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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10657-0.txt b/10657-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd453c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/10657-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15356 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10657 *** + +[Transcriber's Note: + +Typographical errors in the original have been corrected and noted +using the notation ** . + +Macrons, breves, umlauts etc have been removed from the body of the text +since they were very obtrusive and made reading difficult. However, they +are retained in the Index for reference. + +The convention used for these marks is: +Macron (straight line over letter) [=x] +Umlaut (2 dots over letter) [:x] +Grave accent [`x] +Acute accent ['x] +Circumflex [^x] +Breve (u-shaped symbol over letter) [)x] +Cedilla [,x] +] + + * * * * * + + + + +EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY + +EDITED BY ERNEST RHYS + + +CLASSICAL + + + +CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES + +TRANSLATED BY W. A. MACDEVITT + +WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY + +THOMAS DE QUINCEY + + +THIS IS NO. 702 OF _EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY_. THE PUBLISHERS WILL BE PLEASED +TO SEND FREELY TO ALL APPLICANTS A LIST OF THE PUBLISHED AND PROJECTED +VOLUMES ARRANGED UNDER THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: + + * * * * * + +TRAVEL--SCIENCE--FICTION + +THEOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY + +HISTORY--CLASSICAL + +FOR YOUNG PEOPLE + +ESSAYS--ORATORY + +POETRY & DRAMA + +BIOGRAPHY + +REFERENCE + +ROMANCE + + * * * * * + +THE ORDINARY EDITION IS BOUND IN CLOTH WITH GILT DESIGN AND COLOURED +TOP. THERE IS ALSO A LIBRARY EDITION IN REINFORCED CLOTH + + + + +THE SAGES OF OLD LIVE AGAIN IN US + +GLANVILL + + + + + +"DE BELLO GALLICO" & OTHER COMMENTARIES: +OF CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR + + +FIRST PUBLISHED IN THIS EDITION, 1915 +REPRINTED 1923, 1929 + + + +INTRODUCTION + +BY THOMAS DE QUINCEY + +The character of the First Caesar has perhaps never been worse +appreciated than by him who in one sense described it best; that is, +with most force and eloquence wherever he really _did_ comprehend it. +This was Lucan, who has nowhere exhibited more brilliant rhetoric, nor +wandered more from the truth, than in the contrasted portraits of Caesar +and Pompey. The famous line, _"Nil actum reputans si quid superesset +agendum,"_ is a fine feature of the real character, finely expressed. +But, if it had been Lucan's purpose (as possibly, with a view to +Pompey's benefit, in some respects it was) utterly and extravagantly to +falsify the character of the great Dictator, by no single trait could he +more effectually have fulfilled that purpose, nor in fewer words, than +by this expressive passage, _"Gaudensque viam fecisse ruina."_ Such a +trait would be almost extravagant applied even to Marius, who (though in +many respects a perfect model of Roman grandeur, massy, columnar, +imperturbable, and more perhaps than any one man recorded in History +capable of justifying the bold illustration of that character in Horace, +"_Si fractus illabatur orbis, impavidum ferient ruinae_") had, however, +a ferocity in his character, and a touch of the devil in him, very +rarely united with the same tranquil intrepidity. But, for Caesar, the +all-accomplished statesman, the splendid orator, the man of elegant +habits and polished taste, the patron of the fine arts in a degree +transcending all example of his own or the previous age, and as a man of +general literature so much beyond his contemporaries, except Cicero, +that he looked down even upon the brilliant Sylla as an illiterate +person--to class such a man with the race of furious destroyers exulting +in the desolations they spread is to err not by an individual trait, but +by the whole genus. The Attilas and the Tamerlanes, who rejoice in +avowing themselves the scourges of God, and the special instruments of +his wrath, have no one feature of affinity to the polished and humane +Caesar, and would as little have comprehended his character as he could +have respected theirs. Even Cato, the unworthy hero of Lucan, might have +suggested to him a little more truth in this instance, by a celebrated +remark which he made on the characteristic distinction of Caesar, in +comparison with other revolutionary disturbers; for, said he, whereas +others had attempted the overthrow of the state in a continued paroxysm +of fury, and in a state of mind resembling the lunacy of intoxication, +Caesar, on the contrary, among that whole class of civil disturbers, was +the only one who had come to the task in a temper of sobriety and +moderation _(unum accessisse sobrium ad rempublicam delendam)_.... + +Great as Caesar was by the benefit of his original nature, there can be +no doubt that he, like others, owed something to circumstances; and +perhaps amongst those which were most favourable to the premature +development of great self-dependence we must reckon the early death of +his father. It is, or it is not, according to the nature of men, an +advantage to be orphaned at as early age. Perhaps utter orphanage is +rarely or never such: but to lose a father betimes may, under +appropriate circumstances, profit a strong mind greatly. To Caesar it +was a prodigious benefit that he lost his father when not much more than +fifteen. Perhaps it was an advantage also to his father that he died +thus early. Had he stayed a year longer, he might have seen himself +despised, baffled, and made ridiculous. For where, let us ask, in any +age, was the father capable of adequately sustaining that relation to +the unique Caius Julius--to him, in the appropriate language of +Shakespeare + + "The foremost man of all this world?" + +And, in this fine and Caesarean line, "this world" is to be understood +not of the order of co-existences merely,` but also of the order of +successions; he was the foremost man not only of his contemporaries, but +also, within his own intellectual class, of men generally--of all that +ever should come after him, or should sit on thrones under the +denominations of Czars, Kesars, or Caesars of the Bosphorus and the +Danube; of all in every age that should inherit his supremacy of mind, +or should subject to themselves the generations of ordinary men by +qualities analogous to his. Of this infinite superiority some part must +be ascribed to his early emancipation from paternal control. There are +very many cases in which, simply from considerations of sex, a female +cannot stand forward as the head of a family, or as its suitable +representative. If they are even ladies paramount, and in situations of +command, they are also women. The staff of authority does not annihilate +their sex; and scruples of female delicacy interfere for ever to unnerve +and emasculate in their hands the sceptre however otherwise potent. +Hence we see, in noble families, the merest boys put forward to +represent the family dignity, as fitter supporters of that burden than +their mature mothers. And of Caesar's mother, though little is recorded, +and that little incidentally, this much at least we learn--that, if she +looked down upon him with maternal pride and delight, she looked up to +him with female ambition as the re-edifier of her husband's honours,-- +looked with reverence as to a column of the Roman grandeur and with fear +and feminine anxieties as to one whose aspiring spirit carried him but +too prematurely into the fields of adventurous strife. One slight and +evanescent sketch of the relations which subsisted between Caesar and +his mother, caught from the wrecks of time, is preserved both by +Plutarch and Suetonius. We see in the early dawn the young patrician +standing upon the steps of his patrimonial portico, his mother with her +arms wreathed about his neck, looking up to his noble countenance, +sometimes drawing auguries of hope from features so fitted for command, +sometimes boding an early blight to promises so dangerously magnificent. +That she had something of her son's aspiring character, or that he +presumed so much in a mother of his, we learn from the few words which +survive of their conversation. He addressed to her no language that +could tranquillise her fears. On the contrary, to any but a Roman mother +his valedictory words, taken in connexion with the known determination +of his character, were of a nature to consummate her depression, as they +tended to confirm the very worst of her fears. He was then going to +stand his chance in a popular electioneering contest for an office of +the highest dignity, and to launch himself upon the storms of the Campus +Martius. At that period, besides other and more ordinary dangers, the +bands of gladiators, kept in the pay of the more ambitious or turbulent +amongst the Roman nobles, gave a popular tone of ferocity and of +personal risk to the course of such contests; and, either to forestall +the victory of an antagonist, or to avenge their own defeat, it was not +at all impossible that a body of incensed competitors might intercept +his final triumph by assassination. For this danger, however, he had no +leisure in his thoughts of consolation; the sole danger which _he_ +contemplated, or supposed his mother to contemplate, was the danger of +defeat, and for that he reserved his consolations. He bade her fear +nothing; for that his determination was to return with victory, and with +the ensigns of the dignity he sought, or to return a corpse. + +Early indeed did Caesar's trials commence; and it is probable, that, had +not the death of his father, by throwing him prematurely upon his own +resources, prematurely developed the masculine features of his +character, forcing him whilst yet a boy under the discipline of civil +conflict and the yoke of practical life, even _his_ energies might have +been insufficient to sustain them. His age is not exactly ascertained; +but it is past a doubt that he had not reached his twentieth year when +he had the hardihood to engage in a struggle with Sylla, then Dictator, +and exercising the immoderate powers of that office with the licence and +the severity which History has made so memorable. He had neither any +distinct grounds of hope, nor any eminent example at that time, to +countenance him in this struggle--which yet he pushed on in the most +uncompromising style, and to the utmost verge of defiance. The subject +of the contest gives it a further interest. It was the youthful wife of +the youthful Caesar who stood under the shadow of the great Dictator's +displeasure; not personally, but politically, on account of her +connexions: and her it was, Cornelia, the daughter of a man who had been +four times consul, that Caesar was required to divorce: but he spurned +the haughty mandate, and carried his determination to a triumphant +issue, notwithstanding his life was at stake, and at one time saved only +by shifting his place of concealment every night; and this young lady it +was who afterwards became the mother of his only daughter. Both mother +and daughter, it is remarkable, perished prematurely, and at critical +periods of Caesar's life; for it is probable enough that these +irreparable wounds to Caesar's domestic affections threw him with more +exclusiveness of devotion upon the fascinations of glory and ambition +than might have happened under a happier condition of his private life. +That Caesar should have escaped destruction in this unequal contest with +an enemy then wielding the whole thunders of the state, is somewhat +surprising; and historians have sought their solution of the mystery in +the powerful intercessions of the vestal virgins, and several others of +high rank amongst the connexions of his great house. These may have done +something; but it is due to Sylla, who had a sympathy with everything +truly noble, to suppose him struck with powerful admiration for the +audacity of the young patrician, standing out in such severe solitude +among so many examples of timid concession; and that to this magnanimous +feeling in the Dictator much of the indulgence which he showed may have +been really due. In fact, according to some accounts, it was not Sylla, +but the creatures of Sylla (_adjutores_), who pursued Caesar. We know, +at all events, that Sylla formed a right estimate of Caesar's character, +and that, from the complexion of his conduct in this one instance, he +drew that famous prophecy of his future destiny; bidding his friends +beware of that slipshod boy, "for that in him lay couchant many a +Marius." A grander testimony to the awe which Caesar inspired, or from +one who knew better the qualities of that Cyclopean man by whose scale +he measured the patrician boy, cannot be imagined. + +It is not our intention, or consistent with our plan, to pursue this +great man through the whole circumstances of his romantic career; though +it is certain that many parts of his life require investigation much +keener than has ever been applied to them, and that many might be placed +in a new light. Indeed, the whole of this most momentous section of +ancient history ought to be recomposed with the critical scepticism of a +Niebuhr, and the same comprehensive collation, resting, if possible, on +the felicitous interpretation of authorities. In reality it is the hinge +upon which turned the future destiny of the whole earth, and, having +therefore a common relation to all modern nations whatsoever, should +naturally have been cultivated with the zeal which belongs to a personal +concern. In general, the anecdotes which express most vividly the +grandeur of character in the first Caesar are those which illustrate his +defiance of danger in extremity: the prodigious energy and rapidity of +his decisions and motions in the field (looking to which it was that +Cicero called him [Greek: teras] or portentous revelation); the skill +with which he penetrated the designs of his enemies, and the electric +speed with which he met disasters with remedy and reparation, or, where +that was impossible, with relief; the extraordinary presence of mind +which he showed in turning adverse omens to his own advantage, as when, +upon stumbling in coming on shore (which was esteemed a capital omen of +evil), he transfigured as it were in one instant its whole meaning by +exclaiming, "Thus, and by this contact with the earth, do I take +possession of thee, O Africa!" in that way giving to an accident the +semblance of a symbolic purpose. Equally conspicuous was the grandeur of +fortitude with which he faced the whole extent of a calamity when +palliation could do no good, "non negando, minuendove, sed insuper +amplificando, _ementiendoque_"; as when, upon finding his soldiery +alarmed at the approach of Juba, with forces really great, but +exaggerated by their terrors, he addressed them in a military harangue +to the following effect:--"Know that within a few days the king will +come up with us, bringing with him sixty thousand legionaries, thirty +thousand cavalry, one hundred thousand light troops, besides three +hundred elephants. Such being the case, let me hear no more of +conjectures and opinions, for you have now my warrant for the fact, +whose information is past doubting. Therefore, be satisfied; otherwise, +I will put every man of you on board some crazy old fleet, and whistle +you down the tide--no matter under what winds, no matter towards what +shore." Finally, we might seek for _characteristic_ anecdotes of Caesar +in his unexampled liberalities and contempt of money. + +Upon this last topic it is the just remark of Casaubon that some +instances of Caesar's munificence have been thought apocryphal, or to +rest upon false readings, simply from ignorance of the heroic scale upon +which the Roman splendours of that age proceeded. A forum which Caesar +built out of the products of his last campaign, by way of a present to +the Roman people, cost him--for the ground merely on which it stood-- +nearly eight hundred thousand pounds. To the citizens of Rome he +presented, in one _congiary_, about two guineas and a half a head. To +his army, in one _donation_, upon the termination of the Civil War, he +gave a sum which allowed about two hundred pounds a man to the infantry, +and four hundred to the cavalry. It is true that the legionary troops +were then much reduced by the sword of the enemy, and by the tremendous +hardships of their last campaigns. In this, however, he did perhaps no +more than repay a debt. For it is an instance of military attachment, +beyond all that Wallenstein or any commander, the most beloved amongst +his troops, has ever experienced, that, on the breaking out of the Civil +War, not only did the centurions of every legion severally maintain a +horse soldier, but even the privates volunteered to serve without pay, +and (what might seem impossible) without their daily rations. This was +accomplished by subscriptions amongst themselves, the more opulent +undertaking for the maintenance of the needy. Their disinterested love +for Caesar appeared in another and more difficult illustration: it was a +traditionary anecdote in Rome that the majority of those amongst +Caesar's troops who had the misfortune to fall into the enemy's hands +refused to accept their lives under the condition of serving against +_him_. + +In connexion with this subject of his extraordinary munificence, there +is one aspect of Caesar's life which has suffered much from the +misrepresentations of historians, and that is--the vast pecuniary +embarrassments under which he laboured, until the profits of war had +turned the scale even more prodigiously in his favour. At one time of +his life, when appointed to a foreign office, so numerous and so +clamorous were his creditors that he could not have left Rome on his +public duties had not Crassus come forward with assistance in money, or +by guarantees, to the amount of nearly two hundred thousand pounds. And +at another he was accustomed to amuse himself with computing how much +money it would require to make him worth exactly nothing (_i.e._ simply +to clear him of debts); this, by one account, amounted to upwards of two +millions sterling. Now, the error of historians has been to represent +these debts as the original ground of his ambition and his revolutionary +projects, as though the desperate condition of his private affairs had +suggested a civil war to his calculations as the best or only mode of +redressing it. Such a policy would have resembled the last desperate +resource of an unprincipled gambler, who, on seeing his final game at +chess, and the accumulated stakes depending upon it, all on the brink of +irretrievable sacrifice, dexterously upsets the chess-board, or +extinguishes the lights. But Julius, the one sole patriot of Rome, could +find no advantage to his plans in darkness or in confusion. Honestly +supported, he would have crushed the oligarchies of Rome by crushing in +its lairs that venal and hunger-bitten democracy which made oligarchy +and its machineries resistless. Caesar's debts, far from being +stimulants and exciting causes of his political ambition, stood in an +inverse relation to the ambition; they were its results, and represented +its natural costs, being contracted from first to last in the service of +his political intrigues, for raising and maintaining a powerful body of +partisans, both in Rome and elsewhere. Whosoever indeed will take the +trouble to investigate the progress of Caesar's ambition, from such +materials as even yet remain, may satisfy himself that the scheme of +revolutionizing the Republic, and placing himself at its head, was no +growth of accident or circumstances; above all, that it did not arise +upon any so petty and indirect a suggestion as that of his debts; but +that his debts were in their very first origin purely ministerial to his +wise, indispensable, and patriotic ambition; and that his revolutionary +plans were at all periods of his life a direct and foremost object, but +in no case bottomed upon casual impulses. In this there was not only +patriotism, but in fact the one sole mode of patriotism which could have +prospered, or could have found a field of action. + +Chatter not, sublime reader, commonplaces of scoundrel moralists against +ambition. In some cases ambition is a hopeful virtue; in others (as in +the Rome of our resplendent Julius) ambition was the virtue by which any +other could flourish. It had become evident to everybody that Rome, +under its present constitution, must fall; and the sole question was--by +whom? Even Pompey, not by nature of an aspiring turn, and prompted to +his ambitious course undoubtedly by circumstances and, the friends who +besieged him, was in the habit of saying, "Sylla potuit: ego non +potero?" _Sylla found it possible: shall I find it not so?_ Possible to +do what? To overthrow the political system of the Republic. This had +silently collapsed into an order of things so vicious, growing also so +hopelessly worse, that all honest patriots invoked a purifying +revolution, even though bought at the heavy price of a tyranny, rather +than face the chaos of murderous distractions to which the tide of feuds +and frenzies was violently tending. + +Such a revolution at such a price was not less Pompey's object than +Caesar's. In a case, therefore, where no benefit of choice was allowed +to Rome as respected the thing, but only as respected the person, Caesar +had the same right to enter the arena in the character of combatant as +could belong to any one of his rivals. And that he _did_ enter that +arena constructively, and by secret design, from his very earliest +manhood, may be gathered from this--that he suffered no openings towards +a revolution, provided they had any hope in them, to escape his +participation. It is familiarly known that he was engaged pretty deeply +in the conspiracy of Catiline, and that he incurred considerable risk on +that occasion; but it is less known that he was a party to at least two +other conspiracies. There was even a fourth, meditated by Crassus, which +Caesar so far encouraged as to undertake a journey to Rome from a very +distant quarter merely with a view to such chances as it might offer to +him; but, as it did not, upon examination, seem to him a very promising +scheme, he judged it best to look coldly upon it, or not to embark in it +by any personal co-operation. Upon these and other facts we build our +inference--that the scheme of a revolution was the one great purpose of +Caesar from his first entrance upon public life. Nor does it appear that +he cared much by whom it was undertaken, provided only there seemed to +be any sufficient resources for carrying it through, and for sustaining +the first collision with the regular forces of the existing oligarchies, +taking or _not_ taking the shape of triumvirates. He relied, it seems, +on his own personal superiority for raising him to the head of affairs +eventually, let who would take the nominal lead at first. + +To the same result, it will be found, tended the vast stream of Caesar's +liberalities. From the senator downwards to the lowest _faex Romuli_, he +had a hired body of dependents, both in and out of Rome, equal in +numbers to a nation. In the provinces, and in distant kingdoms, he +pursued the same schemes. Everywhere he had a body of mercenary +partisans; kings even are known to have taken his pay. And it is +remarkable that even in his character of commander-in-chief, where the +number of legions allowed to him for the accomplishment of his Gaulish +mission raised him for a number of years above all fear of coercion or +control, he persevered steadily in the same plan of providing for the +distant day when he might need assistance, not _from_ the state, but +_against_ the state. For, amongst the private anecdotes which came to +light under the researches made into his history after his death, was +this--that, soon after his first entrance upon his government in Gaul, +he had raised, equipped, disciplined, and maintained, from his own +private funds, a legion amounting, possibly, to six or seven thousand +men, who were bound to no sacrament of military obedience to the state, +nor owed fealty to any auspices except those of Caesar. This legion, +from the fashion of their crested helmets, which resembled the heads of +a small aspiring bird, received the popular name of the _Alauda_ (or +Lark) legion. And very singular it was that Cato, or Marcellus, or some +amongst those enemies of Caesar who watched his conduct during the +period of his Gaulish command with the vigilance of rancorous malice, +should not have come to the knowledge of this fact; in which case we may +be sure that it would have been denounced to the Senate. + +Such, then, for its purpose and its uniform motive, was the sagacious +munificence of Caesar. Apart from this motive, and considered in and for +itself, and simply with a reference to the splendid forms which it often +assumed, this munificence would furnish the materials for a volume. The +public entertainments of Caesar, his spectacles and shows, his +naumachiae, and the pomps of his unrivalled triumphs (the closing +triumphs of the Republic), were severally the finest of their kind which +had then been brought forward. Sea-fights were exhibited upon the +grandest scale, according to every known variety of nautical equipment +and mode of conflict, upon a vast lake formed artificially for that +express purpose. Mimic land-fights were conducted, in which all the +circumstances of real war were so faithfully rehearsed that even +elephants "indorsed with towers," twenty on each side, took part in the +combat. Dramas were represented in every known language (_per omnium +linguarum histriones_). And hence (that is, from the conciliatory +feeling thus expressed towards the various tribes of foreigners resident +in Rome) some have derived an explanation of what is else a mysterious +circumstance amongst the ceremonial observances at Caesar's funeral-- +that all people of foreign nations then residing at Rome distinguished +themselves by the conspicuous share which they took in the public +mourning; and that, beyond all other foreigners, the Jews for night +after night kept watch and ward about the Emperor's grave. Never before, +according to traditions which lasted through several generations in +Rome, had there been so vast a conflux of the human race congregated to +any one centre, on any one attraction of business or of pleasure, as to +Rome on occasion of these triumphal spectacles exhibited by Caesar. + +In our days, the greatest occasional gatherings of the human race are in +India, especially at the great fair of the _Hurdwar_ on the Ganges in +northern Hindustan: a confluence of some millions is sometimes seen at +that spot, brought together under the mixed influences of devotion and +commercial business, but very soon dispersed as rapidly as they had been +convoked. Some such spectacle of nations crowding upon nations, and some +such Babylonian confusion of dresses, complexions, languages, and +jargons, was then witnessed at Rome. Accommodations within doors, and +under roofs of houses, or roofs of temples, was altogether impossible. +Myriads encamped along the streets, and along the high-roads, fields, or +gardens. Myriads lay stretched on the ground, without even the slight +protection of tents, in a vast circuit about the city. Multitudes of +men, even senators, and others of the highest rank, were trampled to +death in the crowds. And the whole family of man might seem at that time +to be converged at the bidding of the dead Dictator. But these, or any +other themes connected with the public life of Caesar, we notice only in +those circumstances which have been overlooked, or partially +represented, by historians. Let us now, in conclusion, bring forward, +from the obscurity in which they have hitherto lurked, the anecdotes +which describe the habits of his private life, his tastes, and personal +peculiarities. + +In person, he was tall, fair, gracile, and of limbs distinguished for +their elegant proportions. His eyes were black and piercing. These +circumstances continued to be long remembered, and no doubt were +constantly recalled to the eyes of all persons in the imperial palaces +by pictures, busts, and statues; for we find the same description of his +personal appearance three centuries afterwards in a work of the Emperor +Julian's. He was a most accomplished horseman, and a master +(_peritissimus_) in the use of arms. But, notwithstanding his skill and +horsemanship, it seems that, when he accompanied his army on marches, he +walked oftener than he rode; no doubt, with a view to the benefit of his +example, and to express that sympathy with his soldiers which gained him +their hearts so entirely. On other occasions, when travelling apart from +his army, he seems more frequently to have ridden in a carriage than on +horseback. His purpose, in this preference, must have been with a view +to the transport of luggage. The carriage which he generally used was a +_rheda_, a sort of gig, or rather curricle; for it was a _four_-wheeled +carriage, and adapted (as we find from the imperial regulations for the +public carriages, etc.) to the conveyance of about half a ton. The mere +personal baggage which Caesar carried with him was probably +considerable; for he was a man of elegant habits, and in all parts of +his life sedulously attentive to elegance of personal appearance. The +length of journeys which he accomplished within a given time appears +even to us at this day, and might well therefore appear to his +contemporaries, truly astonishing. A distance of one hundred miles was +no extraordinary day's journey for him in a _rheda_, such as we have +described it. So refined were his habits, and so constant his demand for +the luxurious accommodations of polished life as it then existed in +Rome, that he is said to have carried with him, as indispensable parts +of his personal baggage, the little ivory lozenges, squares and circles +or ovals, with other costly materials, wanted for the tessellated +flooring of his tent. Habits such as these will easily account for his +travelling in a carriage rather than on horseback. + +The courtesy and obliging disposition of Caesar were notorious; and both +were illustrated in some anecdotes which survived for generations in +Rome. Dining on one occasion, as an invited guest, at a table where the +servants had inadvertently, for salad-oil, furnished some sort of coarse +lamp-oil, Caesar would not allow the rest of the company to point out +the mistake to their host, for fear of shocking him too much by exposing +what might have been construed into inhospitality. At another time, +whilst halting at a little _cabaret_, when one of his retinue was +suddenly taken ill, Caesar resigned to his use the sole bed which the +house afforded. Incidents as trifling as these express the urbanity of +Caesar's nature; and hence one is the more surprised to find the +alienation of the Senate charged, in no trifling degree, upon a gross +and most culpable failure in point of courtesy. Caesar, it is alleged-- +but might we presume to call upon antiquity for its authority?-- +neglected to rise from his seat, on their approaching him with an +address of congratulation. It is said, and we can believe it, that he +gave deeper offence by this one defect in a matter of ceremonial +observance than by all his substantial attacks upon their privileges. +What we find it difficult to believe is not that result from that +offence--this is no more than we should all anticipate--not _that_, but +the possibility of the offence itself, from one so little arrogant as +Caesar, and so entirely a man of the world. He was told of the disgust +which he had given; and we are bound to believe his apology, in which he +charged it upon sickness, that would not at the moment allow him to +maintain a standing attitude. Certainly the whole tenor of his life was +not courteous only, but kind, and to his enemies merciful in a degree +which implied so much more magnanimity than men in general could +understand that by many it was put down to the account of weakness. + +Weakness, however, there was none in Caius Caesar; and, that there might +be none, it was fortunate that conspiracy should have cut him off in the +full vigour of his faculties, in the very meridian of his glory, and on +the brink of completing a series of gigantic achievements. Amongst these +are numbered:--a digest of the entire body of laws, even then become +unwieldy and oppressive; the establishment of vast and comprehensive +public libraries, Greek as well as Latin; the chastisement of Dacia +(that needed a cow-hiding for insolence as much as Affghanistan from us +in 1840); the conquest of Parthia; and the cutting a ship canal through +the Isthmus of Corinth. The reformation of the Calendar he had already +accomplished. And of all his projects it may be said that they were +equally patriotic in their purpose and colossal in their proportions. + +As an orator, Caesar's merit was so eminent that, according to the +general belief, had he found time to cultivate this department of civil +exertion, the received supremacy of Cicero would have been made +questionable, or the honour would have been divided. Cicero himself was +of that opinion, and on different occasions applied the epithet +_splendidus_ to Caesar, as though in some exclusive sense, or with some +peculiar emphasis, due to him. His taste was much simpler, chaster, and +less inclined to the _florid_ and Asiatic, than that of Cicero. So far +he would, in that condition of the Roman culture and feeling, have been +less acceptable to the public; but, on the other hand, he would have +compensated this disadvantage by much more of natural and Demosthenic +fervour. + +In literature, the merits of Caesar are familiar to most readers. Under +the modest title of _Commentaries_, he meant to offer the records of his +Gallic and British campaigns, simply as notes, or memoranda, afterwards +to be worked up by regular historians; but, as Cicero observes, their +merit was such in the eyes of the discerning that all judicious writers +shrank from the attempt to alter them. In another instance of his +literary labours he showed a very just sense of true dignity. Rightly +conceiving that everything patriotic was dignified, and that to +illustrate or polish his native language was a service of real and +paramount patriotism, he composed a work on the grammar and orthoepy of +the Latin language. Cicero and himself were the only Romans of +distinction in that age who applied themselves with true patriotism to +the task of purifying and ennobling their mother tongue. Both were aware +of a transcendent value in the Grecian literature as it then stood; but +that splendour did not depress their hopes of raising their own to +something of the same level. As respected the natural wealth of the two +languages, it was the private opinion of Cicero that the Latin had the +advantage; and, if Caesar did not accompany him to that length--which, +perhaps, under some limitations he ought to have done--he yet felt that +it was but the more necessary to draw forth any special or exceptional +advantage which it really had. + +Was Caesar, upon the whole, the greatest of men? We restrict the +question, of course, to the classes of men great in _action_: great by +the extent of their influence over their social contemporaries; great by +throwing open avenues to extended powers that previously had been +closed; great by making obstacles once vast to become trivial, or prizes +that once were trivial to be glorified by expansion. I (said Augustus +Caesar) found Rome built of brick; but I left it built of marble. Well, +my man, we reply, for a wondrously little chap, you did what in +Westmoreland they call a good _darroch_ (day's work); and, if _navvies_ +had been wanted in those days, you should have had our vote to a +certainty. But Caius Julius, even under such a limitation of the +comparison, did a thing as much transcending this as it was greater to +project Rome across the Alps and the Pyrenees,--expanding the grand +Republic into crowning provinces of 1. France (_Gallia_), 2. Belgium, 3. +Holland (_Batavia_), 4. England (_Britannia_), 5. Savoy (_Allobroges_), +6. Switzerland (_Helvetia_), 7. Spain (_Hispania_),--than to decorate a +street or to found an amphitheatre. Dr. Beattie once observed that, if +that question as to the greatest man in action upon the rolls of History +were left to be collected from the suffrages already expressed in books +and scattered throughout the literature of all nations, the scale would +be found to have turned prodigiously in Caesar's favour as against any +single competitor; and there is no doubt whatsoever that even amongst +his own countrymen, and his own contemporaries, the same verdict would +have been returned, had it been collected upon the famous principle of +Themistocles, that he should be reputed the first whom the greatest +number of rival voices had pronounced to be the second. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +_Works_: Latin folio, Rome, 1469; Venice, 1471; Florence, 1514; London, +1585. De Bello Gallico, Esslingen (?), 1473. Translations by John +Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester (John Rastell), of Julius Caesar's +Commentaries-"newly translated into Englyshe ... as much as concerneth +thys realme of England"--1530 folio; by Arthur Goldinge, The Eyght +Bookes of C. Julius Caesar, London, 1563, 1565, 1578, 1590; by Chapman, +London, 1604 folio; by Clem. Edmonds, London, 1609; the same, with +Hirtius, 1655, 1670, 1695 folio with commendatory verses by Camden, +Daniel, and Ben Johnson (_sic_). Works: Translated by W. Duncan, 1753, +1755; by M. Bladen, 8th ed., 1770; MacDevitt, Bohn's Library, 1848. De +Bello Gallico, translated by R. Mongan, Dublin, 1850; by J.B. Owgan and +C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated +by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of +Gaul, 1911). Caesar's Gallic War, translated by Rev. F.P. Long, Oxford, +1911; Books IV. and V. translated by C.H. Prichard, Cambridge, 1912. For +Latin text of De Bello Gallico see Bell's Illustrated Classical Series; +Dent's Temple Series of Classical Texts, 1902; Macmillan and Co., 1905; +and Blackie's Latin Texts, 1905-7. + + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS + + +THE WAR IN GAUL + +THE CIVIL WAR + + + + + +THE COMMENTARIES OF +CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR + + +THE WAR IN GAUL + +BOOK I + +I.--All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae +inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are +called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other +in language, customs and laws. The river Garonne separates the Gauls +from the Aquitani; the Marne and the Seine separate them from the +Belgae. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are +farthest from the civilisation and refinement of [our] Province, and +merchants least frequently resort to them and import those things which +tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germans, +who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; +for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in +valour, as they contend with the Germans in almost daily battles, when +they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage +war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that +the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhone: it is bounded +by the river Garonne, the ocean, and the territories of the Belgae: it +borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the +river Rhine, and stretches towards the north. The Belgae rise from the +extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; +and look towards the north and the rising sun. Aquitania extends from +the river Garonne to the Pyrenaean mountains and to that part of the +ocean which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun and +the north star. + +II.--Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the most distinguished and +wealthy. He, when Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso were consuls, incited +by lust of sovereignty, formed a conspiracy among the nobility, and +persuaded the people to go forth from their territories with all their +possessions, [saying] that it would be very easy, since they excelled +all in valour, to acquire the supremacy of the whole of Gaul. To this he +the more easily persuaded them, because the Helvetii are confined on +every side by the nature of their situation; on one side by the Rhine, a +very broad and deep river, which separates the Helvetian territory from +the Germans; on a second side by the Jura, a very high mountain which is +[situated] between the Sequani and the Helvetii; on a third by the Lake +of Geneva, and by the river Rhone, which separates our Province from the +Helvetii. From these circumstances it resulted that they could range +less widely, and could less easily make war upon their neighbours; for +which reason men fond of war [as they were] were affected with great +regret. They thought, that considering the extent of their population, +and their renown for warfare and bravery, they had but narrow limits, +although they extended in length 240, and in breadth 180 [Roman] miles. + +III.--Induced by these considerations, and influenced by the authority +of Orgetorix, they determined to provide such things as were necessary +for their expedition--to buy up as great a number as possible of beasts +of burden and waggons--to make their sowings as large as possible, so +that on their march plenty of corn might be in store--and to establish +peace and friendship with the neighbouring states. They reckoned that a +term of two years would be sufficient for them to execute their designs; +they fix by decree their departure for the third year. Orgetorix is +chosen to complete these arrangements. He took upon himself the office +of ambassador to the states: on this journey he persuades Casticus, the +son of Catamantaledes (one of the Sequani, whose father had possessed +the sovereignty among the people for many years, and had been styled +"_friend_" by the senate of the Roman people), to seize upon the +sovereignty in his own state, which his father had held before him, and +he likewise persuades Dumnorix, an Aeduan, the brother of Divitiacus, +who at that time possessed the chief authority in the state, and was +exceedingly beloved by the people, to attempt the same, and gives him +his daughter in marriage. He proves to them that to accomplish their +attempts was a thing very easy to be done, because he himself would +obtain the government of his own state; that there was no doubt that the +Helvetii were the most powerful of the whole of Gaul; he assures them +that he will, with his own forces and his own army, acquire the +sovereignty for them. Incited by this speech, they give a pledge and +oath to one another, and hope that, when they have seized the +sovereignty, they will, by means of the three most powerful and valiant +nations, be enabled to obtain possession of the whole of Gaul. + +IV.--When this scheme was disclosed to the Helvetii by informers, they, +according to their custom, compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in +chains; it was the law that the penalty of being burned by fire should +await him if condemned. On the day appointed for the pleading of his +cause, Orgetorix drew together from all quarters to the court all his +vassals to the number of ten thousand persons; and led together to the +same place, and all his dependants and debtor-bondsmen, of whom he had a +great number; by means of these he rescued himself from [the necessity +of] pleading his cause. While the state, incensed at this act, was +endeavouring to assert its right by arms, and the magistrates were +mustering a large body of men from the country, Orgetorix died; and +there is not wanting a suspicion, as the Helvetii think, of his having +committed suicide. + +V.--After his death, the Helvetii nevertheless attempt to do that which +they had resolved on, namely, to go forth from their territories. When +they thought that they were at length prepared for this undertaking, +they set fire to all their towns, in number about twelve--to their +villages about four hundred--and to the private dwellings that remained; +they burn up all the corn, except what they intend to carry with them; +that after destroying the hope of a return home, they might be the more +ready for undergoing all dangers. They order every one to carry forth +from home for himself provisions for three months, ready ground. They +persuade the Rauraci, and the Tulingi, and the Latobrigi, their +neighbours, to adopt the same plan, and after burning down their towns +and villages, to set out with them: and they admit to their party and +unite to themselves as confederates the Boii, who had dwelt on the other +side of the Rhine, and had crossed over into the Norican territory, and +assaulted Noreia. + +VI.--There were in all two routes by which they could go forth from +their country--one through the Sequani, narrow and difficult, between +Mount Jura and the river Rhone (by which scarcely one waggon at a time +could be led; there was, moreover, a very high mountain overhanging, so +that a very few might easily intercept them); the other, through our +Province, much easier and freer from obstacles, because the Rhone flows +between the boundaries of the Helvetii and those of the Allobroges, who +had lately been subdued, and is in some places crossed by a ford. The +furthest town of the Allobroges, and the nearest to the territories of +the Helvetii, is Geneva. From this town a bridge extends to the +Helvetii. They thought that they should either persuade the Allobroges, +because they did not seem as yet well-affected towards the Roman people, +or compel them by force to allow them to pass through their territories. +Having provided everything for the expedition, they appoint a day on +which they should all meet on the bank of the Rhone. This day was the +fifth before the kalends of April [_i.e._ the 28th of March], in the +consulship of Lucius Piso and Aulus Gabinius [B.C. 58]. + +VII.--When it was reported to Caesar that they were attempting to make +their route through our Province, he hastens to set out from the city, +and, by as great marches as he can, proceeds to Further Gaul, and +arrives at Geneva. He orders the whole Province [to furnish] as great a +number of soldiers as possible, as there was in all only one legion in +Further Gaul: he orders the bridge at Geneva to be broken down. When the +Helvetii are apprised of his arrival, they send to him, as ambassadors, +the most illustrious men of their state (in which embassy Numeius and +Verudoctius held the chief place), to say "that it was their intention +to march through the Province without doing any harm, because they had" +[according to their own representations] "no other route:--that they +requested they might be allowed to do so with his consent." Caesar, +inasmuch as he kept in remembrance that Lucius Cassius, the consul, had +been slain, and his army routed and made to pass under the yoke by the +Helvetii, did not think that [their request] ought to be granted; nor +was he of opinion that men of hostile disposition, if an opportunity of +marching through the Province were given them, would abstain from +outrage and mischief. Yet, in order that a period might intervene, until +the soldiers whom he had ordered [to be furnished] should assemble, he +replied to the ambassadors, that he would take time to deliberate; if +they wanted anything, they might return on the day before the ides of +April [on April 12th]. + +VIII.--Meanwhile, with the legion which he had with him and the soldiers +who had assembled from the Province, he carries along for nineteen +[Roman, not quite eighteen English] miles a wall, to the height of +sixteen feet, and a trench, from the lake of Geneva, which flows into +the river Rhone, to Mount Jura, which separates the territories of the +Sequani from those of the Helvetii. When that work was finished, he +distributes garrisons, and closely fortifies redoubts, in order that he +may the more easily intercept them, if they should attempt to cross over +against his will. When the day which he had appointed with the +ambassadors came, and they returned to him, he says that he cannot, +consistently with the custom and precedent of the Roman people, grant +any one a passage through the Province; and he gives them to understand +that, if they should attempt to use violence, he would oppose them. The +Helvetii, disappointed in this hope, tried if they could force a passage +(some by means of a bridge of boats and numerous rafts constructed for +the purpose; others, by the fords of the Rhone, where the depth of the +river was least, sometimes by day, but more frequently by night), but +being kept at bay by the strength of our works, and by the concourse of +the soldiers, and by the missiles, they desisted from this attempt. + +IX.--There was left one way, [namely] through the Sequani, by which, on +account of its narrowness, they could not pass without the consent of +the Sequani. As they could not of themselves prevail on them, they send +ambassadors to Dumnorix the Aeduan, that through his intercession they +might obtain their request from the Sequani. Dumnorix, by his popularity +and liberality, had great influence among the Sequani, and was friendly +to the Helvetii, because out of that state he had married the daughter +of Orgetorix; and, incited by lust of sovereignty, was anxious for a +revolution, and wished to have as many states as possible attached to +him by his kindness towards them. He, therefore, undertakes the affair, +and prevails upon the Sequani to allow the Helvetii to march through +their territories, and arranges that they should give hostages to each +other--the Sequani not to obstruct the Helvetii in their march--the +Helvetii, to pass without mischief and outrage. + +X.--It-is again told Caesar that the Helvetii intend to march through +the country of the Sequani and the Aedui into the territories of the +Santones, which are not far distant from those boundaries of the +Tolosates, which [viz. Tolosa, Toulouse] is a state in the Province. If +this took place, he saw that it would be attended with great danger to +the Province to have warlike men, enemies of the Roman people, bordering +upon an open and very fertile tract of country. For these reasons he +appointed Titus Labienus, his lieutenant, to the command of the +fortification which he had made. He himself proceeds to Italy by forced +marches, and there levies two legions, and leads out from winter-quarters +three which were wintering around Aquileia, and with these five +legions marches rapidly by the nearest route across the Alps into +Further Gaul. Here the Centrones and the Graioceli and the Caturiges, +having taken possession of the higher parts, attempt to obstruct the +army in their march. After having routed these in several battles, he +arrives in the territories of the Vocontii in the Further Province on +the seventh day from Ocelum, which is the most remote town of the Hither +Province; thence he leads his army into the country of the Allobroges, +and from the Allobroges to the Segusiani. These people are the first +beyond the Province on the opposite side of the Rhone. + +XI.--The Helvetii had by this time led their forces over through the +narrow defile and the territories of the Sequani, and had arrived at the +territories of the Aedui, and were ravaging their lands. The Aedui, as +they could not defend themselves and their possessions against them, +send ambassadors to Caesar to ask assistance, [pleading] that they had +at all times so well deserved of the Roman people, that their fields +ought not to have been laid waste--their children carried off into +slavery--their towns stormed, almost within sight of our army. At the +same time the Ambarri, the friends and kinsmen of the Aedui, apprise +Caesar that it was not easy for them, now that their fields had been +devastated, to ward off the violence of the enemy from their towns: the +Allobroges likewise, who had villages and possessions on the other side +of the Rhone, betake themselves in flight to Caesar and assure him that +they had nothing remaining, except the soil of their land. Caesar, +induced by these circumstances, decides that he ought not to wait until +the Helvetii, after destroying all the property of his allies, should +arrive among the Santones. + +XII.--There is a river [called] the Saone, which flows through the +territories of the Aedui and Sequani into the Rhone with such incredible +slowness, that it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction it +flows. This the Helvetii were crossing by rafts and boats joined +together. When Caesar was informed by spies that the Helvetii had +already conveyed three parts of their forces across that river, but that +the fourth part was left behind on this side of the Saone, he set out +from the camp with three legions during the third watch, and came up +with that division which had not yet crossed the river. Attacking them, +encumbered with baggage, and not expecting him, he cut to pieces a great +part of them; the rest betook themselves to flight, and concealed +themselves in the nearest woods. That canton [which was cut down] was +called the Tigurine; for the whole Helvetian state is divided into four +cantons. This single canton having left their country, within the +recollection of our fathers, had slain Lucius Cassius the consul, and +had made his army pass under the yoke [B.C. 107]. Thus, whether by +chance, or by the design of the immortal gods, that part of the +Helvetian state which had brought a signal calamity upon the Roman +people was the first to pay the penalty. In this Caesar avenged not only +the public, but also his own personal wrongs, because the Tigurini had +slain Lucius Piso the lieutenant [of Cassius], the grandfather of Lucius +Calpurnius Piso, his [Caesar's] father-in-law, in the same battle as +Cassius himself. + +XIII.--This battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the +remaining forces of the Helvetii, he procures a bridge to be made across +the Saone, and thus leads his army over. The Helvetii, confused by his +sudden arrival, when they found that he had effected in one day what +they themselves had with the utmost difficulty accomplished in twenty, +namely, the crossing of the river, send ambassadors to him; at the head +of which embassy was Divico, who had been commander of the Helvetii in +the war against Cassius. He thus treats with Caesar:--that, "if the +Roman people would make peace with the Helvetii they would go to that +part and there remain, where Caesar might appoint and desire them to be; +but if he should persist in persecuting them with war, that he ought to +remember both the ancient disgrace of the Roman people and the +characteristic valour of the Helvetii. As to his having attacked one +canton by surprise, [at a time] when those who had crossed the river +could not bring assistance to their friends, that he ought not on that +account to ascribe very much to his own valour, or despise them; that +they had so learned from their sires and ancestors, as to rely more on +valour than on artifice or stratagem. Wherefore let him not bring it to +pass that the place, where they were standing, should acquire a name, +from the disaster of the Roman people and the destruction of their army +or transmit the remembrance [of such an event to posterity]." + +XIV.--To these words Caesar thus replied:--that "on that very account he +felt less hesitation, because he kept in remembrance those circumstances +which the Helvetian ambassadors had mentioned, and that he felt the more +indignant at them, in proportion as they had happened undeservedly to +the Roman people: for if they had been conscious of having done any +wrong it would not have been difficult to be on their guard, but for +that very reason had they been deceived, because neither were they aware +that any offence had been given by them, on account of which they should +be afraid, nor did they think that they ought to be afraid without +cause. But even if he were willing to forget their former outrage, could +he also lay aside the remembrance of the late wrongs, in that they had +against his will attempted a route through the Province by force, in +that they had molested the Aedui, the Ambarri, and the Allobroges? That +as to their so insolently boasting of their victory, and as to their +being astonished that they had so long committed their outrages with +impunity, [both these things] tended to the same point; for the immortal +gods are wont to allow those persons whom they wish to punish for their +guilt sometimes a greater prosperity and longer impunity, in order that +they may suffer the more severely from a reverse of circumstances. +Although these things are so, yet, if hostages were to be given him by +them in order that he may be assured they will do what they promise, and +provided they will give satisfaction to the Aedui for the outrages which +they had committed against them and their allies, and likewise to the +Allobroges, he [Caesar] will make peace with them." Divico replied, that +"the Helvetii had been so trained by their ancestors that they were +accustomed to receive, not to give, hostages; of that fact the Roman +people were witness." Having given this reply, he withdrew. + +XV.--On the following day they move their camp from that place; Caesar +does the same, and sends forward all his cavalry, to the number of four +thousand (which he had drawn together from all parts of the Province and +from the Aedui and their allies), to observe towards what parts the +enemy are directing their march. These, having too eagerly pursued the +enemy's rear, come to a battle with the cavalry of the Helvetii in a +disadvantageous place, and a few of our men fall. The Helvetii, elated +with this battle because they had with five hundred horse repulsed so +large a body of horse, began to face us more boldly, sometimes too from +their rear to provoke our men by an attack. Caesar [however] restrained +his men from battle, deeming it sufficient for the present to prevent +the enemy from rapine, forage, and depredation. They marched for about +fifteen days in such a manner that there was not more than five or six +miles between the enemy's rear and our van. + +XVI.--Meanwhile, Caesar kept daily importuning the Aedui for the corn +which they had promised in the name of their state; for, in consequence +of the coldness (Gaul being, as before said, situated towards the +north), not only was the corn in the fields not ripe, but there was not +in store a sufficiently large quantity even of fodder: besides he was +unable to use the corn which he had conveyed in ships up the river +Saone, because the Helvetii, from whom he was unwilling to retire, had +diverted their march from the Saone. The Aedui kept deferring from day +to day, and saying that it was being "collected--brought in--on the +road." When he saw that he was put off too long, and that the day was +close at hand on which he ought to serve out the corn to his soldiers,-- +having called together their chiefs, of whom he had a great number in +his camp, among them Divitiacus, and Liscus who was invested with the +chief magistracy (whom the Aedui style the Vergobretus, and who is +elected annually, and has power of life and death over his countrymen), +he severely reprimands them, because he is not assisted by them on so +urgent an occasion, when the enemy were so close at hand, and when +[corn] could neither be bought nor taken from the fields, particularly +as, in a great measure urged by their prayers, he had undertaken the +war; much more bitterly, therefore, does he complain of his being +forsaken. + +XVII.--Then at length Liscus, moved by Caesar's speech, discloses what +he had hitherto kept secret:--that "there are some whose influence with +the people is very great, who, though private men, have more power than +the magistrates themselves: that these by seditious and violent language +are deterring the populace from contributing the corn which they ought +to supply; [by telling them] that, if they cannot any longer retain the +supremacy of Gaul, it were better to submit to the government of Gauls +than of Romans, nor ought they to doubt that, if the Romans should +overpower the Helvetii, they would wrest their freedom from the Aedui +together with the remainder of Gaul. By these very men [said he] are our +plans, and whatever is done in the camp, disclosed to the enemy; that +they could not be restrained by _him_: nay more, he was well aware that, +though compelled by necessity, he had disclosed the matter to Caesar, at +how great a risk he had done it; and for that reason, he had been silent +as long as he could." + +XVIII.--Caesar perceived that, by this speech of Liscus, Dumnorix, the +brother of Divitiacus, was indicated; but, as he was unwilling that +these matters should be discussed while so many were present, he +speedily dismisses the council, but detains Liscus: he inquires from him +when alone, about those things which he had said in the meeting. He +[Liscus] speaks more unreservedly and boldly. He [Caesar] makes +inquiries on the same points privately of others, and discovers that it +is all true; that "Dumnorix is the person, a man of the highest daring, +in great favour with the people on account of his liberality, a man +eager for a revolution: that for a great many years he has been in the +habit of contracting for the customs and all the other taxes of the +Aedui at a small cost, because when _he_ bids, no one dares to bid +against him. By these means he has both increased his own private +property and amassed great means for giving largesses; that he maintains +constantly at his own expense and keeps about his own person a great +number of cavalry, and that not only at home, but even among the +neighbouring states, he has great influence, and for the sake of +strengthening this influence has given his mother in marriage among the +Bituriges to a man the most noble and most influential there; that he +has himself taken a wife from among the Helvetii, and has given his +sister by the mother's side and his female relations in marriage into +other states; that he favours and wishes well to the Helvetii on account +of this connection; and that he hates Caesar and the Romans, on his own +account, because by their arrival his power was weakened, and his +brother, Divitiacus, restored to his former position of influence and +dignity: that, if anything should happen to the Romans, he entertains +the highest hope of gaining the sovereignty by means of the Helvetii, +but that under the government of the Roman people he despairs not only +of royalty but even of that influence which he already has." Caesar +discovered too, on inquiring into the unsuccessful cavalry engagement +which had taken place a few days before, that the commencement of that +flight had been made by Dumnorix and his cavalry (for Dumnorix was in +command of the cavalry which the Aedui had sent for aid to Caesar); that +by their flight the rest of the cavalry was dismayed. + +XIX.--After learning these circumstances, since to these suspicions the +most unequivocal facts were added, viz., that he had led the Helvetii +through the territories of the Sequani; that he had provided that +hostages should be mutually given; that he had done all these things, +not only without any orders of his [Caesar's] and of his own state's, +but even without their [the Aedui] knowing anything of it themselves; +that he [Dumnorix] was reprimanded by the [chief] magistrate of the +Aedui; he [Caesar] considered that there was sufficient reason why he +should either punish him himself, or order the state to do so. One thing +[however] stood in the way of all this--that he had learned by +experience his brother Divitiacus's very high regard for the Roman +people, his great affection towards him, his distinguished faithfulness, +justice, and moderation; for he was afraid lest by the punishment of +this man, he should hurt the feelings of Divitiacus. Therefore, before +he attempted anything, he orders Divitiacus to be summoned to him, and +when the ordinary interpreters had been withdrawn, converses with him +through Caius Valerius Procillus, chief of the province of Gaul, an +intimate friend of his, in whom he reposed the highest confidence in +everything; at the same time he reminds him of what was said about +Dumnorix in the council of the Gauls, when he himself was present, and +shows what each had said of him privately in his [Caesar's] own +presence; he begs and exhorts him, that, without offence to his +feelings, he may either himself pass judgment on him [Dumnorix] after +trying the case, or else order the [Aeduan] state to do so. + +XX.-Divitiacus, embracing Caesar, begins to implore him, with many +tears, that "he would not pass any very severe sentence upon his +brother; saying, that he knows that those [charges] are true, and that +nobody suffered more pain on that account than he himself did; for when +he himself could effect a very great deal by his influence at home and +in the rest of Gaul, and he [Dumnorix] very little on account of his +youth, the latter had become powerful through his means, which power and +strength he used not only to the lessening of his [Divitiacus] +popularity, but almost to his ruin; that he, however, was influenced +both by fraternal affection and by public opinion. But if anything very +severe from Caesar should befall him [Dumnorix], no one would think that +it had been done without his consent, since he himself held such a place +in Caesar's friendship; from which circumstance it would arise that the +affections of the whole of Gaul would be estranged from him." As he was +with tears begging these things of Caesar in many words, Caesar takes +his right hand, and, comforting him, begs him to make an end of +entreating, and assures him that his regard for him is so great that he +forgives both the injuries of the republic and his private wrongs, at +his desire and prayers. He summons Dumnorix to him; he brings in his +brother; he points out what he censures in him; he lays before him what +he of himself perceives, and what the state complains of; he warns him +for the future to avoid all grounds of suspicion; he says that he +pardons the past, for the sake of his brother, Divitiacus. He sets spies +over Dumnorix that he may be able to know what he does, and with whom he +communicates. + +XXI.