan of
+reform introduced into all their speculations. By this means also
+they always secured an advantageous vent for the productions of the
+country, after having been the chief spring by which agriculture was
+promoted and encouraged in a direct manner.
+
+[Handicapped in outside trade] The most beneficial reform, however,
+introduced by this establishment into its system, has, in reality,
+been derived from the variation or rather correction of its plans and
+enterprises, purely maritime. The government being desirous to increase
+the relations of this colony by every possible means, and to convert it
+into a common center of all the operations of the new company, at first
+required of the agents that the purchases and collection of goods from
+the coast of Coromandel, Bengal, and China, destined for Spain, should
+take place at Manila, either by purchasing the articles in that market,
+or through the medium of previous contracts to deliver them there. From
+this it is easy to infer, that the company was infallibly exposed to
+the harsh terms the respective contractors sought to impose upon them,
+as well with regard to prices as qualities, unless, in many cases,
+they preferred being left without the necessary assortments. Hence may
+it, without the smallest exaggeration, be affirmed, that, summing up
+all the surcharges under which the shipments left the port of Manila,
+and comparing them with those which might have been sent direct from
+the above-mentioned points, and without so extraordinary a détour
+as the one prescribed by law, the difference that followed in the
+prime cost of the cargos was not less than 80 per cent. The urgent
+manner, however, in which the directors of the company did not
+cease to deplore and complain of so evident a hardship, at length
+had the desired effect, and after existing ten or twelve years, so
+preposterous a system was successfully overthrown, and permission
+obtained from the king for the establishment of Spanish factories in
+the neighborhood of the China and India manufactures, as well as the
+power of addressing shipments direct to those foreign dominions. The
+enlightened policy of their respective governments did not allow them
+to hesitate in giving a favorable reception to our factors and vessels,
+and the purchases and shipments of Asiatic goods being thus realized
+without the old obstructions, the Company was reasonably led to hope
+being able soon to increase its operations, and progressively present
+more satisfactory results to the shareholders, when those political
+convulsions succeeding soon after, which have unhinged or destroyed
+all the ordinary relations of trade, compelled them to abandon their
+hopes, till the wished-for calm should be again restored.
+
+[Temporary expedient of 1803.] In consequence of the new character
+and route given to the commercial enterprises of the Company, as
+authorized by a royal decree of July 12, 1803, the functions of
+the Manila factors were reduced to the annual shipment of a cargo
+of Asiatic goods to Peru, valued at $500,000, but only as long
+as the war lasted, and till the expiration of the extraordinary
+permits granted through the goodness of the king, and also to the
+transmitting to China and Bengal of the specie brought from America,
+and the collecting of certain quantities of indigo, sugar, or other
+produce of the Islands, with a view to gain by reselling it in the
+same market. Consequently, the moment things return to their pacific
+and ordinary course, will be the period when the necessity of the
+future existence of this establishment will cease, or at least,
+when the propriety will be evident of its reform or assimilation to
+the other commission houses, carrying on trade in Vera Cruz, Mexico,
+etc., which, not being hired establishments, do not create expenses
+when they cease to transact business.
+
+[Competition of foreign merchants.] Against a measure of this kind
+it would be useless to allege, that, "by the exclusive privilege to
+introduce spirits and European effects into the colony, the Company
+has contracted the obligation of always keeping it properly supplied;
+that their very institution had for the basis the general improvement
+of the Islands, and in order duly to comply with these duties, it
+becomes indispensably necessary to keep up the present expensive
+establishment;" for, in the first place, in order, to render it
+incumbent on the company to introduce an indefinite quantity of
+European articles, it previously would be necessary to provide a vent
+for them, and this can never be the case, unless the exclusion of all
+competitors in the market is rigorously carried into effect. As things
+now are, the North Americans, English, French, and every other nation
+that wishes, openly usurped this privilege, by constantly inundating
+the Islands with spirits and all kinds of effects, and it is very
+evident that this same abuse which authorizes the infraction of the
+above privilege, if in that light it could in any way be considered,
+totally exonerates the company from all obligations by them contracted
+under a different understanding. Besides, the circumstances which
+have taken place since the publication of the royal decree, creating
+the above establishment into a corporate body, in the year 1785,
+have entirely changed the order established in this respect. In the
+first place, the port of Manila has been opened to foreign nations,
+in consequence of the disinterested representations of the company
+itself, and for the direct advantage of general trade; nor was it
+necessary to prevent our new guests from abusing the facilities thus
+granted to them, and much less to confine them to the mere introduction
+of Asiatic goods, the original plea made use of. In the second, as
+soon as the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands became familiar with
+the more useful and elegant objects of convenience and luxury, which
+they were enabled to purchase from foreigners, at reasonable prices,
+it was natural for them to pay little regard to the superfluous aid
+of the company, more particularly when the latter were no longer
+able to sustain the competition, either in the sale or supply of a
+multitude of articles, which, thanks to our own national simplicity,
+are scarcely known in Spain, whence their outward-bound cargoes are
+divided. Hence it follows that, far from the importation and supplies
+of the company being missed, it may with great reason be presumed,
+that this formal renunciation of this ideal privilege of theirs,
+must rather have contributed to secure, in a permanent manner,
+adequate supplies for all the wants and whims of the inhabitants of
+the colony; and that the publicity of such a determination would act
+as a fresh allurement successively to bring to the port of Manila a
+host of foreign speculators, anxious to avail themselves of a fresh
+opening for commercial pursuits.
+
+[Company not a philanthropy.] The other objection, founded on the
+mistaken notion of its being inherent in, and belonging to, the very
+essence of the company, to promote the general improvement of the
+Philippine Islands, if well considered, will appear equally unjust. It
+is, in fact, a ridiculous, although too generally received, a prejudice
+to suppose, that the founders of this establishment proposed to
+themselves the plan of sinking the money of the shareholders in
+clearing the lands, and perfecting the rude manufactures of these
+distant Islands. To imagine this to have been one of the principal
+objects of the institution, or to suppose that, on this hard condition,
+their various privileges and exemptions were granted to them, is so
+far from the reality of the fact, that it would only be necessary
+to read with attention the 26th article of the quoted royal decree
+of creation, in order more correctly to comprehend the origin and
+constitutive system of this political body.
+
+"The latter," says the Duke de Almodovar, "is reduced to two principal
+points: the first of which is the carrying of the trade of Asia
+with that of America and Europe; and the second, the encouragement
+and improvement of the productions and manufacturing industry of
+the Islands. The one is the essential attribute of the company,
+constituting its real character of a mercantile society; and, in the
+other respect, it becomes an auxiliary of the government, to whom
+the duties alluded to more immediately belong." If to the above we
+add the preamble of the 43rd article of the new decree of 1803, the
+recommendation, made to the company, to contribute to the prosperity
+of the agriculture and manufacturing industry of the Islands, will
+appear as a limited and secondary consideration; for even if the
+question were carried to extremes, it could never extend to any more
+than the application of four per cent of the annual profits of the
+company indistinctly to both branches. If, however, any doubts still
+remained, the explanation or solution recently given to this question
+would certainly remove them; because, by the simple fact of its being
+expressed in the latter part of the aforesaid 43rd article, [Profit
+percent to go to Spain.] "That the above-mentioned four per cent was to
+be laid out, with the king's approbation, in behalf of the agriculture
+and manufacturing industry of Spain and the Philippine Islands," it is
+clear that the king reserves and appropriates to himself the investment
+of the amount to be deducted from the general dividends, in order to
+apply it where and how may be deemed most advisable. Consequently,
+far from considering the company in that respect under an obligation to
+contribute to the improvement of the Philippines exclusively, the only
+thing that can be required of them, when their charter is withdrawn,
+is, the repayment to the royal treasury of the four per cent on their
+profits, for a purpose so vaguely defined. In following up this same
+train of argument, it would seem that, in order to render the amount
+to be deducted from the eventual profits of the company, in the course
+of time, a productive capital in the hands of the sovereign, the funds
+of the society not only ought not to be diverted to the continuation
+of projects which consume them, but, on the contrary, it is necessary
+to place at their disposal the direct means by which these funds can
+be increased, in order to make up to the company in some measure the
+enormous losses experienced of late years, and at once free their
+commerce from the shackles with which it has hitherto been obstructed.
+
+[Need of special privileges] Finally, after twenty-four years of
+impotent and gratuitous efforts in the Philippines, and of the most
+obstinate opposition on the part of their rivals, it is now time for
+the company, by giving up the ungrateful struggle, to reform in every
+respect their expensive establishment in Manila, and to direct their
+principal endeavors to carry into effect the project so imperfectly
+traced out in the new decree of 1803. The opinion of the most vehement
+enemies of the privileged bodies tacitly approves this exception in
+their favor. Adam Smith, avowedly hostile to all monopolies, feels
+himself compelled to confess that, "without the incentives which
+exclusive companies offer to the individuals of a nation carrying
+on little trade, possibly their confined capitals would cease to be
+destined to the remote and uncertain enterprises which constitute a
+commerce with the East Indies."
+
+[Spanish commerce in its infancy.] Our commerce, compared with that
+of other nations, notwithstanding what may be said on this subject,
+is most assuredly yet in a state of infancy. That with Asia, more
+especially, with the exception of the Royal Company, is almost unknown
+to all other classes. If it is, therefore, wished to exclude our many
+rivals from so lucrative a branch of trade as that which constitutes
+supplies for the consumption of the Peninsula and its dependencies, the
+means are obvious. The most material fact is in fact already done. The
+navigation to the various ports of Asia is familiar to the company's
+navy; their factors and clerks have acquired a practical knowledge of
+that species of trade, essential to the undertaking, as well as such
+information as was at first unknown; but, after the great misfortune
+this body has experienced, it will be indispensably necessary to aid
+and invigorate them with large supplies of money, following the example
+of other governments in similar cases; in order that the successful
+issue of their future operations may compensate their past losses,
+and worthily correspond with the magnitude of the object.
+
+[Philippines a burden to Spain.] This Asiatic colony, although
+considered as conferring great lustre on the crown and name of our
+monarch, by exhibiting the vast extent of the limits of his dominions,
+has in reality been, during a long series of years, a true burden
+to the government, or at least, a possession whose chief advantages
+have redounded in favor of other powers, rivals of our maritime
+importance. Notwithstanding all that has been said on the score of
+real utility, certain it is, that the Philippine establishment has
+cost the treasury large sums of money; although, within the last
+twenty-five or thirty years, it must be confessed that the public
+revenues has experienced a considerable increase, and, of itself,
+has become an object of some consequence to the state.
+
+[Profit from tobacco monopoly and foreign trade.] Among the various
+causes which have contributed to produce so favorable an alteration,
+the chief one have been the establishment of the tobacco monopoly,
+on behalf of the crown, and the opening of the port of Manila to the
+flag of other nations, at peace with Spain. The first has considerably
+increased the entries into the public treasury, and the second
+has tended to multiply the general mass of mercantile operations,
+independent of the other beneficial effects this last measure must
+have produced in a country, whose resources, trade and consumption
+had, from the time of the conquest, experienced the fatal shackles
+imposed by jealousy and ignorance.
+
+[Improvement in public finances.] The improved aspect the colony
+soon assumed, by the introduction of this new system, as was natural,
+awakened the attention of ministers, and induced them more easily to
+consent to the measures subsequently proposed to them, principally
+intended to place those distant dominions on a footing of permanent
+security, so as to enable them to repel any fresh attempts on the part
+of an enemy. As, however, the productions of the country increased,
+the public expenses also became greater, although always in a much
+smaller proportion, with the exception of the interval between the
+years 1797 and 1802, when the government, fearful of a second invasion,
+was compelled, at its own expense, to provide against the danger with
+which these Islands were then threatened. If, therefore, as appears
+from the official reports of the treasurer-general, Larzabal, in my
+possession, the receipts at the treasury, in 1780, amounted only to
+$700,000 including the situado, or annual allowance for the expenses
+of government sent from New Spain, and after the ordinary charges of
+administration had been paid, a surplus of $170,000 remained in the
+hands of the treasurer; at present we have the satisfaction to find
+that the revenue is equal to $2,625,176.50 and the expenses do not
+exceed $2,179,731.87 by which means an annual surplus of $445,444.62
+is left, applicable to the payment of the debt contracted during the
+extraordinary period above mentioned, now reduced to about $900,000 and
+afterwards transferable to the general funds belonging to the crown.
+
+[Economy over Spanish-American colonial administration.] With regard
+to the administrative system, it is in every respect similar to the
+one observed in our governments of America, with this difference only,
+that, in the Philippine Islands, greater economy prevails in salaries,
+as well as in the number of persons employed. In former times, the
+establishment of intendencies, or boards of administration, was deemed
+expedient in Manila, Ilocos, Camarines, Iloilo, and Cebu; but they
+were soon afterwards reformed, or rather laid aside, on account of
+their being deemed superfluous. I would venture to state the grounds
+on which this opinion was then formed; but, as the sphere in which
+the king's revenue acts in these Islands increases and extends, which
+naturally will be the case if the plans and improvements dictated
+by the present favorable circumstances are carried into effect, I do
+not hesitate to say that it will be necessary again to appeal to the
+establishment of a greater number of boards for the management and
+collection of the various branches of the revenue, whether they are
+called intendencies, or by any other name; as it will be extremely
+difficult for the administration to do its duty, on the confined and
+inadequate plan under which it is at present organized.
+
+[Fiscal system.] Under its existing form, it is constituted in the
+following manner: The governor of the Islands, in his quality of
+superintendent or administrator general, and as uniting in himself
+the powers of intendent of the army, presides at the board of
+administration of the king's revenue, which is placed in the immediate
+charge of a treasurer and two clerks. The principal branches have their
+respective general directors, on whom the provincial administrators
+depend, and the civil magistrates, in the quality of sub-delegates,
+collect within their respective districts, the tributes paid by the
+natives in money and produce, and manage everything else relating
+to the king's revenue. In ordinary cases, the general laws of the
+Indies govern, and especially are the ordinances or regulations of
+the Intendents of New Spain (Mexico) ordered to be observed in the
+Philippines. It ought further to be observed, that, in these Islands,
+the same as in all the vice-royalties and governments of America, there
+is a distinct body of royal decrees in force, which, in themselves,
+constitute a code of considerable size.
+
+[Opposition to tobacco monopoly.] The process of converting the
+consumption of tobacco into a monopoly met with a most obstinate
+resistance on the part of the inhabitants, and the greatest
+circumspection and constancy were necessary for the governor, Don
+José Basco, to carry this arduous enterprise into effect. Accustomed
+to the cultivation of this plant without any restriction whatever,
+and habituated to its use from their infancy, it appeared to the people
+the extreme of rashness to seek simultaneously to extirpate it from the
+face of the greatest part of the Island of Luzon, in order to confine
+its culture within the narrow limits of a particular district. They
+were equally revolted at the idea of giving to a common article a
+high and arbitrary value, when, besides, it had become one of the
+first necessity. Every circumstance, however, being dispassionately
+considered, and the principle once admitted that it was expedient for
+the colony to maintain itself by means the least burdensome to the
+inhabitants, it certainly must be acknowledged that, although odious
+on account of its novelty and defective in the mode of its execution,
+a resource more productive and at the same time less injurious, could
+not have been devised. Hence was it that the partisans of the opposite
+system were strangely misled, by founding their calculation on false
+data, when they alleged that a substitute, equivalent to the increased
+revenue supposed to arise out of the monopoly of tobacco, might have
+been resorted to by ordering a proportionate rise in the branch of
+tributes. In fact, no one who had the least experience in matters of
+this kind, can be ignorant of the open repugnance the natives have
+always evinced to the payment of the ordinary head-tax (cedula),
+and the broils to which its collection has given rise. Besides,
+if well examined, no theory is more defective and more oppressive
+on account of the disparity with which it operates, than this same
+wrongly-boasted impost; for, however desirous it may be to simplify
+the method of collecting the general revenue of a state, if the best
+plan is to be adopted, that is, if public burdens are to be rendered
+the least obnoxious, it is necessary preferably to embrace the system
+of indirect contribution, in which class, to a certain degree, the
+monopoly of all those articles may be considered as included which are
+not rigorously of the first necessity, and only compel the individual
+to contribute when his own will induce him to become a consumer.
+
+[Doubling of insular revenue thru tobacco.] Let this be as it may,
+certain it is, that to Governor Basco we are indebted for having
+doubled the annual amount of the revenue of these Islands, by merely
+rendering the consumption of tobacco subservient to the wants of the
+crown. It was he who placed these Islands in the comfortable situation
+of being able to subsist without being dependent on external supplies
+of money to meet the exigencies of government. It ought, however, to
+be remarked that, although they have been in the habit of receiving
+the annual allowance of $250,000 for which a standing credit was
+opened by the government at home on the general treasury of New
+Spain, considerable sums have, nevertheless, on various occasions,
+been remitted from the Philippines to Spain, through the channel of
+the Captain-General. * * * If these remittances have been suspended
+for some years past, it has evidently been owing to the imperious
+necessity of applying the ordinary proceeds of the revenue, as well
+as other extraordinary means, to unforeseen contingencies arising
+out of peculiar circumstances.
+
+[Tobacco belt.] The planting and cultivation of tobacco are now
+confined to the district of Gapan, in Pampanga Province, to that of
+Cagayan, and to the small Island of Marinduque. The amount of the
+crops raised in the above three points and sold to the king, may,
+on an average, be estimated at fifty thousand bales, grown in the
+following proportion: Gapan, forty-seven thousand bales; Cagayan,
+two thousand, and Marinduque, one thousand. This stock, resold at the
+monopoly prices, yields a sum equal to about one million of dollars,
+and deducting therefrom the prime cost and all other expenses,
+legally chargeable on this branch, the net proceeds in favor of the
+revenue amount to $550,000 or upwards of one hundred twenty-two per
+cent. This profit is so much more secure, as it rests on the positive
+fact that, however great the quantity of the article sold furtively and
+by evading the vigilance of the guards, as the demand and consumption
+are excessive and always exceed the stock on hand, a ready sale cannot
+fail to be had for all the stock placed in the hands of the agents
+of the monopoly. From this it may also be inferred how much the net
+proceeds of this branch would be increased, if without venturing too
+far in extending the plantations and consequent purchases, care was
+taken to render the supplies more proportionate to the consumption;
+for, by a clear profit of one hundred twenty-two per cent, falling
+on a larger capital, it follows that a corresponding result would
+be obtained. In a word, the sales, far from declining or being in
+any way deemed precarious, are susceptible of a great increase,
+consequently this branch of revenue merits the serious attention of
+government beyond all others.
+
+[Defective sales system.] It is, however, to be lamented that,
+instead of every facility being given to the sale of tobacco and the
+consumption thus encouraged, the public meet with great difficulties
+and experience such frequent obstacles and deficiencies in the
+supplies, that with truth it may also be said, the sales are affected
+in spite of the administrators themselves. In the capital alone it
+is a generally received opinion that a third part more would there
+be consumed, if, instead of compelling the purchaser to receive the
+tobacco already manufactured or folded, he was allowed to take it from
+the stores in its primitive state; and if the minor establishments
+in the provinces were constantly supplied with good qualities, an
+infinitely larger quantity might be sold, and by this means a great
+deal of smuggling also prevented. Such, however, is the neglect and
+irregularity in this department, that it frequently happens in towns
+somewhat distant from Manila, no other tobacco is to be met with
+than what the smugglers sell, and if, perchance, any is to be found
+in the monopoly stores, it is usually of the worst quality that can
+be imagined.
+
+[Loss from preventable causes.] I pass over, in silence, the other
+defects gradually introduced, as evils, in a greater or lesser degree,
+inseparable from this part of public administration in every country
+in which it has been deemed necessary to establish monopolies; but I
+cannot refrain from again insisting on the urgency with which those
+in power ought to devote themselves, firmly and diligently, to the
+destruction of abuses which have hitherto paralyzed the progress of
+the branch in question, because I am well persuaded, that, whenever
+corresponding means are adopted, it will be possible in a short
+time to double the proceeds. What these means are, it is not easy,
+nor indeed essential, to particularize in a rapid sketch, like this,
+of the leading features and present state of the Philippine Islands. I
+shall, therefore, merely remark, that it will be in vain to wish the
+persons engaged in the management of this department to exert their
+real zeal and sincerely co-operate in the views of government, as
+long as they are not placed beyond the necessity of following other
+pursuits and gaining a livelihood in another way; in a word, unless
+they have a salary assigned them, corresponding to the confidence and
+value of the important object entrusted to their charge, no plan of
+reform can be rendered efficient.
+
+[Abuses by revenue officers.] At the same time steps are taken to
+augment the revenue arising out of tobacco, it would be desirable,
+as much as possible, to improve the methods used with regard to those
+who gather in the crops, by endeavoring to relieve them from the heavy
+conditions imposed upon them; conditions which, besides exposing them
+to the odious effects of revenue-laws, by their very nature bring upon
+them many unpleasant consequences, and often total ruin. In order that
+a correct opinion may be formed of these defects, it will suffice to
+observe that, under pretext of preventing smuggling, the guards and
+their agents watch, visit, and, if I may use the expression, live
+among the plantations from the moment the tobacco-seedlings appear
+above ground, till the crops are gathered in. After compelling the
+Filipino planter to cut off the head of the stem, in order that the
+plant may not become too luxurious, the surveyors then proceed to
+set down, not only the number of plants cultivated on each estate,
+but even the very leaves of each, distinguishing their six qualities,
+in order to call the farmers to account, respectively, when they
+make a defective delivery into the general stores. In the latter
+case, they are compelled to prove the death of the plants and even
+to account for the leaves missing when counted over again, under the
+penalty of being exposed to the rigor of the revenue laws.
+
+[Burdensome and unprofitable inspection.] It cannot indeed be denied
+that by this means two important objects are attained, at one and the
+same time; the one, the gradual improvement of the tobacco, and the
+other, the greater difficulty of secreting the article; but, on the
+other hand, how great are the inconveniences incurred? Independent of
+the singularity and consequent oppression of a regulation of this kind,
+as well as its too great minuteness and complication, it is attended
+with very considerable expenses, and renders it necessary to keep on
+foot a whole army of guards and clerks, who tyrannize over and harass
+the people without any real motive for such great scrupulosity and
+profusion. I make this observation because I cannot help thinking
+that the same results might nearly be obtained, by adopting a more
+simple and better regulated system. I am not exactly aware of the one
+followed in the Island of Cuba, but as far as I understand the matter,
+it is simply reduced to this: the growers there merely present their
+bales to the inspectors, and if pronounced to be sound and good, the
+stipulated amount is paid over to them; but if the quality is bad,
+the whole is invariably burnt. Thus all sales detrimental to the
+public revenue are prevented, and I do not see why the same steps
+could not be taken in the Philippine Islands. It must not, however,
+be understood, that I presume to speak in a decisive tone on a subject
+so extremely delicate, and that requires great practical information,
+which, I readily acknowledge, I do not possess. I merely wish by means
+of these slight hints, to contribute to the commencement of a reform
+in abuses, and to promote the adoption of a plan that may have for
+basis the relief of the growers, and at the same time advance the
+prosperity of this part of the royal revenue.
+
+[Coco and nipa wine monopoly.] The monopoly of coco and nipa, or
+palm-wine, is a branch of public revenue of sufficient magnitude to
+merit the second place among the resources rendered available to
+the expenditure of these Islands, converted into a monopoly some
+years ago. In like manner as the consumption of tobacco, it has
+experienced several changes in its plan of administration, this
+being at one time carried on, for account of the king, at others,
+by the privilege being let out at auction; till at length the Board
+of Control, convinced of the great profit gained by the contractors,
+resolved at once to take the direction of this departure under their
+own charge, and make arrangement for its better administration. Having
+with this view established general deposits and licensed houses for
+the sale of native wine, with proper superintending clerks they soon
+began to reap the fruits of so judicious a determination. In 1780,
+the privilege of selling the coco and nipa wine was farmed out, to the
+highest bidder, for no more than $45,200 and subsequently the increase
+has been so great, owing to the improvements adopted, that at present
+net proceeds equal to $200,000 on an average may be relied upon. In
+proof of this, the proceeds of this branch, in the year 1809, may be
+quoted, when the total balances received at the Treasury, after all
+expenses had been paid, amounted to $221,426, in the following manner:
+
+
+Administration of Manila and district $201,250
+Administration of La Pampanga and district 12,294
+Administration of Pangasinan and district 7,882
+ ----
+ $221,426
+
+
+The prime cost and other expenses that year amounted to no more than
+$168,557 by which means, on the whole operation, a net profit of
+thirteen and one-half per cent. resulted in favor of the treasury.
+
+[Wine monopoly district.] The monopoly of native wine comprehends
+the whole of the Island of Luzon, excepting the Provinces of Cagayan,
+Zambales, Nueva Ecija, Camarines and Albay, and is under the direction
+of three administrators, who act independently of each other in their
+respective districts, and have at their disposal a competent number
+of guards. These administrators receive in the licensed establishments
+the coco and nipa wines, at prices stipulated by the growers. That of
+the coco is paid for at the rate of two dollars per jar, containing
+twenty gantas, equal to twelve arrobas, seven azumbres and half a
+cuartillo, Castilian measure, and at fourteen reals in the places
+nearest the depots. The nipa wine is laid at six and one-half reals
+the jar, indistinctly; prices which, although extremely low, are still
+considered advantageous by the Filipinos themselves, more particularly
+when it is besides understood, that, from the circumstance of their
+being growers of this article, they are exempted from military service,
+as well as several other taxes and public charges.
+
+[Coco-wine.] The coco-wine is a weak spirit, obtained in the following
+manner: The tree that produces this fruit is crowned by an assemblage
+of large flowers or corollas, from the center or calix of which issues
+a fleshy stem, filled with juice. The Indian cuts the extremity of
+this stem, and inclining the remainder in a lateral manner, introduces
+it into a large hollow tube which remains suspended, and is found
+full of sweet and sticky liquor, which the tree in this manner yields
+twice in every twenty-four hours. ["Tuba".] This liquid, called tuba,
+in the language of the country, is allowed to ferment for eight days
+in a large vessel, and afterwards distilled by the Indians in their
+uncouth stills, which are no other than large boilers, with a head
+made of lead or tin, rendered tight by means of clay, and with a
+pipe frequently made out of a simple cane, which conveys the spirit
+to the receiving vessels, without passing, like the serpentine tube
+used in ordinary stills, through the cooling vats, which so greatly
+tends to correct the vices of a too quick evaporation. The tuba,
+obtained in level and hot situations, is much more spirituous than
+that produced in cold and shady places. In the first, six jars of
+juice are sufficient to yield one of spirit, and in the latter,
+as many as eight are requisite; a much greater number, however,
+would be wanted to rectify this spirit so as to render it equal to
+what is usually known by Hollands proof. I am not positively certain
+what degree of strength the coco-brandy, or as it is usually called
+coco-wine, possesses, but it is evidently inferior to the weakest made
+in Spain from the juice of the grape. The only circumstance required
+for it to be approved of, and received into the monopoly-stores,
+is its being easily ignited by the application of a lighted candle.
+
+[Nipa brandy.] The nipa is a small tree of the class of palms, which
+grows in a very bushy form, and multiplies and prospers greatly on
+the margins of rivers and watery tracts of land. The tuba, or juice,
+is extracted from the tree whilst in its flowering state, in the same
+way as that of the coco, and afterwards distilled by a similar process;
+but it is more spirituous, from six to six and a half jars being
+sufficient to yield one of wine. The great difference remarked in the
+prices of these two species of liquor, arises out of the great number
+of uses to which the fruit of the cocal or coco tree is applicable,
+and the increase of expense and labor requisite to obtain the juice,
+owing to the great height of the plant, and the frequent dangers to
+which the caritones, or gatherers, are exposed in passing from one
+tree to another, which they do by sliding along a simple cane (bamboo).
+
+[Little drunkenness.] The impost on, or rather monopoly of, native
+wine, is in itself little burdensome to the community, as it only
+falls on the lower and most dissipated orders in society, and for this
+reason it is not susceptible of the same increase as that of tobacco,
+of which the use is more general, and now become an object of the
+first necessity. The native of the Philippine Islands is, by nature,
+so sober, that the spectacle of a drunken man is seldom noticed in
+the streets; in the capital, where the most corrupt classes of them
+reside, it is admirable to see the general abstinence from a vice
+that degrades the human species. The consumption of the coco and
+nipa wine is, nevertheless, considerable, for it is used in all their
+festivities, cock-fights, games, marriages, etc. Accordingly if it is
+desired to augment the annual sale of these liquors, no way could be
+more efficient than to increase the number of their festive meetings,
+and seek pretexts to encourage public diversions, so long as these do
+not go contrary to the well-regulated order of society, and conflict
+with the duties of those who are intrusted with its superintendence.
+
+[Extension of monopoly urged.] I am still of opinion, however, that,
+without resting the prosperity of this branch of the public revenue on
+principles possessed of so immoral a tendency, it might be rendered
+more productive to the treasury, if the monopoly could be introduced
+into the other districts adapted to its establishment. By this I
+mean to say that, as hitherto the monopoly has been partial, and
+enforced more in the way of a trial than in a general and permanent
+manner, much remains to be done, and consequently great scope is
+left for improvement in this department of the public revenue. This
+most assuredly may be attained, if all the local circumstances and
+impediments, more or less superable, which the matter itself presents,
+are only taken into due account, and proper exertions made to study
+and discover the various indirect means of increasing the total mass
+of contributions, by applying a system more productive and analogous
+to the nature of the Philippine Islands. With regard to the revenue of
+the two particular articles above treated on, I merely wish to make
+it understood that, far from introducing by means of the monopoly,
+a new vice into the provinces in which I recommend its establishment,
+it would rather act, in a certain degree at least, as a corrective
+to pre-existing evils, and the government would derive advantages
+from an article of luxury, by subjecting its consumption to the
+same shackles under which it stands in the northern provinces, where
+its administration is established and carried on for account of the
+royal treasury.
+
+[Former customs usage.] In former times, when only vessels belonging to
+the Asiatic nations visited the port of Manila, with effects from the
+coast of Coromandel, or the China junks, and now and then a Spanish
+vessel coming from or going to the Island of Java, with spices for
+account of Philippine merchants, the receipt of duties was left in
+charge of a single royal officer, and the valuations of merchandise
+made by him, in concert with two merchants named by the government; but
+with the knowledge and assistance of the king's attorney-general. The
+modifications and changes which have subsequently taken place in this
+department have, however, been frequent, as is evidently shown by the
+historical extract from the proceedings instituted before the Council
+of the Indies, by the merchants of Seville and Cadiz, in opposition to
+those of the Philippine Islands, printed in Madrid, 1736, in folio,
+by order of the said council; but as it does not enter into my views
+to speak of times so remote, I shall confine my remarks to this branch
+considered under its present form.
+
+[Custom house.] In conformity to royal orders of March 15 and May 5,
+1786, the Royal Custom House of Manila was definitively organized on
+its new plan; and from 1788, was placed under the immediate charge
+of an administrator-general, a controller, a treasurer, aided by a
+competent number of guards, inspectors, etc., and in every respect
+regulated on the plan established in the other custom houses. The
+freedom of the port being granted to foreign nations, a privilege
+before enjoyed only by those purely Asiatic, and a new line of trade
+commenced by the company, the competition in merchandise soon began
+to increase, as well as the revenue arising therefrom, in such manner
+that, although the exportation of goods was limited to the cargo of
+the Acapulco ship, of which the duties are not payable till her arrival
+there; notwithstanding also the property imported by the company from
+China and India, and destined for their own shipments, was exempt
+from duties, and above all, the continual interruptions experienced
+by the maritime commerce of the Islands within the last fifteen or
+twenty years, the net proceeds of the custom house, from the period
+above mentioned of its establishment, till the close of 1809, have not
+been less than from $138,000 to $140,000, on an average, independent
+of the amount of the king's fifth on the gold of the country, which
+is collected by the same administrator, in consequence of its being
+trivial; as well as the two per cent. belonging to the Board of Trade,
+and by them collected under that title, and afterwards separately
+applied to the average-fund and which usually may be estimated from
+$20,000 to $25,000.
+
+The general duties now levied in the custom house, are the following:
+
+[Port charges and duties.] Six per cent. almojarisfago is on all
+kinds of merchandise imported in foreign bottoms, under a valuation
+made by the surveyors, in conformity to the respective prices of
+the market at the time on importation; it usually is regulated by
+an increase of 50% on the prime cost of India goods, and of 33 1/3%
+on those from China. This duty may be considered as, in fact, equal
+to nine per cent on the former, and eight on the latter.
+
+Six per cent, or the same duty, on all foreign goods, although imported
+in national bottoms.
+
+Three per cent on Spanish goods, imported under the national flag,
+equal, according to the above estimate to 4 and 4 1/2%.
+
+Two per cent Board of Trade duty, indistinctly on all foreign property,
+equivalent to 2 1/2 or 3%.
+
+Twenty-five per cent anchorage dues, levied on the total amount of
+the almojarisfago duty.
+
+An additional of two and one-half per cent, a new and temporary duty,
+called subvencion, appropiated to the payment of the loan made to
+the king by the Cadiz Board of Trade, and leviable on all kinds of
+imported goods, and, of course, equal, according to the usual mode
+of valuation, to about three per cent.
+
+Three per cent on the exportation of coined silver and gold of the
+country, in dust and, ingots.
+
+An additional or duty of subvencion, or temporary duty on the above,
+equal to one-half per cent.
+
+One and a half per cent under the same rate, on all kinds of goods,
+and equal to two or two and one half per cent.
+
+One and one-half per cent on the amount of the cargo of the Acapulco
+ship, on leaving the port of Manila, equal to 3/4% on the real
+prime cost.
+
+[Slight concession to the Company.] The company are considered in
+the same light as the rest of the merchants, in the graduation and
+payment of duties, on such goods as they sell out of their own stores
+for local consumption, to the Company, with the exemption only of
+the Board of Trade rate of 2% and 3%, on the exportation of silver,
+according to a special privilege, and in conformity to the 61st
+Article of the new royal decree of 1803.
+
+Besides the duties above enumerated, there is another trifling one
+established for local purposes of peso merchante, being a rate for the
+use of the king's scales, levied according to an extremely equitable
+tariff, on certain articles only of solid weight, such as iron, copper,
+etc. The raw materials as well as all kinds of manufactured articles,
+belonging to the Islands, are exempt from duties on their entry in
+the port and river of Manila; but some of the first are subject to
+the most unjust of all exactions, that is, to an arbitrary tax and
+to the obligation of being retailed out on board the vessels in which
+they have been brought down, and deliverable only to persons bearing
+a written order, signed by the sitting members of the municipal
+corporation. Among this class of articles may be mentioned the coco
+of Cebu and the wax and oil of the Bisayas, which are rated as objects
+of the first necessity.
+
+[Undervaluation of galleon goods.] With regard to the respective
+duties on the cargo annually dispatched by the merchants of Manila
+to New Spain, the practice of galleon is tolerably well regulated. An
+extreme latitude is given to the moderate rates at which it is ordered
+to value the goods contained in the manifest, by which means these are
+frequently put down at only one-half of their original prime cost;
+the commission to frame the scale of valuations which is to be in
+force for five years, after which time it is renewed, being left
+to three merchants, and made subject to the revision of the king's
+attorney-general (fiscal) and the approbation of the governor;
+consequently, such being the nature of the tariff on which these
+operations are founded, the 33 1/3% to which the royal duties amount
+on the $500,000 stipulated in the permit, does not, in fact, affect
+the shipper beyond the rate of 15 per cent, in consequence of the
+great difference between the prime cost and valuation of the articles
+corresponding to the permit; or, what is the same thing, between
+the $500,000 nominal value, and $1,100,000 or $1,200,000, the real
+amount of the cargo in question. The most remarkable circumstance,
+however, is, that the officers of the revenue in Acapulco collect
+the above-mentioned 33 1/3% in absolute conformity to the Manila
+valuation, and not according to the value of the goods in America,
+and without any other formality than a comparison of the cargo with
+the ship's papers. In honor of truth, it ought to be further observed
+that, although the Manila merchant by this means seeks to exempt
+himself from the part of the enormous duties with which it has been
+attempted to paralyze the only commercial intercourse he carries on
+with New Spain, in every other respect connected with this operation,
+he acts in a sufficiently legal manner, and if at their return those
+vessels have been in the habit of bringing back near a million of
+dollars in a smuggled way, it must be acknowledged that it is the
+harshness of the law which compels the merchant to become a smuggler;
+for according to the strange regulation by which he is thwarted in the
+returns representing the proceeds of his outward operation, he must
+either bring the money to the Philippine Islands without having it
+declared on the ship's papers, or be obliged to leave the greatest
+part of it in the hands of others, subject to such contingencies
+as happen in trade. As long, therefore, as the present limitations
+subsist, which only authorize returns equal to double the value of
+the outward-bound cargo, this species of contraband will inevitably
+continue. The governors also, actuated by the principles of reason
+and natural justice, will, as they have hitherto done, wink at the
+infraction of the fiscal laws; a forbearance, in fact, indirectly
+beneficial to them, inasmuch as it eventually contributes to the
+general improvement of the colony. Indeed, without this species of
+judicious condescension, trade would soon stand still for the want
+of the necessary funds to carry it on.
+
+[Unbusinesslike custom ways.] .... It will readily be acknowledged
+that, in like manner as the good organization of custom houses is
+favorable to the progress of general commerce, so nothing is more
+injurious to its growth and the enterprise of merchants, than any
+uncertainty or arbitrary conduct in the levying of duties to be
+paid by them. This arises out of the circumstance of every merchant,
+entering on a new speculation, being anxious to have, as the principal
+ground work of his combinations, a perfect knowledge of the exact
+amount of his disbursements, in order to be enabled to calculate the
+final result with some degree of certainty. Considered in this point
+of view, the system adopted in the Islands is certainly deplorable,
+since it must be acknowledged that the principles and common rules of
+all other commercial countries, are there unknown. For example; this
+year a cargo arrives from China or Bengal, and the captain turns in
+his manifest. The custom-house surveyors then commence the valuation
+of the goods of which his cargo is composed: I say they commence,
+because it is a common thing for them not to have finished the estimate
+of the scale and amount of corresponding duties, till the expiration
+of two, four, and not unfrequently six months. The rule they affect to
+follow, in this valuation, is that of the prices current in the market,
+and in order to ascertain what these are, they are seen going round
+inquiring in the shops of the Sangleys (Chinese), till at length,
+finding it useless to go in search of correct and concurrent data,
+in a place where there are neither brokers nor public auctions, they
+are forced to determine in an arbitrary manner, and as the adage goes,
+always take good care to see their employers on the right side of the
+hedge. The grand work being ended, with all this form and prolixity,
+the sentence of the surveyors is irrevocable. The bondsman of the
+captain, who, in the meanwhile, has usually sold his cargo and departed
+with a fresh one for another destination, pays in the amount of the
+duties, thus regulated by law.
+
+[Variations in valuations.] The practical defects and injurious
+consequences of such a system as this, it would be unnecessary
+to particularize. It would, however, be less intolerable, if,
+once put in force, it could serve the merchant as a guide in the
+valuations of his property for a determined number of successive
+years. What, however, renders this assessment more prejudicial,
+is its instability and uncertainty, and the repetition of the same
+operation I have just described every year, and with every cargo that
+arrives; but under distinct valuations, according to the reports
+or humor of the day. Besides these great defects and irregularity,
+the Philippine custom house observes the singular practice of not
+allowing the temporary landing of goods entered in transitu and for
+re-exportation, as is done on the bonding system in all countries
+where exertions are made by those in authority for the extension and
+improvement of commerce in every possible way. Of course, much less
+will they consent to the drawback or return of any part of the duties
+on goods entered outwards, even though they are still on board the
+very vessels in which they originally came shipped. Beyond all doubt,
+the wrongly understood severity of such a system, has, and will,
+continue to prevent many vessels from frequenting the port of Manila,
+and trying the market, unable to rely on the same liberal treatment
+they can meet with in other places.
+
+[The areca-nut.] The bonga, or areca-nut, is the fruit of a very
+high palm-tree, not unlike the one that bears the date, and the
+nuts, similar to the latter, hang in great clusters from below the
+protuberance of the leaves or branches. Its figure and size resemble
+a common nut, but solid, like the nutmeg. Divided into small pieces,
+it is placed in the center of a small ball made of the tender leaves
+of the buyo or betel pepper, lightly covered with slacked lime,
+and this composition constitutes the celebrated betel of Asia, or,
+as it is here called, the buyo, the latter differing from that used
+in India, inasmuch only as it contains cardamomom.
+
+[Buyo monopoly unsatisfactory.] The government, anxious to derive
+advantage in aid and support of the colony, from the great use the
+inhabitants make of the buyo, many years ago determined to establish
+the sale of the bonga, its principal ingredient, into a monopoly,
+either by hiring the privilege out, or placing it under a plan of
+administration, in the form in which it now stands. Both schemes have
+been tried, but neither way has this branch been made to yield more
+than $30,000; indeed the annual proceeds usually have not exceeded
+$25,000. In 1809, the total amount of sales was $48,610, and deducting
+from this sum the prime cost and expenses of administration, the net
+profit in favor of the treasury was equal to no more than $27,078 or
+upwards of 125 1/2%. In 1780, the privilege of selling the bonga was
+let out at public auction for the sum of $15,765 and this, compared
+with the present proceeds, clearly shows that, although the increase
+has not advanced equally with the other branches of the revenue, it is
+far from having declined. It must nevertheless be confessed, that on
+the present footing on which it stands, the smallness of the proceeds
+is not worth the trouble required in the collection, and even if the
+amount were still greater, it could never serve as an excuse for the
+oppression and violence to which this monopoly frequently gives rise.
+
+[Hardships on areca-nut planters.] As the trees producing the bonga
+are not confined to any particular grounds, and indiscriminately grow
+in all, the plan has been adopted of compelling the Filipinos to gather
+and bring in the fruit, raised on their lands, to the depot nearest the
+district in which they reside. There they are paid from two, two and
+one-half, three and three and one-half reals per thousand, according
+to the distance from which they come: and, in order to prevent frauds,
+the surveyors belonging to the revenue go out, at certain times of the
+year, to examine the bonga plantations, and the trees being counted,
+they estimate the fruit, that is, oblige the proprietor to undertake
+to deliver in two hundred nuts for each bearing tree, whether or not,
+hurricanes deteriorate or destroy the produce, or thieves plunder
+the plantations, as very frequently happens. In case deficiencies are
+proved against him, he is compelled to pay for them in money, at the
+rate of twenty-five reals per thousand, the price at which the king
+sells them in the monopoly-stores. Besides, the precise condition of
+delivering in two hundred bonga nuts, according to the stipulations
+imposed upon him, presupposes the previous exclusion of all the injured
+or green ones; and although the ordinary trees usually yield as many as
+three hundred nuts each, great numbers are nevertheless spoiled. If, to
+the adverse accidents arising out of the storms and robberies, we add
+the effects of the whims or ill-humor of the receivers, it is not easy
+to imagine to what a length the injuries extend which befall the man
+who has the folly or misfortune to become a planter of this article.
+
+[Folly of monopoly plan.] On the other hand, as in the conveyances
+from the minor to the larger depots, frauds are frequently committed,
+and the heaping together of many millions of nuts inevitably produces
+the fermentation and rapid putrefaction of a great number of them,
+it consequently follows that the waste must be immense; or if it is
+determined to sell all the stock laid in, without any distinction in
+quality and price, the public must be very badly served and displeased,
+as in fact too often happens. Since, therefore, the habit of using
+the buyo is still more prevailing than that of tobacco, when suitable
+supplies cannot be had in the monopoly stores, the consumer naturally
+resorts to the contraband channels, although he encounters some risk,
+and expends more money. It is also very natural that the desire of
+gain should thus lead on and daily expose a number of needy persons,
+anxious by this means to support and relieve the wants of their
+families. Returning, however, to what more immediately concerns the
+grower, I do not know that the oppressive genius of fiscal laws has,
+in any country of the globe, invented one more refinedly tyrannic,
+than to condemn a man, to a certain degree at least, as has hitherto
+been the case, to the punishment of Tantalus; for the law forbids the
+Filipino to touch the fruit of the tree planted with his own hands,
+and which hangs in tempting and luxuriant abundance round his humble
+dwelling.
+
+[Its modification desirable.] It would be easy for me to enumerate
+many other inconveniences attending this branch of public revenue,
+on the footing on which it now stands, if what has already been said
+did not suffice to point out the necessity of changing the system,
+as those in authority are anxious that the treasury should gain more,
+and the king's subjects suffer less. The strong prejudice entertained
+against this source of revenue, the inconsiderable sum it produces,
+and the complicated form of its organization, have in reality been
+sufficient motives to induce many to become strenous advocates for
+the total abolition of the monopoly. I do not, however, on this
+account see any reasons for altogether depriving the government of
+a productive resource, as this might soon be rendered, if it was
+placed under regulations less odious and more simple in themselves. I
+nevertheless agree, that the perfect monopoly of the areca fruit, or
+bonga, is impracticable, till the trees, indiscriminately planted,
+are cut down, and, in the same way as the tobacco plantations,
+fresh and definite grounds are laid out for its cultivation, on
+account of the revenue. I am further aware that this measure is
+less practicable than the first; for, independent of all the other
+obstacles, it would be necessary to wait till the new plantation
+yielded fruit, and also that the public should consent to refrain
+from masticating buyo in the meanwhile, a pretension as mad as it
+would be to require that the eating of salt should be dispensed with
+for a given number of years. But what difficulty would there be,
+for example, in the proprietors paying so much a year for each bonga
+tree to the district magistrate, the governor of the nearest town,
+or the cabeza de Barangay, or chiefs of the clans into which the
+natives are divided, in the same manner as the Filipino pays his
+tribute? [Tree-tax preferable.] The only one I anticipate is that of
+fixing the amount in such way that, at the same time this resource is
+made to produce an increased income of some moment, it may act as a
+moderate tax on an indefinite property, the amount of which, augmented
+in the same price, may be reimbursed to the proprietor by the great
+body of consumers. It is not in fact easy to foresee or estimate,
+by any means of approximation, the alteration in the current price
+of the bonga, that would result from the indefinite freedom of its
+cultivation and sale, especially during the first years. Although,
+for this reason, it would be impossible to ascertain what proportion
+the impost on the tree would then bear with regard to the value of
+the fruit, the error that might accrue would be of little moment, as
+long as precautions were taken to adopt a very low rate of comparison,
+and a proportionably equitable one as the basis of taxation. Supposing
+then that the price of the bonga should decline from twenty-five reals,
+at which it is now sold in the monopoly stores, to fifteen reals per
+thousand, in the general market, and a tax of one-fourth real should
+be laid on each tree valued at two hundred bonga nuts, it is clear
+that this would be equal to no more than 8 1/2%; or, what is the same,
+the tax would be in the proportion one to twelve with the proceeds of
+each tree, and the more the value of the fruit was raised, the more
+would the rate of contribution diminish. It ought at the same time
+to be observed that, under the above estimate, that is, supposing the
+price of the article to remain at fifteen reals, the 8 1/2% at which
+rate the tax is regulated, would not perhaps exceed five or six per
+cent on a more minute calculation; in the first place, because at the
+time of making out the returns of the trees, [Exception of immature
+and aged trees.] those only ought to be set down which are in their
+full vigor, excluding such as through the want or excess of age only
+yield a small proportion of fruit; and in the second, because in
+the numbers registered, the trees would only be rated at two hundred
+although it is well known they usually yield three hundred, in order
+by this means the better to avoid all motives of complaint. In this
+point of view, and by adopting similar rules of probability, it seems
+to me that the government would not risk much by an attempt to change
+the present system into a tax levied on the tree itself, on a plane
+similar to the one above proposed; more particularly by doing it in
+a temporary manner, and rendering it completely subservient to the
+corrections subsequent experience might suggest in this particular.
+
+[Difficulty of estimating probable revenue.] The difficulty being,
+in this manner, overcome, with regard to the prudent determination
+of the rate at which the proprietor of the bonga plantations ought
+to contribute, let us now proceed to estimate, by approximation, the
+annual sum that would thus be obtained. As, however, this operation
+is unfortunately complicated, and in great measure depends on the
+previous knowledge of the total number of trees liable to the tax
+proposed, details with which we are at not present prepared, it is
+impossible to come at any very accurate results. All that can be done
+is to endeavor to demonstrate, in general terms, the great increase
+the revenue would experience by the adoption of the new plan, and
+the real advantage resulting from it to the contributors themselves,
+all which may be easily deduced from the following calculation.
+
+Let us, in the first instance, suppose that the consumers of buyo,
+in the whole of the Islands, do not exceed one million of persons,
+and that each one makes use of three bongas per day, this consumption,
+at the end of the year, would then amount to 1,095,000,000 nuts. We
+will next divide this sum by two hundred, at which the product of each
+tree, one with another, is rated, and the result will be 5,475,000
+trees. [Greater, however, than at present.] This number being taxed
+at the rate of one-fourth real, would leave the sum of $171,093.75
+and deducting therefrom the $25,000 yielded by this branch under its
+present establishment, together with $5,132 equal to three per cent
+paid to the district magistrates for the charges of collection, we
+should still have an annual increase in favor of the, treasury equal
+to $140,961.75.
+
+It might perhaps be objected that, in this case, the proprietor,
+instead of receiving, as before two and one-half reals for every
+thousand bongas, would have to disburse one and one-fourth reals in
+the mere act of paying one-fourth real for each tree; a circumstance
+which, at first sight, seems to produce a difference not of one and
+one-fourth, but of three and one-fourth reals per thousand against
+him; though in reality far from this being the case, if we take into
+consideration the deficiencies the sworn receiver usually lays to
+his charge, the fruit he rejects, owing to its being green or rotten,
+and the many and expensive grievances he is exposed to in his capacity
+of grower; it will be seen that his disbursements under these heads
+frequently exceed the amount he in fact has to receive. [Tax only a
+surcharge ultimately paid by consumer.] If, in addition to this, we
+bear in mind that, on condition of seeing himself free from guards
+and a variety of insupportable restrictions, constituting the very
+essence of a monopoly, he would in all probability gladly pay much
+more than the tax in question, all the doubts arising on this point
+will entirely disappear. Finally, considered in its true light, we
+shall not find in the measure above described anything more than a
+very trifling discount required of the proprietor from the price at
+which he sells his bonga, and which, as already noticed, ultimately
+falls on the consumer alone.
+
+[Estimate conservative.] The moderate estimate I have just formed ought
+to inspire the more confidence from its being well known that the use
+of the buyo is general among the inhabitants of these Islands. The
+calculation, as it now stands, rests only on one million consumers,
+for each of whom I have only put down three bongas per day, whereas
+it is customary to use much more; nor have I taken into account the
+infinite number of nuts wasted after being converted into the buyo,
+a fact equally well known. Indeed, as the object proposed was no
+other than to prove the main part of my assertions, and I trust this
+is satisfactorily done, I have not deemed it necessary to include
+in the above calculation a greater number of minute circumstances,
+nor attempt to deduce more favorable results, which, with the scope
+before me, I was most assuredly warranted in doing.
+
+[Advantages.] In a word, from the concurrence of the facts and
+reasons above adduced, the following propositions may, without any
+difficulty, be laid down. First, that the increase of revenue produced
+by the reform in question, would in all probability exceed $150,000
+per annum; secondly, that the Filipinos would soon comprehend, and
+gladly consent to a change of this kind in the mode of contributing
+of which the advantages would be apparent; thirdly, that the persons
+employed in the old establishment, might, with greater public utility,
+be applied to other purposes; and lastly, that the civil magistrates
+would not be harassed with so many strifes and lawsuits, and so many
+melancholy victims of the monopoly, and its officers would cease to
+drag a wretched existence in the prisons and places of hard labor in
+these Islands.
+
+[Cockpit licenses.] The cock-pit branch of the revenue is hired out
+by the government, and the license is separately set up at auction
+for the respective provinces. Its nature and regulations are so
+well known that they do not require a particular description, the
+general obligations of the contractors being the same as those in New
+Spain. Perhaps the only difference observed in this public exhibition
+in the Philippine Islands consists in its greater simplicity, owing to
+its being frequented only by the natives, the whites who are present
+at this kind of diversion being very few, or indeed none.
+
+[Inconsiderable income.] The cock-pits are open two days in the week,
+and the lessees of them receive half a real from every person who
+enters, besides the extra price they charge those who occupy the best
+seats, the owners of the fighting cocks, for the spurs, stalls for the
+sale of buyo, refreshments, etc. Notwithstanding all this, and although
+cock-fighting is so general and favorite an amusement among these people
+(the rooster may justly be considered as the distinctive emblem of
+the Filipino) the annual proceeds of this branch are inconsiderable;
+although it must be acknowledged that it has greatly increased since
+the year 1780, when it appears the license was let at auction for
+only about $14,000 owing, no doubt, to the exclusive privilege of
+the contractors not having been extended to the provinces, as was
+afterwards gradually done.
+
+[Provincial cockpit revenue.] The total sum paid to the government by
+the renters of this branch, according to the auction returns in 1810,
+amounted to $40,141 in the following order for the provinces:
+
+
+    Tondo           $18,501
+    Cavite            2,225
+    La Laguna         2,005
+    Pampanga          3,000
+    Bulacan           6,900
+    Batangas          2,000
+    Pangasinan        1,200
+    Bataan            1,050
+    Iloilo            1,600
+    Ilocos              600
+    Tayabas             400
+    Cebu                360
+    Albay               300
+    Total           $40,141
+
+
+[Possibilities of increase.] The causes, to which the increase
+that has taken place within the last twenty-five or thirty years is
+chiefly to be attributed, have already been pointed out, and for this
+reason it would appear that, by adopting the same plan with regard to
+the fourteen remaining provinces, of which this captaincy-general
+is composed, hitherto free from the imposition of this tax, an
+augmentation might be expected, proportionate to the population,
+their circumstances, and the greater or lesser taste for cock-fights
+prevailing among their respective inhabitants. At the commencement, no
+doubt, the rentals would be low, and, of course, the prices at which
+the licenses were let out, would be equally so; but the experience
+and profits derivable from this kind of enterprises would not fail
+soon to excite the competition of contractors, and in this way add
+to the revenue of the government. This is so obvious that I cannot
+help suspecting attempts have, at some period or other, been made
+to introduce the establishment of this privilege, in some of the
+provinces alluded to; at the same time I am persuaded that, owing
+to the affair not having been viewed in its proper light, seeking
+on the contrary to obtain an immediate and disproportionate result,
+the authorities have been too soon disheartened and given up the
+project without a fair trial. All towns and districts murmur, and,
+at first object, to taxes, however light they may be; but, at length,
+if they be not excessive, the people become reconciled to them. The
+one here proposed is neither of this character, nor can it be deemed
+odious on account of its novelty. The natives are well aware that
+their brethren in the other provinces are subject to it, and that
+in this nothing more is done than rendering the system uniform. I,
+therefore, see no reason why the establishment of this branch of
+revenue should not be extended to all the points of the Islands. At
+the commencement, let it produce what it may, since constancy and
+time will bring things to the same general level.
+
+[Indian tributes.] The too great condescension and mistaken humanity
+of the government on the one hand, and the fraud and selfishness
+of the provincial sub-delegates or collectors, on the other, have
+concurred to change a contribution, the most simple, into one of the
+most complicated branches of public administration. The first cause
+has been owing to a too general acquiescence to receive the amount
+of tributes in the produce peculiar to each province, instead of
+money; and the second, because as the above officers are the persons
+intrusted with the collection, whenever the sale has held out to
+them any advantage, they have been in the habit of appropriating the
+several articles to themselves, without allowing any benefit to the
+treasury. If the prospective sales of the produce appear unfavorable,
+it is then forwarded on to the king's store in Manila, surcharged with
+freights, exposed to many risks, and the value greatly diminished
+by waste and many other causes. No order or regularity being thus
+observed in this respect, and the sale of the produce transmitted to
+the king's stores being regulated by the greater or lesser abundance in
+the general market, and a considerable stock besides left remaining,
+from one year to another, and eventually spoiled, it is impossible
+to form any exact estimate of this branch. If to these complicated
+matters we add the radical vices arising out of the infidelity of the
+heads of clans (cabezas de barangay), the difficulty of ascertaining
+the defects of the returns made out by them, the variations annually
+occurring in the number of those exempted either through age or other
+legal motives, and above all, the frequently inevitable tardiness with
+which the district magistrates send in their respective accounts,
+it will be readily acknowledged, that no department requires more
+zeal in its administration, and no one is more susceptible of all
+kinds of frauds, or attended with more difficulties.
+
+[A conservative estimate.] In this state of uncertainty, with regard
+to this particular branch, I have guided myself by the last general
+return of tributes, made out in the accountant-general's office,
+on the best and most recent data, and calculating indistinctly the
+whole value in money, I have deemed it proper afterwards to make a
+moderate deduction, on account of the differences above stated, and
+arising out of the collection of the tributes in kind, the expenses of
+conveyance, shipwrecks, averages, and other causes already enumerated.
+
+[Fixed charges.] In conformity to this calculation, the total
+proceeds of this branch of revenue amount to $505,215 from which
+sum are deducted, in the primitive stages of the accounts, the
+amount of ecclesiastical stipends, the pay of the troops under
+the immediate orders of the chief district magistrates in their
+quality of war-captains, together with all other extraordinary
+expenses incurred in the provinces by orders of the government, the
+remainder being afterwards forwarded to the king's treasury. It ought,
+however, to be observed, that the above aggregated sum is more or less
+liable to deficiencies, according to the greater or lesser degree of
+punctuality on the part of the sub-collectors in making up accounts,
+and the solidity of their respective sureties; the failure of this
+kind experienced by the revenue being so frequent, that, according to
+the returns of the accountant-general, those which occurred between
+the years 1762 and 1809, were no less than $215,765 notwithstanding
+the great precautions at all times taken to prevent such considerable
+injuries, by every means compatible with the precarious tenure of
+property possessed by both principals and sureties in this country. All
+the above circumstances being therefore taken into due consideration,
+and the ordinary and extraordinary discounts made from the total amount
+of tributes, the real sum remaining, or the net annual proceeds of
+the above branch, have usually not been rated at more than $190,000
+and $200,000; a sum respectively extremely small, and which possibly
+might be doubled, without the necessity of recurring to any other
+measure than a standing order for the collecting of the tributes in
+money, as by this means the variety of expenses and complications above
+enumerated, would be avoided, and the king's revenue no longer exposed
+to any other deficiencies than those arising out of the insolvency
+of the sub-collectors and their sureties, or casual risks, and the
+trifling charges paid for the conveyance of the money. If in opposition
+to this it should be alleged that it would be advisable to except some
+of the provinces from this general rule, owing to the advantages the
+government might derive from certain tributes being paid in kind,
+I do not hesitate to answer that I see no reason whatever why this
+should be done, because, if, for example, any quality of rigging
+or sail cloth is annually required, it would be easy to obtain it
+either by early contracts, or by laying in the articles at the current
+market price. Indeed, all supplies which do not rest on this footing,
+would be to defraud the natives of the fruits of his industry, and in
+the final result this would be the same as requiring of him double or
+triple tribute, contrary to the spirit of the law, which unfortunately
+is too frequently the case under the existing system.
+
+[Preferability of tribute in money.] Considering this affair in
+another point of view, it would be easy for me to demonstrate, if it
+were necessary, the mistaken idea that the native is benefited by
+receiving in kind the amount of the tribute he has to pay, at the
+low prices marked in the tariff used as a standard, by showing the
+extortions and brokerage, if I may so term it, to which the practice
+gives rise on the part of the district collectors. It will, however,
+suffice to call the attention of my readers to the smallness of
+the sum constituting the ordinary tribute, when reduced to money,
+in order for them to be convinced that it would be superfluous,
+as well as hazardous, to attempt to point out how this branch might
+be rendered more productive to the state and at the same time less
+burdensome to the contributors, more particularly when the rate
+assessed does not exceed ten reals per year, a sum so small, that
+generally speaking, no family can be found unable to hoard it up, if
+they have any inclination so to do. The prevailing error, however, in
+this respect, I am confident arises out of a principle very different
+from the one to which it is usually attributed. The tributary native
+is, in fact, disposed to pay the quota assigned to him into the hands
+of the chief of his clan, in money, in preference to kind; because,
+independent of the small value at which the articles in kind are
+rated in the tariff, he is then exposed to no expenses, as he now is
+for the conveyance of his produce and effects; nor is he liable to so
+many accidents. But as the chief of each clan has to deliver in his
+forty or fifty tributes to the head magistrate, who is answerable for
+those of the whole province, it is natural for him to endeavor to make
+his corresponding payments in some equivalent affording him a profit;
+at the same time the provincial magistrate, speculating on a larger
+scale, on the produce arising out of his jurisdiction, seeks to obtain
+from the government a profitable commutation in kind for that which
+the original contributor would have preferred paying in money. In
+order the better to attain his purpose, he asserts, as a pretext,
+the impossibility of collecting in the tribute under another form,
+alleging, moreover, the relief the native derives from this mode,
+whereas, if only duly examined, such a pretence is founded on the
+avarice, rather than the humanity of the magistrate.
+
+Leaving to one side the defects attributable to the present mode
+of collection, and considering the tribute as it is in itself, the
+attentive observer must confess, that in no part of our Indies is
+this more moderate; and, indeed, it is evident that the laws generally
+relating to the natives of these Islands seem to distinguish them with
+a decided predilection above those of the various sections of America.