--Being on the same day informed by his scouts that the enemy had +encamped at the foot of a mountain eight miles from his own camp, he +sent persons to ascertain what the nature of the mountain was, and of +what kind the ascent on every side. Word was brought back that it was +easy. During the third watch he orders Titus Labienus, his lieutenant +with praetorian powers, to ascend to the highest ridge of the mountain +with two legions, and with those as guides who had examined the road; he +explains what his plan is. He himself during the fourth watch, hastens +to them by the same route by which the enemy had gone, and sends on all +the cavalry before him. Publius Considius, who was reputed to be very +experienced in military affairs, and had been in the army of Lucius +Sulla, and afterwards in that of Marcus Crassus, is sent forward with +the scouts. + +XXII.--At day-break, when the summit of the mountain was in the +possession of Titus Labienus, and he himself was not further off than a +mile and half from the enemy's camp, nor, as he afterwards ascertained +from the captives, had either his arrival or that of Labienus been +discovered; Considius, with his horse at full gallop, comes up to him-- +says that the mountain which he [Caesar] wished should be seized by +Labienus, is in possession of the enemy; that he has discovered this by +the Gallic arms and ensigns. Caesar leads off his forces to the next +hill: [and] draws them up in battle-order. Labienus, as he had been +ordered by Caesar not to come to an engagement unless [Caesar's] own +forces were seen near the enemy's camp, that the attack upon the enemy +might be made on every side at the same time, was, after having taken +possession of the mountain, waiting for our men, and refraining from +battle. When, at length, the day was far advanced, Caesar learned +through spies that the mountain was in possession of his own men, and +that the Helvetii had moved their camp, and that Considius, struck with +fear, had reported to him, as seen, that which he had not seen. On that +day he follows the enemy at his usual distance, and pitches his camp +three miles from theirs. + +XXIII.--The next day (as there remained in all only two days' space [to +the time] when he must serve out the corn to his army, and as he was not +more than eighteen miles from Bibracte, by far the largest and best-stored +town of the Aedui) he thought that he ought to provide for a +supply of corn; and diverted his march from the Helvetii, and advanced +rapidly to Bibracte. This circumstance is reported to the enemy by some +deserters from Lucius Aemilius, a captain of the Gallic horse. The +Helvetii, either because they thought that the Romans, struck with +terror, were retreating from them, the more so, as the day before, +though they had seized on the higher grounds, they had not joined +battle; or because they flattered themselves that they might be cut off +from the provisions, altering their plan and changing their route, began +to pursue and to annoy our men in the rear. + +XXIV.--Caesar, when he observes this, draws off his forces to the next +hill, and sent the cavalry to sustain the attack of the enemy. He +himself, meanwhile, drew up on the middle of the hill a triple line of +his four veteran legions in such a manner that he placed above him on +the very summit the two legions which he had lately levied in Hither +Gaul, and all the auxiliaries; and he ordered that the whole mountain +should be covered with men, and that meanwhile the baggage should be +brought together into one place, and the position be protected by those +who were posted in the upper line. The Helvetii, having followed with +all their waggons, collected their baggage into one place: they +themselves, after having repulsed our cavalry and formed a phalanx, +advanced up to our front line in very close order. + +XXV.--Caesar, having removed out of sight first his own horse, then +those of all, that he might make the danger of all equal, and do away +with the hope of flight, after encouraging his men, joined battle. His +soldiers, hurling their javelins from the higher ground, easily broke +the enemy's phalanx. That being dispersed, they made a charge on them +with drawn swords. It was a great hindrance to the Gauls in fighting, +that, when several of their bucklers had been by one stroke of the +(Roman) javelins pierced through and pinned fast together, as the point +of the iron had bent itself, they could neither pluck it out, nor, with +their left hand entangled, fight with sufficient ease; so that many, +after having long tossed their arm about, chose rather to cast away the +buckler from their hand, and to fight with their person unprotected. At +length, worn out with wounds, they began to give way, and as there was +in the neighbourhood a mountain about a mile off, to betake themselves +thither. When the mountain had been gained, and our men were advancing +up, the Boii and Tulingi, who with about 15,000 men closed the enemy's +line of march and served as a guard to their rear, having assailed our +men on the exposed flank as they advanced [prepared] to surround them; +upon seeing which, the Helvetii, who had betaken themselves to the +mountain, began to press on again and renew the battle. The Romans +having faced about, advanced to the attack in two divisions; the first +and second line to withstand those who had been defeated and driven off +the field; the third to receive those who were just arriving. + +XXVI.--Thus was the contest long and vigorously carried on with doubtful +success. When they could no longer withstand the attacks of our men, the +one division, as they had begun to do, betook themselves to the +mountain; the other repaired to their baggage and waggons. For during +the whole of this battle, although the fight lasted from the seventh +hour [_i.e._ 12 (noon)--1 P.M.] to eventide, no one could see an enemy +with his back turned. The fight was carried on also at the baggage till +late in the night, for they had set waggons in the way as a rampart, and +from the higher ground kept throwing weapons upon our men, as they came +on, and some from between the waggons and the wheels kept darting their +lances and javelins from beneath, and wounding our men. After the fight +had lasted some time, our men gained possession of their baggage and +camp. There the daughter and one of the sons of Orgetorix were taken. +After that battle about 130,000 men [of the enemy] remained alive, who +marched incessantly during the whole of that night; and after a march +discontinued for no part of the night, arrived in the territories of the +Lingones on the fourth day, whilst our men, having stopped for three +days, both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of +the slain, had not been able to follow them. Caesar sent letters and +messengers to the Lingones [with orders] that they should not assist +them with corn or with anything else; for that if they should assist +them, he would regard them in the same light as the Helvetii. After the +three days' interval he began to follow them himself with all his +forces. + +XXVII.--The Helvetii, compelled by the want of everything, sent +ambassadors to him about a surrender. When these had met him in the way +and had thrown themselves at his feet, and speaking in suppliant tone +had with tears sued for peace, and [when] he had ordered them to await +his arrival, in the place where they then were, they obeyed his +commands. When Caesar arrived at that place, he demanded hostages, their +arms, and the slaves who had deserted to them. Whilst those things are +being sought for and got together, after a night's interval, about 6000 +men of that canton which is called the Verbigene, whether terrified by +fear, lest, after delivering up their arms, they should suffer +punishment, or else induced by the hope of safety, because they supposed +that, amid so vast a multitude of those who had surrendered themselves, +_their_ flight might either be concealed or entirely overlooked, having +at night-fall departed out of the camp of the Helvetii, hastened to the +Rhine and the territories of the Germans. + +XXVIII.--But when Caesar discovered this, he commanded those through +whose territories they had gone, to seek them, out and to bring them +back again, if they meant to be acquitted before him; and considered +them, when brought back, in the light of enemies; he admitted all the +rest to a surrender, upon their delivering up the hostages, arms, and +deserters. He ordered the Helvetii, the Tulingi, and the Latobrigi to +return to their territories from which they had come, and as there was +at home nothing whereby they might support their hunger, all the +productions of the earth having been destroyed, he commanded the +Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of corn; and ordered them +to rebuild the towns and villages which they had burnt. This he did, +chiefly on this account, because he was unwilling that the country, from +which the Helvetii had departed, should be untenanted, lest the Germans, +who dwell on the other side of the Rhine, should, on account of the +excellence of the lands, cross over from their own territories into +those of the Helvetii, and become borderers upon the province of Gaul +and the Allobroges. He granted the petition of the Aedui, that they +might settle the Boii, in their own (_i.e._ in the Aeduan) territories, +as these were known to be of distinguished valour to whom they gave +lands, and whom they afterwards admitted to the same state of rights and +freedom as themselves. + +XXIX.--In the camp of the Helvetii, lists were found, drawn up in Greek +characters, and were brought to Caesar, in which an estimate had been +drawn up, name by name, of the number which had gone forth from their +country of those who were able to bear arms; and likewise the boys, the +old men, and the women, separately. Of all which items the total was:- + +Of the _Helvetii_ [lit. of the heads of the Helvetii] 263,000 +Of the _Tulingi_ 36,000 +Of the _Latobrigi_ 14,000 +Of the _Rauraci_ 23,000 +Of the _Boii_ 32,000 + ------- +The sum of all amounted to 368,000 + +Out of these, such as could bear arms [amounted] to about 92,000. When +the _census_ of those who returned home was taken, as Caesar had +commanded, the number was found to be 110,000. + +XXX.--When the war with the Helvetii was concluded, ambassadors from +almost all parts of Gaul, the chiefs of states, assembled to +congratulate Caesar, [saying] that they were well aware, that, although +he had taken vengeance on the Helvetii in war, for the old wrongs done +by them to the Roman people, yet that circumstance had happened no less +to the benefit of the land of Gaul than of the Roman people, because the +Helvetii, while their affairs were most flourishing, had quitted their +country with the design of making war upon the whole of Gaul, and +seizing the government of it, and selecting, out of a great abundance, +that spot for an abode which they should judge to be the most convenient +and most productive of all Gaul, and hold the rest of the states as +tributaries. They requested that they might be allowed to proclaim an +assembly of the whole of Gaul for a particular day, and to do that with +Caesar's permission, [stating] that they had some things which, with the +general consent, they wished to ask of him. This request having been +granted, they appointed a day for the assembly, and ordained by an oath +with each other, that no one should disclose [their deliberations] +except those to whom this [office] should be assigned by the general +assembly. + +XXXI.--When that assembly was dismissed, the same chiefs of states, who +had before been to Caesar, returned, and asked that they might be +allowed to treat with him privately (in secret) concerning the safety of +themselves and of all. That request having been obtained, they all threw +themselves in tears at Caesar's feet, [saying] that they no less begged +and earnestly desired that what they might say should not be disclosed +than that they might obtain those things which they wished for; inasmuch +as they saw that, if a disclosure were made, they should be put to the +greatest tortures. For these Divitiacus the Aeduan spoke and told him:-- +"That there were two parties in the whole of Gaul: that the Aedui stood +at the head of one of these, the Arverni of the other. After these had +been violently struggling with one another for the superiority for many +years, it came to pass that the Germans were called in for hire by the +Arverni and the Sequani. That about 15,000 of them [_i.e._ of the +Germans] had at first crossed the Rhine: but after that these wild and +savage men had become enamoured of the lands and the refinement and the +abundance of the Gauls, more were brought over, that there were now as +many as 120,000 of them in Gaul: that with these the Aedui and their +dependants had repeatedly struggled in arms, that they had been routed +and had sustained a great calamity--had lost all their nobility, all +their senate, all their cavalry. And that broken by such engagements and +calamities, although they had formerly been very powerful in Gaul, both +from their own valour and from the Roman people's hospitality and +friendship, they were now compelled to give the chief nobles of their +state as hostages to the Sequani, and to bind their state by an oath, +that they would neither demand hostages in return, nor supplicate aid +from the Roman people, nor refuse to be for ever under their sway and +empire. That he was the only one out of all the state of the Aedui who +could not be prevailed upon to take the oath or to give his children as +hostages. On that account he had fled from his state and had gone to the +senate at Rome to beseech aid, as he alone was bound neither by oath nor +hostages. But a worse thing had befallen the victorious Sequani than the +vanquished Aedui, for Ariovistus, the king of the Germans, had settled +in their territories, and had seized upon a third of their land, which +was the best in the whole of Gaul, and was now ordering them to depart +from another third part, because a few months previously 24,000 men of +the Harudes had come to him, for whom room and settlements must be +provided. The consequence would be, that in a few years they would all +be driven from the territories of Gaul, and all the Germans would cross +the Rhine; for neither must the land of Gaul be compared with the land +of the Germans, nor must the habit of living of the latter be put on a +level with that of the former. Moreover, [as for] Ariovistus, no sooner +did he defeat the forces of the Gauls in a battle, which took place at +Magetobria, than [he began] to lord it haughtily and cruelly, to demand +as hostages the children of all the principal nobles, and wreak on them +every kind of cruelty, if everything was not done at his nod or +pleasure; that he was a savage, passionate, and reckless man, and that +his commands could no longer be borne. Unless there was some aid in +Caesar and the Roman people, the Gauls must all do the same thing that +the Helvetii had done, [viz.] emigrate from their country, and seek +another dwelling place, other settlements remote from the Germans, and +try whatever fortune may fall to their lot. If these things were to be +disclosed to Ariovistus, [Divitiacus adds] that he doubts not that he +would inflict the most severe punishment on all the hostages who are in +his possession, [and says] that Caesar could, either by his own +influence and by that of his army, or by his late victory, or by name of +the Roman people, intimidate him, so as to prevent a greater number of +Germans being brought over the Rhine, and could protect all Gaul from +the outrages of Ariovistus." + +XXXII.--When this speech had been delivered by Divitiacus, all who were +present began with loud lamentation to entreat assistance of Caesar. +Caesar noticed that the Sequani were the only people of all who did none +of those things which the others did, but, with their heads bowed down, +gazed on the earth in sadness. Wondering what was the reason of this +conduct, he inquired of themselves. No reply did the Sequani make, but +silently continued in the same sadness. When he had repeatedly +inquired of them and could not elicit any answer at all, the same +Divitiacus the Aeduan answered, that--"the lot of the Sequani was more +wretched and grievous than that of the rest, on this account, because +they alone durst not even in secret complain or supplicate aid; and +shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus [even when] absent, just as if he +were present; for, to the rest, despite of everything, there was an +opportunity of flight given; but all tortures must be endured by the +Sequani, who had admitted Ariovistus within their territories, and whose +towns were all in his power." + +XXXIII.--Caesar, on being informed of these things, cheered the minds of +the Gauls with his words, and promised that this affair should be an +object of his concern, [saying] that he had great hopes that Ariovistus, +induced both by his kindness and his power, would put an end to his +oppression. After delivering this speech, he dismissed the assembly; +and, besides those statements, many circumstances induced him to think +that this affair ought to be considered and taken up by him; especially +as he saw that the Aedui, styled [as they had been] repeatedly by the +senate "brethren" and "kinsmen," were held in the thraldom and dominion +of the Germans, and understood that their hostages were with Ariovistus +and the Sequani, which in so mighty an empire [as that] of the Roman +people he considered very disgraceful to himself and the republic. That, +moreover, the Germans should by degrees become accustomed to cross the +Rhine, and that a great body of them should come into Gaul, he saw +[would be] dangerous to the Roman people, and judged that wild and +savage men would not be likely to restrain themselves, after they had +possessed themselves of all Gaul, from going forth into the province and +thence marching into Italy (as the Cimbri and Teutones had done before +them), particularly as the Rhone [was the sole barrier that] separated +the Sequani from our province. Against which events he thought he ought +to provide as speedily as possible. Moreover, Ariovistus, for his part, +had assumed to himself such pride and arrogance that he was felt to be +quite insufferable. + +XXXIV.--He therefore determined to send ambassadors to Ariovistus to +demand of him to name some intermediate spot for a conference between +the two, [saying] that he wished to treat with him on state-business and +matters of the highest importance to both of them. To this embassy +Ariovistus replied, that if he himself had had need of anything from +Caesar, he would have gone to him; and that if Caesar wanted anything +from him he ought to come to him. That, besides, neither dare he go +without an army into those parts of Gaul which Caesar had possession of, +nor could he, without great expense and trouble, draw his army together +to one place; that to him, moreover, it appeared strange what business +either Caesar or the Roman people at all had in his own Gaul, which he +had conquered in war. + +XXXV.--When these answers were reported to Caesar, he sends ambassadors +to him a second time with this message "Since, after having been treated +with so much kindness by himself and the Roman people (as he had in his +consulship [B.C. 59] been styled 'king and friend' by the senate), he +makes this recompense to [Caesar] himself and the Roman people, [viz.] +that when invited to a conference he demurs, and does not think that it +concerns him to advise and inform himself about an object of mutual +interest, these are the things which he requires of him; first, that he +do not any more bring over any body of men across the Rhine into Gaul; +in the next place, that he restore the hostages which he has from the +Aedui, and grant the Sequani permission to restore to them with his +consent those hostages which they have, and that he neither provoke the +Aedui by outrage nor make war upon them or their allies; if he would +accordingly do this," [Caesar says] that "he himself and the Roman +people will entertain a perpetual feeling of favour and friendship +towards him; but that if he [Caesar] does not obtain [his desires], that +he (forasmuch as in the consulship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso +[B.C. 61] the senate had decreed that, whoever should have the +administration of the province of Gaul should, as far as he could do so +consistently with the interests of the republic, protect the Aedui and +the other friends of the Roman people) will not overlook the wrongs of +the Aedui." + +XXXVI.--To this Ariovistus replied, that "the right of war was, that +they who had conquered should govern those whom they had conquered, in +what manner they pleased; that in that way the Roman people were wont to +govern the nations which they had conquered, not according to the +dictation of any other, but according to their own discretion. If he for +his part did not dictate to the Roman people as to the manner in which +they were to exercise their right, he ought not to be obstructed by the +Roman people in his right; that the Aedui, inasmuch as they had tried +the fortune of war and had engaged in arms and been conquered, had +become tributaries to him; that Caesar was doing a great injustice, in +that by his arrival he was making his revenues less valuable to him; +that he should not restore their hostages to the Aedui, but should not +make war wrongfully either upon them or their allies, if they abided by +that which had been agreed on, and paid their tribute annually: if they +did _not_ continue to do that, the Roman people's name of 'brothers' +would avail them nought. As to Caesar's threatening him that be would +not overlook the wrongs of the Aedui, [he said] that no one had ever +entered into a contest with _him_ [Ariovistus] without utter ruin to +himself. That Caesar might enter the lists when he chose; he would feel +what the invincible Germans, well-trained [as they were] beyond all +others to arms, who for fourteen years had not been beneath a roof, +could achieve by their valour." + +XXXVII.--At the same time that this message was delivered to Caesar, +ambassadors came from the Aedui and the Treviri; from the Aedui to +complain that the Harudes, who had lately been brought over into Gaul, +were ravaging their territories; that they had not been able to purchase +peace from Ariovistus, even by giving hostages: and from the Treviri, +[to state] that a hundred cantons of the Suevi had encamped on the banks +of the Rhine, and were attempting to cross it; that the brothers, Nasuas +and Cimberius, headed them. Being greatly alarmed at these things, +Caesar thought that he ought to use all despatch, lest, if this new band +of Suevi should unite with the old troops of Ariovistus, he [Ariovistus] +might be less easily withstood. Having, therefore, as quickly as he +could, provided a supply of corn, he hastened to Ariovistus by forced +marches. + +XXXVIII.--When he had proceeded three days' journey, word was brought to +him that Ariovistus was hastening with all his forces to seize on +Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani, and had advanced +three days' journey from his territories. Caesar thought that he ought +to take the greatest precautions lest this should happen, for there was +in that town a most ample supply of everything which was serviceable for +war; and so fortified was it by the nature of the ground as to afford a +great facility for protracting the war, inasmuch as the river Doubs +almost surrounds the whole town, as though it were traced round it with +a pair of compasses. A mountain of great height shuts in the remaining +space, which is not more than 600 feet, where the river leaves a gap, in +such a manner that the roots of that mountain extend to the river's bank +on either side. A wall thrown around it makes a citadel of this +[mountain], and connects it with the town. Hither Caesar hastens by +forced marches by night and day, and, after having seized the town, +stations a garrison there. + +XXXIX.--Whilst he is tarrying a few days at Vesontio, on account of corn +and provisions; from the inquiries of our men and the reports of the +Gauls and traders (who asserted that the Germans were men of huge +stature, of incredible valour and practice in arms, that ofttimes they, +on encountering them, could not bear even their countenance, and the +fierceness of their eyes)--so great a panic on a sudden seized the whole +army, as to discompose the minds and spirits of all in no slight degree. +This first arose from the tribunes of the soldiers, the prefects and the +rest, who, having followed Caesar from the city [Rome] from motives of +friendship, had no great experience in military affairs. And alleging, +some of them one reason, some another, which they said made it necessary +for them to depart, they requested that by his consent they might be +allowed to withdraw; some, influenced by shame, stayed behind in order +that they might avoid the suspicion of cowardice. These could neither +compose their countenance, nor even sometimes check their tears: but +hidden in their tents, either bewailed their fate, or deplored with +their comrades the general danger. Wills were sealed universally +throughout the whole camp. By the expressions and cowardice of these +men, even those who possessed great experience in the camp, both +soldiers and centurions, and those [the decurions] who were in command +of the cavalry, were gradually disconcerted. Such of them as wished to +be considered less alarmed, said that they did not dread the enemy, but +feared the narrowness of the roads and the vastness of the forests which +lay between them and Ariovistus, or else that the supplies could not be +brought up readily enough. Some even declared to Caesar that when he +gave orders for the camp to be moved and the troops to advance, the +soldiers would not be obedient to the command, nor advance in +consequence of their fear. + +XL.--When Caesar observed these things, having called a council, and +summoned to it the centurions of all the companies, he severely +reprimanded them, "particularly for supposing that it belonged to them +to inquire or conjecture, either in what direction they were marching, +or with what object. That Ariovistus, during his [Caesar's] consulship, +had most anxiously sought after the friendship of the Roman people; why +should any one judge that he would so rashly depart from his duty? He +for his part was persuaded that, when his demands were known and the +fairness of the terms considered, he would reject neither his nor the +Roman people's favour. But even if, driven on by rage and madness, he +should make war upon them, what after all were they afraid of?--or why +should they despair either of their own valour or of his zeal? Of that +enemy a trial had been made within our fathers' recollection, when, on +the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutones by Caius Marius, the army was +regarded as having deserved no less praise than their commander himself. +It had been made lately, too, in Italy; during the rebellion of the +slaves, whom, however, the experience and training which they had +received from us, assisted in some respect. From which a judgment might +be formed of the advantages which resolution carries with it,--inasmuch +as those whom for some time they had groundlessly dreaded when unarmed, +they had afterwards vanquished, when well armed and flushed with +success. In short, that these were the same men whom the Helvetii, in +frequent encounters, not only in their own territories, but also in +theirs [the German], have generally vanquished, and yet cannot have been +a match for our army. If the unsuccessful battle and flight of the Gauls +disquieted any, these, if they made inquiries, might discover that, when +the Gauls had been tired out by the long duration of the war, +Ariovistus, after he had many months kept himself in his camp and in the +marshes, and had given no opportunity for an engagement, fell suddenly +upon them, by this time despairing of a battle and scattered in all +directions, and was victorious more through stratagem and cunning than +valour. But though there had been room for such stratagem against savage +and unskilled men, not even [Ariovistus] himself expected that thereby +our armies could be entrapped. That those who ascribed their fear to a +pretence about the [deficiency of] supplies and the narrowness of the +roads, acted presumptuously, as they seemed either to distrust their +general's discharge of his duty, or to dictate to him. That these things +were his concern; that the Sequani, the Leuci, and the Lingones were to +furnish the corn; and that it was already ripe in the fields; that as to +the road they would soon be able to judge for themselves. As to its +being reported that the soldiers would not be obedient to command, or +advance, he was not at all disturbed at that; for he knew that in the +case of all those whose army had not been obedient to command, either +upon some mismanagement of an affair, fortune had deserted them, or, +that upon some crime being discovered, covetousness had been clearly +proved [against them]. His integrity had been seen throughout his whole +life, his good fortune in the war with the Helvetii. That he would +therefore instantly set about what he had intended to put off till a +more distant day, and would break up his camp the next night, in the +fourth watch, that he might ascertain, as soon as possible, whether a +sense of honour and duty, or whether fear had more influence with them. +But that, if no one else should follow, yet he would go with only the +tenth legion, of which he had no misgivings, and it should be his +praetorian cohort."--This legion Caesar had both greatly favoured, and +in it, on account of its valour, placed the greatest confidence. + +XLI.-Upon the delivery of this speech, the minds of all were changed in +a surprising, manner, and the highest ardour and eagerness for +prosecuting the war were engendered; and the tenth legion was the first +to return thanks to him, through their military tribunes, for his having +expressed this most favourable opinion of them; and assured him that +they were quite ready to prosecute the war. Then, the other legions +endeavoured, through their military tribunes and the centurions of the +principal companies, to excuse themselves to Caesar, [saying] that they +had never either doubted or feared, or supposed that the determination +of the conduct of the war was theirs and not their general's. Having +accepted their excuse, and having had the road carefully reconnoitred by +Divitiacus, because in him of all others he had the greatest faith, [he +found] that by a circuitous route of more than fifty miles he might lead +his army through open parts; he then set out in the fourth watch, as he +had said [he would]. On the seventh day, as he did not discontinue his +march, he was informed by scouts that the forces of Ariovistus were only +four and twenty miles distant from ours. + +XLII.--Upon being apprised of Caesar's arrival, Ariovistus sends +ambassadors to him, [saying] that what he had before requested as to a +conference, might now, as far as his permission went, take place, since +he [Caesar] had approached nearer, and he considered that he might now +do it without danger. Caesar did not reject the proposal and began to +think that he was now returning to a rational state of mind, as he +spontaneously proffered that which he had previously refused to him when +requesting it; and was in great hopes that, in consideration of his own +and the Roman people's great favours towards him, the issue would be +that he would desist from his obstinacy upon his demands being made +known. The fifth day after that was appointed as the day of conference. +Meanwhile, as ambassadors were being often sent to and fro between them, +Ariovistus demanded that Caesar should not bring any foot-soldier with +him to the conference, [saying] that "he was afraid of being ensnared by +him through treachery; that both should come accompanied by cavalry; +that he would not come on any other condition." Caesar, as he neither +wished that the conference should, by an excuse thrown in the way, be +set aside, nor durst trust his life to the cavalry of the Gauls, decided +that it would be most expedient to take away from the Gallic cavalry all +their horses, and thereon to mount the legionary soldiers of the tenth +legion, in which he placed the greatest confidence; in order that he +might have a body-guard as trustworthy as possible, should there be any +need for action. And when this was done, one of the soldiers of the +tenth legion said, not without a touch of humour, "that Caesar did more +for them than he had promised; he had promised to have the tenth legion +in place of his praetorian cohort; but he now converted them into +horse." + +XLIII.--There was a large plain, and in it a mound of earth of +considerable size. This spot was at nearly an equal distance from both +camps. Thither, as had been appointed, they came for the conference. +Caesar stationed the legion, which he had brought [with him] on +horseback, 200 paces from this mound. The cavalry of Ariovistus also +took their stand at an equal distance. Ariovistus then demanded that +they should confer on horseback, and that, besides themselves, they +should bring with them ten men each to the conference. When they were +come to the place, Caesar, in the opening of his speech, detailed his +own and the senate's favours towards him [Ariovistus], "in that he had +been styled king, in that [he had been styled] friend, by the senate-- +in that very considerable presents had been sent him; which circumstance +he informed him had both fallen to the lot of few, and had usually been +bestowed in consideration of important personal services; that he, +although he had neither an introduction, nor a just ground for the +request, had obtained these honours through the kindness and munificence +of himself [Caesar] and the senate. He informed him too, how old and how +just were the grounds of connexion that existed between themselves [the +Romans] and the Aedui, what decrees of the senate had been passed in +their favour, and how frequent and how honourable; how from time +immemorial the Aedui had held the supremacy of the whole of Gaul; even +[said Caesar] before they had sought our friendship; that it was the +custom of the Roman people to desire not only that its allies and +friends should lose none of their property, but be advanced in +influence, dignity, and honour: who then could endure that what they had +brought with them to the friendship of the Roman people, should be torn +from them?" He then made the same demands which he had commissioned the +ambassadors to make, that [Ariovistus] should not make war either upon +the Aedui or their allies, that he should restore the hostages; that, if +he could not send back to their country any part of the Germans, he +should at all events suffer none of them any more to cross the Rhine. + +XLIV.--Ariovistus replied briefly to the demands of Caesar; but +expatiated largely on his own virtues, "that he had crossed the Rhine +not of his own accord, but on being invited and sent for by the Gauls; +that he had not left home and kindred without great expectations and +great rewards; that he had settlements in Gaul, granted by the Gauls +themselves; that the hostages had been given by their own good-will; +that he took by right of war the tribute which conquerors are accustomed +to impose on the conquered; that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but +the Gauls upon him; that all the states of Gaul came to attack him, and +had encamped against him; that all their forces had been routed and +beaten by him in a single battle; that if they chose to make a second +trial, he was ready to encounter them again; but if they chose to enjoy +peace, it was unfair to refuse the tribute, which of their own free-will +they had paid up to that time. That the friendship of the Roman people +ought to prove to him an ornament and a safeguard, not a detriment; and +that he sought it with that expectation. But if through the Roman people +the tribute was to be discontinued, and those who surrendered to be +seduced from him, he would renounce the friendship of the Roman people +no less heartily than he had sought it. As to his leading over a host of +Germans into Gaul, that he was doing this with a view of securing +himself, not of assaulting Gaul: that there was evidence of this, in +that he did not come without being invited, and in that he did not make +war, but merely warded it off. That he had come into Gaul before the +Roman people. That never before this time did a Roman army go beyond the +frontiers of the province of Gaul. What [said he] does [Caesar] desire? +--why come into his [Ariovistus's] domains?--that this was his province +of Gaul, just as that is ours. As it ought not to be pardoned in him, if +he were to make an attack upon our territories; so, likewise, that we +were unjust to obstruct him in his prerogative. As for Caesar's saying +that the Aedui had been styled 'brethren' by the senate, he was not so +uncivilized nor so ignorant of affairs, as not to know that the Aedui in +the very last war with the Allobroges had neither rendered assistance to +the Romans, nor received any from the Roman people in the struggles +which the Aedui had been maintaining with him and with the Sequani. He +must feel suspicious that Caesar, though feigning friendship as the +reason for his keeping an army in Gaul; was keeping it with the view of +crushing him. And that unless he depart, and withdraw his army from +these parts, he shall regard him not as a friend, but as a foe; and +that, even if he should put him to death, he should do what would please +many of the nobles and leading men of the Roman people; he had assurance +of that from themselves through their messengers, and could purchase the +favour and the friendship of them all by his [Caesar's] death. But if he +would depart and resign to him the free possession of Gaul, he would +recompense him with a great reward, and would bring to a close whatever +wars he wished to be carried on, without any trouble or risk to him." + +XLV.--Many things were stated by Caesar to the effect [to show]: "why he +could not waive the business, and that neither his nor the Roman +people's practice would suffer him to abandon most meritorious allies, +nor did he deem that Gaul belonged to Ariovistus rather than to the +Roman people; that the Arverni and the Ruteni had been subdued in war by +Quintus Fabius Maximus, and that the Roman people had pardoned them and +had not reduced them into a province or imposed a tribute upon them. And +if the most ancient period was to be regarded--then was the sovereignty +of the Roman people in Gaul most just: if the decree of the senate was +to be observed, then ought Gaul to be free, which they [the Romans] had +conquered in war, and had permitted to enjoy its own laws." + +XLVI.--While these things are being transacted in the conference, it was +announced to Caesar that the cavalry of Ariovistus were approaching +nearer the mound, and were riding up to our men, and casting stones and +weapons at them. Caesar made an end of his speech and betook himself to +his men; and commanded them that they should by no means return a weapon +upon the enemy. For though he saw that an engagement with the cavalry +would be without any danger to his chosen legion, yet he did not think +proper to engage, lest, after the enemy were routed, it might be said +that they had been ensnared by him under the sanction of a conference. +When it was spread abroad among the common soldiery with what +haughtiness Ariovistus had behaved at the conference, and how he had +ordered the Romans to quit Gaul, and how his cavalry had made an attack +upon our men, and how this had broken off the conference, a much greater +alacrity and eagerness for battle was infused into our army. + +XLVII.--Two days after, Ariovistus sends ambassadors to Caesar, to state +"that he wished to treat with him about those things which had been +begun to be treated of between them, but had not been concluded"; [and +to beg] that "he would either again appoint a day for a conference; or, +if he were not willing to do that, that he would send one of his +[officers] as an ambassador to him." There did not appear to Caesar any +good reason for holding a conference; and the more so as the day before +the Germans could not be restrained from casting weapons at our men. He +thought he should not without great danger send to him as ambassador one +of his [Roman] officers, and should expose him to savage men. It seemed +[therefore] most proper to send to him C. Valerius Procillus, the son of +C. Valerius Caburus, a young man of the highest courage and +accomplishments (whose father had been presented with the freedom of the +city by C. Valerius Flaccus), both on account of his fidelity and on +account of his knowledge of the Gallic language, which Ariovistus, by +long practice, now spoke fluently; and because in his case the Germans +would have no motive for committing violence; and [as his colleague] M. +Mettius, who had shared the hospitality of Ariovistus. He commissioned +them to learn what Ariovistus had to say, and to report to him. But when +Ariovistus saw them before him in his camp, he cried out in the presence +of his army, "Why were they come to him? was it for the purpose of +acting as spies?" He stopped them when attempting to speak, and cast +them into chains. + +XLVIII.--The same day he moved his camp forward and pitched under a hill +six miles from Caesar's camp. The day following he led his forces past +Caesar's camp, and encamped two miles beyond him; with this design--that +he might cut off Caesar from, the corn and provisions which might be +conveyed to him from the Sequani and the Aedui. For five successive days +from that day, Caesar drew out his forces before the camp, and put them +in battle order, that, if Ariovistus should be willing to engage in +battle, an opportunity might not be wanting to him. Ariovistus all this +time kept his army in camp: but engaged daily in cavalry skirmishes. The +method of battle in which the Germans had practised themselves was this. +There were 6000 horse, and as many very active and courageous foot, one +of whom each of the horse selected out of the whole army for his own +protection. By these [foot] they were constantly accompanied in their +engagements; to these the horse retired; these on any emergency rushed +forward; if any one, upon receiving a very severe wound, had fallen from +his horse, they stood around him: if it was necessary to advance +farther: than usual, or to retreat more rapidly, so great, from +practice, was their swiftness, that, supported by the manes of the +horses, they could keep pace with their speed. + +XLIX.--Perceiving that Ariovistus kept himself in camp, Caesar, that he +might not any longer be cut off from provisions, chose a convenient +position for a camp beyond that place in which the Germans had encamped, +at about 600 paces from them, and having drawn up his army in three +lines, marched to that place. He ordered the first and second lines to +be under arms; the third to fortify the camp. This place was distant +from the enemy about 600 paces, as has been stated. Thither Ariovistus +sent light troops, about 16,000 men in number, with all his cavalry; +which forces were to intimidate our men, and hinder them in their +fortification. Caesar nevertheless, as he had before arranged, ordered +two lines to drive off the enemy: the third to execute the work. The +camp being fortified, he left there two legions and a portion of the +auxiliaries; and led back the other four legions into the larger camp. + +L.--The next day, according to his custom, Caesar led out his forces +from both camps, and having advanced a little from the larger one, drew +up his line of battle, and gave the enemy an opportunity of fighting. +When he found that they did not even then come out [from their +entrenchments], he led back his army into camp about noon. Then at last +Ariovistus sent part of his forces to attack the lesser camp. The battle +was vigorously maintained on both sides till the evening. At sunset, +after many wounds had been inflicted and received, Ariovistus led back +his forces into camp. When Caesar inquired of his prisoners, wherefore +Ariovistus did not come to an engagement, he discovered this to be the +reason--that among the Germans it was the custom for their matrons to +pronounce from lots and divination whether it were expedient that the +battle should be engaged in or not; that they had said, "that it was not +the will of heaven that the Germans should conquer, if they engaged in +battle before the new moon." + +LI.--The day following, Caesar left what seemed sufficient as a guard +for both camps; [and then] drew up all the auxiliaries in sight of the +enemy, before the lesser camp, because he was not very powerful in the +number of legionary soldiers, considering the number of the enemy; that +[thereby] he might make use of his auxiliaries for appearance. He +himself, having drawn up his army in three lines, advanced to the camp +of the enemy. Then at last of necessity the Germans drew their forces +out of camp, and disposed them canton by canton, at equal distances, the +Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii, Suevi; and +surrounded their whole army with their chariots and waggons, that no +hope might be left in flight. On these they placed their women, who, +with dishevelled hair and in tears, entreated the soldiers, as they went +forward to battle, not to deliver them into slavery to the Romans. + +LII.--Caesar appointed over each legion a lieutenant and a questor, that +every one might have them as witnesses of his valour. He himself began +the battle at the head of the right wing, because he had observed that +part of the enemy to be the least strong. Accordingly our men, upon the +signal being given, vigorously made an attack upon the enemy, and the +enemy so suddenly and rapidly rushed forward, that there was no time for +casting the javelins at them. Throwing aside [therefore] their javelins, +they fought with swords hand to hand. But the Germans, according to +their custom, rapidly forming a phalanx, sustained the attack of our +swords. There were found very many of our soldiers who leaped upon the +phalanx, and with their hands tore away the shields, and wounded the +enemy from above. Although the army of the enemy was routed on the left +wing and put to flight, they [still] pressed heavily on our men from the +right wing, by the great number of their troops. On observing which, P. +Crassus, a young man, who commanded the cavalry--as he was more +disengaged than those who were employed in the fight--sent the third +line as a relief to our men who were in distress. + +LIII.--Thereupon the engagement was renewed, and all the enemy turned +their backs, nor did they cease to flee until they arrived at the river +Rhine, about fifty miles from that place. There some few, either relying +on their strength, endeavoured to swim over, or, finding boats, procured +their safety. Among the latter was Ariovistus, who meeting with a small +vessel tied to the bank, escaped in it: our horse pursued and slew all +the rest of them. Ariovistus had two wives, one a Suevan by nation, whom +he had brought with him from home; the other a Norican, the sister of +king Vocion, whom he had married in Gaul, she having been sent [thither +for that purpose] by her brother. Both perished in that flight. Of their +two daughters, one was slain, the other captured. C. Valerius Procillus, +as he was being dragged by his guards in the flight, bound with a triple +chain, fell into the hands of Caesar himself, as he was pursuing the +enemy with his cavalry. This circumstance indeed afforded Caesar no less +pleasure than the victory itself; because he saw a man of the first rank +in the province of Gaul, his intimate acquaintance and friend, rescued +from the hand of the enemy, and restored to him, and that fortune had +not diminished aught of the joy and exultation [of that day] by his +destruction. He [Procillus] said that in his own presence the lots had +been thrice consulted respecting him, whether he should immediately be +put to death by fire, or be reserved for another time: that by the +favour of the lots he was uninjured. M. Mettius, also, was found and +brought back to him [Caesar]. + +LIV.--This battle having been reported beyond the Rhine, the Suevi, who +had come to the banks of that river, began to return home, when the +Ubii, who dwelt nearest to the Rhine, pursuing them, while much alarmed, +slew a great number of them. Caesar having concluded two very important +wars in one campaign, conducted his army into winter quarters among the +Sequani, a little earlier than the season of the year required. He +appointed Labienus over the winter quarters, and set out in person for +Hither Gaul to hold the assizes. + + + +BOOK II + +I.--While Caesar was in winter quarters in Hither Gaul, as we have shown +above, frequent reports were brought to him, and he was also informed by +letters from Labienus, that all the Belgae, who we have said are a third +part of Gaul, were entering into a confederacy against the Roman people, +and giving hostages to one another; that the reasons of the confederacy +were these--first, because they feared that, after all [Celtic] Gaul was +subdued, our army would be led against them; secondly, because they were +instigated by several of the Gauls; some of whom as [on the one hand] +they had been unwilling that the Germans should remain any longer in +Gaul, so [on the other] they were dissatisfied that the army of the +Roman people should pass the winter in it, and settle there; and others +of them, from a natural instability and fickleness of disposition, were +anxious for a revolution; [the Belgae were instigated] by several, also, +because the government in Gaul was generally seized upon by the more +powerful persons and by those who had the means of hiring troops, and +they could less easily effect this object under our dominion. + +II.--Alarmed by these tidings and letters, Caesar levied two new legions +in Hither Gaul, and, at the beginning of summer, sent Q. Pedius, his +lieutenant, to conduct them further into Gaul. He himself, as soon as +there began to be plenty of forage, came to the army. He gives a +commission to the Senones and the other Gauls who were neighbours of the +Belgae, to learn what is going on amongst them [_i.e._ the Belgae], and +inform him of these matters. These all uniformly reported that troops +were being raised, and that an army was being collected in one place. +Then, indeed, he thought that he ought not to hesitate about proceeding +towards them, and having provided supplies, moves his camp, and in about +fifteen days arrives at the territories of the Belgae. + +III.--As he arrived there unexpectedly and sooner than any one +anticipated, the Remi, who are the nearest of the Belgae to [Celtic] +Gaul, sent to him Iccius and Antebrogius, [two of] the principal persons +of the state, as their ambassadors: to tell him that they surrendered +themselves and all their possessions to the protection and disposal of +the Roman people: and that they had neither combined with the rest of +the Belgae, nor entered into any confederacy against the Roman people: +and were prepared to give hostages, to obey his commands, to receive him +into their towns, and to aid him with corn and other things; that all +the rest of the Belgae were in arms; and that the Germans, who dwell on +this side the Rhine, had joined themselves to them; and that so great +was the infatuation of them all that they could not restrain even the +Suessiones, their own brethren and kinsmen, who enjoy the same rights, +and the same laws, and who have one government and one magistracy [in +common] with themselves, from uniting with them. + +IV.--When Caesar inquired of them what states were in arms, how powerful +they were, and what they could do in war, he received the following +information: that the greater part of the Belgae were sprung from the +Germans, and that having crossed the Rhine at an early period, they had +settled there, on account of the fertility of the country, and had +driven out the Gauls who inhabited those regions; and that they were the +only people who, in the memory of our fathers, when all Gaul was +overrun, had prevented the Teutones and the Cimbri from entering their +territories; the effect of which was that, from the recollection of +those events, they assumed to themselves great authority and haughtiness +in military matters. The Remi said that they had known accurately +everything respecting their number, because, being united to them by +neighbourhood and by alliances, they had learnt what number each state +had in the general council of the Belgae promised for that war. That the +Bellovaci were the most powerful amongst them in valour, influence, and +number of men; that these could muster 100,000 armed men, [and had] +promised 60,000 picked men out of that number, and demanded for +themselves the command of the whole war. That the Suessiones were their +nearest neighbours and possessed a very extensive and fertile country; +that among them, even in our own memory, Divitiacus, the most powerful +man of all Gaul, had been king; who had held the government of a great +part of these regions, as well as of Britain; that their king at present +was Galba; that the direction of the whole war was conferred by the +consent of all upon him, on account of his integrity and prudence; that +they had twelve towns; that they had promised 50,000 armed men; and that +the Nervii, who are reckoned the most warlike among them, and are +situated at a very great distance, [had promised] as many; the +Atrebates, 15,000; the Ambiani, 10,000; the Morini, 25,000; the Menapu, +9000; the Caleti, 10,000; the Velocasses and the Veromandui as many; the +Aduatuci, 19,000; that the Condrusi, the Eburones, the Caeraesi, the +Paemani, who are called by the common name of Germans, [had promised], +they thought, to the number of 40,000. + +V.--Caesar, having encouraged the Remi, and addressed them courteously, +ordered the whole senate to assemble before him, and the children of +their chief men to be brought to him as hostages; all which commands +they punctually performed by the day [appointed]. He, addressing himself +to Divitiacus the Aeduan, with great earnestness, points out how much it +concerns the republic and their common security, that the forces of the +enemy should be divided, so that it might not be necessary to engage +with so large a number at one time. [He asserts] that this might be +effected if the Aedui would lead their forces into the territories of +the Bellovaci, and begin to lay waste their country. With these +instructions he dismissed him from his presence. After he perceived that +all the forces of the Belgae, which had been collected in one place, +were approaching towards him, and learnt from the scouts whom he had +sent out, and [also] from the Remi, that they were not then far distant, +he hastened to lead his army over the Aisne, which is on the borders of +the Remi, and there pitched his camp. This position fortified one side +of his camp by the banks of the river, rendered the country which lay in +his rear secure from the enemy, and furthermore ensured that provisions +might without danger be brought to him by the Remi and the rest of the +states. Over that river was a bridge: there he places a guard; and on +the other side of the river he leaves Q. Titurus Sabinus, his +lieutenant, with six cohorts. He orders him to fortify a camp with a +rampart twelve feet in height, and a trench eighteen feet in breadth. + +VI.--There was a town of the Remi, by name Bibrax, eight miles distant +from this camp. This the Belgae on their march began to attack with +great vigour. [The assault] was with difficulty sustained for that day. +The Gauls' mode of besieging is the same as that of the Belgae: when +after having drawn a large number of men around the whole of the +fortifications, stones have begun to be cast against the wall on all +sides, and the wall has been stript of its defenders, [then], forming a +testudo, they advance to the gates and undermine the wall: which was +easily effected on this occasion; for while so large a number were +casting stones and darts, no one was able to maintain his position upon +the wall. When night had put an end to the assault, Iccius, who was then +in command of the town, one of the Remi, a man of the highest rank and +influence amongst his people, and one of those who had come to Caesar as +ambassador [to sue] for a peace, sends messengers to him, [to report] +"That, unless assistance were sent to him, he could not hold out any +longer." + +VII.--Thither immediately after midnight, Caesar, using as guides the +same persons who had come to him as messengers from Iccius, sends some +Numidian and Cretan archers, and some Balearian slingers as a relief to +the townspeople, by whose arrival both a desire to resist together with +the hope of [making good their] defence was infused into the Remi, and, +for the same reason, the hope of gaining the town abandoned the enemy. +Therefore, after staying a short time before the town, and laying waste +the country of the Remi, when all the villages and buildings which they +could approach had been burnt, they hastened with all their forces to +the camp of Caesar, and encamped within less than two miles [of it]; and +their camp, as was indicated by the smoke and fires, extended more than +eight miles in breadth. + +VIII.--Caesar at first determined to decline a battle, as well on +account of the great number of the enemy as their distinguished +reputation for valour: daily, however, in cavalry actions, he strove to +ascertain by frequent trials what the enemy could effect by their +prowess and what our men would dare. When he perceived that our men were +not inferior, as the place before the camp was naturally convenient and +suitable for marshalling an army (since the hill where the camp was +pitched, rising gradually from the plain, extended forward in breadth as +far as the space which the marshalled army could occupy, and had steep +declines of its side in either direction, and gently sloping in front +gradually sank to the plain), on either side of that hill he drew a +cross trench of about four hundred paces, and at the extremities of that +trench built forts, and placed there his military engines, lest, after +he had marshalled his army, the enemy, since they were so powerful in +point of number, should be able to surround his men in the flank, while +fighting. After doing this, and leaving in the camp the two legions +which he had last raised, that, if there should be any occasion, they +might be brought as a reserve, he formed the other six legions in order +of battle before the camp. The enemy, likewise, had drawn up their +forces which they had brought out of the camp. + +IX.--There was a marsh of no great extent between our army and that of +the enemy. The latter were waiting to see if our men would pass this; +our men, also, were ready in arms to attack them while disordered, if +the first attempt to pass should be made by them. In the meantime battle +was commenced between the two armies by a cavalry action. When neither +army began to pass the marsh, Caesar, upon the skirmishes of the horse +[proving] favourable to our men, led back his forces into the camp. The +enemy immediately hastened from that place to the river Aisne, which it +has been stated was behind our camp. Finding a ford there, they +endeavoured to lead a part of their forces over it; with the design, +that, if they could, they might carry by storm the fort which Q. +Titurius, Caesar's lieutenant, commanded, and might cut off the bridge; +but, if they could not do that, they should lay waste the lands of the +Remi, which were of great use to us in carrying on the war, and might +hinder our men from foraging. + +X.--Caesar, being apprised of this by Titurius, leads all his cavalry +and light-armed Numidians, slingers and archers, over the bridge, and +hastens towards them. There was a severe struggle in that place. Our +men, attacking in the river the disordered enemy, slew a great part of +them. By the immense number of their missiles they drove back the rest, +who in a most courageous manner were attempting to pass over their +bodies, and surrounded with their cavalry, and cut to pieces those who +had first crossed the river. The enemy, when they perceived that their +hopes had deceived them both with regard to their taking the town by +storm and also their passing the river, and did not see our men advance +to a more disadvantageous place for the purpose of fighting, and when +provisions began to fail them, having called a council, determined that +it was best for each to return to his country, and resolved to assemble +from all quarters to defend those into whose territories the Romans +should first march an army; that they might contend in their own rather +than in a foreign country, and might enjoy the stores of provisions +which they possessed at home. Together with other causes, this +consideration also led them to that resolution, viz.: that they had +learnt that Divitiacus and the Aedui were approaching the territories of +the Bellovaci. And it was impossible to persuade the latter to stay any +longer, or to deter them from conveying succour to their own people. + +XI.--That matter being determined on, marching out of their camp at the +second watch, with great noise and confusion, in no fixed order, nor +under any command, since each sought for himself the foremost place in +the journey, and hastened to reach home, they made their departure +appear very like a flight. Caesar, immediately learning this through his +scouts, [but] fearing an ambuscade, because he had not yet discovered +for what reason they were departing, kept his army and cavalry within +the camp. At daybreak, the intelligence having been confirmed by the +scouts, he sent forward his cavalry to harass their rear; and gave the +command of it to two of his lieutenants, Q. Pedius, and L. Aurunculeius +Cotta. He ordered T. Labienus, another of his lieutenants, to follow +them closely with three legions. These, attacking their rear, and +pursuing them for many miles, slew a great number of them as they were +fleeing; while those in the rear with whom they had come up, halted, and +bravely sustained the attack of our soldiers; the van, because they +appeared to be removed from danger, and were not restrained by any +necessity or command, as soon as the noise was heard, broke their ranks, +and, to a man, rested their safety in flight. Thus without any risk [to +themselves] our men killed as great a number of them as the length of +the day allowed; and at sunset desisted from the pursuit, and betook +themselves into the camp, as they had been commanded. + +XII.--On the day following, before the enemy could recover from their +terror and flight, Caesar led his army into the territories of the +Suessiones, which are next to the Remi, and having accomplished a long +march, hastens to the town named Noviodunum. Having attempted to take it +by storm on his march, because he heard that it was destitute of +[sufficient] defenders, he was not able to carry it by assault, on +account of the breadth of the ditch and the height of the wall, though +few were defending it. Therefore, having fortified the camp, he began to +bring up the vineae, and to provide whatever things were necessary for +the storm. In the meantime, the whole body of the Suessiones, after +their flight, came the next night into the town. The vineae having been +quickly brought up against the town, a mound thrown up, and towers +built, the Gauls, amazed by the greatness of the works, such as they had +neither seen nor heard of before, and struck, also, by the despatch of +the Romans, send ambassadors to Caesar respecting a surrender, and +succeed in consequence of the Remi requesting that they [the Suessiones] +might be spared. + +XIII.--Caesar, having received as hostages the first men of the state, +and even the two sons of king Galba himself; and all the arms in the +town having been delivered up, admitted the Suessiones to a surrender, +and led his army against the Bellovaci. Who, when they had conveyed +themselves and all their possessions into the town called Bratuspantium, +and Caesar with his army was about five miles distant from that town, +all the old men, going out of the town, began to stretch out their hands +to Caesar, and to intimate by their voice that they would throw +themselves on his protection and power, nor would contend in arms +against the Roman people. In like manner, when he had come up to the +town, and there pitched his camp, the boys and the women from the wall, +with outstretched hands, after their custom, begged peace from the +Romans. + +XIV.--For these Divitiacus pleads (for after the departure of the +Belgae, having dismissed the troops of the Aedui, he had returned to +Caesar). "The Bellovaci had at all times been in the alliance and +friendship of the Aeduan state; that they had revolted from the Aedui +and made war upon the Roman people, being urged thereto by their nobles, +who said that the Aedui, reduced to slavery by Caesar, were suffering +every indignity and insult. That they who had been the leaders of that +plot, because they perceived how great a calamity they had brought upon +the state, had fled into Britain. That not only the Bellovaci, but also +the Aedui, entreated him to use his [accustomed] clemency and lenity +towards them [the Bellovaci]: which if he did, he would increase the +influence of the Aedui among all the Belgae, by whose succour and +resources they had been accustomed to support themselves whenever any +wars occurred." + +XV.--Caesar said that on account of his respect for Divitiacus and the +Aeduans, he would receive them into his protection, and would spare +them; but, because the state was of great influence among the Belgae, +and pre-eminent in the number of its population, he demanded 600 +hostages. When these were delivered, and all the arms in the town +collected, he went from that place into the territories of the Ambiani, +who, without delay, surrendered themselves and all their possessions. +Upon their territories bordered the Nervii, concerning whose character +and customs when Caesar inquired he received the following information: +--That "there was no access for merchants to them; that they suffered no +wine and other things tending to luxury to be imported; because they +thought that by their use the mind is enervated and the courage +impaired: that they were a savage people and of great bravery: that they +upbraided and condemned the rest of the Belgae who had surrendered +themselves to the Roman people and thrown aside their national courage: +that they openly declared they would neither send ambassadors, nor +accept any condition of peace." + +XVI.--After he had made three days' march through their territories, he +discovered from some prisoners, that the river Sambre was not more than +ten miles from his camp: that all the Nervii had stationed themselves on +the other side of that river, and together with the Atrebates and the +Veromandui, their neighbours, were there awaiting the arrival of the +Romans; for they had persuaded both these nations to try the same +fortune of war [as themselves]: that the forces of the Aduatuci were +also expected by them, and were on their march; that they had put their +women, and those who through age appeared useless for war, in a place to +which there was no approach for an army, on account of the marshes. + +XVII.--Having learnt these things, he sends forward scouts and +centurions to choose a convenient place for the camp. And as a great +many of the surrounding Belgae and other Gauls, following Caesar, +marched with him; some of these, as was afterwards learnt from the +prisoners, having accurately observed, during those days, the army's +method of marching, went by night to the Nervii, and informed them that +a great number of baggage-trains passed between the several legions, and +that there would be no difficulty, when the first legion had come into +the camp, and the other legions were at a great distance, to attack that +legion while under baggage, which being routed, and the baggage-train +seized, it would come to pass that the other legions would not dare to +stand their ground. It added weight also to the advice of those who +reported that circumstance, that the Nervii, from early times, because +they were weak in cavalry (for not even at this time do they attend to +it, but accomplish by their infantry whatever they can), in order that +they might the more easily obstruct the cavalry of their neighbours if +they came upon them for the purpose of plundering, having cut young +trees, and bent them, by means of their numerous branches [extending] on +to the sides, and the quick-briars and thorns springing up between them, +had made these hedges present a fortification like a wall, through which +it was not only impossible to enter, but even to penetrate with the eye. +Since [therefore] the march of our army would be obstructed by these +things, the Nervii thought that the advice ought not to be neglected by +them. + +XVIII.--The nature of the ground which our men had chosen for the camp +was this: A hill, declining evenly from the top, extended to the river +Sambre, which we have mentioned above: from this river there arose a +[second] hill of like ascent, on the other side and opposite to the +former, and open from about 200 paces at the lowest part; but in the +upper part, woody, (so much so) that it was not easy to see through it +into the interior. Within those woods the enemy kept themselves in +concealment; a few troops of horse-soldiers appeared on the open ground, +along the river. The depth of the river was about three feet. + +XIX.--Caesar, having sent his cavalry on before, followed close after +them with all his forces; but the plan and order of the march was +different from that which the Belgae had reported to the Nervii. For as +he was approaching the enemy Caesar, according to his custom, led on [as +the van] six legions unencumbered by baggage; behind them he had placed +the baggage-trains of the whole army; then the two legions which had +been last raised closed the rear, and were a guard for the baggage-train. +Our horse, with the slingers and archers, having passed the river, +commenced action with the cavalry of the enemy. While they from +time to time betook themselves into the woods to their companions, and +again made an assault out of the wood upon our men, who did not dare to +follow them in their retreat further than the limit to which the plain +and open parts extended, in the meantime the six legions which had +arrived first, having measured out the work, began to fortify the camp. +When the first part of the baggage-train of our army was seen by those +who lay hid in the woods, which had been agreed on among them as the +time for commencing action, as soon as they had arranged their line of +battle and formed their ranks within the woods, and had encouraged one +another, they rushed out suddenly with all their forces and made an +attack upon our horse. The latter being easily routed and thrown into +confusion, the Nervii ran down to the river with such incredible speed +that they seemed to be in the woods, the river, and close upon us almost +at the same time. And with the same speed they hastened up the hill to +our camp and to those who were employed in the works. + +XX.--Caesar had everything to do at one time: the standard to be +displayed, which was the sign when it was necessary to run to arms; the +signal to be given by the trumpet; the soldiers to be called off from +the works; those who had proceeded some distance for the purpose of +seeking materials for the rampart, to be summoned; the order of battle +to be formed; the soldiers to be encouraged; the watchword to be given. +A great part of these arrangements was prevented by the shortness of +time and the sudden approach and charge of the enemy. Under these +difficulties two things proved of advantage; [first] the skill and +experience of the soldiers, because, having been trained by former +engagements, they could suggest to themselves what ought to be done, as +conveniently as receive information from others; and [secondly] that +Caesar had forbidden his several lieutenants to depart from the works +and their respective legions, before the camp was fortified. These, on +account of the near approach and the speed of the enemy, did not then +wait for any command from Caesar, but of themselves executed whatever +appeared proper. + +XXI.--Caesar, having given the necessary orders, hastened to and fro +into whatever quarter fortune carried him to animate the troops, and +came to the tenth legion. Having encouraged the soldiers with no further +speech than that "they should keep up the remembrance of their wonted +valour, and not be confused in mind, but valiantly sustain the assault +of the enemy"; as the latter were not farther from them than the +distance to which a dart could be cast, he gave the signal for +commencing battle. And having gone to another quarter for the purpose of +encouraging [the soldiers], he finds them fighting. Such was the +shortness of the time, and so determined was the mind of the enemy on +fighting, that time was wanting not only for affixing the military +insignia, but even for putting on the helmets and drawing off the covers +from the shields. To whatever part any one by chance came from the works +(in which he had been employed), and whatever standards he saw first, at +these he stood, lest in seeking his own company he should lose the time +for fighting. + +XXII.--The army having been marshalled, rather as the nature of the +ground and the declivity of the hill and the exigency of the time, than +as the method and order of military matters required; whilst the legions +in the different places were withstanding the enemy, some in one +quarter, some in another, and the view was obstructed by the very thick +hedges intervening, as we have before remarked, neither could proper +reserves be posted, nor could the necessary measures be taken in each +part, nor could all the commands be issued by one person. Therefore, in +such an unfavourable state of affairs, various events of fortune +followed. + +XXIII.--The soldiers of the ninth and tenth legions, as they had been +stationed on the left part of the army, casting their weapons, speedily +drove the Atrebates (for that division had been opposed to them), who +were breathless with running and fatigue, and worn out with wounds, from +the higher ground into the river; and following them as they were +endeavouring to pass it, slew with their swords a great part of them +while impeded (therein). They themselves did not hesitate to pass the +river; and having advanced to a disadvantageous place, when the battle +was renewed, they [nevertheless] again put to flight the enemy, who had +returned and were opposing them. In like manner, in another quarter two +different legions, the eleventh and the eighth, having routed the +Veromandui, with whom they had engaged, were fighting from the higher +ground upon the very banks of the river. But, almost the whole camp on +the front and on the left side being then exposed, since the twelfth +legion was posted in the right wing, and the seventh at no great +distance from it, all the Nervii, in a very close body, with +Boduognatus, who held the chief command, as their leader, hastened +towards that place; and part of them began to surround the legions on +their unprotected flank, part to make for the highest point of the +encampment. + +XXIV.--At the same time our horsemen, and light-armed infantry, who had +been with those who, as I have related, were routed by the first assault +of the enemy, as they were betaking themselves into the camp, met the +enemy face to face, and again sought flight into another quarter; and +the camp-followers who from the Decuman Gate and from the highest ridge +of the hill had seen our men pass the river as victors, when, after +going out for the purposes of plundering, they looked back and saw the +enemy parading in our camp, committed themselves precipitately to +flight; at the same time there arose the cry and shout of those who came +with the baggage-train; and they (affrighted) were carried some one way, +some another. By all these circumstances the cavalry of the Treviri were +much alarmed (whose reputation for courage is extraordinary among the +Gauls, and who had come to Caesar, being sent by their state as +auxiliaries), and, when they saw our camp filled with a large number of +the enemy, the legions hard pressed and almost held surrounded, the +camp-retainers, horsemen, slingers, and Numidians fleeing on all sides +divided and scattered, they, despairing of our affairs, hastened home, +and related to their state that the Romans were routed and conquered, +[and] that the enemy were in possession of their camp and baggage-train. + +XXV.--Caesar proceeded, after encouraging the tenth legion, to the right +wing; where he perceived that his men were hard pressed, and that in +consequence of the standards of the twelfth legion being collected +together in one place, the crowded soldiers were a hindrance to +themselves in the fight; that all the centurions of the fourth cohort +were slain, and the standard-bearer killed, the standard itself lost, +almost all the centurions of the other cohorts either wounded or slain, +and among them the chief centurion of the legion, P. Sextius Baculus, a +very valiant man, who was so exhausted by many and severe wounds, that +he was already unable to support himself; he likewise perceived that the +rest were slackening their efforts, and that some, deserted by those in +the rear, were retiring from the battle and avoiding the weapons; that +the enemy [on the other hand], though advancing from the lower ground, +were not relaxing in front, and were [at the same time] pressing hard on +both flanks; he also perceived that the affair was at a crisis, and that +there was not any reserve which could be brought up; having therefore +snatched a shield from one of the soldiers in the rear (for he himself +had come without a shield), he advanced to the front of the line, and +addressing the centurions by name, and encouraging the rest of the +soldiers, he ordered them to carry forward the standards, and extend the +companies, that they might the more easily use their swords. On his +arrival, as hope was brought to the soldiers and their courage restored, +whilst every one for his own part, in the sight of his general, desired +to exert his utmost energy, the impetuosity of the enemy was a little +checked. + +XXVI.--Caesar, when he perceived that the seventh legion, which stood +close by him, was also hard pressed by the enemy, directed the tribunes +of the soldiers to effect a junction of the legions gradually, and make +their charge upon the enemy with a double front; which having been done, +since they brought assistance the one to the other, nor feared lest +their rear should be surrounded by the enemy, they began to stand their +ground more boldly, and to fight more courageously. In the meantime, the +soldiers of the two legions which had been in the rear of the army, as a +guard for the baggage-train, upon the battle being reported to them, +quickened their pace, and were seen by the enemy on the top of the hill; +and Titus Labienus, having gained possession of the camp of the enemy, +and observed from the higher ground what was going on in our camp, sent +the tenth legion as a relief to our men, who, when they had learnt from +the flight of the horse and the sutlers in what position the affair was, +and in how great danger the camp and the legion and the commander were +involved, left undone nothing [which tended] to despatch. + +XXVI.--By their arrival, so great a change of matters was made, that our +men, even those who had fallen down exhausted with wounds, leant on +their shields, and renewed the fight: then the camp-retainers, though +unarmed, seeing the enemy completely dismayed, attacked [them though] +armed; the horsemen too, that they might by their valour blot out the +disgrace of their flight, thrust themselves before the legionary +soldiers in all parts of the battle. But the enemy, even in the last +hope of safety, displayed such great courage that when the foremost of +them had fallen, the next stood upon them prostrate, and fought from +their bodies; when these were overthrown, and their corpses heaped up +together, those who survived cast their weapons against our men +[thence], as from a mound, and returned our darts which had fallen +between [the armies]; so that it ought not to be concluded, that men of +such great courage had injudiciously dared to pass a very broad river, +ascend very high banks, and come up to a very disadvantageous place; +since their greatness of spirit had rendered these actions easy, +although in themselves very difficult. + +XXVIII.--This battle being ended, and the nation and name of the Nervii +being almost reduced to annihilation, their old men, whom together with +the boys and women we have stated to have been collected together in the +fenny places and marshes, on this battle having been reported to them, +since they were convinced that nothing was an obstacle to the +conquerors, and nothing safe to the conquered, sent ambassadors to +Caesar by the consent of all who remained, and surrendered themselves to +him; and in recounting the calamity of their state, said that their +senators were reduced from 600 to three; that from 60,000 men they [were +reduced] to scarcely 500 who could bear arms; whom Caesar, that he might +appear to use compassion towards the wretched and the suppliant, most +carefully spared; and ordered them to enjoy their own territories and +towns, and commanded their neighbours that they should restrain +themselves and their dependants from offering injury or outrage [to +them]. + +XXIX.--When the Aduatuci, of whom we have written above, were coming +with all their forces to the assistance of the Nervii, upon this battle +being reported to them, they returned home after they were on the march; +deserting all their towns and forts, they conveyed together all their +possessions into one town, eminently fortified by nature. While this +town had on all sides around it very high rocks and precipices, there +was left on one side a gently ascending approach, of not more than 200 +feet in width; which place they had fortified with a very lofty double +wall: besides, they had placed stones of great weight and sharpened +stakes upon the walls. They were descended from the Cimbri and Teutones, +who, when they were marching into our province and Italy, having +deposited on this side the river Rhine such of their baggage-trains as +they could not drive or convey with them, left 6000 of their men as a +guard and defence for them. These having, after the destruction of their +countrymen, been harassed for many years by their neighbours, while one +time they waged war offensively, and at another resisted it when waged +against them, concluded a peace with the consent of all, and chose this +place as their settlement. + +XXX.--And on the first arrival of our army they made frequent sallies +from the town, and contended with our men in trifling skirmishes: +afterwards, when hemmed in by a rampart of twelve feet [in height], and +fifteen miles in circuit, they kept themselves within the town. When, +vineae having been brought up and a mound raised, they observed that a +tower also was being built at a distance, they at first began to mock +the Romans from their wall, and to taunt them with the following +speeches. "For what purpose was so vast a machine constructed at so +great a distance?" "With what hands," or "with what strength did they, +especially [as they were] men of such very small stature" (for our +shortness of stature, in comparison with the great size of their bodies, +is generally a subject of much contempt to the men of Gaul), "trust to +place against their walls a tower of such great weight." + +XXXI.--But when they saw that it was being moved, and was approaching +their walls, startled by the new and unaccustomed sight, they sent +ambassadors to Caesar [to treat] about peace; who spoke in the following +manner: "That they did not believe the Romans waged war without divine +aid, since they were able to move forward machines of such a height with +so great speed, and thus fight from close quarters: that they resigned +themselves and all their possessions to [Caesar's] disposal: that they +begged and earnestly entreated one thing, viz., that if perchance, +agreeably to his clemency and humanity, which they had heard of from +others, he should resolve that the Aduatuci were to be spared, he would +not deprive them of their arms; that all their neighbours were enemies +to them and envied their courage, from whom they could not defend +themselves if their arms were delivered up: that it was better for them, +if they should be reduced to that state, to suffer any fate from the +Roman people, than to be tortured to death by those among whom they had +been accustomed to rule." + +XXXII.--To these things Caesar replied, "That he, in accordance with his +custom, rather than owing to their desert, should spare the state, if +they should surrender themselves before the battering-ram should touch +the wall; but that there was no condition of surrender, except upon +their arms being delivered up; that he should do to them that which he +had done in the case of the Nervii, and would command their neighbours +not to offer any injury to those who had surrendered to the Roman +people." The matter being reported to their countrymen, they said that +they would execute his commands. Having cast a very large quantity of +their arms from the wall into the trench which was before the town, so +that the heaps of arms almost equalled the top of the wall and the +rampart, and nevertheless having retained and concealed, as we +afterwards discovered, about a third part in the town, the gates were +opened, and they enjoyed peace for that day. + +XXXIII.--Towards evening Caesar ordered the gates to be shut, and the +soldiers to go out of the town, lest the townspeople should receive any +injury from them by night. They [the Aduatuci], by a design before +entered into, as we afterwards understood, because they believed that, +as a surrender had been made, our men would dismiss their guards, or at +least would keep watch less carefully, partly with those arms which they +had retained and concealed, partly with shields made of bark or +interwoven wickers, which they had hastily covered over with skins (as +the shortness of time required) in the third watch, suddenly made a +sally from the town with all their forces [in that direction] in which +the ascent to our fortifications seemed the least difficult. The signal +having been immediately given by fires, as Caesar had previously +commanded, a rush was made thither [_i.e._ by the Roman soldiers] from +the nearest fort; and the battle was fought by the enemy as vigorously +as it ought to be fought by brave men, in the last hope of safety, in a +disadvantageous place, and against those who were throwing their weapons +from a rampart and from towers; since all hope of safety depended on +their courage alone. About 4000 of the men having been slain, the rest +were forced back into the town. The day after, Caesar, after breaking +open the gates, which there was no one then to defend, and sending in +our soldiers, sold the whole spoil of that town. The number of 53,000 +persons was reported to him by those who had bought them. + +XXXIV.--At the same time he was informed by P. Crassus, whom he had sent +with one legion against the Veneti, the Unelli, the Osismii, the +Curiosolitae, the Sesuvii, the Aulerci, and the Rhedones, which are +maritime states, and touch upon the [Atlantic] ocean, that all these +nations were brought under the dominion and power of the Roman people. + +XXXV.--These things being achieved, [and] all Gaul being subdued, so +high an opinion of this war was spread among the barbarians, that +ambassadors were sent to Caesar by those nations who dwelt beyond the +Rhine, to promise that they would give hostages and execute his +commands. Which embassies Caesar, because he was hastening into Italy +and Illyricum, ordered to return to him at the beginning of the +following summer. He himself, having led his legions into winter-quarters +among the Carnutes, the Andes, and the Turones, which states +were close to those regions in which he had waged war, set out for +Italy; and a thanksgiving of fifteen days was decreed for those +achievements, upon receiving Caesar's letter; [an honour] which before +that time had been conferred on none. + + + +BOOK III + +I.--When Caesar was setting out for Italy, he sent Servius Galba with +the twelfth legion and part of the cavalry against the Nantuates, the +Veragri, and Seduni, who extend from the territories of the Allobroges, +and the lake of Geneva, and the river Rhone to the top of the Alps. The +reason for sending him was, that he desired that the pass along the +Alps, through which [the Roman] merchants had been accustomed to travel +with great danger, and under great imposts, should be opened. He +permitted him, if he thought it necessary, to station the legion in +these places, for the purpose of wintering. Galba having fought some +successful battles, and stormed several of their forts, upon ambassadors +being sent to him from all parts and hostages given and a peace +concluded, determined to station two cohorts among the Nantuates, and to +winter in person with the other cohorts of that legion in a village of +the Veragri, which is called Octodurus; and this village being situated +in a valley, with a small plain annexed to it, is bounded on all sides +by very high mountains. As this village was divided into two parts by a +river, he granted one part of it to the Gauls, and assigned the other, +which had been left by them unoccupied, to the cohorts to winter in. He +fortified this [latter] part with a rampart and a ditch. + +II.--When several days had elapsed in winter quarters, and he had +ordered corn to be brought in, he was suddenly informed by his scouts +that all the people had gone off in the night from that part of the town +which he had given up to the Gauls, and that the mountains which hung +over it were occupied by a very large force of the Sedani and Veragri. +It had happened for several reasons that the Gauls suddenly formed the +design of renewing the war and cutting off that legion. First, because +they despised a single legion, on account of its small number, and that +not quite full (two cohorts having been detached, and several +individuals being absent, who had been despatched for the purpose of +seeking provision); then, likewise, because they thought that on account +of the disadvantageous character of the situation, even their first +attack could not be sustained [by us] when they would rush from the +mountains into the valley, and discharge their weapons upon us. To this +was added, that they were indignant that their children were torn from +them under the title of hostages, and they were persuaded that the +Romans designed to seize upon the summits of the Alps, and unite those +parts to the neighbouring province [of Gaul], not only to secure the +passes, but also as a constant possession. + +III.--Having received these tidings, Galba, since the works of the +winter quarters and the fortifications were not fully completed, nor was +sufficient preparation made with regard to corn and other provisions +(since, as a surrender had been made, and hostages received, he had +thought he need entertain no apprehension of a war), speedily summoning +a council, began to anxiously inquire their opinions. In which council, +since so much sudden danger had happened contrary to the general +expectation, and almost all the higher places were seen already covered +with a multitude of armed men, nor could [either] troops come to their +relief, or provisions be brought in, as the passes were blocked up [by +the enemy]; safety being now nearly despaired of, some opinions of this +sort were delivered; that, "leaving their baggage, and making a sally, +they should hasten away for safety by the same routes by which they had +come thither." To the greater part, however, it seemed best, reserving +that measure to the last, to await the issue of the matter, and to +defend the camp. + +IV.--A short time only having elapsed, so that time was scarcely given +for arranging and executing those things which they had determined on, +the enemy, upon the signal being given, rushed down [upon our men] from +all parts, and discharged stones and darts upon our rampart. Our men at +first, while their strength was fresh, resisted bravely, nor did they +cast any weapon ineffectually from their higher station. As soon as any +part of the camp, being destitute of defenders, seemed to be hard +pressed, thither they ran, and brought assistance. But they were +over-matched in this, that the enemy when wearied by the long continuance +of the battle, went out of the action, and others with fresh strength +came in their place; none of which things could be done by our men, owing +to the smallness of their number; and not only was permission not given +to the wearied [Roman] to retire from the fight, but not even to the +wounded [was liberty granted] to quit the post where he had been +stationed, and recover. + +V.--When they had now been fighting for more than six hours, without +cessation, and not only strength, but even weapons were failing our men, +and the enemy were pressing on more rigorously, and had begun to +demolish the rampart and to fill up the trench, while our men were +becoming exhausted, and the matter was now brought to the last +extremity, P. Sextius Baculus, a centurion of the first rank, whom we +have related to have been disabled by severe wounds in the engagement +with the Nervii, and also C. Volusenus, a tribune of the soldiers, a man +of great skill and valour, hasten to Galba, and assure him that the only +hope of safety lay in making a sally, and trying the last resource. +Whereupon, assembling the centurions, he quickly gives orders to the +soldiers to discontinue the fight a short time, and only collect the +weapons flung [at them], and recruit themselves after their fatigue, and +afterwards, upon the signal being given, sally forth from the camp, and +place in their valour all their hope of safety. + +VI.--They do what they were ordered; and, making a sudden sally from all +the gates [of the camp], leave the enemy the means neither of knowing +what was taking place, nor of collecting themselves. Fortune thus taking +a turn, [our men] surround on every side, and slay those who had +entertained the hope of gaining the camp, and having killed more than +the third part of an army of more than 30,000 men (which number of the +barbarians it appeared certain had come up to our camp), put to flight +the rest when panic-stricken, and do not suffer them to halt even upon +the higher grounds. All the forces of the enemy being thus routed, and +stripped of their arms, [our men] betake themselves to their camp and +fortifications. Which battle being finished, inasmuch as Galba was +unwilling to tempt fortune again, and remembered that he had come into +winter quarters with one design, and saw that he had met with a +different state of affairs; chiefly however urged by the want of corn +and provision, having the next day burned all the buildings of that +village, he hastens to return into the province; and as no enemy opposed +or hindered his march, he brought the legion safe into the [country of +the] Nantuates, thence into [that of] the Allobroges, and there +wintered. + +VII.--These things being achieved, while Caesar had every reason to +suppose that Gaul was reduced to a state of tranquillity, the Belgae +being overcome, the Germans expelled, the Seduni among the Alps +defeated, and when he had, therefore, in the beginning of winter, set +out for Illyricum, as he wished to visit those nations, and acquire a +knowledge of their countries, a sudden war sprang up in Gaul. The +occasion of that war was this: P. Crassus, a young man, had taken up his +winter quarters with the seventh legion among the Andes, who border upon +the [Atlantic] ocean. He, as there was a scarcity of corn in those +parts, sent out some officers of cavalry and several military tribunes +amongst the neighbouring states, for the purpose of procuring corn and +provision; in which number T. Terrasidius was sent amongst the Esubii; +M. Trebius Gallus amongst the Curiosolitae; Q. Velanius, with T. Silius, +amongst the Veneti. + +VIII.--The influence of this state is by far the most considerable of +any of the countries on the whole sea coast, because the Veneti both +have a very great number of ships, with which they have been accustomed +to sail to Britain, and [thus] excel the rest in their knowledge and +experience of nautical affairs; and as only a few ports lie scattered +along that stormy and open sea, of which they are in possession, they +hold as tributaries almost all those who are accustomed to traffic in +that sea. With them arose the beginning [of the revolt] by their +detaining Silius and Velanius; for they thought that they should recover +by their means the hostages which they had given to Crassus. The +neighbouring people, led on by their influence (as the measures of the +Gauls are sudden and hasty), detain Trebius and Terrasidius for the same +motive; and quickly sending ambassadors, by means of their leading men, +they enter into a mutual compact to do nothing except by general +consent, and abide the same issue of fortune; and they solicit the other +states to choose rather to continue in that liberty which they had +received from their ancestors, than endure slavery under the Romans. All +the sea coast being quickly brought over to their sentiments, they send +a common embassy to P. Crassus [to say], "If he wished to receive back +his officers, let him send back to them their hostages." + +IX.--Caesar, being informed of these things by Crassus, since he was so +far distant himself, orders ships of war to be built in the meantime on +the river Loire, which flows into the ocean; rowers to be raised from +the province; sailors and pilots to be provided. These matters being +quickly executed, he himself, as soon as the season of the year permits, +hastens to the army. The Veneti, and the other states also, being +informed of Caesar's arrival, when they reflected how great a crime they +had committed, in that the ambassadors (a character which had amongst +all nations ever been sacred and inviolable) had by them been detained +and thrown into prison, resolve to prepare for a war in proportion to +the greatness of their danger, and especially to provide those things +which appertain to the service of a navy; with the greater confidence, +inasmuch as they greatly relied on the nature of their situation. They +knew that the passes by land were cut off by estuaries, that the +approach by sea was most difficult, by reason of our ignorance of the +localities, [and] the small number of the harbours, and they trusted +that our army would not be able to stay very long among them, on account +of the insufficiency of corn; and again, even if all these things should +turn out contrary to their expectation, yet they were very powerful in +their navy. They, well understood that the Romans neither had any number +of ships, nor were acquainted with the shallows, the harbours, or the +islands of those parts where they would have to carry on the war; and +that navigation was very different in a narrow sea from what it was in +the vast and open ocean. Having come to this resolution, they fortify +their towns, convey corn into them from the country parts, bring +together as many ships as possible to Venetia, where it appeared Caesar +would at first carry on the war. They unite to themselves as allies for +that war, the Osismii, the Lexovii, the Nannetes, the Ambiliati, the +Morini, the Diablintes, and the Menapii; and send for auxiliaries from +Britain, which is situated over against those regions. + +X.--There were these difficulties which we have mentioned above, in +carrying on the war, but many things, nevertheless, urged Caesar to that +war; the open insult offered to the state in the detention of the Roman +knights, the rebellion raised after surrendering, the revolt after +hostages were given, the confederacy of so many states, but principally, +lest if [the conduct of] this part was overlooked, the other nations +should think that the same thing was permitted them. Wherefore, since he +reflected that almost all the Gauls were fond of revolution, and easily +and quickly excited to war; that all men likewise, by nature, love +liberty and hate the condition of slavery, he thought he ought to divide +and more widely distribute his army, before more states should join the +confederation. + +XI.--He therefore sends T. Labienus, his lieutenant, with the cavalry to +the Treviri, who are nearest to the river Rhine. He charges him to visit +the Remi and the other Belgians, and to keep them in their allegiance +and repel the Germans (who were said to have been summoned by the Belgae +to their aid) if they attempted to cross the river by force in their +ships. He orders P. Crassus to proceed into Aquitania with twelve +legionary cohorts and a great number of the cavalry, lest auxiliaries +should be sent into Gaul by these states, and such great nations be +united. He sends Q. Titurius Sabinus, his lieutenant, with three +legions, among the Unelli, the Curiosolitae, and the Lexovii, to take +care that their forces should be kept separate from the rest. He +appoints D. Brutus, a young man, over the fleet and those Gallic vessels +which he had ordered to be furnished by the Pictones and the Santoni, +and the other provinces which remained at peace; and commands him to +proceed towards the Veneti, as soon as he could. He himself hastens +thither with the land forces. + +XII.--The sites of their towns were generally such that, being placed on +extreme points [of land] and on promontories, they neither had an +approach by land when the tide had rushed in from the main ocean, which +always happens twice in the space of twelve hours; nor by ships, +because, upon the tide ebbing again, the ships were likely to be dashed +upon the shoals. Thus, by either circumstance, was the storming of their +towns rendered difficult; and if at any time perchance the Veneti, +overpowered by the greatness of our works (the sea having been excluded +by a mound and large dams, and the latter being made almost equal in +height to the walls of the town), had begun to despair of their +fortunes, bringing up a large number of ships, of which they had a very +great quantity, they carried off all their property and betook +themselves to the nearest towns; there they again defended themselves by +the same advantages of situation. They did this the more easily during a +great part of the summer, because our ships were kept back by storms, +and the difficulty of sailing was very great in that vast and open sea, +with its strong tides and its harbours far apart and exceedingly few in +number. + +XIII.--For their ships were built and equipped after this manner. The +keels were somewhat flatter than those of our ships, whereby they could +more easily encounter the shallows and the ebbing of the tide: the prows +were raised very high, and in like manner the sterns were adapted to the +force of the waves and storms [which they were formed to sustain]. The +ships were built wholly of oak, and designed to endure any force and +violence whatever; the benches, which were made of planks a foot in +breadth, were fastened by iron spikes of the thickness of a man's thumb; +the anchors were secured fast by iron chains instead of cables, and for +sails they used skins and thin dressed leather. These [were used] either +through their want of canvas and their ignorance of its application, or +for this reason, which is more probable, that they thought that such +storms of the ocean, and such violent gales of wind could not be +resisted by sails, nor ships of such great burden be conveniently enough +managed by them. The encounter of our fleet with these ships was of such +a nature that our fleet excelled in speed alone, and the plying of the +oars; other things, considering the nature of the place [and] the +violence of the storms, were more suitable and better adapted on their +side; for neither could our ships injure theirs with their beaks (so +great was their strength), nor on account of their height was a weapon +easily cast up to them; and for the same reason they were less readily +locked in by rocks. To this was added, that whenever a storm began to +rage and they ran before the wind, they both could weather the storm +more easily and heave to securely in the shallows, and when left by the +tide feared nothing from rocks and shelves: the risk of all which things +was much to be dreaded by our ships. + +XIV.--Caesar, after taking many of their towns, perceiving that so much +labour was spent in vain and that the flight of the enemy could not be +prevented on the capture of their towns, and that injury could not be +done them, he determined to wait for his fleet. As soon as it came up +and was first seen by the enemy, about 220 of their ships, fully +equipped and appointed with every kind of [naval] implement, sailed +forth from the harbour, and drew up opposite to ours; nor did it appear +clear to Brutus, who commanded the fleet, or to the tribunes of the +soldiers and the centurions, to whom the several ships were assigned, +what to do, or what system of tactics to adopt; for they knew that +damage could not be done by their beaks; and that, although turrets were +built [on their decks], yet the height of the stems of the barbarian +ships exceeded these; so that weapons could not be cast up from [our] +lower position with sufficient effect, and those cast by the Gauls fell +the more forcibly upon us. One thing provided by our men was of great +service, [viz.] sharp hooks inserted into and fastened upon poles, of a +form not unlike the hooks used in attacking town walls. When the ropes +which fastened the sail-yards to the masts were caught by them and +pulled, and our vessel vigorously impelled with the oars, they [the +ropes] were severed; and when they were cut away, the yards necessarily +fell down; so that as all the hope of the Gallic vessels depended on +their sails and rigging, upon these being cut away, the entire +management of the ships was taken from them at the same time. The rest +of the contest depended on courage; in which our men decidedly had the +advantage; and the more so because the whole action was carried on in +the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that no act, a little more +valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved, for all the hills and +higher grounds, from which there was a near prospect of the sea, were +occupied by our army. + +XV.--The sail-yards [of the enemy], as we have said, being brought down, +although two and [in some cases] three ships [of theirs] surrounded each +one [of ours], the soldiers strove with the greatest energy to board the +ships of the enemy: and, after the barbarians observed this taking +place, as a great many of their ships were beaten, and as no relief for +that evil could be discovered, they hastened to seek safety in flight. +And, having now turned their vessels to that quarter in which the wind +blew, so great a calm and lull suddenly arose, that they could not move +out of their place, which circumstance, truly, was exceedingly opportune +for finishing the business; for our men gave chase and took them one by +one, so that very few out of all the number, [and those] by the +intervention of night, arrived at the land, after the battle had lasted +almost from the fourth hour till sunset. + +XVI.--By this battle the war with the Veneti and the whole of the sea +coast was finished; for both all the youth, and all, too, of more +advanced age, in whom there was any discretion or rank, had assembled in +that battle; and they had collected in that one place whatever naval +forces they had anywhere; and when these were lost, the survivors had no +place to retreat to, nor means of defending their towns. They +accordingly surrendered themselves and all their possessions to Caesar, +on whom Caesar thought that punishment should be inflicted the more +severely, in order that for the future the rights of ambassadors might +be more carefully respected, by barbarians: having, therefore, put to +death all their senate, he sold the rest for slaves. + +XVII.--While these things are going on amongst the Veneti, Q. Titurius +Sabinus with those troops which he had received from Caesar, arrives in +the territories of the Unelli. Over these people Viridovix ruled, and +held the chief command of all those states which had revolted: from +which he had collected a large and powerful army. And in those few days, +the Aulerci and the Sexovii, having slain their senate because they +would not consent to be promoters of the war, shut their gates [against +us] and united themselves to Viridovix; a great multitude besides of +desperate men and robbers assembled out of Gaul from all quarters, whom +the hope of plundering and the love of fighting had called away from +husbandry and their daily labour. Sabinus kept himself within his camp, +which was in a position convenient for everything; while Viridovix +encamped over against him at a distance of two miles, and daily bringing +out his forces, gave him an opportunity of fighting; so that Sabinus had +now not only come into contempt with the enemy, but also was somewhat +taunted by the speeches of our soldiers; and furnished so great a +suspicion of his cowardice that the enemy presumed to approach even to +the very rampart of our camp. He adopted this conduct for the following +reason: because he did not think that a lieutenant ought to engage in +battle with so great a force, especially while he who held the chief +command was absent, except on advantageous ground or some favourable +circumstance presented itself. + +XVIII.--After having established this suspicion of his cowardice, he +selected a certain suitable and crafty Gaul, who was one of those whom +he had with him as auxiliaries. He induces him by great gifts and +promises to go over to the enemy; and informs [him] of what he wished to +be done. Who, when he arrives amongst them as a deserter, lays before +them the fears of the Romans; and informs them by what difficulties +Caesar himself was harassed, and that the matter was not far removed +from this--that Sabinus would the next night privately draw off his army +out of the camp and set forth to Caesar, for the purpose of carrying +[him] assistance, which, when they heard, they all cry out together that +an opportunity of successfully conducting their enterprise ought not to +be thrown away; that they ought to go to the [Roman] camp. Many things +persuaded the Gauls to this measure; the delay of Sabinus during the +previous days; the positive assertion of the [pretended] deserter; want +of provisions, for a supply of which they had not taken the requisite +precautions; the hope springing from the Venetic war; and [also] because +in most cases men willingly believe what they wish. Influenced by these +things, they do not discharge Viridovix and the other leaders from the +council, before they gained permission from them to take up arms and +hasten to [our] camp; which being granted, rejoicing as if victory were +fully certain, they collected faggots and brushwood, with which to fill +up the Roman trenches, and hasten to the camp. + +XIX.--The situation of the camp was a rising ground, gently sloping from +the bottom for about a mile. Thither they proceeded with great speed (in +order that as little time as possible might be given to the Romans to +collect and arm themselves), and arrived quite out of breath. Sabinus +having encouraged his men, gives them the signal, which they earnestly +desired. While the enemy were encumbered by reason of the burdens which +they were carrying, he orders a sally to be suddenly made from two gates +[of the camp]. It happened, by the advantage of situation, by the +unskilfulness and the fatigue of the enemy, by the valour of our +soldiers, and their experience in former battles, that they could not +stand one attack of our men, and immediately turned their backs: and our +men with full vigour followed them while disordered, and slew a great +number of them; the horse pursuing the rest, left but few, who escaped +by flight. Thus at the same time, Sabinus was informed of the naval +battle and Caesar of victory gained by Sabinus; and all the states +immediately surrendered themselves to Titurius: for as the temper of the +Gauls is impetuous and ready to undertake wars, so their mind is weak, +and by no means resolute in enduring calamities. + +XX.--About the same time, P. Crassus, when he had arrived in Aquitania +(which, as has been before said, both from its extent of territory and +the great number of its people, is to be reckoned a third part of Gaul), +understanding that he was to wage war in these parts, where a few years +before L. Valerius Praeconinus, the lieutenant, had been killed, and his +army routed, and from which L. Manilius, the proconsul, had fled with +the loss of his baggage, he perceived that no ordinary care must be used +by him. Wherefore, having provided corn, procured auxiliaries and +cavalry, [and] having summoned by name many valiant men from Tolosa, +Carcaso, and Narbo, which are the states of the province of Gaul, that +border on these regions [Aquitania], he led his army into the +territories of the Sotiates. On his arrival being known, the Sotiates +having brought together great forces and [much] cavalry, in which their +strength principally lay, and assailing our army on the march, engaged +first in a cavalry action, then when their cavalry was routed, and our +men pursuing, they suddenly display their infantry forces, which they +had placed in ambuscade in a valley. These attacked our men [while] +disordered, and renewed the fight. + +XXI.--The battle was long and vigorously contested, since the Sotiates, +relying on their former victories, imagined that the safety of the whole +of Aquitania rested on their valour; [and] our men, on the other hand, +desired it might be seen what they could accomplish without their +general and without the other legions, under a very young commander; at +length the enemy, worn out with wounds, began to turn their backs, and a +great number of them being slain, Crassus began to besiege the +[principal] town of the Sotiates on his march. Upon their valiantly +resisting, he raised vineae and turrets. They at one time attempting a +sally, at another forming mines to our rampart and vineae (at which the +Aquitani are eminently skilled, because in many places amongst them +there are copper mines); when they perceived that nothing could be +gained by these operations through the perseverance of our men, they +send ambassadors to Crassus, and entreat him to admit them to a +surrender. Having obtained it, they, being ordered to deliver up their +arms, comply. + +XXII.--And while the attention of our men is engaged in that matter, in +another part Adcantuannus, who held the chief command, with 600 devoted +followers, whom they call soldurii (the conditions of whose association +are these,--that they enjoy all the conveniences of life with those to +whose friendship they have devoted themselves: if anything calamitous +happen to them, either they endure the same destiny together with them, +or commit suicide: nor hitherto, in the memory of men, has there been +found any one who, upon his being slain to whose friendship he had +devoted himself, refused to die); Adcantuannus, [I say] endeavouring to +make a sally with these, when our soldiers had rushed together to arms, +upon a shout being raised at that part of the fortification, and a +fierce battle had been fought there, was driven back into the town, yet +he obtained from Crassus [the indulgence] that he should enjoy the same +terms of surrender [as the other inhabitants]. + +XXIII.--Crassus, having received their arms and hostages, marched into +the territories of the Vocates and the Tarusates. But then, the +barbarians being alarmed, because they had heard that a town fortified +by the nature of the place and by art had been taken by us in a few days +after our arrival there, began to send ambassadors into all quarters, to +combine, to give hostages one to another, to raise troops. Ambassadors +also are sent to those states of Hither Spain which are nearest to +Aquitania, and auxiliaries and leaders are summoned from them; on whose +arrival they proceed to carry on the war with great confidence, and with +a great host of men. They who had been with Q. Sertorius the whole +period [of his war in Spain] and were supposed to have very great skill +in military matters, are chosen leaders. These, adopting the practice of +the Roman people, begin to select [advantageous] places, to fortify +their camp, to cut off our men from provisions, which, when Crassus +observes, [and likewise] that his forces, on account of their small +number, could not safely be separated; that the enemy both made +excursions and beset the passes, and [yet] left sufficient guard for +their camp; that on that account, corn and provision could not very +conveniently be brought up to him, and that the number of the enemy was +daily increased, he thought that he ought not to delay in giving battle. +This matter being brought to a council, when he discovered that all +thought the same thing, he appointed the next day for the fight. + +XXIV.--Having drawn out all his forces at the break of day, and +marshalled them in a double line, he posted the auxiliaries in the +centre, and waited to see what measures the enemy would take. They, +although on account of their great number and their ancient renown in +war, and the small number of our men, they supposed they might safely +fight, nevertheless considered it safer to gain the victory without any +wound, by besetting the passes [and] cutting off the provisions: and if +the Romans, on account of the want of corn, should begin to retreat, +they intended to attack them while encumbered in their march and +depressed in spirit [as being assailed while] under baggage. This +measure being approved of by the leaders and the forces of the Romans +drawn out, the enemy [still] kept themselves in their camp. Crassus +having remarked this circumstance, since the enemy, intimidated by their +own delay, and by the reputation [_i.e._ for cowardice arising thence] +had rendered our soldiers more eager for fighting, and the remarks of +all were heard [declaring] that no longer ought delay to be made in +going to the camp, after encouraging his men, he marches to the camp of +the enemy, to the great gratification of his own troops. + +XXV.--There, while some were filling up the ditch, and others, by +throwing a large number of darts, were driving the defenders from the +rampart and fortifications, and the auxiliaries, on whom Crassus did not +much rely in the battle, by supplying stones and weapons [to the +soldiers], and by conveying turf to the mound, presented the appearance +and character of men engaged in fighting; while also the enemy were +fighting resolutely and boldly, and their weapons, discharged from their +higher position, fell with great effect; the horse, having gone round +the camp of the enemy, reported to Crassus that the camp was not +fortified with equal care on the side of the Decuman gate, and had an +easy approach. + +XXVI.--Crassus, having exhorted the commanders of the horse to animate +their men by great rewards and promises, points out to them what he +wished to have done. They, as they had been commanded, having brought +out the four cohorts, which, as they had been left as a guard for the +camp, were not fatigued by exertion, and having led them round by a +somewhat longer way, lest they could be seen from the camp of the enemy, +when the eyes and minds of all were intent upon the battle, quickly +arrived at those fortifications which we have spoken of, and, having +demolished these, stood in the camp of the enemy before they were seen +by them, or it was known what was going on. And then, a shout being +heard in that quarter, our men, their strength having been recruited +(which usually occurs on the hope of victory), began to fight more +vigorously. The enemy, surrounded on all sides, [and] all their affairs +being despaired of, made great attempts to cast themselves down over the +ramparts and to seek safety in flight. These the cavalry pursued over +the very open plains, and after leaving scarcely a fourth part out of +the number of 50,000, which it was certain had assembled out of +Aquitania and from the Cantabri, returned late at night to the camp. + +XXVII.--Having heard of this battle, the greatest part of Aquitania +surrendered itself to Crassus, and of its own accord sent hostages, in +which number were the Tarbelli, the Bigerriones, the Preciani, the +Vocasates, the Tarusates, the Elurates, the Garites, the Ausci, the +Garumni, the Sibuzates, the Cocosates. A few [and those] most remote +nations, relying on the time of the year, because winter was at hand, +neglected to do this. + +XXVIII.--About the same time Caesar, although the summer was nearly +past, yet since, all Gaul being reduced, the Morini and the Menapii +alone remained in arms, and had never sent ambassadors to him [to make a +treaty] of peace, speedily led his army thither, thinking that that war +might soon be terminated. They resolved to conduct the war on a very +different method from the rest of the Gauls; for as they perceived that +the greatest nations [of Gaul] who had engaged in war, had been routed +and overcome, and as they possessed continuous ranges of forests and +morasses, they removed themselves and all their property thither. When +Caesar had arrived at the opening of these forests, and had begun to +fortify his camp, and no enemy was in the meantime seen, while our men +were dispersed on their respective duties, they suddenly rushed out from +all parts of the forest, and made an attack on our men. The latter +quickly took up arms and drove them back again to their forests; and +having killed a great many, lost a few of their own men while pursuing +them too far through those intricate places. + +XXIX.--During the remaining days after this, Caesar began to cut down +the forests; and that no attack might be made on the flank of the +soldiers, while unarmed and not foreseeing it, he placed together +(opposite to the enemy) all that timber which was cut down, and piled it +up as a rampart on either flank. When a great space had been, with +incredible speed, cleared in a few days, when the cattle [of the enemy] +and the rear of their baggage-train were already seized by our men, and +they themselves were seeking for the thickest parts of the forests, +storms of such a kind came on that the work was necessarily suspended, +and, through the continuance of the rains, the soldiers could not any +longer remain in their tents. Therefore, having laid waste all their +country, [and] having burnt their villages and houses, Caesar led back +his army and stationed them in winter-quarters among the Aulerci and +Lexovii, and the other states which had made war upon him last. + + + +BOOK IV + +I.-The following winter (this was the year in which Cn. Pompey and M. +Crassus were consuls), those Germans [called] the Usipetes, and likewise +the Tenchtheri, with a great number of men, crossed the Rhine, not far +from the place at which that river discharges itself into the sea. The +motive for crossing [that river] was that, having been for several years +harassed by the Suevi, they were constantly engaged in war, and hindered +from the pursuits of agriculture. The nation of the Suevi is by far the +largest and the most warlike nation of all the Germans. They are said to +possess a hundred cantons, from each of which they yearly send from +their territories for the purpose of war a thousand armed men: the +others who remain at home, maintain [both] themselves and those engaged +in the expedition. The latter again, in their turn, are in arms the year +after: the former remain at home. Thus neither husbandry nor the art and +practice of war are neglected. But among them there exists no private +and separate land; nor are they permitted to remain more than one year +in one place for the purpose of residence. They do not live much on +corn, but subsist for the most part on milk and flesh, and are much +[engaged] in hunting; which circumstance must, by the nature of their +food, and by their daily exercise and the freedom of their life (for +having from boyhood been accustomed to no employment, or discipline, +they do nothing at all contrary to their inclination), both promote +their strength and render them men of vast stature of body. And to such +a habit have they brought themselves, that even in the coldest parts +they wear no clothing whatever except skins, by reason of the scantiness +of which a great portion of their body is bare, and besides they bathe +in open rivers. + +II.--Merchants have access to them rather that they may have persons to +whom they may sell those things which they have taken in war, than +because they need any commodity to be imported to them. Moreover, even +as to labouring cattle, in which the Gauls take the greatest pleasure, +and which they procure at a great price, the Germans do not employ such +as are imported, but those poor and ill-shaped animals which belong to +their country; these, however, they render capable of the greatest +labour by daily exercise. In cavalry actions they frequently leap from +their horses and fight on foot; and train their horses to stand still in +the very spot on which they leave them, to which they retreat with great +activity when there is occasion; nor, according to their practice, is +anything regarded as more unseemly, or more unmanly, than to use +housings. Accordingly, they have the courage, though they be themselves +but few, to advance against any number whatever of horse mounted with +housings. They on no account permit wine to be imported to them, because +they consider that men degenerate in their powers of enduring fatigue, +and are rendered effeminate by that commodity. + +III.--They esteem it their greatest praise as a nation that the lands +about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great extent, inasmuch +as [they think] that by this circumstance is indicated that a great +number of nations cannot, withstand their power; and thus on one side of +the Suevi the lands are said to lie desolate for about six hundred +miles. On the other side they border on the Ubii, whose state was large +and flourishing, considering the condition of the Germans, and who are +somewhat more refined than those of the same race and the rest [of the +Germans], and that because they border on the Rhine, and are much +resorted to by merchants, and are accustomed to the manners of the +Gauls, by reason of their approximity to them. Though the Suevi, after +making the attempt frequently and in several wars, could not expel this +nation from their territories, on account of the extent and population +of their state, yet they made them tributaries, and rendered them less +distinguished and powerful [than they had ever been]. + +IV.--In the same condition were the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri (whom we +have mentioned above), who for many years resisted the power of the +Suevi, but being at last driven from their possessions, and having +wandered through many parts of Germany, came to the Rhine, to districts +which the Menapii inhabited, and where they had lands, houses, and +villages on either side of the river. The latter people, alarmed by the +arrival of so great a multitude, removed from those houses which they +had on the other side of the river, and having placed guards on this +side the Rhine, proceeded to hinder the Germans from crossing. They, +finding themselves, after they had tried all means, unable either to +force a passage on account of their deficiency in shipping, or cross by +stealth on account of the guards of the Menapii, pretended to return to +their own settlements and districts; and, after having proceeded three +days' march, returned; and their cavalry having performed the whole of +this journey in one night, cut off the Menapii, who were ignorant of, +and did not expect [their approach, and] who, having moreover been +informed of the departure of the Germans by their scouts, had without +apprehension returned to their villages beyond the Rhine. Having slain +these, and seized their ships, they crossed the river before that part +of the Menapii, who were at peace in their settlements over the Rhine, +were apprised of [their intention]; and seizing all their houses, +maintained themselves upon their provisions during the rest of the +winter. + +V.--Caesar, when informed of these matters, fearing the fickle +disposition of the Gauls, who are easily prompted to take up +resolutions, and much addicted to change, considered that nothing was to +be entrusted to them; for it is the custom of that people to compel +travellers to stop, even against their inclination, and inquire what +they may have heard, or may know, respecting any matter; and in towns +the common people throng around merchants and force them to state from +what countries they come, and what affairs they know of there. They +often engage in resolutions concerning the most important matters, +induced by these reports and stories alone; of which they must +necessarily instantly repent, since they yield to mere unauthorised +reports; and since most people give to their questions answers framed +agreeably to their wishes. + +VI.