+
+[Items in tribute.] The tribute in its origin was only eight reals
+per family; but the necessity of providing for the increased expenses
+of the government gave rise to this rate being afterwards raised
+to ten. The Sangley mestizos pay double tribute, and the Sangleys
+contribute at the rate of $6 per head. Besides this, all pay a yearly
+sum, applicable to the funds belonging to the community, and the above
+two casts pay three reals more, as a church rate, and under the name
+of the Sanctuary, the whole being in the following form:
+
+
+Entire Native Tribute       Tribute of Mestizos     Sangleys
+
+8 Reals, original tribute   16 Reals.               $6 each.
+1 1/2 Reals for expenses
+of troops                   3
+1/2 Reals to tithes         1
+10 Reals, amount of tribute 20 Reals.               $6.75
+1 Real, community funds     1
+3 Reals, sanctuary rate     3
+14 Reals, total annual
+disbursement.               24 Reals.               $6.75
+
+
+The males commence paying tribute at twenty years of age and
+the females at twenty-five, if before they have not entered the
+matrimonial state, and in both the obligation ceases at the age of
+sixty. The chiefs of clans, or cabezas de barangay and their eldest
+sons, or in default of children, the person adopted in their stead,
+that is, an entire tribute and a half, are exempt from this tax, as
+a remuneration for the trouble and responsibility they may have in
+collecting in the forty or fifty tributes, of which their respective
+clans are composed. Besides these there are various other classes of
+exempted persons, such as the soldiers who have served a certain number
+of years, those who have distinguished themselves in any particular
+manner in the improvement of industry or agriculture, and others who
+have received special certificates, on just and equitable grounds. In
+summing up the total number of exempted persons, on an average in
+the whole of the provinces, they will be found in the proportion of
+fifty to every thousand entire tributes.
+
+[Chinese tax.] The head-tax of the Sangleys has usually been
+attended with so many difficulties in its collection, owing to the
+facilities with which they absent or secrete themselves, and the
+many stratagems this cunning and artful race employ to elude the
+vigilance of the commissioners, that the government has at length
+found itself compelled to let out this branch, as was done in 1809,
+when it was disposed of in the name of one of them for the moderate
+sum of $30,000; notwithstanding it is a generally received opinion,
+that the number of this description of Chinese, constantly residing
+in the Islands, is above 7,000, which, at the rate of $6 per head,
+would raise this proportion of the tax as high as $42,000.
+
+[Community funds.] The Community funds belonging to each town, have,
+in conformity to the regulations under which they are administered,
+a special, or I might say, local application; but collected together
+into one stock, as is now the case, and directly administered by the
+government, they produce a more general utility. The head town of
+the province A, for example, requires to rebuild the public prison
+or town-hall, and its own private funds are not sufficient to defray
+the expenses of the work in question. In this case, therefore, the
+government gives orders for the other dependent towns to make up the
+deficiency by taking their proportions from their respective coffers,
+as all have an equal interest in the proposed object being carried
+into effect. The king's officers, in consequence thereof, draw the
+corresponding sums from these funds, the whole of which is under their
+immediate superintendence. And in order that the surplus of this stock
+may not stand still, but obtain every possible increase in a country
+where the premium for money is excessive, when let out at a maritime
+risk, it is ordered that some part shall be appropriated in this way,
+and on the same terms as those observed by the administrators of the
+charity funds belonging to the Misericordia (Charity) establishment,
+and the third order of St. Francis, which is another of the great
+advantages of assembling this class of property.
+
+In consequence of this judicious regulation, and the success with
+which this measure has hitherto been attended, the Community fund
+has gone on increasing in such a way that, notwithstanding the sums
+drawn from it for the purpose of constructing causeways, bridges,
+and other municipal objects, at the commencement of 1810, the stock
+in hand amounted to no less than $200,000; and it is natural to
+suppose when the outstanding premiums due shall have been paid in,
+a considerable augmentation will take place. This branch, although
+not exactly comprehended in those which constitute the revenue of the
+government, has so obvious an analogy with that of tributes, that I
+have not deemed it any essential deviation from the order and method
+I have hitherto observed in this work, to introduce it in this place,
+as in itself it did not deserve to be classed under a distinct head.
+
+[Tribute burdensome.] Notwithstanding the truth of what has been
+said with regard to the moderate rate of the tribute imposed on the
+native of the Philippine Islands, it would be extremely desirable if
+he could be altogether exonerated from a charge which he bears with
+great repugnance, by some other substitute being adopted, indirectly
+producing an equivalent compensation. In the first place, because the
+just motives of complaint would cease, caused not only by the tribute,
+but also the manner of its collection; and an end would then be put
+to those intrigues and extortions the district magistrates commit,
+under the title of zealous collectors of the king's revenue, and the
+power of a multitude of subaltern tyrants, comprehended under the
+denomination of chiefs of native clans (cabezas de barangay) would
+then also fall to the ground; a power which, if now employed for the
+purpose of oppressing and trampling on the liberties of inferiors,
+might some day or other be converted into an instrument dangerous
+and subversive of our preponderance in the country. In the second
+place, if, among all the civilized nations a head-tax (poll-tax)
+is in itself odious, it must incontestably be much more so among
+those whose unlettered state, far from allowing them to know that
+the social order requires a certain class of sacrifices for its
+better preservation, makes them attribute exactions of this kind
+to an abuse of superiority. Hence are they led to consider these
+restraints as the symbols of their own slavery and degradation, as
+in fact the natives in these Islands have ample reasons for doing,
+when the legal exemption of the whites is considered, without any
+other apparent reason than the difference in color. Independent of
+this, the substitute above alluded to would be extremely expedient,
+inasmuch as it would greatly simplify the plan of administration,
+the accountant's department would be freed from the most painful
+part of its labors, and the district magistrates and sub-collectors
+would not so frequently be entangled in their accounts, and exposed
+to expensive and interminable lawsuits, as now so often happens.
+
+[Possible Revenue substitutes.] The difficulty, however, of
+finding out this compensation or substitute is a matter of some
+consideration. On the one hand, if it was attempted to distribute
+the proceeds arising out of the tributes on other branches, such as
+tobacco, native wine, bonga, and custom house, it would, at first
+sight, appear possible, through the medium of an almost invisible
+augmentation in the respective sale prices and in the king's duties,
+that this important object might easily be attained; but, on the
+other, it might be apprehended that the additional value put on
+the articles above-mentioned, would produce in their consumption
+a diminution equal to the difference in prices, in which cases no
+advantage would be gained. The practicability of the operation, in my
+opinion, depends on the proportion in which the means of obtaining the
+articles in question respectively stand with the probability of their
+being consumed. I will explain myself. If, for example, the annual
+stock of tobacco laid in should be insufficient to meet the wants of
+the consumers, as constantly occurs, it is clear that this article,
+when monopolized, will bear a small augmentation of price, not only
+without any inconvenience or risk, but with the moral certainty of
+obtaining a positive increase of revenue, the necessary effect of
+the total consumption of the tobacco laid in and sold. But as this
+does not happen with the branch of native wines, of which the stock
+usually exceeds the demand, and as the bonga also is not susceptible
+of this improvement, owing to the small place it occupies among the
+other resources of the revenue, no other means are left than to add to
+the duties of export on silver, and of import on foreign merchandise,
+a percentage equivalent to the deficiency not laid on tobacco, unless
+it should be deemed more advisable to levy a sumptuary contribution on
+coaches, horses and servants, and especially on all kinds of edifices
+and houses built of stone and mortar, situated both within and without
+the capital.
+
+[Objection to tribute-paying.] However this may be, whatever the king
+loses in revenue by the abolition of the native tributes, no doubt,
+could be made up by an appeal to other ways and means. It is well-known
+that many of the Indian tribes refuse to become subjects of the crown
+and object to enter into general society on account of the odious
+idea they have formed of paying tribute; or, as they understand it,
+the obligation of giving something for nothing, notwithstanding those
+who voluntarily submit themselves to our laws, are exempt from tribute,
+and this charge falls only on their descendants. But of this they must
+either be ignorant, or they regret depriving their posterity of that
+independence in which they themselves have been brought up, and thus
+transmit to them slavery as an inheritance. As soon, therefore, as a
+general exemption of this kind, without distinction of casts, should
+be made public, the natives would quit their fastnesses and secluded
+places, and satisfied with the security offered to them, would be
+seen coming down to the plains in search of conveniences of civilized
+life, and all gradually would be reduced to Christianity. Hence
+the increase of productions and their consumption, as well as
+the extension of agriculture, industry and internal commerce. The
+diminution of smuggling tobacco would soon follow, progress would be
+made in the knowledge of the mines and natural riches of the country,
+and financially, greater facilities would present themselves in
+gradually carrying into effect its entire conquest and civilization.
+
+Advantages of such great and extraordinary importance deserve to
+be seriously weighed, and to this valuable department of public
+administration the early attention of those in authority ought to
+be called. Let due inquiries be made, and soon shall we discover
+the substantial benefits which would be derived to the treasury
+from the adoption of this measure, as popular as it is just, and
+also conformable to the liberal spirit of the times. In support of
+the preceding arguments, it ought further to be observed, that when
+all the branches constituting the king's revenue are well organized,
+brought to their most productive state, and the public debt contracted
+under unforeseen exigencies paid off, as long as present circumstances
+do not vary, an annual surplus of revenue, equal to more than $500,000,
+will be left; and as the proceeds of the particular branch of tributes
+do not amount to this sum, it is evident their abolition may take
+place, not only without any derangement or onerous consequences to the
+administration, but even without any deficiency being experienced, or
+any necessity to recur to the treasury of New Spain for extraordinary
+aid. These reasons acquire still greater force when it is remembered
+that, as things now are, all the branches of public revenue are
+in a progressively improving condition, and as the whole are still
+susceptible of a much more productive organization, the annual surplus
+of receipts will rapidly become greater, and consequently also the
+necessity will diminish of continuing to burden this portion of His
+Majesty's dominions with contributions in order to meet the expenses
+of their defence and preservation.
+
+Finally, well convinced of the advantageous results which, in
+every sense, would emanate from the revision and reforms proposed,
+I abstain from offering, in support of my arguments, a variety of
+other reflections which occur to me, not to be too diffuse on this
+subject; trusting that the hints I have already thrown out will be
+more than sufficient to excite an interest and promote a thorough and
+impartial investigation of concerns, highly important to the future
+welfare and security of this colony.
+
+[Subaltern branches.] Besides the six preceding branches which
+constitute the chief mass of the public revenue in these islands, there
+are several smaller ones of less consideration and amount; some having
+a direct application to the general expenses of the local government,
+and the others, intended as remittances to Spain; a distinction of
+little import and scarcely deserving of notice, since the object of the
+present sketch is to convey information on a large scale respecting
+the King's revenue in these Islands. As some of them, however, yield
+proceeds more regular than the others, I have classed together the
+receipts of the Pope's Bulls, or "Bulas de Cruzada," playing-cards,
+tithes, stamps and gunpowder, under the head of Subaltern Branches,
+with regard to the rest, to the general statement already quoted.
+
+In conformity to the returns with which I have been favored from
+the public offices, these five branches produced, in the year 1809,
+$45,090.75 in the following proportions:
+
+
+                    Sales.      Expenses.   Net Proceeds.
+    Pope's bulls    $15,360.75  $4,422.25   $10,938.50
+    Playing cards    11,539.125    932.625   10,606.50
+    Tithes           12,493.00        ----   12,493.00
+    Stamps            4,467.50     321.50     4,146.00
+    Gunpowder         7,307.625    401.125    6,905.375
+                           ----       ----         ----
+                    $51,168.125 $6,077.75   $45,090.375
+
+
+[Tithes.] The scanty proceeds of the tithes will naturally appear
+remarkable; but it ought to be remembered that, besides the ordinary
+tribute, the natives pay half a real under this denomination,
+without any distinction of person, or any reference whatever to their
+respective means, the total amount of which is already added to the
+tributes, and for this reason not repeated in this place. In addition
+also no tithes are levied, except on lands belonging to Spaniards,
+churches, regular clergy, ecclesiastical corporations, etc., and even
+then the articles of rice, wheat, pulse indigo and sugar, are alone
+liable. The above branches are all in charge of administrators,
+and from this plan it certainly would be advisable to separate
+the tithes and farm them out at public auction, as was proposed
+by the king's officers of the treasury, in their report on this,
+as well as other points, concerning the revenue, and dated October
+24, 1792. From the net proceeds of the gunpowder the expenses of its
+manufacture, confided to the commandant of artillery, ought seemingly
+to be deducted; but, as they cannot be ascertained with any degree of
+certainty, and as besides they are comprehended in the general expenses
+of that department, a separate deduction may be dispensed with.
+
+[Disbursements and general expenses.] In order to form a correct idea
+of the annual amount of the expenditure incurred by the administration
+and defence of the Philippine Islands, it is not necessary in this
+place to distinguish each item, separately; or to enumerate them
+with their respective sums or particular denominations. Some general
+observations on this subject ought, nevertheless, to be made, with a
+view to point out the reforms of which this important department of
+the public revenue is susceptible.
+
+In the part relating to the interior administration or government,
+ample room is certainly left for that kind of economy arising out of
+the adoption of a general system, little complicated; but it is besides
+indispensably necessary that, at the same time the work is simplifed
+and useless hands dismissed, the salaries of those who remain should
+be proportionally increased, in order to stimulate them in the due
+performance of their duties. It might also be found advisable to
+create a small number of officers of a superior order, who would
+be enabled to co-operate in the collection of the king's revenue,
+and the encouragement of agriculture, commerce and navigation,
+in their respective departments. The additional charges in this
+respect cannot be of any great consequence; although, in reality,
+by the receipts increasing through the impulse of an administrative
+order more perfect, and the expenses being always the same, the main
+object, so anxiously sought for in another way, would be thus attained.
+
+[Defence expenses.] The reverse, however, happens with regard
+to the expenses of defence, as I have called them, the better to
+distinguish them from those purely relating to the interior police
+or administration. Every sacrifice, most assuredly, ought to appear
+small, when the object is to preserve a country from falling into the
+hands of an enemy, and it ought not to excite surprise, if, during the
+course of the last fifteen years, several millions of dollars have been
+expended in the Philippines, in order to shield them from so dreadful
+a misfortune. But the late memorable revolution in the Peninsula has
+given rise to so great a change in our political relations, and it
+is extremely improbable that these Islands will be again exposed to
+the same danger and alarm, that the government may now, without any
+apparent risk, dispense with a considerable part of the preparations
+of defence, at one time deemed indispensably necessary. A colony that
+has no other strong place to garrison than its capital, and on the
+loyalty of whose inhabitants there are sufficient motives to rely,
+ought, in my opinion, to be considered as adequately provided against
+all ordinary occurrences in time of peace, with the 4,000 regulars,
+more or less, of all arms, the usual military establishment. In case
+any suspicions should arise of an early rupture with the only power
+whose forces can inspire the governors of these Islands with any kind
+of apprehensions, means will not be wanting to an active and provident
+minister, of giving proper advice, so as to allow sufficient time for
+the assembling of the battalions of provincial militia and all the
+other necessary preparations of defence, before the enemy is in an
+attitude to effect an invasion of a country so far distant from his
+own possessions on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. Consequently,
+by disbanding the corps of provincial infantry, cavalry and artillery,
+which continue uselessly to be kept on foot, an annual saving of
+from $220,000 to $250,000 would take place, an amount too great to
+be expended unless imperiously called for by the evident dread of a
+premeditated attack from an hostile quarter.
+
+[Shipping reform.] The navy is another of the departments in which
+reforms may be introduced, of no small moment to the treasury. Of
+course by the government merely dispensing with the policy of keeping
+in readiness two large ships to convey to Acapulco the cargos, for
+which the Manila merchants enjoy an annual licence, and leaving to
+the latter the full liberty of following up their speculations on
+their own account and risk, in vessels of their own, individually or
+with joint stock, a saving would result in favor of the crown equal to
+$140,000 to $150,000 per annum, and without preventing the receipt in
+Acapulco of the customary duties of $160,000 or $166,000 corresponding
+to the said licenses. This will evidently be the case, because as
+long as the large disposal of funds of the charitable institutions
+are employed in maritime risks, and the private property of others
+is besides added to them, the amount of the operations undertaken by
+the merchants of the Philippines to New Spain, when divested of all
+restraint, will always exceed $500,000 per annum. Nor is there now
+any further occasion for the government to continue granting this
+species of gratuitous tutelage to a body of men possessed of ample
+means to manage their own affairs, and who demand the same degree of
+freedom, and only seek a protection similar to that enjoyed by their
+fellow-countrymen in other parts of the king's dominions.
+
+[Galleon graft.] In case the above reform should be adopted, it might
+be deemed requisite for the government to undertake the payment of some
+of the charges under the existing order of things, defrayed out of the
+freights to which the merchandise shipped in the Acapulco traders is
+liable; because, calculating the freight at the usual rate of $200 for
+each three bales, or the amount of one ticket, out of the one thousand
+constituting the entire cargo, and of which one-half, or $100,000 more
+or less, is appropriated to the ecclesiastical chapter, municipality,
+officers of the regular army (excluding captains and the other higher
+ranks) and the widows of Spaniards, who in this case would be losers,
+independent of the remaining $100,000 or 500 tickets distributed
+among the 200 persons having a right to ship to Acapulco, it would, at
+first sight, appear reasonable for the treasury to indemnify the above
+description of persons by a compensation equivalent to the privation
+they experience through the new arrangement of the government. But
+as the practice of abuses constitutes no law, and what is given
+through favor is different to that which is required by justice,
+there are no reasons whatever why the treasury should be bound to
+support the widows of private persons, from the mere circumstance of
+their deceased husbands having been Spaniards; more particularly if
+it is considered that, far from having acquired any special merit
+during their lifetime, most of them voluntarily left their native
+country for the purpose of increasing their fortunes, and others were
+banished from it, owing to their bad conduct. Neither can it be said
+that the municipality have a legal right, in the case before stated,
+to receive any equivalent for the value of their respective annual
+tickets, which, when disposed of, usually amount to about $20,000 in
+the first place, because it is well-known that the eleven aldermen's
+seats, of which that body is composed, seats which can either be
+sold or resigned, originally did not cost as much as $50,000 and
+clearly the principal invested is out of all kind of proportion with
+the enormous premium or income claimed. In the second place, although
+the above municipal situations were originally purchased with a view
+to obtain some advantages, these formerly were very different to what
+they are at present, when the great increase of shippers to Acapulco,
+or in more plain terms, of purchase of tickets competing to obtain
+them, has given to these permits a value more than triple to that
+they possessed thirty years ago.
+
+[Indemnifying the aldermen.] In order, therefore, to do away with
+all motives of doubt and dispute, as well as for many other reasons
+of public utility, the best plan, in my opinion, would be, to return
+to each alderman his money, and the present municipal constitution
+being dissolved, the number of members might be reduced to four, with
+their corresponding registrar, and like the two ordinary "alcaldes,"
+elected every year without any other reward than the honor of presiding
+over and representing their fellow-citizens. Under this supposition,
+the only classes entitled to compensation, strictly speaking,
+would be the ecclesiastical chapter and the subaltern officers,
+whose respective pay and appointment are not in fact sufficient
+for the decency and expenses of their rank in society. Of course it
+would then be necessary to grant them more adequate allowances, but,
+according to reasonable calculations, the sum total annually required
+would not exceed $30,000; consequently, the reform projected with
+regard to the Acapulco ships would still eventually produce to the
+treasury a saving of from $60,000 to $70,000 in the first year of
+its adoption, and of $110,000 to $120,000 in every succeeding one.
+
+[The navy.] It is, on the other hand, undeniable that, if the royal
+navy and cruising vessels, or those belonging to the Islands and
+under the immediate orders of the captain-general, were united into
+one department, and placed under one head, considerable economy
+would ensue, and all motives of discord and emulation be moreover
+removed. Such would be the case if the change was attended with no
+other cirumstances than the consequent diminution of commanders,
+subaltern officers, and clerks; but it would be also proper to unite
+the arsenals, and adopt a more general uniformity in the operations and
+dependences of this part of the public services. It is equally certain
+that, during peaceful times, the two schooners and sixty gunboats,
+constituting the number of the above-mentioned cruising vessels, would
+be in great measure useless; whilst in case of a rupture, they are not
+sufficient to protect the trade of these Islands from the attacks of an
+enemy, notwithstanding they now cost the government considerable sums
+in repairs, etc., in order to keep them fit for service. The government
+ought therefore to guard against this waste of public money, without,
+however, neglecting the defence of the Islands, objects which, in my
+opinion, might easily be reconciled. Intelligent persons have judged
+that by reducing the naval forces to two frigates, two schooners,
+and about a dozen gunboats, the essential wants of the colony would be
+duly answered, in ordinary times; and some of the vessels might then
+be destined to pursue hydrographical labors in the Archipelago, which,
+unfortunately, are in a most backward state, whilst others could be
+sent on their periodical cruises against the Moros. By this means, at
+least, the navy department would be greatly simplified, and cease to be
+eternally burdensome to the government. With regard to the superfluous
+gunboats, it would be expedient to distribute them gratuitously among
+the marine provinces and Bisayan Islands, on the only condition of
+their being always kept fit for service; as, in one sense, the great
+expenses of maintaining them would be thus saved by the treasury, and,
+another, the inhabitants of those portions of the coast would be in
+possession of means sufficiently powerful to repel the aggressions of
+the Moros, who commit great ravages on their settlements. Finally,
+if besides the reforms of which the army and navy are susceptible,
+it is considered that the public works, such as prisons, schools,
+bridges, and causeways, so expensive in other countries, in the
+Philippines are constructed by the natives on the most reasonable
+terms, out of the community funds; that there is no necessity to build
+fortifications, and maintain numerous garrisons; that the clergy, to
+whose zeal and powerful influence the preservation of these Islands
+is chiefly due, do not cost the treasury annually above $200,000 and
+that the geographical situation of the colony in great measure shields
+it from the attacks of external enemies, it will readily be confessed,
+that a wise and firm government might undertake, without the dread of
+having to encounter any great obstacles, an administrative system,
+in a general point of view, infinitely more economical than the one
+hitherto followed; might be able to extirpate numerous abuses, and
+by calling forth the resources of the country gradually raise it to
+a flourishing condition, and cause it hereafter to contribute largely
+to the other wants of the crown. Hence was it that the distinguished
+voyager, La Pérouse (Chap. 15), contemplating these Islands with a
+political eye, did not hesitate to affirm "that a powerful nation,
+possessed of no other colonies than the Philippines, that should
+succeed in establishing there a form of government best adapted to
+their advantageous circumstances, would justly disregard all the
+other European establishments in Africa and America."
+
+[Objectionable office-holders.] In our colonies, appointments and
+command far from being sought as a means to obtain a good reputation,
+or as affording opportunities of contributing to public prosperity,
+are, it is too well known, only solicited with a view to amass
+wealth, and then retire for the purpose of enjoying it. Commercial
+pursuits being besides attended with so many advantages that those
+only decline following them who are divested of money and friends;
+whilst the situation in the revenue are so few in number, compared
+with the many candidates who solicit them, that they are consequently
+well appointed, it follows that the excess left without occupation,
+besides being considerable, is generally composed of needy persons, and
+not the most suitable to exercise the delicate functions of collectors
+and magistrates in the provinces. From this class nevertheless the
+host of officers are usually taken who, under the name of collectors,
+surveyors and assessors of tributes, intervene in, or influence
+the public administration. Owing to the variety and great number of
+persons emigrating to America, ample field, no doubt, is there left
+for selection, by which means the viceroys may frequently meet with
+persons suitable and adequate to the above trusts, if prudent steps
+are only taken; but in this respect the case is very different in the
+Philippines, where chance alone occasionally brings over a European
+Spaniard, unemployed or friendless. In these remote Islands, also,
+more than in any other quarter, people seek to live in idleness, and,
+as much as possible, without working, or much trouble. As long as
+hopes are entertained of doing something in the Acapulco speculations,
+every other pursuit is viewed with indifference, and the office of
+district or provincial magistrate is only solicited when all other
+resources have failed, or as a remedy against want. As the applicants
+for these situations are therefore not among the most select classes,
+it very frequently happens that they fall into extremely improper
+and unworthy hands.
+
+It is in fact common enough to see a hairdresser or a lackey converted
+into a governor; a sailor or a deserter transformed into a district
+magistrate, collector, or military commander of a populous province,
+without any other counsellor than his own crude understanding,
+or any other guide than his passion. Such a metamorphosis would
+excite laughter in a comedy or farce; but, realized in the theatre
+of human life, it must give rise to sensations of a very different
+nature. Who is there that does not feel horror-struck, and tremble
+for the innocent, when he sees a being of this kind transferred from
+the yard-arm to the seat of justice, deciding, in the first instance,
+on the honor, lives, and property of a hundred thousand persons, and
+haughtily exacting the homage and incense of the spiritual ministers
+of the towns under his jurisdiction, as well as of the parish curates,
+respectable for their acquirements and benevolence, and who, in their
+own native places, would possibly have rejected as a servant the very
+man whom in the Philippines they are compelled to court and obey as
+a sovereign.
+
+In vain do the laws ordain that such offices shall not be given away to
+attendants on governors and members of the high court of justice, for
+under pretext of the scarcity of Europeans experienced in the colony,
+means are found to elude the statute, by converting this plea into an
+exception in favor of this description of persons. By such important
+offices being filled in this manner, it is easy to conceive the various
+hardships to which many of the provinces and districts are exposed;
+nor can any amelioration be expected as long as this plan is persisted
+in and the excesses of the parties go without punishment.
+
+[Evils from officials in trade.] Independent, however, of the serious
+injuries and great errors persons of the class above described cannot
+fail to commit in the exercise of their functions, purely judicial, the
+consequences of their inordinate avarice are still more lamentable,
+and the tacit permission to satisfy it, granted to them by the
+government under the specious title of a licence to trade. Hence may
+it be affirmed, that the first of the evils, and the one the native
+immediately feels, is occasioned by the very person the law has
+destined for his relief and protection. In a word, he experiences
+injuries from the civil magistrates presiding over the provinces,
+who, at the same time, are the natural enemies of the inhabitants,
+and the real oppressors of their industry.
+
+It is a known and melancholy fact that, far from promoting the
+felicity of the provinces intrusted to their care, the magistrates
+attend to nothing else but their own fortunes and personal interests;
+nor do they hesitate as to the means by which their object is to
+be attained. Scarcely are they seated in the place of authority,
+when they become the chief consumers, purchasers, and exporters of
+every thing produced and manufactured within the districts under
+their command, thus converting their licence to trade into a positive
+monopoly. In all lucrative speculations the magistrate seeks to have
+the largest share; in all his enterprises he calls in the forced aid
+of his subjects, and if he deigns to remunerate their labor, at most
+it is only on the same terms as if they had been working on account
+of the king. These unhappy people bring in their produce and crude
+manufactures to the very person who, directly or indirectly, is to fix
+upon them an arbitrary value. To offer such and such a price for the
+articles is the same as to say, another bidding shall not be made. To
+insinuate is to command--the native is not allowed to hesitate, he must
+either please the magistrate, or submit to his persecutions. Being
+besides free from all competition in the prosecution of his traffic,
+since he is frequently the only Spaniard resident in the province,
+the magistrate therein acts with unbounded sway, without dread,
+and almost without risk of his tyranny ever being denounced to the
+superior tribunals.
+
+[Speculating in tributes.] In order, however, that a more correct
+idea may be formed of the iniquitous conduct of many of these public
+functionaries, it is necessary to lay open some part of their irregular
+dealings in the collection of the Indian tributes. It is well known
+that the government, anxious to conciliate the interests of the
+tributary classes with those of the revenue, frequently commutes
+the pecuniary capitation tax into an obligation to pay the amount in
+produce or manufactures. A season comes when, owing to the failure
+of the crops, the productions have risen to an excessive price,
+and consequently infinitely above the ordinary rates affixed by law,
+which are generally the lowest, and the natives, unable to keep their
+bargains without considerable injury or endangering the subsistence
+of their numerous families, implore the favor of the magistrate,
+petitioning him to lay their calamitous situation before the superior
+government, in order to have the payment of their tribute in kind
+remitted, and offering to pay it in money. This is the precise moment
+when, as his own profits depend on the misery of the province under
+his command, he endeavors to misuse the accidental power with which he
+is invested. Hence it happens that, instead of acting as a beneficent
+mediator, and supporting the just solicitations of the natives, he at
+first disregards their petition, and then all at once transforming
+himself into a zealous collector, issues his notifications, sends
+his satellites into the very fields to seize on the produce, and in a
+most inexorable manner insists on collecting till necessity compels
+him to suspend the measure. The principal object being attained,
+that is, having now become master of the gleanings and scanty crops
+of his bereft subjects, on a sudden his disposition changes, he is
+moved to pity, and in the most pathetic language describes to the
+government the ravages done to the plantations by the hurricanes,
+and the utter impossibility of collecting in the tributes that year in
+kind. On such a remonstrance he easily obtains permission to change the
+standing order, and proceeding on to collect in some of the remaining
+tributes in money, merely to save appearance, with perfect impunity
+he puts the finishing stroke to the wicked act he had commenced, by
+applying to himself all the produce his collectors had gathered in,
+and places to the credit of the treasury the total amount of the
+tributes, corresponding to his jurisdiction, in money.
+
+Supposing, for example, that this has happened in the province of
+Antique, where the payment of the capitation-tax generally takes place
+in the unhusked rice, rated at two reals per cavan, and, through the
+effects of a bad season, this article should rise as high as ten or
+twelve reals. It is clear that the magistrate, by accounting for the
+tributes with the revenue office in money, and collecting them in kind
+at the rate fixed by law, would by the sales gain a profit of 400 or
+500 per cent; at the same time the native, by the mere circumstance
+of then paying in kind, would have paid the tribute corresponding to
+five or six years in a single one, without, on that account, having
+freed himself from the same charge in the following seasons.
+
+[No check on extortion.] When the extortionate acts as these are
+practised, to what lengths may it not be expected the other excesses
+and abuses of authority are carried? To the above it ought moreover
+to be added, that the provincial magistrates have no lieutenants,
+and are unprovided with any other auxiliaries in the administration
+of justice, except an accompanying witness and a native director;
+that the scrutinies of their accounts, to which they formerly were
+subject, are now abolished, and, in short, that they have no check
+upon them, or indeed any other persons to bear testimony to their
+irregularities, except the friendless and miserable victims of their
+despotism and avarice.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, what is above stated, it sometimes happens
+that a magistrate is to be met with, distinguished from the rest by
+his prudence and good conduct; but this is a miracle, for by the very
+circumstance of his being allowed to trade, he is placed in a situation
+to abuse the wide powers confided to him, and preferably to attend
+to his personal interests; in fact, if the principle is in itself
+defective, it must naturally be expected the consequences will be
+equally baneful. The lamentable abuses here noticed are but too true,
+as well as many others passed over in silence; and the worst of all
+is, that there is no hope of remedying them thoroughly, unless the
+present system of interior administration is altogether changed. In
+vain would it be to allege the possibility of removing the evil by the
+timely and energetic interposition of the protector of the natives;
+for although this office is in itself highly respectable, it cannot
+in any way reach the multitude of excesses committed, and much less
+prevent them; not only because the minister who exercises it resides
+in the city, where complaints are seldom brought in, unless they come
+through the channel of the parish curates; but also on account of the
+difficulty of fully establishing the charges against the magistrates,
+in the way the natives are at present depressed by fear and threats, as
+well as restrained by the sub-governors and other inferior officers of
+justice, who, being dependent upon, and holding their situations from
+the magistrates, are interested in their monopolies and extortionate
+acts being kept from public view.
+
+[Less complaisant laws needed.] If, therefore, it is not possible
+entirely to eradicate the vices under which the interior administration
+of these Islands labors, owing to the difficulty of finding persons
+possessed of the necessary virtues and talents to govern, in an upright
+and judicious manner, let us at least prevent the evils out of the
+too great condescension of our own laws. In the infancy of colonies,
+it has been the maxim of all governments to encourage the emigration
+and settlement of inhabitants from the mother-country, without paying
+much attention to the means by which this was to be done. It was not to
+be wondered at that, for reasons of state, defects were overlooked,--at
+such periods were even deemed necessary. Hence the relaxation in the
+laws in favor of those who, quitting their native land, carried over
+with them to strange countries their property and acquirements. Hence,
+no doubt, also are derived the full powers granted to those who took
+in charge the subjection and administration of the new provinces,
+in order that they might govern, and at the same time carry on their
+traffic with the natives, notwithstanding the manifest incompatibility
+of the two occupations; or rather, the certainty that ought to have
+been foreseen that public duties would generally be postponed, when
+placed in competition with private interests and the anxious desire
+of acquiring wealth.
+
+Subsequently that happened which was, in fact, to be dreaded, viz.,
+what at first was tolerated as a necessary evil, sanctioned by the
+lapse of time has at length become a legitimate right, or rather a
+compensation for the supposed trouble attached to the fulfillment of
+the duties of civil magistrates; whilst they, as already observed,
+think of nothing but themselves, and undergo no other trouble or
+inconvenience than usually fall on the lot of any other private
+merchant. In the Philippines, at least, many years having elapsed
+since the natives peaceably submitted to the dominion of the king,
+every motive has ceased that could formerly, and in a certain degree,
+justify the indulgence so much abused, at the same time that no
+plausible pretext whatever exists for its further continuation.
+
+Although hitherto the number of whites, compared to that of the
+people of color, has not been great, as the whole of the provincial
+magistracies, collectorships, and subaltern governments, do not exceed
+twenty-seven, the scarcity of Spaniards ought not to be alleged as a
+sufficient reason; nor can it be doubted these situations might at any
+time be properly filled, if the person on whom the choice should fall
+were only certain of living with decency and in a suitable manner,
+without being carried away with the flattering hopes of withdrawing
+from office, with ten, twenty, and even as high as fifty thousand
+dollars of property, as has heretofore been the case, but satisfied
+with a due and equivalent salary they might receive as a reward for
+the public services they perform.
+
+I do not therefore see why the government should hesitate in resolving
+to put a stop to evils which the people of the Philippines have not
+ceased to deplore from the time of the conquest, by proscribing, under
+the most severe penalties, the power of trading, as now exercised
+by the provincial magistrates. The time is come when this struggle
+between duty and sordid interest ought to end, and reason, as well
+as enlightened policy, demand that in this respect our legislation
+should be reformed, in order that the mace of justice, instead of
+being prostituted in search of lucre, may henceforwards be wholly
+employed in the support of equity and the protection of society.
+
+[Urgence of reform.] The only objection which, at first sight, might
+be started against the suggestions here thrown out is the increased
+expense which would fall on the treasury, owing to the necessity of
+appropriating competent salaries for the interior magistrates under
+the new order of things. Independent, however, of the fact that the
+rapid improvements the provinces must assume, in every point of view,
+would superabundantly make up this trifling difference; yet supposing
+the sacrifice were gratuitous, and even of some moment, it ought
+not, on that account, to be omitted, since there is no public object
+more important to the sovereign himself, than to make the necessary
+provision for the decorum of the magistracy, the due administration
+of justice, and the maintenance of good order among his subjects.
+
+The position being established, that a number of whites more
+than sufficient might be obtained, eligible and fit to perform
+the duties of civil magistrates, which they would be induced to
+undertake, if adequate terms were only proposed, it would seem that
+no ill consequences might be expected from at once assimilating
+the regulations of these provincial judicatures to those of the
+corregimientos, or mayoralties of towns in Spain, or in making out an
+express statute, on a triple scale, for three classes of magistrates,
+granting to them emoluments equivalent to the greater or lesser
+extent of the respective jurisdictions. As far as regards the pay, it
+ought to be so arranged as to act as a sufficient stimulus to induce
+European colonists to embrace this career, in a fixed and permanent
+way, which hitherto they have only resorted to as a five years'
+speculation. Conformably to this suggestion, and owing to the lesser
+value attached to money in India, compared with Europe, on account of
+the greater abundance of the necessaries of life, I am of opinion that
+it would be expedient to affix an annual allowance of $2,000 to each
+of the appointments of the six principal and most populous provinces,
+$1,500 for the next in importance, and for the twelve or thirteen
+remaining, at the rate of $1,000 each; leaving to the candidates
+the option of rising according to their length of services and good
+conduct, from the lowest to the highest, as is the case in Spain.
+
+[Objects to be gained.] The first part of the plan above pointed
+out embraces two objects. The one is to prevent the provincial
+magistrates from carrying on traffic, thus depriving them of every
+pretext to defraud the natives of what is their own; and the other,
+to form, in the course of a few years a class of men hitherto unknown
+in the Philippine Islands, who, taught by practice, may be enabled to
+govern the provinces in a more correct and regular manner, and acquire
+more extended knowledge, especially in the judicial proceedings of
+the first instance, which, owing to this defect, frequently compel
+the litigants to incur useless expenses, and greatly embarrass the
+ordinary course of justice. Although the second part at first seems
+to involve an increased expense of $36,000 or $37,000 annually,
+when well considered, this sum will be found not to exceed $20,000,
+because it will be necessary to deduct from the above estimate the
+amount of three per cent. under the existing regulations allowed to
+the magistrates for the collection of the native tributes, in their
+character of subdelegates, generally amounting to $16,000 or $17,000;
+besides only taking into account such real and effective disbursements
+or extraordinary expenses as in fact they may legally have incurred
+in the performance of their duties.
+
+Should it, however, be deemed expedient, from causes just in their
+nature, hereafter to exonerate the natives from the obligations of
+paying tributes, by which means the amount deducted for the three
+per cent. commission could not then be brought into account, let
+me be allowed to ask what enlightened government would hesitate
+submitting to an additional expense of so trifling an import, in
+exchange for beholding more than two millions of men forever freed
+from the extortionate acts of their old magistrates; and, through
+the effects of the new regulations, the latter converted into real
+fathers of the people over whom they are placed? How different would
+then be the aspect these fine provinces would present to the eyes
+of the philosophical observer who would, in that case, be able to
+calculate to what an extent the progress of agriculture and industry
+in these islands might be carried.
+
+[Demoralization of over-seas service.] Nevertheless, I do not wish
+to insinuate that by the better organization of the provincial
+governments, the present irregularities and abuses of authority
+would entirely cease; because I am aware, more especially in the
+Indies, that the persons who hold public situations usually have too
+exaggerated ideas of their own personal importance, and easily mistake
+the gratification of their own whims for firmness of character,
+in the necessity of causing themselves to be respected. Still it
+is an incontestable fact that, by removing the chief temptation,
+and rescinding altogether the license to trade, the just complaints
+preferred by the native against the Spaniard would cease; the motives
+of those continual disputes which arise between the magistrates
+and the ministers of the gospel exercising their functions in the
+same provinces, and the zealous defenders of the rights of their
+parishioners, would be removed, and the inhabitants of Manila,
+extending their mercantile operations to the interior, without the
+dread of seeing them obstructed through the powerful competition
+of the magistrates in authority there, would be induced to settle
+in or connect themselves with the provinces, and thus diffuse their
+knowledge, activity and money among the inhabitants, the true means
+of encouraging the whole.
+
+What has already been said will suffice to convince the lover of
+truth and the friend of general prosperity, how urgent it is to
+introduce as early as possible, the reform proposed into the interior
+administration of this important, although neglected colony; and it
+is to be hoped that the government, guided by these same sentiments,
+will not be led away by those narrow-minded people, who predict danger
+from every thing that is new; but, after due and mature deliberation,
+resolve to adopt a measure dictated by reason, and at the same time
+conformable to the best interests of the state.
+
+Of little avail would have been the valor and constancy with which
+Legaspi and his worthy companions overcame the natives of these
+islands, if the apostolic zeal of the missionaries had not seconded
+their exertions, and aided to consolidate the enterprise. The latter
+were the real conquerors; they who, without any other arms than their
+virtues, won over the good will of the islanders, caused the Spanish
+name to be beloved, and gave to the king, as it were by a miracle,
+two millions more of submissive and Christian subjects. These were
+the legislators of the barbarous hordes who inhabited the islands
+of this immense Archipelago, realizing, by their mild persuasion,
+the allegorical prodigies of Amphion and Orpheus.
+
+[Pioneer Philippine government a theocracy.] As the means the
+missionaries called in to their aid, in order to reduce and civilize
+the Indians, were preaching and other spiritual labors, and, although
+scattered about and acting separately, they were still subject to
+the authority of their prelates, who, like so many chiefs, directed
+the grand work of conversion, the government primitively established
+in these colonies must necessarily have partaken greatly of the
+theocratical order, and beyond doubt it continued to be so, till,
+by the lapse of time, the number of colonists increased, as well as
+the effective strength of the royal authority, so as to render the
+governing system uniform with that established in the other ultramarine
+dominions of Spain.
+
+This is also deduced from the fragments still remaining of the first
+constitution, or mode of government introduced in the Batanes Islands
+and missions of Cagayan, administered by the Dominican friars in a
+spiritual and temporal manner; as well as from what may frequently be
+observed in the other provinces, by any one who bestows the smallest
+attention. Although the civil magistracies have since been regulated,
+and their respective attributes determined with due precision, it has
+not hitherto been possible, notwithstanding the pains taken to make the
+contrary appear, to do without the personal authority and influence
+the parish curates possess over their flocks. The government has, in
+fact, constantly been obliged to avail themselves of this aid, as the
+most powerful instrument to insure respect and a due subordination,
+in such manner that, although the parish curates are not at present
+equally authorized to interfere in the civil administration, in point
+of fact, they are themselves the real administrators.
+
+[Standing of parish priests.] It happens that, as the parish curate
+is the consoler of the afflicted, the peacemaker of families, the
+promoter of useful ideas, the preacher and example of every thing good;
+as in him liberality is seen to shine, and the Indians behold him alone
+in the midst of them, without relatives, without traffic, and always
+busied in their care and improvement, they become accustomed to live
+satisfied and contented under his paternal direction, and deliver up to
+him the whole of their confidence. In this way rendered the master of
+their wishes, nothing is done without the advice, or rather consent,
+of the curate. The subaltern governor, on receiving an order from the
+superior magistrate, before he takes any step, goes to the minister
+to obtain his sanction, and it is he in fact who tacitly gives the
+mandate for execution, or prevents its being carried into effect. As
+the father of his flock, he arranges, or directs, the lawsuits of
+his parishioners; it is he who draws out their writings; goes to the
+capital to plead for the Indians; opposes his prayers, and sometimes
+his threats, to the violent acts of the provincial magistrates, and
+arranges every thing in the most fit and quiet manner. In a word, it
+is not possible for any human institution to be more simple, and at
+the same time more firmly established, or from which so many advantages
+might be derived in favor of the state, as the one so justly admired in
+the spiritual ministry of these islands. It may therefore be considered
+a strange fatality, when the secret and true art of governing a colony,
+so different from any other as is that of the Philippines, consists in
+the wise use of so powerful an instrument as the one just described,
+that the superior government, within the last few years, should have
+been so much deluded as to seek the destruction of a work which,
+on the contrary, it is, above all others, advisable to sustain.
+
+In this, as well as many other cases, we see how difficult, or rather
+how absurd it is, to expect to organize a system of government,
+indistinctly adapted to the genius and disposition of all nations,
+however great the discordance prevailing in their physical and moral
+constitutions. Hence it follows that, by wishing to assimilate
+the administrative plan of these provinces to the one adopted in
+the sections of America, inconveniences are unceasingly met with,
+evidently arising out of this erroneous principle. Whatever may
+be asserted to the contrary, there is no medium. It is necessary to
+insure obedience either through dread and force, or respect must be
+excited by means of love and confidence. In order to be convinced that
+the first is not practicable, it will only be necessary to weigh well
+the following circumstances and reflections.
+
+The number of the whites compared to that of the natives is so
+small, that it can scarcely be estimated in the proportion of 15
+to 25,000. These provinces, infinitely more populous than those of
+America, are entirely delivered up to the charge of provincial [Friars
+only check on officials.] magistrates, who carry with them to the seats
+of their respective governments, no other troops than the title of
+military commandants, and their royal commission on parchment. Besides
+the friars, it sometimes happens that no other white person is to be
+found in an entire province, but the presiding magistrate. It is the
+duty of the latter to collect in the king's revenue; to pursue robbers;
+appease tumults; raise men for the regiments in garrison at Manila and
+Cavite; regulate and head his people in case of an external invasion,
+and, in short, it is he who is to do everything in the character of
+magistrate and in the name of the king. Considering, therefore, the
+effective power required for the due performance of so great a variety
+of duties, and the want of that species of support experienced by him
+who is charged with them, can it be denied that it would be risking the
+security of these dominions too much, to attempt forcibly to control
+them with means so insufficient? If the inhabitants become tumultuous
+and rise up, on whom will the magistrate call for aid to repress and
+punish them? In such a predicament, is any other alternative left him
+than to fly or die in the struggle? If among civilized nations, it is
+deemed indispensable that authority should always appear accompanied
+with force, how can it be expected, among Indians, that the laws will
+otherwise be respected, when left naked and unsupported?
+
+[Missionaries' achievements.] Evidently, it is necessary to appeal to
+aid of another kind, and to employ means, which, although indirect
+ones, are, beyond all dispute, the best adapted to the peculiar
+circumstances of the country,--means which, by influencing the mind,
+excite veneration, subdue the rude understanding of the inhabitants,
+and incline them to bear our dominion without repugnance. It is well
+understood what these means are, how much they are at hand, and how
+greatly also they have always been envied by other European nations,
+who have sought to extend and consolidate their conquests in both
+the Indies. Let us listen to La Pérouse, if we wish to know and
+admire the army with which our missionaries subdued the natives of
+both Californias; let us read, dispassionately, the wonderful deeds
+of the Jesuits in other parts of America, and, above all, let us
+visit the Philippine Islands and, with astonishment, shall we there
+behold extended ranges, studded with temples and spacious convents;
+the Divine worship celebrated with pomp and splendor; regularity
+in the streets, and even luxury in the houses and dress; schools
+of the first rudiments in all the towns, and the inhabitants well
+versed in the art of writing. We shall there see causeways raised,
+bridges of a good architecture built, and, in short, all the measure
+of good government and police, in the greatest part of the country,
+carried into effect, yet the whole is due to the exertions, apostolic
+labors and pure patriotism of the ministers of religion. Let us
+travel over the provinces, and we shall there see towns of 5000,
+10,000, and 20,000 Indians, peacefully governed by one weak old man,
+who, with his doors open at all hours, sleeps quiet and secure in
+his dwelling, without any other magic, or any other guards, than the
+love and respect with which he has known to inspire his flock. And,
+when this is contemplated, can it be deemed possible, through foolish
+jealousy and vain wish for those persons only pointed out by the
+general laws in ordinary cases, to intervene in the government of the
+natives, that the fruit of so much time constancy are not to be lost,
+but also by hereafter disregarding and rejecting a co-operation,
+as efficient as it is economical, that attempts should purposely be
+made to destroy the mainspring of the whole of this political machine?
+
+[Curtailing priestly authority.] Such, nevertheless, are the mistaken
+ideas which, within the last few years, have unhappily led to the
+adoption of measures, diametrically opposed to the public interest,
+under the pretext of curtailing the excessive authority of the
+parish-curates. The superior government, not satisfied with having
+deprived the ministers of the faculty of personally prescribing certain
+correctional punishments, which although of little moment, when applied
+with discretion, greatly contributed to fortify their ascendency,
+and consequently, that of the sovereign; but, in order to exclude and
+divest them of all intervention in the civil administration, a direct
+attempt has also been made to lower the esteem in which they are held,
+by awakening the distrust of the Indian, and, as much as possible,
+removing him to a greater distance from them. In proof of this, and
+in order that what has been said may not be deemed an exaggeration,
+it will suffice to quote the substance of two regulations, remarkable
+for their obvious tendency to weaken the influence and credit of the
+spiritual administrators.
+
+By one of these, it is enacted that in order to prevent the abuses
+and notorious malversation of the funds of the sanctuary, specially
+applicable to the expenses of the festivities and worship of each
+parish, and arising out of the real and half for this purpose
+contributed by each tributary person, and collected and privately
+administered by the curate, the same shall hereafter be kept in a chest
+with three keys, and lodged in the head-town of each province. The keys
+are to be left, one in possession of the chief magistrate, another in
+the hands of the governor of the respective town, and the remaining
+one with the parish-curate. By the other measure it is declared, as
+a standing rule, that no Indian, who may lately have been employed
+in the domestic service of the curate, shall in his own town be
+considered eligible to any office belonging to the judicial department.
+
+On measures of this kind, comments are unnecessary; their meaning and
+effect cannot be mistaken. I shall, therefore, merely observe, that
+no untimely means could have been devised more injurious to the state,
+to the propagation of religion, and even to the natives themselves. It
+is, in fact, a most strange affair, that such endeavors should have
+been made to impeach the purity, by at the same time degrading the
+respectable character of the parish-curates, more particularly at a
+period when, owing to partality and the scarcity of religious men,
+it would have seemed more natural to uphold, and by new inducements
+encourage the zeal and authority of the remaining few. This step
+appears the more singular, I repeat, at a moment when, neither
+by suspending the sending out of missionaries to China, and the
+almost entire abandonment of the spiritual conquest of the Igorots
+and other infidel tribes, inhabiting the interior of these islands,
+have the above Spanish laborers been able to carry on the ordinary
+administration, nor prevent entire provinces from being transferred,
+as is now the case, into the hands of Indians and mestizo clergymen
+of the Sangley race, who, through their great ignorance, corrupt
+morals, and total want of decorum, universally incur the contempt
+of the flocks committed to their care, and, in consequence of their
+tyrannical conduct, cause the people to sigh for the mild yoke of
+their ancient pastors.
+
+[Friars bulwark of Spanish rule.] If, therefore, it is the wish of
+the government to retain the subjection of this colony, and raise
+it to the high degree of prosperity of which it is susceptible,
+the first thing, in my opinion, that ought to be attended to is the
+good organization of its spiritual administration. On this subject
+we must not deceive ourselves. I again repeat, that as long as the
+local government, in consequence of the want of military forces,
+and owing to the scarcity of Europeans, does not in itself possess
+the means of insuring obedience, no other alternative remains. It is
+necessary to call in to its aid the powerful influence of religion,
+and to obtain from the Peninsula fresh supplies of missionaries. As
+in their nature the latter are essentially different from the other
+public functionaries, it is well known they neither seek nor aspire to
+any remuneration for their labors, their only hope being to obtain,
+in the opinion of the community at large, that degree of respect to
+which they justly consider themselves entitled. Let, therefore, their
+pre-eminences be retained to them: let them be treated with decorum;
+the care and direction of the Indians confided to their charge, and
+they always be found united in support of justice and the legitimate
+authority.
+
+[Unwise to discredit priests.] Nothing is more unjust, and of nothing
+have the spiritual directors of the provinces so much reason to
+complain, than the little discernment with which they have sometimes
+been judged and condemned, by causing the misconduct of some of their
+individual members to affect the whole body. Hence is it that no one
+can read without shame and indignation, the insidious suggestions and
+allusions, derogatory to their character, contained in the Regulations
+of Government framed at Manila in the year 1758, and which although
+modified by orders of the king, are at the present moment still in
+force, owing to the want of others, and found in a printed form in
+the hands of every one. Granting that in some particular instances,
+real causes of complaint might have existed, yet in the end, what
+does it matter if here and there a religious character has abused
+the confidence reposed in him, as long as the spirit by which the
+generality of them are actuated, corresponds to the sanctity of their
+state, and is besides conformable to the views of government? Why
+should we be eternally running after an ideal of perfection which
+can never be met with? Nor, indeed, is this necessary in the present
+construction of society.
+
+[Testimony in their behalf] If, however, any weight is to be attached
+to imposture with which, from personal motives, attempts have been
+made to obscure the truth, and prejudice the public mind against
+the regular clergy; or, if the just defense on which I have entered,
+should be attributed to partiality or visionary impressions, let the
+Archives of the Colonial Department be opened, and we shall there
+find the report drawn up by order of the king on November 26, 1804, by
+the governor of the Philippine Islands, Don Rafael Maria de Aguilar,
+with a view to convey information regarding the enquiries at that
+time instituted respecting the reduction of the inhabitants of the
+Island of Mindoro; a report extremely honorable to the regular clergy,
+and dictated by the experience that general had acquired during a
+period of more than twelve years he had governed. Therein also will
+be seen the answer to the consultation addressed to his successor in
+the command, Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras, under date of April
+25, 1809, in which he most earnestly beseeches the king to endeavor,
+by every possible means, to send out religious missionaries; deploring
+the decline and want of order he had observed with his own eyes in the
+towns administered by native clergymen, and pointing out the urgent
+necessity of intrusting the spiritual government of these provinces
+to the dexterous management of the former. Testimonies of such weight
+are more than sufficient at once to refute the calumnies and contrary
+opinions put forth on this subject, and at the same time serve as
+irrefragable proofs of the scrupulous impartiality with which I have
+endeavored to discuss so delicate a matter.
+
+In a general point of view, I have alluded to the erroneous system,
+which during the last few years has been pursued by the government
+with regard to the parish-curates employed in the interior, and also
+sufficiently pointed out the advantages reasonably to be expected
+if the government, acting on a different policy, or rather guided
+by other motives of state, instead of following the literal text
+of our Indian legislation, should come to the firm determination of
+indirectly divesting themselves of a small portion of their authority
+in favor of the religious laborers who are acting on the spot. Having
+said thus much, I shall proceed to such further details as are more
+immediately connected with the present chapter.
+
+[Ecclesiastical Organization.] The ecclesiastical jurisdiction is
+exercised by the metropolitan archbishop of Manila, aided by the
+three suffragans of Nueva Segovia, Nueva Caceres and Cebu.
+
+The archbishopric of Manila comprehends the provinces of Tondo,
+Bulacan, Pampanga, Bataan, Cavite, Laguna de Bay, Zambales, Batangas,
+and the Island of Mindoro.
+
+The bishopric of Nueva Segovia comprehends the province of Pangasinan,
+the missions of Ituy and Paniqui, the provinces of Ilocos, Cagayan,
+and the missions of the Batanes Islands.
+
+That of Nueva Caceres comprehends the provinces of Tayabas, Nueva
+Ecija, Camarines and Albay.
+
+That of Cebu comprehends the Islands of Cebu and Bohol, Iloilo,
+Capiz and Antique, in the Island of Panay, the Islands of La Paragua,
+Negros and Samar, Misamis, Caraga and Zamboanga in that of Mindanao,
+and the Mariana Islands.
+
+The archbishop has a salary of $5,000 and the bishops $4,000 each. The
+curacies exceed 500, and although all of them originally were in charge
+of persons belonging to the religious orders, owing to the expulsion
+of the Jesuits and the excessive scarcity of regular clergy, so many
+native priests have gradually been introduced among them, that,
+at present, nearly half the towns are under their direction. The
+rest are administered by the religious orders of St. Augustine,
+St. Dominic and St. Francis, in the following manner:
+
+
+                                                Towns.
+    The Augustinians                            88
+    The barefooted Augustinians (Recoletos)     52
+    The Dominicans                              57
+    The Franciscans                             96
+    Total                                      293
+
+
+It ought, however, to be observed, that since the detailed statement
+was made out, from which the above extract has been taken, so many
+members of the religious orders have died, that it has been necessary
+to replace them in many towns with native clergymen, as a temporary
+expedient, and till new missionaries shall arrive from Spain.
+
+[Dual supervision over friars.] The monastic curates are immediately
+subject to their provincial superior, in the character of friars but
+depend on the diocesan bishop in their quality of parish priests; and
+in like manner obey their own provincial vicars, as well as those of
+the bishop. They are alternately eligible to the dignities of their
+own order, and generally promoted, or relieved from their ministry,
+at the discretion of the provincial chapter, or according to the final
+determination of the vice-patron or bishop, affixed to the triple
+list presented to him. Besides the ordinary obligations attached to
+the care of souls, they are enjoined to assist at the elections of
+governors and other officers of justice, in their respective towns,
+in order to inform the chief magistrate respecting the aptitude of
+the persons proposed for election on the triple lists, and to point
+out the legal defects attributable to any of them. On this account,
+they are not, however, allowed to interfere in the smallest degree
+with any of these proceedings, and much less make a formal proposal,
+as most assuredly would be advisable if permitted so to do, in favor
+of any particular person or persons in their opinion fit for the
+discharge of the above mentioned duties. It is their obligation to
+ascertain the correctness of the tribute lists presented to them
+for their examination and signature by the chief of the clans,
+by carefully comparing them with the registers kept in their own
+department; and also to certify the general returns, without which
+requisite the statements transmitted by the chief magistrates to
+the accountant-general's office are not admitted. Above all they
+are bound to affix their signatures to the effective payments made
+by the magistrate to their parishioners on account of daily labor,
+and to certify similarly the value of materials employed in public
+works. Besides the above, they are continually called upon to draw
+up circumstantial reports, or declarations, required by the superior
+tribunals; they receive frequent injunctions to co-operate in the
+increase of the king's revenue and the encouragement of agriculture
+and industry; in a word, there is scarcely a thing to which their
+attention is not called, and to which it is not expected they should
+contribute by their influence, directly or indirectly.
+
+[Allowances from treasury.] The royal treasury pays them an annual
+allowance equal to $180, in kind and money, for each five hundred
+tributes under their care, and this, added to the emoluments of the
+church, renders the total proceeds of a curacy generally equivalent
+to about from six to eight reals for each entire tribute; but
+from this allowance are to be deducted the expenses of coadjutors,
+subsistence, servants, horses, and all the other charges arising
+out of the administration of such wearisome duties; nor are the
+parishioners under any other obligation than to provide the churches
+with assistants, or sacristans and singers, and the curates with
+provisions at tariff prices.
+
+[Need of more European clergy.] Finally, as from what has been above
+stated it would appear, that as many as five hundred religious persons
+are necessary for the spiritual administration of the interior towns
+and districts, besides the number requisite to do the duty and fill
+the dignities of the respective orders and convents in the capital,
+independent of which there ought to be a proportionate surplus,
+applicable to the progressive reduction of the infidel tribes
+inhabiting the uplands, as well as the preaching of the Gospel
+in China and Cochinchina, most assuredly, it would be expedient
+to assemble and keep together a body of no less than seven hundred
+persons, if it is the wish of the government, on a tolerable scale, to
+provide for the wants of these remote missions. At the present moment
+the number does not exceed three hundred, including superannuated,
+exempt from service, and lay-brothers, whilst the native clergymen
+in effective possession of curacies, and including substitutes,
+coadjutors and weekly preachers, exceed one thousand. And as the
+latter, in general unworthy of the priesthood, are rather injurious
+than really serviceable to the state, it should not be deemed unjust
+if they were altogether deprived of the dignity of parish curates,
+and only allowed to exercise their functions in necessary cases, or by
+attaching them to the curacies in the quality of coadjutors. By this
+plan, at the same time that the towns would be provided with suitable
+and adequate ministers, the native clergymen would be distributed
+in a proper manner and placed near the religious persons charged
+to officiate, would acquire the necessary knowledge and decorum,
+and in the course of time might obtain character and respect among
+their countrymen.
+
+To many, a measure of this kind may, in some respects, appear harsh
+and arbitrary; but persons, practically acquainted with the subject
+and country, will deem it indispensable, and the only means that
+can be resorted to, in order to stop the rapid decline remarkable in
+this interesting department of public administration. Fortunately,
+no grounded objections can be alleged against it; nor is there any
+danger of serious consequences resulting from the plan being carried
+into effect. In vain would it be to argue that, if the reform is to
+take place, a large number of priests would be reduced to beggary,
+owing to the want of occupation; because, as things now stand, many of
+the religious curates employ three or four coadjutors, and, no doubt,
+they would then gladly undertake to make provision for the remainder
+of those who may be thrown out of employment. On the other hand, with
+equal truth it may be observed that the inhabitants of the interior,
+far from regretting, or taking part on behalf of the native clergy,
+would celebrate, as a day of gladness and rejoicing, the removal of
+the latter, in return for their beloved Castilian Fathers.
+
+[Restriction of native ordinations recommended.] In case the ideas
+above suggested should be adopted in all their parts, it may be proper
+to add that an injunction ought to be laid on the reverend bishops
+in future to confer holy orders with more scrupulosity and economy,
+than, unfortunately, heretofore has been the case; by representing to
+them that, if, at certain periods the Popes have been influenced by
+powerful reasons not to insist on ordinations taking place in Europe,
+as was formerly the case, very weighty motives now equally urge the
+government to decline, in the Philippine Islands, paying so much to
+religious vocation, and to relax in the policy of raising the natives
+to the dignity of the priesthood.