--Caesar, being aware of their custom, in order that he might not +encounter a more formidable war, sets forward to the army earlier in the +year than he was accustomed to do. When he had arrived there, he +discovered that those things, which he had suspected would occur, had +taken place; that embassies had been sent to the Germans by some of the +states, and that they had been entreated to leave the Rhine, and had +been promised that all things which they desired should be provided by +the Gauls. Allured by this hope, the Germans were then making excursions +to greater distances, and had advanced to the territories of the +Eburones and the Condrusi, who are under the protection of the Treviri. +After summoning the chiefs of Gaul, Caesar thought proper to pretend +ignorance of the things which he had discovered; and having conciliated +and confirmed their minds, and ordered some cavalry to be raised, +resolved to make war against the Germans. + +VII.--Having provided corn and selected his cavalry, he began to direct +his march towards those parts in which he heard the Germans were. When +he was distant from them only a few days' march, ambassadors come to him +from their state; whose speech was as follows:--"That the Germans +neither make war upon the Roman people first, nor do they decline, if +they are provoked, to engage with them in arms; for that this was the +custom of the Germans handed down to them from their forefathers, to +resist whatsoever people make war upon them and not to avert it by +entreaty; this, however, they confessed,--that they had come hither +reluctantly, having been expelled from their country. If the Romans were +disposed to accept their friendship, they might be serviceable allies to +them; and let them either assign them lands, or permit them to retain +those which they had acquired by their arms; that they are inferior to +the Suevi alone, to whom not even the immortal gods can show themselves +equal; that there was none at all besides on earth whom they could not +conquer." + +VIII.--To these remarks Caesar replied in such terms as he thought +proper; but the conclusion of his speech was, "That he could make no +alliance with them, if they continued in Gaul; that it was not probable +that they who were not able to defend their own territories, should get +possession of those of others, nor were there any lands lying waste in +Gaul which could be given away, especially to so great a number of men, +without doing wrong [to others]; but they might, if they were desirous, +settle in the territories of the Ubii; whose ambassadors were then with +him, and were complaining of the aggressions of the Suevi, and +requesting assistance from him; and that he would obtain this request +from them." + +IX.--The ambassadors said that they would report these things to their +countrymen; and, after having deliberated on the matter, would return to +Caesar after the third day, they begged that he would not in the +meantime advance his camp nearer to them. Caesar said that he could not +grant them even that; for he had learned that they had sent a great part +of their cavalry over the Meuse to the Ambivariti, some days before, for +the purpose of plundering and procuring forage. He supposed that they +were then waiting for these horse, and that the delay was caused on this +account. + +X.--The Meuse rises from mount Le Vosge, which is in the territories of +the Lingones; and, having received a branch of the Rhine, which is +called the Waal, forms the island of the Batavi, and not more than +eighty miles from it it falls into the ocean. But the Rhine takes its +course among the Lepontii, who inhabit the Alps, and is carried with a +rapid current for a long distance through the territories of the +Sarunates, Helvetii, Sequani, Mediomatrici, Tribuci, and Treviri, and +when it approaches the ocean, divides into several branches; and, having +formed many and extensive islands, a great part of which are inhabited +by savage and barbarous nations (of whom there are some who are supposed +to live on fish and the eggs of sea-fowl), flows into the ocean by +several mouths. + +XI.--When Caesar was not more than twelve miles distant from the enemy, +the ambassadors return to him, as had been arranged; who meeting him on +the march, earnestly entreated him not to advance any farther. When they +could not obtain this, they begged him to send on a despatch to those +who had marched in advance of the main army, and forbid them to engage; +and grant them permission to send ambassadors to the Ubii, and if the +princes and senate of the latter would give them security by oath, they +assured Caesar that they would accept such conditions as might be +proposed by him; and requested that he would give them the space of +three days for negotiating these affairs. Caesar thought that these +things tended to the self-same point [as their other proposal]; [namely] +that, in consequence of a delay of three days intervening, their horse +which were at a distance might return; however, he said, that he would +not that day advance farther than four miles for the purpose of +procuring water; he ordered that they should assemble at that place in +as large a number as possible the following day, that he might inquire +into their demands. In the meantime he sends messengers to the officers +who had marched in advance with all the cavalry to order them not to +provoke the enemy to an engagement, and if they themselves were +assailed, to sustain the attack until he came up with the army. + +XII.--But the enemy, as soon as they saw our horse, the number of which +was 5000, whereas they themselves had not more than 800 horse, because +those which had gone over the Meuse for the purpose of foraging had not +returned, while our men had no apprehensions, because their ambassadors +had gone away from Caesar a little before, and that day had been +requested by them as a period of truce, made an onset on our men, and +soon threw them into disorder. When our men, in their turn, made a +stand, they, according to their practice, leaped from their horses to +their feet, and stabbing our horses in the belly and overthrowing a +great many of our men, put the rest to flight, and drove them forward so +much alarmed that they did not desist from their retreat till they had +come in sight of our army. In that encounter seventy-four of our horse +were slain; among them, Piso, an Aquitanian, a most valiant man, and +descended from a very illustrious family; whose grandfather had held the +sovereignty of his state, and had been styled friend by our senate. He, +while he was endeavouring to render assistance to his brother who was +surrounded by the enemy, and whom he rescued from danger, was himself +thrown from his horse, which was wounded under him, but still opposed +[his antagonists] with the greatest intrepidity, as long as he was able +to maintain the conflict. When at length he fell, surrounded on all +sides and after receiving many wounds, and his brother, who had then +retired from the fight, observed it from a distance, he spurred on his +horse, threw himself upon the enemy, and was killed. + +XIII.--After this engagement, Caesar considered that neither ought +ambassadors to be received to audience, nor conditions be accepted by +him from those who, after having sued for peace by way of stratagem and +treachery, had made war without provocation. And to wait till the +enemy's forces were augmented and their cavalry had returned, he +concluded, would be the greatest madness; and knowing the fickleness of +the Gauls, he felt how much influence the enemy had already acquired +among them by this one skirmish. He [therefore] deemed that no time for +converting measures ought to be afforded them. After having resolved on +these things and communicated his plans to his lieutenants and quaestor +in order that he might not suffer any opportunity for engaging to escape +him, a very seasonable event occurred, namely, that on the morning of +the next day, a large body of Germans, consisting of their princes and +old men, came to the camp to him to practise the same treachery and +dissimulation; but, as they asserted, for the purpose of acquitting +themselves for having engaged in a skirmish the day before, contrary to +what had been agreed and to what, indeed, they themselves had requested; +and also if they could by any means obtain a truce by deceiving him. +Caesar, rejoicing that they had fallen into his power, ordered them to +be detained. He then drew all his forces out of the camp, and commanded +the cavalry, because he thought they were intimidated by the late +skirmish, to follow in the rear. + +XIV.--Having marshalled his army in three lines, and in a short time +performed a march of eight miles, he arrived at the camp of the enemy +before the Germans could perceive what was going on; who being suddenly +alarmed by all the circumstances, both by the speediness of our arrival +and the absence of their own officers, as time was afforded neither for +concerting measures nor for seizing their arms, are perplexed as to +whether it would be better to lead out their forces against the enemy, +or to defend their camp, or seek their safety by flight. Their +consternation being made apparent by their noise and tumult, our +soldiers, excited by the treachery of the preceding day, rushed into the +camp: such of them as could readily get their arms for a short time +withstood our men, and gave battle among their carts and baggage-waggons; +but the rest of the people, [consisting] of boys and women (for they had +left their country and crossed the Rhine with all their families), began +to fly in all directions; in pursuit of whom Caesar sent the cavalry. + +XV.--The Germans when, upon hearing a noise behind them, [they looked +and] saw that their families were being slain, throwing away their arms +and abandoning their standards, fled out of the camp, and when they had +arrived at the confluence of the Meuse and the Rhine, the survivors +despairing of farther escape, as a great number of their countrymen had +been killed, threw themselves into the river and there perished, +overcome by fear, fatigue, and the violence of the stream. Our soldiers, +after the alarm of so great a war, for the number of the enemy amounted +to 430,000, returned to their camp, all safe to a man, very few being +even wounded. Caesar granted those whom he had detained in the camp +liberty of departing. They however, dreading revenge and torture from +the Gauls, whose lands they had harassed, said that they desired to +remain with him. Caesar granted them permission. + +XVI.--The German war being finished, Caesar thought it expedient for him +to cross the Rhine, for many reasons; of which this was the most +weighty, that, since he saw the Germans were so easily urged to go into +Gaul, he desired they should have their fears for their own territories +when they discovered that the army of the Roman people both could and +dared pass the Rhine. There was added also, that that portion of the +cavalry of the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, which I have above related +to have crossed the Meuse for the purpose of plundering and procuring +forage, and was not present at the engagement, had betaken themselves, +after the retreat of their countrymen, across the Rhine into the +territories of the Sigambri, and united themselves to them. When Caesar +sent ambassadors to them, to demand that they should give up to him +those who had made war against him and against Gaul, they replied, "That +the Rhine bounded the empire of the Roman people; if he did not think it +just for the Germans to pass over into Gaul against his consent, why did +he claim that anything beyond the Rhine should be subject to his +dominion or power?" The Ubii also, who alone, out of all the nations +lying beyond the Rhine, had sent ambassadors to Caesar, and formed an +alliance and given hostages, earnestly entreated "that he would bring +them assistance, because they were grievously oppressed by the Suevi; +or, if he was prevented from doing so by the business of the +commonwealth, he would at least transport his army over the Rhine; that +that would be sufficient for their present assistance and their hope for +the future; that so great was the name and the reputation of his army, +even among the most remote nations of the Germans, arising from the +defeat of Ariovistus and this last battle which was fought, that they +might be safe under the fame and friendship of the Roman people." They +promised a large number of ships for transporting the army. + +XVII.--Caesar, for those reasons which I have mentioned, had resolved to +cross the Rhine; but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be +sufficiently safe, nor considered consistent with his own dignity or +that of the Roman people. Therefore, although the greatest difficulty in +forming a bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, +rapidity, and depth of the river, he nevertheless considered that it +ought to be attempted by him, or that his army ought not otherwise to be +led over. He devised this plan of a bridge. He joined together at the +distance of two feet, two piles, each a foot and a half thick, sharpened +a little at the lower end, and proportioned in length to the depth of +the river. After he had, by means of engines, sunk these into the river, +and fixed them at the bottom, and then driven them in with rammers, not +quite perpendicularly, like a stake, but bending forward and sloping, so +as to incline in the direction of the current of the river; he also +placed two [other piles] opposite to these, at the distance of forty +feet lower down, fastened together in the same manner, but directed +against the force and current of the river. Both these, moreover, were +kept firmly apart by beams two feet thick (the space which the binding +of the piles occupied), laid in at their extremities between two braces +on each side; and in consequence of these being in different directions +and fastened on sides the one opposite to the other, so great was the +strength of the work, and such the arrangement of the materials, that in +proportion as the greater body of water dashed against the bridge, so +much the closer were its parts held fastened together. These beams were +bound together by timber laid over them in the direction of the length +of the bridge, and were [then] covered over with laths and hurdles; and +in addition to this, piles were driven into the water obliquely, at the +lower side of the bridge, and these serving as buttresses, and being +connected with every portion of the work, sustained the force of the +stream: and there were others also above the bridge, at a moderate +distance; that if trunks of trees or vessels were floated down the river +by the barbarians for the purpose of destroying the work, the violence +of such things might be diminished by these defences, and might not +injure the bridge. + +XVIII.--Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the +whole work was completed, and the whole army led over. Caesar, leaving a +strong guard at each end of the bridge, hastens into the territories of +the Sigambri. In the meantime ambassadors from several nations come to +him, whom, on their suing for peace and alliance, he answers in a +courteous manner, and orders hostages to be brought to him. But the +Sigambri, at the very time the bridge was begun to be built, made +preparations for a flight (by the advice of such of the Tenchtheri and +Usipetes as they had amongst them), and quitted their territories and +conveyed away all their possessions, and concealed themselves in deserts +and woods. + +XIX.--Caesar, having remained in their territories a few days, and burnt +all their villages and houses, and cut down their corn, proceeded into +the territories of the Ubii; and having promised them his assistance, if +they were ever harassed by the Suevi, he learned from them these +particulars: that the Suevi, after they had by means of their scouts +found that the bridge was being built, had called a council, according +to their custom, and sent orders to all parts of their state to remove +from the towns and convey their children, wives, and all their +possessions into the woods, and that all who could bear arms should +assemble in one place; that the place thus chosen was nearly the centre +of those regions which the Suevi possessed; that in this spot they had +resolved to await the arrival of the Romans, and give them battle there. +When Caesar discovered this, having already accomplished all those +things on account of which he had resolved to lead his army over, +namely, to strike fear into the Germans, take vengeance on the Sigambri, +and free the Ubii from the invasion of the Suevi, having spent +altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had advanced +far enough to serve both honour and interest, he returned into Gaul, and +cut down the bridge. + +XX.--During the short part of summer which remained, Caesar, although in +these countries, as all Gaul lies towards the north, the winters are +early, nevertheless resolved to proceed into Britain, because he +discovered that in almost all the wars with the Gauls succours had been +furnished to our enemy from that country; and even if the time of year +should be insufficient for carrying on the war, yet he thought it would +be of great service to him if he only entered the island, and saw into +the character of the people, and got knowledge of their localities, +harbours, and landing-places, all which were for the most part unknown +to the Gauls. For neither does any one except merchants generally go +thither, nor even to them was any portion of it known, except the +sea-coast and those parts which are opposite to Gaul. Therefore, after +having called up to him the merchants from all parts, he could learn +neither what was the size of the island, nor what or how numerous were +the nations which inhabited it, nor what system of war they followed, +nor what customs they used, nor what harbours were convenient for a +great number of large ships. + +XXI.--He sends before him Caius Volusenus with a ship of war, to acquire +a knowledge of these particulars before he in person should make a +descent into the island, as he was convinced that this was a judicious +measure. He commissioned him to thoroughly examine into all matters, and +then return to him as soon as possible. He himself proceeds to the +Morini with all his forces. He orders ships from all parts of the +neighbouring countries, and the fleet which the preceding summer he had +built for the war with the Veneti, to assemble in this place. In the +meantime, his purpose having been discovered, and reported to the +Britons by merchants, ambassadors come to him from several states of the +island, to promise that they will give hostages, and submit to the +government of the Roman people. Having given them an audience, he after +promising liberally, and exhorting them to continue in that purpose, +sends them back to their own country, and [despatches] with them +Commius, whom, upon subduing the Atrebates, he had created king there, a +man whose courage and conduct he esteemed, and who he thought would be +faithful to him, and whose influence ranked highly in those countries. +He orders him to visit as many states as he could, and persuade them to +embrace the protection of the Roman people, and apprise them that he +would shortly come thither. Volusenus, having viewed the localities as +far as means could be afforded one who dared not leave his ship and +trust himself to barbarians, returns to Caesar on the fifth day, and +reports what he had there observed. + +XXII.--While Caesar remains in these parts for the purpose of procuring +ships, ambassadors come to him from a great portion of the Morini, to +plead their excuse respecting their conduct on the late occasion; +alleging that it was as men uncivilised, and as those who were +unacquainted with our custom, that they had made war upon the Roman +people, and promising to perform what he should command. Caesar, +thinking that this had happened fortunately enough for him, because he +neither wished to leave an enemy behind him, nor had an opportunity for +carrying on a war, by reason of the time of year, nor considered that +employment in such trifling matters was to be preferred to his +enterprise on Britain, imposes a large number of hostages; and when +these were brought, he received them to his protection. Having collected +together and provided about eighty transport ships, as many as he +thought necessary for conveying over two legions, he assigned such +[ships] of war as he had besides to the quaestor, his lieutenants, and +officers of cavalry. There were in addition to these eighteen ships of +burden which were prevented, eight miles from that place, by winds, from +being able to reach the same port. These he distributed amongst the +horse; the rest of the army he delivered to Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. +Aurunculeius Cotta, his lieutenants, to lead into the territories of the +Menapii and those cantons of the Morini from which ambassadors had not +come to him. He ordered P. Sulpicius Rufus, his lieutenant, to hold +possession of the harbour, with such a garrison as he thought +sufficient. + +XXIII.--These matters being arranged, finding the weather favourable for +his voyage, he set sail about the third watch, and ordered the horse to +march forward to the farther port, and there embark and follow him. As +this was performed rather tardily by them, he himself reached Britain +with the first squadron of ships, about the fourth hour of the day, and +there saw the forces of the enemy drawn up in arms on all the hills. The +nature of the place was this: the sea was confined by mountains so close +to it that a dart could be thrown from their summit upon the shore. +Considering this by no means a fit place for disembarking, he remained +at anchor till the ninth hour, for the other ships to arrive there. +Having in the meantime assembled the lieutenants and military tribunes, +he told them both what he had learnt from Volusenus, and what he wished +to be done; and enjoined them (as the principle of military matters, and +especially as maritime affairs, which have a precipitate and uncertain +action, required) that all things should be performed by them at a nod +and at the instant. Having dismissed them, meeting both with wind and +tide favourable at the same time, the signal being given and the anchor +weighed, he advanced about seven miles from that place, and stationed +his fleet over against an open and level shore. + +XXIV.--But the barbarians, upon perceiving the design of the Romans, +sent forward their cavalry and charioteers, a class of warriors of whom +it is their practice to make great use in their battles, and following +with the rest of their forces, endeavoured to prevent our men landing. +In this was the greatest difficulty, for the following reasons, namely, +because our ships, on account of their great size, could be stationed +only in deep water; and our soldiers, in places unknown to them, with +their hands embarrassed, oppressed with a large and heavy weight of +armour, had at the same time to leap from the ships, stand amidst the +waves, and encounter the enemy; whereas they, either on dry ground, or +advancing a little way into the water, free in all their limbs, in +places thoroughly known to them, could confidently throw their weapons +and spur on their horses, which were accustomed to this kind of service. +Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of +battle, our men did not all exert the same vigour and eagerness which +they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground. + +XXV.--When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships of war, the +appearance of which was somewhat strange to the barbarians and the +motion more ready for service, to be withdrawn a little from the +transport vessels, and to be propelled by their oars, and be stationed +towards the open flank of the enemy, and the enemy to be beaten off and +driven away with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great +service to our men; for the barbarians being startled by the form of our +ships and the motions of our oars and the nature of our engines, which +was strange to them, stopped, and shortly after retreated a little. And +while our men were hesitating [whether they should advance to the +shore], chiefly on account of the depth of the sea, he who carried the +eagle of the tenth legion, after supplicating the gods that the matter +might turn out favourably to the legion, exclaimed, "Leap, fellow +soldiers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. I, for my +part, will perform my duty to the commonwealth and my general." When he +had said this with a loud voice, he leaped from the ship and proceeded +to bear the eagle toward the enemy. Then our men, exhorting one another +that so great a disgrace should not be incurred, all leaped from the +ship. When those in the nearest vessels saw them, they speedily followed +and approached the enemy. + +XXVI.--The battle was maintained vigorously on both sides. Our men, +however, as they could neither keep their ranks, nor get firm footing, +nor follow their standards, and as one from one ship and another from +another assembled around whatever standards they met, were thrown into +great confusion. But the enemy, who were acquainted with all the +shallows, when from the shore they saw any coming from a ship one by +one, spurred on their horses, and attacked them while embarrassed; many +surrounded a few, others threw their weapons upon our collected forces +on their exposed flank. When Caesar observed this, he ordered the boats +of the ships of war and the spy sloops to be filled with soldiers, and +sent them up to the succour of those whom he had observed in distress. +Our men, as soon as they made good their footing on dry ground, and all +their comrades had joined them, made an attack upon the enemy, and put +them to flight, but could not pursue them very far, because the horse +had not been able to maintain their course at sea and reach the island. +This alone was wanting to Caesar's accustomed success. + +XXVII.--The enemy being thus vanquished in battle, as soon as they +recovered after their flight, instantly sent ambassadors to Caesar to +negotiate about peace. They promised to give hostages and perform what +he should command. Together with these ambassadors came Commius the +Atrebatian, who, as I have above said, had been sent by Caesar into +Britain. Him they had seized upon when leaving his ship, although in the +character of ambassador he bore the general's commission to them, and +thrown into chains: then after the battle was fought, they sent him +back, and in suing for peace cast the blame of that act upon the common +people, and entreated that it might be pardoned on account of their +indiscretion. Caesar, complaining that after they had sued for peace, +and had voluntarily sent ambassadors into the continent for that +purpose, they had made war without a reason, said that he would pardon +their indiscretion, and imposed hostages, a part of whom they gave +immediately; the rest they said they would give in a few days, since +they were sent for from remote places. In the meantime they ordered +their people to return to the country parts, and the chiefs assembled +from all quarters, and proceeded to surrender themselves and their +states to Caesar. + +XXVIII.--A peace being established by these proceedings four days after +we had come into Britain, the eighteen ships, to which reference has +been made above, and which conveyed the cavalry, set sail from the upper +port with a gentle gale; when, however, they were approaching Britain +and were seen from the camp, so great a storm suddenly arose that none +of them could maintain their course at sea; and some were taken back to +the same port from which they had started;--others, to their great +danger, were driven to the lower part of the island, nearer to the west; +which, however, after having cast anchor, as they were getting filled +with water, put out to sea through necessity in a stormy night, and made +for the continent. + +XXIX.--It happened that night to be full moon, which usually occasions +very high tides in that ocean; and that circumstance was unknown to our +men. Thus, at the same time, the tide began to fill the ships of war +which Caesar had provided to convey over his army, and which he had +drawn up on the strand; and the storm began to dash the ships of burden +which were riding at anchor against each other; nor was any means +afforded our men of either managing them or of rendering any service. A +great many ships having been wrecked, inasmuch as the rest, having lost +their cables, anchors, and other tackling, were unfit for sailing, a +great confusion, as would necessarily happen, arose throughout the army; +for there were no other ships in which they could be conveyed back, and +all things which are of service in repairing vessels were wanting, and +corn for the winter had not been provided in those places, because it +was understood by all that they would certainly winter in Gaul. + +XXX.--On discovering these things the chiefs of Britain, who had come up +after the battle was fought to perform those conditions which Caesar had +imposed, held a conference, when they perceived that cavalry, and ships, +and corn were wanting to the Romans, and discovered the small number of +our soldiers from the small extent of the camp (which, too, was on this +account more limited than ordinary because Caesar had conveyed over his +legions without baggage), and thought that the best plan was to renew +the war, and cut off our men from corn and provisions and protract the +affair till winter; because they felt confident that, if they were +vanquished or cut off from a return, no one would afterwards pass over +into Britain for the purpose of making war. Therefore, again entering +into a conspiracy, they began to depart from the camp by degrees and +secretly bring up their people from the country parts. + +XXXI.--But Caesar, although he had not as yet discovered their measures, +yet, both from what had occurred to his ships, and from the circumstance +that they had neglected to give the promised hostages, suspected that +the thing would come to pass which really did happen. He therefore +provided remedies against all contingencies; for he daily conveyed corn +from the country parts into the camp, used the timber and brass of such +ships as were most seriously damaged for repairing the rest, and ordered +whatever things besides were necessary for this object to be brought to +him from the continent. And thus, since that business was executed by +the soldiers with the greatest energy, he effected that, after the loss +of twelve ships, a voyage could be made well enough in the rest. + +XXXII.--While these things are being transacted, one legion had been +sent to forage, according to custom, and no suspicion of war had arisen +as yet, and some of the people remained in the country parts, others +went backwards and forwards to the camp, they who were on duty at the +gates of the camp reported to Caesar that a greater dust than was usual +was seen in that direction in which the legion had marched. Caesar, +suspecting that which was [really the case],--that some new enterprise +was undertaken by the barbarians, ordered the two cohorts which were on +duty to march into that quarter with him, and two other cohorts to +relieve them on duty; the rest to be armed and follow him immediately. +When he had advanced some little way from the camp, he saw that his men +were overpowered by the enemy and scarcely able to stand their ground, +and that, the legion being crowded together, weapons were being cast on +them from all sides. For as all the corn was reaped in every part with +the exception of one, the enemy, suspecting that our men would repair to +that, had concealed themselves in the woods during the night. Then +attacking them suddenly, scattered as they were, and when they had laid +aside their arms, and were engaged in reaping, they killed a small +number, threw the rest into confusion, and surrounded them with their +cavalry and chariots. + +XXXIII.--Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, +they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally +break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the +noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between +the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The +charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance from the +battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters +are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready +retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of +horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry; and by daily practice +and exercise attain to such expertness that they are accustomed, even on +a declining and steep place, to check their horses at full speed, and +manage and turn them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on +the yoke, and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to +their chariots again. + +XXXIV.-Under these circumstances, our men being dismayed by the novelty +of this mode of battle, Caesar most seasonably brought assistance; for +upon his arrival the enemy paused, and our men recovered from their +fear; upon which, thinking the time unfavourable for provoking the enemy +and coming to an action, he kept himself in his own quarter, and, a +short time having intervened, drew back the legions into the camp. While +these things were going on, and all our men engaged, the rest of the +Britons, who were in the fields, departed. Storms then set in for +several successive days, which both confined our men to camp and +hindered the enemy from attacking us. In the meantime the barbarians +despatched messengers to all parts and reported to their people the +small number of our soldiers, and how good an opportunity was given for +obtaining spoil and for liberating themselves for ever, if they should +only drive the Romans from their camp. Having by these means speedily +got together a large force of infantry and of cavalry, they came up to +the camp. + +XXXV.--Although Caesar anticipated that the same thing which had +happened on former occasions would then occur--that, if the enemy were +routed, they would escape from danger by their speed; still, having got +about thirty horse, which Commius the Atrebatian, of whom mention has +been made, had brought over with him [from Gaul], he drew up the legions +in order of battle before the camp. When the action commenced, the enemy +were unable to sustain the attack of our men long, and turned their +backs; our men pursued them as far as their speed and strength +permitted, and slew a great number of them; then, having destroyed and +burnt everything far and wide, they retreated to their camp. + +XXXVI.--The same day, ambassadors sent by the enemy came to Caesar to +negotiate a peace. Caesar doubled the number of hostages which he had +before demanded; and ordered that they should be brought over to the +continent, because, since the time of the equinox was near, he did not +consider that, with his ships out of repair, the voyage ought to be +deferred till winter. Having met with favourable weather he set sail a +little after midnight, and all his fleet arrived safe at the continent, +except two of the ships of burden which could not make the same port +which the other ships did, and were carried a little lower down. + +XXXVII.--When our soldiers, about 300 in number, had been drawn out of +these two ships, and were marching to the camp, the Morini, whom Caesar, +when setting forth for Britain, had left in a state of peace, excited by +the hope of spoil, at first surrounded them with a small number of men, +and ordered them to lay down their arms, if they did not wish to be +slain; afterwards however, when they, forming a circle, stood on their +defence, a shout was raised and about 6000 of the enemy soon assembled; +which being reported, Caesar sent all the cavalry in the camp as a +relief to his men. In the meantime our soldiers sustained the attack of +the enemy, and fought most valiantly for more than four hours, and, +receiving but few wounds themselves, slew several of them. But after our +cavalry came in sight, the enemy, throwing away their arms, turned their +backs, and a great number of them were killed. + +XXXVIII.--The day following Caesar sent Labienus, his lieutenant, with +those legions which he had brought back from Britain, against the +Morini, who had revolted; who, as they had no place to which they might +retreat, on account of the drying up of their marshes (which they had +availed themselves of as a place of refuge the preceding year), almost +all fell into the power of Labienus. In the meantime Caesar's +lieutenants, Q. Titurius and L. Cotta, who had led the legions into the +territories of the Menapii, having laid waste all their lands, cut down +their corn and burnt their houses, returned to Caesar because the +Menapii had all concealed themselves in their thickest woods. Caesar +fixed the winter quarters of all the legions amongst the Belgae. Thither +only two British states sent hostages; the rest omitted to do so. For +these successes, a thanksgiving of twenty days was decreed by the senate +upon receiving Caesar's letter. + + + +BOOK V + +I.--Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius being consuls, Caesar when +departing from his winter quarters into Italy, as he had been accustomed +to do yearly, commands the lieutenants whom he appointed over the +legions to take care that during the winter as many ships as possible +should be built, and the old repaired. He plans the size and shape of +them. For despatch of lading, and for drawing them on shore, he makes +them a little lower than those which we have been accustomed to use in +our sea; and that so much the more, because he knew that, on account of +the frequent changes of the tide, less swells occurred there; for the +purpose of transporting little and a great number of horses, [he makes +them] a little broader than those which we use in other seas. All these +he orders to be constructed for lightness and expedition, to which +object their lowness contributes greatly. He orders those things which +are necessary for equipping ships to be brought thither from Spain. He +himself, on the assizes of Hither Gaul being concluded, proceeds into +Illyricum, because he heard that the part of the province nearest them +was being laid waste by the incursions of the Pirustae. When he had +arrived there, he levies soldiers upon the states, and orders them to +assemble at an appointed place. Which circumstance having been reported +[to them], the Pirustae send ambassadors to him to inform him that no +part of those proceedings was done by public deliberation, and assert +that they were ready to make compensation by all means for the injuries +[inflicted]. Caesar, accepting their defence, demands hostages, and +orders them to be brought to him on a specified day, and assures them +that unless they did so he would visit their state with war. These being +brought to him on the day which he had ordered, he appoints arbitrators +between the states, who should estimate the damages and determine the +reparation. + +II.--These things being finished, and the assizes being concluded, he +returns into Hither Gaul, and proceeds thence to the army. When he had +arrived there, having made a survey of the winter quarter, he finds +that, by the extraordinary ardour of the soldiers, amidst the utmost +scarcity of all materials, about six hundred ships of that kind which we +have described above, and twenty-eight ships of war, had been built, and +were not far from that state that they might be launched in a few days. +Having commended the soldiers and those who had presided over the work, +he informs them what he wishes to be done, and orders all the ships to +assemble at port Itius, from which port he had learned that the passage +into Britain was shortest, [being only] about thirty miles from the +continent. He left what seemed a sufficient number of soldiers for that +design; he himself proceeds into the territories of the Treviri with +four legions without baggage, and 800 horse, because they neither came +to the general diets [of Gaul], nor obeyed his commands, and were, +moreover, said to be tampering with the Germans beyond the Rhine. + +III.--This state is by far the most powerful of all Gaul in cavalry, and +has great forces of infantry, and as we have remarked above, borders on +the Rhine. In that state, two persons, Indutiomarus and Cingetorix, were +then contending with each other for the supreme power; one of whom, as +soon as the arrival of Caesar and his legions was known, came to him; +assures him that he and all his party would continue in their +allegiance, and not revolt from the alliance of the Roman people, and +informs him of the things which were going on amongst the Treviri. But +Indutiomarus began to collect cavalry and infantry, and make +preparations for war, having concealed those who by reason of their age +could not be under arms in the forest Arduenna, which is of immense +size, [and] extends from the Rhine across the country of the Treviri to +the frontiers of the Remi. But after that, some of the chief persons of +the state, both influenced by their friendship for Cingetorix, and +alarmed at the arrival of our army, came to Caesar and began to solicit +him privately about their own interests, since they could not provide +for the safety of the state; Indutiomarus, dreading lest he should be +abandoned by all, sends ambassadors to Caesar, to declare that he +absented himself from his countrymen, and refrained from coming to him +on this account, that he might the more easily keep the state in its +allegiance, lest on the departure of all the nobility the commonalty +should, in their indiscretion, revolt. And thus the whole state was at +his control; and that he, if Caesar would permit, would come to the camp +to him, and would commit his own fortunes and those of the state to his +good faith. + +IV.--Caesar, though he discerned from what motive these things were +said, and what circumstance deterred him from his meditated plan, still, +in order that he might not be compelled to waste the summer among the +Treviri, while all things were prepared for the war with Britain, +ordered Indutiomarus to come to him with 200 hostages. When these were +brought, [and] among them his son and near relations whom he had +demanded by name, he consoled Indutiomarus, and enjoined him to continue +in his allegiance; yet, nevertheless, summoning to him the chief men of +the Treviri, he reconciled them individually to Cingetorix: this he both +thought should be done by him in justice to the merits of the latter, +and also judged that it was of great importance that the influence of +one whose singular attachment towards him he had fully seen, should +prevail as much as possible among his people. Indutiomarus was very much +offended at this act, [seeing that] his influence was diminished among +his countrymen; and he, who already before had borne a hostile mind +towards us, was much more violently inflamed against us through +resentment at this. + +V.--These matters being settled, Caesar went to port Itius with the +legions. There he discovers that forty ships which had been built in the +country of the Meldi, having been driven back by a storm, had been +unable to maintain their course, and had returned to the same port from +which they had set out; he finds the rest ready for sailing, and +furnished with everything. In the same place, the cavalry of the whole +of Gaul, in number 4000, assembles, and [also] the chief persons of all +the states; he had determined to leave in Gaul a very few of them, whose +fidelity towards him he had clearly discerned, and take the rest with +him as hostages; because he feared a commotion in Gaul when he should be +absent. + +VI.--There was together with the others, Dumnorix, the Aeduan, of whom +we have made previous mention. Him in particular he had resolved to have +with him, because he had discovered him to be fond of change, fond of +power, possessing great resolution, and great influence among the Gauls. +To this was added that Dumnorix had before said in an assembly of +Aeduans, that the sovereignty of the state had been made over to him by +Caesar; which speech the Aedui bore with impatience and yet dared not +send ambassadors to Caesar for the purpose of either rejecting or +deprecating [that appointment]. That fact Caesar had learned from his +own personal friends. He at first strove to obtain by every entreaty +that he should be left in Gaul; partly, because, being unaccustomed to +sailing, he feared the sea; partly, because he said he was prevented by +divine admonitions. After he saw that this request was firmly refused +him, all hope of success being lost, he began to tamper with the chief +persons of the Gauls, to call them apart singly and exhort them to +remain on the continent; to agitate them with the fear that it was not +without reason that Gaul should be stript of all her nobility; that it +was Caesar's design to bring over to Britain and put to death all those +whom he feared to slay in the sight of Gaul, to pledge his honour to the +rest, to ask for their oath that they would by common deliberation +execute what they should perceive to be necessary for Gaul. These things +were reported to Caesar by several persons. + +VII.--Having learned this fact, Caesar, because he had conferred so much +honour upon the Aeduan state, determined that Dumnorix should be +restrained and deterred by whatever means he could; and that, because he +perceived his insane designs to be proceeding farther and farther, care +should be taken lest he might be able to injure him and the +commonwealth. Therefore, having stayed about twenty-five days in that +place, because the north wind, which usually blows a great part of every +season, prevented the voyage, he exerted himself to keep Dumnorix in his +allegiance [and] nevertheless learn all his measures: having at length +met with favourable weather, he orders the foot soldiers and the horse +to embark in the ships. But, while the minds of all were occupied, +Dumnorix began to take his departure from the camp homewards with the +cavalry of the Aedui, Caesar being ignorant of it. Caesar, on this +matter being reported to him, ceasing from his expedition and deferring +all other affairs, sends a great part of the cavalry to pursue him, and +commands that he be brought back; he orders that if he use violence and +do not submit, that he be slain: considering that Dumnorix would do +nothing as a rational man while he himself was absent, since he had +disregarded his command even when present. He, however, when recalled, +began to resist and defend himself with his hand, and implore the +support of his people, often exclaiming that "he was free and the +subject of a free state." They surround and kill the man as they had +been commanded; but the Aeduan horsemen all return to Caesar. + +VIII.--When these things were done [and] Labienus, left on the continent +with three legions and 2000 horse, to defend the harbours and provide +corn, and discover what was going on in Gaul, and take measures +according to the occasion and according to the circumstance; he himself, +with five legions and a number of horse, equal to that which he was +leaving on the continent, set sail at sunset and [though for a time] +borne forward by a gentle south-west wind, he did not maintain his +course, in consequence of the wind dying away about midnight, and being +carried on too far by the tide, when the sun rose, espied Britain passed +on his left. Then, again, following the change of tide, he urged on with +the oars that he might make that port of the island in which he had +discovered the preceding summer that there was the best landing-place, +and in this affair the spirit of our soldiers was very much to be +extolled; for they with the transports and heavy ships, the labour of +rowing not being [for a moment] discontinued, equalled the speed of the +ships of war. All the ships reached Britain nearly at mid-day; nor was +there seen a [single] enemy in that place, but, as Caesar afterwards +found from some prisoners, though large bodies of troops had assembled +there, yet being alarmed by the great number of our ships, more than +eight hundred of which, including the ships of the preceding year, and +those private vessels which each had built for his own convenience, had +appeared at one time, they had quitted the coast and concealed +themselves among the higher points. + +IX.--Caesar, having disembarked his army and chosen a convenient place +for the camp, when he discovered from the prisoners in what part the +forces of the enemy had lodged themselves, having left ten cohorts and +300 horse at the sea, to be a guard to the ships, hastens to the enemy, +at the third watch, fearing the less for the ships for this reason, +because he was leaving them fastened at anchor upon an even and open +shore; and he placed Q. Atrius over the guard of the ships. He himself, +having advanced by night about twelve miles, espied the forces of the +enemy. They, advancing to the river with their cavalry and chariots from +the higher ground, began to annoy our men and give battle. Being +repulsed by our cavalry, they concealed themselves in woods, as they had +secured a place admirably fortified by nature and by art, which, as it +seemed, they had before prepared on account of a civil war; for all +entrances to it were shut up by a great number of felled trees. They +themselves rushed out of the woods to fight here and there, and +prevented our men from entering their fortifications. But the soldiers +of the seventh legion, having formed a testudo and thrown up a rampart +against the fortification, took the place and drove them out of the +woods, receiving only a few wounds. But Caesar forbade his men to pursue +them in their flight any great distance; both because he was ignorant of +the nature of the ground, and because, as a great part of the day was +spent, he wished time to be left for the fortification of the camp. + +X.--The next day, early in the morning, he sent both foot-soldiers and +horse in three divisions on an expedition to pursue those who had fled. +These having advanced a little way, when already the rear [of the enemy] +was in sight, some horse came to Caesar from Quintus Atrius, to report +that the preceding night, a very great storm having arisen, almost all +the ships were dashed to pieces and cast upon the shore, because neither +the anchors and cables could resist, nor could the sailors and pilots +sustain the violence of the storm; and thus great damage was received by +that collision of the ships. + +XI.--These things being known [to him], Caesar orders the legions and +cavalry to be recalled and to cease from their march; he himself returns +to the ships: he sees clearly before him almost the same things which he +had heard of from the messengers and by letter, so that, about forty +ships being lost, the remainder seemed capable of being repaired with +much labour. Therefore he selects workmen from the legions, and orders +others to be sent for from the continent; he writes to Labienus to build +as many ships as he could with those legions which were with him. He +himself, though the matter was one of great difficulty and labour, yet +thought it to be most expedient for all the ships to be brought up on +shore and joined with the camp by one fortification. In these matters he +employed about ten days, the labour of the soldiers being unremitting +even during the hours of night. The ships having been brought up on +shore and the camp strongly fortified, he left the same forces which he +did before as a guard for the ships; he sets out in person for the same +place that he had returned from. When he had come thither, greater +forces of the Britons had already assembled at that place, the chief +command and management of the war having been entrusted to +Cassivellaunus, whose territories a river, which is called the Thames, +separates from the maritime states at about eighty miles from the sea. +At an earlier period perpetual wars had taken place between him and the +other states; but, greatly alarmed by our arrival, the Britons had +placed him over the whole war and the conduct of it. + +XII.--The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they +say that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the +island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from +the country of the Belgae for the purpose of plunder and making war; +almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which +being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there +and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is countless, +and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like +those of the Gauls: the number of cattle is great. They use either brass +or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their money. Tin is +produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron; but the quantity +of it is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, +is timber of every description, except beech and fir. They do not regard +it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, +breed them for amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate +than in Gaul, the colds being less severe. + +XIII.--The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is +opposite to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither +almost all ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower +looks to the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies +towards Spain and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is +reckoned, than Britain by one-half; but the passage [from it] into +Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of this +voyage is an island, which is called Mona; many smaller islands besides +are supposed to lie [there], of which islands some have written that at +the time of the winter solstice it is night there for thirty consecutive +days. We, in our inquiries about that matter, ascertained nothing, +except that, by accurate measurements with water, we perceived the +nights to be shorter there than on the continent. The length of this +side, as their account states, is 700 miles. The third side is towards +the north, to which portion of the island no land is opposite; but an +angle of that side looks principally towards Germany. This side is +considered to be 800 miles in length. Thus the whole island is [about] +2000 miles in circumference. + +XIV.--The most civilised of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, +which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the +Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live +on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye +themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have +a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have +every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and +even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among +brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by +these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom +respectively each was first espoused when a virgin. + +XV.--The horse and charioteers of the enemy contended vigorously in a +skirmish with our cavalry on the march; yet so that our men were +conquerors in all parts, and drove them to their woods and hills; but, +having slain a great many, they pursued too eagerly, and lost some of +their men. But the enemy, after some time had elapsed, when our men were +off their guard, and occupied in the fortification of the camp, rushed +out of the woods, and making an attack upon those who were placed on +duty before the camp, fought in a determined manner; and two cohorts +being sent by Caesar to their relief, and these severally the first of +two legions, when these had taken up their position at a very small +distance from each other, as our men were disconcerted by the unusual +mode of battle, the enemy broke through the middle of them most +courageously, and retreated thence in safety. That day, Q. Laberius +Durus, a tribune of the soldiers, was slain. The enemy, since more +cohorts were sent against them, were repulsed. + +XVI.--In the whole of this method of fighting since the engagement took +place under the eyes of all and before the camp, it was perceived that +our men, on account of the weight of their arms, inasmuch as they could +neither pursue [the enemy when] retreating, nor dare quit their +standards, were little suited to this kind of enemy; that the horse also +fought with great danger, because they [the Britons] generally retreated +even designedly, and, when they had drawn off our men a short distance +from the legions, leaped from their chariots and fought on foot in +unequal [and to them advantageous] battle. But the system of cavalry +engagement is wont to produce equal danger, and indeed the same, both to +those who retreat and those who pursue. To this was added, that they +never fought in close order, but in small parties and at great +distances, and had detachments placed [in different parts], and then the +one relieved the other, and the vigorous and fresh succeeded the +wearied. + +XVII.--The following day the enemy halted on the hills, a distance from +our camp, and presented themselves in small parties, and began to +challenge our horse to battle with less spirit than the day before. But +at noon, when Caesar had sent three legions, and all the cavalry with C. +Trebonius, the lieutenant, for the purpose of foraging, they flew upon +the foragers suddenly from all quarters, so that they did not keep off +[even] from the standards and the legions. Our men making an attack on +them vigorously, repulsed them; nor did they cease to pursue them until +the horse, relying on relief, as they saw the legions behind them, drove +the enemy precipitately before them, and, slaying a great number of +them, did not give them the opportunity either of rallying or halting, +or leaping from their chariots. Immediately after this retreat, the +auxiliaries who had assembled from all sides, departed; nor after that +time did the enemy ever engage with us in very large numbers. + +XVIII.--Caesar, discovering their design, leads his army into the +territories of Cassivellaunus to the river Thames; which river can be +forded in one place only, and that with difficulty. When he had arrived +there, he perceives that numerous forces of the enemy were marshalled on +the other bank of the river; the bank also was defended by sharp stakes +fixed in front, and stakes of the same kind fixed under the water were +covered by the river. These things being discovered from [some] +prisoners and deserters, Caesar, sending forward the cavalry, ordered +the legions to follow them immediately. But the soldiers advanced with +such speed and such ardour, though they stood above the water by their +heads only, that the enemy could not sustain the attack of the legions +and of the horse, and quitted the banks, and committed themselves to +flight. + +XIX.--Cassivellaunus, as we have stated above, all hope [rising out] of +battle being laid aside, the greater part of his forces being dismissed, +and about 4000 charioteers only being left, used to observe our marches +and retire a little from the road, and conceal himself in intricate and +woody places, and in those neighbourhoods in which he had discovered we +were about to march, he used to drive the cattle and the inhabitants +from the fields into the woods; and, when our cavalry, for the sake of +plundering and ravaging the more freely, scattered themselves among the +fields, he used to send out charioteers from the woods by all the +well-known roads and paths, and, to the great danger of our horse, engage +with them; and this source of fear hindered them from straggling very +extensively. The result was that Caesar did not allow excursions to be +made to a great distance from the main body of the legions, and ordered +that damage should be done to the enemy in ravaging their lands and +kindling fires only so far as the legionary soldiers could, by their own +exertion and marching, accomplish it. + +XX.--In the meantime, the Trinobantes, almost the most powerful state of +those parts, from which the young man Mandubratius embracing the +protection of Caesar had come to the continent of Gaul to [meet] him +(whose father, Imanuentius, had possessed the sovereignty in that state, +and had been killed by Cassivellaunus; he himself had escaped death by +flight), send ambassadors to Caesar, and promise that they will +surrender themselves to him and perform his commands; they entreat him +to protect Mandubratius from the violence of Cassivellaunus, and send to +their state some one to preside over it, and possess the government. +Caesar demands forty hostages from them, and corn for his army, and +sends Mandubratius to them. They speedily performed the things demanded, +and sent hostages to the number appointed, and the corn. + +XXI.--The Trinobantes being protected and secured from any violence of +the soldiers, the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci, the Ancalites, the Bibroci, +and the Cassi, sending embassies, surrender themselves to Caesar. From +them he learns that the capital town of Cassivellaunus was not far from +that place, and was defended by woods and morasses, and a very large +number of men and of cattle had been collected in it. (Now the Britons, +when they have fortified the intricate woods, in which they are wont to +assemble for the purpose of avoiding the incursion of an enemy, with an +entrenchment and a rampart, call them a town.) Thither he proceeds with +his legions: he finds the place admirably fortified by nature and art; +he, however, undertakes to attack it in two directions. The enemy, +having remained only a short time, did not sustain the attack of our +soldiers, and hurried away on the other side of the town. A great amount +of cattle was found there, and many of the enemy were taken and slain in +their flight. + +XXII.--While these things are going forward in those places, +Cassivellaunus sends messengers into Kent, which, we have observed +above, is on the sea, over which districts four several kings reigned, +Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax, and commands them to +collect all their forces, and unexpectedly assail and storm the naval +camp. When they had come to the camp, our men, after making a sally, +slaying many of their men, and also capturing a distinguished leader +named Lugotorix, brought back their own men in safety. Cassivellaunus, +when this battle was reported to him, as so many losses had been +sustained, and his territories laid waste, being alarmed most of all by +the desertion of the states, sends ambassadors to Caesar [to treat] +about a surrender through the mediation of Commius the Atrebatian. +Caesar, since he had determined to pass the winter on the continent, on +account of the sudden revolts of Gaul, and as much of the summer did not +remain, and he perceived that even that could be easily protracted, +demands hostages, and prescribes what tribute Britain should pay each +year to the Roman people; he forbids and commands Cassivellaunus that he +wage not war against Mandubratius or the Trinobantes. + +XXIII.--When he had received the hostages, he leads back the army to the +sea, and finds the ships repaired. After launching these, because he had +a large number of prisoners, and some of the ships had been lost in the +storm, he determines to convey back his army at two embarkations. And it +so happened, that out of so large a number of ships, in so many voyages, +neither in this nor in the previous year was any ship missing which +conveyed soldiers; but very few out of those which were sent back to him +from the continent empty, as the soldiers of the former convoy had been +disembarked, and out of those (sixty in number) which Labienus had taken +care to have built, reached their destination; almost all the rest were +driven back, and when Caesar had waited for them for some time in vain, +lest he should be debarred from a voyage by the season of the year, +inasmuch as the equinox was at hand, he of necessity stowed his soldiers +the more closely, and, a very great calm coming on, after he had weighed +anchor at the beginning of the second watch, he reached land at break of +day and brought in all the ships in safety. + +XXIV.--The ships having been drawn up and a general assembly of the +Gauls held at Samarobriva, because the corn that year had not prospered +in Gaul by reason of the droughts, he was compelled to station his army +in its winter-quarters, differently from the former years, and to +distribute the legions among several states: one of them he gave to C. +Fabius, his lieutenant, to be marched into the territories of the +Morini; a second to Q. Cicero, into those of the Nervii; a third to L. +Roscius, into those of the Essui; a fourth he ordered to winter with T. +Labienus among the Remi in the confines of the Treviri; he stationed +three in Belgium; over these he appointed M. Crassus, his questor, and +L. Munatius Plancus and C. Trebonius, his lieutenants. One legion which +he had raised last on the other side of the Po, and five cohorts, he +sent amongst the Eburones, the greatest portion of whom lie between the +Meuse and the Rhine, [and] who were under the government of Ambiorix and +Cativolcus. He ordered Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, +his lieutenants, to take the command of these soldiers. The legions +being distributed in this manner, he thought he could most easily remedy +the scarcity of corn; and yet the winter-quarters of all these legions +(except that which he had given to L. Roscius to be led into the most +peaceful and tranquil neighbourhood) were comprehended within [about] +100 miles. He himself in the meanwhile, until he had stationed the +legions and knew that the several winter-quarters were fortified, +determined to stay in Gaul. + +XXV.