+
+[Moro depredations.] Long have the inhabitants of the Philippines
+deplored, and in vain remonstrated, against the ravages committed
+on their coasts and settlements by the barbarous natives of the
+Islands of Mindanao, Basilan and Jolo, as well as by the Malanos,
+Ilanos and Tirone Moros and others; and there is nothing that so much
+deserves the attention, and interests the honor of the Captain-General
+commanding in this quarter, as an early and efficient attempt to check
+and punish these cruel enemies. It is indeed true that, in the years
+1636 and 1638, General Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, undertook in
+person and happily carried into effect the reduction of the Sultan of
+Mindanao and the conquest of the Island of Jolo, placing in the latter
+a governor and establishing three military posts there; under the
+protection of the garrisons of which, Christianity was considerably
+extended. It is equally true, that on the subsequent abandonment of
+this important acquisition, owing to the government being compelled to
+attend to other urgent matters, the enemy acquired a greater degree of
+audacity, and the captain-general in command afterwards sent armaments
+to check his inroads. On one of these occasions, our troops obliged an
+army of more than 5,000 Moros, who had closely beset the fortress of
+Zamboanga, to raise the siege; and also in the years 1731 and 1734,
+fresh detachments of our men were landed on the Islands of Jolo,
+Capul and Basilan, and their success was followed by the destruction
+and ruin of the fortified posts, vessels, and settlements of those
+perfidious Mahometans. It is not, however, less certain that at the
+periods above mentioned, the war was carried on rather from motives
+of punishment and revenge, and suggested by a sudden and passing zeal,
+than in conformity to any progressive and well-combined system. Since
+then these laudable military enterprises have been entirely neglected,
+as well on account of the indolence of some of the governors, as
+the too great confidence placed in the protestations of friendship
+and treaties of peace with which, from time to time, the Sultans
+of Jolo and Mindanao have sought to lull them to sleep. Their want
+of sincerity is proved by the circumstance of the piracies of their
+respective subjects not ceasing, the chiefs sometimes feigning they
+were carried on without their license or knowledge; and, at others,
+excusing themselves on the plea of their inability to restrain the
+insolence of the Tirones and other independent tribes. Nevertheless,
+it is notorious that the above-mentioned sultans indirectly encouraged
+the practice of privateering, by affording every aid in their power
+to those who fitted out vessels, and purchasing from the pirates all
+the Christians they captured and brought to them.
+
+[A missionary's appeal.] Father Juan Angeles, superior of the mission
+established in Jolo, at the request of Sultan Alimudin himself (or
+Ferdinand I as he was afterwards unworthily called on being made a
+Christian with no other view than the better to gain the confidence
+of the Spaniards) in a report he sent to the government from the
+above Island, under date of September 24, 1748, describing the
+Sultan's singular artifices to amuse him and frustrate the object
+of his mission, fully confirms all that has just been said, and,
+on closing his report, makes use of the following remarkable words:
+
+"When is it we shall have had enough of treaties with these Moros, for
+have we not before us the experience of more than one hundred years,
+during which period of time, they have not kept a single article
+in any way burdensome to, or binding on, themselves? They will never
+observe the conditions of peace, because their property consists in the
+possession of slaves, and with them they traffic, the same as other
+nations do with money. Sooner will the hawk release his prey from
+his talons than they will put an end to their piracies. The cause of
+their being still unfaithful to Spain arises out of this matter having
+been taken up by fits and starts, and not in the serious manner it
+ought to have been done. To make war on them, in an effectual manner,
+fleets must not be employed, but they must be attacked on land, and
+in their posts in the interior; for it is much more advisable at once
+to spend ten with advantage and in a strenuous manner to attain an
+important object than to lay out twenty by degrees and without fruit."
+
+[Governmental lenience.] It is an undeniable fact that the government,
+lulled and deceived by the frequent embassies and submissive and
+crouching letters which those fawning sultans have been in the habit
+of transmitting to them, instead of adopting the energetic measures
+urged by the above-mentioned missionary, have constantly endeavored
+to renew and secure the friendship of those chiefs, by means of
+treaties and commercial relations; granting, with this view, ample
+licenses to every one who ventured to ship merchandise to Jolo, and
+winking at the traffic carried on by the governors of the fortress of
+Zamboanga with the people of Mindanao; whilst the latter, on their
+part, sporting with our foolish credulity, have never ceased waging
+a most destructive war against us, by attacking our towns situated
+on the coast, not even excepting those of the Island of Luzon. They
+have sometimes carried their audacity so far as to show themselves
+in the neighborhood of the capital itself, and at others taken up
+their temporary residence in the district of Mindoro and in places
+of the jurisdictions of Samar and Leyte; and in short, even dared
+to form an establishment or general deposit for their plunder in the
+Island of Buras, where they quietly remained during the years 1797,
+1798 and 1799 to the great injury of our commerce and settlements.
+
+[Authority for war not lacking.] This want of exertion to remedy evils
+of so grievous a nature is the more to be deplored as the Philippine
+governors have at all times been fully authorized to carry on war,
+and promote the destruction of the Moros, under every sacrifice, and
+especially by the royal orders and decrees of October 26, and November
+1, 1758, and July 31, 1766, in all of which his majesty recommends,
+in the most earnest manner, "the importance of punishing the audacity
+of the barbarous infidels, his majesty being desirous that, in order
+to maintain his subjects of the Philippines free from the piracies and
+captivity they so frequently experience, no expenses or pains should
+be spared; it being further declared, that as this is an object deeply
+affecting the conscience of his majesty, he especially enjoins the
+aforesaid government to observe his order; and finally, with a view
+to provide for the exigencies arising out of similar enterprises,
+the viceroy of New Spain is instructed to attend to the punctual
+remittance, not only of the usual "situado," or annual allowance,
+but also of the additional sum of $70,000 in the first and succeeding
+years, etc." In a word, our monarchs, Ferdinand VI and Carlos III,
+omitted nothing that could in any way promote so important an object;
+whether it is that the governors have disregarded such repeated orders
+from the sovereigns, or mistaken the means by which they were to be
+carried into effect, certain it is that the unhappy inhabitants of
+the Philippines have continued to be witnesses, and at the same time
+the victims of the culpable apathy of those who have successively
+held the command of these Islands within the last fifty or sixty years.
+
+[Native efforts for self-defence.] Abandoned therefore to their own
+resources, and from time to time relieved by the presence of a few
+gunboats which, after scouring the coasts, have never been able
+to come up with the light and fast sailing vessels of the enemy,
+the inhabitants of our towns and settlements have been under the
+necessity of intrenching and fortifying themselves in the best way
+they were able, by opening ditches and planting a breastwork of stakes
+and palisades, crowned with watch towers, or a wooden or stone castle;
+precautions which sometimes are not sufficient against the nocturnal
+irruptions and robberies of the Moros, more especially when they come
+with any strength and fire-arms, in general scarce among the natives.
+
+[Moro piratical craft.] The pancos, or prows, used by the Moros, are
+light and simple vessels, built with numerous thin planks and ribs,
+with a small draft of water; and being manned by dexterous rowers,
+they appear and disappear from the horizon with equal celerity, flying
+or attacking, whenever they can do it with evident advantage. Some
+of those vessels are large, and fitted out with fifty, a hundred,
+and sometimes two hundred men. The shots of their scanty and defective
+artillery are very uncertain, because they generally carry their guns
+suspended in slings; but they are to be dreaded, and are extremely
+dexterous in the management of the campilan, or sword, of which they
+wear the blades long and well tempered. When they have any attack
+of importance in view, they generally assemble to the number of
+two hundred galleys, or more, and even in their ordinary cruises,
+a considerable number navigate together. As dread and the scarcity
+of inhabitants in the Bisayan Islands cause great ranges of the coast
+to be left unsettled, it is very easy for the Moros to find numerous
+lurking-places and strongholds whenever they are pressed, and their
+constant practice, in these cases, is to enter the rivers, ground
+their vessels, and hide them among the mangroves and thick foliage,
+and fly with their arms to the mountains, thus almost always laughing
+at the efforts of their opponents, who seldom venture to follow them
+into the thickets and morasses, where the musket is of no use and a
+single step cannot be taken with any security.
+
+[Outrages suffered.] The fatal consequences and ravages of this system
+of cruising and warfare round the Islands are incalculable. Besides
+plundering and burning the towns and settlements, these bloody
+pirates put the old and helpless to the sword, destroy the cattle
+and plantations, and annually carry off to their own homes as many as
+a thousand captives of both sexes, who, if they are poor and without
+hopes of being redeemed, are destined to drag out a miserable existence
+amidst the most fatiguing and painful labor, sometimes accompanied
+with torments. Such is the dread and apprehension of these seas that
+only those navigate and carry on trade in them who are able to arm and
+man their vessels in a way corresponding to the great risks they have
+to run, or others whom want compels to disregard the imminent dangers
+which await them. Among the latter class, the Bisayans, or "painted
+(tattooed) natives," are distinguished, an extremely warlike people of
+whom great use might be made. Reared from their infancy amidst danger
+and battle, and greatly resembling the Moros in their features and
+darkness of skin, they are equally alike in the agility with which
+they manage the long sword and lance, and such is the courage and
+implacable odium with which they treat their enemies that, if not taken
+by surprise, they sell their lives very dear, sacrificing themselves
+in a most heroic manner, rather than to be led away as captives.
+
+In order, however, that a more correct idea may be formed of the
+wicked policy and atrocious disposition of these Moros, and with a
+view to do away with the misconceptions of those who are of opinion
+that incentives to trade, and other slow and indirect means ought
+to be employed for the purpose of overcoming them, it will suffice
+to quote the following examples among a number of others, even more
+recent ones, which might equally be brought forward.
+
+[Instances of treachery.] In 1796, the governor of Zamboanga
+dispatched, with regular passports and under a safe conduct obtained
+from the Sultan of Mindanao, Lieutenant Don Pantaleon Arcillas,
+with a sergeant, eight men, and a guide, in order to bring into
+the fortress the cattle belonging to the king's farm, which had
+strayed away and got up in the lands of the above-mentioned Mahometan
+prince. Five days after their departure, whilst the lieutenant was
+taking his meals at the house of a "Datu," or chief, named Oroncaya,
+he was suddenly surrounded by seventy Moros, who, seizing upon him,
+bound him to a tree and then flayed him alive, from the forehead to
+the ankle. In this miserable and defenceless situation, the barbarous
+"Datu" wreaked his vengeance on his body by piercing it all over
+with his "kris," or dagger, and then ordered his skin to be hung up
+on the pole of one of his ferocious banners.
+
+In the year 1798, whilst the schooner San José lay at anchor at
+Tabitabi, near Jolo, the sons-in-law and nephews of the sultan went
+out to meet her in two large prows, exhibiting at the same time every
+demonstration of peace, and, sending forward a small vessel with
+refreshments, they invited the captain to come on board of them. The
+latter, deceived by the apparent frankness and high rank of the Moros,
+with the greatest good faith accepted the invitation, and proceeded on
+board, accompanied by two sailors, with a view to make arrangements
+for barter. Scarcely had they got on board of the large prow, when
+they were surrounded and seized, and the captain, who was a Spaniard,
+compelled to sign an order to his mate to deliver up the schooner,
+which he reluctantly did, under the hope of saving his own and his
+companions' lives. The Moros proceeded on board the Spanish vessel,
+and, in the meantime, the two sailors were taken back to the boat,
+and there killed with daggers in the presence of all. The schooner's
+sails were next hoisted, and she was brought into Jolo, where the cargo
+and crew were sold in sight of, and with the knowledge and consent of
+the sultan; an atrocity for which he has always refused to give any
+satisfaction to a nation, thus openly and barbarously outraged by his
+own relatives, and in defiance of the existing treaties of peace. Such
+is the cruel character, and such the execrable policy of the Moros
+generally inhabiting the Islands situated in the Philippine seas.
+
+[Growth of Moro power.] The most lamentable circumstance is, that
+these infidel races, at all times to be dreaded, owing to their
+numbers and savage ferocity, after the lapse of a century of almost
+uninterrupted prosperity, and encouraged also by our inattention,
+have at length gradually attained so formidable a degree of power,
+that their reduction now must be considered an extremely arduous and
+expensive enterprise, although an object urgently requisite, and worthy
+of the greatness of a nation like ours. In order, however, that the
+difficulties of so important an undertaking may be justly appreciated,
+it may be proper to observe that the Island of Mindanao alone, at
+the present moment, contains a population equal, if not larger, than
+that of Luzon, and the margins of the immense lake, situated in its
+center, are covered with well-built towns, filled with conveniences,
+the fruits of their annual privateering, and of the traffic they
+carry on with the inhabitants of the Island of Jolo. True it is,
+and it may be said, equally fortunate, that they are greatly divided
+into parties, subject to a variety of "datus," or independent chiefs,
+in name only inferior to the one who styles himself the sultan of the
+whole Island. As, however, the fortresses and districts of Caraga,
+Misamis, and Zamboanga occupy nearly three parts of the circumference
+of the Island, these Moros freely possess no more than the southern
+part, commencing at about twenty-five leagues from Cape San Augustin,
+and ending in the vicinity of Zamboanga; so that the largest number
+of their naval armaments are fitted out and issued to sea, either by
+the great river of Mindanao, or from some of the many bays and inlets
+situated on the above extent of coast.
+
+[Jolo.] The Island of Jolo, although small compared with that of
+Mindanao, is, nevertheless, in itself the most important, as well
+as the real hotbed of all the piracies committed. Its inhabitants,
+according to the unanimous reports of captives and various merchants,
+in skill and valor greatly exceed the other Mahometans who infest
+these seas. The sultan is absolute, and his subjects carry on trade
+with Borneo, Celebes, and the other Malayan tribes scattered about
+this great Archipelago. In the port of Jolo, as already noticed,
+sales are made of Christians captured by the other Moros. The Chinese
+of Amoy, as well as the Dutch and British, carry them manufactured
+goods, opium and arms, receiving, in return, black pepper, bees'
+wax, balato, edible nests, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, gold
+dust, pearls, etc., and from Manila also a vessel usually goes once
+a year with goods; but all act with the greatest precaution in this
+dangerous traffic, guarding, as much as possible, against the insidious
+acts of that perfidious government. The great number of renegades,
+of all casts, who have successively naturalized themselves there;
+the abundance of arms, and the prevailing opulence, have, in every
+respect, contributed to render this Island a formidable and powerful
+state. The capital is surrounded with forts and thick walls, and
+the famous heights, standing near it, in case of emergency, afford a
+secure asylum where the women can take refuge and the treasures of
+the sultan and public be deposited, whilst in the plains below the
+contest may be maintained by more than 50,000 combatants, already
+very dexterous in the use of the musket and of a bold and courageous
+character. The navy of these Islanders is also very respectable,
+for, besides a great number of smaller prows and war-boats, they
+have some of a large size, capable of carrying heavy artillery on
+their decks, mounted on corresponding carriages, and not suspended
+in slings as is the custom of the people of Mindanao. In a word,
+Jolo is an Island governed by a system of administration extremely
+vigorous and decisive; dread and superstition sustain the throne of
+the tyrant, and the fame of his greatness frequently brings to his
+feet the ulemas, or missionaries of the Koran, even as far as from
+the furthest margin of the Red Sea. The prince and people, unanimous
+in the implacable odium with which they view all Christians, cannot
+be divided or kept on terms of peace; and if it is really wished to
+free these seas from the evils and great dangers with which they are
+at all times threatened, it is necessary at once to strike at the
+root, by landing and attacking the Jolonese in their strongholds,
+and break the charm by which they are held together.
+
+This, at least, is the constant and unshaken opinion of all
+experienced persons and those versed in Philippine affairs; and if,
+by the substantial reasons and existing circumstances, I convince
+myself sufficiently to openly recommend war to be undertaken against
+the Moros and pushed with the utmost vigor, and more particularly
+commencing the work by a formal invasion of Jolo; still, as I feel
+myself incompetent to trace a precise plan, or to discuss the minute
+details more immediately connected with the object, I feel it necessary
+to confine myself to the pointing out, in general terms, of the means
+I judge most conducive to the happy issue of so arduous but important
+an enterprise, leaving the rest to more able and experienced hands.
+
+[Council of war recommended.] As a previous step, I conceive that
+a council of war ought to be formed in Manila, composed of the
+captain-general, the commanders of the navy, artillery, and engineer
+department, as well as of the regular corps, who, in conformity to
+all the antecedent information lodged in the secretary's office for
+the captain-generalship, and the previous report of some one of the
+ex-governors of Zamboanga and the best informed missionaries, may be
+enabled to deliberate and proceed on to a mature examination of the
+whole affair, taking into their special consideration everything
+regarding Jolo, its early reduction, the number of vessels and
+men required for this purpose, the most advantageous points of
+attack, and the best season in which this can be carried into
+execution. After all these matters have been determined upon, the
+operation in question ought to be connected with the other partial
+and general arrangements of the government, in order that a plan the
+best adapted to localities and existing circumstances may be chosen,
+and without its being necessary to wait for the king's approbation
+of the means resolved upon, owing to the distance of the court and
+the necessity of acting with celerity. If, however, on account of
+the deference in every respect due to the sovereign, it should be
+thought proper to reconcile his previous sanction with the necessity
+of acting without loss of time, the best mode would be to send from
+Spain an officer of high rank, fully authorized, who, as practised
+on other occasions, might give his sanction, in the name of the king,
+to the resolutions adopted by the council of war, and take under his
+own immediate charge, if it should be so deemed expedient, the command
+of the expedition against Jolo, receiving the appointment of governor
+of the Island, as soon as the conquest should be carried into effect,
+as a just reward for his zeal and valor.
+
+[War popular in Philippines.] Supposing an uniformity of opinions to
+prevail with regard to the expediency of attempting the subjugation
+of Jolo, and supposing also the existence of the necessary funds to
+meet the expenses of a corresponding armament, it may be positively
+relied upon that the project would be extremely popular, and meet
+with the entire concurrence and support of the Philippine Islands. The
+military men, aware of the great riches known to exist in the proposed
+theatre of operations, would emulously come forward to offer their
+services, under a hope of sharing the booty, and the warlike natives
+of the Bisayas would be impelled on by their hatred to the Moros,
+and their ardent wishes to avenge the blood of their fathers and
+children. On the other hand, the abundance of regular and well
+disciplined officers and troops, at present in the colony and the
+number of gun-boats found in the ports, a want of which, on other
+occasions, has always been experienced, will afford ample scope for
+the equipment of a force competent to the important enterprise in
+view. In fact, if the operation is arranged in a systematic manner,
+and all the precautions and rules observed as are usual in cases of
+attacks premeditated against European and civilized establishments,
+there is no reason to expect any other than a flattering and decisive
+result, since, in reality, the whole would be directed against an
+enemy contemptible on account of his barbarism and his comparative
+ignorance of the art of war.
+
+[Native assistance.] The preparations deemed necessary being made in
+Manila, and the Bisayan auxiliaries assembled beforehand in Zamboanga,
+with their arms and respective chiefs, the whole of the operation
+in question, it may be safely said, might be terminated within the
+period of three or four months. Supposing even 2,000 regular troops
+are destined for this expedition, with a corresponding train of field
+pieces, and at the moment there should not be found in the Islands a
+sufficient number of larger vessels to embargo or freight for their
+conveyance, a competent quantity of coasters, galleys and small craft
+might be met with at any time sufficiently capacious and secure to
+carry the men. This substitute will be found the less inconvenient,
+because, as the navigation is to be performed among the Islands during
+the prevalence of the north winds, usually a favorable and steady
+season of the year, the voyage will consequently be safe and easy. It
+will also be possible to arrive at the point agreed upon, as a general
+rendezvous, in twenty, or five-and-twenty days, which place, for many
+reasons, ought to be the fortress of Zamboanga, situated in front of
+Jolo and at moderate distance from that Island; it being from this port
+that, in former times, the Philippine governors usually sent out their
+armaments, destined to make war against the Basilanese and Jolonese.
+
+[Mindanao also needs attention.] As soon as this important and
+memorable enterprise has been carried into effect, and the punishment
+and total subjugation of these faithless Mahometans completed and
+the new conquest placed under a military authority, in the mean
+time that the lands are distributing and arrangements making to
+establish the civil administration, on the same plan followed in the
+other provinces of the Philippine government, the armament ought to
+return to Zamboanga with all possible speed; but, after stopping by
+the way to reduce the small island of Basilan and leaving a fortress
+and garrison there. Immediately afterwards, and before the various
+tribes of Moros inhabiting the Island of Mindanao have been able to
+concert among themselves and prepare for their defence, it would
+be advisable to direct partial expeditions towards both flanks of
+Zamboanga, for the purpose of burning the settlements of the natives
+and driving them from the shores into the interior. Forts ought then
+to be raised at the mouths of the inlets and rivers, and a fourth
+district government formed in the southern part of the island; in such
+manner that, by possession being taken of the coasts, the government
+and district of Zamboanga may be placed in contact with the new
+one established on the one side, and on the other with the district
+of Misamis, also the new district with that of Caraga, the western
+part of which territory is already united to that of Misamis. Such,
+at least, was the opinion of Lieutenant-Colonel Don Mariano Tobias,
+an officer deservedly celebrated for his prudence and consummate skill
+in these matters, and this he substantially expressed in a council
+of war, held on August 28, 1778, for the purpose of deliberating on
+the most advisable means to check the Moros, as appears by a long
+and intelligent report drawn upon this subject on April 26, 1800,
+by the adjutant-general of this colony, Don Rufino Suarez.
+
+In case it should be determined to adopt the means proposed by Colonel
+Tobias, for the purpose of holding the Moros of Mindanao in check,
+and to which, unfortunately, due regard has not hitherto been paid,
+notwithstanding the enterprise presents very few difficulties, owing
+to the little opposition to be expected from the infidel natives,
+the latter would then be left completely surrounded and shut up in
+the heart of the island, and their active system of privateering,
+with which they have so many years infested these seas, entirely
+destroyed. If, through the want of garrisons and population, it should
+not, however, be possible to deprive them of all their outlets, by
+which means they would still be able occasionally to send some of
+their cruising vessels, nevertheless there would be facilities with
+which it would be possible to pursue and counteract the ravages of
+the few pirates who might furtively escape out of some river, while
+now they are fitted out, and well manned and armed to the number of
+one and two hundred war-boats, openly in their ports.
+
+[A plan for future policing.] After the emporiums of slavery have
+been destroyed by the conquest of Jolo, and the other general
+measures adopted, as above pointed out, the government would then
+be in a situation to turn its attention, with much greater ease,
+to the arrangement of all the other minor schemes of precaution and
+protection suited to the difference of circumstances and locality,
+without the concurrence of which the work would be left imperfect,
+and in some degree the existence of those settled in the new
+establishments rendered precarious. As, however, I am unprepared
+minutely to point out the nature of these measures, or distinctly
+to lay down a ground-work for future civilization and improvement,
+I shall merely observe, that what would then remain to be done would
+neither require any great capital, or present obstacles which might
+not easily be overcome. The Moros being then concentrated in the
+Island of Mindanao, and this completely surrounded on all sides by our
+forts and settlements, in the manner above described, the only enemies
+let loose on these seas would be either the few who might, from time
+to time, elude the vigilance of our troops and district-commanders,
+or those who might have escaped from Jolo previous to its conquest,
+and taken up their abode in one or other of the Bisayas Islands; or,
+in short, such as are out cruising at the time our armament returns
+to Zamboanga and takes possession of the southern coast of Mindanao;
+in which case they would be compelled to resort to a roving life,
+establishing, like the Jolo fugitives, temporary dwellings among the
+mangroves and thickets bordering on the shore.
+
+The principal objects then remaining for the attention of government
+would be to guard and protect the towns and settlements established
+on the coasts from the insults and inroads of banditti, impelled by
+necessity or despair, and at the same time to promote the gradual
+overthrow or civilization of the dispersed remnant of Moorish
+population left in the Island. The cruising of the pirates being
+thus reduced to a space comprehended in an oblong circle formed by
+an imaginary line drawn from the southern extreme of the Island of
+Leyte, to the south-west point of Samar, which next running along
+the north-west coast of Mindoro, on the outside of Tacao and Burias,
+and coming down to the west of Panay, Negros and Bohol, closes the
+oval at the little island formed by the Strait of Panaon, about forty
+gunboats might be advantageously stationed in the narrowest passages
+from land to land; as, for example, in the Strait of San Juanico and
+other passes of a similar kind, well known to the local pilots. By this
+means, the limits would be gradually contracted. Various small naval
+armaments ought, at the same time, to keep cruising in the center
+of this circle, pursuing the Moros by sea and land, dislodging them
+from their strongholds and lurking places, and sending on those who
+might be captured to the depot pointed out by government.
+
+[Feasibility of plans.] The first part of the plan would be the
+more easily realized, as it is well-known that most of the districts
+corresponding to the Bisayan tribes, including those of Camarines and
+Albay, situated at the extremity of the island of Luzon, have several
+gunboats of their own, which might be used with great advantage. By
+merely advancing and stationing them in such channels as the Moros
+must necessarily pass, either in going out or returning, according to
+the different monsoons, they would easily be checked, without removing
+the gunboats to any great distance from their own coasts. As besides
+the great advantages resulting from this plan and every one doing
+his duty are apparent, no doubt numbers of natives would volunteer
+their services, more particularly if they were liberally rewarded,
+and their maintenance provided from the funds of the respective
+communities. Moreover, the points which at first should not be
+considered as sufficiently guarded might be strengthened by the king's
+gunboats, and, indeed, in all of them it would be advisable to station
+some of the latter, commanded by a select officer, to whose orders
+the captains of the provincial gunboats ought to be made subservient.
+
+With regard to the second part, it will suffice to observe that the
+captain-generalship of the Philippine Islands already possesses as
+many as seventy gunboats, besides a considerable number of gallies
+and launches, which altogether constitute a formidable squadron
+of light vessels; and, after deducting those deemed necessary for
+the protection of Jolo and the new province to be established in
+Mindanao, a sufficient number would still be left to carry into
+execution all the objects proposed. At present, although the Moros
+navigate in numerous divions, and with a confidence inspired by their
+undisturbed prosperity, a 24-pounder shot from one of our launches is
+nevertheless sufficient to put them to flight; what therefore may not
+be expected when their forces shall be so greatly diminished and their
+apprehensions increased, of being defeated and captured? Nevertheless,
+as it is not easy for our gunboats to come up with them, when giving
+chase, it would be advisable to add to our cruisers a temporary
+establishment of prows and light vessels, manned by Bisayan Indians,
+which, by advancing on with the gallies, might attack the enemy and
+give time for the gunboats to come up and decide the action. Besides as
+the Bisayan Indians are perfectly acquainted with the mode of making
+war on the Moros, the meaning of their signals and manoeuvers and
+the kind of places on shore in which they take shelter when pursued
+at sea, the employment of such auxiliaries would be extremely useful.
+
+[Need of undivided leadership.] The whole of these defensive and
+offensive arrangements would, however, be ineffectual or incomplete
+in their results, if the most perfect union and concert is not
+established in every part, so that all should conspire to the same
+object, although by distinct means. In order therefore that the
+necessary harmony may be secured, it would be expedient to remove the
+chief authority nearer to the theater of war, by confiding all the
+necessary instructions and powers to the person who might be selected
+for the direction and command of the enterprise, after the general
+plan of operations had been regularly approved. Under this impression,
+and with a view to the better execution of all the details, it would
+be advisable for the commanding officer, named by the government,
+to take up his headquarters in the Island of Panay, which, owing to
+its geographical situation, the great number of towns and inhabitants
+contained in the three provinces into which it is divided, as well
+as other political reasons, is generally esteemed preferable for the
+object in question, to the Island of Zebu, where, in former times,
+the commanders of the province of the painted natives resided,
+as mentioned in the laws of the Indies. The center of action being
+placed in Iloilo, a communication with the other points would thus
+more easily be kept open, aid and relief might be sent more rapidly
+to the quarter where required, and, in a word, all the movements,
+of whatsoever kind they might be, would be executed with greater
+precision and certainty of success. It would be unnecessary to
+add that the provincial magistrates of Camarines and Albay ought to
+co-operate, with their fourteen gunboats and other smaller vessels, in
+the measures adopted by the commander of the Bisayan establishment,
+distributing their forces according to the orders given by him,
+and by undertaking to guard the straits of San Bernardino.
+
+[Paragua.] The Island of Paragua, at the head of which the
+provincial jurisdiction of Calamianes is placed, is not included
+in the great circle, or chain of stations, above traced out, as
+well in consequence of its great distance from the other islands,
+for which reason it is not so much infested by the Moros, as because
+of its being at present nearly depopulated and uncultivated, and for
+these reasons the attention of government ought not to be withdrawn
+from other more important points. With regard to that of Mindanao,
+the necessity of keeping up along the whole of its immense coast, a
+line of castles and watch towers, has already been fully pointed out,
+more especially in the vicinity of the bay of Panguil, to the north,
+and the mouths of the great river towards the south; the two points
+in which the enemies' most formidable armaments are usually fitted
+out. Consequently, it would not be possible to expect the provincial
+commanders stationed there would be able to disengage any part of
+their naval force, in order to place it at the disposal of the officer
+commanding the Bisayan vessels. Indeed, it is obvious that it would be
+extremely important to afford the people of Mindanao every possible
+additional aid, in vessels, troops and money, in order the better to
+check the sailing of partial divisions of the enemy, and thus prevent
+the immense number of pirates, inhabiting the interior of the island,
+from breaking the fortified line, and again covering these seas, and
+with redoubled fury carrying death and desolation along all the coasts.
+
+It would, in fact, be extremely desirable if, through the concerted
+measures and constant vigilance of the four chief magistrates
+intrusted with the command of the island, the future attempts of
+the Mindanayans could be entirely counteracted, and their cruisers
+altogether kept within the line for a certain period of years; as by
+thus depriving them of the facilities to continue their old habits
+of life, these barbarous tribes would be eventually compelled to
+adopt other pursuits, either by ascending the mountainous parts of
+the island, and shutting themselves up in the thick and impenetrable
+forests, with a view to preserve their independence; or, throwing
+down their arms and devoting themselves to the peaceful cultivation
+of their lands. In the latter case, they would gradually lose their
+present ferocious character; their regard for the conveniences and
+repose of social life would increase; the contrast would be attended
+with most favorable consequences, and in the course of time, the whole
+of the aboriginal natives of these islands would come into our laws
+and customs, and become confounded in the general mass of Philippine
+subjects, owing allegiance to the king.
+
+Finally, it must be equally acknowledged that the Islands of Jolo,
+Basilan, Capul, and some of the other inferior ones, of which,
+as above pointed out, an union ought to be formed in the way of an
+additional government, subordinate to the captain-general, would be
+able to co-operate in the war on no other plan than the one traced
+out for the provinces held in Mindanao; that is, by their gunboats
+being confided to the protection of their own coasts; though with
+this difference, that if, in one instance, the main object would be
+to prevent the evasion of the enemy, in the other every effort must
+be employed to guard against and repel their incursions when they
+do appear. However complete the success of the armament, destined
+for the reduction of Jolo, it may nevertheless be presumed, that the
+mountains would still continue to give shelter to hordes of fugitives,
+who would take refuge in the fastnesses, and avail themselves of every
+opportunity to concert plans, or fly off to join their comrades in
+Mindanao, in order to return, and through their aid, satisfy their
+thirst for vengeance, by surprising some fortress or settlement,
+or establishing themselves on some neglected and not well known
+point. In consequence of this, the governor, commanding there,
+would at first require the active co-operation of all his forces,
+for the purpose of consolidating the new conquest, and causing his
+authority to be respected throughout the island.
+
+[Importance of peace for Philippine progress.] These, in my opinion,
+are the true and secure means by which the enemies of the peace
+and prosperity of the Philippines may be humbled, their piracies
+prevented, and a basis laid for the future civilization of the
+remaining islands in this important Archipelago. To this sketch,
+a number of other details and essential illustrations, no doubt,
+are wanting; and possibly, I may be accused of some inaccuracies, in
+discussing a topic, with which I candidly avow I cannot be considered
+altogether familiar. The plan and success of the enterprise must,
+however, greatly depend on military skill and talent; but as I have
+attempted no more than fairly to trace the general outline of the
+plan, and insist on the necessity of its adoption, my remarks, it
+is to be hoped, will serve to awaken a serious disposition to review
+and investigate the whole subject, a task that most assuredly ought
+to be confided to a competent and special council. Whatever defects
+I may involuntarily have fallen into, will then be corrected; at the
+same time it ought not to appear strange that inexperienced persons
+should presume to speak on matters connected with the public good,
+when we see them so much neglected by those whose more immediate duty
+it is to look after and promote them. At all events, dispassionate
+zeal has seldom done harm; and I again repeat, that my wish is not
+so much to see my own ideas adopted, as to urge the necessity of
+their being examined and digested. I am desirous that other sources
+of information on this subject should be explored, that practical men
+should be called in, and that those in power should be induced to apply
+themselves and devote their exertions to an object so highly deserving
+of their attention. In short, I am anxious that the pious injunctions
+of our monarchs should be fulfilled, and that the tears and blood of
+the inhabitants of these neglected islands should cease to flow.
+
+Should the happy day ever arrive, when the inhabitants of these
+provinces shall behold themselves free from the cruel scourge with
+which they have been desolated for so many years, they will bless the
+nation that has redeemed them from all their cares, they will tighten
+their relations with it, and deliver themselves up to its direction
+without reserve. The natives will then come down from the strong
+fastnesses they at present inhabit; they will clear fresh lands, and
+earnestly devote themselves to tillage and industry. Under the shadow
+of peace, population and commerce will increase; the Bisayan vessels
+will then plough the ocean without the dread of other enemies than
+the elements; and the Moros themselves of Mindanao (I say it with
+confidence), straightened on all sides, and incessantly harassed
+by the Christians, but on the other hand witnessing the advantages
+and mildness of our laws, will at length submit to the dominion of
+the monarchs of Spain, who will thus secure the quiet possession of
+one of the most interesting portions of the habitable globe, and be
+justly entitled to the gratitude of all nations connected with China
+and India, for having put an end to a series of the most terrific
+plunder and captivity that ever disgraced the annals of any age.
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+Manila in 1842
+
+By Com. Charles Wilkes, U.S.N.
+
+(Narrative of U. S. Exploring Expedition, Vol. V, Chaps. 8 and 9.)
+
+[Port rules.] At daylight, on January 13, we were again under way,
+with a light air, and at nine o'clock reached the roadstead, where we
+anchored in six fathoms water, with good holding-ground. Being anxious
+to obtain our letters, which, we were informed at Oahu, had been sent
+to Manila, I immediately dispatched two boats to procure them. On
+their way to the mole, they were stopped by the captain of the port,
+Don Juan Salomon, who requested them, in a polite manner, to return,
+and informed the officers that, agreeably to the rules of the port,
+no boat was permitted to land until the visit of the health-officer
+had been made, etc.
+
+[Official courtesies.] The captain of the port, in a large barge,
+was soon seen pulling off in company with the boats. He boarded us
+with much ceremony, and a few moments sufficed to satisfy him of
+the good health of the crew, when he readily gave his assent to
+our visiting the shore. Every kind of assistance was offered me,
+on the part of the government, and he, in the most obliging manner,
+gave us permission to go and come when we pleased, with the simple
+request that the boats should wear our national flag, that they might
+at all times be known, and thus be free from any interruption by the
+guards. The boats were again dispatched for the consul and letters,
+and after being anxiously watched for, returned; every one on board
+ship expecting his wishes to be gratified with news from home; but,
+as is usual on such occasions, the number of the happy few bore no
+comparison to that of the many who were disappointed.
+
+Our vice-consul, Josiah Moore, Esq., soon paid us a visit, and gave
+us a pressing invitation to take up our quarters on shore while we
+remained. To this gentleman and Mr. Sturges I am greatly indebted for
+much of the information that will be detailed in the following chapter.
+
+[American hemp ships.] A number of vessels were lying in the roads,
+among which were several Americans loading with hemp. There was also a
+large English East Indiaman, manned by Lascars, whose noise rendered
+her more like a floating Bedlam than any thing else to which I can
+liken it.
+
+[A Spanish oriental city.] The view of the city and country around
+Manila partakes both of a Spanish and an Oriental character. The
+sombre and heavy-looking churches, with their awkward towers; the long
+lines of batteries mounted with heavy cannon; the massive houses,
+with ranges of balconies; and the light and airy cottage, elevated
+on posts, situated in the luxuriant groves of tropical trees--all
+excite a desire to become better acquainted with the country.
+
+[Surroundings.] Manila is situated on an extensive plain, gradually
+swelling into distant hills, beyond which, again, mountains rise in
+the back ground to the height of several thousand feet. The latter
+are apparently clothed with vegetation to their summits. The city is
+in strong contrast to this luxuriant scenery, bearing evident marks
+of decay, particularly in the churches, whose steeples and tile roofs
+have a dilapidated look. The site of the city does not appear to have
+been well chosen, it having apparently been selected entirely for
+the convenience of commerce, and the communication that the outlet
+of the lake affords for the batteaux that transport the produce from
+the shores of the Laguna de Bay to the city.
+
+[Canals.] There are many arms or branches to this stream, which have
+been converted into canals; and almost any part of Manila may now be
+reached in a banca.
+
+In the afternoon, in company with Captain Hudson, I paid my first visit
+to Manila. The anchorage considered safest for large ships is nearly
+three miles from the shore, but smaller vessels may lie much nearer,
+and even enter the canal; a facility of which a number of these take
+advantage, to accomplish any repairs they may have occasion to make.
+
+[Typhoons.] The canal, however, is generally filled with coasting
+vessels, batteaux from the lake, and lighters for the discharge of
+the vessels lying in the roads. The bay of Manila is safe, excepting
+during the change of the monsoons, when it is subject to the typhoons
+of the China Seas, within whose range it lies. These blow at times with
+much force, and cause great damage. Foreign vessels have, however,
+kept this anchorage, and rode out these storms in safety; but native
+as well as Spanish vessels, seek at these times the port of Cavite,
+about three leagues to the southwest, at the entrance of the bay,
+which is perfectly secure. Here the government dockyard is situated,
+and this harbor is consequently the resort of the few gunboats and
+galleys that are stationed here.
+
+[Twin piers.] The entrance to the canal or river Pasig is three hundred
+feet wide, and is enclosed between two well-constructed piers, which
+extend for some distance into the bay. On the end of one of these is
+the light-house, and on the other a guard-house. The walls of these
+piers are about four feet above ordinary high water, and include the
+natural channel of the river, whose current sets out with some force,
+particularly when the ebb is making in the bay.
+
+[Suburbs.] The suburbs, or Binondo quarter, contain more inhabitants
+than the city itself, and is the commercial town. They have all the
+stir and life incident to a large population actively engaged in trade,
+and in this respect the contrast with the city proper is great.
+
+[Walled city.] The city of Manila is built in the form of a large
+segment of a circle, having the chord of the segment on the river:
+the whole is strongly fortified, with walls and ditches. The houses
+are substantially built after the fashion of the mother country. Within
+the walls are the governor's palace, custom-house, treasury, admiralty,
+several churches, convents, and charitable institutions, a university,
+and the barracks for the troops; it also contains some public squares,
+on one of which is a bronze statue of Charles IV.
+
+The city is properly deemed the court residence of these islands; and
+all those attached to the government, or who wish to be considered as
+of the higher circle, reside here; but foreigners are not permitted
+to do so. The houses in the city are generally of stone, plastered,
+and white or yellow washed on the outside. They are only two stories
+high, and in consequence cover a large space, being built around a
+patio or courtyard.
+
+[Dwellings.] The ground-floors are occupied as storehouses,
+stables, and for porters' lodges. The second story is devoted to
+the dining-halls and sleeping apartments, kitchens, bath-rooms,
+etc. The bed-rooms have the windows down to the floor, opening on wide
+balconies, with blinds or shutters. These blinds are constructed with
+sliding frames, having small squares of two inches filled in with
+a thin semi-transparent shell, a species of Placuna; the fronts of
+some of the houses have a large number of these small lights, where
+the females of the family may enjoy themselves unperceived.
+
+[Business.] After entering the canal, we very soon found ourselves
+among a motley and strange population. On landing, the attention is
+drawn to the vast number of small stalls and shops with which the
+streets are lined on each side, and to the crowds of people passing
+to and fro, all intent upon their several occupations. The artisans in
+Manila are almost wholly Chinese; and all trades are local, so that in
+each quarter of the Binondo suburb the privilege of exclusive occupancy
+is claimed by some particular kinds of shops. In passing up the
+Escolta (which is the longest and main street in this district), the
+cabinet-makers, seen busily at work in their shops, are first met with;
+next to these come the tinkers and blacksmiths; then the shoe-makers,
+clothiers, fishmongers, haberdashers, etc. These are flanked by outdoor
+occupations; and in each quarter are numerous cooks, frying cakes,
+stewing, etc., in movable kitchens; while here and there are to be
+seen betel-nut sellers, either moving about to obtain customers,
+or taking a stand in some great thoroughfare. The moving throng,
+composed of carriers, waiters, messengers, etc., pass quietly and
+without any noise: they are generally seen with the Chinese umbrella,
+painted in many colors, screening themselves from the sun. The whole
+population wear slippers, and move along with a slipshod gait.
+
+The Chinese are apparently far more numerous than the Malays, and the
+two races differ as much in character as in appearance: one is all
+activity, while the other is disposed to avoid all exertion. They
+preserve their distinctive character throughout, mixing but very
+little with each other, and are removed as far as possible in their
+civilities; the former, from their industry and perseverance, have
+almost monopolized all the lucrative employments among the lower
+orders, excepting the selling of fish and betel-nut, and articles
+manufactured in the provinces.
+
+On shore, we were kindly received by Mr. Moore, who at once made us
+feel at home. The change of feeling that takes place in a transfer from
+shipboard in a hot climate, after a long cruise, to spacious and airy
+apartments, surrounded by every luxury that kind attentions can give,
+can be scarcely imagined by those who have not experienced it.
+
+As we needed some repairs and supplies, to attend to these was
+my first occupation. Among the former, we required a heavy piece
+of blacksmith-work, to prepare which, we were obliged to send our
+armourers on shore. The only thing they could procure was a place for
+a forge; but coal, and every thing else, we had to supply from the
+ship. I mention these things to show that those in want of repairs
+must not calculate upon their being done at Manila with dispatch,
+if they can be accomplished at all.
+
+[City of Manila.] The city government of Manila was established
+June 24, 1571, and the title under which it is designated is, "The
+celebrated and forever loyal city of Manila." In 1595, the charter
+was confirmed by royal authority; and all the prerogatives possessed
+by other cities in the kingdom were conferred upon it in 1638. The
+members of the city council, by authority of the king, were constituted
+a council of advisement with the governor and captain-general. The
+city magistrates were also placed in rank next the judges; and in
+1686 the jurisdiction of the city was extended over a radius of five
+leagues. In 1818, the members of the council were increased and ordered
+to assume the title of "Excellency." Manila has been one of the most
+constantly loyal cities of the Spanish kingdom, and is, in consequence,
+considered to merit these additional royal favors to its inhabitants.
+
+[Commerce.] In 1834, the Royal Tribunal of Commerce was instituted,
+to supersede the old consulate, which had been established since 1772,
+The Royal Tribunal of Commerce acts under the new commercial code, and
+possesses the same privileges of arbitration as the old consulate. It
+consists of a prior, two consuls, and four deputies, elected by the
+profession. The three first exercise consular jurisdiction, the other
+four superintend the encouragement of commerce. The "Junta de Comercio"
+(chamber of commerce) was formed in 1835. This junta consits of the
+Tribunal of Commerce, with four merchants, who are selected by the
+government, two of whom are removed annually. The prior of the Tribunal
+presides at the Junta, whose meetings are required to be held twice a
+month, or oftener if necessary, and upon days in which the Tribunal
+is not in session. The two courts being under the same influences,
+and having the same officers, little benefit is to be derived from
+their double action, and great complaints are made of the manner in
+which business is conducted in them.
+
+[Magellan.] Of all her foreign possessions, the Philippines have
+cost Spain the least blood and labor. The honor of their discovery
+belongs to Magellan whose name is associated with the straits at
+the southern extremity of the American continent, but which has
+no memorial in these islands. Now that the glory which he gained
+by being the first to penetrate from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
+has been in some measure obliterated by the disuse of those straits
+by navigators, it would seem due to his memory that some spot among
+these islands should be set apart to commemorate the name of, him
+who made them known to Europe. This would be but common justice to
+the discoverer of a region which has been a source of so much honor
+and profit to the Spanish nation, who opened the vast expanse of the
+Pacific to the fleets of Europe, and who died fighting to secure the
+benefits of his enterprise to his king and country.
+
+Magellan was killed at the island of Mactan, on April 26, 1521;
+and Duarte, the second in command, who succeeded him, imprudently
+accepting an invitation from the chief of Cebu to a feast, was, with
+twenty companions, massacred. Of all the Spaniards present, only one
+escaped. After these and various other misfortunes, only one vessel
+of the squadron, the Victoria, returned to Spain. Don Juan Sebastian
+del Cano, her commander, was complimented by his sovereign by a grant
+for his arms of a globe, with the proud inscription, commemorative
+of his being the first circumnavigator, "Primus Me Circumcedit."
+
+[Other expeditions.] Two years afterwards, a second expedition was
+fitted out, under the command of Loaisa, who died after they had
+passed through the Straits of Magellan, when they had been a year
+on their voyage. The command then fell upon Sebastian, who died in
+four days after his predecessor. Salazar succeeded to the command,
+and reached the Ladrone Islands, but shortly after leaving there
+he died also. They came in sight of Mindanao, but contrary winds
+obliged them to go to the Moluccas. When arrived at the Portuguese
+settlements, contentions and jealousies arose, and finally all the
+expedition was dispersed, and the fate of all but one of the vessels
+has become doubtful. None but the small tender returned, which,
+after encountering great difficulties, reached New Spain.
+
+The third expedition was fitted out by Cortes, then viceroy of Mexico,
+and the command of it given to Saavedra. This sailed from the port
+of Silguattanjo, on the 31st of October, 1528, and stopped at the
+Ladrone Islands, of which it took possession for the crown of Spain. It
+afterwards went to Mindanao, and then pursued its voyage to Timor,
+where part of the expedition of Loaisa was found remaining. From
+Timor they made two attempts to return to New Spain, both of which
+failed. The climate soon brought on disease, which carried off a great
+number, and among them Saavedra. Thus the whole expedition was broken
+up, and the survivors found their way to the Portuguese settlements.
+
+The fourth expedition was sent from New Spain, when under the
+government of Don Antonio de Mendoza, for the purpose of establishing
+a trade with the new islands, and it received orders not to visit
+the Moluccas. This expedition sailed in 1542, under the command
+of Villalobos. It reached the Philippine Islands without accident,
+and Villalobos gave them that name after Philip II, then prince of
+Asturias. Notwithstanding his positive instructions to the contrary,
+he was obliged to visit the Moluccas, and met the same treatment from
+the Portuguese that had been given to all whom they believed had any
+intention to interfere in their spice trade. The squadron touched at
+Amboina, where Villalobos died, an event which caused the breaking
+up of the expedition; and the few Spaniards that remained embarked
+in the Portuguese vessels to return home.
+
+The fifth and last expedition was ordered by Philip II to be sent
+from Mexico, when under the government of Don Luis de Velasco,
+for the final conquest and settlement of the Philippines. With
+this expedition was sent Andres Urdaneta, a friar, whose reputation
+stood very high as a cosmographer: he had belonged to the ill-fated
+expedition of Loaisa. This was the largest that had yet been fitted
+out for this purpose, numbering five vessels and about four hundred
+men. The command of it was intrusted to [Legaspi.] Legaspi, under
+whom it sailed from the port of Natividad, on November 21, 1564, and
+upon whom was conferred the title of governor and adelantado of the
+conquered lands, with the fullest powers. On the 13th of February,
+1565, he arrived at the island of Tandaya, one of the Philippines:
+from thence he went to Leyte; there he obtained the son of a powerful
+chief as a guide, through whom he established peace with several of
+the native rulers, who thereafter aided the expedition with all the
+means in their power. At Bohol they built the first church. There he
+met and made peace with a chief of Luzon, with whom he went to that
+island. (Facts here are confused.--C.)
+
+He now (April, 1565) took possession of all the island in the name of
+the crown of Spain, and became their first governor. In this conquest,
+motives different from those which governed them on the American
+continent, seemed to have influenced the Spaniards. Instead of carrying
+on a cruel war against the natives, they here pursued the policy of
+encouraging and fostering their industry. Whether they felt that this
+policy was necessary for the success of their undertaking, or were
+influenced by the religious fathers who were with them, is uncertain;
+but their measures seem to have been dictated by a desire to promote
+peace and secure the welfare of the inhabitants. There may be another
+cause for this course of action, namely, the absence of the precious
+metals, which held out no inducement to those thirsting for inordinate
+gain. This may have had its weight in exempting the expedition in
+its outset from the presence of those avaricious spirits which had
+accompanied other Spanish expeditions, and been the means of marking
+their progress with excessive tyranny, bloodshed, and violence. It is
+evident to one who visits the Philippines that some other power besides
+the sword has been at work in them; the natives are amalgamated with
+the Spaniards, and all seem disposed to cultivate the land and foster
+civilization. None of the feeling that grows out of conquest is to be
+observed in these islands; the two races are identified now in habits,
+manners, and religion, and their interests are so closely allied that
+they feel their mutual dependence upon each other.
+
+The establishment of the new constitution in Spain in the year 1825
+has had a wonderful effect upon these colonies, whose resources have
+within the last ten years been developed, and improvements pushed
+forward with a rapid step. Greater knowledge and more liberal views
+in the rulers are alone wanting to cause a still more rapid advance
+in the career of prosperity.
+
+As our visit was to Luzon, we naturally obtained more personal
+information respecting it than the other islands. We learned that the
+northern peninsula [268] was composed of granite and recent volcanic
+rocks, together with secondary and tertiary deposits, while the
+southern peninsula is almost wholly volcanic.
+
+The northern contains many valuable mines of gold, lead, copper,
+and iron, besides coal. A number of specimens of these, and the rocks
+which contain them, were presented to the Expedition by Señores Araria
+and Roxas of Manila.
+
+So far as our information and observations went, the whole of the
+Philippine Islands are of similar geological formation. In some of
+the islands the volcanic rock prevails, while in others coal and the
+metalliferous deposits predominate. On some of them the coal-beds
+form part of the cliffs along the shore; on others, copper is found
+in a chlorite and talcose slate. The latter is more particularly
+the case with Luzon, and the same formation extends to Mindoro. Much
+iron occurs on the mountains. Thus among the (Upland) natives, who
+are yet unsubdued by the Spaniards, and who inhabit these mountains,
+it is found by them of so pure a quality that it is manufactured
+into swords and cleavers. These are, occasionally, obtained by the
+Spaniards in their excursions into the interior against these bands.
+
+[Tufa.] The country around Manila is composed of tufa of a light gray
+color, which being soft and easily worked, is employed as the common
+building material in the city. It contains, sometimes, scoria and
+pumice, in pieces of various sizes, besides, occasionally, impressions
+of plants, with petrified woods. These are confined to recent species,
+and include palms, etc.
+
+This tufa forms one of the remarkable features of the volcanoes of the
+Philippine Islands, showing a strong contrast between them and those of
+the Pacific isles, which have ejected little else than lava and scoria.
+
+Few portions of the globe seem to be so much the seat of internal
+fires, or to exhibit the effects of volcanic action so strongly as
+the Philippines. During our visit, it was not known that any of the
+volcanoes were in action; but many of them were smoking, particularly
+that in the district of Albay, called Isaroc. Its latest eruption
+was in the year 1839; but this did little damage compared with
+that of 1814, which covered several villages, and the country for a
+great distance around, with ashes. This mountain is situated to the
+south-east of Manila one hundred and fifty miles, and is said to be
+a perfect cone, with a crater at its apex.
+
+[Resources.] It does not appear that the islands are much affected
+by earth-quakes, although some have occasionally occurred that have
+done damage to the churches at Manila.
+
+The coal which we have spoken of is deemed of value; it has a strong
+resemblance to the bituminous coal of our own country, possesses a
+bright lustre, and appears very free from all woody texture when
+fractured. It is found associated with sandstone, which contains
+many fossils. Lead and copper are reported as being very abundant;
+gypsum and limestone occur in some districts. From this, it will
+be seen that these islands have everything in the mineral way to
+constitute them desirable possessions.
+
+With such mineral resources, and a soil capable of producing the
+most varied vegetation of the tropics, a liberal policy is all that
+the country lacks. The products of the Philippine Islands consist
+of sugar, coffee, hemp, indigo, rice, tortoise-shell, hides, ebony,
+saffron-wood, sulphur, cotton, cordage, silk, pepper, cocoa, wax,
+and many other articles. In their agricultural operations the
+people are industrious, although much labor is lost by the use of
+defective implements. The plough, of very simple construction, has
+been adopted from the Chinese; it has no coulter, the share is flat,
+and being turned partly to one side, answers, in a certain degree,
+the purpose of a mould-board. This rude implement is sufficient for
+the rich soils, where the tillage depends chiefly upon the harrow,
+in constructing which a thorny species of bamboo is used. The harrow
+is formed of five or six pieces of this material, on which the thorns
+are left, firmly fastened together. It answers its purpose well, and
+is seldom out of order. A wrought-iron harrow, that was introduced
+by the Jesuits, is used for clearing the ground more effectually,
+and more particularly for the purpose of extirpating a troublesome
+grass, that is known by the name of cogon (a species of Andropogon), of
+which it is very difficult to rid the fields. The bolo or long-knife,
+a basket, and hoe, complete the list of implements, and answer all
+the purposes of our spades, etc.
+
+[Draft animals.] The buffalo was used until within a few years
+exclusively in their agricultural operations, and they have lately
+taken to the use of the ox; but horses are never used. The buffalo,
+from the slowness of his motions, and his exceeding restlessness
+under the heat of the climate, is ill adapted to agricultural labor;
+but the natives are very partial to them, notwithstanding they
+occasion them much labor and trouble in bathing them during the great
+heat. This is absolutely necessary, or the animal becomes so fretful
+as to be unfit for use. If it were not for this, the buffalo would,
+notwithstanding his slow pace, be most effective in agricultural
+operations; he requires little food, and that of the coarsest kind;
+his strength surpasses that of the stoutest ox, and he is admirably
+adapted for the rice or paddy fields. They are very docile when used
+by the natives, and even children can manage them; but it is said they
+have a great antipathy to the whites, and all strangers. The usual
+mode of guiding them is by a small cord attached to the cartilage of
+the nose. The yoke rests on the neck before the shoulders, and is of
+simple construction. To this is attached whatever it may be necessary
+to draw, either by traces, shafts, or other fastenings. Frequently this
+animal may be seen with large bundles of bamboo lashed to them on each
+side. Buffaloes are to be met with on the lake with no more than their
+noses and eyes out of the water, and are not visible until they are
+approached within a few feet, when they cause alarm to the passengers
+by raising their large forms close to the boat. It is said that they
+resort to the lake to feed on a favorite grass that grows on its bottom
+in shallow water, and which they dive for. Their flesh is not eaten,
+except that of the young ones, for it is tough and tasteless. The milk
+is nutritious, and of a character between that of the goat and cow.
+
+The general appearance of the buffalo is that of a hybrid of the
+bull and rhinoceros. Its horns do not rise upwards, are very close
+at the root, bent backwards, and of a triangular form, with a flat
+side above. One of the peculiarities of the buffalo is its voice,
+which is quite low, and in the minor key, resembling that of a young
+colt. It is as fond of mire as swine, and shows the consequence of
+recent wallowing, in being crusted over with mud. The skin is visible,
+being but thinly covered with hair; its color is usually that of a
+mouse; in some individuals darker.
+
+[Rice.] Rice is, perhaps, of their agricultural products, the article
+upon which the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands most depend for
+food and profit; of this they have several different varieties; which
+the natives distinguish by their size and the shape of the grain:
+the birnambang, lamuyo, malagequit, bontot-cabayo, dumali, quinanda,
+bolohan, and tangi. The three first are aquatic; the five latter
+upland varieties. They each have their peculiar uses. The dumali
+is the early variety; it ripens in three months from planting, from
+which circumstance it derives its name: it is raised exclusively on
+the uplands. Although much esteemed, it is not extensively cultivated,
+as the birds and insects destroy a large part of the crop.
+
+The malagequit is very much prized, and used for making sweet and
+fancy dishes; it becomes exceedingly glutinous, for which reason it
+is used in making whitewash, which it is said to cause to become of a
+brilliant white, and to withstand the weather. This variety is not,
+however, believed to be wholesome. There is also a variety of this
+last species which is used as food for horses, and supposed to be a
+remedy and preventive against worms.
+
+The rice grounds or fields are laid out in squares, and surrounded by
+embankments, to retain the water of the rains or streams. After the
+rains have fallen in sufficient quantities to saturate the ground, a
+seed-bed is generally planted in one corner of the field, in which the
+rice is sown broadcast, about the month of June. The heavy rains take
+place in August, when the fields are ploughed, and are soon filled with
+water. The young plants are about this time taken from the seed-bed,
+their tops and roots trimmed, and then planted in the field by making
+holes in the ground with the fingers and placing four or five sprouts
+in each of them; in this tedious labor the poor women are employed,
+whilst the males are lounging in their houses or in the shade of
+the trees.
+
+The harvest for the aquatic rice begins in December. It is reaped
+with small sickles, peculiar to the country, called yatap; to the
+back of these a small stick is fastened, by which they are held,
+and the stalk is forced upon it and cut. The spikes of rice are
+cut with this implement, one by one. In this operation, men, women,
+and children all take part.
+
+The upland rice requires much more care and labor in its
+cultivation. The land must be ploughed three or four times, and all
+the turf and lumps well broken up by the harrow.
+
+During its growth it requires to be weeded two or three times, to
+keep the weeds from choking the crop. The seed is sown broadcast in
+May. This kind of rice is harvested in November, and to collect the
+crop is still more tedious than in the other case, for it is always
+gathered earlier, and never reaped, in consequence of the grain not
+adhering to the ear. If it were gathered in any other way, the loss
+by transportation on the backs of buffaloes and horses, without any
+covering to the sheaf, would be so great as to dissipate a great
+portion of the crop.
+
+It appears almost incredible that any people can remain in
+ignorance of a way of preventing so extravagant and wasteful a mode
+of harvesting. The government has been requested to prohibit it on
+account of the great expense it gives rise to; but whether any steps
+have ever been taken in the matter, I did not learn. It is said that
+not unfrequently a third part of the crop is lost, in consequence of
+the scarcity of laborers; while those who are disengaged will refuse
+to work, unless they receive one-third, and even one-half of the crop,
+to be delivered free of expense at their houses. This the planters
+are often obliged to give, or lose the whole crop. Nay, unless the
+harvest is a good one, reapers are very unwilling to engage to take it
+even on these terms, and the entire crop is lost. The laborers, during
+the time of harvest, are supported by the planter, who is during that
+time exposed to great vexation, if not losses. The reapers are for the
+most part composed of the idle and vicious part of the population, who
+go abroad over the country to engage themselves in this employment,
+which affords a livelihood to the poorer classes; for the different
+periods at which the varieties of rice are planted and harvested,
+gives them work during a large portion of the year.
+
+After the rice is harvested, there are different modes of treating
+it. Some of the proprietors take it home, where it is thrown into
+heaps, and left until it is desirable to separate it from the straw,
+when it is trodden out by men and women with their bare feet. For
+this operation, they usually receive another fifth of the rice.
+
+Others stack it in a wet and green state, which subjects it to heat,
+from which cause the grain contracts a dark color, and an unpleasant
+taste and smell. The natives, however, impute these defects to the
+wetness of the season.
+
+The crop of both the low and upland rice, is usually from thirty
+to fifty for one: this is on old land; but on that which is newly
+cleared or which has never been cultivated, the yield is far beyond
+this. In some soils of the latter description, it is said that for a
+chupa (seven cubic inches) planted, the yield has been a caban. The
+former is the two-hundred-and-eighth part of the latter. This is not
+the only advantage gained in planting rich lands, but the saving of
+labor is equally great; for all that is required is to make a hole
+with the fingers, and place three or four grains in it. The upland
+rice requires but little water, and is never irrigated.
+
+The cultivator in the Philippine Islands is always enabled to secure
+plenty of manure; for vegetation is so luxuriant that by pulling the
+weeds and laying them with earth, a good stock is quickly obtained
+with which to cover his fields. Thus, although the growth is so rank
+as to cause him labor, yet in this hot climate its decay is equally
+rapid, which tends to make his labors more successful.
+
+The rice-stacks form a picturesque object on the field; they are
+generally placed around or near a growth of bamboo, whose tall,
+graceful, and feathery outline is of itself a beautiful object,
+but connected as it is often seen with the returns of the harvest,
+it furnishes an additional source of gratification.
+
+The different kinds of rice, and especially the upland, would no doubt
+be an acquisition to our country. At the time we were at Manila, it
+was not thought feasible to pack it, for it had just been reaped,
+and was so green that it would not have kept. [269] Although rice
+is a very prolific crop, yet it is subject to many casualties, from
+the locusts and other insects that devour it; the drought at other
+times affects it, particularly the aquatic varieties. There is a use
+to which the rice is applied here, which was new to us, namely, as a
+substitute for razors; by using two grains of it between the fingers,
+they nip the beard, or extract it from the chin and face.
+
+[Manila hemp.] Among the important productions of these islands, I have
+mentioned hemp, although the article called Manila hemp must not be
+understood to be derived from the plant which produces the common hemp
+(Cannabis), being obtained from a species of plantain (Musa textilis),
+called in the Philippines "abacá." This is a native of these islands,
+and was formerly believed to be found only on Mindanao; but this is
+not the case, for it is cultivated on the south part of Luzon, and
+all the islands south of it. It grows on high ground, in rich soil,
+and is propagated by seeds. It resembles the other plants of the tribe
+of plantains, but its fruit is much smaller, although edible. The
+fibre is derived from the stem, and the plant attains the height of
+fifteen or twenty feet. The usual mode of preparing the hemp is to cut
+off the stem near the ground, before the time or just when the fruit
+is ripe. The stem is then eight or ten feet long below the leaves,
+where it is again cut. The outer coating of the herbaceous stem
+is then stripped off, until the fibers or cellular parts are seen,
+when it undergoes the process of rotting, and after being well dried
+in houses and sheds, is prepared for market by assorting it, a task
+which is performed by the women and children. That which is intended
+for cloth is soaked for an hour or two in weak lime-water prepared
+from sea-shells, again dried, and put up in bundles. From all the
+districts in which it grows, it is sent to Manila, which is the only
+port whence it can legally be exported. It arrives in large bundles,
+and is packed there, by means of a screw-press, in compact bales,
+for shipping, secured by rattan, each weighing two piculs.