--There was among the Carnutes a man named Tasgetius, born of very +high rank, whose ancestors had held the sovereignty in his state. To him +Caesar had restored the position of his ancestors, in consideration of +his prowess and attachment towards him, because in all his wars he had +availed himself of his valuable services. His personal enemies had +killed him when in the third year of his reign, many even of his own +state being openly promoters [of that act]. This event is related to +Caesar. He fearing, because several were involved in the act, that the +state might revolt at their instigation, orders Lucius Plancus, with a +legion, to proceed quickly from Belgium to the Carnutes, and winter +there, and arrest and send to him the persons by whose instrumentality +he should discover that Tasgetius was slain. In the meantime, he was +apprised by all the lieutenants and questors to whom he had assigned the +legions, that they had arrived in winter-quarters, and that the place +for the quarters was fortified. + +XXVI.--About fifteen days after they had come into winter-quarters, the +beginning of a sudden insurrection and revolt arose from Ambiorix and +Cativolcus, who, though they had met with Sabinus and Cotta at the +borders of their kingdom, and had conveyed corn into our winter-quarters, +induced by the messages of Indutiomarus, one of the Treviri, +excited their people, and after having suddenly assailed the soldiers, +engaged in procuring wood, came with a large body to attack the camp. +When our men had speedily taken up arms and had ascended the rampart, +and sending out some Spanish horse on one side, had proved conquerors in +a cavalry action, the enemy, despairing of success, drew off their +troops from the assault. Then they shouted, according to their custom, +that some of our men should go forward to a conference, [alleging] that +they had some things which they desired to say respecting the common +interest, by which they trusted their disputes could be removed. + +XXVII.--C. Arpineius, a Roman knight, the intimate friend of Q. +Titurius, and with him Q. Junius, a certain person from Spain, who +already on previous occasions had been accustomed to go to Ambiorix, at +Caesar's mission, is sent to them for the purpose of a conference: +before them Ambiorix spoke to this effect: "That he confessed that for +Caesar's kindness towards him he was very much indebted to him, inasmuch +as by his aid he had been freed from a tribute which he had been +accustomed to pay to the Aduatuci, his neighbours; and because his own +son and the son of his brother had been sent back to him, whom, when +sent in the number of hostages, the Aduatuci had detained among them in +slavery and in chains; and that he had not done that which he had done +in regard to the attacking of the camp, either by his own judgment or +desire, but by the compulsion of his state; and that his government was +of that nature, that the people had as much of authority over him as he +over the people. To the state moreover the occasion of the war was this +--that it could not withstand the sudden combination of the Gauls; that +he could easily prove this from his own weakness, since he was not so +little versed in affairs as to presume that with his forces he could +conquer the Roman people; but that it was the common resolution of Gaul; +that that day was appointed for the storming of all Caesar's +winter-quarters, in order that no legion should be able to come to the +relief of another legion, that Gauls could not easily deny Gauls, +especially when a measure seemed entered into for recovering their common +freedom. Since he had performed his duty to them on the score of patriotism +[he said], he has now regard to gratitude for the kindness of Caesar; that +he warned, that he prayed Titurius by the claims of hospitality, to +consult for his and his soldiers' safety; that a large force of the +Germans had been hired and had passed the Rhine; that it would arrive in +two days; that it was for them to consider whether they thought fit, +before the nearest people perceived it, to lead off their soldiers when +drawn out of winter-quarters, either to Cicero or to Labienus; one of +whom was about fifty miles distant from them, the other rather more; +that this he promised and confirmed by oath, that he would give them a +safe passage through his territories; and when he did that, he was both +consulting for his own state, because it would be relieved from the +winter-quarters, and also making a requital to Caesar for his +obligations." + +XXVIII.--Arpineius and Junius relate to the lieutenants what they had +heard. They, greatly alarmed by the unexpected affair, though those +things were spoken by an enemy, still thought they were not to be +disregarded; and they were especially influenced by this consideration, +that it was scarcely credible that the obscure and humble state of the +Eburones had dared to make war upon the Roman people of their own +accord. Accordingly, they refer the matter to a council, and a, great +controversy arises among them. L. Aurunculeius, and several tribunes of +the soldiers and the centurions of the first rank, were of opinion "that +nothing should be done hastily, and that they should not depart from the +camp without Caesar's orders"; they declared, "that any forces of the +Germans, however great, might be encountered by fortified winter-quarters; +that this fact was a proof [of it]; that they had sustained the first +assault of the Germans most valiantly, inflicting many wounds upon them; +that they were not distressed for corn; that in the meantime relief +would come both from the nearest winter-quarters and from Caesar"; lastly, +they put the query, "what could be more undetermined, more undignified, +than to adopt measures respecting the most important affairs on the +authority of an enemy?" + +XXIX.--In opposition to those things Titurius exclaimed, "That they +would do this too late, when greater forces of the enemy, after a +junction with the Germans, should have assembled; or when some disaster +had been received in the neighbouring winter-quarters; that the +opportunity for deliberating was short; that he believed that Caesar had +set forth into Italy, as the Carnutes would not otherwise have taken the +measure of slaying Tasgetius, nor would the Eburones, if he had been +present, have come to the camp with so great defiance of us; that he did +not regard the enemy, but the fact, as the authority; that the Rhine was +near; that the death of Ariovistus and our previous victories were +subjects of great indignation to the Germans; that Gaul was inflamed, +that after having received so many defeats she was reduced under the +sway of the Roman people, her pristine glory in military matters being +extinguished." Lastly, "who would persuade himself of this, that +Ambiorix had resorted to a design of that nature without sure grounds? +That his own opinion was safe on either side; if there be nothing very +formidable, they would go without danger to the nearest legion; if all +Gaul conspired with the Germans, their only safety lay in despatch. What +issue would the advice of Cotta and of those who differed from him, +have? from which, if immediate danger was not to be dreaded, yet +certainly famine, by a protracted siege, was." + +XXX.--This discussion having been held on the two sides, when opposition +was offered strenuously by Cotta and the principal officers, "Prevail," +said Sabinus, "if so you wish it"; and he said it with a louder voice, +that a great portion of the soldiers might hear him; "nor am I the +person among you," he said, "who is most powerfully alarmed by the +danger of death; these will be aware of it, and then, if any thing +disastrous shall have occurred, they will demand a reckoning at your +hands; these, who, if it were permitted by you, united three days hence +with the nearest winter-quarters, may encounter the common condition of +war with the rest, and not, as if forced away and separated far from the +rest, perish either by the sword or by famine." + +XXXI.--They rise from the council, detain both, and entreat, that "they +do not bring the matter into the greatest jeopardy by their dissension +and obstinacy; the affair was an easy one, if only they all thought and +approved of the same thing, whether they remain or depart; on the other +hand, they saw no security in dissension." The matter is prolonged by +debate till midnight. At last Cotta, being overruled, yields his assent; +the opinion of Sabinus prevails. It is proclaimed that they will march +at day-break; the remainder of the night is spent without sleep, since +every soldier was inspecting his property, [to see] what he could carry +with him, and what, out of the appurtenances of the winter-quarters, he +would be compelled to leave; every reason is suggested to show why they +could not stay without danger, and how that danger would be increased by +the fatigue of the soldiers and their want of sleep. At break of day +they quit the camp, in a very extended line and with a very large amount +of baggage, in such a manner as men who were convinced that the advice +was given by Ambiorix, not as an enemy, but as most friendly [towards +them]. + +XXXII.--But the enemy, after they had made the discovery of their +intended departure by the noise during the night and their not retiring +to rest, having placed an ambuscade in two divisions in the woods, in a +suitable and concealed place, two miles from the camp, waited for the +arrival of the Romans; and when the greater part of the line of march +had descended into a considerable valley, they suddenly presented +themselves on either side of that valley, and began both to harass the +rear and hinder the van from ascending, and to give battle in a place +exceedingly disadvantageous to our men. + +XXXIII.--Then at length Titurius, as one who had provided nothing +beforehand, was confused, ran to and fro, and set about arranging his +troops; these very things, however, he did timidly and in such a manner +that all resources seemed to fail him: which generally happens to those +who are compelled to take council in the action itself. But Cotta, who +had reflected that these things might occur on the march, and on that +account had not been an adviser of the departure, was wanting to the +common safety in no respect; both in addressing and encouraging the +soldiers, he performed the duties of a general, and in the battle those +of a soldier. And since they [Titurius and Cotta] could less easily +perform everything by themselves, and provide what was to be done in +each place, by reason of the length of the line of march, they ordered +[the officers] to give the command that they should leave the baggage +and form themselves into an orb, which measure, though in a contingency +of that nature it was not to be condemned, still turned out +unfortunately; for it both diminished the hope of our soldiers and +rendered the enemy more eager for the fight, because it appeared that +this was not done without the greatest fear and despair. Besides that +happened, which would necessarily be the case, that the soldiers for the +most part quitted their ensigns and hurried to seek and carry off from +the baggage whatever each thought valuable, and all parts were filled +with uproar and lamentation. + +XXXIV.--But judgment was not wanting to the barbarians; for their +leaders ordered [the officers] to proclaim through the ranks "that no +man should quit his place; that the booty was theirs, and for them was +reserved whatever the Romans should leave; therefore let them consider +that all things depended on their victory." Our men were equal to them +in fighting, both in courage and in number, and though they were +deserted by their leader and by fortune, yet they still placed all hope +of safety in their valour, and as often as any cohort sallied forth on +that side, a great number of the enemy usually fell. Ambiorix, when he +observed this, orders the command to be issued that they throw their +weapons from a distance and do not approach too near, and in whatever +direction the Romans should make an attack, there give way (from the +lightness of their appointments and from their daily practice no damage +could be done them); [but] pursue them when betaking themselves to their +standards again. + +XXXV.--Which command having been most carefully obeyed, when any cohort +had quitted the circle and made a charge, the enemy fled very +precipitately. In the meantime, that part of the Roman army, of +necessity, was left unprotected, and the weapons received on their open +flank. Again, when they had begun to return to that place from which +they had advanced, they were surrounded both by those who had retreated +and by those who stood next them; but if, on the other hand, they wished +to keep their place, neither was an opportunity left for valour, nor +could they, being crowded together, escape the weapons cast by so large +a body of men. Yet, though assailed by so many disadvantages, [and] +having received many wounds, they withstood the enemy, and, a great +portion of the day being spent, though they fought from day-break till +the eighth hour, they did nothing which was unworthy of them. At length, +each thigh of T. Balventius, who the year before had been chief +centurion, a brave man and one of great authority, is pierced with a +javelin; Q. Lucanius, of the same rank, fighting most valiantly, is +slain while he assists his son when surrounded by the enemy; L. Cotta, +the lieutenant, when encouraging all the cohorts and companies, is +wounded full in the mouth by a sling. + +XXXVI.--Much troubled by these events, Q. Titurius, when he had +perceived Ambiorix in the distance encouraging his men, sends to him his +interpreter, Cn. Pompey, to beg that he would spare him and his +soldiers. He, when addressed, replied, "If he wished to confer with him, +it was permitted; that he hoped what pertained to the safety of the +soldiers could be obtained from the people; that to him however +certainly no injury would be done, and that he pledged his faith to that +effect." He consults with Cotta, who had been wounded, whether it would +appear right to retire from battle, and confer with Ambiorix; [saying] +that he hoped to be able to succeed respecting his own and the soldiers' +safety. Cotta says he will not go to an armed enemy, and in that +perseveres. + +XXXVII.--Sabinus orders those tribunes of the soldiers whom he had at +the time around him, and the centurions of the first ranks, to follow +him, and when he had approached near to Ambiorix, being ordered to throw +down his arms, he obeys the order and commands his men to do the same. +In the meantime, while they treat upon the terms, and a longer debate +than necessary is designedly entered into by Ambiorix, being surrounded +by degrees, he is slain. Then they according to their custom shout out +"Victory," and raise their war-cry, and, making an attack on our men, +break their ranks. There L. Cotta, while fighting, is slain, together +with the greater part of the soldiers; the rest betake themselves to the +camp from which they had marched forth, and one of them, L. Petrosidius, +the standard bearer, when he was overpowered by the great number of the +enemy, threw the eagle within the entrenchments and is himself slain +while fighting with the greatest courage before the camp. They with +difficulty sustain the attack till night; despairing of safety, they all +to a man destroy themselves in the night. A few escaping from the +battle, make their way to Labienus at winter-quarters, after wandering +at random through the woods, and inform him of these events. + +XXXVIII.--Elated by this victory, Ambiorix marches immediately with his +cavalry to the Aduatuci, who bordered on his kingdom; he halts neither +day nor night, and orders the infantry to follow him closely. Having +related the exploit and roused the Aduatuci, the next day he arrived +among the Nervii, and entreats "that they should not throw away the +opportunity of liberating themselves for ever and of punishing the +Romans for those wrongs which they had received from them"; [he tells +them] "that two lieutenants have been slain, and that a large portion of +the army has perished; that it was not a matter of difficulty for the +legion which was wintering with Cicero to be cut off, when suddenly +assaulted; he declares himself ready to co-operate in that design." He +easily gains over the Nervii by this speech. + +XXXIX.--Accordingly, messengers having been forthwith despatched to the +Centrones, the Grudii, the Levaci, the Pleumoxii, and the Geiduni, all +of whom are under their government, they assemble as large bodies as +they can, and rush unexpectedly to the winter-quarters of Cicero, the +report of the death of Titurius not having as yet been conveyed to him. +That also occurred to him which was the consequence of a necessary +work,--that some soldiers who had gone off into the woods for the +purpose of procuring timber and therewith constructing fortifications, +were intercepted by the sudden arrival of [the enemy's] horse. These +having been entrapped, the Eburones, the Nervii, and the Aduatuci and +all their allies and dependants, begin to attack the legion: our men +quickly run together to arms and mount the rampart: they sustained the +attack that day with great difficulty, since the enemy placed all their +hope in despatch, and felt assured that, if they obtained this victory, +they would be conquerors for ever. + +XL.--Letters are immediately sent to Caesar by Cicero, great rewards +being offered [to the messengers] if they carried them through. All the +passes having been beset, those who were sent are intercepted. During +the night as many as 120 towers are raised with incredible despatch out +of the timber which they had collected for the purpose of fortification: +the things which seemed necessary to the work are completed. The +following day the enemy, having collected far greater forces, attack the +camp [and] fill up the ditch. Resistance is made by our men in the same +manner as the day before: this same thing is done afterwards during the +remaining days. The work is carried on incessantly in the night: not +even to the sick, or wounded, is opportunity given for rest: whatever +things are required for resisting the assault of the next day are +provided during the night: many stakes burnt at the end, and a large +number of mural pikes are procured: towers are built up, battlements and +parapets are formed of interwoven hurdles. Cicero himself, though he was +in very weak health, did not leave himself the night-time for repose, so +that he was forced to spare himself by the spontaneous movement and +entreaties of the soldiers. + +XLI.--Then these leaders and chiefs of the Nervii, who had any intimacy +and grounds of friendship with Cicero, say they desire to confer with +him. When permission was granted, they recount the same things which +Ambiorix had related to Titurius, namely, "that all Gaul was in arms, +that the Germans had passed the Rhine, that the winter-quarters of +Caesar and of the others were attacked." They report in addition also, +about the death of Sabinus. They point to Ambiorix for the purpose of +obtaining credence; "they are mistaken," say they, "if they hoped for +any relief from those who distrust their own affairs; that they bear +such feelings towards Cicero and the Roman people that they deny them +nothing but winter-quarters and are unwilling that this practice should +become constant; that through their [the Nervii's] means it is possible +for them [the Romans] to depart from their winter-quarters safely and to +proceed without fear into whatever parts they desire." To these Cicero +made only one reply: "that it is not the custom of the Roman people to +accept any condition from an armed enemy: if they are willing to lay +down their arms, they may employ him as their advocate and send +ambassadors to Caesar: that he believed, from his [Caesar's] justice, +they would obtain the things which they might request." + +XLII.--Disappointed in this hope, the Nervii surround the winter-quarters +with a rampart eleven feet high, and a ditch thirteen feet in +depth. These military works they had learnt from our men in the +intercourse of former years, and, having taken some of our army +prisoners, were instructed by them: but, as they had no supply of iron +tools which are requisite for this service, they were forced to cut the +turf with their swords, and to empty out the earth with their hands and +cloaks, from which circumstance the vast number of the men could be +inferred; for in less than three hours they completed a fortification of +ten miles in circumference; and during the rest of the days they began +to prepare and construct towers of the height of the ramparts, and +grappling irons, and mantlets, which the same prisoners had taught them. + +XLIII.--On the seventh day of the attack, a very high wind having sprung +up, they began to discharge by their slings hot balls made of burnt or +hardened clay, and heated javelins, upon the huts, which, after the +Gallic custom, were thatched with straw. These quickly took fire, and by +the violence of the wind, scattered their flames in every part of the +camp. The enemy following up their success with a very loud shout, as if +victory were already obtained and secured, began to advance their towers +and mantlets, and climb the rampart with ladders. But so great was the +courage of our soldiers, and such their presence of mind, that though +they were scorched on all sides, and harassed by a vast number of +weapons, and were aware that their baggage and their possessions were +burning, not only did no one quit the rampart for the purpose of +withdrawing from the scene, but scarcely did any one even then look +behind; and they all fought most vigorously and most valiantly. This day +was by far the most calamitous to our men; it had this result, however, +that on that day the largest number of the enemy was wounded and slain, +since they had crowded beneath the very rampart, and the hindmost did +not afford the foremost a retreat. The flame having abated a little, and +a tower having been brought up in a particular place and touching the +rampart, the centurions of the third cohort retired from the place in +which they were standing, and drew off all their men: they began to call +on the enemy by gestures and by words, to enter if they wished; but none +of them dared to advance. Then stones having been cast from every +quarter, the enemy were dislodged, and their tower set on fire. + +XLIV.--In that legion there were two very brave men, centurions, who +were now approaching the first ranks, T. Pulfio, and L. Varenus. These +used to have continual disputes between them which of them should be +preferred, and every year used to contend for promotion with the utmost +animosity. When the fight was going on most vigorously before the +fortifications, Pulfio, one of them, says, "Why do you hesitate, +Varenus? or what [better] opportunity of signalising your valour do you +seek? This very day shall decide our disputes." When he had uttered +these words, he proceeds beyond the fortifications, and rushes on that +part of the enemy which appeared the thickest. Nor does Varenus remain +within the rampart, but respecting the high opinion of all, follows +close after. Then, when an inconsiderable space intervened, Pulfio +throws his javelin at the enemy, and pierces one of the multitude who +was running up, and while the latter was wounded and slain, the enemy +cover him with their shields, and all throw their weapons at the other +and afford him no opportunity of retreating. The shield of Pulfio is +pierced and a javelin is fastened in his belt. This circumstance turns +aside his scabbard and obstructs his right hand when attempting to draw +his sword: the enemy crowd around him when [thus] embarrassed. His rival +runs up to him and succours him in this emergency. Immediately the whole +host turn from Pulfio to him, supposing the other to be pierced through +by the javelin. Varenus rushes on briskly with his sword and carries on +the combat hand to hand, and having slain one man, for a short time +drove back the rest: while he urges on too eagerly, slipping into a +hollow, he fell. To him, in his turn, when surrounded, Pulfio brings +relief; and both having slain a great number, retreat into the +fortifications amidst the highest applause. Fortune so dealt with both +in this rivalry and conflict, that the one competitor was a succour and +a safeguard to the other, nor could it be determined which of the two +appeared worthy of being preferred to the other. + +XLV.--In proportion as the attack became daily more formidable and +violent, and particularly because, as a great number of the soldiers +were exhausted with wounds, the matter had come to a small number of +defenders, more frequent letters and messengers were sent to Caesar; a +part of which messengers were taken and tortured to death in the sight +of our soldiers. There was within our camp a certain Nervian, by name +Vertico, born in a distinguished position, who in the beginning of the +blockade had deserted to Cicero, and had exhibited his fidelity to him. +He persuades his slave, by the hope of freedom, and by great rewards, to +convey a letter to Caesar. This he carries out bound about his javelin, +and mixing among the Gauls without any suspicion by being a Gaul, he +reaches Caesar. From him they received information of the imminent +danger of Cicero and the legion. + +XLVI.--Caesar having received the letter about the eleventh hour of the +day, immediately sends a messenger to the Bellovaci, to M. Crassus, +questor there, whose winter-quarters were twenty-five miles distant from +him. He orders the legion to set forward in the middle of the night and +come to him with despatch. Crassus set out with the messenger. He sends +anther to C. Fabius, the lieutenant, ordering him to lead forth his +legion into the territories of the Atrebates, to which he knew his march +must be made. He writes to Labienus to come with his legion to the +frontiers of the Nervii, if he could do so to the advantage of the +commonwealth: he does not consider that the remaining portion of the +army, because it was somewhat farther distant, should be waited for; but +assembles about 400 horse from the nearest winter-quarters. + +XLVII.--Having been apprised of the arrival of Crassus by the scouts at +about the third hour, he advances twenty miles that day. He appoints +Crassus over Samarobriva and assigns him a legion, because he was +leaving there the baggage of the army, the hostages of the states, the +public documents, and all the corn, which he had conveyed thither for +passing the winter. Fabius, without delaying a moment, meets him on the +march with his legion, as he had been commanded. Labienus, having learnt +the death of Sabinus and the destruction of the cohorts, as all the +forces of the Treviri had come against him, beginning to fear lest, if +he made a departure from his winter-quarters, resembling a flight, he +should not be able to support the attack of the enemy, particularly +since he knew them to be elated by their recent victory, sends back a +letter to Caesar, informing him with what great hazard he would lead out +his legion from winter-quarters; he relates at large the affair which +had taken place among the Eburones; he informs him that all the infantry +and cavalry of the Treviri had encamped at a distance of only three +miles from his own camp. + +XLVIII.--Caesar, approving of his motives, although he was disappointed +in his expectation of three legions, and reduced to two, yet placed his +only hopes of the common safety in despatch. He goes into the +territories of the Nervii by long marches. There he learns from some +prisoners what things are going on in the camp of Cicero, and in how +great jeopardy the affair is. Then with great rewards he induces a +certain man of the Gallic horse to convey a letter to Cicero. This he +sends written in Greek characters, lest the letter being intercepted, +our measures should be discovered by the enemy. He directs him, if he +should be unable to enter, to throw his spear with the letter fastened +to the thong inside the fortifications of the camp. He writes in the +letter, that he having set out with his legions, will quickly be there: +he entreats him to maintain his ancient valour. The Gaul apprehending +danger, throws his spear as he had been directed. It by chance stuck in +a tower, and, not being observed by our men for two days, was seen by a +certain soldier on the third day: when taken down, it was carried to +Cicero. He, after perusing it, reads it out in an assembly of the +soldiers, and fills all with the greatest joy. Then the smoke of the +fires was seen in the distance, a circumstance which banished all doubt +of the arrival of the legions. + +XLIX.--The Gauls, having discovered the matter through their scouts, +abandon the blockade, and march towards Caesar with all their forces: +these were about 60,000 armed men. Cicero, an opportunity being now +afforded, again begs of that Vertico, the Gaul, whom we mentioned above, +to convey back a letter to Caesar; he advises him to perform his journey +warily; he writes in the letter that the enemy had departed and had +turned their entire force against him. When this letter was brought to +him about the middle of the night, Caesar apprises his soldiers of its +contents, and inspires them with courage for fighting: the following +day, at the dawn, he moves his camp, and, having proceeded four miles, +he espies the forces of the enemy on the other side of a considerable +valley and rivulet. It was an affair of great danger to fight with such +large forces in a disadvantageous situation. For the present, therefore, +inasmuch as he knew that Cicero was released from the blockade, and +thought that he might, on that account, relax his speed, he halted there +and fortifies a camp in the most favourable position he can. And this, +though it was small in itself, [there being] scarcely 7000 men, and +these too without baggage, still by the narrowness of the passages, he +contracts as much as he can, with this object, that he may come into the +greatest contempt with the enemy. In the meanwhile, scouts having been +sent in all directions, he examines by what most convenient path he +might cross the valley. + +L.--That day, slight skirmishes of cavalry having taken place near the +river, both armies kept in their own positions: the Gauls, because they +were awaiting larger forces which had not then arrived; Caesar, [to see] +if perchance by pretence of fear he could allure the enemy towards his +position, so that he might engage in battle, in front of his camp, on +this side of the valley; if he could not accomplish this, that, having +inquired about the passes, he might cross the valley and the river with +the less hazard. At day-break the cavalry of the enemy approaches to the +camp and joins battle with our horse. Caesar orders the horse to give +way purposely, and retreat to the camp: at the same time he orders the +camp to be fortified with a higher rampart in all directions, the gates +to be barricaded, and in executing these things as much confusion to be +shown as possible, and to perform them under the pretence of fear. + +LI.--Induced by all these things the enemy lead over their forces and +draw up their line in a disadvantageous position; and as our men also +had been led down from the ramparts, they approach nearer, and throw +their weapons into the fortification from all sides, and sending heralds +round, order it to be proclaimed that, if "any, either Gaul or Roman, +was willing to go over to them before the third hour, it was permitted; +after that time there would not be permission"; and so much did they +disregard our men, that the gates having been blocked up with single +rows of turf as a mere appearance, because they did not seem able to +burst in that way, some began to pull down the rampart with their hands, +others to fill up the trenches. Then Caesar, making a sally from all the +gates, and sending out the cavalry, soon puts the enemy to flight, so +that no one at all stood his ground with the intention of fighting; and +he slew a great number of them, and deprived all of their arms. + +LII.--Caesar, fearing to pursue them very far, because woods and +morasses intervened, and also [because] he saw that they suffered no +small loss in abandoning their position, reaches Cicero the same day +with all his forces safe. He witnesses with surprise the towers, +mantlets, and [other] fortifications belonging to the enemy: the legion +having been drawn out, he finds that even every tenth soldier had not +escaped without wounds. From all these things he judges with what danger +and with what great courage matters had been conducted; he commends +Cicero according to his desert and likewise the legion; he addresses +individually the centurions and the tribunes of the soldiers, whose +valour he had discovered to have been signal. He receives information of +the death of Sabinus and Cotta from the prisoners. An assembly being +held the following day, he states the occurrence; he consoles and +encourages the soldiers; he suggests that the disaster, which had been +occasioned by the misconduct and rashness of his lieutenant, should be +borne with a patient mind, because by the favour of the immortal gods +and their own valour, neither was lasting joy left to the enemy, nor +very lasting grief to them. + +LIII.--In the meanwhile the report respecting the victory of Caesar is +conveyed to Labienus through the country of the Remi with incredible +speed, so that, though he was about sixty miles distant from the +winter-quarter of Cicero, and Caesar had arrived there after the ninth +hour, before midnight a shout arose at the gates of the camp, by which +shout an indication of the victory and a congratulation on the part of +the Remi were given to Labienus. This report having been carried to the +Treviri, Indutiormarus, who had resolved to attack the camp of Labienus +the following day, flies by night and leads back all his forces into the +country of the Treviri. Caesar sends back Fabius with his legion to his +winter-quarters; he himself determines to winter with three legions near +Samarobriva in three different quarters, and, because such great +commotions had arisen in Gaul, he resolved to remain during the whole +winter with the army himself. For the disaster respecting the death of +Sabinus having been circulated among them, almost all the states of Gaul +were deliberating about war, sending messengers and embassies into all +quarters, inquiring what further measure they should take, and holding +councils by night in secluded places. Nor did any period of the whole +winter pass over without fresh anxiety to Caesar, or without his +receiving some intelligence respecting the meetings and commotions of +the Gauls. Among these, he is informed by L. Roscius, the lieutenant +whom he had placed over the thirteenth legion, that large forces of +those states of the Gauls, which are called the Armoricae, had assembled +for the purpose of attacking him and were not more than eight miles +distant; but intelligence respecting the victory of Caesar being carried +[to them], had retreated in such a manner that their departure appeared +like a flight. + +LIV.--But Caesar, having summoned to him the principal persons of each +state, in one case by alarming them, since he declared that he knew what +was going on, and in another case by encouraging them, retained a great +part of Gaul in its allegiance. The Senones, however, which is a state +eminently powerful and one of great influence among the Gauls, +attempting by general design to slay Cavarinus whom Caesar had created +king among them (whose brother, Moritasgus, had held the sovereignty at +the period of the arrival of Caesar in Gaul, and whose ancestors had +also previously held it) when he discovered their plot and fled, pursued +him even to the frontiers [of the state], and drove him from his kingdom +and his home; and, after having sent ambassadors to Caesar for the +purpose of concluding a peace, when he ordered all their senate to come +to him, did not obey that command. So far did it operate among those +barbarian people, that there were found some to be the first to wage +war; and so great a change of inclinations did it produce in all, that +except the Aedui and the Remi, whom Caesar had always held in especial +honour, the one people for their long standing and uniform fidelity +towards the Roman people, the other for their late service in the Gallic +war, there was scarcely a state which was not suspected by us. And I do +not know whether that ought much to be wondered at, as well for several +other reasons, as particularly because they who ranked above all nations +for prowess in war, most keenly regretted that they had lost so much of +that reputation as to submit to commands from the Roman people. + +LV.--But the Treviri and Indutiomarus let no part of the entire winter +pass without sending ambassadors across the Rhine, importuning the +states, promising money, and asserting that, as a large portion of our +army had been cut off, a much smaller portion remained. However, none of +the German states could be induced to cross the Rhine, since "they had +twice essayed it," they said, "in the war with Ariovistus and in the +passage of the Tenchtheri there; that fortune was not to be tempted any +more." Indutiomarus disappointed in this expectation, nevertheless began +to raise troops, and discipline them, and procure horses from the +neighbouring people and allure to him by great rewards the outlaws and +convicts throughout Gaul. And such great influence had he already +acquired for himself in Gaul by these means, that embassies were +flocking to him in all directions, and seeking, publicly and privately, +his favour and friendship. + +LVI.--When he perceived that they were coming to him voluntarily; that +on the one side the Senones and the Carnutes were stimulated by their +consciousness of guilt, on the other side the Nervii and the Aduatuci +were preparing war against the Romans, and that forces of volunteers +would not be wanting to him if he began to advance from his own +territories, he proclaims an armed council (this according to the custom +of the Gauls is the commencement of war) at which, by a common law, all +the youth were wont to assemble in arms; whoever of them comes last is +killed in the sight of the whole assembly after being racked with every +torture. In that council he declares Cingetorix, the leader of the other +faction, his own son-in-law (whom we have above mentioned, as having +embraced the protection of Caesar, and never having deserted him) an +enemy and confiscates his property. When these things were finished, he +asserts in the council that he, invited by the Senones and the Carnutes, +and several other states of Gaul, was about to march thither through the +territories of the Remi, devastate their lands, and attack the camp of +Labienus: before he does that, he informs them of what he desires to be +done. + +LVII.--Labienus, since he was confining himself within a camp strongly +fortified by the nature of the ground and by art, had no apprehensions +as to his own and the legion's danger, but was devising that he might +throw away no opportunity of conducting the war successfully. +Accordingly, the speech of Indutiomarus, which he had delivered in the +council, having been made known [to him] by Cingetorix and his allies, +he sends messengers to the neighbouring states and summons horse from +all quarters: he appoints to them a fixed day for assembling. In the +meantime, Indutiomarus, with all his cavalry, nearly every day used to +parade close to his [Labienus's] camp; at one time, that he might inform +himself of the situation of the camp; at another time, for the purpose +of conferring with or of intimidating him. Labienus confined his men +within the fortifications and promoted the enemy's belief of his fear by +whatever methods he could. + +LVIII.--Since Indutiomarus was daily advancing up to the camp with +greater defiance, all the cavalry of the neighbouring states which he +[Labienus] had taken care to have sent for, having been admitted in one +night, he confined all his men within the camp by guards with such great +strictness, that that fact could by no means be reported or carried to +the Treviri. In the meanwhile Indutiomarus, according to his daily +practice, advances up to the camp and spends a great part of the day +there: his horse cast their weapons, and with very insulting language +call out our men to battle. No reply being given by our men, the enemy +when they thought proper, depart towards evening in a disorderly and +scattered manner, Labienus unexpectedly sends out all the cavalry by two +gates; he gives this command and prohibition, that, when the enemy +should be terrified and put to flight (which he foresaw would happen, as +it did), they should all make for Indutiomarus, and no one wound any man +before he should have seen him slain, because he was unwilling that he +should escape, in consequence of gaining time by the delay [occasioned +by the pursuit] of the rest. He offers great rewards for those who +should kill him: he sends up the cohorts as a relief to the horse. The +issue justifies the policy of the man, and, since all aimed at one, +Indutiomarus is slain, having been overtaken at the very ford of the +river, and his head is carried to the camp: the horse, when returning, +pursue and slay all whom they can. This affair having been known, all +the forces of the Eburones and the Nervii which had assembled, depart; +and for a short time after this action, Caesar was less harassed in the +government of Gaul. + + + +BOOK VI + +I.--Caesar, expecting for many reasons a greater commotion in Gaul, +resolves to hold a levy by the means of M. Silanus, C. Antistius +Reginus, and T. Sextius, his lieutenants: at the same time he requested +of Cn. Pompey, the proconsul, that since he was remaining near the city +invested with military command for the interests of the commonwealth, he +would command those men whom when consul he had levied by the military +oath in Cisalpine Gaul, to join their respective corps, and to proceed +to him; thinking it of great importance, as far as regarded the opinion +which the Gauls would entertain for the future, that the resources of +Italy should appear so great, that if any loss should be sustained in +war, not only could it be repaired in a short time, but likewise be +further supplied by still larger forces. And when Pompey had granted +this to the interests of the commonwealth and the claims of friendship, +Caesar having quickly completed the levy by means of his lieutenants, +after three legions had been both formed and brought to him before the +winter [had] expired, and the number of those cohorts which he had lost +under Q. Titurius had been doubled, taught the Gauls, both by his +dispatch and by his forces, what the discipline and the power of the +Roman people could accomplish. + +II.--Indutiomarus having been slain, as we have stated, the government +was conferred upon his relatives by the Treviri. They cease not to +importune the neighbouring Germans and to promise them money: when they +could not obtain [their object] from those nearest them, they try those +more remote. Having found some states willing to accede to their wishes, +they enter into a compact with them by a mutual oath, and give hostages +as a security for the money: they attach Ambiorix to them by an alliance +and confederacy. Caesar, on being informed of their acts, since he saw +that war was being prepared on all sides, that the Nervii, Aduatuci, and +Menapii, with the addition of all the Germans on this side of the Rhine +were under arms, that the Senones did not assemble according to his +command, and were concerting measures with the Carnutes and the +neighbouring states, that the Germans were importuned by the Treviri in +frequent embassies, thought that he ought to take measures for the war +earlier [than usual]. + +III.-Accordingly, while the winter was not yet ended, having +concentrated the four nearest legions, he marched unexpectedly into the +territories of the Nervii, and before they could either assemble, or +retreat, after capturing a large number of cattle and of men, and +wasting their lands and giving up that booty to the soldiers, compelled +them to enter into a surrender and give him hostages. That business +having been speedily executed, he again led his legions back into +winter-quarters. Having proclaimed a council of Gaul in the beginning of +the spring, as he had been accustomed [to do], when the deputies from +the rest, except the Senones, the Carnutes, and the Treviri, had come, +judging this to be the commencement of war and revolt, that he might +appear to consider all things of less consequence [than that war], he +transfers the council to Lutetia of the Parisii. These were adjacent to +the Senones, and had united their state to them during the memory of +their fathers, but were thought to have no part in the present plot. +Having proclaimed this from the tribunal, he advances the same day +towards the Senones with his legions and arrives among them by long +marches. + +IV.--Acco, who had been the author of that enterprise, on being informed +of his arrival, orders the people to assemble in the towns; to them, +while attempting this and before it could be accomplished, news is +brought that the Romans are close at hand: through necessity they give +over their design and send ambassadors to Caesar for the purpose of +imploring pardon; they make advances to him through the Aedui, whose +state was from ancient times under the protection of Rome. Caesar +readily grants them pardon and receives their excuse at the request of +the Aedui; because he thought that the summer season was one for an +impending war, not for an investigation. Having imposed one hundred +hostages, he delivers these to the Aedui to be held in charge by them. +To the same place the Carnutes send ambassadors and hostages, employing +as their mediators the Remi, under whose protection they were: they +receive the same answers. Caesar concludes the council and imposes a +levy of cavalry on the states. + +V.--This part of Gaul having been tranquillized, he applies himself +entirely both in mind and soul to the war with the Treviri and Ambiorix. +He orders Cavarinus to march with him with the cavalry of the Senones, +lest any commotion should arise either out of his hot temper, or out of +the hatred of the state which he had incurred. After arranging these +things, as he considered it certain that Ambiorix would not contend in +battle, he watched his other plans attentively. The Menapii bordered on +the territories of the Eburones, and were protected by one continued +extent of morasses and woods; and they alone out of Gaul had never sent +ambassadors to Caesar on the subject of peace. Caesar knew that a tie of +hospitality subsisted between them and Ambiorix: he also discovered that +the latter had entered into an alliance with the Germans by means of the +Treviri. He thought that these auxiliaries ought to be detached from him +before he provoked him to war; lest he, despairing of safety, should +either proceed to conceal himself in the territories of the Menapii, or +should be driven to coalesce with the Germans beyond the Rhine. Having +entered upon this resolution, he sends the baggage of the whole army to +Labienus, in the territories of the Treviri and orders two legions to +proceed to him: he himself proceeds against the Menapii with five +lightly-equipped legions. They, having assembled no troops, as they +relied on the defence of their position, retreat into the woods and +morasses, and convey thither all their property. + +VI.--Caesar, having divided his forces with C. Fabius, his lieutenant, +and M. Crassus, his questor, and having hastily constructed some +bridges, enters their country in three divisions, burns their houses and +villages, and gets possession of a large number of cattle and men. +Constrained by these circumstances, the Menapii send ambassadors to him +for the purpose of suing for peace. He, after receiving hostages, +assures them that he will consider them in the number of his enemies if +they shall receive within their territories either Ambiorix or his +ambassadors. Having determinately settled these things, he left among +the Menapii, Commius the Atrebatian with some cavalry as a guard; he +himself proceeds toward the Treviri. + +VII.--While these things are being performed by Caesar, the Treviri, +having drawn together large forces of infantry and of cavalry, were +preparing to attack Labienus and the legion which was wintering in their +territories, and were already not further distant from him than a +journey of two days, when they learn that two legions had arrived by the +order of Caesar. Having pitched their camp fifteen miles off, they +resolve to await the support of the Germans. Labienus, having learned +the design of the enemy, hoping that through their rashness there would +be some opportunity of engaging, after leaving a guard of five cohorts +for the baggage, advances against the enemy with twenty-five cohorts and +a large body of cavalry, and, leaving the space of a mile between them, +fortifies his camp. There was between Labienus and the enemy a river +difficult to cross and with steep banks: this neither did he himself +design to cross, nor did he suppose the enemy would cross it. Their hope +of auxiliaries was daily increasing. He [Labienus] openly says in a +council that "since the Germans are said to be approaching, he would not +bring into uncertainty his own and the army's fortunes, and the next day +would move his camp at early dawn. These words are quickly carried to +the enemy, since out of so large a number of cavalry composed of Gauls, +nature compelled some to favour the Gallic interests. Labienus, having +assembled the tribunes of the soldiers and principal centurions by +night, states what his design is, and, that he may the more easily give +the enemy a belief of his fears, he orders the camp to be moved with +greater noise and confusion than was usual with the Roman people. By +these means he makes his departure [appear], like a retreat. These +things, also, since the camps were so near, are reported to the enemy by +scouts before daylight. + +VIII.--Scarcely had the rear advanced beyond the fortifications when the +Gauls, encouraging one another "not to cast from their hands the +anticipated booty, that it was a tedious thing, while the Romans were +panic stricken, to be waiting for the aid of the Germans, and that their +dignity did not suffer them to fear to attack with such great forces so +small a band, particularly when retreating and encumbered," do not +hesitate to cross the river and give battle in a disadvantageous +position. Labienus suspecting that these things would happen, was +proceeding quietly, and using the same pretence of a march, in order +that he might entice them across the river. Then, having sent forward +the baggage some short distance and placed it on a certain eminence, he +says, "Soldiers, you have the opportunity you have sought: you hold the +enemy in an encumbered and disadvantageous position: display to us your +leaders the same valour you have ofttimes displayed to your general: +imagine that he is present and actually sees these exploits." At the +same time he orders the troops to face about towards the enemy and form +in line of battle, and, despatching a few troops of cavalry as a guard +for the bag gage, he places the rest of the horse on the wings. Our men, +raising a shout, quickly throw their javelins at the enemy. They, when, +contrary to their expectation, they saw those whom they believed to be +retreating, advance towards them with threatening banners, were not able +to sustain even the charge, and, being put to flight at the first +onslaught, sought the nearest woods: Labienus pursuing them with the +cavalry, upon a large number being slain, and several taken prisoners, +got possession of the state a few days after; for the Germans who were +coming to the aid of the Treviri, having been informed of their flight, +retreated to their homes. The relations of Indutiomarus, who had been +the promoters of the revolt, accompanying them, quitted their own state +with them. The supreme power and government were delivered to +Cingetorix, whom we have stated to have remained firm in his allegiance +from the commencement. + +IX.--Caesar, after he came from the territories of the Menapii into +those of the Treviri, resolved for two reasons to cross the Rhine; one +of which was, because they had sent assistance to the Treviri against +him; the other, that Ambiorix might not have a retreat among them. +Having determined on these matters, he began to build a bridge a little +above that place, at which he had before conveyed over his army. The +plan having been known and laid down, the work is accomplished in a few +days by the great exertion of the soldiers. Having left a strong guard +at the bridge on the side of the Treviri, lest any commotion should +suddenly arise among them, he leads over the rest of the forces and the +cavalry. The Ubii, who before had sent hostages and come to a +capitulation, send ambassadors to him, for the purpose of vindicating +themselves, to assure him that "neither had auxiliaries been sent to the +Treviri from their state, nor had they violated their allegiance"; they +entreat and beseech him "to spare them, lest, in his common hatred of +the Germans, the innocent should suffer the penalty of the guilty: they +promise to give more hostages, if he desire them." Having investigated +the case, Caesar finds that the auxiliaries had been sent by the Suevi; +he accepts the apology of the Ubii, and makes minute inquiries +concerning the approaches and the routes to the territories of the +Suevi. X.--In the meanwhile he is informed by the Ubii, a few days +after, that the Suevi are drawing all their forces into one place, and +are giving orders to those nations which are under their government to +send auxiliaries of infantry and of cavalry. Having learned these +things, he provides a supply of corn, selects a proper place for his +camp, and commands the Ubii to drive off their cattle and carry away all +their possessions from the country parts into the towns, hoping that +they, being a barbarous and ignorant people, when harassed by the want +of provisions, might be brought to an engagement on disadvantageous +terms: he orders them to send numerous scouts among the Suevi, and learn +what things are going on among them. They execute the orders, and, a few +days having intervened, report that all the Suevi, after certain +intelligence concerning the army of the Romans had come, retreated with +all their own forces and those of their allies, which they had +assembled, to the utmost extremities of their territories: that there is +a wood there of very great extent, which is called Bacenis; that this +stretches a great way into the interior, and, being opposed as a natural +barrier, defends from injuries and incursions the Cherusci against the +Suevi, and the Suevi against the Cherusci: that at the entrance of that +forest the Suevi had determined to await the coming up of the Romans. + +XI.--Since we have come to this place, it does not appear to be foreign +to our subject to lay before the reader an account of the manners of +Gaul and Germany, and wherein these nations differ from each other. In +Gaul there are factions not only in all the states, and in all the +cantons and their divisions, but almost in each family, and of these +factions those are the leaders who are considered according to their +judgment to possess the greatest influence, upon whose will and +determination the management of all affairs and measures depends. And +that seems to have been instituted in ancient times with this view, that +no one of the common people should be in want of support against one +more powerful; for none [of those leaders] suffers his party to be +oppressed and defrauded, and if he do otherwise, he has no influence +among his party. This same policy exists throughout the whole of Gaul; +for all the states are divided into two factions. + +XII.--When Caesar arrived in Gaul, the Aedui were the leaders of one +faction, the Sequani of the other. Since the latter were less powerful +by themselves, inasmuch as the chief influence was from of old among the +Aedui, and their dependencies were great, they had united to themselves +the Germans and Ariovistus, and had brought them over to their party by +great sacrifices and promises. And having fought several successful +battles and slain all the nobility of the Aedui, they had so far +surpassed them in power, that they brought over, from the Aedui to +themselves, a large portion of their dependants and received from them +the sons of their leading men as hostages, and compelled them to swear +in their public character that they would enter into no design against +them; and held a portion of the neighbouring land, seized on by force, +and possessed the sovereignty of the whole of Gaul. Divitiacus urged by +this necessity, had proceeded to Rome to the senate, for the purpose of +entreating assistance, and had returned without accomplishing his +object. A change of affairs ensued on the arrival of Caesar, the +hostages were returned to the Aedui, their old dependencies restored, +and new acquired through Caesar (because those who had attached +themselves to their alliance saw that they enjoyed a better state and a +milder government), their other interests, their influence, their +reputation were likewise increased, and in consequence, the Sequani lost +the sovereignty. The Remi succeeded to their place, and, as it was +perceived that they equalled the Aedui in favour with Caesar, those, who +on account of their old animosities could by no means coalesce with the +Aedui, consigned themselves in clientship to the Remi. The latter +carefully protected them. Thus they possessed both a new and suddenly +acquired influence. Affairs were then in that position, that the Aedui +were considered by far the leading people, and the Remi held the second +post of honour. + +XIII.--Throughout all Gaul there are two orders of those men who are of +any rank and dignity: for the commonality is held almost in the +condition of slaves, and dares to undertake nothing of itself and is +admitted to no deliberation. The greater part, when they are pressed +either by debt, or the large amount of their tributes, or the oppression +of the more powerful, give themselves up in vassalage to the nobles, who +possess over them the same rights without exception as masters over +their slaves. But of these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the +other that of the knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, +conduct the public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters +of religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for the +purpose of instruction, and they [the Druids] are in great honour among +them. For they determine respecting almost all controversies, public and +private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder has been +committed, if there be any dispute about an inheritance, if any about +boundaries, these same persons decide it; they decree rewards and +punishments if any one, either in a private or public capacity, has not +submitted to their decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. +This among them is the most heavy punishment. Those who have been thus +interdicted are esteemed in the number of the impious and the criminal: +all shun them, and avoid their society and conversation, lest they +receive some evil from their contact; nor is justice administered to +them when seeking it, nor is any dignity bestowed on them. Over all +these Druids one presides, who possesses supreme authority among them. +Upon his death, if any individual among the rest is pre-eminent in +dignity, he succeeds; but, if there are many equal, the election is made +by the suffrages of the Druids; sometimes they even contend for the +presidency with arms. These assemble at a fixed period of the year in a +consecrated place in the territories of the Carnutes, which is reckoned +the central region of the whole of Gaul. Hither all, who have disputes, +assemble from every part, and submit to their decrees and +determinations. This institution is supposed to have been devised in +Britain, and to have been brought over from it into Gaul; and now those +who desire to gain a more accurate knowledge of that system generally +proceed thither for the purpose of studying it. + +XIV.--The Druids do not go to war, nor pay tribute together with the +rest; they have an exemption from military service and a dispensation in +all matters. Induced by such great advantages, many embrace this +profession of their own accord, and [many] are sent to it by their +parents and relations. They are said there to learn by heart a great +number of verses; accordingly some remain in the course of training +twenty years. Nor do they regard it lawful to commit these to writing, +though in almost all other matters, in their public and private +transactions, they use Greek characters. That practice they seem to me +to have adopted for two reasons; because they neither desire their +doctrines to be divulged among the mass of the people, nor those who +learn, to devote themselves the less to the efforts of memory, relying +on writing; since it generally occurs to most men, that, in their +dependence on writing, they relax their diligence in learning +thoroughly, and their employment of the memory. They wish to inculcate +this as one of their leading tenets, that souls do not become extinct, +but pass after death from one body to another, and they think that men +by this tenet are in a great degree excited to valour, the fear of death +being disregarded. They likewise discuss and impart to the youth many +things respecting the stars and their motion, respecting the extent of +the world and of our earth, respecting the nature of things, respecting +the power and the majesty of the immortal gods. + +XV.--The other order is that of the knights. These, when there is +occasion and any war occurs (which before Caesar's arrival was for the +most part wont to happen every year, as either they on their part were +inflicting injuries or repelling those which others inflicted on them), +are all engaged in war. And those of them most distinguished by birth +and resources, have the greatest number of vassals and dependants about +them. They acknowledge this sort of influence and power only. + +XVI.--The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious +rites; and on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe +diseases and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either +sacrifice men as victims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and +employ the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they +think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, +the mind of the immortal gods cannot be rendered propitious, and they +have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have +figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of osiers they fill with +living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the +flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in +theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the +immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have +recourse to the oblation of even the innocent. + +XVII.--They worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have +many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they +consider him, the guide of their journeys and marches, and believe him +to have very great influence over the acquisition of gain and mercantile +transactions. Next to him they worship Apollo, and Mars, and Jupiter, +and Minerva; respecting these deities they have for the most part the +same belief as other nations: that Apollo averts diseases, that Minerva +imparts the invention of manufactures, that Jupiter possesses the +sovereignty of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides over wars. To him +when they have determined to engage in battle, they commonly vow those +things they shall take in war. When they have conquered, they sacrifice +whatever captured animals may have survived the conflict, and collect +the other things into one place. In many states you may see piles of +these things heaped up in their consecrated spots; nor does it often +happen that any one, disregarding the sanctity of the case, dares either +to secrete in his house things captured, or take away those deposited; +and the most severe punishment, with torture, has been established for +such a deed. + +XVIII.--All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god Dis, +and say that this tradition has been handed down by the Druids. For that +reason they compute the divisions of every season, not by the number of +days, but of nights; they keep birthdays and the beginnings of months +and years in such an order that the day follows the night. Among the +other usages of their life, they differ in this from almost all other +nations, that they do not permit their children to approach them openly +until they are grown up so as to be able to bear the service of war; and +they regard it as indecorous for a son of boyish age to stand in public +in the presence of his father. + +XIX.