+
+The best Manila hemp ought to be white, dry, and of a long and fine
+fiber. This is known at Manila by the name of lupis; the second
+quality they call bandala.
+
+The exportation has much increased within the last few years, in
+consequence of the demand for it in the United States; and the whole
+crop is now monopolized by the two American houses of Sturges & Co.,
+and T. N. Peale & Co., of Manila, who buy all of good quality that
+comes to market. This is divided between the two houses, and the
+price they pay is from four to five dollars the picul. The entire
+quantity raised in 1840 was eighty-three thousand seven hundred and
+ninety piculs; in 1841, eighty-seven thousand.
+
+The quantity exported to the United States in 1840, was sixty-eight
+thousand two hundred and eighty piculs, and in 1841, only sixty-two
+thousand seven hundred piculs; its value in Manila is about three
+hundred thousand dollars. Twenty thousand piculs go to Europe. There
+are no duties on its exportation.
+
+That which is brought to the United States is principally manufactured
+in or near Boston, and is the cordage known as "white rope." The
+cordage manufactured at Manila is, however, very superior to the
+rope made with us, although the hemp is of the inferior kind. A large
+quantity is also manufactured into mats.
+
+In the opinion of our botanist, it is not probable that the plant could
+be introduced with success into our country, for in the Philippines
+it is not found north of latitude 14° N.
+
+[Coffee.] The coffee-plant is well adapted to these islands. A
+few plants were introduced into the gardens of Manila, about fifty
+years ago, since which time it has been spread all over the island,
+as is supposed by the civet-cats, which, after swallowing the seeds,
+carry them to a distance before they are voided.
+
+The coffee of commerce is obtained here from the wild plant, and
+is of an excellent quality. Upwards of three thousand five hundred
+piculs are now exported, of which one-sixth goes to the United States.
+
+[Sugar.] The sugar-cane thrives well here. It is planted after the
+French fashion, by sticking the piece diagonally into the ground. Some,
+finding the cane has suffered in times of drought, have adopted other
+modes. It comes to perfection in a year, and they seldom have two
+crops from the same piece of land, unless the season is very favorable.
+
+There are many kinds of cane cultivated, but that grown in the valley
+of Pampanga is thought to be the best. It is a small red variety, from
+four to five feet high, and not thicker than the thumb. The manufacture
+of the sugar is rudely conducted; and the whole business, I was told,
+was in the hands of a few capitalists, who, by making advances, secure
+the whole crop from those who are employed to bring it to market. It
+is generally brought in moulds, of the usual conical shape, called
+pilones, which are delivered to the purchaser from November to June,
+and contain each about one hundred and fifty pounds. On their receipt,
+they are placed in large storehouses, where the familiar operation
+of claying is performed. The estimate for the quantity of sugar
+from these pilones after this process is about one hundred pounds;
+it depends upon the care taken in the process.
+
+[Cotton.] Of cotton they raise a considerable quantity, which is of a
+fine quality, and principally of the yellow nankeen. In the province
+of Ilocos it is cultivated most extensively. The mode of cleaning it
+of its seed is very rude, by means of a hand-mill, and the expense of
+cleaning a picul (one hundred and forty pounds) is from five to seven
+dollars. There have, as far as I have understood, been no endeavors
+to introduce any cotton-gins from our country.
+
+[Wages.] It will be merely necessary to give the prices at which
+laborers are paid, to show how low the compensation is, in comparison
+with those in our own country. In the vicinity of Manila, twelve and
+a half cents per day is the usual wages; this in the provinces falls
+to six and nine cents. A man with two buffaloes is paid about thirty
+cents. The amount of labor performed by the latter in a day would
+be the ploughing of a soane, about two-tenths of an acre. The most
+profitable way of employing laborers is by the task, when, it is said,
+the natives work well, and are industrious.
+
+The manner in which the sugar and other produce is brought to market
+at Manila is peculiar, and deserves to be mentioned. In some of the
+villages, the chief men unite to build a vessel, generally a pirogue,
+in which they embark their produce, under the conduct of a few persons,
+who go to navigate it, and dispose of the cargo. In due time they
+make their voyage, and when the accounts are settled, the returns
+are distributed to each according to his share. Festivities are then
+held, the saints thanked for their kindness, and blessings invoked
+for another year. After this is over, the vessel is taken carefully
+to pieces, and distributed, among the owners, to be preserved for
+the next season.
+
+The profits in the crops, according to estimates, vary from sixty
+to one hundred per cent.; but it was thought, as a general average,
+that this was, notwithstanding the great productiveness of the soil,
+far beyond the usual profits accruing from agricultural operations. In
+some provinces this estimate would hold good, and probably be exceeded.
+
+[Indigo.] Indigo would probably be a lucrative crop, for that raised
+here is said to be of quality equal to the best, and the crop is
+not subject to so many uncertainties as in India: the capital and
+attention required in vats, etc., prevent it from being raised in
+any quantities. Among the productions, the bamboo and rattan ought to
+claim a particular notice from their great utility; they enter into
+almost every thing. Of the former their houses are built, including
+frames, floors, sides, and roof; fences are made of the same material,
+as well as every article of general household use, including baskets
+for oil and water. The rattan is a general substitute for ropes of
+all descriptions, and the two combined are used in constructing rafts
+for crossing ferries.
+
+I have thus given a general outline of the capabilities of this
+country for agricultural operations, in some of the most important
+articles of commerce; by which it will be seen that the Philippine
+Islands are one of the most favored parts of the globe.
+
+[Locusts.] The crops frequently suffer from the ravages of the locusts,
+which sweep all before them. Fortunately for the poorer classes, their
+attacks take place after the rice has been harvested; but the cane
+is sometimes entirely cut off. The authorities of Manila, in the vain
+hope of stopping their devastations, employ persons to gather them and
+throw them into the sea. I understood on one occasion they had spent
+eighty thousand dollars in this way, but all to little purpose. It is
+said that the crops rarely suffer from droughts, but on the contrary
+the rains are thought to fall too often, and to flood the rice fields;
+these, however, yield a novel crop, and are very advantageous to the
+poor, viz.: a great quantity of fish, which are called dalag, and are
+a species of Blunnius; they are so plentiful, that they are caught
+with baskets: these fish weigh from a half to two pounds, and some are
+said to be eighteen inches long; but this is not all; they are said,
+after a deep inundation, to be found even in the vaults of churches.
+
+The Philippines are divided into thirty-one provinces, sixteen of
+which are on the island of Luzon, and the remainder comprise the
+other islands of the group and the Ladrones.
+
+[Population.] The population of the whole group is above three
+millions, including all tribes of natives, mestizos, and whites. The
+latter-named class are but few in number, not exceeding three
+thousand. The mestizos were supposed to be about fifteen or twenty
+thousand; they are distinguished as Spanish and Indian mestizos. The
+Chinese have of late years increased to a large number, and it is
+said that there are forty thousand of them in and around Manila
+alone. One-half of the whole population belongs to Luzon. The island
+next to it in the number of inhabitants is Panay, which contains
+about three hundred and thirty thousand. Then come Cebu, Mindanao,
+Leyte, Samar, and Negros, varying from the above numbers down to
+fifty thousand. The population is increasing, and it is thought that
+it doubles itself in seventy years. This rate of increase appears
+probable, from a comparison of the present population with the estimate
+made at the beginning of the present century, which shows a growth
+in the forty years of about one million four hundred thousand.
+
+The native population is composed of a number of distinct tribes,
+the principal of which in Luzon are Pangasinan, Ilocos, Cagayan,
+Tagalog, and Pampangan.
+
+The Igorots, who dwell in the mountains, are the only natives who
+have not been subjected by the Spaniards. The other tribes have
+become identified with their rulers in religion, and it is thought
+that by this circumstance alone has Spain been able to maintain the
+ascendency with so small a number, over such a numerous, intelligent,
+and energetic race as they are represented to be. This is, however,
+more easily accounted for, from the Spaniards fostering and keeping
+alive the jealousy and hatred that existed at the time of the discovery
+between the different tribes.
+
+It seems almost incredible that Spain should have so long persisted
+in the policy of allowing no more than one galleon to pass annually
+between her colonies, and equally so that the nations of Europe should
+have been so long deceived in regard to the riches and wealth that
+Spain was monopolizing in the Philippines. The capture of Manila,
+in 1762, by the English, first gave a clear idea of the value of this
+remote and little-known appendage of the empire.
+
+The Philippines, considered in their capacity for commerce, are
+certainly among the most favored portions of the globe, and there is
+but one circumstance that tends in the least degree to lessen their
+apparent advantage; this is the prevalence of typhoons in the China
+seas, which are occasionally felt with force to the north of latitude
+10° N. South of that parallel, they have never been known to prevail,
+and seldom so far; but from their unfailing occurrence yearly in some
+part of the China seas, they are looked for with more or less dread,
+and cause each season a temporary interruption in all the trade that
+passes along the coast of these islands.
+
+The army is now composed entirely of native troops, who number about
+six thousand men, and the regiments are never suffered to serve in
+the provinces in which they are recruited, but those from the north
+are sent to the south, and vice versa. There they are employed to keep
+up a continual watch on each other; and, speaking different dialects,
+they never become identified.
+
+They are, indeed, never allowed to remain long enough in one region,
+to imbibe any feelings in unison with those of its inhabitants. The
+hostility is so great among the regiments, that mutinies have occurred,
+and contests arisen which have produced even bloodshed, which it was
+entirely out of the power of the officers to prevent. In cases of
+this kind, summary punishment is resorted to.
+
+[Conditions not peaceful.] Although the Spaniards, as far as is known
+abroad, live in peace and quiet, this is far from being the case; for
+rebellion and revolts among the troops and tribes are not unfrequent in
+the provinces. During the time of our visit one of these took place,
+but it was impossible to learn anything concerning it that could
+be relied upon, for all conversation respecting such occurrences
+is interdicted by the government. The difficulty to which I refer
+was said to have originated from the preaching of a fanatic priest,
+who inflamed them to such a degree that they overthrew the troops
+and became temporarily masters of the country. Prompt measures were
+immediately taken, and orders issued to give the rebels no quarter;
+the regiments most hostile to those engaged in the revolt were ordered
+to the spot; they spared no one; the priest and his companions were
+taken, put to death, and according to report, in a manner so cruel as
+to be a disgrace to the records of the nineteenth century. Although I
+should hope the accounts I heard of these transactions were incorrect,
+yet the detestation these acts were held in, would give some color
+to the statements.
+
+The few gazettes that are published at Manila are entirely under the
+control of the government; and a resident of that city must make
+up his mind to remain in ignorance of the things that are passing
+around him, or believe just what the authorities will allow to be
+told, whether truth or falsehood. The government of the Philippines
+is emphatically an iron rule: how long it can continue so, is doubtful.
+
+[The governor-general.] One of my first duties was to make an
+official call upon His Excellency Don Marcelino Oroa, who is the
+sixty-first governor of the Philippine Islands. According to the
+established etiquette, Mr. Moore, the vice-consul, announced our
+desire to do so, and requested to be informed of the time when we
+would be received. This was accordingly named, and at the appointed
+hour we proceeded to the palace in the city proper. On our arrival,
+we were announced and led up a flight of steps, ample and spacious,
+but by no means of such splendor as would indicate the residence of
+vice-royalty. The suite of rooms into which we were ushered were so
+dark that it was difficult to see. I made out, however, that they were
+panelled, and by no means richly furnished. His excellency entered
+from a side-door, and led us through two or three apartments into his
+private audience-room, an apartment not quite so dark as those we
+had come from: our being conducted to this, I was told afterwards,
+was to be considered an especial mark of respect to my country. His
+reception of us was friendly. The governor has much more the appearance
+of an Irishman than of a Spaniard, being tall, portly, of a florid
+complexion. He is apparently more than sixty years of age. He was
+dressed in a full suit of black, with a star on his breast.
+
+Mr. Moore acted as interpreter, and the governor readily acceded to my
+request to be allowed to send a party into the interior for a few days;
+a permission which I almost despaired of receiving, for I knew that
+he had refused a like application some few months before. The refusal,
+however, I think was in part owing to the character of the applicants,
+and the doubtful object they had in view. I impute the permission we
+received to the influence of our consul, together with Mr. Sturges,
+whose agreeable manners, conciliatory tone, and high standing with
+the authorities, will, I am satisfied, insure us at all times every
+reasonable advantage or facility.
+
+The term of the governor in office is three years, and the present
+incumbent was installed in 1841. This length of time is thought to be
+sufficient for any one of them to make a fortune. The office is held
+by the appointment of the ministry in Spain, and with it are connected
+perquisites that are shared, it is said, by those who confer them.
+
+After having paid our respects to his excellency, we drove to visit
+several other officers of the government, who received us without
+ceremony. We generally found them in loose morning-gowns, smoking, and
+cigars were invariably offered us; for this habit appears in Manila to
+extend to all ranks. Even in the public offices of the custom-house
+it was the fashion, and cigars, with a machero for striking a light,
+or a joss-stick kept burning, were usually seen in every apartment.
+
+[Courteous Spanish officials.] To the captain of the port, Don Juan
+Salomon, I feel under many obligations for his attentions. I was
+desirous of obtaining information relative to the Sulu Seas, and to
+learn how far the Spanish surveys had been carried. He gave me little
+hopes of obtaining any; but referred me to Captain Halcon, of the
+Spanish Navy, who had been employed surveying some part of the coast
+of the islands to the north. The latter whom I visited, on my making
+the inquiry of him, and stating the course I intended to pursue,
+frankly told me that all the existing charts were erroneous. He
+only knew enough of the ground to be certain that they were so,
+and consequently useless. He advised my taking one of the native
+pilots, who were generally well acquainted with the seas that lay
+more immediately in my route. The captain of the port was afterwards
+kind enough to offer to procure me one.
+
+The intercourse I had with these gentlemen was a source of much
+gratification, and it gives me great pleasure to make this public
+expression of it. To both, my sincere acknowledgments are due for
+information in relation to the various reefs and shoals that have
+been recently discovered, and which will be found placed in their
+true position on our charts.
+
+During our stay at Manila, our time was occupied in seeing sights,
+shopping, riding, and amusing ourselves with gazing on the throng
+incessantly passing through the Escolta of the Binondo suburb, or
+more properly, the commercial town of Manila.
+
+[Cigar factories.] Among the lions of the place, the great royal cigar
+manufactories claim especial notice from their extent and the many
+persons employed. There are two of these establishments, one situated
+in the Binondo quarter, and the other on the great square or Prado;
+in the former, which was visited by us, there are two buildings of
+two stories high, besides several storehouses, enclosed by a wall,
+with two large gateways, at which sentinels are always posted. The
+principal workshop is in the second story, which is divided into six
+apartments, in which eight thousand females are employed. Throughout
+the whole extent, tables are arranged, about sixteen inches high,
+ten feet long, and three feet wide, at each of which fifteen women
+are seated, having small piles of tobacco before them. The tables are
+set crosswise from the wall, leaving a space in the middle of the room
+free. The labor of a female produces about two hundred cigars a day;
+and the working hours are from 6 a.m., till 6 p.m., with a recess of
+two hours, from eleven till one o'clock. The whole establishment is
+kept very neat and clean, and every thing appears to be carried on
+in the most systematic and workmanlike manner. Among such numbers,
+it has been found necessary to institute a search on their leaving
+the establishment to prevent embezzlement, and this is regularly
+made twice a day, without distinction of sex. It is a strange sight
+to witness the ingress and egress of these hordes of females; and
+probably the world cannot elsewhere exhibit so large a number of ugly
+women. Their ages vary from fifteen to forty-five. The sum paid them
+for wages is very trifling. The whole number of persons employed in the
+manufactories is about fifteen thousand; this includes the officers,
+clerks, overseers, etc.
+
+As nearly as I could ascertain, the revenue derived from these
+establishments is half a million of dollars.
+
+The natives of the Philippines are industrious. They manufacture an
+amount of goods sufficient to supply their own wants, particularly
+from Panay and Ilocos. These for the most part consist of cotton and
+silks, and a peculiar article called piña. The latter is manufactured
+from a species of Bromelia (pineapple), and comes principally
+from the island of Panay. The finest kinds of piña are exceedingly
+beautiful, and surpass any other material in its evenness and beauty
+of texture. Its color is yellowish, and the embroidery is fully
+equal to the material. It is much sought after by all strangers,
+and considered as one of the curiosities of this group. Various
+reports have been stated of the mode of its manufacture, and among
+others that it was woven under water, which I found, upon inquiry,
+to be quite erroneous. The web of the piña is so fine, that they
+are obliged to prevent all currents of air from passing through the
+rooms where it is manufactured, for which purpose there are gauze
+screens in the windows. After the article is brought to Manila, it
+is then embroidered by girls; this last operation adds greatly to
+its value. We visited one of the houses where this was in progress,
+and where the most skilful workwomen are employed.
+
+On mounting the stairs of bamboos, every step we took produced its
+creak; but, although the whole seemed but a crazy affair, yet it did
+not want for strength, being well and firmly bound together. There
+were two apartments, each about thirteen by twenty-five feet, which
+could be divided by screens, if required. At the end of it were seen
+about forty females, all busily plying their needles, and so closely
+seated as apparently to incommode each other. The mistress of the
+manufactory, who was quite young, gave us a friendly reception, and
+showed us the whole process of drawing the threads and working the
+patterns, which, in many cases, were elegant.
+
+A great variety of dresses, scarfs, caps, collars, cuffs, and
+pocket-handkerchiefs, were shown us. These were mostly in the rough
+state, and did not strike us with that degree of admiration which was
+expected. They, however, had been in hand for six months, and were
+soiled by much handling; but when others were shown us in the finished
+state, washed and put up, they were such as to claim our admiration.
+
+I was soon attracted by a very different sight at the other end of the
+apartment. This was a dancing-master and his scholar, of six years old,
+the daughter of the woman of the house. It was exceedingly amusing
+to see the airs and graces of this child.
+
+For music they had a guitar; and I never witnessed a ballet that
+gave me more amusement, or saw a dancer that evinced more grace,
+ease, confidence, and decided talent, than did this little girl. She
+was prettily formed, and was exceedingly admired and applauded by us
+all. Her mother considered her education as finished, and looked on
+with all the admiration and fondness of parental affection.
+
+On inquiry, I found that the idea of teaching her to read and write had
+not yet been entertained. Yet every expense is incurred to teach them
+to use their feet and arms, and to assume the expression of countenance
+that will enable them to play a part in the afterscenes of life.
+
+This manufactory had work engaged for nine months or a year in
+advance. The fabric is extremely expensive, and none but the wealthy
+can afford it. It is also much sought after by foreigners. Even orders
+for Queen Victoria and many of the English nobility were then in hand;
+at least I so heard at Manila. Those who are actually present have,
+notwithstanding, the privilege of selecting what they wish to purchase;
+for, with the inhabitants here, as elsewhere, ready money has too
+much attraction for them to forego the temptation.
+
+Time in Manila seems to hang heavily on the hands of some of its
+inhabitants; their amusements are few, and the climate ill adapted to
+exertion. The gentlemen of the higher classes pass their morning in
+the transaction of a little public business, lounging about, smoking,
+etc. In the afternoon, they sleep, and ride on the Prado; and in the
+evening, visit their friends, or attend a tertulia. The ladies are to
+be pitied; for they pass three-fourths of their time in déshabillé,
+with their maids around them, sleeping, dressing, lolling, and combing
+their hair. In this way the whole morning is lounged away; they neither
+read, write, nor work. In dress they generally imitate the Europeans,
+except that they seldom wear stockings, and go with their arms bare. In
+the afternoon they ride on the Prado in state, and in the evening
+accompany their husbands. Chocolate is taken early in the morning,
+breakfast at eleven, and dinner and supper are included in one meal.
+
+Mothers provide for the marriage of their daughters; and I was told
+that such a thing as a gentleman proposing to any one but the mother,
+or a young lady engaging herself, is unknown and unheard of. The
+negotiation is all carried forward by the mother, and the daughter is
+given to any suitor she may deem a desirable match. The young ladies
+are said to be equally disinclined to a choice themselves, and if
+proposals were made to them, the suitor would be at once referred to
+the mother. Among the lower orders it is no uncommon thing for the
+parties to be living without the ceremony of marriage, until they have
+a family and no odium whatever is attached to such a connexion. They
+are looked upon as man and wife, though they do not live together; and
+they rarely fail to solemnize their union when they have accumulated
+sufficient property to procure the requisite articles for housekeeping.
+
+[The Luneta.] Three nights in each week they have music in the plaza,
+in front of the governor's palace, by the bands of four different
+regiments, who collect there after the evening parade. Most of the
+better class resort here, for the pleasure of enjoying it. We went
+thither to see the people as well as to hear the music. This is the
+great resort of the haut ton, who usually have their carriages in
+waiting, and promenade in groups backwards and forwards during the
+time the music is playing. This is by far the best opportunity that
+one can have for viewing the society of Manila, which seems as easy
+and unrestrained as the peculiar gravity and ceremonious mode of
+intercourse among the old Spaniards can admit. Before the present
+governor took office, it had been the custom to allow the bands to
+play on the Prado every fine evening, when all the inhabitants could
+enjoy it until a late hour; but he has interdicted this practice,
+and of course given much dissatisfaction; he is said to have done
+this in a fit of ill temper, and although importuned to restore this
+amusement to the common people, he pertinaciously refuses.
+
+The bands of the regiments are under the direction of Frenchmen and
+Spaniards: the musicians are all natives, and play with a correct ear.
+
+Our afternoons were spent in drives on the Prado, where all the
+fashion and rank of Manila are to be met, and where it is exceedingly
+agreeable to partake of the fresh and pure air after a heated day in
+the city. The extreme end of the Prado lies along the shore of the bay
+of Manila, having the roadstead and ships on one side, and the city
+proper with its fortifications and moats on the other. This drive
+usually lasts for an hour, and all sorts of vehicles are shown off,
+from the governor's coach and six, surrounded by his lancers, to the
+sorry chaise and limping nag. The carriage most used is a four-wheeled
+biloche, with a gig top, quite low, and drawn by two horses, on one
+of which is a postilion; these vehicles are exceedingly comfortable
+for two persons. The horses are small, but spirited, and are said
+to be able to undergo great fatigue, although their appearance
+does not promise it. This drive is enlivened by the music of the
+different regiments, who are at this time to be seen manoeuvering on
+the Prado. The soldiers have a very neat and clean appearance; great
+attention is paid to them, and the whole are well appointed. The force
+stationed in Manila is six thousand, and the army in the Philippines
+amounts to twenty thousand men. The officers are all Spaniards,
+generally the relations and friends of those in the administration
+of the government. The pay of the soldiers is four dollars a month,
+and a ration, which is equal to six cents a day. As troops I was told,
+they acquitted themselves well. The Prado is laid out in many avenues,
+leading in various directions to the suburbs, and these are planted
+with wild almond trees, which afford a pleasant shade. It is well kept,
+and creditable to the city.
+
+In passing the crowds of carriages very little display of female
+beauty is observed, and although well-dressed above, one cannot but
+revert to their wearing no stockings beneath.
+
+On the Prado is a small theatre, but so inferior that the building
+scarce deserves the name: the acting was equally bad. This amusement
+meets with little encouragement in Manila and, I was told, was
+discountenanced by the Governor.
+
+[A tertulia.] I had the pleasure during our stay of attending a
+tertulia in the city. The company was not a large one, comprising
+some thirty or forty ladies and about sixty gentlemen. It resembled
+those of the mother country. Dancing was introduced at an early hour,
+and continued till a few minutes before eleven o'clock, at which
+time the gates of the city are always shut. It was amusing to see
+the sudden breaking up of the party, most of the guests residing out
+of the city. The calling for carriages, shawls, hats, etc., produced
+for a few minutes great confusion, every one being desirous of getting
+off at the earliest moment possible, for fear of being too late. This
+regulation, by which the gates are closed at so early an hour, does
+not appear necessary, and only serves to interrupt the communication
+between the foreign and Spanish society as the former is obliged, as
+before observed, to live outside of the city proper. This want of free
+intercourse is to be regretted, as it prevents that kind of friendship
+by which many of their jealousies and prejudices might be removed.
+
+The society at this tertulia was easy, and so far as the enjoyment
+of dancing went, pleasant; but there was no conversation. The
+refreshments consisted of a few dulces, lemonade, and strong drinks
+in an anteroom. The house appeared very spacious and well adapted for
+entertainments, but only one of the rooms was well lighted. From the
+novelty of the scene, and the attentions of the gentleman of the house,
+we passed a pleasant evening.
+
+The natives and mestizos attracted much of my attention at
+Manila. Their dress is peculiar: over a pair of striped trousers
+of various colors, the men usually wear a fine grass-cloth shirt,
+a large straw hat, and around the head or neck a many colored silk
+handkerchief. They often wear slippers as well as shoes. The Chinese
+dress, as they have done for centuries, in loose white shirts and
+trousers. One peculiarity of the common men is their passion for
+cock-fighting; and they carry these fowls wherever they go, after a
+peculiar fashion under their arm.
+
+[Cock-figghting.] Cock-fighting is licensed by the government, and
+great care is taken in the breeding of game fowls, which are very large
+and heavy birds. They are armed with a curved double-edged gaff. The
+exhibitions are usually crowded with half-breeds or mestizos, who are
+generally more addicted to gambling than either the higher or lower
+classes of Spaniards. It would not be an unapt designation to call
+the middling class cock-fighters, for their whole lives seem to be
+taken up with the breeding and fighting of these birds. On the exit
+from a cockpit, I was much amused with the mode of giving the return
+check, which was done by a stamp on the naked arm, and precludes
+the possibility of its transfer to another person. The dress of the
+lower order of females is somewhat civilized, yet it bore so strong
+a resemblance to that of the Polynesians as to recall the latter
+to our recollection. A long piece of colored cotton is wound round
+the body, like the pareu, and tucked in at the side: this covers
+the nether limbs; and a jacket fitting close to the body is worn,
+without a shirt. In some, this jacket is ornamented with work around
+the neck; it has no collar, and in many cases no sleeves, and over
+this a richly embroidered cape. The feet are covered with slippers,
+with wooden soles, which are kept on by the little toe, only four toes
+entering the slipper, and the little one being on the outside. The
+effect of both costumes is picturesque.
+
+[Ducks.] The market is a never failing place of amusement to a
+foreigner, for there a crowd of the common people is always to be seen,
+and their mode of conducting business may be observed. The canals
+here afford great facilities for bringing vegetables and produce to
+market in a fresh state. The vegetables are chiefly brought from the
+shores of the Laguna de Bay, through the river Pasig. The meat appeared
+inferior, and as in all Spanish places the art of butchering is not
+understood. The poultry, however, surpasses that of any other place
+I have seen, particularly in ducks, the breeding of which is pursued
+to a great extent. Establishments for breeding these birds are here
+carried on in a systematic manner, and are a great curiosity. They
+consist of many small enclosures, each about twenty feet by forty or
+fifty, made of bamboo, which are placed on the bank of the river,
+and partly covered with water. In one corner of the enclosure is a
+small house, where the eggs are hatched by artificial heat, produced
+by rice-chaff in a state of of fermentation. It is not uncommon to see
+six or eight hundred ducklings all of the same age. There are several
+hundreds of these enclosures, and the number of ducks of all ages
+may be computed at millions. The manner in which they are schooled
+to take exercise, and to go in and out of the water, and to return
+to their house, almost exceeds belief. The keepers or tenders are of
+the Tagalog tribe, who live near the enclosures, and have them at all
+times under their eye. The old birds are not suffered to approach
+the young, and all of one age are kept together. They are fed upon
+rice and a small species of shell-fish that is found in the river
+and is peculiar to it. From the extent of these establishments we
+inferred that ducks were the favorite article of food at Manila, and
+the consumption of them must be immense. The markets are well supplied
+with chickens, pigeons, young partridges, which are brought in alive,
+and turkeys. Among strange articles that we saw for sale, were cakes
+of coagulated blood. The markets are well stocked with a variety of
+fish, taken both in the Laguna and bay of Manila, affording a supply
+of both the fresh and salt water species, and many smaller kinds that
+are dried and smoked. Vegetables are in great plenty, and consist
+of pumpkins, lettuce, onions, radishes, very long squashes, etc.;
+of fruits, they have melons, chicos, durians, marbolas, and oranges.
+
+[Fish.] Fish are caught in weirs, by the hook, or in seines. The former
+are constructed of bamboo stakes, in the shallow water of the lake,
+at the point where it flows through the Pasig river. In the bay,
+and at the mouth of the river, the fish are taken in nets, suspended
+by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane, by which they are
+lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts,
+and are called sarabaos.
+
+The usual passage-boat is termed banca, and is made of a single
+trunk. These are very much used by the inhabitants. They have a
+sort of awning to protect the passenger from the rays of the sun;
+and being light are easily rowed about, although they are exceedingly
+uncomfortable to sit in, from the lowness of the seats, and liable to
+overset, if the weight is not placed near the bottom. The outrigger
+was very often dispensed with, owing to the impediment it offered to
+the navigation of their canals; these canals offer great facilities
+for the transportation of burdens; the banks of almost all of them
+are faced with granite. Where the streets cross them, there are
+substantial stone bridges, which are generally of no more than one
+arch, so as not to impede the navigation. The barges used for the
+transportation of produce resemble our canal-boats, and have sliding
+roofs to protect them from the rain.
+
+Water, for the supply of vessels, is brought off in large earthen
+jars. It is obtained from the river, and if care is not taken, the
+water will be impure; it ought to be filled beyond the city. Our
+supply was obtained five or six miles up the river, by a lighter,
+in which were placed a number of water-casks. It proved excellent.
+
+The trade of Manila extends to all parts of the world.
+
+There are many facilities for the transaction of business, as far as
+the shipment of articles is concerned; but great difficulties attend
+the settling of disputed accounts, collecting debts, etc., in the
+way of which the laws passed in 1834 have thrown many obstacles. All
+commercial business of this kind goes before, first, the Junta
+de Comercio, and then an appeal to the Tribunal de Comercio. This
+appeal, however, is merely nominal; for the same judges preside in
+each, and they are said to be susceptible of influences that render
+an appeal to them by honest men at all times hazardous. The opinion
+of those who have had the misfortune to be obliged to recur to these
+tribunals is, that it is better to suffer wrong than encounter both
+the expense and vexation of a resort to them for justice. In the
+first of these courts the decision is long delayed, fees exacted,
+and other expenses incurred; and when judgment is at length given,
+it excites one party or the other to appeal: other expenses accrue
+in consequence, and the advocates and judges grow rich while both the
+litigants suffer. I understood that these tribunals were intended to
+simplify business, lessen the time of suits, and promote justice; but
+these results have not been obtained, and many believe that they have
+had the contrary effect, and have opened the road to further abuses.
+
+[Environs.] The country around Manila, though no more than an extended
+plain for some miles, is one of great interest and beauty, and affords
+many agreeable rides on the roads to Santa Ana and Mariquina. Most of
+the country-seats are situated on the Pasig river; they may indeed
+be called palaces, from their extent and appearance. They are built
+upon a grand scale, and after the Italian style, with terraces,
+supported by strong abutments, decked with vases of plants. The
+grounds are ornamented with the luxuriant, lofty, and graceful trees
+of the tropics; these are tolerably well kept. Here and there fine
+large stone churches, with their towers and steeples, are to be seen,
+the whole giving the impression of a wealthy nobility, and a happy
+and flourishing peasantry.
+
+[The cemetery.] In one of our rides we made a visit to the Campo Santo
+or cemetery, about four miles from Manila. It is small, but has many
+handsome trees about it; among them was an Agati, full of large white
+flowers, showing most conspicuously. The whole place is as unlike a
+depository of the dead as it well can be. Its form is circular, having
+a small chapel, in the form of a rotunda, directly opposite the gate,
+or entrance. The walls are about twenty feet high, with three tiers of
+niches, in which the bodies are enclosed with quicklime. Here they are
+allowed to remain for three years, or until such time as the niches
+may be required for further use. Niches may be purchased, however,
+and permanently closed up; but in the whole cemetery there were but
+five thus secured. This would seem to indicate an indifference on the
+part of the living, for their departed relatives or friends; at least
+such was my impression at the time. The center of the enclosure is laid
+out as a flower-garden and shrubbery, and all the buildings are washed
+a deep buff-color, with white cornices; these colors, when contrasted
+with the green foliage, give an effect that is not unpleasing. In
+the chapel are two tombs, the one for the bishop, and the other for
+the governor. The former, I believe, is occupied, and will continue
+to be so, until another shall follow him; but the latter is empty,
+for, since the erection of the cemetery, none of the governors have
+died. In the rear of the chapel is another small cemetery, called Los
+Angeles; and, further behind, the Osero. The former is similar to the
+one in front, but smaller, and appropriated exclusively to children;
+the latter is an open space, where the bones of all those who have
+been removed from the niches, after three years, are east out, and
+now lie in a confused heap, with portions of flesh and hair adhering
+to them. No person is allowed to be received here for interment,
+until the fees are first paid to the priest, however respectable the
+parties may be; and all those who pay the fees, and are of the true
+faith, can be interred. I was told of a corpse of a very respectable
+person being refused admittance, for the want of the priest's pass,
+to show that the claim had been satisfied, and the coffin stopped
+in the road until it was obtained. We ourselves witnessed a similar
+refusal. A servant entered with a dead child; borne on a tray, which
+he presented to the sacristan to have interred, the latter asked him
+for the pass, which not being produced, he was dismissed, nor was he
+suffered to leave his burden until this requisite could be procured
+from the priest, who lived opposite. The price of interment was three
+dollars, but whether this included the purchase of the niche, or its
+rent for the three years only, I did not learn.
+
+The churches of Manila can boast of several fine-toned bells, which
+are placed in large belfries or towers. There was one of these towers
+near the Messrs. Sturges', where we stayed; and the manner in which
+the bell was used, when swung around by the force of two or three men,
+attracted our attention; for the ringers occasionally practised feats
+of agility by passing over with the bell, and landing on the coping on
+the opposite side. The tower being open, we could see the manoeuver
+from the windows, and, as strangers, went there to look on. One day,
+whilst at dinner, they began to ring, and as many of the officers
+had not witnessed the fact, they sought the windows. This excited
+the vanity of those in the belfry, who redoubled their exertions,
+and performed the feat successfully many times, although in some
+instances they narrowly escaped accident, by landing just within
+the outside coping. This brought us all to the window, and the next
+turn, more force having been given to the bell, the individual who
+attempted the feat was thrown headlong beyond the tower, and dashed
+to pieces on the pavement beneath. Although shocked at the accident,
+I felt still more so when, after a few minutes, the bell was again
+heard making its usual sound, as if nothing had occurred to interrupt
+the course of its hourly peals.
+
+[Monasteries.] In company with Dr. Tolben, I visited one of the
+convents where he attended on some of the monks who were sick; he
+seemed well acquainted with them all. I was much struck with the extent
+of the building, which was four stories high, with spacious corridors
+and galleries, the walls of which were furnished with pictures
+representing the martyrdom of the Dominican friars in Japan. These were
+about seventy in number, in the Chinese style of art, and evidently
+painted by some one of that nation, calling himself an artist. From
+appearances, however, I should think they were composed by the priests,
+who have not a little taxed their invention to find out the different
+modes in which a man can be put to death. Many evidently, if not all,
+had been invented for the pictures. So perplexed had they apparently
+been, that in one of the last it was observed that the executioner
+held his victim at arms' length by the heels, and was about to let him
+drop headforemost into a well. From the galleries we passed into the
+library, and thence into many of the rooms, and finally we mounted to
+the top of the monastery, which affords a beautiful view of the bay,
+city, and suburbs. There I was presented to three of the friars,
+who were pleasant and jolly-looking men. Upon the roof was a kind
+of observatory, or look-out, simply furnished with billiard-tables
+and shuffleboards, while the implements for various other games lay
+about on small tables, with telescopes on stands, and comfortable
+arm-chairs. It was a place where the friars put aside their religious
+and austere character or appearance, and sought amusement. It was
+a delightful spot, so far as coolness and the freshness of the sea
+air were concerned, and its aspect gave me an insight behind the
+curtain of these establishments that very soon disclosed many things
+I was ignorant of before. All the friars were of a rotund form,
+and many of them bore the marks of good living in their full, red,
+and bloated faces. It seems to be generally understood at Manila,
+that they live upon the fat of the land. We visited several of the
+rooms, and were warmly greeted by the padres, one of whom presented
+me with a meteorological table for the previous year.
+
+The revenues of all these religious establishments are considerable;
+the one I visited belonged to the Dominicans, and was very rich. Their
+revenues are principally derived from lands owned by them, and the
+tithes from the different districts which they have under their charge,
+to which are added many alms and gifts. On inquiry, I found their
+general character was by no means thought well of, and they had of
+late years lost much of the influence that they possessed before the
+revolution in the mother country.
+
+Among the inhabitants we saw here, was a native boy of the Igorots,
+or mountain tribe. He is said to be a true Negrito. (Another confusion
+of facts.--C.)
+
+[Mountaineers.] The Spaniards, as has been stated, have never been
+able to subdue this tribe, who are said to be still as wild as on
+their first landing; they are confined almost altogether to the plains
+within or near the mountains, and from time to time make inroads in
+great force on the outer settlements, carrying off as much plunder
+as possible. The burden of this often causes them to be overtaken
+by the troops. When overtaken, they fight desperately, and were it
+not for the fire-arms of their adversaries, would give them much
+trouble. Few are captured on such occasions, and it is exceedingly
+difficult to take them alive, unless when very young. These mountains
+furnish them with an iron ore almost pure, in manufacturing which
+they show much ingenuity. Some of their weapons were presented to
+the Expedition by Josiah Moore, Esq. These are probably imitations
+of the early Spanish weapons used against them. From all accounts,
+the natives are of Malay origin, and allied to those of the other
+islands of the extensive archipelago of the Eastern Seas; but the
+population of the towns and cities of the island are so mixed,
+from the constant intercourse with Chinese, Europeans, and others,
+that there is no pure blood among them. When at Manila, we obtained a
+grammar of the Tagalog language, which is said to be now rarely heard,
+and to have become nearly obsolete. This grammar is believed to be the
+only one extant, and was procured from a padre, who presented it to the
+Expedition. (Tagalog is here mistaken for a mountaineer's dialect.--C.)
+
+The Pampangans are considered the finest tribe of natives; they are
+excessively fond of horse-racing, and bet very considerable sums upon
+it; they have the reputation of being an industrious and energetic
+set of men.
+
+[Revenue.] The mode of raising revenue by a poll-tax causes great
+discontent among all classes, for although light, it is, as it always
+has been elsewhere, unpopular. All the Chinese pay a capitation tax
+of four dollars. The revenue from various sources is said to amount
+to one million six hundred thousand dollars, of which the poll-tax
+amounts to more than one-half, the rest being derived from the customs,
+tobacco, etc. There is no tax upon land. It was thought at Manila
+that a revenue might be derived by indirect taxation, far exceeding
+this sum, without being sensibly felt by the inhabitants. This mode
+is employed in the eastern islands under the English and Dutch rule,
+and it is surprising that the Spaniards also do not adopt it, or some
+other method to increase resources that are so much needed. Whenever
+the ministry in Spain had to meet a claim, they were a few years
+ago in the habit of issuing drafts on this colonial government in
+payment. These came at last in such numbers, that latterly they have
+been compelled to suspend the payment of them.
+
+The revenue of the colonial government is very little more than will
+meet the expenses; and it is believed that, notwithstanding these
+unaccepted claims, it received orders to remit the surplus, if any,
+to Spain, regardless of honor or good faith.
+
+[Government.] The government of the Philippines is in the hands of a
+governor-general, who has the titles of viceroy, commander-in-chief,
+sub-delegate, judge of the revenue from the post-office, commander of
+the troops, captain-general, and commander of the naval forces. His
+duties embrace every thing that relates to the security and defence
+of the country. As advisers, he has a council called the Audiencia.
+
+The islands are divided into provinces, each of which has a
+military officer with the title of governor, appointed by the
+governor-general. They act as chief magistrates, have jurisdiction
+over all disputes of minor importance, have the command of the troops
+in time of war, and are collectors of the royal revenues, for the
+security of which they give bonds, which must be approved of by the
+comptroller-general of the treasury. The province of Cavite is alone
+exempt from this rule, and the collection of tribute is there confided
+to a police magistrate.
+
+Each province is again sub-divided into pueblos, containing a greater
+or less number of inhabitants, each of which has again its ruler,
+called a gobernadorcillo, who has in like manner other officers under
+him to act as police magistrates. The number of the latter are very
+great, each of them having his appropriate duties. These consist in the
+supervision of the grain fields, coconut groves, betel-nut plantations,
+and in the preservation of the general order and peace of the town. So
+numerous are these petty officers, that there is scarcely a family of
+any consequence, that has not a member who holds some kind of office
+under government. This policy, in case of disturbances, at once
+unites a large and influential body on the side of the government,
+that is maintained at little expense. The gobernadorcillo exercises
+the municipal authority, and is especially charged to aid the parish
+priest in every thing appertaining to religious observances, etc.
+
+In the towns where the descendants of the Chinese are sufficiently
+numerous, they can, by permission of the governor, elect their own
+petty governors and officers from among themselves.
+
+In each town there is also a headman (cabeza de barangay), who has
+the charge of fifty tributaries, in each of which is included as
+many families. This division is called a barangay. This office forms
+by far the most important part of the machinery of government in the
+Philippine Islands, for these headmen are the attorneys of these small
+districts, and become the electors of the gobernadorcillos, and other
+civil officers. Only twelve, however, of them or their substitutes,
+are allowed to vote in each town.
+
+The office of head-man existed before the conquest of the island,
+and the Spaniards showed their wisdom in continuing and adapting it to
+their system of police. The office among the natives was hereditary,
+but their conquerors made it also elective, and when a vacancy now
+occurs through want of heirs, or resignation, it is filled up by
+the superintendent of the province, on the recommendation of the
+gobernadorcillo and the headman. This is also the case when any new
+office is created. The privileges of the headmen are great; themselves,
+their wives, and their first-born children, are exempted from paying
+tribute to the crown, an exoneration which is owing to their being
+collectors of the royal revenues. Their duties consist in maintaining
+good order and harmony, in dividing the labor required for the public
+benefit equally, adjusting differences, and receiving the taxes.
+
+The gobernadorcillo takes cognizance of all civil cases not exceeding
+two taels of gold, or forty-four dollars in silver; all criminal
+cases must be sent to the chief of the province. The headmen formerly
+served for no more than three years, and if this was done faithfully,
+they became and were designated as principals, in virtue of which
+rank they received the title of Don.
+
+The election takes place at the court-house of the town; the electors
+are the gobernadorcillo whose office is about to expire, and twelve
+of the oldest headmen, cabezas de barangay, collectors of tribute
+for the gobernadorcillo they must select, by a plurality of votes,
+three individuals, who must be able to speak, read, and write the
+Spanish language. The voting is done by ballot, in the presence
+of the notary (escribano), and the chief of the province, who
+presides. The curate may be present, to look after the interest of
+the church but for no other purpose. After the votes are taken, they
+are sealed and transmitted to the governor-general, who selects one
+of the three candidates, and issues a commission. In the more distant
+provinces, the chief of the district has the authority to select the
+gobernadorcillo, and fill up the commission, a blank form of which,
+signed by the governor-general, is left with him for that purpose.
+
+The headmen may be elected petty governors, and still retain their
+office, and collect the tribute or taxes; for it is not considered
+just, that the important office of chief of Barangay should deprive
+the holder of the honor of being elected gobernadorcillo.
+
+The greater part of the Chinese reside in the province of Tondo,
+but the tribute is there collected by the alcalde mayor, with an
+assistant taken from among the officers of the royal treasury.
+
+The poll-tax on the Chinese amounts to four dollars a head; it was
+formerly one-half more. Tax-lists of the Chinese are kept, in which
+they are registered and classified; and opposite the name is the
+amount at which the individual is assessed.
+
+The Spanish government seems particularly desirous of giving
+consequence even to its lowest offices; and in order to secure it to
+them, it is directed that the chiefs of provinces, shall treat the
+gobernadorcillos with respect, offering them seats when they enter
+their houses or other places, and not allowing them to remain standing;
+furthermore, the parish curates are required to treat them with
+equal respect. So far as concerns the provinces, the government may
+be called, notwithstanding the officers, courts. etc., monastic. The
+priests rule, and frequently administer punishment, with their own
+hands, to either sex, of which an instance will be cited hereafter.
+
+[A country excursion.] As soon as we could procure the necessary
+passports, which were obligingly furnished by the governor to "Don
+Russel Sturges y quatro Anglo Americanos," our party left Manila
+for a short jaunt to the mountains. It was considered as a mark of
+great favor on the part of his excellency to grant this indulgence,
+particularly as he had a few months prior denied it to a party of
+French officers. I was told that he preferred to make it a domestic
+concern, by issuing the passport in the name of a resident, in order
+that compliance in this case might not give umbrage to the French. It
+was generally believed that the cause of the refusal in the former
+instance was the imprudent manner in which the French officers went
+about taking plans and sketches, at the corners of streets, etc., which
+in the minds of an unenlightened and ignorant colonial government, of
+course excited suspicion. Nothing can be so ridiculous as this system
+of passports; for if one was so disposed, a plan, and the most minute
+information of every thing that concerns the defences of places, can
+always be obtained at little cost now-a-days; for such is the skill of
+engineers, that a plan is easily made of places, merely by a sight of
+them. We were not, however, disposed to question the propriety of the
+governor's conduct in the former case, and I left abundantly obliged
+to him for a permission that would add to our stock of information.
+
+It was deemed at first impossible for the party to divide, as they
+had but one passport, and some difficulties were anticipated from
+the number being double that stated in the passport. The party
+consisted of Messrs. Sturges, Pickering, Eld, Rich, Dana, and
+Brackenridge. Mr. Sturges, however, saw no difficulty in dividing the
+party after they had passed beyond the precincts of the city, taking
+the precaution, at the same time, not to appear together beyond the
+number designated on the paper.
+
+On the 14th, they left Manila, and proceeded in carriages to Santa Ana,
+on the Pasig, in order to avoid the delay that would ensue if they
+followed the windings of the river in a banca, and against the current.
+
+At Santa Ana they found their bancas waiting for them, and
+embarked. Here the scene was rendered animated by numerous boats of
+all descriptions, from the parao to the small canoe of a single log.
+
+There is a large population that live wholly on the water: for the
+padrones of the parao have usually their families with them, which,
+from the great variety of ages and sexes, give a very different and
+much more bustling appearance to the crowd of boats, than would be the
+case if they only contained those who are employed to navigate them. At
+times the paraos and bancas, of all sizes, together with the saraboas
+and pativas (duck establishments), become jumbled together, and create
+a confusion and noise such as is seldom met with in any other country.
+
+[Duck farms.] The pativas are under the care of the original
+inhabitants, to whom exclusively the superintendence of the ducklings
+seems to be committed. The pens are made of bamboo, and are not
+over a foot high. The birds were all in admirable order, and made no
+attempt to escape over the low barrier, although so light that it was
+thought by some of our gentlemen it would not have sufficed to confine
+American ducks, although their wings might have been cut. The mode of
+giving them exercise was by causing them to run round in a ring. The
+good understanding existing between the keepers and their charge was
+striking, particularly when the former were engaged in cleansing the
+pens, and assisting the current to carry off the impurities. In the
+course of their sail, it was estimated that hundreds of thousands of
+ducks of all ages were seen.
+
+The women who were seen were usually engaged in fishing with a hook
+and line, and were generally standing in the water, or in canoes. The
+saraboas were here also in use. The run of the fish is generally
+concentrated by a chevaux-de-frise to guide them towards the nets
+and localities where the fishermen place themselves.
+
+At five o'clock they reached the Laguna de Bay, where they took in a
+new crew, with mast and sail. This is called twenty-five miles from
+Manila by the river; the distance in a bird's flight is not over
+twelve. The whole distance is densely peopled, and well cultivated. The
+crops consist of indigo, rice, etc., with groves of the betel, palm,
+coconut, and quantities of fruit trees.
+
+The shores of the lake are shelving, and afford good situations
+for placing fish-weirs, which are here established on an extensive
+scale. These weirs are formed of slips of bamboo, and are to be seen
+running in every direction to the distance of two or three miles. They
+may be said to invest entirely the shores of the lake for several miles
+from its outlet, and without a pilot it would be difficult to find the
+way through them. At night, when heron and tern were seen roosting on
+the top of each slat, these weirs presented rather a curious spectacle.
+
+The Laguna de Bay is said to be about ten leagues in length by three in
+width, and trends in a north-northwest and south-southeast direction.
+
+After dark, the bancas separated. Mr. Sturges, with Dr. Pickering
+and Mr. Eld, proceeded to visit the mountain of Maijaijai,
+while Messrs. Rich, Dana, and Brackenridge, went towards the Taal
+Volcano. The latter party took the passport, while the former relied
+upon certain letters of introduction for protection, in case of
+difficulty.
+
+Mr. Sturges, with his party, directed his course to the east side
+of the lake, towards a point called Jalajala, which they reached
+about three o'clock in the morning, and stopped for the crew to cook
+some rice, etc. At 8 o'clock a.m., they reached Santa Cruz, situated
+about half a mile up a small streamlet, called Paxanau. At this place
+they found Don Escudero to whom they had a letter of introduction,
+and who holds a civil appointment. They were kindly received by this
+gentleman and his brown lady, with their interesting family. He at
+once ordered horses for them to proceed to the mission of Maijaijai,
+and entertained them with a sumptuous breakfast.
+
+They were not prepared to set out before noon, until which time they
+strolled about the town of Santa Cruz, the inhabitants of which
+are Tagalogs. There are only two old Spaniards in the place. The
+province in which Santa Cruz is situated contains about five thousand
+inhabitants, of whom eighteen hundred pay tribute.
+
+The people have the character of being orderly, and govern themselves
+without the aid of the military. The principal article of culture is
+the coconut tree, which is seen in large groves. The trunks of these
+were notched, as was supposed, for the purpose of climbing them. From
+the spathe a kind of spirit is manufactured, which is fully as strong
+as our whiskey.
+
+About noon they left Don Escudero's, and took a road leading to the
+southward and eastward, through a luxuriant and beautiful country,
+well cultivated, and ornamented with lofty coconut trees, betel
+palms, and banana groves. Several beautiful valleys were passed,
+with streamlets rushing through them.
+
+Maijaijai is situated about one thousand feet above the Laguna de Bay,
+but the rise is so gradual that it was almost imperceptible. The
+country has everywhere the appearance of being densely peopled;
+but no more than one village was passed between Santa Cruz and the
+mission. They had letters to F. Antonio Romana y Aranda, padre of
+the mission, who received them kindly, and entertained them most
+hospitably. [Climbing Banajao.] When he was told of their intention
+to visit the mountain, he said it was impossible with such weather,
+pointing to the black clouds that then enveloped its summit; and he
+endeavoured to persuade the gentlemen to desist from what appeared
+to him a mad attempt; but finding them resolved to make the trial,
+he aided in making all the necessary preparations, though he had no
+belief in their success.
+
+On the morning of the 27th, after mass, Mr. Eld and Dr. Pickering
+set out, but Mr. Sturges preferred to keep the good padre company
+until their return. The padre had provided them with guides, horses,
+twenty natives, and provisions for three days. He had been himself
+on the same laborious journey, some six months before, and knew its
+fatigues, although it turned out afterwards that his expedition was
+performed in fine weather, and that he had been borne on a litter by
+natives the whole way.
+
+The first part of the road was wet and miry, and discouraging
+enough. The soil was exceedingly rich, producing tropical plants
+in great profusion, in the midst of which were seen the neat bamboo
+cottages, with their industrious and cleanly-looking inhabitants. When
+they reached the foot of the mountain, they found it was impossible to
+ride farther, and were obliged to take to walking, which was, however,
+less of a hardship than riding the little rats of horses, covered with
+mud and dirt, which were at first deemed useless; but the manner in
+which they ascended and maintained themselves on the slippery banks,
+surpassed anything they had before witnessed in horseflesh. The first
+part of the ascent of the mountain was gradual, but over a miry path,
+which was extremely slippery; and had it not been for the sticks stuck
+down by the party of the padre in their former ascent, they would have
+found it extremely difficult to overcome; to make it more disagreeable,
+it rained all the time.
+
+It took about two hours to reach the steep ascent. The last portion
+of their route had been through an uninhabited region, with some
+openings in the woods, affording pasture-grounds to a few small herds
+of buffalo. In three hours they reached the half-way house, by a very
+steep and regular ascent. Here the natives insisted upon stopping
+to cook their breakfast, as they had not yet partaken of anything
+through the day. The natives now endeavored to persuade them it was
+impracticable to go any farther, or at least to reach the top of the
+mountain and return before night. Our gentlemen lost their patience at
+the delay, and after an hour's endurance of it, resolved to set out
+alone. Six of the natives followed them, and by half-past three they
+reached the summit, where they found it cold and uncomfortable. The
+ascent had been difficult, and was principally accomplished by catching
+hold of shrubs and the roots of trees. The summit is comparatively
+bare, and not more than fifty feet in width. The side opposite to
+that by which they mounted was perpendicular, but owing to the thick
+fog they could not see the depth to which the precipice descended.
+
+The observations with the barometers were speedily taken, which gave
+the height of Banajao as six thousand five hundred feet. The trees
+on the summit were twenty or thirty feet high, and a species of
+fir was very common. Gaultheria, attached to the trunks of trees,
+Rhododendrons, and Polygonums, also abounded. The rocks were so
+covered with soil that it was difficult to ascertain their character;
+Dr. Pickering is of opinion, however, that they are not volcanic. The
+house on the summit afforded them little or no shelter; being a mere
+shed, open on all sides, they found it untenantable, and determined
+to return as soon as their observations were finished, to the half-way
+house, which they reached before dark.
+
+The night was passed uncomfortably, and in the morning they made
+an early start down the mountain to reach the native village at its
+foot, where they were refreshed with a cup of chocolate, cakes, and
+some dulces, according to the custom of the country. At ten o'clock
+they reached the mission, where they were received by the padre and
+Mr. Sturges. The former was greatly astonished to hear that they
+had really been to the summit, and had accomplished in twenty-four
+hours what he had deemed a labor of three days. He quickly attended
+to their wants, the first among which was dry clothing; and as their
+baggage had unfortunately been left at Santa Cruz, the wardrobe of
+the rotund padre was placed at their disposal. Although the fit was
+rather uncouth on the spare forms of our gentlemen, yet his clothes
+served the purpose tolerably well, and were thankfully made use
+of. During their absence, Mr. Sturges had been much amused with the
+discipline he had witnessed at the hands of the church, which here
+seem to be the only visible ruling power. Two young natives had made
+complaint to the padre that a certain damsel had entered into vows
+or engagements to marry both; she was accordingly brought up before
+the padre, Mr. Sturges being present. The padre first lectured her
+most seriously upon the enormity of her crime, then inflicted several
+blows on the palm of her outstretched hand, again renewing the lecture,
+and finally concluding with another whipping. The girl was pretty, and
+excited the interest of our friend, who looked on with much desire to
+interfere, and save the damsel from the corporal punishment, rendered
+more aggravated by the dispassionate and cool manner in which it and
+the lecture were administered. In the conversation which ensued, the
+padre said he had more cases of the violation of the marriage vow,
+and of infidelity, than any other class of crimes.
+
+After a hearty breakfast, or rather dinner, and expressing their
+thanks to the padre, they rode back to Santa Cruz, where they arrived
+at an early hour, and at nine o'clock in the evening they embarked
+in their bancas for Manila.
+
+[Los Baños.] In the morning they found themselves, after a comfortable
+night, at Los Baños. Here they took chocolate with the padre, to whom
+Mr. Sturges had a letter, who informed them that the other party had
+left the place the evening before for Manila.
+
+This party had proceeded to the town of Baia, where they arrived at
+daylight on the 15th. Baia is quite a pretty place, and well situated;
+the houses are clean and comfortable, and it possessed a venerable
+stone church, with towers and bells. On inquiring for the padre,
+they found that he was absent, and it was in consequence impossible
+for them to procure horses to proceed to the Volcano of Taal. They
+therefore concluded to walk to the hot springs at Los Baños, about
+five miles distant. Along the road they collected a number of curious
+plants. Rice is much cultivated, and fields of it extend to some
+distance on each side of the road. Buffaloes were seen feeding and
+wallowing in the ditches.
+
+At Los Baños the hot springs are numerous, the water issuing from the
+rock over a considerable surface. The quantity of water discharged
+by them is large, and the whole is collected and conducted to the
+bathing-houses. The temperature of the water at the mouth of the
+culvert was 180°.
+
+The old bath-house is a singular-looking place, being built on the
+hill-side, in the old Spanish style, with large balconies, that are
+enclosed in the manner already described, in speaking of the houses
+in Manila. It is beautifully situated, and overlooks the baths and
+lake. The baths are of stone, and consist of two large rooms, in
+each of which is a niche, through which the hot water passes. This
+building is now in ruins, the roof and floors having fallen in.
+
+Los Baños is a small village, but contains a respectable-looking
+stone church, and two or three houses of the same material. Here the
+party found a difficulty in getting on, for the alcalde could not
+speak Spanish, and they were obliged to use an interpreter, in order
+to communicate with him. Notwithstanding this, he is a magistrate,
+whose duty it is to administer laws written in that language. Finding
+they could not succeed even here in procuring guides or horses,
+they determined to remain and explore Mount Maquiling, the height
+of which is three thousand four hundred and fifty feet, and in the
+meantime to send for their bancas.
+
+The next day they set out on their journey to that mountain, and the
+first part of their path lay over a gentle ascent, through cultivated
+grounds. Next succeeded an almost perpendicular hill, bare of trees,
+and overgrown with a tall grass, which it was difficult to pass
+through.
+
+Such had been the time taken up, that the party found it impossible
+to reach the summit and return before dark. They therefore began
+to collect specimens; and after having obtained a full load, they
+returned late in the afternoon to Los Baños.
+
+The mountain is composed of trachytic rocks and tufa, which are
+occasionally seen to break through the rich and deep soil, showing
+themselves here and there, in the deep valleys which former volcanic
+action has created, and which have destroyed the regular outline
+of the cone-shaped mountain. The tufa is generally found to form
+the gently-sloping plains that surround these mountains, and has in
+all probability been ejected from them. Small craters, of some two
+hundred feet in height, are scattered over the plains. The tufa is
+likewise exposed to view on the shores of the lake; but elsewhere,
+except on a few bare hills, it is entirely covered with the dense
+and luxuriant foliage. The tufa is generally of a soft character,
+crumbling in the fingers, and in it are found coarse and fine fragments
+of scoria, pumice, etc. The layers are from a few inches to five feet
+in thickness.
+
+In the country around Los Baños, there are several volcanic hills, and
+on the sides of Mount Maquiling are appearances of parasitic cones,
+similar to those observed at the Hawaiian Islands; but time and the
+foliage have so disguised them, that it is difficult to determine
+exactly their true character.
+
+I regretted exceedingly that the party that set out for the Lake of
+Taal was not able to reach it, as, from the accounts I had, it must
+be one of the most interesting portions of the country. It lies nearly
+south-west from Manila, and occupies an area of about one hundred and
+twenty square miles. The Volcano of Taal is situated on an island
+near the center of it, and is now in action. The cone which rises
+from its center is remarkably regular, and consists for the most part
+of cinders and scoria. It has been found to be nine hundred feet in
+elevation above the lake. The crater has a diameter of two miles,
+and its depth is equal to the elevation; the walls of the crater
+are nearly perpendicular, so much so that the descent cannot be
+made without the assistance of ropes. At the bottom there are two
+small cones. Much steam issues from the many fissures, accompanied
+by sulphurous acid gas. The waters of the lake are impregnated with
+sulphur, and there are said to be also large beds of sulphur. In
+the opinion of those who have visited this spot, the whole lake once
+formed an immense crater; and this does not appear very improbable,
+if we are to credit the accounts we received of the many craters
+on this island that are now filled with water; for instance, in the
+neighborhood of San Pablo there are said to be eight or nine.
+
+[The hot springs.] The hot springs of Los Baños are numerous, and in
+their vicinity large quantities of steam are seen to issue from the
+shore of the lake. There are about a dozen which give out a copious
+supply of water. The principal one has been enclosed, and made
+to flow through a stone aqueduct, which discharges a considerable
+stream. The temperature of the water as it leaves the aqueduct is
+178°. The villagers use it for cooking and washing; the signs of the
+former employment are evident enough from the quantities of feathers
+from the poultry that have been scalded and plucked preparatory to
+cooking. The baths are formed by a small circular building six feet
+in diameter, erected over the point of discharge for the purpose of
+securing a steam-bath; the temperature of these is 160° and 140°. A
+change of temperature is said to have occurred in the latter.
+
+The rocks in the vicinity are all tufa, and some of the springs break
+out close to the cold water of the lake. Near the aqueduct, a stone
+wall surrounds one of the principal outlets. Two-thirds of the area
+thus enclosed is occupied by a pond of warm water, and the other third
+is divided into two stone reservoirs, built for baths. These baths
+had at one time a high reputation, and were a very fashionable resort
+for the society of Manila; but their celebrity gradually diminished,
+and the whole premises have gone out of repair, and are fast falling
+to ruin.
+
+The water of the springs has no perceptible taste, and only a very
+faint smell of sulphur is perceived. No gas escapes from it, but a
+white incrustation covers the stones over which the water flows.
+
+Some of these waters were obtained, and since our return were put into
+the hands of Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, who gives the following
+analysis:
+
+Specific gravity, 1.0043; thermometer 60°; barometer 30.05 in.
+
+A quantity of the water, equal in bulk to three thousand grains of
+distilled water, on evaporation gave--
+
+Dry salts, 5.95 grains.
+
+A quantity of the water, equal in bulk to one thousand grains of
+distilled water, was operated on for each of the following ingredients:
+
+
+    Chlorine            0.66
+    Carbonic acid       0.16
+    Sulphuric acid      0.03
+    Soda and sodium     0.97
+    Magnesia            0.09
+    Lime                0.07
+    Potash              traces
+    Organic matter        ,,
+    Manganese             ,,
+                        ----
+                        1.98
+
+
+[Mount Maquiling.] On Mount Maquiling, wild buffaloes, hogs, a small
+species of deer, and monkeys are found. Birds are also very numerous,
+and among them is the horn-bill; the noise made by this bird resembles
+a loud barking; report speaks of them as an excellent bird for the
+table. Our gentlemen reached their lodging-place as the night closed
+in, and the next day again embarked for Manila, regretting that
+time would not permit them to make another visit to so interesting
+a field of research. They found the lake so rough that they were
+compelled to return, and remain until eight o'clock. This, however,
+gave our botanists another opportunity of making collections, among
+which were beautiful specimens of Volkameria splendens, with elegant
+scarlet flowers, and a Brugmansia, which expanded its beautiful
+silvery flowers after sunset. On the shores a number of birds were
+feeding, including pelicans, with their huge bills, the diver, with
+its long arched neck, herons, gulls, eagles, and snow-white cranes,
+with ducks and other small aquatic flocks. Towards night these were
+joined by large bats, that were seen winging their way towards the
+plantations of fruit. These, with quantities of insects, gave a vivid
+idea of the wonderful myriads of animated things that are constantly
+brought into being in these tropical and luxuriant climates.
+
+Sailing all night in a rough sea, they were much incommoded by the
+water, which was shipped into the banca and kept them constantly baling
+out: they reached the Pasig river at daylight, and again passed the
+duck establishments, and the numerous boats and bancas on their way
+to the markets of Manila.
+
+Both the parties reached the consul's the same day, highly pleased with
+their respective jaunts. To the kindness of Messrs. Sturges and Moore,
+we are mainly indebted for the advantages and pleasures derived from
+the excursions.
+
+The instruments were now embarked, and preparations made for going
+to sea. Our stay at Manila had added much to our collections; we
+obtained many new specimens, and the officers and naturalists had
+been constantly and profitably occupied in their various duties.
+
+We went on board on January 20, and were accompanied to the vessel
+by Messrs. Sturges and Moore, with several other residents of Manila.
+
+We had, through the kindness of Captain Salomon, procured a native
+pilot for the Sulu Sea, who was to act as interpreter.
+
+On the morning of the 21st, we took leave of our friends, and got
+under way. The same day, and before we had cleared the bay, we spoke
+the American ship Angier, which had performed the voyage from the
+United States in one hundred and twenty-four days, and furnished us
+with late and interesting news. We then, with a strong northerly wind,
+made all sail to the south for the Straits of Mindoro.
+
+
+Sulu in 1842
+
+On the evening of January 21, the Vincennes, with the tender in
+company, left Manila bay. I then sent for Mr. Knox, who commanded
+the latter, and gave him directions to keep closely in company with
+the Vincennes, and at the same time pointed out to him places of
+rendezvous where the vessels might again meet in case any unavoidable
+circumstance caused their separation. I was more particular in giving
+him instructions to avoid losing sight of the Vincennes, as I was aware
+that my proposed surveys might be impeded or frustrated altogether,
+were I deprived of the assistance of the vessel under his command.
+
+[Mindoro.] On the 22nd, we passed the entrance of the Straits of San
+Bernardino. It would have been my most direct route to follow these
+straits until I had passed Mindoro, and it is I am satisfied the safest
+course, unless the winds are fair, for the direct passage. My object,
+however, was to examine the ground for the benefit of others, and the
+Apo Shoal, which lies about mid-channel between Palawan and Mindoro,
+claimed my first attention. The tender was despatched to survey it,
+while I proceeded in the Vincennes to examine the more immediate
+entrance to the Sulu Sea, off the southwest end of Mindoro.
+
+Calavite Peak is the north point of Mindoro, and our observations
+made it two thousand feet high. This peak is of the shape of a
+dome, and appears remarkably regular when seen from its western
+side. On approaching Mindoro, we, as is usual, under high islands,
+lost the steady breeze, and the wind became light for the rest of
+the day. Mindoro is a beautiful island, and is evidently volcanic;
+it appears as if thrown up in confused masses; it is not much settled,
+as the more southern islands are preferred to it as a residence.
+
+On the 23rd, we ascertained the elevation of the highest peak of
+the island by triangulation to be three thousand one hundred and
+twenty-six fet. The easternmost island of the Palawan group, Busuanga,
+was at the time just in sight from the deck, to the southwest.
+
+It had been my intention to anchor at Ambolou Island; but the wind
+died away before we reached it, and I determined to stand off and on
+all night.
+
+On the 24th, I began to experience the truth of what Captain Halcon had
+asserted, namely, that the existing charts were entirely worthless,
+and I also found that my native pilot was of no more value than
+they were, he had evidently passed the place before; but whether
+the size of the vessel, so much greater than any he had sailed in,
+confused him, or whether it was from his inability to understand and
+to make himself understood by us, he was of no use whatever, and we
+had the misfortune of running into shoal water, barely escaping the
+bottom. These dangers were usually quickly passed, and we soon found
+ourselves again floating in thirty or forty fathoms water.
+
+We continued beating to windward, in hopes of being joined by the
+Flying-fish, and I resolved to finish the survey towards the island
+of Semarara. We found every thing in a different position from that
+assigned it by any of the charts with which we were furnished. On
+this subject, however, I shall not dwell, but refer those who desire
+particular information to the charts and Hydrographical Memoir.
+
+Towards evening, I again ran down to the southwest point of the island
+of Mindoro, and sent a letter on shore to the pueblo, with directions
+to have it put on board the tender, when she should arrive. We then
+began to beat round Semarara, in order to pass over towards Panay.
+
+The southern part of Mindoro is much higher than the northern
+but appears to be equally rough. It is, however, susceptible of
+cultivation, and there are many villages along its shores.
+
+Semarara is moderately high, and about fifteen miles in circumference;
+it is inhabited, and like Mindoro much wooded. According to the native
+pilot, its shores are free from shoals. It was not until the next day
+that we succeeded in reaching Panay. I determined to pass the night
+off Point Potol, the north end of Panay, as I believed the sea in its
+neighborhood to be free of shoals, and wished to resume our running
+survey early in the morning.
+
+[Panay.] At daylight on the 27th we continued the survey down the
+coast of Panay, and succeeded in correcting many errors in the
+existing charts (both English and Spanish). The channel along this
+side is from twelve to twenty miles wide, and suitable for beating
+in; little current is believed to exist; and the tides, as far as
+our observations went, seem to be regular and of little strength.
+
+The island of Panay is high and broken, particularly on the south
+end; its shores are thickly settled and well cultivated. Indigo and
+sugar-cane claim much of the attention of the inhabitants. The natives
+are the principal cultivators. They pay to government a capitation tax
+of seven reals. Its population is estimated at three hundred thousand,
+which I think is rather short of the actual number.
+
+On all the hills there are telegraphs of rude construction, to give
+information of the approach of piratical prahus from Sulu, which
+formerly were in the habit of making attacks upon the defenceless
+inhabitants and carrying them off into slavery. Of late years they have
+ceased these depredations, for the Spaniards have resorted to a new
+mode of warfare. Instead of pursuing and punishing the offenders, they
+now intercept all their supplies, both of necessaries and luxuries;
+and the fear of this has had the effect to deter pirates from their
+usual attacks.
+
+We remained off San Pedro for the night, in hopes of falling in with
+the Flying-fish in the morning.
+
+On the morning of the 28th, the Flying-fish was discovered plainly in
+sight. I immediately stood for her, fired a gun and made signal. At
+seven o'clock, another gun was fired, but the vessel still stood off,
+and was seen to make sail to the westward without paying any regard
+whatever to either, and being favored by a breeze while the Vincennes
+was becalmed, she stole off and was soon out of sight. [270]
+
+After breakfast we opened the bay of Antique, on which is situated the
+town of San José. As this bay apparently offered anchorage for vessels
+bound up this coast, I determined to survey it; and for this purpose
+the boats were hoisted out and prepared for surveying. Lieutenant
+Budd was despatched to visit the pueblo called San José.
+
+On reaching the bay, the boats were sent to different points of it,
+and when they were in station, the ship fired guns to furnish bases
+by the sound, and angles were simultaneously measured. The boats made
+soundings on their return to the ship, and thus completed this duty,
+so that in an hour or two afterwards the bay was correctly represented
+on paper. It offers no more than a temporary anchorage for vessels,
+and unless the shore is closely approached, the water is almost too
+deep for the purpose.
+
+[San José.] At San José a Spanish governor resides, who presides over
+the two pueblos of San Pedro and San José, and does the duty also
+of alcalde. Lieutenant Budd did not see him, as he was absent, but
+his lady did the honors. Lieutenant Budd represented the pueblo as
+cleanly and orderly. About fifteen soldiers were seen, who compose
+the governor's guard, and more were said to be stationed at San
+Pedro. A small fort of eight guns commands the roadstead. The beach
+was found to be of fine volcanic sand, composed chiefly of oxide of
+iron, and comminuted shells; there is here also a narrow shore reef
+of coral. The plain bordering the sea is covered with a dense growth
+of coconut trees. In the fine season the bay is secure, but we were
+informed that in westerly and southwesterly gales heavy seas set in,
+and vessels are not able to lie at anchor. Several small vessels were
+lying in a small river about one and a half miles to the southward of
+the point on which the fort is situated. The entrance to this river
+is very narrow and tortuous.
+
+Panay is one of the largest islands of the group. We had an opportunity
+of measuring the height of some of its western peaks or highlands,
+none of which exceed three thousand feet. The interior and eastern side
+have many lofty summits, which are said to reach an altitude of seven
+thousand five hundred feet; but these, as we passed, were enveloped
+in clouds, or shut out from view by the nearer highlands. The general
+features of the island are like those of Luzon and Mindoro. The few
+specimens we obtained of its rocks consisted of the different varieties
+of talcose formation, with quartz and jasper. The specimens were of
+no great value, as they were much worn by lying on the beach.
+
+The higher land was bare of trees, and had it not been for the
+numerous fertile valleys lying between the sharp and rugged spurs,
+it would have had a sterile appearance.
+
+The bay of Antique is in latitude 10° 40' N., longitude 121° 59'
+30'' E.
+
+It was my intention to remain for two or three days at a convenient
+anchorage to enable us to make short excursions into the interior;
+but the vexatious mismanagement of the tender now made it incumbent
+that I should make every possible use of the time to complete the
+operations connected with the hydrography of this sea; for I perceived
+that the duties which I intended should be performed by her, would now
+devolve upon the boats, and necessarily expose both officers and men to
+the hazard of contracting disease. I regretted giving up this design,
+not only on my own account and that of the Expedition, but because of
+the gratification it would have afforded personally to the naturalists.
+
+The town of San José has about thirty bamboo houses, some of which
+are filled in with clay or mortar, and plastered over, both inside
+and out. Few of them are more than a single story in height. That of
+the governor is of the same material, and overtops the rest; it is
+whitewashed, and has a neat and cleanly appearance. In the vicinity of
+the town are several beautiful valleys, which run into the mountains
+from the plain that borders the bay. The landing is on a bamboo bridge,
+which has been erected over an extensive mud-flat, that is exposed at
+low water, and prevents any nearer approach of boats. This bridge is
+about seven hundred feet in length; and a novel plan has been adopted
+to preserve it from being carried away. The stems of bamboo not
+being sufficiently large and heavy to maintain the superstructure in
+the soft mud, a scaffold is constructed just under the top, which is
+loaded with blocks of large stone, and the outer piles are secured to
+anchors or rocks, with grass rope. The roadway or top is ten feet wide,
+covered with split bamboo, woven together, and has rails on each side,
+to assist the passenger. This is absolutely necessary for safety;
+and even with this aid, one unaccustomed to it must be possessed
+of no little bodily strength to pass over this smooth, slippery,
+and springy bridge, without accident.
+
+Two pirogues were at anchor in the bay, and on the shore was the
+frame of a vessel which had evidently been a long while on the stocks,
+for the weeds and bushes near the keel were six or eight feet high,
+and a portion of the timbers were decayed. Carts and sleds drawn by
+buffaloes were in use, and everything gave it the appearance of a
+thriving village. Although I have mentioned the presence of soldiers,
+it was observed on landing that no guard was stationed about or even at
+the fort; but shortly afterwards a soldier was seen hurrying towards
+the latter, in the act of dressing himself in his regimentals, and
+another running by his side, with his cartridge-box and musket. In
+a little while one was passing up and down on his post, as though he
+was as permanent there as the fort itself.
+
+After completing these duties, the light airs detained us the remainder
+of the day under Panay, in sight of the bay. On the 29th, at noon,
+we had been wafted by it far enough in the offing to obtain the
+easterly breeze, which soon became strong, with an overcast sky,
+and carried us rapidly on our course; my time would not permit my
+heaving-to. We kept on our course for Mindanao during the whole night,
+and were constantly engaged in sounding, with our patent lead, with
+from thirty to forty fathoms cast, to prevent our passing over this
+part of the sea entirely unexamined.
+
+[Mindanao.] At daylight on the 31st, we had the island of Mindanao
+before us, but did not reach its western cape until 5 p.m. This island
+is high and broken, like those to the north of it, but, unlike them,
+its mountains are covered with forests to their very tops, and there
+were no distinct cones of minor dimensions, as we had observed on
+the others. If they do exist, they were hidden by the dense forest.
+
+I had determined to anchor at Caldera, a small port on the south-west
+side of Mindanao, about ten miles distant from Zamboanga, where the
+governor resides. The latter is a considerable place, but the anchorage
+in its roadstead is said to be bad, and the currents that run through
+the Straits of Basilan are represented to be strong. Caldera, on the
+other hand, has a good, though small anchorage, which is free from the
+currents of the straits. It is therefore an excellent stopping-place,
+in case of the tide proving unfavorable. On one of its points stands
+a small fort, which, on our arrival, hoisted Spanish colors.
+
+At six o'clock we came to anchor at Caldera, in seven fathoms
+water. There were few indications of inhabitants, except at and
+near the fort. An officer was despatched to the fort, to report the
+ship. It was found to be occupied by a few soldiers under the command
+of a lieutenant.
+
+[Caldera fort.] The fort is about seventy feet square, and is built
+of large blocks of red coral, which evidently have not been taken from
+the vicinity of the place, as was stated by the officers of the fort;
+for although our parties wandered along the alluvial beach for two or
+three miles in each direction, no signs of coral were observed. Many
+fragments of red, gray, and purple basalt and porphyry were met with
+along the beach; talcose rock and slate, syenite, hornblend, quartz,
+both compact and slaty, with chalcedony, were found in pieces and
+large pebbles. Those who were engaged in dredging reported the bottom
+as being of coral, in from four to six or eight fathoms; but this
+was of a different kind from that of which the fort was constructed.
+
+The fort was built in the year 1784, principally for protection against
+the Sulu pirates, who were in the habit of visiting the settlements,
+and carrying off the inhabitants as slaves, to obtain ransom for
+them. This, and others of the same description, were therefore
+constructed as places of refuge for the inhabitants, as well as to
+afford protection to vessels.
+
+Depredations are still committed, which render it necessary to keep
+up a small force. One or two huts which were seen in the neighborhood
+of the bay, are built on posts twenty feet from the ground, and into
+them they ascend by ladders, which are hauled up after the occupants
+have entered.
+
+These, it is said, are the sleeping-huts, and are so built for the
+purpose of preventing surprise at night. Before our arrival we had
+heard that the villages were all so constructed, but a visit to one
+soon showed that this was untrue. The natives seen at the village
+were thought to be of a decidedly lighter color and a somewhat
+different expression from the Malays. They were found to be very
+civil, and more polished in manners than our gentlemen expected. On
+asking for a drink of water, it was brought in a glass tumbler on a
+china plate. An old woman, to whom they had presented some trifles,
+took the trouble to meet them in another path on their return, and
+insisted on their accepting a basket of potatoes. Some of the houses
+contained several families, and many of them had no other means of
+entrance than a notched post stuck up to the door.
+
+The forests of Mindanao contain a great variety of trees, some of
+which are of large size, rising to the height of one hundred and
+and one hundred and fifty feet. Some of their trunks are shaped like
+buttresses, similar to those before spoken of at Manila, from which
+they obtain broad slabs for the tops of tables. The trunks were
+observed to shoot up remarkably straight. Our botanical gentlemen,
+though pleased with the excursion, were disappointed at not being
+able to procure specimens from the lofty trees; and the day was less
+productive in this respect than they had anticipated. Large woody
+vines were common, which enveloped the trunks of trees in their folds,
+and ascending to their tops, prevented the collection of the most
+desirable specimens.
+
+The paths leading to the interior were narrow and much obstructed;
+one fine stream was crossed. Many buffaloes were observed wallowing
+in the mire, and the woods swarmed with monkeys and numbers of birds,
+among them the horn-bills; these kept up a continued chatter, and made
+a variety of loud noises. The forests here are entirely different from
+any we had seen elsewhere; and the stories of their being the abode
+of large boas and poisonous snakes, make the effect still greater
+on those who visit them for the first time. Our parties, however,
+saw nothing of these reptiles, nor anything to warrant a belief that
+such exist. Yet the officer at the fort related to me many snake
+stories that seemed to have some foundation; and by inquiries made
+elsewhere, I learned that they were at least warranted by some facts,
+though probably not to the extent that he represented.
+
+Traces of deer and wild hogs were seen, and many birds were obtained,
+as well as land and sea shells. Among the latter was the Malleus
+vulgaris, which is used as food by the natives. The soil on this
+part of the island is a stiff clay, and the plants it produces
+are mostly woody; those of an herbaceous character were scarce,
+and only a few orchideous epiphytes and ferns were seen. Around the
+dwellings in the villages were a variety of vegetables and fruits,
+consisting of sugar-cane, sweet-potato, gourds, pumpkins, peppers,
+rice, water and musk melons, all fine and of large size.
+
+The officer at the fort was a lieutenant of infantry; one of that rank
+is stationed here for a month, after which he, with the garrison,
+consisting of three soldiers, are relieved, from Zamboanga, where
+the Spaniards have three companies.
+
+[Zamboanga.] Zamboanga is a convict settlement, to which the native
+rogues, principally thieves, are sent. The Spanish criminals, as I
+have before stated in speaking of Manila, are sent to Spain.
+
+The inhabitants of the island of Mindanao, who are under the subjection
+of Spain, are about ten thousand in number, of whom five or six
+thousand are at or in the neighborhood of Zamboanga. The original
+inhabitants, who dwell in the mountains and on the east coast, are
+said to be quite black, and are represented to be a very cruel and
+bad set; they have hitherto bid defiance to all attempts to subjugate
+them. When the Spaniards make excursions into the interior, which is
+seldom, they always go in large parties on account of the wild beasts,
+serpents, and hostile natives; nevertheless, the latter frequently
+attack and drive them back.
+
+The little fort is considered as a sufficient protection for the
+fishermen and small vessels against the pirates, who inhabit the
+island of Basilan, which is in sight from Mindanao, and forms the
+southern side of the straits of the same name. It is said that about
+seven hundred inhabit it. The name of Moro is given by the Spaniards
+to all those who profess the Mohammedan religion, and by such all the
+islands to the west of Mindanao, and known under the name of the Sulu
+archipelago, are inhabited.
+
+The day we spent at Caldera was employed in surveying the bay, and
+in obtaining observations for its geographical position, and for
+magnetism. The flood tide sets to the northward and westward, through
+the straits, and the ebb to the eastward. In the bay we found it to
+run two miles an hour by the log, but it must be much more rapid in
+the straits.
+
+At daylight on February 1st, we got under way to stand over for
+the Sangboys, a small island with two sharp hills on it. One and a
+half miles from the bay we passed over a bank, the least water on
+which was ten fathoms on a sandy bottom, and on which a vessel might
+anchor. The wind shortly after failed us, and we drifted with the tide
+for some hours, in full view of the island of Mindanao, which is bold
+and picturesque. We had thus a good opportunity of measuring some of
+its mountain ranges, which we made about three thousand feet high.
+
+In the afternoon, a light breeze came from the southwest, and before
+sunset I found that we were again on soundings. As soon as we had
+a cast of twenty fathoms, I anchored for the night, judging it much
+better than to be drifting about without any knowledge of the locality
+and currents to which we were subjected.
+
+On the morning of the 2nd, we got under way to proceed to the
+westward. As the bottom was unequal, I determined to pass through
+the broadest channel, although it had the appearance of being the
+shoalest, and sent two boats ahead to sound. In this way we passed
+through, continuing our surveying operations, and at the same time
+made an attempt to dredge; but the ground was too uneven for the
+latter purpose, and little of value was obtained.
+
+[Sulu.] Shortly after passing the Sangboys, we had the island of
+Sulu in sight, for which I now steered direct. At sunset we found
+ourselves within five or six miles of Soung Harbor; but there was not
+sufficient light to risk the dangers that might be in our course,
+nor wind enough to command the ship; and having no bottom where we
+were, I determined again to run out to sea, and anchor on the first
+bank I should meet. At half-past eight o'clock, we struck sounding
+in twenty-six fathoms, and anchored.
+
+At daylight we determined our position by angles, and found it
+to correspond with part of the route we had passed over the day
+before, and that we were about fifteen miles from the large island
+of Sulu. Weighing anchor, we were shortly wafted by the westerly
+tide and a light air towards that beautiful island, which lay in the
+midst of its little archipelago; and as we were brought nearer and
+nearer, we came to the conclusion that in our many wanderings we had
+seen nothing to be compared to this enchanting spot. It appeared to
+be well cultivated, with gentle slopes rising here and there into
+eminences from one to two thousand feet high. One or two of these
+might be dignified with the name of mountains, and were sufficiently
+high to arrest the passing clouds; on the afternoon of our arrival
+we had a singular example in the dissipation of a thunderstorm.
+
+Although much of the island was under cultivation, yet it had all the
+freshness of a forest region. The many smokes on the hills, buildings
+of large size, cottages, and cultivated spots, together with the
+moving crowds on the land, the prahus, canoes, and fishing-boats on
+the water gave the whole a civilized appearance. Our own vessel lay,
+almost without a ripple at her side, on the glassy surface of the
+sea, carried onwards to our destined anchorage by the flowing tide,
+and scarce a sound was heard except the splashing of the lead as
+it sought the bottom. The effect of this was destroyed in part by
+the knowledge that this beautiful archipelago was the abode of a
+cruel and barbarous race of pirates. Towards sunset we had nearly
+reached the bay of Soung, when we were met by the opposing tide,
+which frustrated all our endeavors to reach it, and I was compelled
+to anchor, lest we should again be swept to sea.
+
+As soon as the night set in, fishermen's lights were seen moving along
+the beach in all directions, and gliding about in canoes, while the sea
+was filled with myriads of phosphorescent animalcula. After watching
+this scene for two or three hours in the calm and still night, a storm
+that had been gathering reached us; but it lasted only for a short
+time, and cleared off after a shower, which gave the air a freshness
+that was delightful after the sultry heat we had experienced during
+the day.
+
+The canoes of this archipelago were found to be different from any
+that we had heretofore seen, not only in shape, but in making use
+of a double outrigger, which consequently must give them additional
+security. The paddle also is of a different shape, and has a blade at
+each end, which are used alternately, thus enabling a single person to
+manage them with ease. These canoes are made of a single log, though
+some are built upon. They seldom carry more than two persons. The
+figure on the opposite page will give a correct idea of one of them.
+
+We saw the fishermen engaged in trolling and using the line; but the
+manner of taking fish which has been heretofore described is chiefly
+practised. In fishing, as well as in all their other employments,
+the kris and spear were invariably by their side.
+
+[Sulu harbor.] The next morning at eight o'clock we got under way,
+and were towed by our boats into the bay of Soung, where we anchored
+off the town in nine fathoms water. While in the act of doing so,
+and after our intentions had become too evident to admit of a doubt,
+the Sultan graciously sent off a message giving us permission to
+enter his port.
+
+Lieutenant Budd was immediately despatched with the interpreter to call
+upon the Datu Mulu or governor, and to learn at what hour we could see
+the Sultan. When the officer reached the town, all were found asleep;
+and after remaining four hours waiting, the only answer he could get
+out of the Datu Mulu was, that he supposed that the Sultan would be
+awake at three o'clock, when he thought I could see him.
+
+During this time the boats had been prepared for surveying; and after
+landing the naturalists, they began the work.
+
+At the appointed time, Captain Hudson and myself went on shore to wait
+upon the Sultan. On our approach to the town, we found that a great
+proportion of it was built over the water on piles, and only connected
+with the shore by narrow bridges of bamboo. The style of building in
+Sulu does not differ materially from that of the Malays. The houses
+are rather larger, and they surpass the others in filth.
+
+[Pirate craft.] We passed for some distance between the bridges to
+the landing, and on our way saw several piratical prahus apparently
+laid up. Twenty of these were counted, of about thirty tons burden,
+evidently built for sea-vessels, and capable of mounting one or two
+long guns. We landed at a small streamlet, and walked a short distance
+to the Datu's house, which is of large dimensions and rudely built on
+piles, which raise it about six feet above the ground, and into which
+we were invited. The house of the Datu contains one room, part of which
+is screened off to form the apartment of his wife. Nearly in the center
+is a raised dais, eight or ten feet square, under which are stowed
+all his valuables, packed in chests and Chinese trunks. Upon this
+dais are placed mats for sleeping, with cushions, pillows, etc.; and
+over it is a sort of canopy, hung around with fine chintz or muslin.
+
+The dais was occupied by the Datu, who is, next to the Sultan, the
+greatest man of this island. He at once came from it to receive us, and
+had chairs provided for us near his sanctum. After we were seated, he
+again retired to his lounge. The Datu is small in person, and emaciated
+in form, but has a quick eye and an intelligent countenance. He
+lives, as he told me, with all his goods around him, and they formed
+a collection such as I could scarcely imagine it possible to bring
+together in such a place. The interior put me in mind of a barn
+inhabited by a company of strolling players. On one side were hung up
+a collection of various kinds of gay dresses, here drums and gongs,
+there swords, lanterns, spears, muskets, and small cannon; on another
+side were shields, buckler, masks, saws, and wheels, with belts, bands,
+and long robes. The whole was a strange mixture of tragedy and farce;
+and the group of natives were not far removed in appearance from the
+supernumeraries that a Turkish tragedy might have brought together in
+the green-room of a theatre. A set of more cowardly-looking miscreants
+I never saw. They appeared ready either to trade with us, pick our
+pockets, or cut our throats, as an opportunity might offer.
+
+The wife's apartment was not remarkable for its comforts, although
+the Datu spoke of it with much consideration, and evidently held his
+better half in high estimation. He was also proud of his six children,
+the youngest of whom he brought out in its nurse's arms, and exhibited
+with much pride and satisfaction. He particularly drew my attention
+to its little highly-wrought and splendidly-mounted kris, which was
+stuck through its girdle, as an emblem of his rank. He was in reality a
+fine-looking child. The kitchen was behind the house, and occupied but
+a small space, for they have little in the way of food that requires
+much preparation. The house of the Datu might justly be termed nasty.
+
+We now learned the reason why the Sultan could not be seen; it was
+Friday, the Mahomedan Sabbath, and he had been at the mosque from
+an early hour. Lieutenant Budd had been detained, because it was not
+known when he would finish his prayers; and the ceremonies of the day
+were more important than usual, on account of its peculiar sanctity
+in their calendar.
+
+[Visiting the Sultan.] Word had been sent off to the ship that the
+Sultan was ready to receive me, but the messenger passed us while on
+our way to shore. After we had been seated for a while, the Datu asked
+if we were ready to accompany him to see the Sultan; but intimated
+that no one but Captain Hudson and myself could be permitted to
+lay eyes on him. Being informed that we were, he at once, and in
+our presence, slipped on his silken trousers, and a new jacket,
+covered with bell-buttons; put on his slippers, strapped himself
+round with a long silken net sash, into which he stuck his kris, and,
+with umbrella in hand, said he was ready. He now led the way out of
+his house, leaving the motley group behind, and we took the path to
+the interior of the town, towards the Sultan's. The Datu and I walked
+hand in hand, on a roadway about ten feet wide, with a small stream
+running on each side. Captain Hudson and the interpreter came next,
+and a guard of six trusty slaves brought up the rear.
+
+When we reached the outskirts of the town, about half a mile from
+the Datu's, we came to the Sultan's residence, where he was prepared
+to receive us in state. His house is constructed in the same manner
+as that of the Datu, but is of larger dimensions, and the piles are
+rather higher. Instead of steps, we found a ladder, rudely constructed
+of bamboo, and very crazy. This was so steep that it was necessary to
+use the hands in mounting it. I understood that the ladder was always
+removed in the night, for the sake of security. We entered at once
+into the presence-chamber, where the whole divan, if such it may be
+called, sat in arm-chairs, occupying the half of a large round table,
+covered with a white cotton cloth. On the opposite side of the table,
+seats were placed for us. On our approach, the Sultan and all his
+council rose, and motioned us to our seats. When we had taken them,
+the part of the room behind us was literally crammed with well-armed
+men. A few minutes were passed in silence, during which time we
+had an opportunity of looking at each other, and around the hall in
+which we were seated. The latter was of very common workmanship, and
+exhibited no signs of oriental magnificence. Overhead hung a printed
+cotton cloth, forming a kind of tester, which covered about half of
+the apartment. In other places the roof and rafters were visible. A
+part of the house was roughly partitioned off, to the height of nine
+or ten feet, enclosing, as I was afterwards told, the Sultan's sleeping
+apartment, and that appropriated to his wife and her attendants.
+
+The Sultan is of middle height, spare and thin; he was dressed in a
+white cotton shirt, loose trousers of the same material, and slippers;
+he had no stockings; the bottom of his trousers was worked in scollops
+with blue silk, and this was the only ornament I saw about him. On his
+head he wore a small colored cotton handkerchief, wound into a turban,
+that just covered the top of his head. His eyes were bloodshot, and had
+an uneasy wild look, showing that he was under the effects of opium,
+of which they all smoke large quantities. His teeth were as black as
+ebony, which, with his bright cherry-colored lips, [271] contrasted
+with his swarthy skin, gave him anything but a pleasant look.
+
+On the left hand of the Sultan sat his two sons, while his right
+was occupied by his councillors; just behind him, sat the carrier
+of his betel-nut casket. The casket was of filigree silver, about
+the size of a small tea-caddy, of oblong shape, and rounded at the
+top. It had three divisions, one for the leaf, another for the nut,
+and a third for the lime. Next to this official was the pipe-bearer,
+who did not appear to be held in such estimation as the former.
+
+[Treaty with United States.] I opened the conversation by desiring
+that the Datu would explain the nature of our visit, and tell the
+Sultan that I had come to make the treaty which he had some time
+before desired to form with the United States. [272]
+
+The Sultan replied that such was still his desire; upon which I told
+him I would draw one up for him that same day. While I was explaining
+to him the terms, a brass candlestick was brought in with a lighted
+tallow candle, of a very dark color, and rude shape, that showed
+but little art in the manufacture. This was placed in the center
+of the table, with a plate of Manila cigars. None of them, however,
+were offered to us, nor any kind of refreshment.
+
+Our visit lasted nearly an hour. When we arose to take our leave,
+the Sultan and his divan did the same, and we made our exit with low
+bows on each side.
+
+I looked upon it as a matter of daily occurrence for all those
+who came to the island to visit the Sultan; but the Datu Mulu took
+great pains to make me believe that a great favor had been granted in
+allowing us a sight of his ruler. On the other hand, I dwelt upon the
+condescension it was on my part to visit him, and I refused to admit
+that I was under any gratitude or obligation for the sight of His
+Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might
+feel grateful to me if he signed the treaty I would prepare for him.
+
+On our return from the Sultan's to the Datu Mulu's house, we found
+even a greater crowd than before. The Datu, however, contrived to
+get us seats. The attraction which drew it together was to look at
+Mr. Agate, who was taking a sketch of Mohammed Polalu, the Sultan's
+son, and next heir to the throne. I had hoped to procure one of the
+Sultan, but this was declared to be impossible.
+
+The son, however, has all the characteristics of the Sulu, and
+the likeness was thought an excellent one. Mohammed Polalu is about
+twenty-three years of age, of a tall slender figure, with a long face,
+heavy and dull eyes, as though he was constantly under the influence
+of opium. So much, indeed, was he addicted to the use of this drug,
+even according to the Datu Mulu's accounts, that his strength and
+constitution were very much impaired. As he is kept particularly
+under the guardianship of the Datu, the latter has a strong interest
+in preserving this influence over him, and seems on this account to
+afford him every opportunity of indulging in this deplorable habit.
+
+During our visit, the effects of a pipe of this drug were seen upon
+him; for but a short time after he had reclined himself on the Datu's
+couch and cushion, and taken a few whiffs, he was entirely overcome,
+stupid, and listless. I had never seen any one so young, bearing
+such evident marks of the effects of this deleterious drug. When
+but partially recovered from its effects he called for his betelnut,
+to revive him by its exciting effects. This was carefully chewed by
+his attendant to a proper consistency, moulded in a ball about the
+size of a walnut, and then slipped into the mouth of the heir apparent.
+
+[Interior travel prohibited.] One of the requests I had made of the
+Sultan was, that the officers might have guides to pass over the
+island. This was at once said to be too dangerous to be attempted, as
+the datus of the interior and southern towns would in all probability
+attack the parties. I understood what this meant, and replied that
+I was quite willing to take the responsibility, and that the party
+should be well armed. To this the Sultan replied that he would
+not risk his own men. This I saw was a mere evasion, but it was
+difficult and would be dangerous for our gentlemen to proceed alone,
+and I therefore said no more. On our return to the Datu's, I gave
+them permission to get as far from the beach as they could, but I was
+afterwards informed by them that in endeavoring to penetrate into the
+woods, they were always stopped by armed men. This was also the case
+when they approached particular parts of the town, but they were not
+molested as long as their rambles were confined to the beach. At the
+Datu's we were treated to chocolate and negus in gilt-edged tumblers,
+with small stale cakes, which had been brought from Manila.
+
+After we had sat some time I was informed that Mr. Dana missed his
+bowie-knife pistol, which he had for a moment laid down on a chest. I
+at once came to the conclusion that it had been stolen, and as the
+theft had occurred in the Datu's house, I determined to hold him
+responsible for it, and gave him at once to understand that I should
+do so, informing him that the pistol must be returned before the next
+morning, or he must take the consequences. This threw him into some
+consternation, and by my manner he felt that I was serious.
+
+Captain Hudson and myself, previous to our return on board, visited
+the principal parts of the town. The Chinese quarter is separated
+by a body of water, and has a gateway that leads to a bridge. The
+bridge is covered by a roof, and on each side of it are small shops,
+which are open in front, and thus expose the goods they contain. In
+the rear of the shops were the dwellings of the dealers. This sort
+of bazaar contained but a very scanty assortment, and the goods were
+of inferior quality.
+
+We visited some blacksmith-shops, where they were manufacturing krises
+and spears. These shops were open sheds; the fire was made upon the
+ground, and two wooden cylinders, whose valves were in the bottom,
+served for bellows; when used, they had movable pistons, which were
+worked by a man on an elevated seat, and answered the purpose better
+than could have been expected.
+
+The kris is a weapon in which this people take great pride; it is of
+various shapes and sizes, and is invariably worn from infancy to old
+age; they are generally wavy in their blades, and are worn in wooden
+scabbards, which are neatly made and highly polished.
+
+The market was well stocked with fruit and fish. Among the former the
+durian seemed to predominate; this was the first time we had seen
+it. It has a very disagreeable odour, as if decayed, and appears
+to emit a sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which I observed blackened
+silver. Some have described this fruit as delicious, but if the
+smell is not enough, the taste in my opinion will convince any one
+of the contrary.
+
+Mr. Brackenridge made the following list of their fruits: Durian,
+Artocarpus integrifolia, Melons, water and musk, Oranges, mandarin
+and bitter, Pineapples, Carica papaya, Mangosteen, Bread-fruit,
+Coco and Betelnut. The vegetables were capsicums, cucumbers, yams,
+sweet-potatoes, garlic, onions, edible fern-roots, and radishes of
+the salmon variety, but thicker and more acrid in flavor.
+
+[A stolen granite monument.] In walking about the parts of the town we
+were permitted to enter, large slabs of cut granite were seen, which
+were presumed to be from China, where the walls of canals or streamlets
+are lined with it. But Dr. Pickering in his rambles discovered pieces
+that had been cut as if to form a monument, and remarked a difference
+between it and the Chinese kind. On one or two pieces he saw the mark
+No. 1, in black paint; the material resembled the Chelmsford granite,
+and it occurred to him that the stone had been cut in Boston. I
+did not hear of this circumstance until after we had left Sulu, and
+have little doubt now that the interdiction against our gentlemen
+visiting some parts of the town was owing to the fear they had of the
+discovery of this plunder. This may have been the reason why they so
+readily complied with my demands, in order to get rid of us as soon as
+possible, feeling themselves guilty, and being unprepared for defence;
+for, of the numerous guns mounted, few if any were serviceable.
+
+The theft of the pistol was so barefaced an affair, that I made up
+my mind to insist on its restoration. At the setting of the watch
+in the evening, it had been our practice on board the Vincennes to
+fire a small brass howitzer. This frequently, in the calm evenings,
+produced a great reverberation, and rolled along the water to the
+surrounding islands with considerable noise. Instead of it, on this
+evening, I ordered one of the long guns to be fired, believing that
+the sound and reverberation alone would suffice to intimidate such
+robbers. One was accordingly fired in the direction of the town,
+which fairly shook the island, as they said, and it was not long
+before we saw that the rogues were fully aroused, for the clatter of
+gongs and voices that came over the water, and the motion of lights,
+convinced me that the pistol would be forthcoming in the morning. In
+this I was not mistaken, for at early daylight I was awakened by a
+special messenger from the Datu to tell me that the pistol was found,
+and would be brought off without delay; that he had been searching for
+it all night, and had at last succeeded in finding it, as well as the
+thief, on whom he intended to inflict the bastinado. Accordingly, in
+a short time the pistol was delivered on board, and every expression
+of friendship and good-will given, with the strongest assurances that
+nothing of the kind should happen again.
+
+[Marongas island.] As our naturalists could have no opportunity
+of rambling over the island of Sooloo, it was thought that one
+of the neighbouring islands (although not so good a field) would
+afford them many of the same results, and that they could examine
+it unmolested. Accordingly, at an early hour, they were despatched
+in boats for that purpose, with a sufficient guard to attend them
+in case of necessity. The island on which they landed, Marongas,
+has two hills of volcanic conglomerate and vesicular lava, containing
+angular fragments embedded. The bottom was covered with living coral,
+of every variety, and of different colors; but there was nothing like
+a regular coral shelf, and the beach was composed of bits of coral
+intermixed with dead shells, both entire and comminuted. The center
+of the island was covered with mangrove-bushes; the hills were cones,
+but had no craters on them. The mangroves had grown in clusters,
+giving the appearance of a number of small islets. This, with the
+neighboring islands, were thought to be composed in a great part of
+coral, but it was impossible for our gentlemen to determine the fact.
+
+The day was exceedingly hot, and the island was suffering to such
+a degree from drought that the leaves in many cases were curled and
+appeared dry. On the face of the rocky cliff they saw many swallows
+(hirundo esculenta) flying in and out of the caverns facing the sea;
+but they were not fortunate enough to find any of the edible nests,
+so much esteemed by Chinese epicures.
+
+At another part of the island they heard the crowing of a cock,
+and discovered a small village, almost hidden by the mangroves, and
+built over the water. In the neighborhood were several fish-baskets
+set out to dry, as well as a quantity of fencing for weirs, all made
+of rattan. Their shape was somewhat peculiar. After a little while the
+native fishermen were seen approaching, who evidently had a knowledge
+of their visit from the first. They came near with great caution
+in their canoes; but after the first had spoken and reconnoitered,
+several others landed, exhibiting no signs of embarrassment, and soon
+motioned our party off. To indicate that force would be resorted to,
+in case of refusal, at the same time they pointed to their arms, and
+drew their krises. Our gentlemen took this all in good part, and, after
+dispensing a few trifling presents among them, began their retreat
+with a convenient speed, without, however, compromising their dignity.
+
+The excursion had been profitable in the way of collections, having
+yielded a number of specimens of shrubs and trees, both in flower
+and fruit; but owing to the drought, the herbaceous plants were, for
+the most part, dried up. Among the latter, however, they saw a large
+and fine terrestrial species of Epidendrum, whose stem grew to the
+height of several feet, and when surmounted by its flowers reached
+twelve or fifteen feet high. Many of the salt-marsh plants seen in
+the Fijis, were also observed here. Besides the plants, some shells
+and a beautiful cream-colored pigeon were obtained.
+
+During the day we were busily engaged in the survey of the harbor,
+and in making astronomical and magnetical observations on the beach,
+while some of the officers were employed purchasing curiosities,
+on shore, at the town, and alongside the ship. These consisted of
+krises, spears, shields, and shells; and the Sulus were not slow in
+comprehending the kind of articles we were in search of.
+
+Few if any of the Sulus can write or read, though many talk
+Spanish. Their accounts are all kept by the slaves. Those who can read
+and write are, in consequence, highly prized. All the accounts of the
+Datu of Soung are kept in Dutch, by a young Malay from Tarnate, who
+writes a good hand, and speaks English, and whom we found exceedingly
+useful to us. He is the slave of the Datu, who employs him for this
+purpose only. He told us he was captured in a brig by the pirates of
+Basilan, and sold here as a slave, where he is likely to remain for
+life, although he says the Datu has promised to give him his freedom
+after ten years.
+
+Horses, cows, and buffaloes are the beasts of burden, and a Sulu
+may usually be seen riding either one or the other, armed cap-a-pie,
+with kris, spear, and target, or shield.
+
+They use saddles cut out of solid wood, and many ride with their
+stirrups so short that they bring the knees very high, and the
+riders look more like well-grown monkeys than mounted men. The cows
+and buffaloes are guided by a piece of thong, through the cartilage
+of the nose. By law, no swine are allowed to be kept on the island,
+and if they are bought, they are immediately killed. The Chinese are
+obliged to raise and kill their pigs very secretly, when they desire
+that species of food; for, notwithstanding the law and the prejudices
+of the inhabitants, the former continue to keep swine.
+
+[Natives.] The inhabitants of Sulu are a tall, thin, and
+effeminate-looking race: I do not recollect to have seen one corpulent
+person among them. Their faces are peculiar for length, particularly
+in the lower jaw and chin, with high cheek-bones, sunken, lack-lustre
+eyes, and narrow foreheads. Their heads are thinly covered with hair,
+which appears to be kept closely cropped. I was told that they pluck
+out their beards, and dye their teeth black with antimony, and some
+file them.
+
+Their eyebrows appear to be shaven, forming a very regular and high
+arch, which they esteem a great beauty.
+
+The dress of the common people is very like that of the Chinese,
+with loose and full sleeves, without buttons. The materials of which
+it is made are grass-cloths, silks, satins, or white cotton, from
+China. I should judge from the appearance of their persons, that they
+ought to be termed, so far as ablutions go, a cleanly people. There
+is no outward respect or obeisance shown by the slave to his master,
+nor is the presence of the Datu, or even of the Sultan himself, held
+in any awe. All appear upon an equality, and there does not seem to
+be any controlling power; yet it may be at once perceived that they
+are suspicious and jealous of strangers.
+
+The Sulus, although they are ready to do any thing for the sake of
+plunder, even to the taking of life, yet are not disposed to hoard
+their ill-gotten wealth, and, with all their faults, cannot be termed
+avaricious.
+
+They have but few qualities to redeem their treachery, cruelty,
+and revengeful dispositions; and one of the principal causes of
+their being so predominant, or even of their existence, is their
+inordinate lust for power. When they possess this, it is accompanied
+by a haughty, consequential, and ostentatious bravery. No greater
+affront can be offered to a Sulu, than to underrate his dignity and
+official consequence. Such an insult is seldom forgiven, and never
+forgotten. From one who has made numerous voyages to these islands, I
+have obtained many of the above facts, and my own observation assures
+me that this view of their character is a correct one. I would,
+however, add another trait, which is common among them, and that is
+cowardice, which is obvious, in spite of their boasted prowess and
+daring. This trait of character is universally ascribed to them among
+the Spaniards in the Philippines, who ought to be well acquainted
+with them.
+
+The dress of the women is not unlike that of the men in
+appearance. They wear close jackets of various colors when they go
+abroad, and the same loose breeches as the men, but over them they
+usually have a large wrapper (sarong), not unlike the pareu of the
+Polynesian islanders, which is put round them like a petticoat, or
+thrown over the shoulders. Their hair is drawn to the back of the head,
+and around the forehead it is shaven in the form of a regular arch,
+to correspond with the eyebrows. Those that I saw at the Sultan's
+were like the Malays, and had light complexions, with very black
+teeth. The Datu thought them very handsome, and on our return he
+asked me if I had seen the Sultan's beauties. The females of Sulu
+have the reputation of ruling their lords, and possess much weight
+in the government by the influence they exert over their husbands.
+
+[Superiority of women.] It may be owing to this that there is little
+jealousy of their wives, who are said to hold their virtues in no
+very great estimation. In their houses they are but scantily clothed,
+though women of rank have always a large number of rings on their
+fingers, some of which are of great value, as well as earrings of
+fine gold. They wear no stockings, but have on Chinese slippers, or
+Spanish shoes. They are as capable of governing as their husbands,
+and in many cases more so, as they associate with the slaves, from
+whom they obtain some knowledge of Christendom, and of the habits
+and customs of other nations, which they study to imitate in every way.
+
+The mode in which the Sulus employ their time may be exemplified by
+giving that of the Datu; for all, whether free or slave, endeavor to
+imitate the higher rank as far as is in their power. The datus seldom
+rise before eleven o'clock, unless they have some particular business;
+and the Datu Mulu complained of being sleepy in consequence of the
+early hour at which we had disturbed him.
+
+On rising, they have chocolate served in gilt glassware, with some
+light biscuit, and sweetmeats imported from China or Manila, of
+which they informed me they laid in large supplies. They then lounge
+about their houses, transacting a little business, and playing at
+various games, or, in the trading season, go to the meeting of the
+Ruma Bechara.
+
+At sunset they take their principal meal, consisting of stews of fish,
+poultry, beef, eggs, and rice, prepared somewhat after the Chinese
+and Spanish modes, mixed up with that of the Malay. Although Moslems,
+they do not forego the use of wine, and some are said to indulge in
+it to a great extent. After sunset, when the air has become somewhat
+cooled by the refreshing breezes, they sally forth attended by their
+retainers to take a walk, or proceed to the bazaars to purchase goods,
+or to sell or to barter away their articles of produce. They then pay
+visits to their friends, when they are in the habit of having frequent
+convivial parties, talking over their bargains, smoking cigars,
+drinking wine and liquors, tea, coffee, and chocolate, and indulging
+in their favorite pipe of opium. At times they are entertained with
+music, both vocal and instrumental, by their dependants. Of this art
+they appear to be very fond, and there are many musical instruments
+among them. A datu, indeed, would be looked upon as uneducated if he
+could not play on some instrument.
+
+It is considered polite that when refreshments are handed they should
+be partaken of. Those offered us by the Datu were such as are usual,
+but every thing was stale. Of fruit they are said to be very fond,
+and can afford to indulge themselves in any kinds. With all these
+articles to cloy the appetite, only one set meal a day is taken;
+though the poorer classes, fishermen and laborers, partake of two.
+
+[Government.] The government of the Sulu Archipelago is a kind of
+oligarchy, and the supreme authority is vested in the Sultan and the
+Ruma Bechara or trading council. This consists of about twenty chiefs,
+either datus, or their next in rank, called orangs, who are governors
+of towns or detached provinces. The influence of the individual
+chiefs depends chiefly upon the number of their retainers or slaves,
+and the force they can bring into their service when they require
+it. These are purchased from the pirates, who bring them to Sulu and
+its dependencies for sale. The slaves are employed in a variety of
+ways, as in trading prahus, in the pearl and bêche de met fisheries,
+and in the search after the edible birds' nests.
+
+A few are engaged in agriculture, and those who are at all educated
+are employed as clerks. These slaves are not denied the right of
+holding property, which they enjoy during their lives, but at their
+death it reverts to the master. Some of them are quite rich, and
+what may appear strange, the slaves of Sulu are invariably better
+off than the untitled freemen, who are at all times the prey of the
+hereditary datus, even of those who hold no official stations. By
+all accounts these constitute a large proportion of the population,
+and it being treason for any low-born freeman to injure or maltreat
+a datu, the latter, who are of a haughty, overbearing, and tyrannical
+disposition, seldom keep themselves within bounds in their treatment
+of their inferiors. The consequence is, the lower class of freemen
+are obliged to put themselves under the protection of some particular
+datu, which guards them from the encroachment of others. The chief
+to whom they thus attach themselves, is induced to treat them well,
+in order to retain their services, and attach them to his person,
+that he may, in case of need, be enabled to defend himself from
+depredations, and the violence of his neighbors.
+
+Such is the absence of legal restraint, that all find it necessary
+to go abroad armed, and accompanied by a trusty set of followers,
+who are also armed. This is the case both by day and night, and,
+according to the Datu's account, frequent affrays take place in the
+open streets, which not unfrequently end in bloodshed.
+
+Caution is never laid aside, the only law that exists being that of
+force; but the weak contrive to balance the power of the strong by
+uniting. They have not only contentions and strife among themselves,
+but it was stated at Manila that the mountaineers of Sulu, who are
+said to be Christians, occasionally make inroads upon them. At Sulu,
+however, it did not appear that they were under much apprehension of
+these attacks. The only fear I heard expressed was by the Sultan,
+in my interview with him; and the cause of this, as I have already
+stated, was probably a desire to find an excuse for not affording us
+facilities to go into the interior. Within twenty years, however,
+the reigning sultan has been obliged to retire within his forts,
+in the town of Sulu, which I have before adverted to.
+
+These people are hostile to the Sulus of the coast and towns, who
+take every opportunity to rob them of their cattle and property,
+for which the mountaineers seek retaliation when they have an
+opportunity. From the manner in which the Datu spoke of them,
+they are not much regarded. Through another source I learned that
+the mountaineers were Papuans, and the original inhabitants of the
+islands, who pay tribute to the Sultan, and have acknowledged his
+authority, ever since they were converted to Islamism. Before that
+time they were considered extremely ferocious, and whenever it was
+practicable they were destroyed. Others speak of an original race
+of Dyacks in the interior, but there is one circumstance to satisfy
+me that there is no confidence to be placed in this account, namely,
+that the island is not of sufficient extent to accommodate so numerous
+a population as some ascribe to it.
+
+The forts consist of a double row of piles, filled in with coral
+blocks. That situated on the east side of the small stream may be
+said to mount a few guns, but these are altogether inefficient; and
+in another, on the west side, which is rather a rude embankment than
+a fort, there are some twelve or fifteen pieces of large calibre;
+but I doubt very much if they had been fired off for years, and many
+of the houses built upon the water would require to be pulled down
+before these guns could be brought to bear upon any thing on the side
+of the bay, supposing them to be in a good condition; a little farther
+to the east of the town, I was informed they had a kind of stockade,
+but none of us were permitted to see it.
+
+[Population.] According to our estimates, and the information we
+received while at Sulu, the island itself does not contain more than
+thirty thousand inhabitants, of which the town of Soung may have six
+or seven thousand. The whole group may number about one hundred and
+thirty thousand. I am aware, however, that it is difficult to estimate
+the population of a half-civilized people, who invariably exaggerate
+their own strength; and visitors are likewise prone to do the same
+thing. The Chinese comprise about an eighth of the population of the
+town, and are generally of the lower class. They are constantly busy
+at their trades, and intent upon making money.
+
+At Soung, business seems active, and all, slaves as well as masters,
+seem to engage in it. The absence of a strong government leaves all at
+liberty to act for themselves, and the Ruma Bechara gives unlimited
+freedom to trade. These circumstances promote the industry of the
+community, and even that of the slave, for he too, as before observed,
+has a life interest in what he earns.
+
+Soung being the residence of the Sultan, as well as the grand depot
+for all piratical goods, is probably more of a mart than any of the
+surrounding towns. In the months of March and April it is visited by
+several Chinese junks, who remain trading until the beginning of the
+month of August. If delayed after that time, they can scarcely return
+in safety, being unable to contend with the boisterous weather and
+head winds that then prevail in the Chinese seas. These junks are said
+to come chiefly from Amoy, where the cottons, etc., best suited for
+the Sulus are made. Their cargoes consist of a variety of articles of
+Chinese manufacture and produce, such as silk, satin goods, cottons,
+red and checked, grass-cloth clothing, handkerchiefs, cutlery, guns,
+ammunition, opium, lumber, china and glass-ware, rice, sugar, oil,
+lard, and butter. In return for this merchandise they obtain camphor,
+birds' nests, rattans, bêche de mer, pearls, and pearl-shells, coco,
+tortoise-shell, and wax; but there is no great quantity of these
+articles to be obtained, perhaps not more than two or three cargoes
+during the season. The trade requires great knowledge of the articles
+purchased, for the Chinese and Sulus are both such adepts in fraud,
+that great caution and circumspection are necessary.
+
+[Customs dues.] The duties on importation are not fixed, but are
+changed and altered from time to time by the Ruma Bechara. The
+following was stated to me as the necessary payments before trade
+could be carried on:
+
+
+A large ship, with Chinese on board, pays       $2,000
+A large ship, without Chinese on board, pays     1,800
+Small ships                                      1,500
+Large brig                                       1,000
+Small brig                                         500
+Schooners                                       from 150 to 400
+
+
+This supposes them all to have full cargoes. That a difference should
+be made in a vessel with or without Chinamen, seems singular; but this,
+I was told, arose from the circumstance that English vessels take them
+on board, in order to detect and prevent the impositions of the Sulus.
+
+Vessels intending to trade at Soung should arrive before the Chinese
+junks, and remain as long as they stay, or even a few days later. In
+trading with the natives, all operations ought to be carried on for
+cash, or if by barter, no delivery should be made until the articles
+to be taken in exchange are received. In short, it is necessary to
+deal with them as though they were undoubted rogues, and this pleases
+them much more than to appear unsuspicious. Vessels that trade engage
+a bazaar, which they hire of the Ruma Bechara, and it is advisable to
+secure the good-will of the leading datus in that council by presents,
+and paying them more for their goods than others.
+
+There are various other precautions necessary in dealing with
+this people; for they will, if possible, so act as to give rise to
+disputes, in which case an appeal is made to their fellows, who are
+sure to decide against the strangers. Those who have been engaged
+in this trade, advise that the prices of the goods should be fixed
+upon before the Sultan, and the scales of the Datu of Soung employed;
+for although these are quite faulty, the error is compensated by the
+articles received being, weighed in the same. This also secures the
+Datu's good-will, by the fee (some fifty dollars) which he receives
+for the use of them. Thus it will be perceived that those who desire
+to trade with Sulu, must make up their minds to encounter many
+impositions, and to be continually watchful of their own interests.
+
+Every possible precaution ought to be taken; and it will be found,
+the treatment will depend upon, or be according to the force or
+resolution that is displayed. In justice to this people it must be
+stated, there have been times when traders received every kindness and
+attention at the island of Sulu, and I heard it even said, that many
+vessels had gone there to refit; but during the last thirty or forty
+years, the reigning sultans and their subjects have become hostile
+to Europeans, of whom they plunder and destroy as many as they can,
+and this they have hitherto been allowed to do with impunity.
+
+Although I have described the trade with Sulu as limited, yet
+it is capable of greater extension; and had it not been for the
+piratical habits of the people, the evil report of which has been
+so widely spread, Sulu would now have been one of the principal
+marts of the East. The most fertile parts of Borneo are subject to
+its authority. There all the richest productions of these Eastern
+seas grow in immense quantities, but are now left ungarnered in
+consequence of there being no buyers. The cost of their cultivation
+would be exceedingly low, and I am disposed to believe that these
+articles could be produced here at a lower cost than anywhere else.
+
+Besides the trade with China, there is a very considerable one with
+Manila in small articles, and I found one of our countrymen engaged
+in this traffic, under the Spanish flag. To him I am indebted for
+much information that his opportunities of observation had given him.
+
+The materials for the history of Sulu are meagre, and great doubt
+seems to exist in some periods of it. That which I have been able to
+gather is as follows:
+
+[History.] The island of Sulu is generally believed to have been
+originally inhabited by Papuans, some of whom, as I have already
+stated, are still supposed to inhabit the mountainous part. The first
+intercourse had with them was by the Chinese, who went there in search
+of pearls. The Orang Dampuwans were the first of the Malays to form
+settlements on the islands; but after building towns, and making other
+improvements, they abandoned the islands, in consequence, it is said,
+of the inhabitants being a perfidious race, having previously to
+their departure destroyed as many of the natives as they could.
+
+The fame of the submarine riches of this archipelago reached Banjar
+or Borneo, the people of which were induced to resort there, and
+finding it to equal their expectation, they sent a large colony,
+and made endeavors to win over the inhabitants, and obtain thereby
+the possession of their rich isle. In order to confirm the alliance,
+a female of Banjarmassing, of great beauty, was sent, and married to
+the principal chief; and from this alliance the sovereigns of Sulu
+claim their descent. The treaty of marriage made Sulu tributary to
+the Banjarmassing empire.
+
+After the Banjars had thus obtained possession of the archipelago,
+the trade in its products attracted settlers from the surrounding
+islands, who soon contrived to displace the aborigines, and drive
+them to the inaccessible mountains for protection.
+
+When the Chinese took possession of the northern parts of Borneo,
+under the Emperor Songtiping, about the year 1375, the daughter of that
+prince was married to a celebrated Arabian chief named Sheriff Alli,
+who visited the shores of Borneo in quest of commerce. The descendants
+of this marriage extended their conquests not only over the Sulu
+Archipelago, but over the whole of the Philippines, and rendered
+the former tributary to Borneo. In three reigns after this event,
+the sultan of Borneo proper married the daughter of a Sulu chief, and
+from this union came Mirhome Bongsu, who succeeding to the throne while
+yet a minor, his uncle acted as regent. Sulu now wished to throw off
+the yoke of Borneo, and through the intrigues of the regent succeeded
+in doing so, as well as in retaining possession of the eastern side
+of Borneo, from Maludu Bay on the north, to Tulusyan on the south,
+which has ever since been a part of the Sulu territory.
+
+This event took place before Islamism became the prevailing religion;
+but which form of idolatry, the Sulus pretend, is not now known. It
+is, however, believed the people on the coasts were Buddhists, while
+those of the interior were Pagans.
+
+The first sultan of Sulu was Kamaludin, and during his reign one Sayed
+Alli, a merchant, arrived at Sulu from Mecca. He was a sherif, and soon
+converted one-half of the islanders to his own faith. He was elected
+sultan on the death of Kamaludin, and reigned seven years, in the
+course of which he became celebrated throughout the archipelago. Dying
+at Sulu, a tomb was erected to him there, and the island came to be
+looked upon by the faithful as the Mecca of the East, and continued
+to be resorted to as a pilgrimage until the arrival of the Spaniards.
+
+[Tawi Tawi.] Sayed Alli left a son called Batua, who succeeded him. The
+latter had two sons, named Sabudin and Nasarudin, who, on the death
+of their father, made war upon each other. Nasarudin, the youngest,
+being defeated, sought refuge on Tawi Tawi, where he established
+himself, and built a fort for his protection. The difficulties
+were finally compromised, and they agreed to reign together over
+Sulu. Nasarudin had two sons, called Amir and Bantilan, of whom the
+former was named as successor to the two brothers, and on their deaths
+ascended the throne. During his reign another sherif arrived from
+Mecca, who succeeded in converting the remainder of the population to
+Islamism. Bantilan and his brother Amir finally quarrelled, and the
+latter was driven from Sulu to seek refuge in the island of Basilan,
+where he became sultan.
+
+On the arrival of the Spaniards in 1566, a kind of desultory war was
+waged by them upon the various islands, in the hope of conquering
+them and extending their religion. In these wars they succeeded in
+gaining temporary possession of a part of Sulu, and destroyed the
+tomb of Sayed Alli. The Spaniards always looked upon the conversion
+of the Moslems to the true Catholic faith with great interest; but in
+the year 1646, the sultan of Magindanao succeeded in making peace,
+by the terms of which the Spaniards withdrew from Sulu, and were to
+receive from the sultan three cargoes of rice annually as a tribute.