--Whatever sums of money the husbands have received in the name of +dowry from their wives, making an estimate of it, they add the same +amount out of their own estates. An account is kept of all this money +conjointly, and the profits are laid by: whichever of them shall have +survived [the other], to that one the portion of both reverts, together +with the profits of the previous time. Husbands have power of life and +death over their wives as well as over their children: and when the +father of a family, born in a more than commonly distinguished rank, has +died, his relations assemble, and, if the circumstances of his death are +suspicious, hold an investigation upon the wives in the manner adopted +towards slaves; and if proof be obtained, put them to severe torture, +and kill them. Their funerals, considering the state of civilization +among the Gauls, are magnificent and costly; and they cast into the fire +all things, including living creatures, which they suppose to have been +dear to them when alive; and, a little before this period, slaves and +dependants, who were ascertained to have been beloved by them, were, +after the regular funeral rites were completed, burnt together with +them. + +XX.--Those states which are considered to conduct their commonwealth +more judiciously, have it ordained by their laws, that, if any person +shall have heard by rumour and report from his neighbours anything +concerning the commonwealth, he shall convey it to the magistrate and +not impart it to any other; because it has been discovered that +inconsiderate and inexperienced men were often alarmed by false reports +and driven to some rash act, or else took hasty measures in affairs of +the highest importance. The magistrates conceal those things which +require to be kept unknown; and they disclose to the people whatever +they determine to be expedient. It is not lawful to speak of the +commonwealth, except in council. + +XXI.--The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have neither +Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to +sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they +behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, +namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other +deities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in +the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves +to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest +time, receive the greatest commendation among their people: they think +that by this the growth is promoted, by this the physical powers are +increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of +a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful +acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe +promiscuously in the rivers and [only] use skins or small cloaks of +deers' hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked. + +XXII.--They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large +portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any +one a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but the +magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the tribes and +families, who have united together, as much land as, and in the place in +which, they think proper, and the year after compel them to remove +elsewhere. For this enactment they advance many reasons--lest seduced by +long-continued custom, they may exchange their ardour in the waging of +war for agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensive +estates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from their possessions; +lest they construct their houses with too great a desire to avoid cold +and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, from which cause +divisions and discords arise; and that they may keep the common people +in a contented state of mind, when each sees his own means placed on an +equality with [those of] the most powerful. + +XXIII.--It is the greatest glory to the several states to have as wide +deserts as possible around them, their frontiers having been laid waste. +They consider this the real evidence of their prowess, that their +neighbours shall be driven out of their lands and abandon them, and that +no one dare settle near them; at the same time they think that they +shall be on that account the more secure, because they have removed the +apprehension of a sudden incursion. When a state either repels war waged +against it, or wages it against another, magistrates are chosen to +preside over that war with such authority, that they have power of life +and death. In peace there is no common magistrate, but the chiefs of +provinces and cantons administer justice and determine controversies +among their own people. Robberies which are committed beyond the +boundaries of each state bear no infamy, and they avow that these are +committed for the purpose of disciplining their youth and of preventing +sloth. And when any of their chiefs has said in an assembly "that he +will be their leader, let those who are willing to follow, give in their +names"; they who approve of both the enterprise and the man arise and +promise their assistance and are applauded by the people; such of them +as have not followed him are accounted in the number of deserters and +traitors, and confidence in all matters is afterwards refused them. To +injure guests they regard as impious; they defend from wrong those who +have come to them for any purpose whatever, and esteem them inviolable; +to them the houses of all are open and maintenance is freely supplied. + +XXIV.--And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans +in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the +great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent +colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly, the Volcae Tectosages seized on +those parts of Germany which are the most fruitful [and lie] around the +Hercynian forest (which, I perceive, was known by report to Eratosthenes +and some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia) and settled there. +Which nation to this time retains its position in those settlements, and +has a very high character for justice and military merit: now also they +continue in the same scarcity, indigence, hardihood, as the Germans, and +use the same food and dress; but their proximity to the Province and +knowledge of commodities from countries beyond the sea supplies to the +Gauls many things tending to luxury as well as civilization. Accustomed +by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many engagements, they do +not even compare themselves to the Germans in prowess. + +XXV.--The breadth of this Hercynian forest, which has been referred to +above, is to a quick traveller, a journey of nine days. For it cannot be +otherwise computed, nor are they acquainted with the measures of roads. +It begins at the frontiers of the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, and +extends in a right line along the river Danube to the territories of the +Daci and the Anartes: it bends thence to the left in a different +direction from the river, and owing to its extent touches the confines +of many nations; nor is there any person belonging to this part of +Germany who says that he either has gone to the extremity of that +forest, though he had advanced a journey of sixty days, or has heard in +what place it begins. It is certain that many kinds of wild beasts are +produced in it which have not been seen in other parts; of which the +following are such as differ principally from other animals, and appear +worthy of being committed to record. + +XXVI.--There is an ox of the shape of a stag, between whose ears a horn +rises from the middle of the forehead, higher and straighter than those +horns which are known to us. From the top of this, branches, like palms; +stretch out a considerable distance. The shape of the female and of the +male is the same; the appearance and the size of the horns is the same. + +XXVII.--There are also [animals] which are called elks. The shape of +these, and the varied colour of their skins, is much like roes, but in +size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have +legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose +of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they +raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them; they lean +themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take +their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of +these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they +either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far +that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When +they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by +their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with +them. + +XXVIII.-There is a third kind, consisting of those animals which are +called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of the +appearance, colour, and shape of a bull. Their strength and speed are +extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast which they have +espied. These the Germans take with much pains in pits and kill them. +The young men harden themselves with this exercise, and practice +themselves in this kind of hunting, and those who have slain the +greatest number of them, having produced the horns in public, to serve +as evidence, receive great praise. But not even when taken very young +can they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape, and +appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our oxen. These +they anxiously seek after, and bind at the tips with silver, and use as +cups at their most sumptuous entertainments. + +XXIX.--Caesar, after he discovered through the Ubian scouts that the +Suevi had retired into their woods, apprehending a scarcity of corn, +because, as we have observed above, all the Germans pay very little +attention to agriculture, resolved not to proceed any farther; but, that +he might not altogether relieve the barbarians from the fear of his +return, and that he might delay their succours, having led back his +army, he breaks down, to the length of 200 feet, the farther end of the +bridge, which joined the banks of the Ubii, and, at the extremity of the +bridge raises towers of four stories, and stations a guard of twelve +cohorts for the purpose of defending the bridge, and strengthens the +place with considerable fortifications. Over that fort and guard he +appointed C. Volcatius Tullus, a young man; he himself, when the corn +began to ripen, having set forth for the war with 40 Ambiorix (through +the forest Arduenna, which is the largest of all Gaul, and reaches from +the banks of the Rhine and the frontiers of the Treviri to those of the +Nervii, and extends over more than 500 miles), he sends forward L. +Minucius Basilus with all the cavalry, to try if he might gain any +advantage by rapid marches and the advantage of time, he warns him to +forbid fires being made in the camp, lest any indication of his approach +be given at a distance: he tells him that he will follow immediately. + +XXX.--Basilus does as he was commanded; having performed his march +rapidly, and even surpassed the expectations of all, he surprises in the +fields many not expecting him; through their information he advances +towards Ambiorix himself, to the place in which he was said to be with a +few horse. Fortune accomplishes much, not only in other matters, but +also in the art of war. For as it happened by a remarkable chance, that +he fell upon [Ambiorix] himself unguarded and unprepared, and that his +arrival was seen by the people before the report or information of his +arrival was carried thither; so it was an incident of extraordinary +fortune that, although every implement of war which he was accustomed to +have about him was seized, and his chariots and horses surprised, yet he +himself escaped death. But it was effected owing to this circumstance, +that his house being surrounded by a wood, (as are generally the +dwellings of the Gauls, who, for the purpose of avoiding heat, mostly +seek the neighbourhood of woods and rivers) his attendants and friends +in a narrow spot sustained for a short time the attack of our horse. +While they were fighting, one of his followers mounted him on a horse: +the woods sheltered him as he fled. Thus fortune tended much both +towards his encountering and his escaping danger. + +XXXI.--Whether Ambiorix did not collect his forces from cool +deliberation, because he considered he ought not to engage in a battle, +or [whether] he was debarred by time and prevented by the sudden arrival +of our horse, when he supposed the rest of the army was closely +following, is doubtful; but certainly, despatching messengers through +the country, he ordered every one to provide for himself; and a part of +them fled into the forest Arduenna, a part into the extensive morasses; +those who were nearest the ocean, concealed themselves in the islands +which the tides usually form; many, departing from their territories, +committed themselves and all their possessions to perfect strangers. +Cativolcus, king of one-half of the Eburones, who had entered into the +design together with Ambiorix, since, being now worn out by age, he was +unable to endure the fatigue either of war or flight, having cursed +Ambiorix with every imprecation, as the person who had been the +contriver of that measure, destroyed himself with the juice of the yew +tree, of which there is a great abundance in Gaul and Germany. + +XXXII.--The Segui and Condrusi, of the nation and number of the Germans, +and who are between the Eburones and the Treviri, sent ambassadors to +Caesar to entreat that he would not regard them in the number of his +enemies, nor consider that the cause of all the Germans on this side the +Rhine was one and the same; that they had formed no plans of war, and +had sent no auxiliaries to Ambiorix. Caesar, having ascertained this +fact by an examination of his prisoners commanded that if any of the +Eburones in their flight had repaired to them, they should be sent back +to him; he assures them that if they did that, he will not injure their +territories. Then, having divided his forces into three parts, he sent +the baggage of all the legions to Aduatuca. That is the name of a fort. +This is nearly in the middle of the Eburones, where Titurius and +Aurunculeius had been quartered for the purpose of wintering. This place +he selected as well on other accounts as because the fortifications of +the previous year remained, in order that he might relieve the labour of +the soldiers. He left the fourteenth legion as a guard for the baggage, +one of those three which he had lately raised in Italy and brought over. +Over that legion and camp he places Q. Tullius Cicero and gives him 200 +horse. + +XXXIII.--Having divided the army, he orders T. Labienus to proceed with +three legions towards the ocean into those parts which border on the +Menappii; he sends C. Trebonius with a like number of legions to lay +waste that district which lies contiguous to the Aduatuci; he himself +determines to go with the remaining three to the river Sambre, which +flows into the Meuse, and to the most remote parts of Arduenna, whither +he heard that Ambiorix had gone with a few horse. When departing, he +promises that he will return before the end of the seventh day, on which +day he was aware corn was due to that legion which was being left in +garrison. He directs Labienus and Trebonius to return by the same day, +if they can do so agreeably to the interests of the republic; so that +their measures having been mutually imparted, and the plans of the enemy +having been discovered, they might be able to commence a different line +of operations. + +XXXIV.--There was, as we have above observed, no regular army, nor a +town, nor a garrison which could defend itself by arms; but the people +were scattered in all directions. Where either a hidden valley, or a +woody spot, or a difficult morass furnished any hope of protection or of +security to any one, there he had fixed himself. These places were known +to those that dwelt in the neighbourhood, and the matter demanded great +attention, not so much in protecting the main body of the army (for no +peril could occur to them altogether from those alarmed and scattered +troops), as in preserving individual soldiers; which in some measure +tended to the safety of the army. For both the desire of booty was +leading many too far, and the woods with their unknown and hidden routes +would not allow them to go in large bodies. If he desired the business +to be completed and the race of those infamous people to be cut off, +more bodies of men must be sent in several directions and the soldiers +must be detached on all sides; if he were disposed to keep the companies +at their standards, as the established discipline and practice of the +Roman army required, the situation itself was a safeguard to the +barbarians, nor was there wanting to individuals the daring to lay +secret ambuscades and beset scattered soldiers. But amidst difficulties +of this nature as far as precautions could be taken by vigilance, such +precautions were taken; so that some opportunities of injuring the enemy +were neglected, though the minds of all were burning to take revenge, +rather than that injury should be effected with any loss to our +soldiers. Caesar despatches messengers to the neighbouring states; by +the hope of booty he invites all to him, for the purpose of plundering +the Eburones, in order that the life of the Gauls might be hazarded in +the woods rather than the legionary soldiers; at the same time, in order +that a large force being drawn around them, the race and name of that +state may be annihilated for such a crime. A large number from all +quarters speedily assembles. + +XXXV.--These things were going on in all parts of the territories of the +Eburones, and the seventh day was drawing near, by which day Caesar had +purposed to return to the baggage and the legion. Here it might be +learned how much fortune achieves in war, and how great casualties she +produces. The enemy having been scattered and alarmed, as we related +above, there was no force which might produce even a slight occasion of +fear. The report extends beyond the Rhine to the Germans that the +Eburones are being pillaged, and that all were without distinction +invited to the plunder. The Sigambri, who are nearest to the Rhine, by +whom, we have mentioned above, the Tenchtheri and Usipetes were received +after their retreat, collect 2000 horse; they cross the Rhine in ships +and barks thirty miles below that place where the bridge was entire and +the garrison left by Caesar; they arrive at the frontiers of the +Eburones, surprise many who were scattered in flight, and get possession +of a large amount of cattle, of which barbarians are extremely covetous. +Allured by booty, they advance farther; neither morass nor forest +obstructs these men, born amidst war and depredations; they inquire of +their prisoners in what parts Caesar is; they find that he has advanced +farther, and learn that all the army has removed. Thereon one of the +prisoners says, "Why do you pursue such wretched and trifling spoil; +you, to whom it is granted to become even now most richly endowed by +fortune? In three hours you can reach Aduatuca; there the Roman army has +deposited all its fortunes; there is so little of a garrison that not +even the wall can be manned, nor dare any one go beyond the +fortifications." A hope having been presented them, the Germans leave in +concealment the plunder they had acquired; they themselves hasten to +Aduatuca, employing as their guide the same man by whose information +they had become informed of these things. + +XXXVI.--Cicero, who during all the foregoing days had kept his soldiers +in camp with the greatest exactness, and agreeably to the injunctions of +Caesar, had not permitted even any of the camp-followers to go beyond +the fortification, distrusting on the seventh day that Caesar would keep +his promise as to the number of days, because he heard that he had +proceeded farther, and no report as to his return was brought to him, +and being urged at the same time by the expressions of those who called +his tolerance almost a siege, if, forsooth, it was not permitted them to +go out of the camp, since he might expect no disaster, whereby he could +be injured, within three miles of the camp, while nine legions and all +the cavalry were under arms, and the enemy scattered and almost +annihilated, sent five cohorts into the neighbouring cornlands, between +which and the camp only one hill intervened, for the purpose of +foraging. Many soldiers of the legions had been left invalided in the +camp, of whom those who had recovered in this space of time, being about +300, are set together under one standard; a large number of soldiers' +attendants besides, with a great number of beasts of burden, which had +remained in the camp, permission being granted, follow them. + +XXXVII.--At this very time, the German horse by chance come up, and +immediately, with the same speed with which they had advanced, attempt +to force the camp at the Decuman gate, nor were they seen, in +consequence of woods lying in the way on that side, before they were +just reaching the camp: so much so, that the sutlers who had their +booths under the rampart had not an opportunity of retreating within the +camp. Our men, not anticipating it, are perplexed by the sudden affair, +and the cohort on the outpost scarcely sustains the first attack. The +enemy spread themselves on the other sides to ascertain if they could +find any access. Our men with difficulty defend the gates; the very +position of itself and the fortification secures the other accesses. +There is a panic in the entire camp, and one inquires of another the +cause of the confusion, nor do they readily determine whither the +standards should be borne, nor into what quarter each should betake +himself. One avows that the camp is already taken, another maintains +that, the enemy having destroyed the army and commander-in-chief, are +come thither as conquerors; most form strange superstitious fancies from +the spot, and place before their eyes the catastrophe of Cotta and +Titurius, who had fallen in the same fort. All being greatly +disconcerted by this alarm, the belief of the barbarians is strengthened +that there is no garrison within, as they had heard from their prisoner. +They endeavour to force an entrance and encourage one another not to +cast from their hands so valuable a prize. + +XXXVIII.-P. Sextius Baculus, who had led a principal century under +Caesar (of whom we have made mention in previous engagements), had been +left an invalid in the garrison, and had now been five days without +food. He, distrusting his own safety and that of all, goes forth from +his tent unarmed; he sees that the enemy are close at hand and that the +matter is in the utmost danger; he snatches arms from those nearest, and +stations himself at the gate. The centurions of that cohort which was on +guard follow him; for a short time they sustain the fight together. +Sextius faints, after receiving many wounds; he is with difficulty +saved, drawn away by the hands of the soldiers. This space having +intervened, the others resume courage, so far as to venture to take +their place on the fortifications and present the aspect of defenders. + +XXXIX.--The foraging having in the meantime been completed, our soldiers +distinctly hear the shout; the horse hasten on before and discover in +what danger the affair is. But here there is no fortification to receive +them, in their alarm: those last enlisted and unskilled in military +discipline turn their faces to the military tribune and the centurions; +they wait to find what orders may be given by them. No one is so +courageous as not to be disconcerted by the suddenness of the affair. +The barbarians, espying our standard in the distance, desist from the +attack; at first they suppose that the legions, which they had learned +from their prisoners had removed farther off, had returned; afterwards, +despising their small number, they make an attack on them at all sides. + +XL.-The camp-followers run forward to the nearest rising ground; being +speedily driven from this they throw themselves among the standards and +companies: they thus so much the more alarm the soldiers already +affrighted. Some propose that, forming a wedge, they suddenly break +through, since the camp was so near; and if any part should be +surrounded and slain, they fully trust that at least the rest may be +saved; others, that they take their stand on an eminence, and all +undergo the same destiny. The veteran soldiers, whom we stated to have +set out together [with the others] under a standard, do not approve of +this. Therefore encouraging each other, under the conduct of Caius +Trebonius, a Roman knight, who had been appointed over them, they break +through the midst of the enemy, and arrive in the camp safe to a man. +The camp-attendants and the horse following close upon them with the +same impetuosity, are saved by the courage of the soldiers. But those +who had taken their stand upon the eminence having even now acquired no +experience of military matters, neither could persevere in that +resolution which they approved of, namely, to defend themselves from +their higher position, nor imitate that vigour and speed which they had +observed to have availed others; but, attempting to reach the camp, had +descended into an unfavourable situation. The Centurions, some of whom +had been promoted for their valour from the lower ranks of other legions +to higher ranks in this legion, in order that they might not forfeit +their glory for military exploits previously acquired, fell together +fighting most valiantly. The enemy having been dislodged by their +valour, a part of the soldiers arrived safe in camp contrary to their +expectations; a part perished, surrounded by the barbarians. + +XLI.--The Germans, despairing of taking the camp by storm, because they +saw that our men had taken up their position on the fortifications, +retreated beyond the Rhine with that plunder which they had deposited in +the woods. And so great was the alarm, even after the departure of the +enemy, that when C. Volusenus, who had been sent with the cavalry, +arrived that night, he could not gain credence that Caesar was close at +hand with his army safe. Fear had so pre-occupied the minds of all, +that, their reason being almost estranged, they said that all the other +forces having been cut off, the cavalry alone had arrived there by +flight, and asserted that, if the army were safe, the Germans would not +have attacked the camp: which fear the arrival of Caesar removed. + +XLII.--He, on his return, being well aware of the casualties of war, +complained of one thing [only], namely, that the cohorts had been sent +away from the outposts and garrison [duty], and pointed out that room +ought not to have been left for even the most trivial casualty; that +fortune had exercised great influence in the sudden arrival of their +enemy; much greater, in that she had turned the barbarians away from the +very rampart and gates of the camp. Of all which events, it seemed the +most surprising that the Germans, who had crossed the Rhine with this +object, that they might plunder the territories of Ambiorix, being led +to the camp of the Romans, rendered Ambiorix a most acceptable service. + +XLIII.--Caesar, having again marched to harass the enemy, after +collecting a large number [of auxiliaries] from the neighbouring states, +despatches them in all directions. All the villages and all the +buildings, which each beheld, were on fire: spoil was being driven off +from all parts; the corn not only was being consumed by so great numbers +of cattle and men, but also had fallen to the earth, owing to the time +of the year and the storms; so that if any had concealed themselves for +the present, still, it appeared likely that they must perish through +want of all things, when the army should be drawn off. And frequently it +came to that point, as so large a body of cavalry had been sent abroad +in all directions, that the prisoners declared Ambiorix had just then +been seen by them in flight, and had not even passed out of sight, so +that the hope of overtaking him being raised, and unbounded exertions +having been resorted to, those who thought they should acquire the +highest favour with Caesar, nearly overcame nature by their ardour, and +continually a little only seemed wanting to complete success; but he +rescued himself by [means of] lurking-places and forests, and, concealed +by the night, made for other districts and quarters, with no greater +guard than that of four horsemen, to whom alone he ventured to confide +his life. + +XLIV.--Having devastated the country in such a manner, Caesar leads back +his army with the loss of two cohorts to Durocortorum of the Remi, and, +having summoned a council of Gaul to assemble at that place, he resolved +to hold an investigation respecting the conspiracy of the Senones and +Carnutes, and having pronounced a most severe sentence upon Acco, who +had been the contriver of that plot, he punished him after the custom of +our ancestors. Some fearing a trial, fled; when he had forbidden these +fire and water, he stationed in winter quarters two legions at the +frontiers of the Treviri, two among the Lingones, the remaining six at +Agendicum, in the territories of the Senones; and, having provided corn +for the army, he set out for Italy, as he had determined, to hold the +assizes. + + + +BOOK VII + +I.--Gaul being tranquil, Caesar, as he had determined, sets out for +Italy to hold the provincial assizes. There he receives intelligence of +the death of Clodius; and, being informed of the decree of the senate +[to the effect] that all the youth of Italy should take the military +oath, he determined to hold a levy throughout the entire province. +Report of these events is rapidly borne into Transalpine Gaul. The Gauls +themselves add to the report, and invent what the case seemed to +require, [namely] that Caesar was detained by commotions in the city, +and could not, amidst so violent dissensions, come to his army. Animated +by this opportunity, they who already, previously to this occurrence, +were indignant that they were reduced beneath the dominion of Rome, +begin to organize their plans for war more openly and daringly. The +leading men of Gaul, having convened councils among themselves in the +woods, and retired places, complain of the death of Acco: they point out +that this fate may fall in turn on themselves: they bewail the unhappy +fate of Gaul; and by every sort of promises and rewards, they earnestly +solicit some to begin the war, and assert the freedom of Gaul at the +hazard of their lives. They say that special care should be paid to +this, that Caesar should be cut off from his army, before their secret +plans should be divulged. That this was easy, because neither would the +legions, in the absence of their general, dare to leave their winter +quarters, nor could the general reach his army without a guard: finally, +that it was better to be slain in battle than not to recover their +ancient glory in war, and that freedom which they had received from +their forefathers. + +II.--Whilst these things are in agitation, the Carnutes declare "that +they would decline no danger for the sake of the general safety," and +promise that they would be the first of all to begin the war; and since +they cannot at present take precautions, by giving and receiving +hostages, that the affair shall not be divulged they require that a +solemn assurance be given them by oath and plighted honour, their +military standards being brought together (in which manner their most +sacred obligations are made binding), that they should not be deserted +by the rest of the Gauls on commencing the war. + +III.--When the appointed day came, the Carnutes, under the command of +Cotuatus and Conetodunus, desperate men, meet together at Genabum, and +slay the Roman citizens who had settled there for the purpose of trading +(among the rest, Caius Fusius Cita, a distinguished Roman knight, who by +Caesar's orders had presided over the provision department), and plunder +their property. The report is quickly spread among all the states of +Gaul; for, whenever a more important and remarkable event takes place, +they transmit the intelligence through their lands and districts by a +shout; the others take it up in succession, and pass it to their +neighbours, as happened on this occasion; for the things which were done +at Genabum at sunrise were heard in the territories of the Arverni +before the end of the first watch, which is an extent of more than a +hundred and sixty miles. + +IV.--There in like manner, Vercingetorix the son of Celtillus the +Arvernian, a young man of the highest power (whose father had held the +supremacy of entire Gaul, and had been put to death by his fellow +citizens, for this reason, because he aimed at sovereign power), +summoned together his dependents, and easily excited them. On his design +being made known, they rush to arms: he is expelled from the town of +Gergovia by his uncle Gobanitio and the rest of the nobles, who were of +opinion, that such an enterprise ought not to be hazarded: he did not +however desist, but held in the country a levy of the needy and +desperate. Having collected such a body of troops, he brings over to his +30 sentiments such of his fellow citizens as he has access to: he +exhorts them to take up arms in behalf of the general freedom, and +having assembled great forces he drives from the state his opponents, by +whom he had been expelled a short time previously. He is saluted king by +his partisans; he sends ambassadors in every direction, he conjures them +to adhere firmly to their promise. He quickly attaches to his interests +the Senones, Parisii, Pictones, Cadurci, Turones, Aulerci, Lemovice, and +all the others who border on the ocean; the supreme command is conferred +on him by unanimous consent. On obtaining this authority, he demands +hostages from all these states, he orders a fixed number of soldiers to +be sent to him immediately; he determines what quantity of arms each +state shall prepare at home, and before what time; he pays particular +attention to the cavalry. To the utmost vigilance he adds the utmost +rigour of authority; and by the severity of his punishments brings over +the wavering: for on the commission of a greater crime he puts the +perpetrators to death by fire and every sort of tortures; for a slighter +cause, he sends home the offenders with their ears cut off, or one of +their eyes put out, that they may be an example to the rest, and +frighten others by the severity of their punishment. + +V.--Having quickly collected an army by their punishments, he sends +Lucterius, one of the Cadurci, a man of the utmost daring, with part of +his forces, into the territory of the Ruteni; and marches in person into +the country of the Bituriges. On his arrival, the Bituriges send +ambassadors to the Aedui, under whose protection they were, to solicit +aid in order that they might more easily resist the forces of the enemy. +The Aedui, by the advice of the lieutenants whom Caesar had left with +the army, send supplies of horse and foot to succour the Bituriges. When +they came to the river Loire, which separates the Bituriges from the +Aedui, they delayed a few days there, and, not daring to pass the river, +return home, and send back word to the lieutenants that they had +returned through fear of the treachery of the Bituriges, who, they +ascertained, had formed this design, that if the Aedui should cross the +river, the Bituriges on the one side, and the Arverni on the other, +should surround them. Whether they did this for the reason which they +alleged to the lieutenants, or influenced by treachery, we think that we +ought not to state as certain, because we have no proof. On their +departure, the Bituriges immediately unite themselves to the Arverni. + +VI.--These affairs being announced to Caesar in Italy at the time when +he understood that matters in the city had been reduced to a more +tranquil state by the energy of Cneius Pompey, he set out for +Transalpine Gaul. After he had arrived there, he was greatly at a loss +to know by what means he could reach his army. For if he should summon +the legions into the province, he was aware that on their march they +would have to fight in his absence; he foresaw too, that if he himself +should endeavour to reach the army, he would act injudiciously, in +trusting his safety even to those who seemed to be tranquillized. + +VII.--In the meantime Lucterius the Cadurcan, having been sent into the +country of the Ruteni, gains over that state to the Arverni. Having +advanced into the country of the Nitiobriges, and Gabali, he receives +hostages from both nations, and, assembling a numerous force, marches to +make a descent on the province in the direction of Narbo. Caesar, when +this circumstance was announced to him, thought that the march to Narbo +ought to take the precedence of all his other plans. When he arrived +there, he encourages the timid, and stations garrisons among the Ruteni, +in the province of the Volcae Arecomici, and the country around Narbo +which was in the vicinity of the enemy; he orders a portion of the +forces from the province, and the recruits which he had brought from +Italy, to rendezvous among the Helvii who border on the territories of +the Arverni. + +VIII.--These matters being arranged, and Lucterius now checked and +forced to retreat, because he thought it dangerous to enter the line of +Roman garrisons, Caesar marches into the country of the Helvii; although +mount Cevennes, which separates the Arverni from the Helvii, blocked up +the way with very deep snow, as it was the severest season of the year; +yet having cleared away the snow to the depth of six feet, and having +opened the roads, he reaches the territories of the Arverni, with +infinite labour to his soldiers. This people being surprised, because +they considered themselves defended by the Cevennes as by a wall, and +the paths at this season of the year had never before been passable even +to individuals, he orders the cavalry to extend themselves as far as +they could, and strike as great a panic as possible into the enemy. +These proceedings are speedily announced to Vercingetorix by rumour and +his messengers. Around him all the Arverni crowd in alarm, and solemnly +entreat him to protect their property, and not to suffer them to be +plundered by the enemy, especially as he saw that all the war was +transferred into their country. Being prevailed upon by their entreaties +he moves his camp from the country of the Bituriges in the direction of +the Arverni. + +IX.--Caesar, having delayed two days in that place, because he had +anticipated that, in the natural course of events, such would be the +conduct of Vercingetorix, leaves the army under pretence of raising +recruits and cavalry: he places Brutus, a young man, in command of these +forces; he gives him instructions that the cavalry should range as +extensively as possible in all directions; that he would exert himself +not to be absent from the camp longer than three days. Having arranged +these matters, he marches to Vienna by as long journeys as he can, when +his own soldiers did not expect him. Finding there a fresh body of +cavalry, which he had sent on to that place several days before, +marching incessantly night and day, he advanced rapidly through the +territory of the Aedui into that of the Lingones, in which two legions +were wintering, that, if any plan affecting his own safety should have +been organised by the Aedui, he might defeat it by the rapidity of his +movements. When he arrived there, he sends information to the rest of +the legions, and gathers all his army into one place before intelligence +of his arrival could be announced to the Arverni. + +Vercingetorix, on hearing this circumstance, leads back his army into +the country of the Bituriges; and after marching from it to Gergovia, a +town of the Boii, whom Caesar had settled there after defeating them in +the Helvetian war, and had rendered tributary to the Aedui, he +determined to attack it. + +X.--This action caused great perplexity to Caesar in the selection of +his plans; [he feared] lest, if he should confine his legions in one +place for the remaining portion of the winter, all Gaul should revolt +when the tributaries of the Aedui were subdued, because it would appear +that there was in him no protection for his friends; but if he should +draw them too soon out of their winter quarters, he might be distressed +by the want of provisions, in consequence of the difficulty of +conveyance. It seemed better, however, to endure every hardship than to +alienate the affections of all his allies, by submitting to such an +insult. Having, therefore, impressed on the Aedui the necessity of +supplying him with provisions, he sends forward messengers to the Boii +to inform them of his arrival, and encourage them to remain firm in +their allegiance, and resist the attack of the enemy with great +resolution. Having left two legions and the luggage of the entire army +at Agendicum, he marches to the Boii. + +XI.--On the second day, when he came to Vellaunodunum, a town of the +Senones, he determined to attack it, in order that he might not leave an +enemy in his rear, and might the more easily procure supplies of +provisions, and drew a line of circumvallation around it in two days: on +the third day, ambassadors being sent from the town to treat of a +capitulation, he orders their arms to be brought together, their cattle +to be brought forth, and six hundred hostages to be given. He leaves +Caius Trebonius, his lieutenant, to complete these arrangements; he +himself sets out with the intention of marching as soon as possible to +Genabum, a town of the Carnutes, who having then for the first time +received information of the siege of Vellaunodunum, as they thought that +it would be protracted to a longer time, were preparing a garrison to +send to Genabum for the defence of that town. Caesar arrived here in two +days; after pitching his camp before the town, being prevented by the +time of the day, he defers the attack to the next day, and orders his +soldiers to prepare whatever was necessary for that enterprise; and as a +bridge over the Loire connected the town of Genabum with the opposite +bank, fearing lest the inhabitants should escape by night from the town, +he orders two legions to keep watch under arms. The people of Genabum +came forth silently from the city before midnight, and began to cross +the river. When this circumstance was announced by scouts, Caesar, +having set fire to the gates, sends in the legions which he had ordered +to be ready, and obtains possession of the town so completely, that very +few of the whole number of the enemy escaped being taken alive, because +the narrowness of the bridge and the roads prevented the multitude from +escaping. He pillages and burns the town, gives the booty to the +soldiers, then leads his army over the Loire, and marches into the +territories of the Bituriges. + +XII.--Vercingetorix, when he ascertained the arrival of Caesar, desisted +from the siege [of Gergovia], and marched to meet Caesar. The latter had +commenced to besiege Noviodunum; and when ambassadors came from this +town to beg that he would pardon them and spare their lives, in order +that he might execute the rest of his designs with the rapidity by which +he had accomplished most of them, he orders their arms to be collected, +their horses to be brought forth, and hostages to be given. A part of +the hostages being now delivered up, when the rest of the terms were +being performed, a few centurions and soldiers being sent into the town +to collect the arms and horses, the enemy's cavalry, which had +outstripped the main body of Vercingetorix's army, was seen at a +distance; as soon as the townsmen beheld them, and entertained hopes of +assistance, raising a shout, they began to take up arms, shut the gates, +and line the walls. When the centurions in the town understood from the +signal-making of the Gauls that they were forming some new design, they +drew their swords and seized the gates, and recovered all their men +safe. + +XIII.--Caesar orders the horse to be drawn out of the camp, and +commences a cavalry action. His men being now distressed, Caesar sends +to their aid about four hundred German horse, which he had determined, +at the beginning, to keep with himself. The Gauls could not withstand +their attack, but were put to flight, and retreated to their main body, +after losing a great number of men. When they were routed, the townsmen, +again intimidated, arrested those persons by whose exertions they +thought that the mob had been roused, and brought them to Caesar, and +surrendered themselves to him. When these affairs were accomplished, +Caesar marched to the Avaricum, which was the largest and best fortified +town in the territories of the Bituriges, and situated in a most fertile +tract of country; because he confidently expected that on taking that +town, he would reduce beneath his dominion the state of the Bituriges. + +XIV.--Vercingetorix, after sustaining such a series of losses at +Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum, summons his men to a council. He +impresses on them "that the war must be prosecuted on a very different +system from that which had been previously adopted; but they should by +all means aim at this object, that the Romans should be prevented from +foraging and procuring provisions; that this was easy, because they +themselves were well supplied with cavalry and were likewise assisted by +the season of the year; that forage could not be cut; that the enemy +must necessarily disperse, and look for it in the houses, that all these +might be daily destroyed by the horse. Besides that the interests of +private property must be neglected for the sake of the general safety; +that the villages and houses ought to be fired, over such an extent of +country in every direction from Boia, as the Romans appeared capable of +scouring in their search for forage. That an abundance of these +necessaries could be supplied to them, because they would be assisted by +the resources of those in whose territories the war would be waged: that +the Romans either would not bear the privation, or else would advance to +any distance from the camp with considerable danger; and that it made no +difference whether they slew them or stripped them of their baggage, +since, if it was lost, they could not carry on the war. Besides that, +the towns ought to be burnt which were not secured against every danger +by their fortifications or natural advantages; that there should not be +places of retreat for their own countrymen for declining military +service, nor be exposed to the Romans as inducements to carry off +abundance of provisions and plunder. If these sacrifices should appear +heavy or galling, that they ought to consider it much more distressing +that their wives and children should be dragged off to slavery, and +themselves slain; the evils which must necessarily befall the conquered. + +XV.--This opinion having been approved of by unanimous consent, more +than twenty towns of the Bituriges are burnt in one day. Conflagrations +are beheld in every quarter; and although all bore this with great +regret, yet they laid before themselves this consolation, that, as the +victory was certain, they could quickly recover their losses. There is a +debate concerning Avaricum in the general council, whether they should +decide that it should be burnt or defended. The Bituriges threw +themselves at the feet of all the Gauls, and entreat that they should +not be compelled to set fire with their own hands to the fairest city of +almost the whole of Gaul, which was both a protection and ornament to +the state; they say that "they could easily defend it, owing to the +nature of the ground, for, being enclosed almost on every side by a +river and a marsh, it had only one entrance, and that very narrow." +Permission being granted to them at their earnest request, Vercingetorix +at first dissuades them from it, but afterwards concedes the point, +owing to their entreaties and the compassion of the soldiers. A proper +garrison is selected for the town. + +XVI.--Vercingetorix follows closely upon Caesar by shorter marches, and +selects for his camp a place defended by woods and marshes, at the +distance of fifteen miles from Avaricum. There he received intelligence +by trusty scouts, every hour in the day, of what was going on at +Avaricum, and ordered whatever he wished to be done; he closely watched +all our expeditions for corn and forage, and whenever they were +compelled to go to a greater distance, he attacked them when dispersed, +and inflicted severe loss upon them; although the evil was remedied by +our men, as far as precautions could be taken, by going forth at +irregular times, and by different ways. + +XVII.--Caesar pitching his camp at that side of the town which was not +defended by the river and marsh, and had a very narrow approach, as we +have mentioned, began to raise the vineae and erect two towers; for the +nature of the place prevented him from drawing a line of +circumvallation. He never ceased to importune the Boii and Aedui for +supplies of corn; of whom the one [the Aedui], because they were acting +with no zeal, did not aid him much; the others [the Boii], as their +resources were not great, quickly consumed what they had. Although the +army was distressed by the greatest want of corn, through the poverty of +the Boii, the apathy of the Aedui, and the burning of the houses, to +such a degree, that for several days the soldiers were without corn, and +satisfied their extreme hunger with cattle driven from the remote +villages; yet no language was heard from them unworthy of the majesty of +the Roman people and their former victories. Moreover, when Caesar +addressed the legions, one by one, when at work, and said that he would +raise the siege, if they felt the scarcity too severely, they +unanimously begged him "not to do so; that they had served for several +years under his command in such a manner, that they never submitted to +insult, and never abandoned an enterprise without accomplishing it; that +they should consider it a disgrace if they abandoned the siege after +commencing it; that it was better to endure every hardship than not to +avenge the manes of the Roman citizens who perished at Genabum by the +perfidy of the Gauls." They entrusted the same declarations to the +centurions and military tribunes, that through them they might be +communicated to Caesar. + +XVIII.--When the towers had now approached the walls, Caesar ascertained +from the captives that Vercingetorix, after destroying the forage, had +pitched his camp nearer Avaricum, and that he himself with the cavalry +and light-armed infantry, who generally fought among the horse, had gone +to lay an ambuscade in that quarter to which he thought that our troops +would come the next day to forage. On learning these facts, he set out +from the camp secretly at midnight, and reached the camp of the enemy +early in the morning. They having quickly learned the arrival of Caesar +by scouts, hid their cars and baggage in the thickest parts of the +woods, and drew up all their forces in a lofty and open space: which +circumstance being announced, Caesar immediately ordered the baggage to +be piled, and the arms to be got ready. + +XIX.--There was a hill of a gentle ascent from the bottom; a dangerous +and impassable marsh, not more than fifty feet broad, begirt it on +almost every side. The Gauls, having broken down the bridges, posted +themselves on this hill, in confidence of their position, and being +drawn up in tribes according to their respective states, held all the +fords and passages of that marsh with trusty guards, thus determined +that if the Romans should attempt to force the marsh, they would +overpower them from the higher ground while sticking in it, so that +whoever saw the nearness of the position, would imagine that the two +armies were prepared to fight on almost equal terms; but whoever should +view accurately the disadvantage of position, would discover that they +were showing off an empty affectation of courage. Caesar clearly points +out to his soldiers, who were indignant that the enemy could bear the +sight of them at the distance of so short a space, and were earnestly +demanding the signal for action, "with how great loss and the death of +how many gallant men the victory would necessarily be purchased: and +when he saw them so determined to decline no danger for his renown, that +he ought to be considered guilty of the utmost injustice if he did not +hold their life dearer than his own personal safety." Having thus +consoled his soldiers, he leads them back on the same day to the camp, +and determined to prepare the other things which were necessary for the +siege of the town. + +XX.--Vercingetorix, when he had returned to his men, was accused of +treason, in that he had moved his camp nearer the Romans, in that he had +gone away with all the cavalry, in that he had left so great forces +without a commander, in that, on his departure, the Romans had come at +such a favourable season, and with such despatch; that all these +circumstances could not have happened accidentally or without design; +that he preferred holding the sovereignty of Gaul by the grant of +Caesar, to acquiring it by their favour. Being accused in such a manner, +he made the following reply to these charges:--"That his moving his camp +had been caused by want of forage, and had been done even by their +advice; that his approaching near the Romans had been a measure dictated +by the favourable nature of the ground, which would defend him by its +natural strength; that the service of the cavalry could not have been +requisite in marshy ground, and was useful in that place to which they +had gone; that he, on his departure, had given the supreme command to no +one intentionally, lest he should be induced by the eagerness of the +multitude to hazard an engagement, to which he perceived that all were +inclined, owing to their want of energy, because they were unable to +endure fatigue any longer. That, if the Romans in the meantime came up +by chance, they [the Gauls] should feel grateful to fortune; if invited +by the information of some one they should feel grateful to him, because +they were enabled to see distinctly from the higher ground the smallness +of the number of their enemy, and despise the courage of those who, not +daring to fight, retreated disgracefully into their camp. That he +desired no power from Caesar by treachery, since he could have it by +victory, which was now assured to himself and to all the Gauls; nay, +that he would even give them back the command, if they thought that they +conferred honour on him, rather then received safety from him. That you +may be assured," said he, "that I speak these words with truth;--listen +to these Roman soldiers!" He produces some camp-followers whom he had +surprised on a foraging expedition some days before, and had tortured by +famine and confinement. They being previously instructed in what answers +they should make when examined, say, "That they were legionary soldiers, +that, urged by famine and want, they had recently gone forth from the +camp, [to see] if they could find any corn or cattle in the fields; that +the whole army was distressed by a similar scarcity, nor had any one now +sufficient strength, nor could bear the labour of the work; and +therefore that the general was determined, if he made no progress in the +siege, to draw off his army in three days." "These benefits," says +Vercingetorix, "you receive from me, whom you accuse of treason--me, by +whose exertions you see so powerful and victorious an army almost +destroyed by famine, without shedding one drop of your blood; and I have +taken precautions that no state shall admit within its territories this +army in its ignominious flight from this place." + +XXI.--The whole multitude raise a shout and clash their arms, according +to their custom, as they usually do in the case of him whose speech they +approve; [they exclaim] that Vercingetorix was a consummate general, and +that they had no doubt of his honour; that the war could not be +conducted with greater prudence. They determine that ten thousand men +should be picked out of the entire army and sent into the town, and +decide that the general safety should not be entrusted to the Bituriges +alone, because they were aware that the glory of the victory must rest +with the Bituriges, if they made good the defence of the town. + +XXII.--To the extraordinary valour of our soldiers, devices of every +sort were opposed by the Gauls; since they are a nation of consummate +ingenuity, and most skilful in imitating and making those things which +are imparted by any one; for they turned aside the hooks with nooses, +and when they had caught hold of them firmly, drew them on by means of +engines, and undermined the mound the more skilfully on this account, +because there are in their territories extensive iron mines, and +consequently every description of mining operations is known and +practised by them. They had furnished, moreover, the whole wall on every +side with turrets, and had covered them with skins. Besides, in their +frequent sallies by day and night, they attempted either to set fire to +the mound, or attack our soldiers when engaged in the works; and, +moreover, by splicing the upright timbers of their own towers, they +equalled the height of ours, as fast as the mound had daily raised them, +and countermined our mines, and impeded the working of them by stakes +bent and sharpened at the ends, and boiling pitch, and stones of very +great weight, and prevented them from approaching the walls. + +XXIII.--But this is usually the form of all the Gallic walls. Straight +beams, connected lengthwise and two feet distant from each other at +equal intervals, are placed together on the ground; these are mortised +on the inside, and covered with plenty of earth. But the intervals which +we have mentioned, are closed up in front by large stones. These being +thus laid and cemented together, another row is added above, in such a +manner that the same interval may be observed, and that the beams may +not touch one another, but equal spaces intervening, each row of beams +is kept firmly in its place by a row of stones. In this manner the whole +wall is consolidated, until the regular height of the wall be completed. +This work, with respect to appearance and variety, is not unsightly, +owing to the alternate rows of beams and stones, which preserve their +order in right lines; and, besides, it possesses great advantages as +regards utility and the defence of cities; for the stone protects it +from fire, and the wood from the battering ram, since it [the wood] +being mortised in the inside with rows of beams, generally forty feet +each in length, can neither be broken through nor torn asunder. + +XXIV.--The siege having been impeded by so many disadvantages, the +soldiers, although they were retarded during the whole time, by the mud, +cold, and constant showers, yet by their incessant labour overcame all +these obstacles, and in twenty-five days raised a mound three hundred +and thirty feet broad and eighty feet high. When it almost touched the +enemy's walls, and Caesar, according to his usual custom, kept watch at +the work, and encouraged the soldiers not to discontinue the work for a +moment: a little before the third watch they discovered that the mound +was sinking, since the enemy had set it on fire by a mine; and at the +same time a shout was raised along the entire wall, and a sally was made +from two gates on each side of the turrets. Some at a distance were +casting torches and dry wood from the wall on the mound, others were +pouring on it pitch, and other materials, by which the flame might be +excited, so that a plan could hardly be formed, as to where they should +first run to the defence, or to what part aid should be brought. +However, as two legions always kept guard before the camp by Caesar's +orders, and several of them were at stated times at the work, measures +were promptly taken, that some should oppose the sallying party, others +draw back the towers and make a cut in the rampart; and moreover, that +the whole army should hasten from the camp to extinguish the flames. + +XXV.--When the battle was going on in every direction, the rest of the +night being now spent, and fresh hopes of victory always arose before +the enemy: the more so on this account because they saw the coverings of +our towers burnt away, and perceived that we, being exposed, could not +easily go to give assistance, and they themselves were always relieving +the weary with fresh men, and considered that all the safety of Gaul +rested on this crisis; there happened in my own view a circumstance +which, having appeared to be worthy of record, we thought it ought not +to be omitted. A certain Gaul before the gate of the town, who was +casting into the fire opposite the turret balls of tallow and fire which +were passed along to him, was pierced with a dart on the right side and +fell dead. One of those next him stepped over him as he lay, and +discharged the same office: when the second man was slain in the same +manner by a wound from a cross-bow, a third succeeded him, and a fourth +succeeded the third: nor was this post left vacant by the besieged, +until, the fire of the mound having been extinguished, and the enemy +repulsed in every direction, an end was put to the fighting. + +XXVI.--The Gauls having tried every expedient, as nothing had succeeded, +adopted the design of fleeing from the town the next day, by the advice +and order of Vercingetorix. They hoped that, by attempting it at the +dead of night, they would effect it without any great loss of men, +because the camp of Vercingetorix was not far distant from the town, and +the extensive marsh which intervened was likely to retard the Romans in +the pursuit. And they were now preparing to execute this by night, when +the matrons suddenly ran out into the streets, and weeping cast +themselves at the feet of their husbands, and requested of them, with +every entreaty, that they should not abandon themselves and their common +children to the enemy for punishment, because the weakness of their +nature and physical powers prevented them from taking to flight. When +they saw that they (as fear does not generally admit of mercy in extreme +danger) persisted in their resolution, they began to shout aloud, and +give intelligence of their flight to the Romans. The Gauls being +intimidated by fear of this, lest the passes should be pre-occupied by +the Roman cavalry, desisted from their design. + +XXVII.--The next day Caesar, the tower being advanced, and the works +which he had determined to raise being arranged, a violent storm +arising, thought this no bad time for executing his designs, because he +observed the guards arranged on the walls a little too negligently, and +therefore ordered his own men to engage in their work more remissly, and +pointed out what he wished to be done. He drew up his soldiers in a +secret position within the vineae, and exhorts them to reap, at least, +the harvest of victory proportionate to their exertions. He proposed a +reward for those who should first scale the walls, and gave the signal +to the soldiers. They suddenly flew out from all quarters and quickly +filled the wall. + +XXVIII.--The enemy being alarmed by the suddenness of the attack, were +dislodged from the wall and towers, and drew up, in form of a wedge, in +the market-place and the open streets, with this intention that, if an +attack should be made on any side, they should fight with their line +drawn up to receive it. When they saw no one descending to the level +ground, and the enemy extending themselves along the entire wall in +every direction, fearing lest every hope of flight should be cut off, +they cast away their arms, and sought, without stopping, the most remote +parts of the town. A part was then slain by the infantry when they were +crowding upon one another in the narrow passage of the gates; and a part +having got without the gates, were cut to pieces by the cavalry: nor was +there one who was anxious for the plunder. Thus, being excited by the +massacre at Genabum and the fatigue of the siege, they spared neither +those worn out with years, women, or children. Finally, out of all that +number, which amounted to about forty thousand, scarcely eight hundred, +who fled from the town when they heard the first alarm, reached +Vercingetorix in safety: and he, the night being now far spent, received +them in silence after their flight (fearing that any sedition should +arise in the camp from their entrance in a body and the compassion of +the soldiers), so that, having arranged his friends and the chiefs of +the states at a distance on the road, he took precautions that they +should be separated and conducted to their fellow countrymen, to +whatever part of the camp had been assigned to each state from the +beginning. + +XXIX.--Vercingetorix having convened an assembly on the following day, +consoled and encouraged his soldiers in the following words:--"That they +should not be too much depressed in spirit, nor alarmed at their loss; +that the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a +kind of art and skill in assault, with which they themselves were +unacquainted; that whoever expected every event in the war to be +favourable, erred; that it never was his opinion that Avaricum should be +defended, of the truth of which statement he had themselves as +witnesses, but that it was owing to the imprudence of the Bituriges, and +the too ready compliance of the rest, that this loss was sustained; +that, however, he would soon compensate it by superior advantages; for +that he would, by his exertions, bring over those states which severed +themselves from the rest of the Gauls, and would create a general +unanimity throughout the whole of Gaul, the union of which not even the +whole earth could withstand, and that he had it already almost effected; +that in the meantime it was reasonable that he should prevail on them, +for the sake of the general safety, to begin to fortify their camp, in +order that they might the more easily sustain the sudden attacks of the +enemy." + +XXX.