+
+In 1608, the small-pox made fearful ravages, and most of the
+inhabitants fled from the scourge. Among these was the heir apparent,
+during whose absence the throne became vacant, and another was elected
+in his stead. This produced contention for a short time, which ended
+in the elected maintaining his place.
+
+This tribute continued to be paid until the flight of Amir to Basilan,
+about the year 1752, where he entered into a secret correspondence
+with the authorities at Zamboanga, and after two years a vessel was
+sent from Manila, which carried him to that capital, where he was
+treated as a prisoner of state.
+
+[The English treaty.] In June, 1759, an English ship, on board of
+which was Dalrymple, then in the service of the East India Company,
+arrived at Sulu on a trading voyage. Dalrymple remained at Sulu
+for three months, engaged in making sales and purchases. The Sultan
+Bantilan treated him with great kindness, and sought the interest of
+Dalrymple to obtain the liberation of his brother, who was now held
+prisoner by the Spaniards at Manila, by telling him of the distress
+of his brother's wife, who had been left behind when Amir quitted the
+island, and had been delivered of twins, after he had been kidnapped
+by the Spaniards. Dalrymple entered into a pledge to restore Amir,
+and at the same time effected a commercial treaty between the East
+India Company and the Sulu chiefs. By this it was stipulated that
+an annual cargo should be sent to Sulu, and sold at one hundred per
+cent. profit, for which a return cargo should be provided for the China
+market, which should realize an equal profit there, after deducting all
+expenses. The overplus, if any, was to be carried to the credit of the
+Sulus. This appears to have been the first attempt made by the English
+to secure a regular commercial intercourse with this archipelago.
+
+In the year 1760, a large fleet of Spanish vessels sailed from Manila,
+with about two thousand men, having the Sultan Amir on board, to
+carry on a war against Sulu.
+
+On their arrival, they began active operations. They were repelled
+on all sides, and after seven days' ineffectual attempts, they gave
+up their design. They returned to Manila, it is said, with a loss of
+half their number, and without having done any injury to the Sulus. Not
+discouraged with this failure, the Spaniards, about two years after,
+organized a still larger force, which is estimated by some accounts as
+high as ten thousand men. Although this failed in its attempts on the
+fort at Soung, the Spaniards obtained possession of Tanjong Matonda,
+one of the small ports on the island, where they erected a church and
+fort. Here they established a colony, and appointed a governor. The
+inhabitants upon this deserted their habitations in the neighborhood,
+and fled to the mountains, which, it is said, excited the mountaineers,
+a host of whom, with their chief, whose name was Sri Kala, determined
+to rush upon the Spaniards, and annihilate them. Having to contend
+against disciplined troops, it was not an easy task to succeed. But
+Sri Kala had a follower, named Sigalo, who offered to lead the host
+to battle against the Spaniards, and to exterminate them, or die in
+the attempt. The chief accepted his offer, and Sigalo, with a chosen
+few, marched towards the fort, leaving the rest of the mountaineers
+in readiness to join them at an appointed signal, and rush into the
+fort en masse.
+
+[Victory over Spaniards.] Sri Kala and Sigalo, in order to lull
+the watchfulness of the Spaniards, took with them a young woman, of
+exquisite beauty, named Purmassuri. The lustful Spaniards were thus
+thrown off their guard, the signal was given, and the host, rushing
+forward, entered the fort, every Spaniard within which was slain. A
+few only, who were on the outside, escaped to the vessels, which set
+sail, and after encountering various mishaps, returned to Manila.
+
+Some time after this the Sultan Bantilan died, and his son Alim-ud-deen
+was proclaimed sultan. Dalrymple did not return until 1762, with a
+part of the appointed cargo; but the vessel in which the larger part
+had been shipped, failed to arrive, from not being able to find Sulu,
+and went to China. Thence she proceeded to Manila, and afterwards
+to Sulu. The captain of the latter vessel gave a new credit to the
+Sulus, before they had paid for their first cargo; and on the arrival
+of Dalrymple the next time, he found that the small-pox had carried
+off a large number of the inhabitants, from which circumstance all
+his hopes of profit were frustrated. He then obtained for the use of
+the East India Company, a grant of the island of Balambangan, which
+lies off the north end of Borneo, forming one side of the Straits of
+Balabac, the western entrance to the Sulu Sea. Here he proposed to
+establish a trading post, and after having visited Madras, he took
+possession of this island in 1763.
+
+In October, 1762, the English took Manila, where the Sultan Amir
+was found by Dalrymple, who engaged to reinstate him on his throne,
+if he would cede to the English the north end of Borneo, as well
+as the south end of Palawan. This he readily promised, and he was,
+in consequence, carried back to Sulu and reinstated; his nephew,
+Alim-ud-deen, readily giving place to him, and confirming the grant
+to the East India Company, in which the Ruma Bechara joined.
+
+After various arrangements, the East India Company took possession of
+Balambangan, in the year 1773, and formed a settlement there with a
+view of making it an emporium of trade for Eastern commodities. Troops
+and stores were sent from India, and the population began to increase
+by settlers, both Chinese and Malays, who arrived in numbers. In the
+year 1775, the fort, notwithstanding all the treaties and engagements
+between Dalrymple and the Sultan, was surprised by the Sulus, and many
+of the garrison put to death. [Victory over English.] This virtually
+put an end to the plans of the English, although another attempt was
+made to re-establish the settlement by Colonel Farquhar, in 1803;
+but it was thought to be too expensive a post, and was accordingly
+abandoned in the next year. This act of the Sulus fairly established
+their character for perfidy, and ever since that transaction they
+have been looked upon as treacherous in the highest degree, and,
+what is singular, have been allowed to carry on their piracies quite
+unmolested. The taking of Balambangan has been generally imputed to the
+treacherous disposition and innate love of plunder among the Sulus,
+as well as to their fear that it would destroy the trade of Sulu by
+injuring all that of the archipelago. But there are strong reasons
+for believing that this dark deed owed its origin in part to the
+influence of the Spaniards and Dutch, who looked with much distrust
+upon the growth of the rival establishment. Such was the jealousy
+of the Spaniards, that the governor of the Philippines peremptorily
+required that Balambangan should be evacuated. The Sulus boast of the
+deed, and admit that they received assistance from both Zamboanga and
+Ternate, the two nearest Spanish and Dutch ports. These nations had
+great reasons to fear the establishment of a power like that of the
+East India Company, in a spot so favorably situated to secure the
+trade of the surrounding islands, possessing fine harbors, and in
+every way adapted to become a great commercial depot. Had it been
+held by the East India Company but for a few years, it must have
+become what Singapore is now.
+
+The original planner of this settlement is said to have been Lord
+Pigot; but the merit of carrying it forward was undoubtedly due to
+Dalrymple, whose enterprising mind saw the advantage of the situation,
+and whose energy was capable of carrying the project successfully
+forward.
+
+Since the capture of Balambangan, there has been no event in the
+history of Sulu that has made any of the reigns of the Sultans
+memorable, although fifteen have since ascended the throne.
+
+Sulu has from all the accounts very much changed in its character
+as well as population since the arrival of the Spaniards, and the
+establishment of their authority in the Philippines. Before that
+event, some accounts state that the trade with the Chinese was
+of great extent, and that from four to five hundred junks arrived
+annually from Cambojia, with which Sulu principally traded. At that
+time the population is said to have equalled in density that of the
+thickly-settled parts of China.
+
+The government has also undergone a change; for the Sultan, who
+among other Malay races is usually despotic, is here a mere cipher,
+and the government has become an oligarchy. This change has probably
+been brought about by the increase of the privileged class of Datus,
+all of whom were entitled to a seat in the Ruma Bechara until about
+the year 1810, when the great inconvenience of so large a council
+was felt, and it became impossible to control it without great
+difficulty and trouble on the part of the Sultan. The Ruma Bechara
+was then reduced until it contained but six of the principal Datus,
+who assumed the power of controlling the state. The Ruma Bechara,
+however, in consequence of the complaints of many powerful Datus,
+was enlarged; but the more powerful, and those who have the largest
+numerical force of slaves, still rule over its deliberations. The whole
+power, within the last thirty years, has been usurped by one or two
+Datus, who now have monopolized the little foreign trade that comes
+to these islands. The Sultan has the right to appoint his successor,
+and generally names him while living. In default of this, the choice
+devolves upon the Ruma Bechara, who elect by a majority.
+
+[Piracies] From a more frequent intercourse with Europeans and the
+discovery of new routes through these seas, the opportunities of
+committing depredations have become less frequent, and the fear of
+detection greater. By this latter motive they are more swayed than
+by any thing else, and if the Sulus have ever been bold and daring
+robbers on the high seas, they have very much changed.
+
+Many statements have been made and published relative to the piracies
+committed in these seas, which in some cases exceed, and in others
+fall short, of the reality. Most of the piratical establishments are
+under the rule, or sail under the auspices of the Sultan and Ruma
+Bechara of Sulu, who are more or less intimately connected with
+them. The share of the booty that belongs to the Sultan and Ruma
+Bechara is twenty-five per cent. on all captures, whilst the Datus
+receive a high price for the advance they make of guns and powder,
+and for the services of their slaves.
+
+The following are the piratical establishments of Sulu, obtained
+from the most authentic sources, published as well as verbal. The
+first among these is the port of Soung, at which we anchored, in
+the island of Sulu; not so much from the number of men available
+here for this pursuit, as the facility of disposing of the goods. By
+the Spaniards they are denominated Illanun or Lanuns pirates. [273]
+There are other rendezvous on Pulo Toolyan, at Bohol, Tonho, Pilas,
+Tawi Tawi, Sumlout, Pantutaran, Parodasan, Palawan, and Basilan,
+and Tantoli on Celebes. These are the most noted, but there are many
+minor places, where half a dozen prahus are fitted out. Those of Sulu,
+and those who go under the name of the Lanuns, have prahus of larger
+size, and better fitted. They are from twenty to thirty tons burden,
+and are propelled by both sails and oars. They draw but little water,
+are fast sailers, and well adapted for navigating through these
+dangerous seas. These pirates are supposed to possess in the whole
+about two hundred prahus, which usually are manned with from forty to
+fifty pirates; the number therefore engaged in this business, may be
+estimated at ten thousand. They are armed with muskets, blunderbusses,
+krises, hatchets, and spears, and at times the vessels have one or two
+large guns mounted. They infest the Macassar Strait, the Celebes Sea,
+and the Sulu Sea. Soung is the only place where they can dispose of
+their plunder to advantage, and obtain the necessary outfits. It may
+be called the principal resort of these pirates, where well-directed
+measures would result in effectually suppressing the crime.
+
+Besides the pirates of Sulu, the commerce of the eastern islands is
+vexed with other piratical establishments. In the neighboring seas,
+there are the Malay pirates, who have of late years become exceedingly
+troublesome. Their prahus are of much smaller size than those of Sulu,
+being from ten to twelve tons burden, but in proportion they are much
+better manned, and thus are enabled to ply with more efficiency their
+oars or paddles. These prahus frequent the shores of Malacca Straits,
+Cape Roumania, the Carimon Isles, and the neighboring straits, and
+at times they visit the Rhio Straits. Some of the most noted, I was
+informed, were fitted out from Johore, in the very neighborhood of
+the English authorities at Singapore; they generally have their haunts
+on the small islands on the coast, from which they make short cruises.
+
+They are noted for their arrangements for preventing themselves
+from receiving injury, in the desperate defences that are sometimes
+made against them. These small prahus have usually swivels mounted,
+which, although not of great calibre, are capable of throwing a shot
+beyond the range of small-arms. It is said that they seldom attempt
+an attack unless the sea is calm, which enables them to approach their
+victims with more assurance of success, on account of the facility with
+which they are enabled to manage their boats. The frequent calms which
+occur in these seas between the land and sea breezes, afford them many
+opportunities of putting their villanous plans in operation; and the
+many inlets and islets, with which they are well acquainted, afford
+places of refuge and ambush, and for concealing their booty. They
+are generally found in small flotillas of from six to twenty prahus,
+and when they have succeeded in disabling a vessel at long shot, the
+sound of the gong is the signal for boarding, which, if successful,
+results in a massacre more or less bloody, according to the obstinacy
+of the resistance they have met with.
+
+In the winter months, the Malacca Straits are most infested with them;
+and during the summer, the neighborhood of Singapore, Point Rumania,
+and the channels in the vicinity. In the spring, from February to
+May, they are engaged in procuring their supplies, in fishing, and
+refitting their prahus for the coming year.
+
+[Suppression of pirates.] I have frequently heard plans proposed
+for the suppression of these pirates, particularly of those in the
+neighborhood of the settlements under British rule. The European
+authorities are much to blame for the quiescent manner in which they
+have so long borne these depredations, and many complaints are made
+that Englishmen, on being transplanted to India, lose that feeling of
+horror for deeds of blood, such as are constantly occurring at their
+very doors, which they would experience in England. There are, however,
+many difficulties to overcome before operations against the pirates
+can be effective. The greatest of these is the desire of the English
+to secure the good-will of the chiefs of the tribes by whom they are
+surrounded. They thus wink at their piracies on the vessels of other
+nations, or take no steps to alleviate the evils of slavery. Indeed
+the language that one hears from many intelligent men who have
+long resided in that part of the world is, that in no country where
+civilization exists does slavery exhibit so debasing a form as in her
+Indian possessions. Another difficulty consists in the want of minute
+knowledge of the coasts, inlets, and hiding-places of the pirates, and
+this must continue to exist until proper surveys are made. This done,
+it would be necessary to employ vessels that could pursue the pirates
+everywhere, for which purpose steamers naturally suggest themselves.
+
+What will appear most extraordinary is, that the very princes who
+are enjoying the stipend for the purchase of the site whereon the
+English authority is established, are believed to be the most active
+in equipping the prahus for these piratical expeditions; yet no notice
+is taken of them, although it would be so easy to control them by
+withholding payment until they had cleared themselves from suspicion,
+or by establishing residents in their chief towns.
+
+[The Bajows.] Another, and a very different race of natives who
+frequent the Sulu Archipelago, must not be passed by without
+notice. These are the Bajow divers or fishermen, to whom Sulu is
+indebted for procuring the submarine treasures with which her seas
+are stored. They are also very frequently employed in the bêche de
+mer or trepang fisheries among the islands to the south. The Bajows
+generally look upon Macassar as their principal place of resort. They
+were at one time believed to be derived from Johore, on the Malayan
+peninsula; at another, to be Buguese; but they speak the Sulu dialect,
+and are certainly derived from some of the neighboring islands. The
+name of Bajows, in their tongue, means fishermen. From all accounts,
+they are allowed to pursue their avocations in peace, and are not
+unfrequently employed by the piratical datus, and made to labor for
+them. They resort to their fishing-grounds in fleets of between one
+and two hundred sail, having their wives and children with them,
+and in consequence of the tyranny of the Sulus, endeavor to place
+themselves under the protection of the flag of Holland, by which
+nation this useful class of people is encouraged. The Sulu Seas are
+comparatively little frequented by them, as they are unable to dispose
+of the produce of their fisheries for want of a market, and fear the
+exactions of the Datus. Their prahus are about five tons each. The
+Bajows at some islands are stationary, but are for the most part
+constantly changing their ground. The Spanish authorities in the
+Philippines encourage them, it is said, to frequent their islands,
+as without them they would derive little benefit from the banks in
+the neighboring seas, where quantities of pearl-oysters are known
+to exist, which produce pearls of the finest kind. The Bajows are
+inoffensive and very industrious, and in faith Mahomedans.
+
+The climate of Sulu during our short stay, though warm, was
+agreeable. The time of our visit was in the dry season, which lasts
+from October till April, and alternates with the wet one, from May
+till September. June and July are the windy months, when strong
+breezes blow from the westward. In the latter part of August and
+September, strong gales are felt from the south, while in December
+and January the winds are found to come from the northward; but light
+winds usually prevail from the southwest during the wet season, and
+from the opposite quarter, the dry, following closely the order of the
+monsoons in the China seas. As to the temperature, the climate is very
+equable, the thermometer seldom rising above 90° or falling below 70°.
+
+Diseases are few, and those that prevail arise from the manner in
+which the natives live. They are from that cause an unhealthy-looking
+race. The small-pox has at various times raged with great violence
+throughout the group, and they speak of it with great dread. Few of
+the natives appeared to be marked with it, which may have been owing,
+perhaps, to their escaping this disorder for some years. Vaccination
+has not yet been introduced among them, nor have they practiced
+inoculation.
+
+Notwithstanding Soung was once the Mecca of the East, its people
+have but little zeal for the Mahomedan faith. It was thought at once
+time that they had almost forgotten its tenets, in consequence of
+the neglect of all their religious abservances. The precepts which
+they seem to regard most are that of abstaining from swine's flesh,
+and that of being circumcised. Although polygamy is not interdicted,
+few even of the datus have more than one wife.
+
+Soung Road offers good anchorage; and supplies of all kinds may be
+had in abundance. Beef is cheap, and vegetables and fruits at all
+seasons plenty.
+
+Our observations placed the town in latitude 6° 01' N., longitude 120°
+55' 51'' E.
+
+Having concluded the treaty and other business that had taken me to
+Sulu, we took our departure for the Straits of Balabac, the western
+entrance into this sea, with a fine breeze to the eastward. By
+noon we had reached the group of Pangootaaraang, consisting of five
+small islands. All of these are low, covered with trees, and without
+lagoons. They presented a great contrast to Sulu, which was seen behind
+us in the distance. The absence of the swell of the ocean in sailing
+through this sea is striking, and gives the idea of navigating an
+extensive bay, on whose luxuriant islands no surf breaks. There are,
+however, sources of danger that incite the navigator to watchfulness
+and constant anxiety; the hidden shoals and reefs, and the sweep of
+the tide, which leave him no control over his vessel.
+
+[Cagayan Sulu.] Through the night, which was exceedingly dark, we
+sounded every twenty minutes, but found no bottom; and at daylight
+on the 7th, we made the islands of Cagayan Sulu, in latitude 7° 03'
+30'' N., longitude 118° 37' E. The tide or current was passing the
+islands to the west-southwest, three quarters of a mile per hour;
+we had soundings of seventy-five fathoms. Cagayan Sulu has a pleasant
+appearance from the sea, and may be termed a high island. It is less
+covered with undergrowth and mangrove-bushes than the neighboring
+islands, and the reefs are comparatively small. It has fallen off in
+importance; and by comparing former accounts with those I received,
+and from its present aspect, it would seem that it has decreased
+both in population and products. Its caves formerly supplied a large
+quantity of edible birds' nests; large numbers of cattle were to be
+found upon it; and its cultivation was carried on to some extent. These
+articles of commerce are not so much attended to at the present time,
+and the bêche de mer and tortoise-shell, formerly brought hither,
+are now carried to other places. There is a small anchorage on the
+west side, but we did not visit it. There are no dangers near these
+small islands that may not be guarded against. Our survey extended
+only to their size and situation, as I deemed it my duty to devote
+all the remainder of the time I had to spare to the Balabac Straits.
+
+[Balabac straits.] After the night set in, we continued sounding
+every ten minutes, and occasionally got bottom in from thirty to
+seventy fathoms. At midnight, the water shoaled to twenty fathoms,
+when I dropped the anchor until daylight. We shortly afterwards had
+a change of wind, and a heavy squall passed over us.
+
+In the morning we had no shoal ground near us, and the bank on which
+we had anchored was found to be of small size; it is probable that
+we had dropped the anchor on the shoalest place. Vessels have nothing
+to fear in this respect.
+
+At 9:00 a.m. of the 8th, we made the Mangsee Islands ahead of us, and
+likewise Balabac to the north, and Balambagan to the south. Several
+sand-banks and extensive reefs were also seen between them. On seeing
+the ground on which we had to operate, of which the published charts
+give no idea whatever, I determined to proceed, and take a central
+position with the ship under the Mangsee Islands; but in order not to
+lose time, I hoisted out and dropped two boats, under Lieutenant Perry,
+to survey the first sand-bank we came to, which lies a few miles to
+the eastward of these islands, with orders to effect this duty and join
+me at the anchorage, or find a shelter under the lee of the islands.
+
+At half-past two p.m. we anchored near the reef, in thirty-six fathoms
+water. I thought myself fortunate in getting bottom, as the reefs on
+closing with them seemed to indicate but little appearance of it.
+
+The rest of the day was spent in preparing the boats for our
+operations. I now felt the want of the tender. Although in the absence
+of this vessel, great exposure was necessary to effect this survey,
+I found both officers and men cheerful and willing. The parties were
+organized,--the first to proceed to the north, towards Balabac Island,
+to survey the intermediate shoals and reefs, under Lieutenant Emmons
+and Mr. Totten; the second to the south, under Lieutenants Perry and
+Budd; and Mr. Hammersly for the survey of the shoals of Balambangan and
+Banguey, and their reefs. The examination of the Mangsee Islands, and
+the reefs adjacent, with the astronomical and magnetic observations,
+etc., devolved on myself and those who remained on board the ship.
+
+The weather was watched with anxiety, and turned out disagreeable,
+heavy showers and strong winds prevailing; notwithstanding, the
+boats were despatched, after being as well protected against it as
+possible. We flattered ourselves that these extensive reefs would
+produce a fine harvest of shells; but, although every exertion
+was made in the search, we did not add as many to our collections
+as we anticipated. Some land-shells, however, were found that we
+little expected to meet with, for many of the trees were covered
+with them, and on cutting them down, large quantities were easily
+obtained. Mr. Peale shot several birds, among which was a Nicobar
+pigeon; some interesting plants and corals were also added. On the
+island a large quantity of drift-wood was found, which with that
+which is growing affords ample supplies of fuel for ships. No fresh
+water is to be had, except by digging, the island being but a few
+feet above high-water mark.
+
+Although the time was somewhat unfavorable, Lieutenant Emmons and
+party executed their orders within the time designated, and met with no
+other obstructions than the inclemency of the weather. This was not,
+however, the case with Lieutenant Perry, who, near a small beach on
+the island of Balambangan, encountered some Sulus, who were disposed
+to attack him. The natives, no doubt, were under the impression that
+the boats were from some shipwrecked vessel. They were all well armed,
+and apparently prepared to take advantage of the party if possible;
+but, by the prudence and forbearance of this officer, collision was
+avoided, and his party saved from an attack.
+
+[Balambangan.] The island of Balambangan was through the
+instrumentality of Mr. Dalrymple, as heretofore stated, obtained
+from the Sulus for a settlement and place of deposit, by the East
+India Company, who took possession of it in 1773. Its situation off
+the northern end of Borneo, near the fertile district of that island,
+its central position, and its two fine ports, offered great advantages
+for commerce, and for its becoming a great entrepot for the riches
+of this archipelago. Troops, and stores of all kinds, were sent
+from India; numbers of Chinese and Malays were induced to settle;
+and Mr. Herbert, one of the council of Bencoolen, was appointed
+governor. It had been supposed to be a healthy place, as the island
+was elevated, and therefore probably free from malaria; but in 1775
+the native troops from India became much reduced from sickness, and
+the post consequently much weakened. This, with the absence of the
+cruisers from the harbor, afforded a favorable opportunity for its
+capture; and the wealth that it was supposed to contain created an
+inducement that proved too great for the hordes of marauding pirates
+to resist. Choosing their time, they rushed upon the sentries, put
+them to death, took possession of the guns, and turned them against
+the garrison, only a few of whom made their escape on board of a small
+vessel. The booty in goods and valuables was said to have been very
+large, amounting to nearly four hundred thousand pounds sterling.
+
+Although Borneo offers many inducements to commercial enterprise,
+the policy of the Dutch Company has shut themselves out, as well
+as others, by interdicting communication. In consequence, except
+through indirect channels, there has been no information obtained of
+the singular and unknown inhabitants of its interior. This, however,
+is not long destined to be the case.
+
+Mr. Brooke, an English gentleman of fortune, has, since our passage
+through these seas, from philanthropic motives, made an agreement
+with the rajah of Sarawack, on the northern and western side of
+Borneo, to cede to him the administration of that portion of the
+island. This arrangement it is believed the British government will
+confirm, in which event Sarawack will at once obtain an importance
+among the foreign colonies, in the Eastern seas, second only to that
+of Singapore.
+
+The principal inducement that has influenced Mr. Brooke in this
+undertaking is the interest he feels in the benighted people of the
+interior, who are known under the name of Dyack, and of whom some
+extraordinary accounts have been given.
+
+A few of these, which I have procured from reputable sources, I will
+now relate, in order that it may be seen among what kind of people
+this gentleman has undertaken to introduce the arts of civilization.
+
+[The Dyacks.] The Dyacks are, by all accounts, a fine race, and
+much the most numerous of any inhabiting Borneo. They are almost
+exclusively confined to the interior, where they enjoy a fine climate,
+and all the spontaneous productions of the tropics. They are believed
+to be the aborigines of the island. The name of Dyack seems to be
+more particularly applied to those who live in the southern section
+of Borneo. To the north they are called Idaan or Tirun, and those so
+termed are best known to the Sulus, or the inhabitants of that part of
+the coast of Borneo over which the Sulus rule. In personal appearance,
+the Dyacks are slender, have higher foreheads than the Malays, and are
+a finer and much better-looking people. Their hair is long, straight,
+and coarse, though it is generally cropped short round the head. The
+females are spoken of as being fair and handsome, and many of those
+who have been made slaves are to be seen among the Malays.
+
+In manners the Dyacks are described as simple and mild, yet they are
+characterized by some of the most uncommon and revolting customs of
+barbarians. Their government is very simple; the elders in each village
+for the most part rule; but they are said to have chiefs that do not
+differ from the Malay rajahs. They wear no clothing except the maro,
+and many of them are tattooed, with a variety of figures, over their
+body. They live in houses built of wood, that are generally of large
+size, and frequently contain as many as one hundred persons. These
+houses are usually built on piles, divided into compartments, and
+have a kind of veranda in front, which serves as a communication
+between the several families. The patriarch, or elder, resides in
+the middle. The houses are entered by ladders, and have doors, but
+no windows. The villages are protected by a sort of breastwork.
+
+Although this people are to be found throughout all Borneo, and even
+within a few miles of the coast, yet they do not occupy any part of
+its shores, which are held by Malays, or Chinese settlers. There
+is no country more likely to interest the world than Borneo. All
+accounts speak of vast ruins of temples and palaces, throughout the
+whole extent of its interior, which the ancestors of the present
+inhabitants could not have constructed. The great resemblance these
+bear to those of China and Cambojia has led to the belief that Borneo
+was formerly peopled by those nations; but all traditions of the origin
+of these edifices have been lost; and so little is now known of the
+northern side of Borneo, that it would be presumption to indulge in any
+surmises of what may have been its state during these dark ages. Even
+the Bugis priests, who are the best-informed persons in the country,
+have no writings or traditions that bear upon the subject; and the
+few scattered legends of Eastern origin, can afford no proof of the
+occurrence of the events they commemorate in any particular locality.
+
+The accounts of the habits of the Dyacks are discrepant. Some give them
+credit for being very industrious, while others again speak of them
+as indolent. They are certainly cultivators of the soil, and in order
+to obtain the articles they need, will work assiduously. Many of them
+are employed in collecting gold-dust, and some in the diamond mines;
+and they will at times be found procuring gums, rattans, etc., from
+their native forests for barter. They are a people of great energy
+of character, and perseverance in the attainment of their object,
+particularly when on war-parties, or engaged in hunting.
+
+Their food consists of rice, hogs, rats, snakes, monkeys, and many
+kinds of vermin, with which this country abounds.
+
+Their chief weapon is the parang or heavy knife, somewhat like the
+kris. It is manufactured of native iron and steel, with which the
+coast of the country is said to abound. They have a method of working
+it which renders it unnecessary for them to look to a foreign supply;
+the only articles of foreign hardware that they are said to desire,
+are razors, out of which to make their cockspurs. One thing seems
+strange: although asserted upon good authority, that the iron and
+steel of the coast are thought to be superior by foreigners, they
+are not to be compared with that which is found in the interior,
+and manufactured by the Dyacks. All the best krises used by the Malay
+rajahs and chiefs, are obtained from the interior. Some of these are
+exquisitely manufactured, and so hard that, without turning the edge,
+they cut ordinary wrought iron and steel.
+
+Among their other weapons is the sumpit, a hollow tube, through
+which they blow poisoned arrows. The latter are of various kinds,
+and those used in war are dipped in the sap of what the natives term
+the "upo." The effect of this poison is almost instantaneous, and
+destroys life in four or five minutes. Those who have seen a wound
+given accidentally, describe the changes that the poison occasions
+as plainly perceptible in its progress. Before using the arrow, its
+poisoned point is dipped in lime-juice to quicken it. The range of
+the sumpit is from fifty to sixty yards. Although the arrows are
+poisoned, yet it is said they sometimes eat the games they kill
+with them, parboiling it before it is roasted, which is thought to
+extract the poison. Firearms, respecting which they have much fear,
+have not yet been introduced among them; indeed, it is said that so
+easily are they intimidated by such weapons, that on hearing a report
+of a gun they invariably run away. Each individual in a host would
+be impressed with the belief that he was the one that was to be shot.
+
+[The diwatas.] They address their prayers to the maker of the world,
+whom they call Dewatta, and this is all the religion they have. There
+are many animals and birds held by them in high veneration, and they
+are close observers of the flight of birds, from which they draw
+prognostics. There is in particular a white-headed eagle or kite, upon
+whose flight and cries they put great reliance, and consult them in war
+or on any particular expedition. For this purpose they draw numbers
+of them together, and feed them by scattering rice about. It is said
+their priests consult their entrails also on particular occasions,
+to endeavor to look into future events.
+
+In the performance of their engagements and oaths, they are most
+scrupulous. They seem to have some idea of a future life, and that
+on the road to their elysium they have to pass over a long tree,
+which requires the assistance of all those they have slain in this
+world. The abode of happy spirits is supposed to be on the top of Kini
+Balu, one of their loftiest mountains, and the portals are guarded
+by a fiery serpent, who does not suffer any virgin to pass into the
+celestial paradise.
+
+Polygamy does not exist among them, but they have as concubines slaves,
+who are captured in their wars or rather predatory expeditions. If a
+wife proves unfaithful to her husband, he kills several of his slaves,
+or inflicts upon her many blows, and a divorce may be effected by
+the husband paying her a certain price, and giving up her clothes and
+ornaments, after which he is at liberty to marry another. The women,
+however, exercise an extraordinary influence over the men.
+
+[Headhunting.] But of all their peculiar traits, there is none more
+strange than the passion they seem to indulge for collecting human
+heads. These are necessary accompaniments in many transactions of
+their lives, particularly in their marriages, and no one can marry
+unless he has a certain number of heads; indeed, those who cannot
+obtain these are looked upon with disdain by the females. A young man
+wishing to wed, and making application to marry her for whom he has
+formed an attachment, repairs with the girl's father to the rajah
+or chief, who immediately inquires respecting the number of heads
+he has procured, and generally decides that he ought to obtain one
+or two more, according to his age, and the number the girl's father
+may have procured, before he can be accepted. He at once takes his
+canoe and some trusty followers, and departs on his bloody errand,
+waylaying the unsuspecting or surprising the defenceless, whose head
+he immediately cuts off, and then makes a hurried retreat. With this
+he repairs to the dwelling of his mistress, or sends intelligence
+of his success before him. On his arrival, he is met by a joyous
+group of females, who receive him with every demonstration of joy,
+and gladly accept his ghastly offering.
+
+Various barbarous ceremonies now take place, among which the heads
+undergo inspection to ascertain if they are fresh; and, in order to
+prove this, none of the brain must be removed, nor must they have been
+submitted to smoke to destroy the smell. After these preliminaries,
+the family honor of the bride is supposed to be satisfied, and she is
+not allowed to refuse to marry. A feast is now made, and the couple
+are seated in the midst naked, holding the bloody heads, when handfuls
+of rice are thrown over them, with prayers that they may be happy and
+fruitful. After this, the bridegroom repairs in state to the house of
+the bride, where he is received at the door by one of her friends,
+who sprinkles him with the blood of a cock, and her with that of a
+hen. This completes the affair, and they are man and wife.
+
+[Cremation.] Funerals are likewise consecrated by similar offerings,
+the corpse remaining in the house until a slave can be procured,
+by purchase or otherwise, whom they design to behead at the time the
+body is burnt. This is done in order that the defunct may be attended
+by a slave on his way to the other world or realms of bliss. After
+being burnt, the ashes of the deceased are gathered in an urn, and
+the head of the slave preserved and placed near it.
+
+In some parts, a rajah or chief is buried with great pomp in his war
+habiliments, and food and his arms are placed at his side. A mound
+is erected over him, which is encircled with a bamboo fence, upon
+which a number of fresh heads are stuck, all the warriors who have
+been attached to him bringing them as the most acceptable offering;
+and subsequently these horrid offerings are renewed.
+
+The Dyacks are found also in the Celebes island, but there, as in
+Borneo, they are confined to the interior. I have already mentioned
+that they were supposed to have been the original inhabitants of the
+Sulu Archipelago. The Sulus speak of the country of the Dyacks as
+being exceedingly fertile and capable of producing every thing. The
+north end of Borneo is particularly valuable, as its produce is easily
+transported from the interior, where much of the land is cultivated. I
+have obtained much more information in relation to this people, in
+a variety of ways, from individuals as well as from the published
+accounts, which are to be found at times in the Eastern prints; but
+as this digression has already extended to a great length, I trust
+that enough has been said to enable the reader to contrast it with
+the natives who inhabit the islands that dot the vast Pacific Ocean,
+and to make him look forward with interest to the developments that
+the philanthropic exertions of Mr. Brooke may bring to light.
+
+Having completed our duties here, the boats were hoisted in, after
+despatching one to leave orders for Mr. Knox of the Flying-Fish,
+in a bottle tied to a flagstaff.
+
+On the afternoon of the 12th, we got under way to proceed direct to
+Singapore, and passed through the channel between the reef off the
+Mangsee Islands, and those of Balambangan and Banguey. We found this
+channel clear, and all the dangers well defined.
+
+As the principal objects of my visit were to ascertain the disposition
+and resources of the Sulus for trade, and to examine the straits
+leading into the Sulu seas, in order to facilitate the communication
+with China, by avoiding on the one hand the eastern route, and on
+the other the dangers of the Palawan Passage, it may be as well to
+give the result of the latter inquiry, referring those who may be
+more particularly interested to the Hydrographical Atlas and Memoir.
+
+The difficulties in the Palawan Passage arising from heavy seas
+and fresh gales do not exist in the Sulu Sea, nor are the shoals so
+numerous or so dangerous. In the place of storms and rough water,
+smooth seas are found, and for most of the time moderate breezes,
+which do not subject a vessel to the wear and tear experienced in
+beating up against a monsoon.
+
+The Balabac Straits may be easily reached, either from Singapore,
+or by beating up along the western shore of Borneo. When the straits
+are reached, a vessel by choosing her time may easily pass through
+them by daylight, even by beating when the wind is ahead. Once
+through, the way is clear, with the exception of a few coral lumps;
+the occasional occurrence of the north wind will enable a vessel to
+pass directly to the shores of the island of Panay. A fair wind will
+ordinarily prevail along the island, and, as I have already mentioned,
+it may be approached closely. The passage through to the eastward of
+Mindoro Island may be taken in preference to that on the west side
+through the Mindoro Strait, and thus all the reefs and shoals will
+be avoided. Thence, the western coast of Luzon will be followed to
+the north, as in the old route.
+
+I do not think it necessary to point out any particular route through
+the Sulu Sea, as vessels must be guided chiefly as the winds blow,
+but I would generally avoid approaching the Sulu Islands, as the
+currents are more rapid, and set rather to the southward. Wherever
+there is anchorage, it would be advisable to anchor at night, as much
+time might thus be saved, and a knowledge of the currents or sets
+of the tides obtained. Perhaps it would be as well to caution those
+who are venturesome, that it is necessary to keep a good look-out,
+and those who are timid, that there does not appear to be much danger
+from the piratical prahus, unless a vessel gets on shore; in that
+case it will not be long before they will be seen collecting in the
+horizon in large numbers.
+
+[Advantages of Sulu treaty.] The treaty that I made with the Sultan, if
+strictly enforced on the first infraction, will soon put an end to all
+the dangers to be apprehended from them. To conclude, I am satisfied
+that under ordinary circumstances, to pass through the Sulu Sea will
+shorten by several days the passage to Manila or Canton, and be a
+great saving of expense in the wear and tear of a ship and her canvass.
+
+On the 13th, we passed near the location of the Viper Shoal, but saw
+nothing of it. It is, therefore, marked doubtful on the chart. As
+I had but little time to spare, the look-outs were doubled, and we
+pursued our course throughout the night, sounding as we went every
+fifteen minutes; but nothing met our view.
+
+On the 14th, although we had the northeast monsoon blowing fresh, we
+experienced a current of twenty-two miles setting to the north. This
+was an unexpected result, as the currents are usually supposed
+to prevail in the direction of the monsoon. On the 15th. we still
+experienced it, though not over fifteen miles. On the 16th, we found
+it setting west, and as we approached the Malayan Peninsula it was
+found to be running southwest.
+
+On the 18th, we made Pulo Aor and Pulo Pedang, and arriving off the
+Singapore Straits, I hove-to, to await daylight. In the morning at
+dawn, we found ourselves in close company with a Chinese junk. The
+19th, until late in the afternoon, we were in the Singapore Straits,
+making but slow progress towards this emporium of the East. The number
+of native as well as foreign vessels which we passed, proved that we
+were approaching some great mart, and at 5:00 p.m. we dropped our
+anchor in Singapore Roads. Here we found the Porpoise, Oregon, and
+Flying-Fish, all well: the two former had arrived on January 22nd,
+nearly a month before, and the latter three days previously. Before
+concluding this chapter, I shall revert to their proceedings since
+our separation off the Sandwich Islands.
+
+The instructions to the brigs have been heretofore given; but it may
+not be amiss to repeat here that the object in detaching them was,
+that they might explore the line of reefs and islands known to exist to
+the northward and westward of the Hawaiian Group, and thence continue
+their course towards the coast of Japan. Had they effected the latter
+object, it would have given important results in relation to the force
+of the currents, and the temperature of the water. It was desirable,
+if possible, to ascertain with certainty the existence on the coast of
+Japan of a current similar to the Gulf Stream, to which my attention
+had been particularly drawn.
+
+The first land they made was on December 1, 1841, and was Necker
+Island. Birds, especially the white tern, had been seen in numbers
+prior to its announcement. Necker Island is apparently a mass of
+volcanic rocks, about three hundred feet high, and is destitute of
+any kind of vegetation, but covered with guano. It is surrounded by
+a reef, three miles from which soundings were obtained, in twenty
+fathoms water. The furious surf that was beating on all sides of the
+island, precluded all possibility of a landing being made. By the
+connected observations of the vessels it lies in longitude 164° 37'
+W., and latitude 23° 44' N.
+
+The French-Frigate Shoal was seen on the 3rd; the weather proved bad,
+and they were unable to execute the work of examining this reef. The
+sea was breaking furiously upon it.
+
+On the 7th, the Maro Reef was made in latitude 25° 24' 29'' N.,
+longitude 170° 43' 24'' W. Bottom was found at a distance of four
+miles from the reef, with forty-five fathoms of line. On the 8th,
+they passed over the site of Neva Isle, as laid down by Arrowsmith,
+but no indications of land were seen.
+
+[Arrival at Singapore.] On the 11th, Lieutenant-Commandant Ringgold
+determined, on account of the condition of the brigs, and the
+continuance of bad weather, it was impossible to keep their course to
+the northward and westward towards the coast of Japan; he, therefore,
+hauled to the southward, which was much to be regretted, and followed
+so very nearly in the same track as that pursued by the Vincennes,
+towards the China seas, that nothing new was elicited by them.
+
+After a passage of fifty-six days from the Sandwich Islands, they
+dropped their anchors in Singapore on January 19, 1842, all well. Here
+they found the United States ship Constellation, Commodore Kearney, and
+the sloop of war Boston, Captain Long, forming the East India squadron.
+
+
+
+PART IV
+
+Manila in 1819 [274]
+
+By An American Naval Officer.
+
+[Coral.] " * * * The fine bay of Manila, thirty leagues in
+circumference, is situated near the middle of the west side of the
+island, and has good and clear anchorage in all parts of it, excepting
+on a coral ledge, called the Shoal of St. Nicholas, which is the only
+visible danger in the bay. The dangerous part of it is, however, of
+small extent, and with proper attention easily avoided; the least
+of water found on it at present is eleven feet, but its summit is
+constantly approaching the surface of the sea, as has been ascertained
+by surveys made at different periods by orders of government, which
+circumstance seems to indicate the presence of Zoophytes, that compound
+of animal and vegetable life, whose incessant and rapid labors, and,
+as we are told by naturalists, whose polypus-like powers of receiving
+perfect form and vitality into numberless dismembered portions of their
+bodies, have long excited much curiosity and admiration. These small,
+compound animals, commence their operations at the bottom of the sea,
+and proceed upwards, towards the surface, spreading themselves in
+various ramifications; the older members of the mass become concrete,
+petrify, and form dangerous shoals; the superior portion of these
+little colonists always being the last produced, in its turn generates
+myriads of others, and so on, ad infinitum, till they reach the surface
+of the ocean. These coral reefs and shoals are found in most parts of
+the world, within the tropics; but the waters of the eastern hemisphere
+seem to be peculiarly congenial to their production, and, indeed, there
+appear to be certain spaces or regions in these seas, which are their
+favorite haunts. Among many others may be mentioned the Mozambique
+channel, and that tract of ocean, from the eastern coast of Africa,
+quite across to the coast of Malabar, including the Mahé, Chagas,
+Maldive and Laccadive archipelagos; the southeastern part of the China
+sea; the Red sea; the eastern part of Java; the coasts of all the Sunda
+islands; and various places in the Pacific ocean. These shoals, when
+they begin to emerge from the sea, are frequented by aquatic fowls,
+whose feathers, and other deposits, combined with the fortuitous
+landing of drifts of wood, weeds, and various other substances from
+the adjacent lands, in the course of time form superaqueous banks,
+of considerable elevation; and the broken fragments of coral thrown
+up by the waves, slowly, but constantly increase their horizontal
+diameter. Coconuts are frequently seen floating upon the sea in these
+regions, some of which are no doubt thrown upon the shores of the
+new created lands; from which accidental circumstance this fruit is
+there propagated. Vagrant birds unconsciously deposit the germs of
+various other productions of the vegetable kingdom, which in due
+season spring up and clothe their surfaces with verdure; and the
+natural accumulation of dead and putrid vegetation serves to assist
+in the formation of a rich and productive soil, and to increase the
+altitudes of these new creations. As I have been always much amused
+and interested by this subject, and had frequent opportunities,
+during many years' experience, to observe and examine these shoals in
+their various stages of subaqueous progress, and subsequent emersion
+I am convinced that not only many considerable islands, but extensive
+insular groups, owe their existence to the above origin."
+
+[The people.]  [275]"* * * The natives of these islands are generally
+well made, and bear strong marks of activity and muscular vigor;
+they are in general somewhat larger than the Javanese, and bear some
+affinity in the features of their faces to the Malays; their noses
+are however more prominent, and their cheek bones not so high, nor are
+their skins so dark. Their hair is of a jet black, made glossy by the
+constant application of coconut oil, as is the custom in all India,
+and drawn together and knotted on top, in the manner of the Malays. The
+women display great taste in the arrangement and decorations of their
+hair, which they secure with silver or gold bodkins, the heads of
+which are frequently composed of precious stones."
+
+[Mixed blood.]  [276]"* * * A very considerable proportion of the
+population of Manila is composed of the mestizos; they are the
+offspring of the intermarriages of the Spaniards with the native
+women, and these again forming connexions with the whites, or with
+the native Indians (the latter, however, less frequent), combine
+in stamping upon their descendants a great variety of features and
+shades of color; a general resemblance is, however, to be traced, and
+waiving color and manners, a mestizo could not easily be mistaken for
+a native. This class of the inhabitants is held in nearly the same
+estimation as the whites. They are very cleanly in their persons,
+and neat in their dress, which, among the males, consists generally
+of a pair of cotton trousers of various colors, as fancy dictates,
+and shoes in the European manner, a frock, or tunic, of striped grass
+manufacture, worn outside the trousers, in the manner of the Asiatic
+Armenians (but without the sash, or girdle), the collars of which are
+tastefully embroidered, and thrown back on their shoulders; a European
+hat completes their costume, which is light, cool and airy, and after
+a stranger has been a short time accustomed to see what he at first
+would call a perversion of dress, his prejudices subside, and he has
+no hesitation in pronouncing it very proper and graceful. They are
+remarkably fine limbed, and well built, the females especially, who
+are really models of the most complete symmetry; their hair and eyes,
+which unlike their skins, seldom vary from the original jet black of
+their native parents, bestow upon them the primary characteristics of
+the brunette. This people, unlike the generality of mixed colors in
+the human race, have been improved by their intermixture, they are more
+industrious and cleanly than the Spaniards, possess more intelligence
+and polish than the Indians and are less malicious and revengeful than
+either. The men are employed mostly as writers, brokers, agents and
+overseers; many of them hold lucrative offices under government, and
+they not unfrequently arrive at wealth and consideration. The women
+are also industrious, and capable of great intellectual improvement;
+they have a natural grace and ease in their manner, and make excellent
+wives and mothers. This character must not, however, be taken in an
+unlimited sense, for we cannot expect this rule to be without its
+exceptions, and it is true that some of these females do degenerate,
+and copy after the manners of the creoles, or white natives; but
+this is only the case when, by their intercourse with the whites,
+their Indian blood is merged and lost in the European. That part
+of the population in which is blended the blood of the Chinese and
+Tagalogs is named the Chinese mestizos.
+
+The natives are not unapt in acquiring knowledge, neither do they
+want industry, when efforts are made, and inducements displayed
+to call their powers into action. They are excellent mechanics and
+artisans, and, as horticulturists, their superiority over many of the
+Asiatics is acknowledged. They are polite and affable to strangers,
+but irascible, and when excited are very sanguinary; their natural
+bias to this revengeful and cruel character, is strengthened and
+rendered more intense by the ... doctrines of the Roman catholic
+religion as dictated to them by the designing and interested priests
+who reside among them. The culprit always finds a sanctuary in the
+nearest church, till by the payment of some pecuniary mulct, he
+satisfies the demands of the priests, obtains absolution, appeases
+the resentment of the relations of the deceased, and eludes the arm
+of justice; he grows hardened by impunity, repeats his offences,
+and again escapes as before."
+
+[A Filipino foundry.] "* * * All the necessary works for a garrisoned
+city are within its walls; extensive magazines were erected in 1686,
+besides which are a hall of arms, or armory, a repository for powder,
+with bomb-proof vaults, and commodious quarters and barracks for the
+garrison. There is also a furnace and foundry here, which, although
+their operations were suppressed in 1805, is the most ancient in
+the Spanish monarchy; this establishment was founded in 1584, in
+the village of St. Anna, near Manila; to the latter of which places
+it was transferred in 1590. The first founder was a Pampango Indian,
+named Pandapira. When the Spaniards first arrived at Manila, in 1571,
+they found there a large foundry, which was accidentally burnt,
+in consequence of the combustibility of the building and effects,
+which character applies to all the houses of that period."
+
+[Language.]  [277]"* * * Their colloquial language, like that of the
+natives of Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and many other islands in these seas,
+is a dialect of the peninsular Malay from whence it is thought they
+originated; and so striking is its similarity among all these islands,
+that the natives of each can, in a greater or less degree, understand
+that of all the others. The characters of their written language
+differ widely, and great varieties of arrangement exist among them. The
+Tagalogs write from top to bottom on palm leaves and strips of bamboo;
+and many of the Moros or Mahomedans use the Arabic characters."
+
+[Difference of days.]  [278]From the circumstance of the Spaniards
+arriving in these seas by Cape Horn, and the general route being by
+the Cape of Good Hope, a consequent difference in time of one day
+is produced in the different reckoning; the Spaniards losing, and
+those who steer eastward gaining, each in the proportion of half a
+day in completing the semi-circumference of the globe. Consequently,
+the time at Manila, being regulated by their own reckonings, is one
+day later than that of those who arrive there by steering eastward
+from America or Europe; as for instance, when by the accounts of the
+latter it is Sunday, by theirs it is only Saturday.
+
+[English in Manila.] In the year 1762, the city of Manila was taken
+by the English, where, and at Cavite, immense quantities of naval and
+military stores, brass and iron ordnance, and several fine ships, fell
+into their hands. It was, however, soon delivered up to the Spaniards,
+on a promise of the payment to the English of four millions of
+dollars as a ransom, which, however, never has been paid. This breach
+of faith and promise has been loudly complained of by the latter,
+and as pertinaciously excused by the Spaniards, who complain that
+the British plundered the city, and committed many other excesses,
+contrary to the express conditions of their engagements, by which
+they were virtually rendered nugatory.
+
+[Galleon trade.] The inhabitants of Manila have long enjoyed the
+privilege of sending two annual ships to Acapulco called Galleons,
+Navios, or Register-Ships, with the produce of the Philippines, of
+China, and other parts of Asia; in return for which, they receive
+various articles of the production of South America; the principal
+of which are cochineal, merchandise of different descriptions of
+European origin, and silver in Spanish dollars and ingots, which
+compose the principal part of the value of their return cargoes,
+amounting annually to about three million five hundred thousand
+Spanish dollars. A large proportion of this property belongs to the
+convents in Manila, whose great revenues not only enable them to
+engage in extensive mercantile operations, but to lend considerable
+sums to the merchants on bottomry. For the indulgence in this trade,
+the proprietors pay a large sum of money to the crown.
+
+These ships were of the burden of from twelve to fifteen hundred
+tons, and were numerously manned and well appointed for defense; but
+of late years, since the revolt of the Spanish colonies, which has
+rendered the navigation of the intermediate seas dangerous to these
+enterprises, the trade has been greatly interrupted, and instead
+of risking it in large bodies, private ships of smaller burden have
+been hired for the purpose of dividing the risk; some of these have
+been put under foreign colors, though formerly the galleons wore,
+by instruction, the royal flag, their officers were commissioned
+and uniformed like the officers of the navy, and the ships were
+under the same regulations and discipline. The object, however, of
+the trade in smaller ships has not been obtained; for so great are
+the fears of the owners and agents of their being captured, and so
+many restrictions laid upon the commanders that they lie in port the
+principal part of the time; so that in September, 1819, the ships of
+the preceding year had not arrived at Manila; neither had any been
+dispatched from the latter place for Acapulco during that time. These
+interruptions, and in fact, the virtual suspension of this commerce,
+will undoubtedly, if a liberal and enlightened policy is pursued,
+result greatly to the advantage of these islands and the mother
+country. Already since the establishment of the cortes, permitting
+foreigners to settle permanently at Manila, great improvements have
+been made in the productions of the island, and important additions
+to the revenue. The failure of the annual remittance of dollars from
+South America to defray the expenses of the colonial government, of
+which their revenues from the islands were not adequate to meet one
+half, has been severely felt, and has stimulated them to make some
+very unusual exertions. Foreign commerce has been more countenanced in
+consequence of this state of things, and greater encouragement has been
+given to the growers and manufacturers of their staple exports; and if
+the affairs of these islands should in future be properly conducted,
+the revenue arising from the impost on the single article of coffee,
+will in a few years be amply sufficient to support the government,
+and leave a net income of the revenue arising from the imposts on all
+other articles, besides what would accrue from the taxes and numerous
+other resources. A free commerce with other nations would create a
+competition, and a consequent reduction in the price of imports, and
+their articles of export would increase, in proportion to the demand
+for them. In short, nothing is wanting in these beautiful islands,
+but ability to direct, and energy to execute the most extensive
+plans of agriculture and commerce, which the bounties of the soil,
+and its excellent climate and situation, would most certainly render
+completely successful; and, instead of being, as at present it is,
+a burden to Spain, it would become a source of great wealth to her."
+
+[Spirit of independence.]  [279]"* * * It is to be hoped that
+the narrow and illiberal policy which has heretofore retarded the
+prosperity of these fine islands, will necessarily be superseded
+by more expanded views, and enable them to maintain the rank and
+importance to which their intrinsic worth entitles them. The spirit
+of independence which has recently diffused its influence through
+the Spanish colonies on the American continent, has also darted its
+rays across the Pacific, and beamed with enlivening lustre upon those
+remote regions and the sacred flames of liberty which have been kindled
+have in the bosom of that country, though for a period concealed from
+the view of regal parasites and dependents, burned clear and intense;
+and the time is perhaps not very remote, when it shall burst forth,
+and shed its joyous light upon the remotest and most inconsiderable
+islet of this archipelago.
+
+[Opportunity for a republic.] Perhaps no part of the world offers a
+more eligible site for an independent republic than these islands;
+their insular posture and distance from any rival power, combined
+with the intrinsic strength of a free representative government,
+would guarantee their safety and glory; their intermediate situation,
+between Asia and the American continent, their proximity to China,
+Japan, Borneo, the Molucca and Sunda Islands, the Malay peninsula,
+Cochin China, Tonquin, Siam, and the European possessions in the East,
+would insure them an unbounded commerce, consequently great wealth and
+power; and their happiness would be secured by religious toleration
+and liberal views of civil liberty in the government. It must be
+confessed, however, that the national character of the Spaniards is
+not suitable to produce and enjoy in perfection this most desirable
+state of affairs; it is to be feared that their bigotry would preclude
+religious toleration, their indolence continue the present system of
+slavery, so degrading in a particular manner to a republic, their
+want of energy paralyze the operations of enterprising foreigners
+among them. No change, however, can be for the worse, and if all
+the advantage, cannot be reaped by them, which the citizens of our
+republic would secure, it will be better for them to seize and enjoy
+such as their genius and talents will enable them to."
+
+[Health.]  [280]" * * * The health of the city and suburbs is
+proverbial, and the profession of a physician is, perhaps, of all
+others the least lucrative. A worthy and intelligent Scotch doctor,
+who had come to Manila, while I was there, to exercise his profession,
+and who lodged in the same house with me, was greatly annnoyed at
+the want of practice which he experienced there, although he had his
+full share of patronage, and often jocosely declared that the "dom
+climate" would starve him; in fact he did not long remain there;
+I afterwards met him in the Isle of France, where he was still in
+pursuit of practice."
+
+[A barbarous execution.]  [281]" * * * Impelled by a very common and,
+perhaps, excusable curiosity, I rode out with some friends one day
+to witness the execution of a mestizo soldier for murder. The parade
+ground of Bagumbayan was the theater of this tragic comedy, for such
+it may be trully called, and never did I experience such a revulsion
+of feeling as upon this occasion. The place was crowded with people
+of all descriptions, and a strong guard of soldiers, three deep,
+surrounded the gallows, forming a circle, the area of which was about
+two hundred feet in diameter. The hangman was habited in a red jacket
+and trousers, with a cap of the same color upon his head. This fellow
+had been formerly condemned to death for parricide, but was pardoned
+on condition of turning executioner, and becoming close prisoner for
+life, except when the duties of his profession occasionally called him
+from his dungeon for an hour. Whether his long confinement, and the
+ignominious estimation in which he was held, combined with despair of
+pardon for his heinous offense, and a natural ferocity of character,
+had rendered him reckless of "weal or woe," or other impulse directed
+his movements, I know not, but never did I see such a demoniacal visage
+as was presented by this miscreant; and when the trembling culprit
+was delivered over to his hand, he pounced eagerly upon his victim,
+while his countenance was suffused with a grim and ghastly smile,
+which reminded us of Dante's devils. He immediately ascended the
+ladder, dragging his prey after him till they had nearly reached the
+top; he then placed the rope around the neck of the malefactor with
+many antic gestures and grimaces highly gratifying and amusing to the
+mob. To signify to the poor fellow under his fangs that he wished to
+whisper in his ear, to push him off the ladder, and to jump astride
+his neck with his heels drumming with violence upon his stomach, was
+but the work of an instant. We could then perceive a rope fast to each
+leg of the sufferer, which was pulled with violence by people under
+the gallows, and an additional rope, to use a sea term, a preventer,
+was round his neck, and secured to the gallows, to act in case of
+accident to the one by which the body was suspended. I had witnessed
+many executions in different parts of the world, but never had such
+a diabolical scene as this passed before my eyes."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+PART V
+
+The Peopling of the Philippines
+
+By Dr. Rudolf Virchow
+
+(Translated by O. T. Mason; in Smithsonian Institution 1899 Report.)
+
+Since the days when the first European navigators entered the South
+Sea, the dispute over the source and ethnic affiliations of the
+inhabitants of that extended and scattered island world has been
+unsettled. The most superficial glance points out a contrariety in
+external appearances, which leaves little doubt that here peoples of
+entirely different blood live near and among one another.
+
+["Negritos and Indios."] And this is so apparent that the pathfinder
+in this region, Magellan, gave expression to the contrariety in his
+names for tribes and islands. Since dark complexion was observed
+on individuals in certain tribes and in defined areas, and light
+complexion on others, here abundantly, there quite exceptional,
+writers applied Old World names to the new phenomena without further
+thought. The Philippines set the decisive example in this. Fernando
+Magellan first discovered the islands of this great archipelago in
+1521, March 16. After his death the Spaniards completed the circle
+of his discoveries. At this time the name of Negros was fixed, which
+even now is called Islas de los Pintados. For years the Spaniards
+called the entire archipelago Islas de Poniente; gradually, after the
+expedition of Don Fray Garcia Jofre de Loaisa (1526), the new title
+of the Philippines prevailed, through Salazar.
+
+The people were divided into two groups, the Little Negros or Negritos
+and the Indios. It is quite conceivable that involuntarily the opinion
+prevailed that the Negritos had close relationship with the African
+blacks, and the Indios with the lighter-complexioned inhabitants of
+India, or at least of Indonesia.
+
+However, it must be said here that the theory of a truly African
+origin of the Negritos has been advanced but seldom, and then in a very
+hesitating manner. The idea that with the present configuration of the
+eastern island world, especially with their great distances apart, a
+variety of mankind that had never manifested any aptitude for maritime
+enterprises should have spread themselves over this vast ocean area,
+in order to settle down on this island and on that, is so unreasonable
+that it has found scarcely a defender worth naming. More and more the
+blacks are coming to be considered the original peoples, the "Indios"
+to be the intruders. For this there is a quite reasonable ground,
+in that on many islands the blacks dwell in the interior, difficult
+of access, especially in the dense and unwholesome mountain forests,
+while the lighter complexioned tribes have settled the coasts. To
+this are added linguistic proofs, which place the lighter races, of
+homogeneous speech, in linguistic relations with the higher races,
+especially the Malays. Dogmatically it has been said that originally
+these islands had been occupied entirely by the primitive black
+population, but afterwards, through intrusions from the sea, these
+blacks were gradually pressed away from the coast and shoved back
+into the interior.
+
+[Complicated Pacific problem.] The problem, though it appears simple
+enough, has become complicated more and more through the progress
+of discovery, especially since Cook enlarged our knowledge of the
+oriental island world. A new and still more pregnant contrast then
+thrust itself to the front in the fact that the blacks and the
+lighter-colored peoples are each separated into widely differing
+groups. While the former hold especially the immense, almost
+continental, regions of Australia (New Holland) and New Guinea, and
+also the larger archipelagos, such as New Hebrides, Solomon Islands,
+Fiji (Viti) Archipelago--that is, the western areas--the north and
+east, Micronesia and Polynesia, were occupied by lighter-colored
+peoples. So the first division into Melanesia and Polynesia has
+in latest times come to be of value, and the dogma once fixed has
+remained. For the Polynesians are by many allied to the Malays,
+while the blacks are put together as a special ethnological race.
+
+For practical ethnology this division may suffice. But the scientific
+man will seek also for the blacks a genetic explanation. The answer
+has been furnished by one of the greatest ethnologists, Theodor Waitz,
+who, after he had exposed the insufficiency of the accepted formulas,
+came to the conclusion that the differentiation of the blacks from
+the lighter peoples might be an error. He denied that there had been
+a primitive black race in Micronesia and Polynesia; in his opinion
+we have here to do with a single race. The color of the Polynesians
+may be out and out from natural causes different, "their entire
+physical appearance indicates the greatest variability." Herein the
+whole question of the domain of variation is sprung with imperfect
+satisfaction on the part of those travelers who give their attention
+more to transitions than to types. Among these are not a few who have
+returned from the South Sea with the conviction that all criteria
+for the diagnosis of men and of races are valueless.
+
+Analytical anthropology has led to other and often unexpected
+results. It has proved that just that portion of South Sea
+population which can apparently lay the strongest claim to be
+considered a homogeneous race must be separated into a collection
+of subvarieties. Nothing appears more likely than that the Negritos
+of the Philippines are the nearest relatives to the Melanesians, the
+Australians, the Papuans; and yet it has been proved that all these
+are separated one from another by well-marked characters. Whether
+these characters place the peoples under the head of varieties,
+or whether, indeed, the black tribes of the South Sea, spite of all
+differences, are to be traced back to one single primitive stock,
+that is a question of prehistory for whose answer the material
+is lacking. Were it possible to furnish the proof that the black
+populations of the South Sea were already settled in their present
+homes when land bridges existed between their territory and Africa,
+or when the much-sought Lemuria still existed, it would not be worth
+the trouble to hunt for the missing material. In our present knowledge
+we can not fill the gaps, so we must yet hold the blacks of the Orient
+to be separate races.