--This speech was not disagreeable to the Gauls, principally, +because he himself was not disheartened by receiving so severe a loss, +and had not concealed himself, nor shunned the eyes of the people: and +he was believed to possess greater foresight and sounder judgment than +the rest, because, when the affair was undecided, he had at first been +of opinion that Avaricum should be burnt, and afterwards that it should +be abandoned. Accordingly, as ill success weakens the authority of other +generals, so, on the contrary, his dignity increased daily, although a +loss was sustained: at the same time they began to entertain hopes, on +his assertion, of uniting the rest of the states to themselves, and on +this occasion, for the first time, the Gauls began to fortify their +camps, and were so alarmed that although they were men unaccustomed to +toil, yet they were of opinion that they ought to endure and suffer +everything which should be imposed upon them. + +XXXI.--Nor did Vercingetorix use less efforts than he had promised, to +gain over the other states, and [in consequence] endeavoured to entice +their leaders by gifts and promises. For this object he selected fitting +emissaries by whose subtle pleading or private friendship each of the +nobles could be most easily influenced. He takes care that those who +fled to him on the storming of Avaricum should be provided with arms and +clothes. At the same time, that his diminished forces should be +recruited, he levies a fixed quota of soldiers from each state, and +defines the number and day before which he should wish them brought to +the camp, and orders all the archers, of whom there was a very great +number in Gaul, to be collected and sent to him. By these means, the +troops which were lost at Avaricum are speedily replaced. In the +meantime, Teutomarus, the son of Ollovicon, the king of the Nitiobriges, +whose father had received the appellation of friend from our senate, +came to him with a great number of his own horse and those whom he had +hired from Aquitania. + +XXXII.--Caesar, after delaying several days at Avaricum, and finding +there the greatest plenty of corn and other provisions, refreshed his +army after their fatigue and privation. The winter being almost ended, +when he was invited by the favourable season of the year to prosecute +the war and march against the enemy, [and try] whether he could draw +them from the marshes and woods, or else press them by a blockade; some +noblemen of the Aedui came to him as ambassadors to entreat "that in an +extreme emergency he should succour their state; that their affairs were +in the utmost danger, because, whereas single magistrates had been +usually appointed in ancient times and held the power of king for a +single year, two persons now exercised this office, and each asserted +that he was appointed according to their laws. That one of them was +Convictolitanis, a powerful and illustrious youth; the other Cotus, +sprung from a most ancient family, and personally a man of very great +influence and extensive connections. His brother Valetiacus had borne +the same office during the last year: that the whole state was up in +arms; the senate divided, the people divided; that each of them had his +own adherents; and that, if the animosity would be fomented any longer +the result would be that one part of the state would come to a collision +with the other; that it rested with his activity and influence to +prevent it." + +XXXIII.--Although Caesar considered it ruinous to leave the war and the +enemy, yet, being well aware what great evils generally arise from +internal dissensions, lest a state so powerful and so closely connected +with the Roman people, which he himself had always fostered and honoured +in every respect, should have recourse to violence and arms, and that +the party which had less confidence in its own power should summon aid +from Vercingetorix, he determined to anticipate this movement; and +because, by the laws of the Aedui, it was not permitted those who held +the supreme authority to leave the country, he determined to go in +person to the Aedui, lest he should appear to infringe upon their +government and laws, and summoned all the senate, and those between whom +the dispute was, to meet him at Decetia. When almost all the state had +assembled there, and he was informed that one brother had been declared +magistrate by the other, when only a few persons were privately summoned +for the purpose, at a different time and place from what he ought, +whereas the laws not only forbade two belonging to one family to be +elected magistrates while each was alive, but even deterred them from +being in the senate, he compelled Cotus to resign his office; he ordered +Convictolitanis, who had been elected by the priests, according to the +usage of the state, in the presence of the magistrates, to hold the +supreme authority. + +XXXIV.--Having pronounced this decree between [the contending parties], +he exhorted the Aedui to bury in oblivion their disputes and +dissensions, and, laying aside all these things, devote themselves to +the war, and expect from him, on the conquest of Gaul, those rewards +which they should have earned, and send speedily to him all their +cavalry and ten thousand infantry, which he might place in different +garrisons to protect his convoys of provisions, and then divided his +army into two parts: he gave Labienus four legions to lead into the +country of the Senones and Parisii; and led in person six into the +country of the Arverni, in the direction of the town of Gergovia, along +the banks of the Allier. He gave part of the cavalry to Labienus, and +kept part to himself. Vercingetorix, on learning this circumstance, +broke down all the bridges over the river and began to march on the +other bank of the Allier. + +XXXV.--When each army was in sight of the other, and was pitching their +camp almost opposite that of the enemy, scouts being distributed in +every quarter, lest the Romans should build a bridge and bring over +their troops; it was to Caesar a matter attended with great +difficulties, lest he should be hindered from passing the river during +the greater part of the summer, as the Allier cannot generally be forded +before the autumn. Therefore, that this might not happen, having pitched +his camp in a woody place opposite to one of those bridges which +Vercingetorix had taken care should be broken down, the next day he +stopped behind with two legions in a secret place: he sent on the rest +of the forces as usual, with all the baggage, after having selected some +cohorts, that the number of the legions might appear to be complete. +Having ordered these to advance as far as they could, when now, from the +time of day, he conjectured they had come to an encampment, he began to +rebuild the bridge on the same piles, the lower part of which remained +entire. Having quickly finished the work and led his legions across, he +selected a fit place for a camp, and recalled the rest of his troops. +Vercingetorix, on ascertaining this fact, went before him by forced +marches, in order that he might not be compelled to come to an action +against his will. + +XXXVI.--Caesar, in five days' march, went from that place to Gergovia, +and after engaging in a slight cavalry skirmish that day, on viewing the +situation of the city, which, being built on a very high mountain, was +very difficult of access, he despaired of taking it by storm, and +determined to take no measures with regard to besieging it before he +should secure a supply of provisions. But Vercingetorix, having pitched +his camp on the mountain near the town, placed the forces of each state +separately and at small intervals around himself, and having occupied +all the hills of that range as far as they commanded a view [of the +Roman encampment], he presented a formidable appearance; he ordered the +rulers of the states, whom he had selected as his council of war, to +come to him daily at the dawn, whether any measure seemed to require +deliberation or execution. Nor did he allow almost any day to pass +without testing in a cavalry action, the archers being intermixed, what +spirit and valour there was in each of his own men. There was a hill +opposite the town, at the very foot of that mountain, strongly fortified +and precipitous on every side (which if our men could gain, they seemed +likely to exclude the enemy from a great share of their supply of water, +and from free foraging; but this place was occupied by them with a weak +garrison): however, Caesar set out from the camp in the silence of +night, and dislodging the garrison before succour could come from the +town, he got possession of the place and posted two legions there, and +drew from the greater camp to the less a double trench twelve feet +broad, so that the soldiers could even singly pass secure from any +sudden attack of the enemy. + +XXXVII.--Whilst these affairs were going on at Gergovia, +Convictolitanis, the Aeduan, to whom we have observed the magistracy was +adjudged by Caesar, being bribed by the Arverni, holds a conference with +certain young men, the chief of whom were Litavicus and his brothers, +who were born of a most noble family. He shares the bribe with them, and +exhorts them to "remember that they were free and born for empire; that +the state of the Aedui was the only one which retarded the most certain +victory of the Gauls; that the rest were held in check by its authority; +and, if it was brought over, the Romans would not have room to stand on +in Gaul; that he had received some kindness from Caesar, only so far, +however, as gaining a most just cause by his decision; but that he +assigned more weight to the general freedom; for, why should the Aedui +go to Caesar to decide concerning their rights and laws, rather than the +Romans come to the Aedui?" The young men being easily won over by the +speech of the magistrate and the bribe, when they declared that they +would even be leaders in the plot, a plan for accomplishing it was +considered, because they were confident their state could not be induced +to undertake the war on slight grounds. It was resolved that Litavicus +should have the command of the ten thousand which were being sent to +Caesar for the war, and should have charge of them on their march, and +that his brothers should go before him to Caesar. They arrange the other +measures, and the manner in which they should have them done. + +XXXVIII.--Litavicus, having received the command of the army, suddenly +convened the soldiers, when he was about thirty miles distant from +Gergovia, and, weeping, said, "Soldiers, whither are we going? All our +knights and all our nobles have perished. Eporedorix and Viridomarus, +the principal men of the state, being accused of treason, have been +slain by the Romans without even permission to plead their cause. Learn +this intelligence from those who have escaped from the massacre; for I, +since my brothers and all my relations have been slain, am prevented by +grief from declaring what has taken place." Persons are brought forward +whom he had instructed in what he would have them say, and make the same +statements to the soldiery as Litavicus had made: that all the knights +of the Aedui were slain because they were said to have held conferences +with the Arverni; that they had concealed themselves among the multitude +of soldiers, and had escaped from the midst of the slaughter. The Aedui +shout aloud and conjure Litavicus to provide for their safety. "As if," +said he, "it were a matter of deliberation, and not of necessity, for us +to go to Gergovia and unite ourselves to the Arverni. Or have we any +reasons to doubt that the Romans, after perpetrating the atrocious +crime, are now hastening to slay us? Therefore, if there be any spirit +in us, let us avenge the death of those who have perished in a most +unworthy manner, and let us slay these robbers." He points to the Roman +citizens, who had accompanied them, in reliance on his protection. He +immediately seizes a great quantity of corn and provisions, cruelly +tortures them, and then puts them to death, sends messengers throughout +the entire state of the Aedui, and rouses them completely by the same +falsehood concerning the slaughter of their knights and nobles; he +earnestly advises them to avenge, in the same manner as he did, the +wrongs which they had received. + +XXXIX.--Eporedorix, the Aeduan, a young man born in the highest rank and +possessing very great influence at home, and, along with Viridomarus, of +equal age and influence, but of inferior birth, whom Caesar had raised +from a humble position to the highest rank, on being recommended to him +by Divitiacus, had come in the number of horse, being summoned by Caesar +by name. These had a dispute with each other for precedence, and in the +struggle between the magistrates they had contended with their utmost +efforts, the one for Convictolitanis, the other for Cotus. Of these +Eporedorix, on learning the design of Litavicus, lays the matter before +Caesar almost at midnight; he entreats that Caesar should not suffer +their state to swerve from the alliance with the Roman people, owing to +the depraved counsels of a few young men, which he foresaw would be the +consequence if so many thousand men should unite themselves to the +enemy, as their relations could not neglect their safety, nor the state +regard it as a matter of slight importance. + +XL.--Caesar felt great anxiety on this intelligence, because he had +always especially indulged the state of the Aedui, and, without any +hesitation, draws out from the camp four light-armed legions and all the +cavalry: nor had he time, at such a crisis, to contract the camp, +because the affair seemed to depend upon despatch. He leaves Caius +Fabius, his lieutenant, with two legions to guard the camp. When he +ordered the brothers of Litavicus to be arrested, he discovers that they +had fled a short time before to the camp of the enemy. He encouraged his +soldiers "not to be disheartened by the labour of the journey on such a +necessary occasion," and, after advancing twenty-five miles, all being +most eager, he came in sight of the army of the Aedui, and, by sending +on his cavalry, retards and impedes their march; he then issues strict +orders to all his soldiers to kill no one. He commands Eporedorix and +Viridomarus, who they thought were killed, to move among the cavalry and +address their friends. When they were recognized and the treachery of +Litavicus discovered, the Aedui began to extend their hands to intimate +submission, and, laying down their arms, to deprecate death. Litavicus, +with his clansmen, who after the custom of the Gauls consider it a crime +to desert their patrons, even in extreme misfortune, flees forth to +Gergovia. + +XLI.--Caesar, after sending messengers to the state of the Aedui, to +inform them that they whom he could have put to death by the right of +war were spared through his kindness, and after giving three hours of +the night to his army for his repose, directed his march to Gergovia. +Almost in the middle of the journey, a party of horse that were sent by +Fabius stated in how great danger matters were; they inform him that the +camp was attacked by a very powerful army, while fresh men were +frequently relieving the wearied, and exhausting our soldiers by the +incessant toil, since, on account of the size of the camp, they had +constantly to remain on the rampart; that many had been wounded by the +immense number of arrows and all kinds of missiles; that the engines +were of great service in withstanding them; that Fabius, at their +departure, leaving only two gates open, was blocking up the rest, and +was adding breast-works to the ramparts, and was preparing himself for a +similar casualty on the following day. Caesar, after receiving this +information, reached the camp before sunrise owing to the very great +zeal of his soldiers. + +XLII.--Whilst these things are going on at Gergovia, the Aedui, on +receiving the first announcements from Litavicus, leave themselves no +time to ascertain the truth of these statements. Some are stimulated by +avarice, others by revenge and credulity, which is an innate propensity +in that race of men to such a degree that they consider a slight rumour +as an ascertained fact. They plunder the property of the Roman citizens, +and either massacre them or drag them away to slavery. Convictolitanis +increases the evil state of affairs, and goads on the people to fury, +that by the commission of some outrage they may be ashamed to return to +propriety. They entice from the town of Cabillonus, by a promise of +safety, Marcus Aristius, a military tribune, who was on his march to his +legion; they compel those who had settled there for the purpose of +trading to do the same. By constantly attacking them on their march they +strip them of all their baggage; they besiege day and night those that +resisted; when many were slain on both sides, they excite a greater +number to arms. + +XLIII.--In the meantime, when intelligence was brought that all their +soldiers were in Caesar's power, they run in a body to Aristius; they +assure him that nothing had been done by public authority; they order an +inquiry to be made about the plundered property; they confiscate the +property of Litavicus and his brothers; they send ambassadors to Caesar +for the purpose of clearing themselves. They do all this with a view to +recover their soldiers; but being contaminated by guilt, and charmed by +the gains arising from the plundered property, as that act was shared in +by many, and being tempted by the fear of punishment, they began to form +plans of war and stir up the other states by embassies. Although Caesar +was aware of this proceeding, yet he addresses the ambassadors with as +much mildness as he can: "That he did not think worse of the state on +account of the ignorance and fickleness of the mob, nor would diminish +his regard for the Aedui." He himself, fearing a greater commotion in +Gaul, in order to prevent his being surrounded by all the states, began +to form plans as to the manner in which he should return from Gergovia +and again concentrate his forces, lest a departure arising from the fear +of a revolt should seem like a flight. + +XLIV.--Whilst he was considering these things an opportunity of acting +successfully seemed to offer. For, when he had come into the smaller +camp for the purpose of securing the works, he noticed that the hill in +the possession of the enemy was stript of men, although, on the former +days, it could scarcely be seen on account of the numbers on it. Being +astonished, he inquires the reason of it from the deserters, a great +number of whom flocked to him daily. They all concurred in asserting, +what Caesar himself had already ascertained by his scouts, that the back +of that hill was almost level; but likewise woody and narrow, by which +there was a pass to the other side of the town; that they had serious +apprehensions for this place, and had no other idea, on the occupation +of one hill by the Romans, than that, if they should lose the other, +they would be almost surrounded, and cut off from all egress and +foraging; that they were all summoned by Vercingetorix to fortify this +place. + +XLV.--Caesar, on being informed of this circumstance, sends several +troops of horse to the place immediately after midnight; he orders them +to range in every quarter with more tumult than usual. At dawn he orders +a large quantity of baggage to be drawn out of the camp, and the +muleteers with helmets, in the appearance and guise of horsemen, to ride +round the hills. To these he adds a few cavalry, with instructions to +range more widely to make a show. He orders them all to seek the same +quarter by a long circuit; these proceedings were seen at a distance +from the town, as Gergovia commanded a view of the camp, nor could the +Gauls ascertain at so great a distance what certainty there was in the +manoeuvre. He sends one legion to the same hill, and after it had +marched a little, stations it in the lower ground, and conceals it in +the woods. The suspicions of the Gauls are increased, and all their +forces are marched to that place to defend it. Caesar, having perceived +the camp of the enemy deserted, covers the military insignia of his men, +conceals the standards, and transfers his soldiers in small bodies from +the greater to the less camp, and points out to the lieutenants whom he +had placed in command over the respective legions, what he should wish +to be done; he particularly advises them to restrain their men from +advancing too far, through their desire of fighting, or their hope of +plunder; he sets before them what disadvantages the unfavourable nature +of the ground carries with it; that they could be assisted by despatch +alone: that success depended on a surprise, and not on a battle. After +stating these particulars, he gives the signal for action, and detaches +the Aedui at the same time by another ascent an the right. + +XLVI.--The town wall was 1200 paces distant from the plain and foot of +the ascent, in a straight line, if no gap intervened; whatever circuit +was added to this ascent, to make the hill easy, increased the length of +the route. But almost in the middle of the hill, the Gauls had +previously built a wall six feet high, made of large stones, and +extending in length as far as the nature of the ground permitted, as a +barrier to retard the advance of our men; and leaving all the lower +space empty, they had filled the upper part of the hill, as far as the +wall of the town, with their camps very close to one another. The +soldiers, on the signal being given, quickly advance to this +fortification, and passing over it, make themselves masters of the +separate camps. And so great was their activity in taking the camps, +that Teutomarus, the king of the Nitiobriges, being suddenly surprised +in his tent, as he had gone to rest at noon, with difficulty escaped +from the hands of the plunderers, with the upper part of his person +naked, and his horse wounded. + +XLVII.--Caesar, having accomplished the object which he had in view, +ordered the signal to be sounded for a retreat; and the soldiers of the +tenth legion, by which he was then accompanied, halted. But the soldiers +of the other legions, not hearing the sound of the trumpet, because +there was a very large valley between them, were however kept back by +the tribunes of the soldiers and the lieutenants, according to Caesar's +orders; but being animated by the prospect of speedy victory, and the +flight of the enemy, and the favourable battles of former periods, they +thought nothing so difficult that their bravery could not accomplish it; +nor did they put an end to the pursuit, until they drew nigh to the wall +of the town and the gates. But then, when a shout arose in every quarter +of the city, those who were at a distance being alarmed by the sudden +tumult, fled hastily from the town, since they thought that the enemy +were within the gates. The matrons begin to cast their clothes and +silver over the wall, and bending over as far as the lower part of the +bosom, with outstretched hands beseech the Romans to spare them, and not +to sacrifice to their resentment even women and children, as they had +done at Avaricum. Some of them let themselves down from the walls by +their hands, and surrendered to our soldiers. Lucius Fabius, a centurion +of the eighth legion, who, it was ascertained, had said that day among +his fellow soldiers that he was excited by the plunder of Avaricum, and +would not allow any one to mount the wall before him, finding three men +of his own company, and being raised up by them, scaled the wall. He +himself, in turn, taking hold of them one by one, drew them up to the +wall. + +XLVIII.--In the meantime those who had gone to the other part of the +town to defend it, as we have mentioned above, at first, aroused by +hearing the shouts, and, afterwards, by frequent accounts that the town +was in possession of the Romans, sent forward their cavalry, and +hastened in larger numbers to that quarter. As each first came he stood +beneath the wall, and increased the number of his countrymen engaged in +action. When a great multitude of them had assembled, the matrons, who a +little before were stretching their hands from the walls to the Romans, +began to beseech their countrymen, and after the Gallic fashion to show +their dishevelled hair, and bring their children into public view. +Neither in position nor in numbers was the contest an equal one to the +Romans; at the same time, being exhausted by running and the long +continuation of the fight, they could not easily withstand fresh and +vigorous troops. + +XLIX.--Caesar, when he perceived that his soldiers were fighting on +unfavourable ground, and that the enemy's forces were increasing, being +alarmed for the safety of his troops, sent orders to Titus Sextius, one +of his lieutenants, whom he had left to guard the smaller camp, to lead +out his cohorts quickly from the camp, and post them at the foot of the +hill, on the right wing of the enemy; that if he should see our men +driven from the ground, he should deter the enemy from following too +closely. He himself, advancing with the legion a little from that place +where he had taken his post, awaited the issue of the battle. + +L.--While the fight was going on most vigorously, hand to hand, and the +enemy depended on their position and numbers, our men on their bravery, +the Aedui suddenly appeared on our exposed flank, as Caesar had sent +them by another ascent on the right, for the sake of creating a +diversion. These, from the similarity of their arms, greatly terrified +our men; and although they were discovered to have their right shoulders +bare, which was usually the sign of those reduced to peace, yet the +soldiers suspected that this very thing was done by the enemy to deceive +them. At the same time Lucius Fabius the centurion, and those who had +scaled the wall with him, being surrounded and slain, were cast from the +wall. Marcus Petreius, a centurion of the same legion, after attempting +to hew down the gates, was overpowered by numbers, and, despairing of +his safety, having already received many wounds, said to the soldiers of +his own company who followed him: "Since I cannot save you as well as +myself, I shall at least provide for your safety, since I allured by the +love of glory, led you into this danger, do you save yourselves when an +opportunity is given." At the same time he rushed into the midst of the +enemy, and slaying two of them, drove back the rest a little from the +gate. When his men attempted to aid him, "In vain," he says, "you +endeavour to procure my safety since blood and strength are now failing +me, therefore leave this, while you have the opportunity, and retreat to +the legion." Thus he fell fighting a few moments after, and saved his +men by his own death. + +LI.--Our soldiers, being hard pressed on every side, were dislodged from +their position, with the loss of forty-six centurions; but the tenth +legion, which had been posted in reserve on ground a little more level, +checked the Gauls in their eager pursuit. It was supported by the +cohorts of the thirteenth legion, which, being led from the smaller +camp, had, under the command of Titus Sextius, occupied the higher +ground. The legions, as soon as they reached the plain, halted and faced +the enemy. Vercingetorix led back his men from the part of the hill +within the fortifications. On that day little less than seven hundred of +the soldiers were missing. + +LII.--On the next day, Caesar, having called a meeting, censured the +rashness and avarice of his soldiers, "In that they had judged for +themselves how far they ought to proceed, or what they ought to do, and +could not be kept back by the tribunes of the soldiers and the +lieutenants;" and stated, "what the disadvantage of the ground could +effect, what opinion he himself had entertained at Avaricum, when having +surprised the enemy without either general or cavalry, he had given up a +certain victory, lest even a trifling loss should occur in the contest +owing to the disadvantage of position. That as much as he admired the +greatness of their courage, since neither the fortifications of the +camp, nor the height of the mountain, nor the wall of the town could +retard them; in the same degree he censured their licentiousness and +arrogance, because they thought that they knew more than their general +concerning victory, and the issue of actions: and that he required in +his soldiers forbearance and self-command, not less than valour and +magnanimity." + +LIII.--Having held this assembly, and having encouraged the soldiers at +the conclusion of his speech, "That they should not be dispirited on +this account, nor attribute to the valour of the enemy what the +disadvantage of position had caused;" entertaining the same views of his +departure that he had previously had, he led forth the legions from the +camp, and drew up his army in order of battle in a suitable place. When +Vercingetorix, nevertheless, would not descend to the level ground, a +slight cavalry action, and that a successful one, having taken place, he +led back his army into the camp. When he had done this, the next day, +thinking that he had done enough to lower the pride of the Gauls, and to +encourage the minds of his soldiers, he moved his camp in the direction +of the Aedui. The enemy not even then pursuing us, on the third day he +repaired the bridge over the river Allier, and led over his whole army. + +LIV.--Having then held an interview with Viridomarus and Eporedorix the +Aeduans, he learns that Litavicus had set out with all the cavalry to +raise the Aedui; that it was necessary that they too should go before +him to confirm the state in their allegiance. Although he now saw +distinctly the treachery of the Aedui in many things, and was of opinion +that the revolt of the entire state would be hastened by their +departure; yet he thought that they should not be detained, lest he +should appear either to offer an insult, or betray some suspicion of +fear. He briefly states to them when departing his services towards the +Aedui: in what a state and how humbled he had found them, driven into +their towns, deprived of their lands, stripped of all their forces, a +tribute imposed on them, and hostages wrested from them with the utmost +insult; and to what condition and to what greatness he had raised them, +[so much so] that they had not only recovered their former position, but +seemed to surpass the dignity and influence of all the previous eras of +their history. After giving these admonitions he dismissed them. + +LV.--Noviodunum was a town of the Aedui, advantageously situated on the +banks of the Loire. Caesar had conveyed hither all the hostages of Gaul, +the corn, public money, a great part of his own baggage and that of his +army; he had sent hither a great number of horses, which he had +purchased in Italy and Spain on account of this war. When Eporedorix and +Viridomarus came to this place, and received information of the +disposition of the state, that Litavicus had been admitted by the Aedui +into Bibracte, which is a town of the greatest importance among them, +that Convictolitanis the chief magistrate and a great part of the senate +had gone to meet him, that ambassadors had been publicly sent to +Vercingetorix to negotiate a peace and alliance; they thought that so +great an opportunity ought not to be neglected. Therefore, having put to +the sword the garrison of Noviodunum and those who had assembled there +for the purpose of trading or were on their march, they divided the +money and horses among themselves; they took care that the hostages of +the [different] states should be brought to Bibracte, to the chief +magistrate; they burnt the town to prevent its being of any service to +the Romans, as they were of opinion that they could not hold it; they +carried away in their vessels whatever corn they could in the hurry; +they destroyed the remainder, by [throwing it] into the river or setting +it on fire; they themselves began to collect forces from the +neighbouring country, to place guards and garrisons in different +positions along the banks of the Loire, and to display the cavalry on +all sides to strike terror into the Romans, [to try] if they could cut +them off from a supply of provisions. In which expectation they were +much aided, from the circumstance that the Loire had swollen to such a +degree from the melting of the snows, that it did not seem capable of +being forded at all. + +LVI.--Caesar on being informed of these movements was of opinion that he +ought to make haste, even if he should run some risk in completing the +bridges, in order that he might engage before greater forces of the +enemy should be collected in that place. For no one even then considered +it an absolutely necessary act, that changing his design he should +direct his march into the Province, both because the infamy and disgrace +of the thing, and the intervening mount Cevennes, and the difficulty of +the roads prevented him; and especially because he had serious +apprehensions for the safety of Labienus whom he had detached, and those +legions whom he had sent with him. Therefore, having made very long +marches by day and night, he came to the river Loire, contrary to the +expectation of all; and having by means of the cavalry found out a ford, +suitable enough considering the emergency, of such depth that their arms +and shoulders could be above water for supporting their accoutrements, +he dispersed his cavalry in such a manner as to break the force of the +current, and having confounded the enemy at the first sight, led his +army across the river in safety; and finding corn and cattle in the +fields, after refreshing his army with them, he determined to march into +the country of the Senones. + +LVII.--Whilst these things are being done by Caesar, Labienus, leaving +at Agendicum the recruits who had lately arrived from Italy, to guard +the baggage, marches with four legions to Lutetia (which is a town of +the Parisii, situated on an island of the river Seine), whose arrival +being discovered by the enemy, numerous forces arrived from the +neighbouring states. The supreme command is entrusted to Camulogenus, +one of the Aulerci, who, although almost worn out with age, was called +to that honour on account of his extraordinary knowledge of military +tactics. He, when he observed that there was a large marsh which +communicated with the Seine, and rendered all that country impassable, +encamped there, and determined to prevent our troops from passing it. + +LVIII.--Labienus at first attempted to raise vineae, fill up the marsh +with hurdles and clay, and secure a road. After he perceived that this +was too difficult to accomplish, he issued in silence from his camp at +the third watch, and reached Melodunum by the same route by which he +came. This is a town of the Senones, situated on an island in the Seine, +as we have just before observed of Lutetia. Having seized upon about +fifty ships and quickly joined them together, and having placed soldiers +in them, he intimidated by his unexpected arrival the inhabitants, of +whom a great number had been called out to the war, and obtains +possession of the town without a contest. Having repaired the bridge, +which the enemy had broken down during the preceding days, he led over +his army, and began to march along the banks of the river to Lutetia. +The enemy, on learning the circumstance from those who had escaped from +Melodunum, set fire to Lutetia, and order the bridges of that town to be +broken down: they themselves set out from the marsh, and take their +position on the banks of the Seine, over against Lutetia and opposite +the camp of Labienus. + +LIX.--Caesar was now reported to have departed from Gergovia; +intelligence was likewise brought to them concerning the revolt of the +Aedui, and a successful rising in Gaul; and that Caesar, having been +prevented from prosecuting his journey and crossing the Loire, and +having been compelled by the want of corn, had marched hastily to the +province. But the Bellovaci, who had been previously disaffected of +themselves, on learning the revolt of the Aedui, began to assemble +forces and openly to prepare for war; Then Labienus, as the change in +affairs was so great, thought that he must adopt a very different system +from what he had previously intended, and he did not now think of making +any new acquisitions, or of provoking the enemy to an action; but that +he might bring back his army safe to Agendicum. For, on one side, the +Bellovaci, a state which held the highest reputation for prowess in +Gaul, were pressing on him; and Camulogenus, with a disciplined and +well-equipped army, held the other side; moreover, a very great river +separated and cut off the legions from the garrison and baggage. He saw +that, in consequence of such great difficulties being thrown in his way, +he must seek aid from his own energy of disposition. + +LX.--Having, therefore, called a council of war a little before evening, +he exhorted his soldiers to execute with diligence and energy such +commands as he should give; he assigns the ships which he had brought +from Melodunum to Roman knights, one to each, and orders them to fall +down the river silently for four miles, at the end of the fourth watch, +and there wait for him. He leaves the five cohorts, which he considered +to be the most steady in action, to guard the camp; he orders the five +remaining cohorts of the same legion to proceed a little after midnight +up the river with all their baggage, in a great tumult. He collects also +some small boats; and sends them in the same direction, with orders to +make a loud noise in rowing. He himself, a little after, marched out in +silence, and, at the head of three legions, seeks that place to which he +had ordered the ships to be brought. + +LXI.--When he had arrived there, the enemy's scouts, as they were +stationed along every part of the river, not expecting an attack, +because a great storm had suddenly arisen, were surprised by our +soldiers: the infantry and cavalry are quickly transported, under the +superintendence of the Roman knights, whom he had appointed to that +office. Almost at the same time, a little before daylight, intelligence +was given to the enemy that there was an unusual tumult in the camp of +the Romans, and that a strong force was marching up the river, and that +the sound of oars was distinctly heard in the same quarter, and that +soldiers were being conveyed across in ships a little below. On hearing +these things, because they were of opinion that the legions were passing +in three different places, and that the entire army, being terrified by +the revolt of the Aedui, were preparing for flight, they divided their +forces also into three divisions. For leaving a guard opposite to the +camp and sending a small body in the direction of Metiosedum, with +orders to advance as far as the ships would proceed, they led the rest +of their troops against Labienus. + +LXII.--By day-break all our soldiers were brought across and the army of +the enemy was in sight. Labienus, having encouraged his soldiers "to +retain the memory of their ancient valour, and so many most successful +actions, and imagine Caesar himself, under whose command they had so +often routed the enemy, to be present," gives the signal for action. At +the first onset the enemy are beaten and put to flight in the right +wing, where the seventh legion stood: on the left wing, which position +the twelfth legion held, although the first ranks fell transfixed by the +javelins of the Romans, yet the rest resisted most bravely; nor did any +one of them show the slightest intention of flying. Camulogenus, the +general of the enemy, was present and encouraged his troops. But when +the issue of the victory was still uncertain, and the circumstances +which were taking place on the left wing were announced to the tribunes +of the seventh legion, they faced about their legion to the enemy's rear +and attacked it: not even then did any one retreat, but all were +surrounded and slain. Camulogenus met the same fate. But those who were +left as a guard opposite the camp of Labienus, when they heard that the +battle was commenced, marched to aid their countrymen and take +possession of a hill, but were unable to withstand the attack of the +victorious soldiers. In this manner, mixed with their own fugitives, +such as the woods and mountains did not shelter were cut to pieces by +our cavalry. When this battle was finished, Labienus returns to +Agendicum, where the baggage of the whole army had been left: from it he +marched with all his forces to Caesar. + +LXIII.--The revolt of the Aedui being known, the war grows more +dangerous. Embassies are sent by them in all directions: as far as they +can prevail by influence, authority, or money, they strive to excite the +state [to revolt]. Having got possession of the hostages whom Caesar had +deposited with them, they terrify the hesitating by putting them to +death. The Aedui request Vercingetorix to come to them and communicate +his plans of conducting the war. On obtaining this request they insist +that the chief command should be assigned to them; and when the affair +became a disputed question, a council of all Gaul is summoned to +Bibracte. They come together in great numbers and from every quarter to +the same place. The decision is left to the votes of the mass: all to a +man approve of Vercingetorix as their general. The Remi, Lingones, and +Treviri were absent from this meeting; the two former because they +attached themselves to the alliance of Rome; the Treviri because they +were very remote and were hard pressed by the Germans; which was also +the reason of their being absent during the whole war, and their sending +auxiliaries to neither party. The Aedui are highly indignant at being +deprived of the chief command; they lament the change of fortune, and +miss Caesar's indulgence towards them; however, after engaging in the +war, they do not dare to pursue their own measures apart from the rest. +Eporedorix and Viridomarus, youths of the greatest promise, submit +reluctantly to Vercingetorix. + +LXIV.--The latter demands hostages from the remaining states: nay, more, +appointed a day for this proceeding; he orders all the cavalry, fifteen +thousand in number, to quickly assemble here; he says that he will be +content with the infantry which he had before, and would not tempt +fortune nor come to a regular engagement; but since he had abundance of +cavalry, it would be very easy for him to prevent the Romans from +obtaining forage or corn, provided that they themselves should +resolutely destroy their corn and set fire to their houses, by which +sacrifice of private property they would evidently obtain perpetual +dominion and freedom. After arranging these matters he levies ten +thousand infantry on the Aedui and Segusiani, who border on our +province: to these he adds eight hundred horse. He sets over them the +brother of Eporedorix, and orders him to wage war against the +Allobroges. On the other side he sends the Gabali and the nearest +cantons of the Arverni against the Helvii; he likewise sends the Ruteni +and Cadurci to lay waste the territories of the Volcae Arecomici. +Besides, by secret messages and embassies, he tampers with the +Allobroges, whose minds, he hopes, had not yet settled down after the +excitement of the late war. To their nobles he promises money, and to +their state the dominion of the whole province. + +LXV.--The only guards provided against all these contingencies were +twenty-two cohorts, which were collected from the entire province by +Lucius Caesar, the lieutenant, and opposed to the enemy in every +quarter. The Helvii, voluntarily engaging in battle with their +neighbours, are defeated, and Caius Valerius Donotaurus, the son of +Caburus, the principal man of the state, and several others, being +slain, they are forced to retire within their towns and fortifications. +The Allobroges, placing guards along the course of the Rhine, defend +their frontiers with great vigilance and energy. Caesar, as he perceived +that the enemy were superior in cavalry, and he himself could receive no +aid from the province or Italy, while all communication was cut off, +sends across the Rhine into Germany to those states which he had subdued +in the preceding campaigns, and summons from them cavalry and the +light-armed infantry, who were accustomed to engage among them. On their +arrival, as they were mounted on unserviceable horses, he takes horses +from the military tribunes and the rest, nay, even from the Roman +knights and veterans, and distributes them among the Germans. + +LXVI.--In the meantime, whilst these things are going on, the forces of +the enemy from the Arverni, and the cavalry which had been demanded from +all Gaul, meet together. A great number of these having been collected, +when Caesar was marching into the country of the Sequani, through the +confines of the Lingones, in order that he might the more easily render +aid to the province, Vercingetorix encamped in three camps, about ten +miles from the Romans: and having summoned the commanders of the cavalry +to a council, he shows that the time of victory was come; that the +Romans were fleeing into the province and leaving Gaul; that this was +sufficient for obtaining immediate freedom; but was of little moment in +acquiring peace and tranquillity for the future; for the Romans would +return after assembling greater forces, and would not put an end to the +war; Therefore they should attack them on their march, when encumbered. +If the infantry should [be obliged to] relieve their cavalry, and be +retarded by doing so, the march could not be accomplished: if, +abandoning their baggage, they should provide for their safety (a result +which, he trusted, was more likely to ensue), they would lose both +property and character. For as to the enemy's horse, they ought not to +entertain a doubt that none of them would dare to advance beyond the +main body. In order that they [the Gauls] may do so with greater spirit, +he would marshal all their forces before the camp, and intimidate the +enemy. The cavalry unanimously shout out, "That they ought to bind +themselves by a most sacred oath, that he should not be received under a +roof, nor have access to his children, parents, or wife, who shall not +twice have ridden through the enemy's army." + +LXVII.--This proposal receiving general approbation, and all being +forced to take the oath, on the next day the cavalry were divided into +three parts, and two of these divisions made a demonstration on our two +flanks; while one in front began to obstruct our march. On this +circumstance being announced, Caesar orders his cavalry also to form +three divisions and charge the enemy. Then the action commences +simultaneously in every part: the main body halts; the baggage is +received within the ranks of the legions. If our men seemed to be +distressed, or hard pressed in any quarter, Caesar usually ordered the +troops to advance, and the army to wheel round in that quarter; which +conduct retarded the enemy in the pursuit, and encouraged our men by the +hope of support. At length the Germans, on the right wing, having gained +the top of the hill, dislodge the enemy from their position and pursue +them even as far as the river at which Vercingetorix with the infantry +was stationed, and slay several of them. The rest, on observing this +action, fearing lest they should be surrounded, betake themselves to +flight. A slaughter ensues in every direction, and three of the noblest +of the Audi are taken and brought to Caesar: Cotus, the commander of the +cavalry, who had been engaged in the contest with Convictolitanis the +last election, Cavarillus, who had held the command of the infantry +after the revolt of Litavicus, and Eporedorix, under whose command the +Aedui had engaged in war against the Sequani, before the arrival of +Caesar. + +LXVIII.--All his cavalry being routed, Vercingetorix led back his troops +in the same order as he had arranged them before the camp, and +immediately began to march to Alesia, which is a town of the Mandubii; +and ordered the baggage to be speedily brought forth from the camp, and +follow him closely. Caesar, having conveyed his baggage to the nearest +hill, and having left two legions to guard it, pursued as far as the +time of day would permit, and after slaying about three thousand of the +rear of the enemy, encamped at Alesia on the next day. On reconnoitring +the situation of the city, finding that the enemy were panic-stricken, +because the cavalry in which they placed their chief reliance were +beaten, he encouraged his men to endure the toil, and began to draw a +line of circumvallation round Alesia. + +LXIX.--The town itself was situated on the top of a hill, in a very +lofty position, so that it did not appear likely to be taken, except by +a regular siege. Two rivers, on two different sides, washed the foot of +the hill. Before the town lay a plain of about three miles in length; on +every other side hills at a moderate distance, and of an equal degree of +height, surrounded the town. The army of the Gauls had filled all the +space under the wall, comprising the part of the hill which looked to +the rising sun, and had drawn in front a trench and a stone wall six +feet high. The circuit of that fortification, which was commenced by the +Romans, comprised eleven miles. The camp was pitched in a strong +position, and twenty-three redoubts were raised in it, in which +sentinels were placed by day, lest any sally should be made suddenly; +and by night the same were occupied by watches and strong guards. + +LXX.-The work having been begun, a cavalry action ensues in that plain, +which we have already described as broken by hills, and extending three +miles in length. The contest is maintained on both sides with the utmost +vigour; Caesar sends the Germans to aid our troops when distressed, and +draws up the legions in front of the camp, lest any sally should be +suddenly made by the enemy's infantry. The courage of our men is +increased by the additional support of the legions; the enemy being put +to flight, hinder one another by their numbers, and as only the narrower +gates were left open, are crowded together in them; then the Germans +pursue them with vigour even to the fortifications. A great slaughter +ensues; some leave their horses, and endeavour to cross the ditch and +climb the wall. Caesar orders the legions which he had drawn up in front +of the rampart to advance a little. The Gauls, who were within the +fortifications, were no less panic-stricken, thinking that the enemy +were coming that moment against them, and unanimously shout "to arms;" +some in their alarm rush into the town; Vercingetorix orders the gates +to be shut, lest the camp should be left undefended. The Germans +retreat, after slaying many and taking several horses. + +LXXI.--Vercingetorix adopts the design of sending away all his cavalry +by night, before the fortifications should be completed by the Romans. +He charges them when departing "that each of them should go to his +respective state, and press for the war all who were old enough to bear +arms; he states his own Merits, and conjures them to consider his +safety, and not surrender him, who had deserved so well of the general +freedom, to the enemy for torture; he points out to them that, if they +should be remiss, eighty thousand chosen men would perish with him; +that, upon making a calculation, he had barely corn for thirty days, but +could hold out a little longer by economy." After giving these +instructions he silently dismisses the cavalry in the second watch, [on +that side] where our works were not completed; he orders all the corn to +be brought to himself; he ordains capital punishment to such as should +not obey; he distributes among them, man by man, the cattle, great +quantities of which had been driven there by the Mandubii; he began to +measure out the corn sparingly, and by little and little; he receives +into the town all the forces which he had posted in front of it. In this +manner he prepares to await the succours from Gaul, and carry on the +war. + +LXXII.--Caesar, on learning these proceedings from the deserters and +captives, adopted the following system of fortification; he dug a trench +twenty feet deep, with perpendicular sides, in such a manner that the +base of this trench should extend so far as the edges were apart at the +top. He raised all his other works at a distance of four hundred feet +from that ditch; [he did] that with this intention, lest (since he +necessarily embraced so extensive an area, and the whole works could not +be easily surrounded by a line of soldiers) a large number of the enemy +should suddenly, or by night, sally against the fortifications; or lest +they should by day cast weapons against our men while occupied with the +works. Having left this interval, he drew two trenches fifteen feet +broad, and of the same depth; the innermost of them, being in low and +level ground, he filled with water conveyed from the river. Behind these +he raised a rampart and wall twelve feet high: to this he added a +parapet and battlements, with large stakes cut like stags' horns, +projecting from the junction of the parapet and battlements, to prevent +the enemy from scaling it, and surrounded the entire work with turrets, +which were eighty feet distant from one another. + +LXXIII.--It was necessary, at one and the same time, to procure timber +[for the rampart], lay in supplies of corn, and raise also extensive +fortifications, and the available troops were in consequence of this +reduced in number, since they used to advance to some distance from the +camp, and sometimes the Gauls endeavoured to attack our works, and to +make a sally from the town by several gates and in great force. On which +Caesar thought that further additions should be made to these works, in +order that the fortifications might be defensible by a small number of +soldiers. Having, therefore, cut down the trunks of trees or very thick +branches, and having stripped their tops of the bark, and sharpened them +into a point, he drew a continued trench everywhere five feet deep. +These stakes being sunk into this trench, and fastened firmly at the +bottom, to prevent the possibility of their being torn up, had their +branches only projecting from the ground. There were five rows in +connection with, and intersecting each other; and whoever entered within +them were likely to impale themselves on very sharp stakes. The soldiers +called these "cippi." Before these, which were arranged in oblique rows +in the form of a quincunx, pits three feet deep were dug, which +gradually diminished in depth to the bottom. In these pits tapering +stakes, of the thickness of a man's thigh, sharpened at the top and +hardened in the fire, were sunk in such a manner as to project from the +ground not more than four inches; at the same time for the purpose of +giving them strength and stability, they were each filled with trampled +clay to the height of one foot from the bottom: the rest of the pit was +covered over with osiers and twigs, to conceal the deceit. Eight rows of +this kind were dug, and were three feet distant from each other. They +called this a lily from its resemblance to that flower. Stakes a foot +long, with iron hooks attached to them, were entirely sunk in the ground +before these, and were planted in every place at small intervals; these +they called spurs. + +LXXIV.--After completing these works, having selected as level ground as +he could, considering the nature of the country, and having enclosed an +area of fourteen miles, he constructed, against an external enemy, +fortifications of the same kind in every respect, and separate from +these, so that the guards of the fortifications could not be surrounded +even by immense numbers, if such a circumstance should take place owing +to the departure of the enemy's cavalry; and in order that the Roman +soldiers might not be compelled to go out of the camp with great risk, +he orders all to provide forage and corn for thirty days. + +LXXV.--Whilst those things are carried on at Alesia, the Gauls, having +convened a council of their chief nobility, determine that all who could +bear arms should not be called out, which was the opinion of +Vercingetorix, but that a fixed number should be levied from each state; +lest, when so great a multitude assembled together, they could neither +govern nor distinguish their men, nor have the means of supplying them +with corn. They demand thirty-five thousand men from the Aedui and their +dependents, the Segusiani, Ambivareti, and Aulerci Brannovices; an equal +number from the Arverni in conjunction with the Eleuteti Cadurci, +Gabali, and Velauni, who were accustomed to be under the command of the +Arverni; twelve thousand each from the Senones, Sequani, Bituriges, +Santones, Ruteni, and Carnutes; ten thousand from the Bellovaci; the +same number from the Lemovici; eight thousand each from the Pictones, +and Turoni, and Parisii, and Helvii; five thousand each from the +Suessiones, Ambiani, Mediomatrici, Petrocorii, Nervii, Morini, and +Nitiobriges; the same number from the Aulerci Cenomani; four thousand +from the Atrebates; three thousand each from the Bellocassi, Lexovii, +and Aulerci Eburovices; thirty thousand from the Rauraci, and Boii; six +thousand, from all the states together which border on the Atlantic, and +which in their dialect are called Armoricae (in which number are +comprehended the Curisolites, Rhedones, Ambibari, Caltes, Osismii, +Lemovices, Veneti, and Unelli). Of these the Bellovaci did not +contribute their number, as they said that they would wage war against +the Romans on their own account, and at their own discretion, and would +not obey the order of any one: however, at the request of Commius, they +sent two thousand, in consideration of a tie of hospitality which +subsisted between him and them. + +LXXVI.--Caesar had, as we have previously narrated, availed himself of +the faithful and valuable services of this Commius, in Britain, in +former years: in consideration of which merits he had exempted from +taxes his [Commius's] state, and had conferred on Commius himself the +country of the Morini. Yet such was the unanimity of the Gauls in +asserting their freedom, and recovering their ancient renown in war, +that they were influenced neither by favours, nor by the recollection of +private friendship; and all earnestly directed their energies and +resources to that war, and collected eight thousand cavalry, and about +two hundred and forty thousand infantry. These were reviewed in the +country of the Aedui, and a calculation was made of their numbers: +commanders were appointed: the supreme command is entrusted to Commius +the Atrebatian, Viridomarus and Eporedorix the Aeduans, and +Vergasillaunus the Arvernian, the cousin-german of Vercingetorix. To +them are assigned men selected from each state, by whose advice the war +should be conducted. All march to Alesia, sanguine and full of +confidence: nor was there a single individual who imagined that the +Romans could withstand the sight of such an immense host: especially in +an action carried on both in front and rear, when [on the inside] the +besieged would sally from the town and attack the enemy, and on the +outside so great forces of cavalry and infantry would be seen. + +LXXVII.--But those who were blockaded at Alesia, the day being past on +which they had expected auxiliaries from their countrymen, and all their +corn being consumed, ignorant of what was going on among the Aedui, +convened an assembly and deliberated on the exigency of their situation. +After various opinions had been expressed among them, some of which +proposed a surrender, others a sally, whilst their strength would +support it, the speech of Critognatus ought not to be omitted for its +singular and detestable cruelty. He sprung from the noblest family among +the Arverni, and possessing great influence, says, "I shall pay no +attention to the opinion of those who call a most disgraceful surrender +by the name of a capitulation; nor do I think that they ought to be +considered as citizens, or summoned to the council. My business is with +those who approve of a sally: in whose advice the memory of our ancient +prowess seems to dwell in the opinion of you all. To be unable to bear +privation for a short time is disgraceful cowardice, not true valour. +Those who voluntarily offer themselves to death are more easily found +than those who would calmly endure distress. And I would approve of this +opinion (for honour is a powerful motive with me), could I foresee no +other loss, save that of life: but let us, in adopting our design, look +back on all Gaul, which we have stirred up to our aid. What courage do +you think would our relatives and friends have, if eighty thousand men +were butchered in one spot, supposing that they should be forced to come +to an action almost over our corpses? Do not utterly deprive them of +your aid, for they have spurned all thoughts of personal danger on +account of your safety; nor by your folly, rashness, and cowardice, +crush all Gaul and doom it to an eternal slavery. Do you doubt their +fidelity and firmness because they have not come at the appointed day? +What then? Do you suppose that the Romans are employed every day in the +outer fortifications for mere amusement? If you cannot be assured by +their despatches, since every avenue is blocked up, take the Romans as +evidence that their approach is drawing near; since they, intimidated by +alarm at this, labour night and day at their works. What, therefore, is +my design? To do as our ancestors did in the war against the Cimbri and +Teutones, which was by no means equally momentous; who, when driven into +their towns, and oppressed by similar privations, supported life by the +corpses of those who appeared useless for war on account of their age, +and did not surrender to the enemy: and even if we had not a precedent +for such cruel conduct, still I should consider it most glorious that +one should be established, and delivered to posterity. For in what was +that war like this? The Cimbri, after laying Gaul waste, and inflicting +great calamities, at length departed from our country, and sought other +lands; they left us our rights, laws, lands, and liberty. But what other +motive or wish have the Romans, than, induced by envy, to settle in the +lands and states of those whom they have learned by fame to be noble and +powerful in war, and impose on them perpetual slavery? For they never +have carried on wars on any other terms. But if you know not these +things which are going on in distant countries, look to the neighbouring +Gaul, which being reduced to the form of a province, stripped of its +rights and laws, and subjected to Roman despotism, is oppressed by +perpetual slavery." + +LXXVIII.--When different opinions were expressed, they determined that +those who, owing to age or ill health, were unserviceable for war, +should depart from the town, and that themselves should try every +expedient before they had recourse to the advice of Critognatus: +however, that they would rather adopt that design, if circumstances +should compel them and their allies should delay, than accept any terms +of a surrender or peace. The Mandubii, who had admitted them into the +town, are compelled to go forth with their wives and children. When +these came to the Roman fortifications, weeping, they begged of the +soldiers by every entreaty to receive them as slaves and relieve them +with food. But Caesar, placing guards on the rampart, forbade them to be +admitted. + +LXXIX.--In the meantime, Commius and the rest of the leaders, to whom +the supreme command had been intrusted, came with all their forces to +Alesia, and having occupied the entire hill, encamp not more than a mile +from our fortifications. The following day, having led forth their +cavalry from the camp, they fill all that plain, which, we have related, +extended three miles in length, and draw out their infantry a little +from that place, and post them on the higher ground. The town Alesia +commanded a view of the whole plain. The besieged run together when +these auxiliaries were seen; mutual congratulations ensue, and the minds +of all are elated with joy. Accordingly, drawing out their troops, they +encamp before the town, and cover the nearest trench with hurdles and +fill it up with earth, and make ready for a sally and every casualty. + +LXXX.