+
+[Hair as a race index.] The hair furnished the strongest character
+for diagnosis, in which, not alone that of the head is under
+consideration; the hair, therefore, occupies the foreground of
+interest. Its color is of the least importance, since all peoples of
+the South Sea have black hair. It is more the structure and appearance
+which furnish the observer convenient starting points for the primary
+classification. Generally a two-fold division satisfies. The blacks,
+it is said, have crisped hair, the Polynesians and light-colored
+peoples have smooth hair. But this declaration is erroneous in its
+generality. It is in no way easy to declare absolutely what hair is
+to be called crisp, and it is still more difficult to define in what
+respects the so-called crisp varieties differ one from another. For
+a long time the Australian hair was denominated crisp, until it was
+evident that it could be classed neither with that of the Africans
+nor with that of the Philippine blacks. Semper, one of the first
+travelers to furnish a somewhat complete description of the physical
+characters of the Negritos, describes it as an "extremely thick,
+brown-black, lack-luster, and crisp-woolly crown of hair." Among
+these peculiarities the lack-luster is unimportant, since it is due
+to want of care and uncleanliness. On the contrary, the other data
+furnish true characters of the hair and among them the crisp-woolly
+peculiarity is most valuable.
+
+On the terms "wool" and "woolly" severe controversies, which have not
+yet closed, have taken place among ethnologists during the last ten
+years. Also the lack of care, especially the absence of the comb,
+has here acted as a disturbing cause in the decision. But there is
+yet a set of peoples, which were formerly included, that are now
+being gradually disassociated, especially the Australians and the
+Veddahs, whose hair, by means of special care, appears quite wavy
+if not entirely sleek and smooth. Generally it is frowzy and matted,
+so that its natural form is difficult to recognize. To it is wanting
+the chief peculiarity, which obtrudes itself in the African blacks so
+characteristically that the compact spiral form which it assumes from
+its root, the so-called "pepper-corn," is selected as the preferable
+mark of the race. The peculiar nappy head has it origin in the spiral
+"rollchen." As to the Asiatic blacks this has been for a long time
+known among the Andamanese; it has lately been noticed upon the Sakai
+of Malacca, and it is to be found also among the Negritos of the
+Philippines, as I can show by specimens. Therefore, if we seek ethnic
+relationships for the Negritos of the Philippines, or as they are
+named, the Aetas (Etas, Itas), such connections obtrude themselves
+with the stocks named, and the more strongly since they all have
+brachycephalic, relatively small (nannocephalic) heads and through
+their small size attach themselves to the peculiar dwarf tribes.
+
+I might here comment on the singular fact that the Andaman Islands
+are situated near the Nicobars in the Indian Ocean, but that the
+populations on both sides of them are entirely different. In my
+own detailed descriptions which treat of the skulls and the hair
+specially, it is affirmed that the typical skull shape of the
+Nicobarese is dolichocephalic and that "their hair stands between
+the straight hair of the Mongoloid and the sleek, though slightly
+curved or wavy, hair of the Malayan and Indian peoples;" their skin
+color is relatively dark, but only so much so as is peculiar to the
+tribes of India. With the little blacks of the Andamans there is not
+the slightest agreement. In this we have one of the best evidences
+against the theory of Waitz-Gerland that the differences in physical
+appearance are to be attributed to variation merely. I will, however,
+so as not to be misunderstood, expressly emphasize that I am not
+willing to declare that the two peoples have been at all times so
+constituted; I am now speaking of actual conditions.
+
+In the same sense I wish also my remarks concerning the Negritos to
+be taken. Not one fact is in evidence from which we may conclude that
+a single neighboring people known to us has been Negritized. We are
+therefore justified when we see in the Negritos a truly primitive
+people. As they are now, they were more than three hundred and
+fifty years ago when the first European navigators visited these
+islands. About older relationships nothing is known. All the graves
+from which the bones of Negritos now in possession were taken belong
+to recent times, and also the oldest descriptions which have been
+received, so far as phylogeny is concerned, must be characterized
+as modern.
+
+[Negritos a primitive people.] The little change in the mode of life
+made known through these descriptions in connection with the low grade
+of culture on which these impoverished tribes live amply testify that
+we have before us here a primitive race.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+(The question whether we have to do with older, independent races
+in the Malay Archipelago or with mixtures is everywhere an open
+one.--Translator.)
+
+Whoever would picture the present ethnic affiliations of the
+light-colored peoples of the Philippines will soon land in confusion
+on account of the great number of tribes. One of the ablest observers,
+Ferd. Blumentritt, mentions, besides the Negritos, the Chinese and
+the whites, not less than 51 such tribes. He classifies them in one
+group as Malays, according to the plan now customary. The division
+rests primarily on a linguistic foundation. But when it is noted that
+the identity of language among all the tribes is not established and
+among many not at all proved, it is sufficiently shown that speech is
+a character of little constancy, and that a language may be imposed
+upon a people to the annihilation of their own by those who belong
+to a different linguistic stock. The Malay Sea is filled with islands
+on which tarry the remnants of peoples not Malay.
+
+For a long time, especially since the Dutch occupation, these old
+populations have received the special name of Alfuros. But this
+ambiguous term has been used in such an arbitrary and promiscuous
+fashion that latterly it has been well-nigh banished from ethnological
+literature. It is not long ago that the Negritos were so called. But
+if the black peoples are eliminated, there remains on many islands at
+least an element to be differentiated from the Malay, chiefly through
+the darker skin color, greater orthocephaly, and more wavy, quite
+crimped hair. I have, for the different islands, furnished proof,
+and will here only refer to the assertion that "a broad belt of
+wavy and curly hair has pressed itself in between the Papuan and the
+Malay, a belt which in the north seems to terminate with the Veddah,
+in the south with the Australian." One can not read the accounts
+of travelers without the increasing conviction of the existence of
+several different, if not perhaps related, varieties of peoples thrust
+on the same island.
+
+[Theory of Negrito and three Malay invasions.] From this results the
+natural and entirely unprejudiced conclusion, which has repeatedly
+been stated, that either a primitive people by later intrusions
+has been pressed back into the interior or that in course of time
+several immigrations have followed one another. At the same time
+it is not unreasonable to think that both processes went on at the
+same time, and indeed this conception is strongly brought forward. So
+Blumentritt assumes that there is there a primitive black people and
+that three separate Malay invasions have taken place. The oldest,
+whose branches have many traits in accord with the Dayaks of Borneo,
+especially the practice of head-hunting; a second, which also took
+place before the arrival of the Spaniards, to which the Tagals,
+Bisayas, Bicols, Ilocanos, and other tribes belong; the third,
+Islamitic, which emigrated from Borneo and might have been interrupted
+by the arrival of the Spaniards, and with which a contemporaneous
+immigration from the Moluccas went on. It must be said, however, that
+Blumentritt admits two periods for the first invasion. In the earliest
+he places the immigration of the Igorots, Apayos, Zambales--in short,
+all the tribes that dwelt in the interior of the country later and
+were pressed away from the coast, therefore, actually, the mountain
+tribes. To the second half he assigns the Tinguianes, Catalanganes,
+and Irayas, who are not head-hunters, but Semper says they appear to
+have a mixture of Chinese and Japanese blood.
+
+Against this scheme many things may be said in detail, especially that,
+according to the apparently well-grounded assertions of Mueller-Beeck,
+the going of the Chinese to the Philippines was developed about the
+end of the fourteenth century, and chiefly after the Spaniards had
+gotten a foothold and were using the Mexican silver in trade. At any
+rate, the apprehension of Semper, which rests on somewhat superficial
+physiognomic ground, is not confirmed by searching investigations. So
+the head-hunting of the mountain tribes, so far as it hints at
+relations with Borneo, gives no sure chronological result, since
+it might have been contemporaneous in them and could have come here
+through invasion from other islands.
+
+The chief inquiry is this: Whether there took place other and older
+invasions. For this we are not only to draw upon the present tribes,
+but if possible upon the remains of earlier and perhaps now extinct
+tribes. This possibility has been brought nearer for the Philippines
+through certain cave deposits. We have to thank, for the first
+information, the traveler Jagor, whose exceptional talent as collector
+has placed us in the possession of rich material, especially crania. To
+his excellent report of his journey I have already dedicated a special
+chapter, in which I have presented and partially illustrated not
+only the cave crania, but also a series of other skulls. An extended
+conference upon them has been held in the Anthropological Society.
+
+The old Spanish chroniclers describe accurately the mortuary customs
+which were in vogue in their time. The dead were laid in coffins
+made from excavated tree trunks and covered with a well-fitting
+lid. They were then deposited on some elevated place, or mountain,
+or river bank, or seashore. Caves in the mountains were also utilized
+for this purpose. Jagor describes such caves on the island of Samar,
+west of Luzon, whose contents have recently been annihilated.
+
+The few crania from there which have been intrusted to me
+bear the marks of recent pedigree, as also do the additional
+objects. Unfortunately, Dr. Jagor did not himself visit these
+interesting caves, but he has brought crania thence which are of the
+highest interest, and which I must now mention.
+
+[Study of a giant skull.] The cave in question lies near Lanang, on
+the east coast of Samar, on the bank of a river, it is said. It is,
+as the traveler reports, celebrated in the locality "on account of its
+depressed gigantic crania, without sutures." The singular statement
+is made clear by means of a well-preserved example, which I lay
+before you. The entire cranium, including the face, is covered with
+a thick layer of sinter, which gives it the appearance of belonging
+to the class of skulls with Leontiasis ossea. It is, in fact, of
+good size, but through the incrustation it is increased to gigantic
+proportions. It is true, likewise, that it has a much flattened,
+broad and compressed form. The cleaning of another skull has shown
+that artificial deformation has taken place, which obviously was
+completed before the incrustation was laid on by the mineral water
+of the cave. I will here add that on the testimony of travelers no
+Negritos were on Samar. The island lies in the neighborhood of the
+Bisayas. Although no description of the position of the skull is at
+hand and of the skeleton to which it apparently belonged, it must be
+assumed that the dead man was not laid away in a coffin, but placed
+on the ground; that, in fact, he belonged to an earlier "period." How
+long ago that was can not be known, unfortunately, since no data are
+at hand; however, the bones are in a nearly fossilized condition,
+which allows the conclusion that they were deposited long ago.
+
+The deformation itself furnishes no clue to a chronological
+conclusion. In Thévenot is found the statement that, according to
+the account of a priest, probably in the 16th century, the custom
+prevails in some of the islands to press the heads of new-born babes
+between two boards, also to flatten the forehead, "since they believed
+that this form was a special mark of beauty." A similar deformation,
+with more pronounced flattening and backward pressure of the forehead,
+is shown on the crania which Jagor produced from a cave at Caramuan in
+Luzon. There are modes of flattening which remind one of Peru. When
+they came into our hands it was indeed an immense surprise, since
+no knowledge of such deformation in the South Sea was at hand. First
+our information led to more thorough investigations; so we are aware
+of several examples of it from Indonesia and, indeed, from the South
+Sea (Mallicolo). However, this deformation furnishes no clue to the
+antiquity of the graves.
+
+(Chinese and Korean pottery are said to have been found with
+the deformed crania. Similar deformations exist in the Celebes,
+New Britain, etc. Head-shaping has been universal, cf. A. B. Meyer,
+Ueber Kunstliche deformirte Schaedel von Borneo und Mindanao and ueber
+die Verbreitung der Sitte der Kunstlichen Schaedeldeformirung, 1881,
+36 pp., 4.°--Translator.)
+
+I have sawed one of these skulls in two along the sagittal suture. The
+illustration gives a good idea of the amount of compression and of the
+violence which this skull endured when quite young. The cranial cavity
+is inclined backward and lengthened, and curves out above, while the
+occiput is pressed downward and the region of the front fontanelle
+is correspondingly lacking. Likewise, a considerable thickness of
+the bone is to be noted, especially of the vertex. The upper jaw is
+slightly prognathous and the roof of the mouth unusually arched.
+
+For the purpose of the present study, it is unnecessary to go
+further into particulars. It might be mentioned that all Lanang
+skulls are characterized by their size and the firmness of bone,
+so that they depart widely from the characteristics of the other
+Philippine examples known to me. Similar skulls have been received
+only from caves, which exist in one of the little rocky islands east
+from Luzon. They suggest most Kanaka crania from Hawaii, and Moriori
+crania from Chatham islands, and they raise the question whether
+they do not belong to a migration period long before the time of
+the Malays. I have, on various occasions, mentioned this probable
+pre-Malayan, or at least proto-Malayan, population which stands in
+nearest relation to the settling of Polynesia. Here I will merely
+mention that the Polynesian sagas bring the progenitor from the west,
+and that the passage between Halmahera (Gilolo) and the Philippines
+is pointed out as the course of invasion.
+
+At any rate, it is quite probable that the skulls from Lanang,
+Cragaray, and other Philippine Islands are the remains of a very old,
+if not autochthonous, prehistoric layer of population. The present
+mountain tribes have furnished no close analogies. As to the Igorots,
+which Blumentritt attributes to the first invasion, I refer to my
+description given on the ground of chronological investigations;
+according to the account given by Hans Meyer the disposal of the dead
+in log coffins and in caves still goes on. Of the skulls themselves,
+none were brachycephalous; on the contrary, they exhibit platyrrhine
+and in part decidedly pithecoid noses. On the whole, I came to the
+conclusion, as did earlier Quatrefages and Hamy, that [Indications of
+pre-Malay invasion.] "they stand next in comparison with the Dayaks
+of Borneo," but I hold yet the impression that they belong to a very
+old, probably pre-Malay, immigration.
+
+When, on the 18th of March, 1897, I made a communication on the
+population of the Philippines, a bloody uprising had broken out
+everywhere against the existing Spanish rule. In this uprising a
+certain portion of the population, and indeed that which had the
+most valid claim to aboriginality, the so-called Negritos, were not
+involved. Their isolation, their lack of every sort of political,
+often indeed of village organization, also their meager numbers,
+render it conceivable that the greatest changes might go on among
+their neighbors without their taking such a practical view of them
+as to lead to their engaging in them. Thus it can be understood how
+they would take no interest in the further development of the affair.
+
+Since then the result of the war between Spain and the Americans has
+been the destruction of Spanish power, and the treaty of Paris brought
+the entire Philippine Archipelago into the possession of the United
+States of America. Henceforth the principal interest is centered
+upon the deportment of the insurgents, who have not only outlived
+the great war between the powers, but are now determined to assert,
+or win, their independence from the conquerors. These insurgents, who
+for brevity are called Filipinos, belong, as I have remarked, to the
+light-colored race of so-called Indios, who are sharply differentiated
+from the Negritos. Their ethnological position is difficult to fix,
+since numerous mixtures have taken place with immigrant whites,
+especially with Spaniards, but also with people of yellow and of
+brown races--that is, with Mongols and Chinese. Perhaps here and
+there the importance of this mixture on the composite type of the
+Indios has been overestimated; at least in most places positive
+proof is not forthcoming that foreign blood has imposed itself upon
+the bright-colored population. Both history and tradition teach, on
+the contrary, as also the study of the physical peculiarities of the
+people that among the various tribes differences exist which suggest
+family traits. To this effect is the testimony of several travelers
+who have followed one another during a long period of time, as has
+been developed especially by Blumentritt.
+
+[All immigrations from the West.] In this connection it must not
+be overlooked that all these immigrations, howsoever many they be
+supposed to have been, must have come this way from the west. Indeed,
+a noteworthy migration from the east is entirely barred out, if we
+look no farther back than the Chinese and Japanese. On the contrary,
+all signs point to the assumption that from of old, long before the
+coming of Portuguese and Spaniards, a strong movement had gone on
+from this region to the east, and that the great sea way which exists
+between Mindanao and the Sulu islands on the north and Halmahera
+and the Moluccas in the south was the entrance road along which
+those tribes, or at least those navigators whose arrival peopled
+the Polynesian Islands, found their way into the Pacific Ocean. But
+also the movement of the Polynesians points to the west, and if their
+ancestors may have come from Indonesia there is no doubt that in their
+long journeys eastward they must have touched at the coasts of other
+islands on their way, especially the Philippines. Polynesian invasions
+of the Philippines are not supposed to have closed when a migration of
+peoples or of men passing out to the Pacific Ocean laid the foundation
+of a large fraction of the population of the archipelago. It is known
+that now and then single canoes from the Pelew or the Ladrone Islands
+were driven upon the east coast of Luzon, but their importance ought
+not to be overestimated. The migration this way from the west must
+henceforth remain as the point of departure for all explanations of
+this eastern ethnology. (These statements are well enough for working
+hypotheses, but actual proofs are not at hand. Ratzel, Berl. Verhandl.,
+etc., Phil. Hist. Class, 1898, I., p. 33.--Translator.)
+
+Now, how are the local differences of various tribes to be
+explained, when on the whole the place of origin was the same? Is
+there here a secondary variation of the type, something brought
+about through climate, food, circumstances? It is a large theme,
+which, unfortunately, is too often dominated by previously-formed
+theories. The importance of "environment" and mode of life upon
+the corporeal development of man can not be contested, but the
+measure of this importance is very much in doubt. Nowhere is this
+measure, at least in the present consideration, less known than in the
+Philippines. In spite of wide geological and biological differences on
+these islands, there exists a close anthropological agreement of the
+Indios in the chief characteristics, and the effort to trace back the
+tribal differences that have been marked to climatic and alimentary
+causes has not succeeded. The influence of inherited peculiarities
+is also more mighty here, as in most parts of the earth, than that of
+"milieu."
+
+If we assume, first, that the immigrants brought their peculiarities
+with them, which were fixed already when they came, we must also accept
+as self-evident that the Negritos of the Philippines do not belong
+to the same stock as the more powerful, bright-colored Indios. As
+long as these islands have been known, more than three centuries,
+the skin of the Negritos has been dark brown, almost black, their
+hair short and spirally twisted, and just as long has the skin
+of the Indios been brownish, in various shades, relatively clear,
+and the hair has been long and arranged in wavy locks. At no time,
+so far as known, has it been discovered that among a single family
+a pronounced variation from these peculiarities had taken place. On
+this point there is entire unanimity. In case of the Negritos there is
+not the least doubt; of the Indios a doubt may arise, for, in fact,
+the shades of skin color appear greatly varied, since the brown is
+at times quite blackish, at times yellowish, almost as varied as is
+the color of the sunburnt hair. But even then the practiced eye easily
+detects the descent, and if the skin alone is not sufficient the first
+glance at the hair completes the diagnosis. The correct explanation
+of individual or tribal variations is difficult only with the Indios,
+while no such necessity exists in the case of the Negritos. But among
+the Indios these individual and tribal variations are so frequent
+and so outspoken that one is justified in making the inquiry whether
+there has not developed here a new type of inherited peculiarities. If
+this were the case, it must still be held that already the immigrant
+tribes had possessed them.
+
+[Assistance from history.] Now, history records that different
+immigrations have actually taken place. Laying aside the latest
+before the arrival of the Spaniards, that of the Islamites, in
+the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries, there remains the
+older one. If ethnologists and travelers in general come to the
+conclusion concerning Borneo--and it is to be taken as certain--that
+the differences now existing among the wild tribes of this island are
+very old, it ought not be thought so wonderful if, according to the
+conditions of the tribes which have immigrated thence, there should
+exist on the Philippines near one another dissimilar though related
+peoples. This difference is not difficult to recognize in manners and
+customs--a side of the discussion which is further on to be treated
+more fully. We begin with physical characteristics.
+
+[Hair differences.] Among these the hair occupies the chief
+place. To be sure, among all the Indios it is black, but it shows
+not the slightest approach to the frizzled condition which is such
+a prominent feature in the external appearance of the Negritos and
+of all the Papuan tribes of the East. This frizzled condition may be
+called woolly, or in somewhat exaggerated refinement in the name may
+be attributed to the term "wool," all sorts of meanings akin to wool;
+in every case there is wanting to all the Indios the crinkling of the
+hair from its exit out of the follicle, whereby would result wide
+or narrow spiral tubes and the coarse appearance of the so-called
+"peppercorn." The hair of all Indios is smooth and straightened out,
+and when it forms curves they are only feeble, and they make the
+whole outward appearance wavy or, at most, curled.
+
+But within this wavy or curled condition of the hair there are again
+differences. In my former communication I have attended to examinations
+which I made upon a large number of islands in the Malay Sea, and in
+which it was shown that a certain area exists which begins with the
+Moluccas and extends to the Sunda group, in which the hair shows a
+strong inclination to form wavy locks, indeed passes gradually into
+crinkled, if not into spiral, rolls. Such hair is found specially
+in the interior of the islands, where the so-called aboriginal
+population is purer and where for a long time the name of Alfuros
+has been conferred on them. On most points affinity with Negritos or
+Papuans is not to be recognized. Should such at any time have existed,
+we are a long way from the period when the direct causes therefor are
+to be looked for. In this connection the study of the Philippines is
+rich with instruction. In the limits of the almost insular, isolated
+Negrito enclave, mixtures between Negritos and Indios very seldom
+surprise one, and never the transitions that can have arisen in the
+post-generative time of development. (The island of Negros, on the
+contrary, is peopled by such crossbreeds.--Translator.)
+
+If there are among the bright-colored islanders of the Indian Ocean
+Alfuros and Malays close together there is nothing against coming upon
+this contrast in the Philippine population also. Among the more central
+peoples the tribal differences are so great that almost every explorer
+stumbles on the question of mixture. There not only the Dayaks and the
+other Malays obtrude themselves, but also the Chinese and the Mongolian
+peoples of Farther India. Indeed, many facts are known, chiefly
+in the language, the religion, the domestic arts, the agriculture,
+the pastoral life which remind one of known conditions peculiarly
+Indian. The results of the ethnologists are so tangled here that one
+has to be cautious when one or another of them draws conclusions
+concerning immigrations, because of certain local or territorial
+specializations. Of course, when a Brahmanic custom occurs anywhere
+it is right to conclude that it came here from India. But before
+assuming that the tribe in which such a custom prevails itself comes
+from Hither or Farther India, the time has to be ascertained to which
+the custom is to be traced back. The chronological evidence leads to
+the confident belief that the custom and the tribe immigrated together.
+
+[Ancestor worship.] Over the whole Philippine Archipelago
+religious customs have changed with the progress of external
+relations. Christianity has in many places spread its peculiar customs,
+observances, and opinions, and changed entirely the direction of
+thought. On closer view are to be detected in the midst of Christian
+activities older survivals, as ingredients of belief which, in
+spite of that religion, have not vanished. Before Christianity, in
+many places, Islam flourished, and it is not surprising to witness,
+as on Mindanao, Christian and Mohammedan beliefs side by side. But,
+before Islam, ancestor worship, as has long been known, was widely
+prevalent. In almost every locality, every hut has its Anito with
+its special place, its own dwelling; there are Anito pictures and
+images, certain trees and, indeed, certain animals in which some
+Anito resides. The ancestor worship is as old as history, for the
+discoverers of the Philippines found it in full bloom, and rightly
+has Blumentritt characterized Anito worship as the ground form of
+Philippine religion. He has also furnished numerous examples of Anito
+cult surviving in Christian communities.
+
+Chronology has a good groundwork and it will have to observe every
+footprint of vanishing creeds. Only, it must not be overlooked that
+the beginning of the chronology of religion has not been reached,
+and that the origin of the generally diffused ancestor worship, at
+least on the Philippines, is not known. If it is borne in mind that
+belief in Anitos is widely diffused in Polynesia and in purely Malay
+areas, the drawing of certain conclusions therefrom concerning the
+prehistory of the Philippines is to be despaired of.
+
+[Tattooing.] Next to religious customs, among wild tribes fashions
+are most enduring. Little of costume is to be seen, indeed, among
+them. Therefore, here tattooing asserts its sway. The more it has
+been studied in late years the more valuable has been the information
+in deciding the kinship relations of tribes. Unfortunately, in the
+Philippines the greater part of the early tattoo designs have been
+lost and the art itself is also nearly eliminated. But since the
+journey of Carl Semper it has been known that not only Malays but
+also Negritos tattoo; indeed, this admirable explorer has decided
+that the "Negroes of the East Coast" practice a different method of
+tattooing from that of the Mariveles in the west, and on that account
+they attain different results. In the one case a needle is employed
+to make fine holes in the skin in which to introduce the color; in
+the other long gashes are made. In the latter case prominent scars
+result; in the former a smooth pattern. But these combined patterns
+are on the whole the same, instead of rectilinear figures. Schadenburg
+has the operations commence with a sharpened bamboo on children 10
+years of age. Among the wild tribes of the light-colored population
+tattooing is not less diffused, but the patterns are not alike in the
+different tribes. Isabelo de los Reyes reports that the Tinguianes,
+who inhabit the mountain forests of the northern cordilleras of Luzon,
+produce figures of stars, snakes, birds, etc., on children 7 to 9 years
+old. Hans Meyer describes the pattern of the Igorots. There appears to
+exist a great variety of symbols; for example, on the arms, straight
+and crooked lines crossing one another; on the breast, feather-like
+patterns. Least frequently he saw the so-called Burik designs, which
+extended in parallel bands across the breast, the back, and calves,
+and give to the body the appearance of a sailor's striped jacket. It
+is very remarkable that the human form never occurs.
+
+What is true concerning tattooing on so many Polynesian islands
+holds also completely here. But reliable descriptions are so few,
+and especially there is such a meager number of useful drawings,
+that it would not repay the trouble to assemble the scattered data. At
+least it will suffice to discover whether among them there are genuine
+tribal marks or to investigate concerning the distribution of separate
+patterns. Those known show conclusively that in the matter of tattooing
+the Filipinos are not differentiated from the islanders of the Pacific;
+they form, moreover, an important link in the chain of knowledge
+which demonstrates the genetic homogeneity of the inhabitants. The
+tattooings of the eastern islanders are comparable only to those of
+African aborigines, with which last they furnish many family marks,
+made out and recognized. It is desirable that a trustworthy collection
+of all patterns be collected before the method becomes more altered
+or destroyed.
+
+[Teeth alterations.] Next to the skin, among the wild tribes the
+teeth are modified in the most numerous artificial alterations. The
+preferable custom, common in Africa, of breaking out the front
+teeth in greater or less number has not, so far as I remember, been
+described among the Filipinos; I only mention that while I was making a
+revision of our Philippine crania, two of them turned up in which the
+middle upper incisors had evidently been broken out for a long time,
+for the alveolar border had shrunk into a small quite smooth ridge,
+without a trace of an aveolus. It is otherwise with the pointing of
+the incisors, especially the upper ones, which, also is not common. I
+must leave it undecided whether the sharpening is done by filing or by
+breaking off pieces from the sides. The latter should be in general
+far more frequent. In every case the otherwise broad and flat teeth
+are brought to such sharp points as to project like those of the
+carnivorous animals. I have met with this condition several times
+on Negrito skulls and furnished illustrations of them. On a Zambal
+skull, excavated by Dr. A. B. Meyer and which I lay before you,
+the deformation is easy to be seen. I called attention at the time
+to the fact that among the Malays an entirely different method of
+modifying the teeth is in vogue, in which a horizontal filing on the
+front surface is practiced and the sharp lower edge is straightened
+and widened. Already the elder Thévenot has accented this contrast
+when he says:
+
+"These cause the teeth to be equal, those file them to points, giving
+them the shape of a saw."
+
+This difference appears to have held on till the present; at least
+no skull of an Indio is known to me with similar deformation of the
+teeth. This custom of the Negritos is so much more remarkable since
+the chipping of the corners of the teeth is widely spread among the
+African blacks.
+
+[Skill flattening.] The other part of the body used most for
+deformation--the skull--is in strong contrast to the last-named
+custom. Deformed crania; especially from older times, are quite
+numerous in the Philippines; probably they belong exclusively to
+the Indios. If they exist among the Negritos, I do not know it; the
+only exception comes from the Tinguianes, of whom I. de los Reyes
+reports their skulls are flattened behind (por detrás oprimido). Such
+flattening is found, however, not seldom among tribes who have the
+practice of binding children on hard cradle boards--chiefly among those
+families who keep their infants a long time on such contrivances. A
+sure mark by which to discriminate accidental pressure of this sort
+from one intentionally produced is not at hand; it may be that
+in accidental deformation oblique position of the deformed spot
+is more frequent; at any rate, the difference in the Philippines
+is a very striking one, since there not so much the occiput as the
+front and middle portions suffer from the disfigurements, and thereby
+deformations are produced that have had their most perfect expression
+among the ancient Peruvians and other American tribes.
+
+I have discussed cranial deformation of the Americans in
+greater detail, where I exhibit the accidental and the artificial
+(intentional) deformation in their principal forms. The result is that
+in large sections of America scarcely any ancient skulls are found
+having their natural forms, but that the practice of deformation
+has not been general; moreover, a number of deformation centers
+may be differentiated which stand in no direct association with
+one another. The Peruvian center is far removed from that of the
+northwest coast, and this again from that of the Gulf States. From
+this it must not be said that each center may have had its own, as
+it were, autochthonous origin. But the method has not so spread that
+its course can be followed immediately. Rather is the supposition
+confirmed that the method is to be traced to some other time,
+therefore that somewhere there must have been a place of origin for
+it. On the Eastern Hemisphere, and especially in the region here
+under consideration, the relations are apparently otherwise. Here
+exist, so far as known, great areas entirely free from deformation;
+small ones, on the other hand, full of it. There are here, also,
+deformation centers, but only a few. Among these, with our present
+knowledge, the Philippines occupy the first place.
+
+The knowledge of this, indeed, is not of long duration. Public
+attention was first aroused about thirty years ago concerning
+skulls from Samar and Luzon, gathered by F. Jagor from ancient
+caves, to furnish the proof of their deformation. Up to that time
+next to nothing was known of deformed crania in the oriental island
+world. First through my publication the attention of J. G. Riedel,
+a most observant Dutch resident, was called to the fact that cranial
+deformation is still practiced in the Celebes, and he was so good as to
+send us a specimen of the compressing apparatus for delicate infants
+(1874). Compressed crania were also found. But the number was small
+and the compression of the separate specimens was only slight. In
+both respects what was observed in the Sunda islands did not differ
+from the state of the case in the Philippines. Through Jagor's
+collections different places had become known where deformed crania
+were buried. Since then the number of localities has multiplied. I
+shall mention only two, on account of their peculiar locality. One is
+Cagraray, a small island east of Luzon, in the Pacific Ocean, at the
+entrance of the Bay of Albay; the other, the island of Marinduque,
+in the west, between Luzon and Mindoro. From the last-named island I
+saw, ten years ago, the first picture of one in a photograph album
+accidentally placed in my hands. Since then I had opportunity to
+examine the Schadenberg collection of crania, lately come into the
+possession of the Reichsmuseum, in Leyden, and to my great delight
+discovered in it a series of skulls which are compressed in exactly
+the same fashion as those of Lanang. It is said that these will soon
+be described in a publication.
+
+It is of especial interest that this method has been noted in the
+Philippines for more than three hundred years. In my first publication
+I cited a passage in Thévenot where he says, on the testimony of a
+priest, that the natives on some islands had the custom of compressing
+the head of a newborn child between two boards, so that it would be
+no longer round, but lengthened out; also they flattened the forehead,
+which they looked upon as a special mark of beauty. This is, therefore,
+an ancient example. It is confirmed by the circumstance that these
+crania are found especially in caves, from the roofs of which mineral
+waters have dripped, which have overlaid the bones partly with a thick
+layer of calcareous matter. The bones themselves have an uncommonly
+thick, almost ivory, fossil-like appearance. Only the outer surface
+is in places corroded, and on these places saturated with a greenish
+infiltration. It is to be assumed, therefore, that they are very old. I
+have the impression that they must have been placed here before the
+discovery of the islands and the introduction of Christianity. Their
+peculiar appearance, especially their angular form and the thickness
+of the bone, reminds one of crania from other parts of the South Sea,
+especially those from Chatham and Sandwich Islands. I shall not here
+go further into this question, but merely mention that I came to the
+conclusion that these people must be looked upon as proto-Malayan.
+
+[Hope of Filipino and American study.] The changes which will take
+place in the political condition of the Philippines may be of little
+service to scientific explorations at first; but the study of the
+population will be surely taken up with renewed energy. Already
+in America scholars have begun to occupy themselves therewith. A
+brief article by Dr. Brinton is to be mentioned as the first sign of
+this. But should the ardent desire of the Filipinos be realized, that
+their islands *hould have political autonomy, it is to be hoped that,
+out of the patriotic enthusiasm of the population and the scientific
+spirit of many of their best men, new sources of information will be
+opened for the history and the development of oriental peoples. To
+this end it may be here mentioned, by the way, that the connecting
+links of ancient Philippine history and the customs of these islands,
+as well with the Melanesians as with the Polynesians of the south,
+are yet to be discovered.
+
+As representatives of these two groups, I present, in closing, two
+especially well-formed crania from the Philippines. One of them,
+which shows the marks of antiquity that I have set forth, belongs
+to an "Indio." [Comparison of Indio and Negrito skulls.] It has
+the high cranial capacity of 1,540 cubic centimeters, a horizontal
+circumference of 525 millimeters, and a sagitta-circumference of
+386 millimeters; its form is hypsidolicho, quite on the border of
+mesocephaly: Index of width, 75.3; index of height, 76.3. Besides,
+it has the appearance of a race capable of development; only, the
+nose is platyrrhine (index, 52.3), as among so many Malay tribes, and
+in the left temple it bears a Processus frontalis squamae temporalis
+developed partly from an enlarged fontanelle. The other skull was one
+taken from a Negrito grave of Zambales by Dr. A. B. Meyer. It makes,
+at first glance, just as favorable an impression, but its capacity
+is only 1,182 cubic centimeters; therefore 358 cubic centimeters less
+than the other. Its form is orthobrachycephalic; breadth index, 80.2;
+height index, 70.6. As in single traits of development, so in the
+measurements, the difference and the debased character of this race
+obtrude themselves. Only, the nasal index is somewhat smaller; on the
+whole, the nose has in its separate parts a decidedly pithecoid form.
+
+
+PART VI
+
+People and Prospects of the Philippines
+
+Blackwood's magazine for August, 1818, has an account of conditions
+in Manila and the Philippines from data given by an English merchant
+who left the Islands in 1798 after twenty years' residence in which
+he accumulated a fortune.
+
+"Your first question, with respect to the Spanish population, must
+refer to native Spaniards only; as their numerous descendants, through
+all the variety of half-castes, would include one third at least of
+the whole population of Luconia (i.e., Luzon--A. C.)
+
+"Of native Spaniards, accordingly, settled in the Philippine Islands,
+the total number may be stated at 2,000 not military. The military,
+including all descriptions, men and officers, are about 2,500,
+out of which number the native regiments are officered These last,
+in 1796-7, were almost entirely composed of South Americans and were
+reckoned at 5,000 men, making a military force of about 7,500.
+
+"The castes bearing a mixture of the Spanish blood are in Luconia
+alone at least 200,000. The Sangleys, or Chinese descendants, are
+upwards of 20,000, and Indians, who call themselves the original
+Tagalas, about 340,000, making a total population in that island of
+about 600,000 souls. What may be the respective numbers in the other
+Philippine Islands I never had any opportunity of learning."
+
+(This opinion, of a day when it was not desired to disparage the
+people, gives an idea of the mixed blood of the Filipinos which, in the
+opinion of the ethnologists, like Ratzel, is a source of strength. It
+classes them with the English and Americans. One danger of the present
+appears in over-emphasizing the Malay blood, just as in Spanish times
+a real loss seems to have come from the contempt toward the Chinese
+which led to minimizing and concealing a most creditable ancestry.
+
+Prejudice in the past called all trouble makers mestizos, but today's
+study is showing that trouble maker meant man who would stand up for
+his rights; one must not forget that mestizo was used as a reproach,
+that the leaders of the people were really typical of the people. By
+the old injustice those who were mediocre were called natives and
+whoever rose above his fellows was claimed as a Spaniard, but a
+fairer way would seem to be to consider Filipinos all born in the
+Philippines.--C.).
+
+The Cornhill magazine in the late '70s had a contribution by the then
+British Consul, Mr. Palgreave, on "Malay Life in the Philippines,"
+that makes more understandable the reputation of the islands, which
+before the opening of the Suez were a health resort for Japan,
+the China coast and India. It also shows a fairness to the people
+uncommon in the Spanish-inspired writings of his day.
+
+"Dull indeed must be his soul, unsympathetic his nature who can see
+the forests and mountains of Luzon, Queen of the Eastern Isles, fade
+away into dim violet outlines on the fast receding horizon without
+some pang of longing regret. Not the Aegean, not the West Indian,
+not the Samoan, not any rival in manifold beauties of earth, sea and
+sky the Philippine Archipelago. Pity that for the Philippines no word
+limner of note exists. The chiefest, the almost exceptional spell of
+the Philippines, is situated, not in the lake or volcano, forest or
+plain, but in the races that form the bulk of the island population.
+
+"I said 'almost exceptional' because rarely is an intra-tropical
+people a satisfactory one to eye or mind. But this cannot be
+said of the Philippine Malays who in bodily formation and mental
+characteristics alike, may fairly claim a place, not among middling
+ones merely, but among almost the higher names inscribed on the world's
+national scale. A concentrated, never-absent self-respect, an habitual
+self-restraint in word and deed, very rarely broken except when extreme
+provocation induces the transitory but fatal frenzy known as 'amok,'
+and an inbred courtesy, equally diffused through all classes, high or
+low, unfailing decorum, prudence, caution, quiet cheerfulness, ready
+hospitality and a correct, though not inventive taste. His family is
+a pleasing sight, much subordination and little constraint, unison in
+gradation, liberty--not license. Orderly children, respected parents,
+women subject but not oppressed, men ruling but not despotic, reverence
+with kindness, obedience in affection, these form lovable pictures,
+not by any means rare in the villages of the eastern isles." (Here
+again comes the necessity of combatting the popular impression that the
+Philippines is a tropical land peopled by Malays. The modification of
+climate from being an ocean archipelago suggests that these islands are
+really subtropical, while mixture of blood joined with three centuries
+of European civilization makes the term Malay misleading.--C.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+PART VII
+
+Filipino Merchants of the Early 1890s
+
+F. Karuth, F. R. G. S., (President of an English corporation interested
+in Philippine mining) about 1894, wrote:
+
+"Few outside the comparatively narrow circle who are directly
+interested in the commerce and resources of the Philippine Islands
+know anything about them. The Philippine merchants are a rather
+close community which only in the last decade or so has expanded its
+diameter a little. There are a number of very old established firms
+amongst them, several of them being British.... Amongst them also
+are firms--perhaps as far as wealth and local influence go, the most
+important firms--whose chiefs are partly at least of native blood.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] New York noon is Manilla 1:04 next morning.--C.
+
+[2] Navarrete, IV, 97 Obs. 2a.
+
+[3] According to Albo's ship journal, he perceived the difference at
+the Cape de Verde Islands on July 9, 1522; "Y este día fué miercoles,
+y este día tienen ellos pot jueves." (And this day was Wednesday and
+this day they had as Thursday.)
+
+[4] In a note on the 18th page of the masterly English (Hakluyt
+Society) translation of Morga, I find the curious statement that
+a similar rectification was made at the same time at Macao, where
+the Portuguese, who reached it on an easterly course, had made the
+mistake of a day the other way.
+
+[5] Towards the close of the sixteenth century the duty upon the
+exports to China amounted to $40,000 and their imports to at least
+$1,330,000. In 1810, after more than two centuries of undisturbed
+Spanish rule, the latter had sunk to $1,150,000. Since then they have
+gradually increased; and in 1861 they reached $2,130,000.
+
+[6] The Panama canal prevents this.--C.
+
+[7] Navarrete, IV, 54 Obs. 1a.
+
+[8] According to Gehler's Phys. Lex. VI, 450, the log was first
+mentioned by Purchas in an account of a voyage to the East Indies in
+1608. Pigafetta does not cite it in his treatise on navigation; but
+in the forty-fifth page of his work it is said: "Secondo la misura
+che facevamo del viaggio colla cadena a poppa, noi percorrevamo 60 a
+70 leghe al giorno." This was as rapid a rate as that of our (1870)
+fastest steamboats--ten knots an hour.
+
+[9] The European mail reaches Manila through Singapore and
+Hongkong. Singapore is about equidistant from the other two
+places. Letters therefore could be received in the Philippines as soon
+as in China, if they were sent direct from Singapore. In that case,
+however, a steamer communication with that port must be established,
+and the traffic is not yet sufficiently developed to bear the double
+expense. According to the report of the English Consul (May, 1870),
+there is, besides the Government steamer, a private packet running
+between Hongkong and Manila. The number of passengers it conveyed
+to China amounted, in 1868, to 441 Europeans and 3,048 Chinese;
+total, 3,489. The numbers carried the other way were 330 Europeans
+and 4,664 Chinese; in all, 4,994. The fare is $80 for Europeans and
+$20 for Chinamen.
+
+[10] Zuñiga, Mavers, I, 225.
+
+[11] Dr. Pedro Pelaez, in temporary charge of the diocese and dying
+in the cathedral, was the foremost Filipino victim. Funds raised in
+Spain for relief never reached the sufferers, but not till the end
+of Spanish rule was it safe to comment on this in the Philippines.--C.
+
+[12] Zuñiga, XVIII, M. Velarde, p. 139.
+
+[13] Captain Salmon, Goch., S. 33.
+
+[14] The opening of this port proved so advantageous that I intended
+to have given a few interesting details of its trade in a separate
+chapter, chiefly gathered from the verbal and written remarks of the
+English Vice-Consul, the late Mr. N. Loney, and from other consular
+reports.
+
+[15] In 1868, 112 foreign vessels, to the aggregate of 74,054 tons,
+and Spanish ships to the aggregate of 26,762 tons, entered the
+port of Manila. Nearly all the first came in ballast, but left with
+cargoes. The latter both came and left in freight. (English Consul's
+Report, 1869.)
+
+[16] In 1868 the total exports amounted to $14,013,108; of this England
+alone accounted for $4,857,000, and the whole of the rest of Europe for
+only $102,477. The first amount does not include the tobacco duty paid
+to Spain by the colony, $3,169,144. (English Consul's Report, 1869.)
+
+[17] La Pérouse said that Manila was perhaps the most fortunately
+situated city in the world.
+
+[18] Sapan or Sibucao, Caesalpinia Sapan. Pernambuco or Brazil
+wood, to which the empire of Brazil owes its name, comes from the
+Caesalpinia echinat and the Caesalpinia Braziliensis. (The oldest
+maps of America remark of Brazil: "Its only useful product is Brazil
+(wood).") The sapan of the Philippines is richer in dye stuff than
+all other eastern asiatic woods, but it ranks below the Brazilian
+sapan. It has, nowadays, lost its reputation, owing to its being
+often stupidly cut down too early. It is sent especially to China,
+where it is used for dyeing or printing in red. The stuff is first
+macerated with alum, and then for a finish dipped in a weak alcoholic
+solution of alkali. The reddish brown tint so frequently met with in
+the clothes of the poorer Chinese is produced from sapan.
+
+[19] Large quantities of small mussel shells (Cypraea moneta) were
+sent at this period to Siam, where they are still used as money.
+
+[20] Berghaus' Geo. hydrogr. Memoir.
+
+[21] Manila was first founded in 1571, but as early as 1565, Urdaneta,
+Legaspi's pilot, had found the way back through the Pacific Ocean
+while he was seeking in the higher northern latitudes for a favorable
+north-west wind. Strictly speaking, however, Urdaneta was not the first
+to make use of the return passage, for one of Legaspi's five vessels,
+under the command of Don Alonso de Arellano, which had on board as
+pilot Lope Martin, a mulatto, separated itself from the fleet after
+they had reached the Islands, and returned to New Spain on a northern
+course, in order to claim the promised reward for the discovery. Don
+Alonso was disappointed, however, by the speedy return of Urdaneta.
+
+[22] Kottenkamp I., 1594.
+
+[23] At first the maximum value of the imports only was limited,
+and the Manila merchants were not over scrupulous in making false
+statements as to their worth; to put an end to these malpractices a
+limit was placed to the amount of silver exported. According to Mas,
+however, the silver illegally exported amounted to six or eight times
+the prescribed limit.
+
+[24] La Pérouse mentions a French firm (Sebis), that, in 1787, had
+been for many years established in Manila.
+
+[25] R. Cocks to Thomas Wilson (Calendar of State Papers, India,
+No. 823) .... "The English will obtain a trade in China, so they
+bring not in any padres (as they term them), which the Chinese cannot
+abide to hear of, because heretofore they came in such swarms, and
+are always begging without shame."
+
+[26] As late as 1857 some old decrees, passed against the establishment
+of foreigners, were renewed. A royal ordinance of 1844 prohibits
+the admission of strangers into the interior of the colony under any
+pretext whatsoever.
+
+[27] Vide Pinkerton.
+
+[28] Each packet was 5 × 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 = 18.75 Spanish cubic
+feet. St. Croix.
+
+[29] Vide Comyn's comercio exterior.
+
+[30] The obras pias were pious legacies which usually stipulated
+that two-thirds of their value should be advanced at interest for the
+furtherance of maritime commercial undertakings until the premiums,
+which for a voyage to Acapulco amounted to 50, to China 25, and to
+India 35 per cent., had increased the original capital to a certain
+amount. The interest of the whole was then to be devoted to masses
+for the founders, or to other pious and benevolent purposes. A third
+was generally kept as a reserve fund to cover possible losses. The
+government long since appropriated these reserve funds as compulsory
+loans, "but they are still considered as existing."
+
+When the trade with Acapulco came to an end, the principals could no
+longer be laid out according to the intentions of the founders, and
+they were lent out at interest in other ways. By a royal ordinance of
+November 3, 1854, a junta was appointed to administer the property of
+the . The total capital of the five endowments (in reality only four,
+for one of them no longer possessed anything) amounted to nearly
+a million of dollars. The profits from the loans were distributed
+according to the amounts of the original capital, which, however,
+no longer existed in cash, as the government had disposed of them.
+
+[31] Vide Thevenot.
+
+[32] According to Morga, between the fourteenth and fifteenth.
+
+[33] Vide De Guignes, Pinkerton XI, and Anson X.
+
+[34] Vide Anson.
+
+[35] Randolph's History of California.
+
+[36] In Morga's time, the galleons took seventy days to the Ladrone
+Islands, from ten to twelve from thence to Cape Espiritu Santo,
+and eight more to Manila.
+
+[37] A very good description of these voyages may be found in the
+10th chapter of Anson's work, which also contains a copy of a sea map,
+captured in the Cavadonga, displaying the proper track of the galleons
+to and from Acapulco.
+
+[38] De Guignes.
+
+[39] The officer in command of the expedition, to whom the title of
+general was given, had always a captain under his orders, and his
+share in the gain of each trip amounted to $40,000. The pilot was
+content with $20,000. The first lieutenant (master) was entitled to 9
+per cent on the sale of the cargo, and pocketed from this and from the
+profits of his own private ventures upwards of $350,000. (Vide Arenas.)
+
+[40] The value of the cargoes Anson captured amounted to $1,313,000,
+besides 35,682 ounces of fine silver and cochineal. While England
+and Spain were at peace, Drake plundered the latter to the extent of
+at least one and a half million of dollars. Thomas Candish burnt the
+rich cargo of the Santa Anna, as he had no room for it on board his
+own vessel.
+
+[41] For instance, in 1786 the San Andres, which had a cargo on board
+valued at a couple of millions, found no market for it in Acapulco;
+the same thing happened in 1787 to the San Jose, and a second time
+in 1789 to the San Andres.
+
+[42] In 1855 its population consisted of 586 European Spaniards,
+1,378 Creoles, 6,323 Malay Filipinos and mestizos, 332 Chinamen,
+2 Hamburgers, 1 Portuguese, and 1 Negro.
+
+[43] The earthquake of 1863 destroyed the old bridge. It is intended,
+however, to restore it; the supporting pillars are ready, and
+the superincumbent iron structure is shortly expected from Europe
+(April, 1872).--The central span, damaged in the high water of 1914,
+was temporarily replaced with a wooden structure and plans have been
+prepared for a new bridge, permitting ships to pass and to be used
+also by the railway, nearer the river mouth.--C.
+
+[44] Roescher's Colonies.
+
+[45] A brief description of a nipa house, accompanying an illustration,
+is here omitted.--C.
+
+[46] The following figures will give an idea of the contents of
+the newspapers. I do not allude to the Bulletin Official, which is
+reserved for official announcements, and contains little else of
+any importance. The number lying before me of the Comercio (Nov. 29,
+1858), a paper that appears six times a week, consists of four pages,
+the printed portion in each of which is 11 inches by 17; the whole,
+therefore, contains 748 square inches of printed matter. They are
+distributed as follows:--
+
+Title, 27 1/2 sq. in.; an essay on the population of Spain, taken
+from a book, 102 1/2 sq. in.; under the heading "News from Europe,"
+an article, quoted from the Annals of La Caridad, upon the increase
+of charity and Catholic instruction in France, 40 1/2 sq. in.;
+Part I, of a treatise on Art and its Origin (a series of truisms),
+70 sq. in.; extracts from the official sheet, 20 1/2 sq. in.; a few
+ancient anecdotes, 59 sq. in. Religious portion (this is divided into
+two parts--official and unofficial). The first contains the saints
+for the different days of the year, etc., and the announcements of
+religious festivals; the second advertises a forthcoming splendid
+procession, and contains the first half of a sermon preached three
+years before, on the anniversary of the same festival, 99 sq. in.,
+besides an instalment of an old novel, 154, and advertisements, 175
+sq. in.; total, 748 sq. in. In the last years, however, the newspapers
+sometimes have contained serious essays, but of late these appear
+extremely seldom.
+
+[47] Vide Pigafetta.
+
+[48] Cock-fighting is not alluded to in the "Ordinances of good
+government," collected by Hurtado Corcuera in the middle of the
+seventeenth century. In 1779 cock-fights were taxed for the first
+time. In 1781 the government farmed the right of entrance to
+the galleras (derived from gallo, rooster) for the yearly sum of
+$14,798. In 1863 the receipts from the galleras figured in the budget
+for $106,000.
+
+A special decree of 100 clauses was issued in Madrid on the 21st of
+March, 1861, for the regulation of cock-fights. The 1st clause declares
+that since cock-fights are a source of revenue to the State, they
+shall only take place in arenas licensed by the Government. The 6th
+restricts them to Sundays and holidays; the 7th, from the conclusion
+of high mass to sunset. The 12th forbids more than $50 to be staked
+on one contest. The 38th decrees that each cock shall carry but one
+weapon, and that on its left spur. By the 52nd the fight is to be
+considered over when one or both cocks are dead, or when one shows
+the white feather. In the London Daily News of the 30th June, 1869,
+I find it reported that five men were sentenced at Leeds to two
+months' hard labor for setting six cocks to fight one another with
+iron spurs. From this it appears that this once favorite spectacle
+is no longer permitted in England.
+
+[49] The raw materials of these adventures were supplied by a French
+planter, M. de la Gironiere, but their literary parent is avowedly
+Alexander Dumas.
+
+[50] Botanical gardens do not seem to prosper under Spanish
+auspices. Chamisso complains that, in his day, there were no traces
+left of the botanical gardens founded at Cavite by the learned
+Cuellar. The gardens at Madrid, even, are in a sorry plight; its
+hothouses are almost empty. The grounds which were laid out at great
+expense by a wealthy and patriotic Spaniard at Orotava (Teneriffe),
+a spot whose climate has been of the greatest service to invalids, are
+rapidly going to decay. Every year a considerable sum is appropriated
+to it in the national budget, but scarcely a fraction of it ever
+reaches Orotava. When I was there in 1867, the gardener had received
+no salary for twenty-two months, all the workmen were dismissed,
+and even the indispensable water supply had been cut off.
+
+[51] For a proof of this vide the Berlin Ethnographical Museum,
+Nos. 294-295.
+
+[52] Bertillon (Acclimatement et Acclimatation, Dict. Encycl. des
+Science, Médicales) ascribes the capacity of the Spaniards for
+acclimatization in tropical countries to the large admixture of
+Syrian and African blood which flows in their veins. The ancient
+Iberians appear to have reached Spain from Chaldea across Africa;
+the Phoenicians and Carthaginians had flourishing colonies in the
+peninsula, and, in later times, the Moors possessed a large portion
+of the country for a century, and ruled with great splendor, a state
+of things leading to a mixture of race. Thus Spanish blood has three
+distinct times been abundantly crossed with that of Africa. The warm
+climate of the peninsula must also largely contribute to render its
+inhabitants fit for life in the tropics. The pure Indo-European race
+has never succeeded in establishing itself on the southern shores of
+the Mediterranean, much less in the arid soil of the tropics.
+
+In Martinique, where from eight to nine thousand whites live on the
+proceeds of the toil of 125,000 of the colored race, the population
+is diminishing instead of increasing. The French creoles seem to
+have lost the power of maintaining themselves, in proportion to the
+existing means of subsistence, and of multiplying. Families which
+do not from time to time fortify themselves with a strain of fresh
+European blood, die out in from three to four generations. The same
+thing happens in the English, but not in the Spanish Antilles, although
+the climate and the natural surroundings are the same. According to
+Ramón de la Sagra, the death-rate is smaller among the creoles, and
+greater among the natives, than it is in Spain; the mortality among
+the garrison, however, is considerable. The same writer states that
+the real acclimatization of the Spanish race takes place by selection;
+the unfit die, and the others thrive.
+
+[53] An unnecessary line is here omitted.--C.
+
+[54] Depons, speaking of the means employed in America to obtain the
+same end, says, "I am convinced that it is impossible to engraft the
+Christian religion on the Indian mind without mixing up their own
+inclinations and customs with those of Christianity; this has been
+even carried so far, that at one time theologians raised the question,
+whether it was lawful to eat human flesh? But the most singular part
+of the proceeding is, that the question was decided in favor of the
+anthropophagi."
+
+[55] As a matter of fact, productive land is always appropriated,
+and in many parts of the Islands is difficult and expensive to
+purchase. Near Manila, and in Bulacan, land has for many years past
+cost over $225 (silver) an acre.
+
+[56] Ind. Arch. IV; 307.
+
+[57] In Buitenzorger's garden, Java, the author observed, however,
+some specimens growing in fresh water.
+
+[58] Boyle, in his Adventures among the Dyaks, mentions that he
+actually found pneumatic tinder-boxes, made of bamboo, in use among
+the Dyaks; Bastian met with them in Burmah. Boyle saw a Dyak place
+some tinder on a broken piece of earthenware, holding it steady with
+his thumb while he struck it a sharp blow with a piece of bamboo. The
+tinder took fire. Wallace observed the same method of striking a
+light in Ternate.
+
+[59] Centigrade is changed to Fahrenheit by multiplying by nine-fifths
+and adding thirty-two.--C.
+
+[60] Tylor (Anahuac 227) says that this word is derived from the
+Mexican petlatl, a mat. The inhabitants of the Philippines call this
+petate, and from the Mexican petla-calli, a mat "house," derive petaca,
+a cigar case.
+
+[61] Four lines, re an omitted sketch, left out.--C.
+
+[62] Voyage en Chine, vol. II., page 33.
+
+[63] According to the report of an engineer, the sand banks are caused
+by the river San Mateo, which runs into the Pasig at right angles
+shortly after the latter leaves the Lagoon; in the rainy season it
+brings down a quantity of mud, which is heaped up and embanked by the
+south-west winds that prevail at the time. It would, therefore, be of
+little use to remove the sandbanks without giving the San Mateo, the
+cause of their existence, a direct and separate outlet into the lake.
+
+[64] They take baths for their maladies, and have hot springs for
+this purpose, particularly along the shore of the king's lake (Estang
+du Roy, instead of Estang de Bay by a printer's mistake apparently),
+which is in the Island of Manila.--Thevenot.
+
+[65] "One can scarcely walk thirty paces between Mount Makiling and
+a place called Bacon, which lies to the east of Los Baños, without
+meeting several kinds of natural springs, some very hot, some lukewarm,
+some of the temperature of the atmosphere, and some very cold. In a
+description of this place given in our archives for the year 1739, it
+is recorded that a hill called Natognos lies a mile to the south-east
+of the village, on the plateau of which there is a small plain 400
+feet square, which is kept in constant motion by the volume of vapor
+issuing from it. The soil from which this vapor issues is an extremely
+white earth; it is sometimes thrown up to the height of a yard or a
+yard and a half, and meeting the lower temperature of the atmosphere
+falls to the ground in small pieces."--Estado geograph., 1865.
+
+[66] Pigafetta says that the natives, in order to obtain palm-wine,
+cut the top of the tree through to the pith, and then catch the sap
+as it oozes out of the incision. According to Regnaud, Natural History
+of the Coco-tree, the negroes of Saint Thomas pursue a similar method
+in the present day, a method that considerably injures the trees and
+produces a much smaller quantity of liquor. Hernandez describes an
+indigenous process of obtaining wine, honey, and sago from the sacsao
+palm, a tree which from its stunted growth would seem to correspond
+with the acenga saccharifera. The trees are tapped near the top, the
+soft part of the trunks is hollowed out, and the sap collects in this
+empty space. When all the juice is extracted, the tree is allowed to
+dry up, and is then cut into thin pieces which, after desiccation in
+the sun, are ground into meal.
+
+[67] Pigafetta mentions that the natives were in the habit of making
+oil, vinegar, wine, and milk, from the coco-palm, and that they drank
+a great deal of the wine. Their kings, he says, frequently intoxicated
+themselves at their banquets.
+
+[68] A number of the Illustrated London News, of December, 1857,
+or January, 1858, contains a clever drawing, by an accomplished
+artist, of the mode of travelling over this road, under the title,
+"A macadamized road in Manila."
+
+[69] Erd and Picketing, of the United States exploring expedition,
+determined the height to be 6,500 English feet (7,143 Spanish),
+not an unsatisfactory result, considering the imperfect means they
+possessed for making a proper measurement. In the Manila Estado
+geographico for 1865, the height is given, without any statement as
+to the source whence the estimate is derived, as 7,030 feet. The same
+authority says, "the large volcano is extinct since 1730, in which
+year its last eruption took place. The mountain burst into flames on
+the southern side, threw up streams of water, burning lava, and stones
+of an enormous size; traces of the last can be observed as far as the
+village of Sariaya. The crater is perhaps a league in circumference,
+it is highest on the northern side, and its interior is shaped like
+an egg-shell: the depth of the crater apparently extends half-way
+down the height of the mountain."
+
+[70] From ponte, deck; a two-masted vessel, with mat sails, of about
+100 tons burden.
+
+[71] Estado Geogr., p. 314.
+
+[72] Officially called Cagsaua. The old town of Cagsaua, which was
+built higher up the hill and was destroyed by the eruption of 1814,
+was rebuilt on the spot where formerly stood a small hamlet of the
+name of Daraga.
+
+[73] I learnt from Mr. Paton that the undertaking had also been
+represented as impracticable in Albay. "Not a single Spaniard, not
+a single native had ever succeeded in reaching the summit; in spite
+of all their precautions they would certainly be swallowed up in the
+sand." However, one morning, about five o'clock, they set off, and soon
+reached the foot of the cone of the crater. Accompanied by a couple of
+natives, who soon left them, they began to make the ascent. Resting
+half way up, they noticed frequent masses of shining lava, thrown
+from the mouth of the crater, gliding down the mountain. With the
+greatest exertions they succeeded, between two and three o'clock,
+in reaching the summit, where, however, they were prevented by the
+noxious gas from remaining more than two or three minutes. During
+their descent, they restored their strength with some refreshments
+Sr. Muñoz had sent to meet them; and they reached Albay towards
+evening, where during their short stay they were treated as heroes,
+and presented with an official certificate of their achievement,
+for which they had the pleasure of paying several dollars.
+
+[74] From 36,000,000 to 40,000,000 lbs. of cacao are consumed in Europe
+annually; of which quantity nearly a third goes to France, whose
+consumption of it between 1853 and 1866 has more than doubled. In
+the former year it amounted to 6,215,000 lbs., in the latter to
+12,973,534 lbs. Venezuela sends the finest cacaos to the European
+market, those of Porto Cabello and Caracas. That of Caracas is the
+dearest and the best, and is of four kinds: Chuao, Ghoroni, O'Cumar,
+and Rio Chico. England consumes the cacao grown in its own colonies,
+although the duty (1d per lb.) is the same for all descriptions. Spain,
+the principal consumer, imports its supplies from Cuba, Porto Rico,
+Ecuador, Mexico, and Trinidad. Several large and important plantations
+have recently been established by Frenchmen in Nicaragua. The cacao
+beans of Soconusco (Central America) and Esmeralda (Ecuador) are more
+highly esteemed than the finest of the Venezuela sorts; but they are
+scarcely ever used in the Philippines, and cannot be said to form
+part of their commerce. Germany contents itself with the inferior
+kinds. Guayaquil cacao, which is only half the price of Caracas, is
+more popular amongst the Germans than all the other varieties together.
+
+[75] C. Scherzer, in his work on Central America, gives the cacao-tree
+an existence of twenty years, and says that each tree annually produces
+from 15 to 20 ounces of cacao. 1,000 plants will produce 1,250 lbs. of
+cacao, worth $250; so that the annual produce of a single tree is worth
+a quarter of a dollar. Mitscherlich says that from 4 to 6 lbs. of raw
+beans is an average produce. A liter of dried cacao beans weighs 630
+grains; of picked and roasted, 610 grains.
+
+[76] In 1727 a hurricane destroyed at a single blast the important
+cacao plantation of Martinique, which had been created by long years of
+extraordinary care. The same thing happened at Trinidad.--Mitscherlich.
+
+[77] F. Engel mentions a disease (mancha) which attacks the tree
+in America, beginning by destroying its roots. The tree soon dies,
+and the disease spreads so rapidly that whole groves of cacao-trees
+utterly perish and are turned into pastures for cattle. Even in the
+most favored localities, after a long season of prosperity, thousands
+of trees are destroyed in a single night by this disease, just as the
+harvest is about to take place. An almost equally dangerous foe to
+cultivation is a moth whose larva entirely destroys the ripe cacao
+beans; and which only cold and wind will kill. Humboldt mentions
+that cacao beans which have been transported over the chilly passes
+of the Cordilleras are never attacked by this pest.
+
+[78] G. Bornoulli quotes altogether eighteen kinds; of which he
+mentions only one as generally in use in the Philippines.
+
+[79] Pili is very common in South Luzon, Samar, and Leyte; it is to be
+found in almost every village. Its fruit, which is almost of the size
+of an ordinary plum but not so round, contains a hard stone, the raw
+kernel of which is steeped in syrup and candied in the same manner as
+the kernel of the sweet pine, which it resembles in flavor. The large
+trees with fruit on them, "about the size of almonds and looking like
+sweet-pine kernels," which Pigafetta saw at Jomonjol were doubtless
+pili-trees. An oil is expressed from the kernels much resembling
+sweet almond oil. If incisions are made in the stems of the trees,
+an abundant pleasant-smelling white resin flows from them, which
+is largely used in the Philippines to calk ships with. It also has
+a great reputation as an anti-rheumatic plaster. It is twenty years
+since it was first exported to Europe; and the first consignees made
+large profits, as the resin, which was worth scarcely anything in
+the Philippines, became very popular and was much sought in Europe.
+
+[80] The general name for the beverage was Cacahoa-atl (cacao
+water). Chocolatl was the term given to a particular kind. F. Hernandez
+found four kinds of cacao in use among the Axtecs, and he describes
+four varieties of drinks that were prepared from them. The third
+was called chocolatl, and apparently was prepared as follows:--Equal
+quantities of the kernels of the pochotl (Bombaz ceiba) and cacahoatl
+(cacao) trees were finely ground, and heated in an earthen vessel, and
+all the grease removed as it rose to the surface. Maize, crushed and
+soaked, was added to it, and a beverage prepared from the mixture; to
+which the oily parts that had been skimmed off the top were restored,
+and the whole was drunk hot.
+
+[81] Berthold Seemann speaks of a tree with finger-shaped leaves
+and small round berries, which the Indians sometimes offered for
+sale. They made chocolate from them, which in flavor much surpassed
+that usually made from cacao.
+
+[82] Report of the French consul.
+
+[83] Mysore and Mocha coffees fetch the highest prices. From $20 to
+$22.50 per cwt. is paid for Mysore; and as much as $30, when it has
+attained an age of five or six years, for Mocha.
+
+[84] In 1865-66-67 California imported three and one-half, eight
+and ten million lbs. of coffee, of which two, four and five millions
+respectively came from Manila. In 1868 England was the best customer
+of the Philippines.
+
+[85] Report of the Belgian consul.
+
+[86] Coffee is such an exquisite beverage, and is so seldom
+properly prepared, that the following hints from a master in the
+art (Report of the Jury, Internat. Exhib., Paris, 1868) will not be
+unwelcome:--1st. Select good coffees. 2nd. Mix them in the proper
+proportions. 3rd. Thoroughly dry the beans; otherwise in roasting them
+a portion of the aroma escapes with the steam. 4th. Roast them in a dry
+atmosphere, and roast each quality separately. 5th. Allow them to cool
+rapidly. If it is impossible to roast the beans at home, then purchase
+only sufficient for each day's consumption. With the exception of the
+fourth, however, it is easy to follow all these directions at home;
+and small roasting machines are purchasable, in which, with the aid
+of a spirit lamp, small quantities can be prepared at a time. It is
+best, when possible, to buy coffee in large quantities, and keep it
+stored for two or three years in a dry place.
+
+[87] A creeping, or rather a running fern, nearly the only one of
+the kind in the whole species.
+
+[88] The official accounts stated that they had kidnapped twenty-one
+persons in a couple of weeks.
+
+[89] Le Gentil, in his Travels in the Indian Seas, (1761) says:
+"The monks are the real rulers of the provinces.... Their power is so
+unlimited that no Spaniard cares to settle in the neighborhood.... The
+monks would give him a great deal of trouble."
+
+[90] St. Croix.
+
+[91] St. Croix.
+
+[92] There are three classes of alcaldeships, namely, entrada,
+ascenso, and termino (vide Royal Ordinances of March, 1837); in
+each of which an alcalde must serve for three years. No official is
+allowed, under any pretence, to serve more than ten years in any of
+the Asiatic magistracies.
+
+[93] The law limiting the duration of appointments to this short
+period dates from the earliest days of Spanish colonization in
+America. There was also a variety of minor regulations, based on
+suspicion, prohibiting the higher officials from mixing in friendly
+intercourse with the colonists.
+
+[94] A secular priest in the Philippines once related to me, quite of
+his own accord, what had led him to the choice of his profession. One
+day, when he was a non-commissioned officer in the army, he was playing
+cards with some comrades in a shady balcony. "See," cried one of his
+friends, observing a peasant occupied in tilling the fields in the
+full heat of the sun, "how the donkey yonder is toiling and perspiring
+while we are lolling in the shade." The happy conceit of letting the
+donkeys work while the idle enjoyed life made such a deep impression on
+him that he determined to turn priest; and it is the same felicitous
+thought that has impelled so many impecunious gentlemen to become
+colonial officials. The little opening for civil labor in Spain and
+Portugal, and the prospect of comfortable perquisites in the colonies,
+have sent many a starving caballero across the ocean.
+
+[95] The exploitation of the State by party, and the exploitation of
+party by individuals, are the real secrets of all revolutions in the
+Peninsula. They are caused by a constant and universal struggle for
+office. No one will work, and everybody wants to live luxuriously; and
+this can only be done at the expense of the State, which all attempt
+to turn and twist to their own ends. Shortly after the expulsion of
+Isabella, an alcalde's appointment has been known to have been given
+away three times in one day. (Prussian Year-Book, January, 1869.)
+
+[96] According to Grunow, Cladophona arrisgona Kuetzing--Conferva
+arrisgona Montague.
+
+[97] A visita is a small hamlet or village with no priest of its
+own, and dependent upon its largest neighbor for its religious
+ministrations.
+
+[98]  Pigafetta mentions that the female musicians of the King of
+Cebu were quite naked, or only covered with an apron of bark. The
+ladies of the Court were content with a hat, a short cloak, and a
+cloth around the waist.
+
+[99]  Perhaps the same reason induced the Chinese to purchase
+crucifixes at the time of their first intercourse with the Portuguese;
+for Pigafetta says: "The Chinese are white, wear clothes, and eat
+from tables. They also possess crucifixes but it is difficult to say
+why or where they got them."
+
+[100] One line here omitted.--C.
+
+[101] Apud Camarines quoque terrain eodem die quator decies
+contremuisse, fide dignis testimoniis renuntiatum est: multa interim
+aedificia diruta. Ingentem montem medium crepuisse immani hiatu, ex
+immensa vi excussisse arbores per oras pelagi, ita ut leucam occuparent
+aequoris, nec humor per illud intervallum appareret. Accidit hoc
+anno 1628.--S. Eusebius Nieremberqius, Historia Naturae, lib. xvi.,
+383. Antwerpiae, 1635.
+
+[102] At Fort William, Calcutta, experiments have proved the
+extraordinary endurance of the pine-apple fibre. A cable eight
+centimeters in circumference was not torn asunder until a force
+of 2,850 kilogrammes had been applied to it.--Report of the Jury,
+London International Exhibition.
+
+[103] Sapa means shallow.
+
+[104] To the extraordinary abundance of these annulates in Sikkin,
+Hooker (Himalayan Journal, i, 167) ascribes the death of many animals,
+as also the murrain known as rinderpest, if it occurred after a very
+wet season, when the leech appears in incredible numbers. It is a
+known fact that these worms have existed for days together in the
+nostrils, throat, and stomach of man, causing inexpressible pain and,
+finally, death.
+
+[105] Gemelli Careri has already mentioned them.
+
+[106]  I discovered similar formations, of extraordinary beauty and
+extent, in the great silicious beds of Steamboat Springs in Nevada.
+
+[107] Arenas thinks that the ancient annals of the Chinese probably
+contain information relative to the settlement of the present
+inhabitants of Manila, as that people had early intercourse with
+the Archipelago.
+
+[108] Probably the Anodonta Purpurea, according to V. Martens.
+
+[109]  1 ganta = 3 liters. 1 quiñon = 100 loànes = 2.79495 hectares =
+6.89 acres. 1 caban = 25 gantas.
+
+[110]  Scherzer, Miscellaneous Information.
+
+[111] More than one hundred years later, Father Taillandier
+writes:--"The Spaniards have brought cows, horses, and sheep from
+America; but these animals cannot live there on account of the dampness
+and inundations."--(Letters from Father Taillandier to Father Willard.)
+
+[112] At the present time the Chinese horses are plump, large-headed,
+hairy, and with bushy tails and manes; and the Japanese, elegant and
+enduring, similar to the Arabian. Good Manila horses are of the latter
+type, and are much prized by the Europeans in Chinese seaport towns.
+
+[113] Compare Hernandez, Opera Omnia; Torquemada, Monarchia Indica.
+
+[114] Buyo is the name given in the Philippines to the preparation of
+betel suitable for chewing. A leaf of betel pepper (Chavica betel),
+of the form and size of a bean-leaf, is smeared over with a small
+piece of burnt lime of the size of a pea, and rolled together from
+both ends to the middle; when, one end of the roll being inserted
+into the other, a ring is formed, into which a smooth piece of areca
+nut of corresponding size is introduced.
+
+[115] Twelve lines are omitted here.--C.
+
+[116] 4 lines are omitted.--C.
+
+[117] In the country it is believed that swine's flesh often causes
+this malady. A friend, a physiologist, conjectures the cause to be
+the free use of very fat pork; but the natives commonly eat but little
+flesh, and the pigs are very seldom fat.
+
+[118] Compare A. Erman, Journey Round the Earth Through Northern Asia,
+vol. iii, sec i, p. 191.
+
+[119] According to Semper, p. 69, in Zamboanga and Basilan.
+
+[120] The fear of waking sleeping persons really refers to the
+widely-spread superstition that during sleep the soul leaves the body;
+numerous instances of which occur in Bastian's work. Amongst the
+Tinguianes (North Luzon) the worst of all curses is to this effect:
+"May'st thou die sleeping!"--Informe, i. 14.
+
+[121] Lewin ("Chittagong Hill Tracks," 1869, p. 46) relates of
+the mountain people at that place: "Their manner of kissing is
+peculiar. Instead of pressing lip to lip, they place the mouth and
+nose upon the cheek, and inhale the breath strongly. Their form of
+speech is not 'Give me a kiss,' but 'Smell me.' "
+
+[122] Probably pot-stone, which is employed in China in the manufacture
+of cheap ornaments. Gypseous refers probably only to the degree
+of hardness.
+
+[123] In the Christy collection, in London, I saw a stone of this
+kind from the Schiffer Islands, employed in a contrivance for the
+purpose of protection against rats and mice. A string being drawn
+through the stone, one end of it is suspended from the ceiling of the
+room, and the objects to be preserved hang from the other. A knot
+in the middle of the string prevents its sliding below that point,
+and, every touch drawing it from its equilibrium, it is impossible
+for rats to climb upon it. A similar contrivance used in the Viti
+Islands, but of wood, is figured in the Atlas to Dumont D'Urville's
+"Voyage to the South Pole," (i. 95).
+
+[124] "Carletti's Voyages," ii. 11.
+
+[125] "Life in the Forests of the Far East," i. 300.
+
+[126] According to Father Camel ("Philisoph. Trans. London," vol. xxvi,
+p. 246), hantu means black ants the size of a wasp; amtig, smaller
+black; and hantic, red ants.
+
+[127] According to Dr. Gerstaecker, probably Phrynus Grayi Walck
+Gerv., bringing forth alive. "S. Sitzungsb. Ges. Naturf. Freunde,
+Berl." March 18, 1862, and portrayed and described in G. H. Bronn,
+"Ord. Class.," vol. v. 184.
+
+[128]  Calapnit, Tagal and Bicol, the bat; calapnitan, consequently,
+lord of the bats.
+
+[129] In only one out of several experiments made in the Berlin Mining
+College did gold-sand contain 0.014 gold; and, in one experiment on
+the heavy sand remaining on a mud-board, no gold was found.
+
+[130] The Gogo is a climbing Mimosa (Entada purseta) with large pods,
+very abundant in the Philippines; the pounded stem of which is employed
+in washing, like the soap-bark of Chili (Quillaja saponaria); and
+for many purposes, such as baths and washing the hair of the head,
+is preferred to soap.
+
+[131] A small gold nugget obtained in this manner, tested at the
+Berlin Mining College, consisted of--
+
+
+    Gold            77.4
+    Silver          19.0
+    Iron             0.5
+    Flint earth      3.
+    Loss             0.1
+                   100.
+
+
+[132] The nest and bird are figured in Gray's "Genera of Birds";
+but the nest does not correspond with those found here. These
+are hemispherical in form, and consist for the most part of coir
+(coco fibers); and, as if prepared by the hand of man, the whole
+interior is covered with an irregular net-work of fine threads of
+the glutinous edible substance, as well as the upper edge, which
+swells gently outwards from the center towards the sides, and expands
+into two wing-shaped prolongations, resting on one another, by which
+the nest is fixed to the wall. Dr. v. Martens conjectures that the
+designation salangane comes from langayah, bird, and the Malay prefix
+sa, and signifies especially the nest as something coming from the
+bird.--("Journal of Ornith.," Jan., 1866.)
+
+[133] Spanish Catalogue of the Paris Exhibition, 1867.
+
+[134] "Informe sobre las Minas de Cobre," Manila, 1862.
+
+[135] According to the Catalogue, the following ores are
+found:--Variegated copper ore (cobre gris abigarrado), arsenious copper
+(c. gris arsenical), vitreous copper (c. vitreo), copper pyrites
+(pirita de cobre), solid copper (mata cobriza), and black copper
+(c. negro). The ores of most frequent occurrence have the following
+composition--A, according to an analyzed specimen in the School of
+Mines at Madrid; B, according to the analysis of Santos, the mean of
+several specimens taken from different places:--
+
+
+                         A          B
+    Silicious Acid  25.800      47.06
+    Sulphur         31.715      44.44
+    Copper          24.640      16.64
+    Antimony         8.206       5.12
+    Arsenic          7.539       4.65
+    Iron             1.837       1.84
+    Lime            in traces    --
+    Loss             0.263       0.25
+                   -------     ------
+                   100.000     100.00
+
+
+[136] According to the prices current with us, the value would be
+calculated at about $12; the value of the analyzed specimen, to which
+we have before referred, $14.50.
+
+[137] In Daet at that season six nuts cost one cuarto; and in Nags,
+only fifteen leagues away by water, they expected to sell two nuts for
+nine cuartos (twenty-sevenfold). The fact was that in Naga, at that
+time, one nut fetched two cuartos--twelve times as much as in Daet.
+
+[138] N. Loney asserts, in one of his excellent reports, that there
+never is a deficiency of suitable laborers. As an example, at the
+unloading of a ship in Iloilo, many were brought together at one
+time, induced by the small rise of wages from one to one and one-half
+reales; even more hands than could be employed. The Belgian consul,
+too, reports that in the provinces where the abacá grows the whole
+of the male population is engaged in its cultivation, in consequence
+of a small rise of wages.
+
+[139] An unfinished canal, to run from the Bicol to the Pasacao River,
+was once dug, as is thought, by the Chinese, who carried on commerce
+in great numbers.--Arenas, p. 140.
+
+[140] La Situation Economique de l'Espagne.
+
+[141] Lesage, "Coup d'Oeil," in Journal des Economistes, September,
+1868.
+
+[142] From barometrical observations--
+
+                                                   m.
+    Goa, on the northern slope of the Isaróg       32
+    Uacloy, a settlement of Igorots               161
+    Ravine of Baira                             1,134
+    Summit of the Isarog                        1,966
+
+
+[143] The skull of a slain Igorot, as shown by Professor Virchow's
+investigation, has a certain similarity to Malay skulls of the
+adjoining Islands of Sunda, especially to the skulls of the Dyaks.
+
+[144] Pigafetta found Amboyna inhabited by Moors (Mohammedans) and
+heathens; "but the first possessed the seashore, the latter the
+interior." In the harbor of Brune (Borneo) he saw two towns; one
+inhabited by Moors, and the other, larger than that, and standing
+entirely in the salt-water, by heathen. The editor remarks that
+Sonnerat ("Voyage aux Irides") subsequently found that the heathen
+had been driven from the sea, and had retired into the mountains.
+
+[145] On Coello's map these proportions are wrongly stated.
+
+[146] "Java, seine Gestalt (its formation)" II. 125.
+
+[147] An intelligent mestizo frequently visited me during my
+sickness. According to his statements, besides the copper already
+mentioned, coal is found in three places, and even gold and iron were
+to be had. To the same man I am indebted for Professor Virchow's
+skull of Caramuan, referred to before, which was said to have come
+from a cavern in Umang, one league from Caramuan. Similar skulls are
+also said to be found at the Visita Paniniman, and on a small island
+close to the Visita Guialo.
+
+[148] They are made of bamboo.
+
+[149] The fruit of the wild pili is unfit for food.
+
+[150] 17.375 Cent. or 63 Far.--C.
+
+[151] 15.6 Cent. or 60 Far.--C.
+
+[152] Sor Inspector por S. M.
+
+Nosotros dos Capnes actuales de Rancherias de Lalud y Uacloy
+comprension del pueblo de Goa prov. a de Camarines Sur. Ante los pies
+de vmd postramos y decimos. Que por tan deplorable estado en que nos
+hallabamos de la infedelidad recienpoblados esta visitas de Rancherias
+ya nos Contentamos bastantemente en su felis llegada y suvida de este
+eminente monte de Isarog loque havia con quiztado industriamente
+de V. bajo mis consuelos, y alibios para poder con seguir a doce
+ponos (i.e. arboles) de cocales de mananguiteria para Nuestro uso y
+alogacion a los demas Igorotes, o montesinos q. no quieren vendirnos;
+eta utilidad publica y reconocer a Dios y a la soberana Reyna y Sofa
+Doña Isabel 2a (que Dios Gue) Y por intento.
+
+A. V. pedimos, y suplicamos con humildad secirva proveer y mandar,
+si es gracia segun lo q. imploramos, etc. Domingo Tales†. Jose
+Laurenciano†.
+
+[153] Dendrobium ceraula, Reichenbach.
+
+[154] Rafflesia Cumingii R. Brown, according to Dr. Kuhn.
+
+[155] According to E. Bernaldez ("Guerra al Sur") the number of
+Spaniards and Filipinos kidnapped and killed within thirty years
+amounted to twenty thousand.
+
+[156] The richly laden Nao (Mexican galleon) acted in this way.
+
+[157] Extract from a letter of the alcalde to the captain-general,
+June 20, '60:--"For ten days past ten pirate vessels have been lying
+undisturbed at the island of San Miguel, two leagues from Tabaco, and
+interrupt the communication with the island of Catanduanes and the
+eastern part of Albay. * * * They have committed several robberies,
+and carried off six men. Nothing can be done to resist them as there
+are no fire-arms in the villages, and the only two faluas have been
+detained in the roads of San Bernardino by stress of weather."
+
+Letter of June 25:--"Besides the above private ships four large pancos
+and four small vintas have made their appearance in the straits of
+San Bernardino. * * * Their force amounts from four hundred and fifty
+to five hundred men. * * * Already they have killed sixteen men,
+kidnapped ten, and captured one ship."
+
+[158] In Chamisso's time it was even worse. "The expeditions
+in armed vessels, which were sent from Manila to cruise against
+the enemy (the pirates) * * * serve only to promote smuggling,
+and Christians and Moros avoid one another with equal diligence
+on such occasions." ("Observations and Views," p. 73.) * * * Mas
+(i. iv. 43) reports to the same effect, according to notices from the
+secretary-general's office at Manila, and adds that the cruisers sold
+even the royal arms and ammunition, which had been entrusted to them,
+whence much passed into the hands of the Moros. The alcaldes were
+said to influence the commanders of the cruisers, and the latter
+to overreach the alcaldes; but both usually made common cause. La
+Pérouse also relates (ii., p. 357), that the alcaldes bought a very
+large number of persons who had been made slaves by the pirates
+(in the Philippines); so that the latter were not usually brought to
+Batavia where they were of much less value.
+
+[159] According to the Diario de Manila, March 14, 1866, piracy on
+the seas had diminished, but had not ceased. Paragua, Calamianes,
+Mindoro, Mindanao, and the Bisayas still suffer from it. Robberies and
+kidnapping are frequently carried on as opportunity favors; and such
+casual pirates are to be extirpated only by extreme severity. According
+to my latest accounts, piracy is again on the increase.
+
+[160] The Spaniards attempted the conquest of the Sulu Islands in
+1628, 1629, 1637, 1731, and 1746; and frequent expeditions have since
+taken place by way of reprisals. A great expedition was likewise sent
+out in October, 1871, against Sulu, in order to restrain the piracy
+which recently was getting the upper hand; indeed, a year or two
+ago, the pirates had ventured as far as the neighborhood of Manila;
+but in April of this year (1872) the fleet returned to Manila without
+having effected its object. The Spaniards employed in this expedition
+almost the whole marine force of the colony, fourteen ships, mostly
+steam gunboats; and they bombarded the chief town without inflicting
+any particular damage, while the Moros withdrew into the interior,
+and awaited the Spaniards (who, indeed, did not venture to land) in
+a well-equipped body of five thousand men. After months of inactivity
+the Spaniards burnt down an unarmed place on the coast, committing many
+barbarities on the occasion, but drew back when the warriors advanced
+to the combat. The ports of the Sulu archipelago are closed to trade
+by a decree, although it is questionable whether all navigators
+will pay any regard to it. Not long since the sovereignty of his
+district was offered by the Sultan of Sulu to the King of Prussia;
+but the offer was declined.
+
+[161] The Diario de Manila of June 4, 1866, states:--"Yesterday the
+military commission, established by ordinance of the 3rd August,
+1865, discontinued its functions. The ordinary tribunals are again
+in force. The numerous bands of thirty, forty, and more individuals,
+armed to the teeth, which have left behind them their traces of
+blood and fire at the doors of Manila and in so many other places,
+are annihilated. * * * More than fifty robbers have expiated their
+crimes on the gallows, and one hundred and forty have been condemned
+to presidio (forced labor) or to other punishments."
+
+[162] According to Arenas ("Memorias," 21) Albay was formerly called
+Ibalon; Tayabas, Calilaya; Batangas, Comintan; Negros, Buglas; Cebu,
+Sogbu; Mindoro, Mait; Samar, Ibabao; and Basilan, Taguima. Mindanao
+is called Cesarea by B. de la Torre, and Samar, by R. Dudleo
+"Arcano del Mare" (Florence, 1761), Camlaia. In Hondiv's map of the
+Indian islands (Purchas, 605) Luzon is Luconia; Samar, Achan; Leyte,
+Sabura; Camarines, Nebui. In Albo's "Journal," Cebu is called Suba;
+and Leyte, Seilani. Pigafetta describes a city called Cingapola in
+Zubu, and Leyte, on his map, is in the north called Baybay, and in
+the south Ceylon.
+
+[163] No mention is made of it in the Estado geografico of the
+Franciscans, published at Manila in 1855.
+
+[164] Small ships which have no cannon should be provided with pitchers
+filled with water and the fruit of the sacchariferous arenga, for the
+purpose of be sprinkling the pirates, in the event of an attack, with
+the corrosive mixture, which causes a burning heat. Dumont d'Urville
+mentions that the inhabitants of Solo had, during his visit, poisoned
+the wells with the same fruit. The kernels preserved in sugar are an
+agreeable confection.
+
+[165] There were also elected a teniente mayor (deputy of the
+gobernadorcillo, a juez mayor (superior judge) for the fields, who is
+always an ex-captain; a second judge for the police; a third judge
+for disputes relating to cattle; a second and third teniente; and
+first and second policemen; and finally, in addition, a teniente,
+a judge, and a policeman for each visita. All three of the judges
+can be ex-capitanes, but no ex-capitan can be teniente. The first
+teniente must be taken from the higher class, the others may belong
+either to that or to the common people. The policemen (alguacils)
+are always of the latter class.
+
+[166] G. Squier ("States of Central America," 192) mentions a block
+of mahogany, seventeen feet in length, which, at its lowest section,
+measured five feet six, inches square, and contained altogether five
+hundred fifty cubic feet.
+
+[167] According to Dr. V. Martens, Modiola striatula, Hanley, who found
+the same bivalve at Singapore, in brackish water, but considerably
+larger. Reeve also delineates the species collected by Cumming in the
+Philippines, without precise mention of the locality, as being larger
+(38 mm.), that from Catarman being 17 mm.
+
+[168] In Sumatra Wallace saw, in the twilight, a lemur run up the trunk
+of a tree, and then glide obliquely through the air to another trunk,
+by which he nearly reached the ground. The distance between the two
+trees amounted to 210 feet, and the difference of height was not above
+35 or 40 feet; consequently, less than l:5.--("Malay Archipelago,"
+i. 211).
+
+[169] According to W. Peters, Tropidolaenus Philippinensis, Gray.
+
+[170] V. Martens identified amongst the tertiary mussels of the
+banks of clay the following species, which still live in the Indian
+Ocean:--Venus (Hemitapes) hiantina, Lam.; V. squamosa, L.; Arca
+cecillei, Phil.; A. inaequivalvis, Brug.; A. chalcanthum, Rv., and
+the genera Yoldia, Pleurotoma, Cuvieria, Dentalium, without being
+able to assert their identity with living species.
+
+[171] Tarsius spectrum, Tem.; in the language of the country--mago.
+
+[172] Father Camel mentions that the little animal is said to live
+only on coal, but that it was an error, for he ate the ficus Indica
+(by which we here understand him to mean the banana) and other
+fruits. (Camel de quadruped. Phil. Trans., 1706-7. London.) Camel
+also gives (p. 194) an interesting account of the kaguang, which is
+accurate at the present day.--Ibid., ii. S. 2197.
+
+[173] The following communication appeared for the first time in
+the reports of a session of the Anthropological Society of Berlin;
+but my visitors were there denominated Palaos islanders. But,
+as Prof. Semper, who spent a long time on the true Palaos (Pelew)
+islands, correctly shows in the "Corresp.-Bl. f. Anthropol.," 1871,
+No. 2, that Uliai belongs to the group of the Carolinas, I have here
+retained the more common expression, Micronesian, although those men,
+respecting whose arrival from Uliai no doubt existed, did not call
+themselves Caroline islanders, but Palaos. As communicated to me by
+Dr. Graeffe, who lived many years in Micronesia, Palaos is a loose
+expression like Kanaka and many others, and does not, at all events,
+apply exclusively to the inhabitants of the Pelew group.
+
+[174] Dumont d'Urville, Voyage to the South Pole, v. 206, remarks
+that the natives call their island Gouap or Ouap, but never Yap;
+and that the husbandry in that place was superior to anything he had
+seen in the South Sea.
+
+[175] The voyages of the Polynesians were also caused by the tyranny
+of the victorious parties, which compelled the vanquished to emigrate.
+
+[176] Pigafetta, p. 51.
+
+[177] Morga, f. 127.
+
+[178] "The Bisayans cover their teeth with a shining varnish, which
+is either black, or of the color of fire, and thus their teeth become
+either black, or red like cinnabar; and they make a small hole in
+the upper row, which they fill with gold, the latter shining all the
+more on the black or red ground."--(Thévenot, Religieux, 54.) Of a
+king of Mindanao, visited by Magellan at Massana, it is written:--"In
+every tooth he had three machie (spots?) of gold, so that they had
+the appearance of being tied together with gold;" which Ramusio
+interprets--"On each finger he had three rings of gold."--Pigafetta,
+p. 66; and compare also Carletti, Voyages, i. 153.
+
+[179] 42 and 30 Cent. or 108 and 86 Fahr.--C.
+
+[180] In one of these cliffs, sixty feet above the sea, beds of mussels
+were found: ostrea, pinna, chama; according to Dr. V. M.--O. denticula,
+Bron.; O. cornucopiae, Chemn.; O. rosacea, Desh.; Chama sulfurea,
+Reeve; Pinna Nigrina, Lam. (?).
+
+[181] In the Athenaeum of January 7, 1871, Captain Ullmann describes
+a funeral ceremony (tiwa) of the Dyaks, which corresponds in many
+points with that of the ancient Bisayans. The coffin is cut out of
+the branch of a tree by the nearest male kinsman, and it is so narrow
+that the body has to be pressed down into it, lest another member
+of the family should die immediately after to fill up the gap. As
+many as possible of his effects must be heaped on the dead person,
+in order to prove his wealth and to raise him in the estimation of
+the spirit world; and under the coffin are placed two vessels, one
+containing rice and the other water.
+
+One of the principal ceremonies of the tiwa consisted formerly
+(and does still in some places) in human sacrifices. Where the Dutch
+Government extended these were not permitted; but sometimes carabaos
+or pigs were killed in a cruel manner, with the blood of which the
+high priest smeared the forehead, breast, and arms of the head of the
+family. Similar sacrifices of slaves or pigs were practised amongst
+the ancient Filipinos, with peculiar ceremonies by female priests
+(Catalonas).
+
+[182] In the chapter De monstris et quasi monstris * * * of Father
+Camel, London Philos. Trans., p. 2259, it is stated that in the
+mountains between Guiuan and Borongan, footsteps, three times as
+large as those of ordinary men, have been found. Probably the skulls
+of Lauang, which are pressed out in breadth, and covered with a thick
+crust of calcareous sinter, the gigantic skulls (skulls of giants)
+have given rise to the fable of the giants' footsteps.
+
+[183] Hemiramphus viviparus, W. Peters (Berlin Monatsb., March 16,
+1865).
+
+[184] Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs (Compendium of
+the "Pharmacopoeia of the Vegetable Kingdom,") p. 698.
+
+[185] Philos. Trans. 1699, No. 249, pages 44, 87.
+
+[186] At Borongan the tinaja of 12 gantas cost six reals (one quart
+about two pesetas), the pot two reals, the freight to Manila three
+reals, or, if the product is carried as cargo (matrose), two and
+one-half reals. The price at Manila refers to the tinaja of sixteen
+gantas.
+
+[187] Newly prepared coconut oil serves for cooking, but quickly
+becomes rancid. It is very generally used for lighting. In Europe,
+where it seldom appears in a fluid state, as it does not dissolve until
+16° R., (20 C. or 68 Fahr.) it is used in the manufacture of tapers,
+but especially for soap, for which it is peculiarly adapted. Coconut
+soap is very hard, and brilliantly white, and is dissolved in salt
+water more easily than any other soap. The oily nut has lately been
+imported from Brazil into England under the name of "copperah,"
+(copra) and pressed after heating.
+
+[188] On Pigafetta's map Leyte is divided into two parts, the north
+being called Baibay, and the south Ceylon. When Magellan in Massana
+(Limasana) inquired after the most considerable places of business,
+Ceylon (i.e. Leyte), Calagan (Caraga), and Zubu (Cebu) were named to
+him. Pigaf., 70.
+
+[189] According to Dr. Gerstaecker: Oedipoda subfasciata, Haan,
+Acridium Manilense, Meyen. The designation of Meyen which the
+systemists must have overlooked, has the priority of Haan's; but it
+requires to be altered to Oedipoda Manilensis, as the species does not
+belong to the genus acridium in the modern sense. It occurs also in
+Luzon and in Timor, and is closely allied to our European migratory
+locusts Oedipoda migratoria.
+
+[190] After the king had withdrawn * * * "sweetmeats and cakes in
+abundance were brought, and also roasted locusts, which were pressed
+upon the guests as great delicacies."--"Col. Fytche's Mission to
+Mandalay Parliament," Papers, June, 1869.
+
+[191] The names of these two localities, on Coello's map, are
+confounded. Burauen lies south of Dagami.
+
+[192] 62.5 Cent. or 144.5 Fahr.--C.
+
+[193] A small river enters the sea 950 brazas south of the tower
+of Abuyog.
+
+[194] Gobius giuris Buch. Ham.
+
+[195] The lake at that time had but one outlet, but in the wet season
+it may be in connection with the Mayo, which, at its north-east side,
+is quite flat.
+
+[196] Or some thirty-eight yards if the old Dutch ell is meant.--C.
+
+[197] Pintados, or Bisayas, according to a native word denoting
+the same, must be the inhabitants of the islands between Luzon and
+Mindanao, and must have been so named by the Spaniards from their
+practice of tattooing themselves. Crawfurd ("Dict." 339) thinks these
+facts not firmly established, and they are certainly not mentioned
+by Pigafetta; who, however, writes, p. 80:--"He (the king of Zubut)
+was ... painted in various ways with fire." Purchas ("Pilgrimage,"
+fo. i. 603)--"The king of Zubut has his skinne painted with a hot
+iron pensill;" and Morga, fo. 4--"Traen todo il cuerpo labrado con
+fuego." From this they appear to have tattooed themselves in the manner
+of the Papuas, by burning in spots and stripes into the skin. But
+Morga states in another place (f. 138)--"They are distinguished
+from the inhabitants of Luzon by their hair which the men cut into
+a pigtail after the old Spanish manner, and paint their bodies in
+many patterns, without touching the face." The custom of tattooing,
+which appears to have ceased with the introduction of Christianity,
+for the clergymen so often quoted (Thevenot, p. 4) describes it as
+unknown, cannot be regarded as a characteristic of the Bisayans;
+and the tribes of the northern part of Luzon tattoo at the present day.
+
+[198] Mezzeria (Italian); métayer (French).
+
+[199] In China an oil is procured from the seeds of vernicia montana,
+which, by the addition of alum, litharge, and steatite, with a gentle
+heat, easily forms a valuable varnish which, when mixed with resin, is
+employed in rendering the bottoms of vessels watertight. P. Champion,
+Indust. Anc. et Mod. de l'Emp. Chinois." 114.
+
+[200] Petzholdt ("Caucasus," i. 203) mentions that in Bosslewi the
+price of a clay vessel is determined by its capacity of maize.
+
+[201] As usual these abuses spring from the non-enforcement of a
+statute passed in 1848 (Leg. ult., i. 144), which prohibits usurious
+conracts with servants or assistants, and threatens with heavy
+penalties all those whom, under the pretext of having advanced money,
+or of having paid debts or the poll-tax or exemption from service,
+keep either individual natives or whole families in a continual
+state of dependence upon them, and always secure the increase of
+their obligations to them by not allowing them wages sufficient to
+enable them to satisfy the claims against them.
+
+[202] Formerly it appears to have been different with them. "These
+Bisayans are a people little disposed to agriculture, but practised
+in navigation, and eager for war and expeditions by sea, on account
+of the pillage and prizes, which they call 'mangubas,' which is the
+same as taking to the field in order to steal."--Morga, f. 138.
+
+[203] Ill-usage prevails to a great extent, although prohibited
+by a stringent law; the non-enforcement of which by the alcaldes
+is charged with a penalty of 100 dollars for every single case of
+neglect. In many provinces the bridegroom pays to the bride's mother,
+besides the dower, an indemnity for the rearing ("mother's milk")
+which the bride has enjoyed (bigay susu). According to Colin ("Labor
+Evangelico," p. 129) the penhimuyal, the present which the mother
+received for night-watching and care during the bringing up of the
+bride, amounted to one-fifth of the dowry.
+
+[204] The Asuang is the ghoul of the Arabian Nights' tales.--C.
+
+[205] Veritable cannibals are not mentioned by the older authors on
+the Philippines. Pigafetta (p. 127) heard that a people lived on a
+river at Cape Benuian (north of Mindanao) who ate only the hearts
+of their captured enemies, along with lemon-juice; and Dr. Semper
+("Philippines,") in '62 found the same custom, with the exception of
+the lemon-juice, on the east coast of Mindanao.
+
+[206] The Anito occurs amongst the tribes of the Malayan Archipelago
+as Antu, but the Anito of the Philippines is essentially a protecting
+spirit, while the Malayan Antu is rather of a demoniacal kind.
+
+[207] These idol images have never come under my observation. Those
+figured in Bastian and Hartmann's Journal of Ethnology
+(b. i. pl. viii. Idols from the Philippines,) whose originals are in
+the Ethnographical Museum of Berlin, were certainly acquired in the
+Philippines, but, according to A. W. Franks, undoubtedly belong to
+the Solomon Islands. Sections ii. to viii., p. 46, in the catalogue
+of the Museum at Prague are entitled:--"Four heads of idols, made of
+wood, from the Philippines, contributed by the Bohemian naturalist
+Thaddaeus Haenke, who was commissioned by the King of Spain, in the
+year 1817, to travel in the islands of the South Sea." The photographs,
+which were obligingly sent here at my request by the direction of the
+museum, do not entirely correspond to the above description, pointing
+rather to the west coast of America, the principal field of Haenke's
+researches. The Reliquiae Botanicae, from his posthumous papers,
+likewise afford no information respecting the origin of these idols.
+
+[208] On the Island of Panay.
+
+[209] As an example, in anticipation of an attack on Cogseng, all
+the available forces, including those of Zamboanga, were collected
+round Manila, and the Moros attacked the island with sixty ships,
+whereas formerly their armaments used not to exceed six or eight
+ships. Torrubia, p. 363.
+
+[210] Hakluyt Morga, Append. 360.
+
+[211] According to the Mineral Review, Madrid, 1866, xvii. 244,
+the coal from the mountain of Alpacó, in the district of Naga, in
+Cebu, is dry, pure, almost free of sulphur pyrites, burns easily,
+and with a strong flame. In the experiments made at the laboratory
+of the School of Mines in Madrid it yielded four per cent. of ashes,
+and a heating power of 4,825 caloria; i.e., by the burning of one
+part by weight 4,825 parts by weight of water were heated to 1°
+C. Good pit-coal gives 6,000 cal. The first coal pits in Cebu were
+excavated in the Massanga valley; but the works were discontinued in
+1859, after considerable outlay had been made on them. Four strata of
+considerable thickness were subsequently discovered in the valley of
+Alpacó and in the mountain of Oling, in Naga. * * "The coal of Cebu
+is acknowledged to be better than that of Australia and Labuan, but
+has not sufficient heating power to be used, unmixed with other coal,
+on long sea voyages."
+
+According to the Catalogue of the Products of the Philippines (Manila,
+1866), the coal strata of Cebu have, at many places in the mountain
+range which runs from north to south across the whole of the island,
+an average thickness of two miles. The coal is of middling quality,
+and is burnt in the Government steam works after being mixed with
+Cardiff coal. The price in Cebu is on the average six dollars per ton.
+
+[212] English Consular Report, 217.
+
+[213] The man credited with the development of the sugar industry
+through machinery. A monument has been erected to his memory.--T.
+
+[214] In Jaro the leases have increased threefold in six years:
+and cattle which were worth $10 in 1860, fetched $25 in 1866. Plots
+of land on the "Ria," in Iloilo, have risen from $100 to $500, and
+even as high as $800. (Diario, February 1867). These results are
+to be ascribed to the sugar trade, which, through free exportation,
+has become extremely lucrative.
+
+[215] In 1855 Iloilo took altogether from Negros 3,000 piculs out of
+11,700; in 1860 as much as 90,000 piculs; in 1863, 176,000 piculs
+(in twenty-seven foreign ships); in 1866, 250,000 piculs; in 1871,
+312,379 picula from both islands.
+
+[216] The sugar intended for the English market cost in Manila,
+in the years 1868 and 1869, from £15 to £16 per ton, and fetched in
+London about £20 per ton. The best refined sugar prepared in Manila
+for Australia was, on account of the higher duty, worth only £3 per
+ton more in London; but, being £5 dearer than the inferior quality,
+it commanded a premium of £2. Manila exports the sugar chiefly from
+Pangasinan, Pampanga, and Laguna.--(From private information.)
+
+[217] The Islands of the East Indian Archipelago, 1868, p. 340.
+
+[218] Exhibition Catalogue; section, French Colonies, 1867, p. 80.
+
+[219] Report of the Commissioners, Exhibition 1867, iv. 102. The South
+American Indians have for a long time past employed the banana fiber
+in the manufacture of clothing material;--(The Technologist, September,
+1865, p. 89, from unauthenticated sources,) and in Loo Choo the banana
+fiber is the only kind in use (Faits Commerciaux, No. 1514. p. 36).
+
+[220] Abacá not readily taking tar is, consequently, only used for
+running, and not standing, rigging.
+
+[221] A plant in full growth produces annually 30 cwt. bandala to the
+acre, whereas from an acre of flax not more than from 2 to 4 cwt. of
+pure flax, and from 2 to 8 cwt. seed can be obtained.
+
+[222] As Dr. Wittmack communicated to me, only fiber or seed can
+be obtained from hemp, as when the hemp is ripe, i.e. run to seed,
+the fiber becomes then both brittle and coarse. When cultivating flax
+very often both seeds and fiber are used, but then they both are of
+inferior quality.
+
+[223] Flora de Filipinas.
+
+[224] In 1868, £100 per ton was paid for lupis, although only imported
+in small quantities--about five tons per annum--and principally used
+at one time in France in the manufacture of a particular kind of
+underclothing. The fashion soon, however, died out. Quitol, a less
+valuable sort of lupis, could be sold at £75 per ton.
+
+[225] Inflexibility is peculiar to all fibers of the Monocotyledons,
+because they consist of coarsely rounded cells. On the other hand,
+the true bast fibers--the Dicotyledons (flax, for instance)--are
+the reverse.
+
+[226] Through the agricultural system, also, the mestizos and natives
+secure the work of their countrymen by making these advances, and
+renewing them before the old ones are paid off. These thoughtless
+people consequently fall deeper and deeper into debt, and become
+virtually the peons of their creditors, it being impossible for them
+to escape in any way from their position. The "part-share contract" is
+much the same in its operative effects, the landlord having to supply
+the farmer with agricultural implements and draught-cattle, and often
+in addition supplying the whole family with clothing and provisions;
+and, on division of the earnings, the farmer is unable to cover his
+debt. It is true the Filipinos are responsible legally to the extent
+of five dollars only, a special enactment prohibiting these usurious
+bargains. As a matter of fact, however, they are generally practised.
+
+[227] This feeling of jealousy had very nearly the effect of closing
+the new harbors immediately after they were opened.
+
+[228] Rapport Consulaire Belge, XIV., 68.
+
+[229] In the Agricultural Report of 1869, p. 232, another fiber was
+highly mentioned, belonging to a plant very closely related to sisal
+(Bromelia Sylvestris), perhaps even a variety of the same. The Mexican
+name, jxtle, is possibly derived from the fact of their curiously
+flattened, spike-edged leaves, resembling the dentated knives formed
+from volcanic stone (obsidian) possessed by the Aztecs and termed by
+them iztli.
+
+[230] The banana trees are well known to be among the most valuable
+of plants to mankind. In their unripe state they afford starch-flour;
+and when mature, they supply an agreeable and nutritious fruit, which,
+although partaken of freely, will produce neither unpleasantness nor
+any injurious after-effects. One of the best of the edible species
+bears fruit as early as five or six months after being planted,
+suckers in the meantime constantly sprouting from the roots, so that
+continual fruit-bearing is going on, the labor of the growers merely
+being confined to the occasional cutting down of the old plants and
+to gathering in the fruit. The broad leaves afford to other young
+plants the shade which is so requisite in tropical countries, and are
+employed in many useful ways about the house. Many a hut, too, has to
+thank the banana trees surrounding it from the conflagration, which,
+generally speaking, lays the village in ashes. I should here like to
+make an observation upon a mistake which has spread rather widely. In
+Bishop Pallegoix's excellent work, Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam,
+I*. 144, he says: "L'arbre a vernis qui est une espece de bananier,
+et que les Siamois appellent 'rak,' fournit ce beau vernis qu'on admire
+dans les petits meubles qu'on apporte de Chine." When I was in Bangkok,
+I called the attention of the amiable white-haired, and at that time
+nearly nonogenarian, bishop to this curious statement. Shaking his
+head, he said he could not have written it. I showed him the very
+passage. "Ma foi, j'ai dit une betise; j'en ai dit bien d'autres,"
+whispered he in my ear, holding up his hand as if afraid somebody
+might overhear him.
+
+[231] In 1862, English took from Spain 156 tons; 1863, 18,074 tons;
+1866, 66,913 tons; 1868, 95,000 tons; and the import of rags fell
+from 24,000 tons in 1866 to 17,000 tons in 1668. In Algiers a large
+quantity of sparto (Alfa) grows but the cost of transport is too
+expensive to admit of sending it to France.
+
+[232] The British Consul estimates the receipts from this monopoly for
+the year 1866-7 at $8,418,939, after an expenditure of $4,519,866;
+thus leaving a clear profit of $3,899,073. In the colonial budget
+for 1867 the profit on tobacco was estimated at $2,627,976, while
+the total expenditure of the colony, after deduction of the expenses
+occasioned by the tobacco management, was set down at $7,033,576.
+
+According to the official tables of the chief of the Administration
+in Manila, 1871, the total annual revenue derived from the tobacco
+management between the years 1865 and 1869 amounted, on an average,
+to $5,367,262. By reason of proper accounts being wanting an accurate
+estimate of the expenditure cannot be delivered; but it would be at
+least $4,000,000, so that a profit of only $1,367,262 remains.
+
+[233] Instruccion general para la Direccion, Administracion, y
+Intervencion de las Rentas Estancadas, 1849.
+
+[234] Memoria sobre el Desestanco del Tabaco en las Islas
+Filipinas. Don J. S. Agius, Binondo (Manila), 1871.
+
+[235] The tobacco in China appears to have come from the
+Philippines. "The memoranda discovered in Wang-tao leave no possible
+doubt that it was first introduced into South China from the Philippine
+Islands in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, most probably by
+way of Japan."--(Notes and Queries, China and Japan, May 31st, 1857.)
+
+From Schlegel, in Batavia, it was brought by the Portuguese into
+Japan somewhere between the years 1573 and 1591, and spread itself
+so rapidly in China that we find even as early as 1538, that the sale
+of it was forbidden under penalty of beheading.
+
+According to Notes and Queries, China and Japan, July 31, 1857,
+the use of tobacco was quite common in the "Manchu" army. In a
+Chinese work, Natural History Miscellany, it is written: "Yen t'sao
+(literally smoke plant) was introduced into Fukien about the end of the
+Wan-li Government, between 1573 and 1620, and was known as Tan-pa-ku
+(from Tombaku)."
+
+[236] West Cuba produces the best tobacco, the famous Vuelta abajo,
+400,000 cwt. at from $14.28 to $99,96 the cwt.; picked sorts being
+valued at from $571.20 to $714.00 per cwt. Cuba produces 640,000
+cwt. The cigars exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of 1867 were worth
+from $24.99 to $405.98 per thousand. The number of cigars annually
+exported is estimated at about 5,000,000. (Jury Report, v., 375.) In
+Jenidje-Karasu (Salonica) 17,500 cwt. are obtained annually, of
+which 2,500 cwt. are of the first quality; the cost is $1.75 the oka
+(about .75 per lb.). Picked sorts are worth 15s. per lb., and even
+more.--Saladin Bey, La Turquie a l'Exposition, p. 91.
+
+[237] In Cuba the tobacco industry is entirely free. The extraordinary
+increase of the trade and the improved quality of the tobacco are,
+in great measure, to be ascribed to the honest competition existing
+between the factories, who receive no other protection from the
+Government than a recognition of their operations. --(Jury Report,
+1867, v., 375.)
+
+[238] Basco also introduced the cultivation of silk, and had 4,500,000
+mulberry trees planted in the Camarines. This industry, immediately
+upon his retirement, was allowed to fall into decay.
+
+[239] According to La Pérouse, this measure occasioned a revolt
+in all parts of the island, which had to be suppressed by force of
+arms. In the same manner the monopoly introduced into America at the
+same time brought about a dangerous insurrection, and was the means
+of reducing Venezuela to a state of extreme poverty, and, in fact,
+was the cause of the subsequent downfall of the colony.
+
+[240] A fardo (pack) contains 40 manos (bundles); 1 mano=10 manojitos,
+1 manojito =10 leaves. Regulations, § 7.
+
+[241] Regulations for the tobacco collection agencies in
+Luzon.--1st. Four classes of Tobacco will be purchased. 2nd. These
+classes are thus specified: the first to consist or leaves at
+least 18 inches long (0m 418;) the second of leaves between 14 and
+18 inches (0m 325); the third of leaves between 10 and 14 inches
+(0m 232); and the fourth of leaves at least 7 inches in length (0m
+163). Smaller leaves will not be accepted. This last limitation,
+however, has recently been abandoned so that the quality of the
+tobacco is continually deprecinting in the hands of the Government,
+who have added two other classes.
+
+A fardo, 1st class, weighs 60 lbs., and in 1867 the Government rate
+of pay was as follows:--
+
+    1 Fardo, 1st class, 60 lbs $9.50
+    1 Fardo, 2nd class, 46 lbs 6.00
+    1 Fardo, 3rd class, 33 lbs 2.75
+    1 Fardo, 4th class, 18 lbs 1.00
+
+--English Consular Report.
+
+The following table gives the different brands of cigars manufactured
+by the Government, and the prices at which they could be bought in
+1867 in Estanco (i.e. a place privileged for the sale):--
+
+
+Menas (Classes.)    Corresponding   Price       Price       Price       Number
+of
+                    Havana Brands.  Per arroba  Per 1000.   Per cigar.  cigars
+in
+                                    [33 lbs.].                          an
+arroba.
+                                    Dols.       Dols.       Cents.
+
+Imperiales.         The same.       37.50       30.00       4           ..
+Prima Veguéro.      Do.             37.50       30.00       4           ..
+Segunda Veguéro.    Regalia.        ..          26.00       ..          ..
+Prima superiór
+Filipino.           Do.             ..          26.00       ..          ..
+2.a Superiór
+Filipino.           None.           38.00       19.00       3           ..
+3.a Superiór
+Filipino.           Londres         ..          15.10       ..          ..
+Prima Filipino.     Superior
+                    Habano.         21.00       15.00       2           1400
+Segunda Superior.   Segunda
+                    superior
+                    Habano.         24.00       8.57 1/8    1           2800
+Prima Cortado.      The Same.       21.00       15.00       2           1400
+Segunda Cortado.    Do.             24.00       8.57 1/8    1           2800
+Mista               Segunda Batído. 20.50       ..          ..          ..
+Prima Batido,
+larga.              None.           18.75       ..          1           1800
+Segunda Batido,
+largo.              None.           18.75       ..          1/2         3750
+
+
+[242] On an average 407,500,000 cigars and 1,041,000 lbs. raw tobacco
+are exported annually, the weight of which together is about 56,000
+cwt. after deducting what is given away in the form of gratuities.
+
+[243] The poor peasant being brought into this situation finds it
+very hard to maintain his family. He is compelled to borrow money at
+an exorbitant rate of interest, and, consequently, sinks deeper and
+deeper into debt and misery. The dread of fines or bodily punishment,
+rather than the prospect of high prices, is the chief method by which
+the supplies can be kept up.--(Report of the English Consul.)
+
+[244] From December 1853 to November 1854 the colony possessed four
+captains-general (two effective and two provisional). In 1850 a new
+nominee, Oidor (member of the Supreme Court of Judicature) who with
+his family voyaged to Manila by the Cape, found, upon his arrival,
+his successor already in office, the latter having travelled by way
+of Suez. Such circumstances need not occasion surprise when it is
+remembered how such operations are repeated in Spain itself.
+
+According to an essay in the Revue Nationale, April, 1867, Spain
+has had, from 1834 to 1862, i.e. since the accession of Isabella,
+4 Constitutions, 28 Parliaments, 47 Chief Ministers, 529 Cabinet
+Ministers, and 68 Ministers of the Interior; of which last class of
+officials each, on an average, was in power only six months. For ten
+years past the Minister of Finance has not remained in office longer
+than two months; and since that time, particularly since 1868, the
+changes have followed one another with still greater rapidity.
+
+[245] The reason of this premiun on silver was, that the Chinese bought
+up all the Spanish and Mexican dollars, in order to send them to China,
+where they are worth more than other dollars, being known from the
+voyage of the galleon thither in olden times, and being current in
+the inland provinces. (The highest price there can be obtained for
+a Carlos III.)
+
+A mint erected in Manila since that time, which at least supports
+itself, if the goverment has derived no other advantage from it, has
+removed this difficulty. The Chinese are accustomed to bring gold
+and silver as currency, mixed also with foreign coinage, to Manila
+for the purpose of buying the produce of the country; and all this the
+native merchants had recoined. At first only silver ounces were usually
+obtainable in Manila, gold ounces very rarely. This occasioned such a
+steady importation that the conditions were completely reversed. In
+the Insular Treasury the gold and silver dollar are always reckoned
+at the same value.
+
+[246] The Chinese were generally known in the Philippines as
+"Sangleys"; according to Professor Schott, "sang-lui (in the south
+szang-loi, also senng-loi) mercatorum ordo." "Sang" is more specially
+applied to the travelling traders, in opposition to "ku," tabernarii.
+
+[247] ...... "They are a wicked and vicious people, and, owing to
+their numbers, and to their being such large eaters, they consume
+the provisions and render them dear ......It is true the town cannot
+exist without the Chinese, as they are the workers in all the trades
+and business, and very industrious, and work for small wages; but
+for that very reason a lesser number of them would be sufficient."--
+Morga, p. 349.
+
+[248] "Recopilacion," Lib. iv., Tit. xviii., ley. 1.
+
+[249] "Informe," I., iii., 73.
+
+[250] The Chinese were not permitted to live in the town, but in a
+district specially set apart for them.
+
+[251] Velarde, 274.
+
+[252] See following chapter.
+
+[253] Zuñiga, xvi.
+
+[254] No single people in Europe can in any way compare with the
+inhabitants of California, which, in the early years of its existence,
+was composed only of men in the prime of their strength and activity,
+without aged people, without women, and without children. Their
+activity, in a country where everything had to be provided (no
+civilised neighbors living within some hundred miles or so), and
+where all provisions were to be obtained only at a fabulous cost,
+was stimulated to the highest pitch. Without here going into the
+particulars of their history, it need only be remembered that they
+founded, in twenty-five years, a powerful State, the fame of which has
+spread all over the world, and around whose borders young territories
+have sprung into existence and flourished vigorously; two of them
+indeed having attained to the condition of independent States. After
+the Californian gold-diggers had changed the configuration of the
+ground of entire provinces by having, with Titanic might, deposited
+masses of earth into the sea until they expanded into hilly districts,
+so as to obtain therefrom, with the aid of ingenious machinery, the
+smallest particle of gold which was contained therein, they have
+astonished the world in their capacity of agriculturalists, whose
+produce is sent even to the most distant markets, and everywhere takes
+the first rank without dispute. Such mighty results have been achieved
+by a people whose total number scarcely, indeed, exceeds 500,000; and
+therefore, perhaps, they may not find it an easy matter to withstand
+the competition of the Chinese.
+
+[255] The rails, if laid in one continuous line, would measure about
+103,000 feet, the weight of them being 20,000 cwt. Eight Chinamen were
+engaged in the work, relieving one another by fours. These men were
+chosen to perform this feat on account of their particular activity,
+out of 10,000.
+
+(The translator of the 1875 London edition notes: "This statement is
+incorrect, so far as the fact of the feat being accomplished by Chinese
+is concerned. Eight Europeans were engaged in this extraordinary
+piece of work. During the rejoicings which took place in Sacramento
+upon the opening of the line, these men were paraded in a van, with
+the account of their splendid achievement painted in large letters
+on the outside. Certainly not one of them was a Chinaman."--C.
+
+[256] Magellan fell on April 27, struck by a poisoned arrow, on
+the small island of Mactan, lying opposite the harbor of Cebu. His
+lieutenant, Sebastian de Elcano, doubled the Cape of Good Hope,
+and on September 6, 1522, brought back one of the five ships with
+which Magellan set sail from St. Lucar in 1519, and eighteen men,
+with Pigafetta, to the same harbor, and thus accomplished the first
+voyage round the world in three years and fourteen days.
+
+[257] 1565 is the date for what is now the Philippines.--C.
+
+[258] Villalobos gave this name to one of the Southern islands and
+Legaspi extended it to the entire archipelago.--C.
+
+[259] "According to recent authors they were also named after
+Villalobos in 1543.--Morga, p. 5.
+
+[260] According to Morga (p. 140) there was neither king nor governor,
+but in each island and province were numerous persons of rank, whose
+dependants and subjects were divided into quarters (barrios) and
+families. These petty rulers had to render homage by means of tributes
+from the crops (buiz), also by socage or personal service: but their
+relations were exempted from such services as were rendered by the
+plebeians (timauas). The dignities of the chieftains were hereditary,
+their honors descended also to their wives. If a chief particularly
+distinguished himself, then the rest followed him; but the Government
+retained to themselves the administration of the Barangays through
+their own particular officials. Concerning the system of slavery
+under the native rule, Morga says (p. 41, abbreviated),--"The natives
+of these islands are divided into three classes--nobles, timauas or
+plebeians, and the slaves of the former. There are different sorts
+of slaves: some in complete slavery (Saguiguilires), who work in
+the house, as also their children. Others live with their families
+in their own houses and render service to their lords at sowing and
+harvest-time, also as boatmen, or in the construction of houses,
+etc. They must attend as often as they are required, and give their
+services without pay or recompense of any kind. They are called
+Namarnahayes; and their duties and obligations descend to their
+children and successors. Of these Saguiguilires and Namamahayes a
+few are full slaves, some half slaves, and others quarter slaves.
+
+When, for instance, the mother or father was free, the only son
+would be half free, half slave. Supposing there were several sons,
+the first one inherits the father's position, the second that of the
+mother. When the number is unequal the last one is half free and half
+slave; and the descendants born of such half slayes and those who are
+free are quarter slaves. The half slaves, whether or narnamahayes,
+serve their lords equally every month in turns. Half and quarter slaves
+can, by reason of their being partially free, compel their lord to
+give them their freedom at a previously determined and unfluctuating
+price: but full slaves do not possess this right. A namamahaye is
+worth half as much as a saguiguilire. All slaves are natives."
+
+Again, at p. 143, he writes:--"A slave who has children by her lord
+is thereby freed together with her children. The latter, however,
+are not considered well born, and cannot inherit property; nor do the
+rights of nobility, supposing in such a case the father to possess any,
+descend to them."
+
+[261] He made the Filipinos of his encomienda of Vigan his heirs,
+and has ever been held in grateful memory.--C.
+
+[262] Grav. 30.
+
+[263] Chamisso ("Observations and Views," p. 72), thanks to the
+translator of Zuñiga, knew that he was in duty bound to dwell at
+some length over this excellent history; though Zuñiga's narrative
+is always, comparatively speaking, short and to the point. The
+judiciously abbreviated English translation, however, contains many
+miscomprehensions.
+
+[264] Principally by hiring the assassination of the gifted native
+leader, Silang.--C.
+
+[265] Danger to Europeans, "Massacre of all white people," was a
+frequent Spanish allegation in political disturbances, but the only
+proof ever given (the 9th degree Masonic apron stupidly attributed
+to the Katipunan in 1896) was absurd and irrelevant.--C.
+
+[266] Professor Jagor here follows the report sent out by the
+authorities. There seems better ground for believing the affair to
+have been merely a military mutiny over restricting rights which
+was made a pretext for getting rid of those whose liberal views were
+objectionable to the government.--C.
+
+[267] I take the liberty, here, of citing an instance of this. In 1861,
+when I found myself on the West Coast of Mexico, a dozen backwoods
+families determined upon settling in Sonora (forming an oasis in
+the desert); a plan which was frustrated by the invasion at that
+time of the European powers. Many native farmers awaited the arrival
+of these immigrants in order to settle under their protection. The
+value of land in consequence of the announcement of the project rose
+very considerably.
+
+[268] It is called so in consequence of the island being nearly
+divided in the parallel of 14° N., by two bays.
+
+[269] Since my return home, at the desire of that distinguished
+agriculturist, Colonel Austin, of South Carolina, I have sent for
+some samples of the different kinds, and under his care it will no
+doubt be well treated.
+
+[270] On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by
+a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge
+of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had
+not reported to him the fact.
+
+[271] Chewing the betelnut and pepper-leaf also produces this effect,
+and is carried to a great extent among these islanders.
+
+[272] The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels,
+had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade,
+and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.
+
+[273] This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on
+the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of
+freebooters reside.
+
+[274] From the History of a Voyage of the China Sea, by John White.
+
+[275] P. 115.
+
+[276] Pp. 116-119.
+
+[277] P. 121.
+
+[278] Pp. 125-128.
+
+[279] Pp. 137-138.
+
+[280] Pp. 143-144.
+
+[281] Pp. 144-146.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Former Philippines thru Foreign
+Eyes, by Tomás de Comyn and Fedor Jagor and Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow and Charles Wilkes
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10770 ***