--Caesar, having stationed his army on both sides of the +fortifications, in order that, if occasion should arise, each should +hold and know his own post, orders the cavalry to issue forth from the +camp and commence action. There was a commanding view from the entire +camp, which occupied a ridge of hills; and the minds of all the soldiers +anxiously awaited the issue of the battle. The Gauls had scattered +archers and light-armed infantry here and there, among their cavalry, to +give relief to their retreating troops, and sustain the impetuosity of +our cavalry. Several of our soldiers were unexpectedly wounded by these, +and left the battle. When the Gauls were confident that their countrymen +were the conquerors in the action, and beheld our men hard pressed by +numbers, both those who were hemmed in by the line of circumvallation +and those who had come to aid them, supported the spirits of their men +by shouts and yells from every quarter. As the action was carried on in +sight of all, neither a brave nor cowardly act could be concealed; both +the desire of praise and the fear of ignominy, urged on each party to +valour. After fighting from noon almost to sunset, without victory +inclining in favour of either, the Germans, on one side, made a charge +against the enemy in a compact body, and drove them back; and, when they +were put to flight, the archers were surrounded and cut to pieces. In +other parts, likewise, our men pursued to the camp the retreating enemy, +and did not give them an opportunity of rallying. But those who had come +forth from Alesia returned into the town dejected and almost despairing +of success. + +LXXXI.--The Gauls, after the interval of a day, and after making, during +that time, an immense number of hurdles, scaling ladders, and iron +hooks, silently went forth from the camp at midnight and approached the +fortifications in the plain. Raising a shout suddenly, that by this +intimation those who were besieged in the town might learn their +arrival, they began to cast down hurdles and dislodge our men from the +rampart by slings, arrows, and stones, and executed the other movements +which are requisite in storming. At the same time, Vercingetorix having +heard the shout, gives the signal to his troops by a trumpet, and leads +them forth from the town. Our troops, as each man's post had been +assigned him some days before, man the fortifications; they intimidate +the Gauls by slings, large stones, stakes which they had placed along +the works, and bullets. All view being prevented by the darkness, many +wounds are received on both sides; several missiles are thrown from the +engines. But Marcus Antonius, and Caius Trebonius, the lieutenants, to +whom the defence of these parts had been allotted, draughted troops from +the redoubts which were more remote, and sent them to aid our troops, in +whatever direction they understood that they were hard pressed. + +LXXXII.--Whilst the Gauls were at a distance from the fortification, +they did more execution, owing to the immense number of their weapons: +after they came nearer, they either unawares empaled themselves on the +spurs, or were pierced by the mural darts from the ramparts and towers, +and thus perished. After receiving many wounds on all sides, and having +forced no part of the works, when day drew nigh, fearing lest they +should be surrounded by a sally made from the higher camp on the exposed +flank, they retreated to their countrymen. But those within, whilst they +bring forward those things which had been prepared by Vercingetorix for +a sally, fill up the nearest trenches; having delayed a long time in +executing these movements, they learned the retreat of their countrymen +before they drew nigh to the fortifications. Thus they returned to the +town without accomplishing their object. + +LXXXIII.--The Gauls, having been twice repulsed with great loss, consult +what they should do: they avail themselves of the information of those +who were well acquainted with the country; from them they ascertain the +position and fortification of the upper camp. There was, on the north +side, a hill, which our men could not include in their works, on account +of the extent of the circuit, and had necessarily made their camp in +ground almost disadvantageous, and pretty steep. Caius Antistius +Reginus, and Caius Caninius Rebilus, two of the lieutenants, with two +legions, were in possession of this camp. The leaders of the enemy, +having reconnoitred the country by their scouts, select from the entire +army sixty thousand men; belonging to those states which bear the +highest character for courage: they privately arrange among themselves +what they wished to be done, and in what manner; they decide that the +attack should take place when it should seem to be noon. They appoint +over their forces Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, one of the four +generals, and a near relative of Vercingetorix. He, having issued from +the camp at the first watch, and having almost completed his march a +little before the dawn, hid himself behind the mountain, and ordered his +soldiers to refresh themselves after their labour during the night. When +noon now seemed to draw nigh, he marched hastily against that camp which +we have mentioned before; and, at the same time, the cavalry began to +approach the fortifications in the plain, and the rest of the forces to +make a demonstration in front of the camp. + +LXXXIV.--Vercingetorix, having beheld his countrymen from the citadel of +Alesia, issues forth from the town; he brings forth from the camp long +hooks, movable pent-houses, mural hooks, and other things, which he had +prepared for the purpose of making a sally. They engage on all sides at +once, and every expedient is adopted. They flocked to whatever part of +the works seemed weakest. The army of the Romans is distributed along +their extensive lines, and with difficulty meets the enemy in every +quarter. The shouts which were raised by the combatants in their rear, +had a great tendency to intimidate our men, because they perceived that +their danger rested on the valour of others: for generally all evils +which are distant most powerfully alarm men's minds. + +LXXXV.--Caesar, having selected a commanding situation, sees distinctly +whatever is going on in every quarter, and sends assistance to his +troops when hard pressed. The idea uppermost in the minds of both +parties is, that the present is the time in which they would have the +fairest opportunity of making a struggle; the Gauls despairing of all +safety, unless they should succeed in forcing the lines: the Romans +expecting an end to all their labours if they should gain the day. The +principal struggle is at the upper lines, to which, we have said, +Vergasillaunus was sent. The least elevation of ground, added to a +declivity, exercises a momentous influence. Some are casting missiles, +others, forming a testudo, advance to the attack; fresh men by turns +relieve the wearied. The earth, heaped up by all against the +fortifications, gives the means of ascent to the Gauls, and covers those +works which the Romans had concealed in the ground. Our men have no +longer arms or strength. + +LXXXVI.--Caesar, on observing these movements, sends Labienus with six +cohorts to relieve his distressed soldiers: he orders him, if he should +be unable to withstand them, to draw off the cohorts and make a sally; +but not to do this except through necessity. He himself goes to the +rest, and exhorts them not to succumb to the toil; he shows them that +the fruits of all former engagements depend on that day and hour. The +Gauls within, despairing of forcing the fortifications in the plains on +account of the greatness of the works, attempt the places precipitous in +ascent: hither they bring the engines which they had prepared; by the +immense number of their missiles they dislodge the defenders from the +turrets: they fill the ditches with clay and hurdles, then clear the +way; they tear down the rampart and breast-work with hooks. + +LXXXVII.--Caesar sends at first young Brutus, with six cohorts, and +afterwards Caius Fabius, his lieutenant, with seven others: finally, as +they fought more obstinately, he leads up fresh men to the assistance of +his soldiers. After renewing the action, and repulsing the enemy, he +marches in the direction in which he had sent Labienus, drafts four +cohorts from the nearest redoubt, and orders part of the cavalry to +follow him, and part to make the circuit of the external fortifications +and attack the enemy in the rear. Labienus, when neither the ramparts or +ditches could check the onset of the enemy, informs Caesar by messengers +of what he intended to do. Caesar hastens to share in the action. + +LXXXVIII.--His arrival being known from the colour of his robe, and the +troops of cavalry, and the cohorts which he had ordered to follow him +being seen, as these low and sloping grounds were plainly visible from +the eminences, the enemy join battle. A shout being raised by both +sides, it was succeeded by a general shout along the ramparts and whole +line of fortifications. Our troops, laying aside their javelins, carry +on the engagement with their swords. The cavalry is suddenly seen in the +rear of the Gauls: the other cohorts advance rapidly; the enemy turn +their backs; the cavalry intercept them in their flight, and a great +slaughter ensues. Sedulius the general and chief of the Lemovices is +slain; Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, is taken alive in the flight, +seventy-four military standards are brought to Caesar, and few out of so +great a number return safe to their camp. The besieged, beholding from +the town the slaughter and flight of their countrymen, despairing of +safety, lead back their troops from the fortifications. A flight of the +Gauls from their camp immediately ensues on hearing of this disaster, +and had not the soldiers been wearied by sending frequent +reinforcements, and the labour of the entire day, all the enemy's forces +could have been destroyed. Immediately after midnight, the cavalry are +sent out and overtake the rear, a great number are taken or cut to +pieces, the rest by flight escape in different directions to their +respective states. Vercingetorix, having convened a council the +following day, declares, "That he had undertaken that war, not on +account of his own exigencies, but on account of the general freedom; +and since he must yield to fortune, he offered himself to them for +either purpose, whether they should wish to atone to the Romans by his +death, or surrender him alive." Ambassadors are sent to Caesar on this +subject. He orders their arms to be surrendered, and their chieftains +delivered up. He seated himself at the head of the lines in front of the +camp, the Gallic chieftains are brought before him. They surrender +Vercingetorix, and lay down their arms. Reserving the Aedui and Arverni, +[to try] if he could gain over, through their influence, their +respective states, he distributes one of the remaining captives to each +soldier, throughout the entire army, as plunder. + +XC.--After making these arrangements, he marches into the [country of +the] Aedui, and recovers that state. To this place ambassadors are sent +by the Arverni, who promise that they will execute his commands. He +demands a great number of hostages. He sends the legions to winter +quarters; he restores about twenty thousand captives to the Aedui and +Arverni; he orders Titus Labienus to march into the [country of the] +Sequani with two legions and the cavalry, and to him he attaches Marcus +Sempronius Rutilus; he places Caius Fabius, and Lucius Minucius Basilus, +with two legions in the country of the Remi, lest they should sustain +any loss from the Bellovaci in their neighbourhood. He sends Caius +Antistius Reginus into the [country of the] Ambivareti, Titus Sextius +into the territories of the Bituriges, and Caius Caninius Rebilus into +those of the Ruteni, with one legion each. He stations Quintus Tullius +Cicero, and Publius Sulpicius among the Aedui at Cabillo and Matisco on +the Saone, to procure supplies of corn. He himself determines to winter +at Bibracte. A supplication of twenty days is decreed by the senate at +Rome, on learning these successes from Caesar's despatches. + + + +BOOK VIII + +CONTINUATION OF CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR ASCRIBED TO AULUS HIRTIUS + +PREFACE + +Prevailed on by your continued solicitations, Balbus, I have engaged in +a most difficult task, as my daily refusals appear to plead not my +inability, but indolence, as an excuse. I have compiled a continuation +of the Commentaries of our Caesar's Wars in Gaul, not indeed to be +compared to his writings, which either precede or follow them; and +recently, I have completed what he left imperfect after the transactions +in Alexandria, to the end, not indeed of the civil broils, to which we +see no issue, but of Caesar's life. I wish that those who may read them +could know how unwillingly I undertook to write them, as then I might +the more readily escape the imputation of folly and arrogance, in +presuming to intrude among Caesar's writings. For it is agreed on all +hands, that no composition was ever executed with so great care, that it +is not exceeded in elegance by these Commentaries, which were published +for the use of historians, that they might not want memoirs of such +achievements; and they stand so high in the esteem of all men, that +historians seem rather deprived of than furnished with materials. At +which we have more reason to be surprised than other men; for they can +only appreciate the elegance and correctness with which he finished +them, while we know with what ease and expedition. Caesar possessed not +only an uncommon flow of language and elegance of style, but also a +thorough knowledge of the method of conveying his ideas. But I had not +even the good fortune to share in the Alexandrian or African war; and +though these were partly communicated to me by Caesar himself, in +conversation, yet we listen with a different degree of attention to +those things which strike us with admiration by their novelty, and those +which we design to attest to posterity. But, in truth, whilst I urge +every apology, that I may not be compared to Caesar, I incur the charge +of vanity, by thinking it possible that I can in the judgment of any one +be put in competition with him. Farewell. + +I.--Gaul being entirely reduced, when Caesar having waged war +incessantly during the former summer, wished to recruit his soldiers +after so much fatigue, by repose in winter quarters, news was brought +him that several states were simultaneously renewing their hostile +intentions, and forming combinations. For which a probable reason was +assigned: namely, that the Gauls were convinced that they were not able +to resist the Romans with any force they could collect in one place; and +hoped that if several states made war in different places at the same +time, the Roman army would neither have aid, nor time, nor forces, to +prosecute them all: nor ought any single state to decline any +inconveniences that might befall them, provided that by such delay the +rest should be enabled to assert their liberty. + +II.--That this notion might not be confirmed among the Gauls, Caesar +left Marcus Antonius, his quaestor, in charge of his quarters, and set +out himself with a guard of horse, the day before the kalends of +January, from the town Bibracte, to the thirteenth legion, which he had +stationed in the country of the Bituriges, not far from the territories +of the Aedui, and joined to it the eleventh legion which was next it. +Leaving two cohorts to guard the baggage, he leads the rest of his army +into the most plentiful part of the country of the Bituriges; who, +possessing an extensive territory and several towns, were not to be +deterred, by a single legion quartered among them, from making warlike +preparation, and forming combinations. + +III.-By Caesar's sudden arrival, it happened, as it necessarily must, to +an unprovided and dispersed people, that they were surprised by our +horse, whilst cultivating the fields without any apprehensions, before +they had time to fly to their towns. For the usual sign of an enemy's +invasion, which is generally intimated by the burning of their towns, +was forbidden by Caesar's orders: lest if he advanced far, forage and +corn should become scarce, or the enemy be warned by the fires to make +their escape. Many thousands being taken, as many of the Bituriges as +were able to escape the first coming of the Romans, fled to the +neighbouring states, relying either on private friendship, or public +alliance. In vain; for Caesar, by hasty marches, anticipated them in +every place, nor did he allow any state leisure to consider the safety +of others, in preference to their own. By this activity, he both +retained his friends in their loyalty, and by fear, obliged the wavering +to accept offers of peace. Such offers being made to the Bituriges, when +they perceived that through Caesar's clemency, an avenue was open to his +friendship, and that the neighbouring states had given hostages, without +incurring any punishment, and had been received under his protection, +they did the same. + +IV.-Caesar promises his soldiers, as a reward for their labour and +patience, in cheerfully submitting to hardships from the severity of the +winter, the difficulty of the roads, and the intolerable cold, two +hundred sestertii each, and to every centurian two thousand, to be given +instead of plunder; and sending his legions back to quarters, he himself +returned on the fortieth day to Bibracte. Whilst he was dispensing +justice there, the Bituriges send ambassadors to him, to entreat his aid +against the Carnutes, who they complained had made war against them. +Upon this intelligence, though he had not remained more than eighteen +days in winter quarters, he draws the fourteenth and sixth legion out of +quarters on the Saone, where he had posted them as mentioned in a former +Commentary to procure supplies of corn. With these two legions he +marches in pursuit of the Carnutes. + +V.--When the news of the approach of our army reached the enemy, the +Carnutes, terrified by the sufferings of other states, deserted their +villages and towns (which were small buildings, raised in a hurry, to +meet the immediate necessity, in which they lived to shelter themselves +against the winter, for, being lately conquered, they had lost several +towns), and dispersed and fled. Caesar, unwilling to expose his soldiers +to the violent storms that break out, especially at that season, took up +his quarters at Genabum, a town of the Carnutes; and lodged his men in +houses, partly belonging to the Gauls, and partly built to shelter the +tents, and hastily covered with thatch. But the horse and auxiliaries he +sends to all parts to which he was told the enemy had marched; and not +without effect, as our men generally returned loaded with booty. The +Carnutes, overpowered by the severity of the winter, and the fear of +danger, and not daring to continue long in any place, as they were +driven from their houses, and not finding sufficient protection in the +woods, from the violence of the storms, after losing a considerable +number of their men, disperse, and take refuge among the neighbouring +states. + +VI.--Caesar, being contented, at so severe a season, to disperse the +gathering foes, and prevent any new war from breaking out, and being +convinced, as far as reason could foresee, that no war of consequence +could be set on foot in the summer campaign, stationed Caius Trebonius, +with the two legions which he had with him, in quarters at Genabum: and +being informed by frequent embassies from the Remi, that the Bellovaci +(who exceed all the Gauls and Belgae in military prowess), and the +neighbouring states, headed by Correus, one of the Bellovaci, and +Comius, the Atrebatian, were raising an army, and assembling at a +general rendezvous, designing with their united forces to invade the +territories of the Suessiones, who were put under the patronage of the +Remi: and moreover, considering that not only his honour, but his +interest was concerned, that such of his allies, as deserved well of the +republic, should suffer no calamity; he again draws the eleventh legion +out of quarters and writes besides to Caius Fabius, to march with his +two legions to the country of the Suessiones; and he sends to Trebonius +for one of his two legions. Thus, as far as the convenience of the +quarters, and the management of the war admitted, he laid the burden of +the expedition on the legions by turns, without any intermission to his +own toils. + +VII.--As soon as his troops were collected, he marched against the +Bellovaci: and pitching his camp in their territories, detached troops +of horse all round the country, to take prisoners, from whom he might +learn the enemy's plan. The horse, having executed his orders, bring him +back word that but few were found in the houses: and that even these had +not stayed at home to cultivate their lands (for the emigration was +general from all parts), but had been sent back to watch our motions. +Upon Caesar's inquiring from them, where the main body of the Bellovaci +were posted, and what was their design: they made answer, "that all the +Bellovaci, fit for carrying arms, had assembled in one place, and along +with them the Ambiani, Aulerci, Caletes, Velocasses, and Atrebates, and +that they had chosen for their camp an elevated position, surrounded by +a dangerous morass: that they had conveyed all their baggage into the +most remote woods: that several noblemen were united in the management +of the war; but that the people were most inclined to be governed by +Correus, because they knew that he had the strongest aversion to the +name of the Roman people: that a few days before Comius had left the +camp to engage the Germans to their aid whose nation bordered on theirs, +and whose numbers were countless: that the Bellovaci had come to a +resolution, with the consent of all the generals and the earnest desire +of the people, if Caesar should come with only three legions, as was +reported, to give him battle, that they might not be obliged to +encounter his whole army on a future occasion, when they should be in a +more wretched and distressed condition; but if he brought a stronger +force, they intended to remain in the position they had chosen, and by +ambuscade to prevent the Romans from getting forage (which at that +season was both scarce and much scattered), corn, and other +necessaries." + +VIII.--When Caesar was convinced of the truth of this account from the +concurring testimony of several persons, and perceived that the plans +which were proposed were full of prudence, and very unlike the rash +resolves of a barbarous people, he considered it incumbent on him to use +every exertion, in order that the enemy might despise his small force +and come to an action. For he had three veteran legions of distinguished +valour, the seventh, eighth, and ninth. The eleventh consisted of chosen +youth of great hopes, who had served eight campaigns, but who, compared +with the others, had not yet acquired any great reputation for +experience and valour. Calling therefore a council, and laying before it +the intelligence which he had received, he encouraged his soldiers. In +order if possible to entice the enemy to an engagement by the appearance +of only three legions, he ranged his army in the following manner: that +the seventh, eighth, and ninth legions should march before all the +baggage; that then the eleventh should bring up the rear of the whole +train of baggage (which however was but small, as is usual on such +expeditions), so that the enemy could not get a sight of a greater +number than they themselves were willing to encounter. By this +disposition he formed his army almost into a square, and brought them +within sight of the enemy sooner than was anticipated. + +IX.--When the Gauls, whose bold resolutions had been reported to Caesar, +saw the legions advance with a regular motion, drawn up in battle array; +either from the danger of an engagement, or our sudden approach, or with +the design of watching our movements, they drew up their forces before +the camp, and did not quit the rising ground. Though Caesar wished to +bring them to battle, yet being surprised to see so vast a host of the +enemy, he encamped opposite to them, with a valley between them, deep +rather than extensive. He ordered his camp to be fortified with a +rampart twelve feet high, with breast-works built on it proportioned to +its height; and two trenches, each fifteen feet broad, with +perpendicular sides to be sunk: likewise several turrets, three stories +high, to be raised, with a communication to each other by galleries laid +across and covered over; which should be guarded in front by small +parapets of osiers; that the enemy might be repulsed by two rows of +soldiers. The one of whom, being more secure from danger by their +height, might throw their darts with more daring and to a greater +distance; the other, which was nearer the enemy, being stationed on the +rampart, would be protected by their galleries from darts falling on +their heads. At the entrance he erected gates and turrets of a +considerable height. + +X.-Caesar had a double design in this fortification; for he both hoped +that the strength of his works, and his [apparent] fears would raise +confidence in the barbarians; and when there should be occasion to make +a distant excursion to get forage or corn, he saw that his camp would be +secured by the works with a very small force. In the meantime there were +frequent skirmishes across the marsh, a few on both sides sallying out +between the two camps. Sometimes, however, our Gallic or German +auxiliaries crossed the marsh, and furiously pursued the enemy; or on +the other hand the enemy passed it and beat back our men. Moreover there +happened in the course of our daily foraging, what must of necessity +happen, when corn is to be collected by a few scattered men out of +private houses, that our foragers dispersing in an intricate country +were surrounded by the enemy; by which, though we suffered but an +inconsiderable loss of cattle and servants, yet it raised foolish hopes +in the barbarians; but more especially, because Comius, who I said had +gone to get aid from the Germans, returned with some cavalry, and though +the Germans were only 500, yet the barbarians were elated by their +arrival. + +XI.-Caesar, observing that the enemy kept for several days within their +camp, which was well secured by a morass and its natural situation, and +that it could not be assaulted without a dangerous engagement, nor the +place enclosed with lines without an addition to his army, wrote to +Trebonius to send with all despatch for the thirteenth legion which was +in winter-quarters among the Bituriges under Titus Sextius, one of his +lieutenants; and then to come to him by forced marches with the three +legions. He himself sent the cavalry of the Remi, and Lingones, and +other states, from whom he had required a vast number, to guard his +foraging parties, and to support them in case of any sudden attack of +the enemy. + +XII.--As this continued for several days, and their vigilance was +relaxed by custom (an effect which is generally produced by time), the +Bellovaci, having made themselves acquainted with the daily stations of +our horse, lie in ambush with a select body of foot in a place covered +with woods; to it they sent their horse the next day, who were first to +decoy our men into the ambuscade, and then when they were surrounded, to +attack them. It was the lot of the Remi to fall into this snare, to whom +that day had been allotted to perform this duty; for, having suddenly +got sight of the enemy's cavalry, and despising their weakness, in +consequence of their superior numbers, they pursued them too eagerly, +and were surrounded on every side by the foot. Being by this means +thrown into disorder they returned with more precipitation than is usual +in cavalry actions, with the loss of Vertiscus, the governor of their +state, and the general of their horse, who, though scarcely able to sit +on horseback through years, neither, in accordance with the custom of +the Gauls, pleaded his age in excuse for not accepting the command, nor +would he suffer them to fight without him. The spirits of the barbarians +were puffed up and inflated at the success of this battle, in killing +the prince and general of the Remi; and our men were taught by this +loss, to examine the country, and post their guards with more caution, +and to be more moderate in pursuing a retreating enemy. + +XIII.--In the meantime daily skirmishes take place continually in view +of both camps; these were fought at the ford and pass of the morass. In +one of these contests the Germans, whom Caesar had brought over the +Rhine, to fight intermixed with the horse, having resolutely crossed the +marsh, and slain the few who made resistance, and boldly pursued the +rest, so terrified them, that not only those who were attacked hand to +hand, or wounded at a distance, but even those who were stationed at a +greater distance to support them, fled disgracefully; and being often +beaten from the rising grounds, did not stop till they had retired into +their camp, or some, impelled by fear, had fled farther. Their danger +drew their whole army into such confusion, that it was difficult to +judge whether they were more insolent after a slight advantage, or more +dejected by a trifling calamity. + +XIV.--After spending several days in the same camp, the guards of the +Bellovaci, learning that Caius Trebonius was advancing nearer with his +legions, and fearing a siege like that of Alesia, send off by night all +who were disabled by age or infirmity, or unarmed, and along with them +their whole baggage. Whilst they are preparing their disorderly and +confused troop for march (for the Gauls are always attended by a vast +multitude of waggons, even when they have very light baggage), being +overtaken by daylight, they drew their forces out before their camp, to +prevent the Romans attempting a pursuit before the line of their baggage +had advanced to a considerable distance. But Caesar did not think it +prudent to attack them when standing on their defence, with such a steep +hill in their favour, nor keep his legions at such a distance that they +could quit their post without danger: but, perceiving that his camp was +divided from the enemy's by a deep morass, so difficult to cross that he +could not pursue with expedition, and that the hill beyond the morass, +which extended almost to the enemy's camp, was separated from it only by +a small valley, he laid a bridge over the morass and led his army +across, and soon reached the plain on the top of the hill, which was +fortified on either side by a steep ascent. Having there drawn up his +army in order of battle, he marched to the furthest hill, from which he +could, with his engines, shower darts upon the thickest of the enemy. + +XV.--The Gauls, confiding in the natural strength of their position, +though they would not decline an engagement if the Romans attempted to +ascend the hill, yet dared not divide their forces into small parties, +lest they should be thrown into disorder by being dispersed, and +therefore remained in order of battle. Caesar, perceiving that they +persisted in their resolution, kept twenty cohorts in battle array, and, +measuring out ground there for a camp, ordered it to be fortified. +Having completed his works, he drew up his legions before the rampart +and stationed the cavalry in certain positions, with their horses +bridled. When the Bellovaci saw the Romans prepared to pursue them, and +that they could not wait the whole night, or continue longer in the same +place without provisions, they formed the following plan to secure a +retreat. They handed to one another the bundles of straw and sticks on +which they sat (for it is the custom of the Gauls to sit when drawn up +in order of battle, as has been asserted in former commentaries), of +which they had great plenty in their camp, and piled them in the front +of their line; and at the close of the day, on a certain signal, set +them all on fire at one and the same time. The continued blaze soon +screened all their forces from the sight of the Romans, which no sooner +happened than the barbarians fled with the greatest precipitation. + +XVI.--Though Caesar could not perceive the retreat of the enemy for the +intervention of the fire, yet, suspecting that they had adopted that +method to favour their escape, he made his legions advance, and sent a +party of horse to pursue them; but, apprehensive of an ambuscade, and +that the enemy might remain in the same place and endeavour to draw our +men into a disadvantageous situation, he advances himself but slowly. +The horse, being afraid to venture into the smoke and dense line of +flame, and those who were bold enough to attempt it being scarcely able +to see their horses' heads, gave the enemy free liberty to retreat, +through fear of an ambuscade. Thus, by a flight, full at once of +cowardice and address, they advanced without any loss about ten miles, +and encamped in a very strong position. From which, laying numerous +ambuscades, both of horse and foot, they did considerable damage to the +Roman foragers. + +XVII.--After this had happened several times, Caesar discovered, from a +certain prisoner, that Correus, the general of the Bellovaci, had +selected six thousand of his bravest foot and a thousand horse, with +which he designed to lie in ambush in a place to which he suspected the +Romans would send to look for forage, on account of the abundance of +corn and grass. Upon receiving information of their design Caesar drew +out more legions than he usually did, and sent forward his cavalry as +usual, to protect the foragers. With these he intermixed a guard of +light infantry, and himself advanced with the legions as fast as he +could. + +XVIII.--The Gauls, placed in ambush, had chosen for the seat of action a +level piece of bound, not more than a mile in extent, enclosed on every +side by a thick wood or a very deep river, as by a toil, and this they +surrounded. Our men, apprised of the enemy's design, marched in good +order to the ground, ready both in heart and hand to give battle, and +willing to hazard any engagement when the legions were at their back. On +their approach, as Correus supposed that he had got an opportunity of +effecting his purpose, he at first shows himself with a small party and +attacks the foremost troops. Our men resolutely stood the charge, and +did not crowd together in one place, as commonly happens from surprise +in engagements between the horse, whose numbers prove injurious to +themselves. + +XIX.--When by the judicious arrangement of our forces only a few of our +men fought by turns, and did not suffer themselves to be surrounded, the +rest of the enemy broke out from the woods whilst Correus was engaged. +The battle was maintained in different parts with great vigour, and +continued for a long time undecided, till at length a body of foot +gradually advanced from the woods in order of battle and forced our +horse to give ground: the light infantry, which were sent before the +legions to the assistance of the cavalry, soon came up, and, mixing with +the horse, fought with great courage. The battle was for some time +doubtful, but, as usually happens, our men, who stood the enemy's first +charge, became superior from this very circumstance that, though +suddenly attacked from an ambuscade, they had sustained no loss. In the +meantime the legions were approaching, and several messengers arrived +with notice to our men and the enemy that the [Roman] general was near +at hand, with his forces in battle array. Upon this intelligence, our +men, confiding in the support of the cohorts, fought most resolutely, +fearing, lest if they should be slow in their operations they should let +the legions participate in the glory of the conquest. The enemy lose +courage and attempt to escape by different ways. In vain; for they were +themselves entangled in that labyrinth in which they thought to entrap +the Romans. Being defeated and put to the rout, and having lost the +greater part of their men, they fled in consternation whither-soever +chance carried them; some sought the woods, others the river, but were +vigorously pursued by our men and put to the sword. Yet, in the +meantime, Correus, unconquered by calamity, could not be prevailed on to +quit the field and take refuge in the woods, or accept our offers of +quarter, but, fighting courageously and wounding several, provoked our +men, elated with victory, to discharge their weapons against him. + +XX.--After this transaction, Caesar, having come up immediately after +the battle, and imagining that the enemy, upon receiving the news of so +great a defeat, would be so depressed that they would abandon their +camp, which was not above eight miles distant from the scene of action, +though he saw his passage obstructed by the river, yet he marched his +army over and advanced. But the Bellovaci and the other states, being +informed of the loss they had sustained by a few wounded men who having +escaped by the shelter of the woods, had returned to them after the +defeat, and learning that everything had turned out unfavourable, that +Correus was slain, and the horse and most valiant of their foot cut off, +imagined that the Romans were marching against them, and calling a +council in haste by sound of trumpet, unanimously cry out to send +ambassadors and hostages to Caesar. + +XXI.--This proposal having met with general approbation, Comius the +Atrebatian fled to those Germans from whom he had borrowed auxiliaries +for that war. The rest instantly send ambassadors to Caesar; and +requested that he would be contented with that punishment of his enemy, +which if he had possessed the power to inflict on them before the +engagement, when they were yet uninjured, they were persuaded from his +usual clemency and mercy, he never would have inflicted; that the power +of the Bellovaci was crushed by the cavalry action; that many thousands +of their choicest foot had fallen, that scarce a man had escaped to +bring the fatal news. That, however, the Bellovaci had derived from the +battle one advantage, of some importance, considering their loss; that +Correus, the author of the rebellion, and agitator of the people, was +slain: for that whilst he lived, the senate had never equal influence in +the state with the giddy populace. + +XXII.--Caesar reminded the ambassadors who made these supplications, +that the Bellovaci had at the same season the year before, in +conjunction with other states of Gaul, undertaken a war, and that they +had persevered the most obstinately of all in their purpose, and were +not brought to a proper way of thinking by the submission of the rest; +that he knew and was aware that the guilt of a crime was easily +transferred to the dead; but that no one person could have such +influence, as to be able by the feeble support of the multitude to raise +a war and carry it on without the consent of the nobles, in opposition +to the senate, and in despite of every virtuous man; however he was +satisfied with the punishment which they had drawn upon themselves. + +XXIII.--The night following the ambassadors bring back his answer to +their countrymen, and prepare the hostages. Ambassadors flock in from +the other states, which were waiting for the issue of the [war with the] +Bellovaci: they give hostages, and receive his orders; all except +Comius, whose fears restrained him from entrusting his safety to any +person's honour. For the year before, while Caesar was holding the +assizes in Hither Gaul, Titus Labienus, having discovered that Comius +was tampering with the states, and raising a conspiracy against Caesar, +thought he might punish his infidelity without perfidy; but judging that +he would not come to his camp at his invitation, and unwilling to put +him on his guard by the attempt, he sent Caius Volusenus Quadratus, with +orders to have him put to death under pretence of a conference. To +effect his purpose, he sent with him some chosen centurions. When they +came to the conference, and Volusenus, as had been agreed on, had taken +hold of Comius by the hand, and one of the centurions, as if surprised +at so uncommon an incident, attempted to kill him, he was prevented by +the friends of Comius, but wounded him severely in the head by the first +blow. Swords were drawn on both sides, not so much with a design to +fight as to effect an escape, our men believing that Comius had received +a mortal stroke; and the Gauls, from the treachery which they had seen, +dreading that a deeper design lay concealed. Upon this transaction, it +was said that Comius made a resolution never to come within sight of any +Roman. + +XXIV.--When Caesar, having completely conquered the most warlike +nations, perceived that there was now no state which could make +preparations for war to oppose him, but that some were removing and +fleeing from their country to avoid present subjection, he resolved to +detach his army into different parts of the country. He kept with +himself Marcus Antonius the quaestor, with the eleventh legion; Caius +Fabius was detached with twenty-five cohorts into the remotest part of +Gaul, because it was rumoured that some states had risen in arms, and he +did not think that Caius Caninius Rebilus, who had the charge of that +country, was strong enough to protect it with two legions. He ordered +Titus Labienus to attend himself, and sent the twelfth legion which had +been under him in winter quarters, to Hither Gaul, to protect the Roman +colonies, and prevent any loss by the inroads of barbarians, similar to +that which had happened the year before to the Tergestines, who were cut +off by a sudden depredation and attack. He himself marched to depopulate +the country of Ambiorix, whom he had terrified and forced to fly, but +despaired of being able to reduce under his power; but he thought it +most consistent with his honour to waste his country both of +inhabitants, cattle, and buildings, so that from the abhorrence of his +countrymen, if fortune suffered any to survive, he might be excluded +from a return to his state for the calamities which he had brought on +it. + +XXV.--After he had sent either his legions or auxiliaries through every +part of Ambiorix's dominions, and wasted the whole country by sword, +fire, and rapine, and had killed or taken prodigious numbers, he sent +Labienus with two legions against the Treviri, whose state, from its +vicinity to Germany, being engaged in constant war, differed but little +from the Germans, in civilization and savage barbarity; and never +continued in its allegiance, except when awed by the presence of his +army. + +XXVI.--In the meantime Caius Caninius, a lieutenant, having received +information by letters and messages from Duracius, who had always +continued in friendship to the Roman people, though a part of his state +had revolted, that a great multitude of the enemy were in arms in the +country of the Pictones, marched to the town Limonum. When he was +approaching it, he was informed by some prisoners, that Duracius was +shut up by several thousand men, under the command of Dumnacus, general +of the Andes, and that Limonum was besieged, but not daring to face the +enemy with his weak legions, he encamped in a strong position: Dumnacus, +having notice of Caninius's approach, turned his whole force against the +legions, and prepared to assault the Roman camp. But after spending +several days in the attempt, and losing a considerable number of men, +without being able to make a breach in any part of the works, he +returned again to the siege of Limonum. + +XXVII.--At the same time, Caius Fabius, a lieutenant, brings back many +states to their allegiance, and confirms their submission by taking +hostages; he was then informed by letters from Caninius, of the +proceedings among the Pictones. Upon which he set off to bring +assistance to Duracius. But Dumnacus hearing of the approach of Fabius, +and despairing of safety, if at the same time he should be forced to +withstand the Roman army without, and observe, and be under apprehension +from the town's people, made a precipitate retreat from that place with +all his forces. Nor did he think that he should be sufficiently secure +from danger, unless he led his army across the Loire, which was too deep +a river to pass except by a bridge. Though Fabius had not yet come +within sight of the enemy, nor joined Caninius; yet being informed of +the nature of the country, by persons acquainted with it, he judged it +most likely that the enemy would take that way, which he found they did +take. He therefore marched to that bridge with his army, and ordered his +cavalry to advance no further before the legions, than that they could +return to the same camp at night, without fatiguing their horses. Our +horse pursued according to orders, and fell upon Dumnacus's rear, and +attacking them on their march, while fleeing, dismayed, and laden with +baggage, they slew a great number, and took a rich booty. Having +executed the affair so successfully, they retired to the camp. + +XXVIII.--The night following, Fabius sent his horse before him, with +orders to engage the enemy, and delay their march till he himself should +come up. That his orders might be faithfully performed, Quintus Atius +Varus, general of the horse, a man of uncommon spirit and skill, +encouraged his men, and pursuing the enemy, disposed some of his troops +in convenient places, and with the rest gave battle to the enemy. The +enemy's cavalry made a bold stand, the foot relieving each other, and +making a general halt, to assist their horse against ours. The battle +was warmly contested. For our men, despising the enemy whom they had +conquered the day before, and knowing that the legions were following +them, animated both by the disgrace of retreating, and a desire of +concluding the battle expeditiously by their own courage, fought most +valiantly against the foot: and the enemy, imagining that no more forces +would come against them, as they had experienced the day before, thought +they had got a favourable opportunity of destroying our whole cavalry. + +XXIX.-After the conflict had continued for some time with great +violence, Dumnacus drew out his army in such a manner, that the foot +should by turns assist the horse. Then the legions, marching in close +order, came suddenly in sight of the enemy. At this sight, the barbarian +horse were so astonished, and the foot so terrified, that breaking +through the line of baggage, they betook themselves to flight with a +loud shout, and in great disorder. But our horse, who a little before +had vigorously engaged them, whilst they made resistance, being elated +with joy at their victory, raising a shout on every side, poured round +them as they ran, and as long as their horses had strength to pursue, or +their arms to give a blow, so long did they continue the slaughter of +the enemy in that battle, and having killed above twelve thousand men in +arms, or such as threw away their arms through fear, they took their +whole train of baggage. + +XXX.--After this defeat, when it was ascertained that Drapes, a Senonian +(who in the beginning of the revolt of Gaul, had collected from all +quarters men of desperate fortunes, invited the slaves to liberty, +called in the exiles of the whole kingdom, given an asylum to robbers, +and intercepted the Roman baggage and provisions), was marching to the +province with five thousand men, being all he could collect after the +defeat, and that Luterius a Cadurcian who, as it has been observed in a +former commentary, had designed to make an attack on the Province in the +first revolt of Gaul, had formed a junction with him, Caius Caninius +went in pursuit of them with two legions, lest great disgrace might be +incurred from the fears or injuries done to the Province by the +depredations of a band of desperate men. + +XXXI.--Caius Fabius set off with the rest of the army to the Carnutes +and those other states, whose forces he was informed had served as +auxiliaries in that battle, which he fought against Dumnacus. For he had +no doubt that they would be more submissive after their recent +sufferings, but if respite and time were given them, they might be +easily excited by the earnest solicitations of the same Dumnacus. On +this occasion Fabius was extremely fortunate and expeditious in +recovering the states. For the Carnutes, who, though often harassed had +never mentioned peace, submitted and gave hostages: and the other +states, which lie in the remotest parts of Gaul, adjoining the ocean, +and which are called Armoricae, influenced by the example of the +Carnutes, as soon as Fabius arrived with his legions, without delay +comply with his command. Dumnacus, expelled from his own territories, +wandering and skulking about, was forced to seek refuge by himself in +the most remote parts of Gaul. + +XXXII.--But Crapes in conjunction with Literius, knowing that Caninius +was at hand with the legions, and that they themselves could not without +certain destruction enter the boundaries of the province, whilst an army +was in pursuit of them, and being no longer at liberty to roam up and +down and pillage, halt in the country of the Cadurci, as Luterius had +once in his prosperity possessed a powerful influence over the +inhabitants, who were his countrymen, and being always the author of new +projects, had considerable authority among the barbarians; with his own +and Drapes' troops he seized Uxellodunum, a town formerly in vassalage +to him and strongly fortified by its natural situation; and prevailed on +the inhabitants to join him. + +XXXIII.--After Caninius had rapidly marched to this place, and perceived +that all parts of the town were secured by very craggy rocks, which it +would be difficult for men in arms to climb even if they met with no +resistance; and, moreover, observing that the town's people were +possessed of effects, to a considerable amount, and that if they +attempted to convey them away in a clandestine manner, they could not +escape our horse, nor even our legions; he divided his forces into three +parts, and pitched three camps on very high ground, with the intention +of drawing lines round the town by degrees, as his forces could bear the +fatigue. + +XXXIV.--When the townsmen perceived his design, being terrified by the +recollection of the distress at Alesia, they began to dread similar +consequences from a siege; and above all Luterius, who had experienced +that fatal event, cautioned them to make provision of corn; they +therefore resolve by general consent to leave part of their troops +behind, and set out with their light troops to bring in corn. The scheme +having met with approbation, the following night Drapes and Luterius, +leaving two thousand men in the garrison, marched out of the town with +the rest. After a few days' stay in the country of the Cadurci (some of +whom were disposed to assist them with corn, and others were unable to +prevent their taking it) they collected a great store. Sometimes also +attacks were made on our little forts by sallies at night. For this +reason Caninius deferred drawing his works round the whole town, lest he +should be unable to protect them when completed, or by disposing his +garrisons in several places, should make them too weak. + +XXXV.--Drapes and Luterius, having laid in a large supply of corn, +occupy a position at about ten miles distance from the town, intending +from it to convey the corn into the town by degrees. They chose each his +respective department. Drapes stayed behind in the camp with part of the +army to protect it; Luterius conveys the train with provisions into the +town. Accordingly, having disposed guards here and there along the road, +about the tenth hour of the night, he set out by narrow paths through +the woods, to fetch the corn into the town. But their noise being heard +by the sentinels of our camp, and the scouts which we had sent out, +having brought an account of what was going on, Caninius instantly with +the ready-armed cohorts from the nearest turrets made an attack on the +convoy at the break of day. They, alarmed at so unexpected an evil, fled +by different ways to their guard: which as soon as our men perceived, +they fell with great fury on the escort, and did not allow a single man +to be taken alive. Luterius escaped thence with a few followers, but did +not return to the camp. + +XXXVI.--After this success, Caninius learnt from some prisoners, that a +part of the forces was encamped with Drapes, not more than ten miles +off; which being confirmed by several, supposing that after the defeat +of one general, the rest would be terrified, and might be easily +conquered, he thought it a most fortunate event that none of the enemy +had fled back from the slaughter to the camp, to give Drapes notice of +the calamity which had befallen him. And as he could see no danger in +making the attempt, he sent forward all his cavalry and the German foot, +men of great activity, to the enemy's camp. He divides one legion among +the three camps, and takes the other without baggage along with him. +When he had advanced near the enemy, he was informed by scouts, which he +had sent before him, that the enemy's camp, as is the custom of +barbarians, was pitched low, near the banks of a river, and that the +higher grounds were unoccupied: but that the German horse had made a +sudden attack on them, and had begun the battle. Upon this intelligence, +he marched up with his legion, armed and in order of battle. Then, on a +signal being suddenly given on every side, our men took possession of +the higher grounds. Upon this, the German horse observing the Roman +colours, fought with great vigour. Immediately all the cohorts attack +them on every side; and having either killed or made prisoners of them +all, gained great booty. In that battle, Drapes himself was taken +prisoner. + +XXXVII.--Caninius, having accomplished the business so successfully, +without having scarcely a man wounded, returned to besiege the town; +and, having destroyed the enemy without, for fear of whom he had been +prevented from strengthening his redoubts, and surrounding the enemy +with his lines, he orders the work to be completed on every side. The +next day, Caius Fabius came to join him with his forces, and took upon +him the siege of one side. + +XXXVIII.--In the meantime, Caesar left Caius Antonius in the country of +the Bellovaci, with fifteen cohorts, that the Belgae might have no +opportunity of forming new plans in future. He himself visits the other +states, demands a great number of hostages, and by his encouraging +language allays the apprehensions of all. When he came to the Carnutes, +in whose state he has in a former commentary mentioned that the war +first broke out; observing, that from a consciousness of their guilt, +they seemed to be in the greatest terror: to relieve the state the +sooner from its fear, he demanded that Guturvatus, the promoter of that +treason, and the instigator of that rebellion, should be delivered up to +punishment. And though the latter did not dare to trust his life even to +his own countrymen, yet such diligent search was made by them all, that +he was soon brought to our camp. Caesar was forced to punish him, by the +clamours of the soldiers, contrary to his natural humanity, for they +alleged that all the dangers and losses incurred in that war, ought to +be imputed to Guturvatus. Accordingly, he was whipped to death, and his +head cut off. + +XXXIX.--Here Caesar was informed by numerous letters from Caninius of +what had happened to Drapes and Luterius, and in what conduct the town's +people persisted: and though he despised the smallness of their numbers, +yet he thought their obstinacy deserving a severe punishment, lest Gaul +in general should adopt an idea that she did not want strength but +perseverance to oppose the Romans; and lest the other states, relying on +the advantage of situation, should follow their example and assert their +liberty; especially as he knew that all the Gauls understood that his +command was to continue but one summer longer, and if they could hold +out for that time, that they would have no further danger to apprehend. +He therefore left Quintus Calenus, one of his lieutenants behind him, +with two legions, and instructions to follow him by regular marches. He +hastened as much as he could with all the cavalry to Caninius. + +XL.--Having arrived at Uxellodunum, contrary to the general expectation, +and perceiving that the town was surrounded by the works, and that the +enemy had no possible means of retiring from the assault, and being +likewise informed by the deserters that the townsmen had abundance of +corn; he endeavoured to prevent their getting water. A river divided the +valley below, which almost surrounded the steep craggy mountain on which +Uxellodunum was built. The nature of the ground prevented his turning +the current; for it ran so low down at the foot of the mountain, that no +drains could be sunk deep enough to draw it off in any direction. But +the descent to it was so difficult, that if we made opposition, the +besieged could neither come to the river, nor retire up the precipice +without hazard of their lives. Caesar, perceiving the difficulty, +disposed archers and slingers, and in some places, opposite to the +easiest descents, placed engines, and attempted to hinder the townsmen +from getting water at the river, which obliged them afterwards to go all +to one place to procure water. + +XLI.--Close under the walls of the town, a copious spring gushed out on +that part, which for the space of nearly three hundred feet, was not +surrounded by the river. Whilst every other person wished that the +besieged could be debarred from this spring, Caesar alone saw that it +could be effected, though not without great danger. Opposite to it he +began to advance the vineae towards the mountain, and to throw up a +mound, with great labour and continual skirmishing. For the townsmen ran +down from the high ground, and fought without any risk, and wounded +several of our men, yet they obstinately pushed on and were not deterred +from moving forward the vineae, and from surmounting by their assiduity +the difficulties of situation. At the same time they work mines, and +move the crates and vineae to the source of the fountain. This was the +only work which they could do without danger or suspicion. A mound sixty +feet high was raised; on it was erected a turret of ten stories, not +with the intention that it should be on a level with the wall (for that +could not be effected by any works), but to rise above the top of the +spring. When our engines began to play from it upon the paths that led +to the fountain, and the townsmen could not go for water without danger, +not only the cattle designed for food and the working cattle, but a +great number of men also died of thirst. + +XLII.--Alarmed at this calamity, the townsmen fill barrels with tallow, +pitch, and dried wood; these they set on fire, and roll down on our +works. At the same time, they fight most furiously, to deter the Romans, +by the engagement and danger, from extinguishing the flames. Instantly a +great blaze arose in the works. For whatever they threw down the +precipice, striking against the vine and agger, communicated the fire to +whatever was in the way. Our soldiers on the other hand, though they +were engaged in a perilous sort of encounter, and labouring under the +disadvantages of position, yet supported all with very great presence of +mind. For the action happened in an elevated situation, and in sight of +our army; and a great shout was raised on both sides; therefore every +man faced the weapons of the enemy and the flames in as conspicuous a +manner as he could, that his valour might be the better known and +attested. + +XLIII.--Caesar, observing that several of his men were wounded, ordered +the cohorts to ascend the mountain on all sides, and, under pretence of +assailing the walls, to raise a shout: at which the besieged being +frightened, and not knowing what was going on in other places, call off +their armed troops from attacking our works, and dispose them on the +walls. Thus our men, without hazarding a battle, gained time partly to +extinguish the works which had caught fire, and partly to cut off the +communication. As the townsmen still continued to make an obstinate +resistance, and even, after losing the greatest part of their forces by +drought, persevered in their resolution: At last the veins of the spring +were cut across by our mines, and turned from their course. By this +their constant spring was suddenly dried up, which reduced them to such +despair that they imagined that it was not done by the art of man, but +the will of the gods; forced, therefore, by necessity, they at length +submitted. + +XLIV.--Caesar, being convinced that his lenity was known to all men, and +being under no fears of being thought to act severely from a natural +cruelty, and perceiving that there would be no end to his troubles if +several states should attempt to rebel in like manner and in different +places, resolved to deter others by inflicting an exemplary punishment +on these. Accordingly he cut off the hands of those who had borne arms +against him. Their lives he spared, that the punishment of their +rebellion might be the more conspicuous. Drapes, who I have said was +taken by Caninius, either through indignation and grief arising from his +captivity, or through fear of severer punishments, abstained from food +for several days, and thus perished. At the same time, Luterius, who, I +have related, had escaped from the battle, having fallen into the hands +of Epasnactus, an Arvernian (for he frequently changed his quarters, and +threw himself on the honour of several persons, as he saw that he dare +not remain long in one place, and was conscious how great an enemy he +deserved to have in Caesar), was by this Epasnactus, the Arvernian, a +sincere friend of the Roman people, delivered without any hesitation, a +prisoner to Caesar. + +XLV.--In the meantime, Labienus engages in a successful cavalry action +among the Treviri; and, having killed several of them and of the +Germans, who never refused their aid to any person against the Romans, +he got their chiefs alive into his power, and, amongst them, Surus, an +Aeduan, who was highly renowned both for his valour and birth, and was +the only Aeduan that had continued in arms till that time. Caesar, being +informed of this, and perceiving that he had met with good success in +all parts of Gaul, and reflecting that, in former campaigns, [Celtic] +Gaul had been conquered and subdued; but that he had never gone in +person to Aquitania, but had made a conquest of it, in some degree, by +Marcus Crassus, set out for it with two legions, designing to spend the +latter part of the summer there. This affair he executed with his usual +despatch and good fortune. For all the states of Aquitania sent +ambassadors to him and delivered hostages. These affairs being +concluded, he marched with a guard of cavalry towards Narbo, and drew +off his army into winter quarters by his lieutenants. He posted four +legions in the country of the Belgae, under Marcus Antonius, Caius +Trebonius, Publius Vatinius, and Quintus Tullius, his lieutenants. Two +he detached to the Aedui, knowing them to have a very powerful influence +throughout all Gaul. Two he placed among the Turoni, near the confines +of the Carnutes, to keep in awe the entire tract of country bordering on +the ocean; the other two he placed in the territories of the Lemovices, +at a small distance from the Arverni, that no part of Gaul might be +without an army. Having spent a few days in the province, he quickly ran +through all the business of the assizes, settled all public disputes, +and distributed rewards to the most deserving; for he had a good +opportunity of learning how every person was disposed towards the +republic during the general revolt of Gaul, which he had withstood by +the fidelity and assistance of the Province. + +XLVII.--Having finished these affairs, he returned to his legions among +the Belgae and wintered at Nemetocenna: there he got intelligence that +Comius, the Atrebatian had had an engagement with his cavalry. For when +Antonius had gone into winter quarters, and the state of the Atrebates +continued in their allegiance, Comius, who, after that wound which I +before mentioned, was always ready to join his countrymen upon every +commotion, that they might not want a person to advise and head them in +the management of the war, when his state submitted to the Romans, +supported himself and his adherents on plunder by means of his cavalry, +infested the roads, and intercepted several convoys which were bringing +provisions to the Roman quarters. + +XLVIII.--Caius Volusenus Quadratus was appointed commander of the horse +under Antonius, to winter with him: Antonius sent him in pursuit of the +enemy's cavalry; now Volusenus added to that valour which was pre-eminent +in him, a great aversion to Comius, on which account he executed +the more willingly the orders which he received. Having, therefore, laid +ambuscades, he had several encounters with his cavalry and came off +successful. At last, when a violent contest ensued, and Volusenus, +through eagerness to intercept Comius, had obstinately pursued him with +a small party; and Comius had, by the rapidity of his flight, drawn +Volusenus to a considerable distance from his troops, he, on a sudden, +appealed to the honour of all about him for assistance not to suffer the +wound, which he had perfidiously received, to go without vengeance; and, +wheeling his horse about, rode unguardedly before the rest up to the +commander. All his horse following his example, made a few of our men +turn their backs and pursued them. Comius, clapping spurs to his horse, +rode up to Volusenus, and, pointing his lance, pierced him in the thigh +with great force. When their commander was wounded, our men no longer +hesitated to make resistance, and, facing about, beat back the enemy. +When this occurred, several of the enemy, repulsed by the great +impetuosity of our men, were wounded, and some were trampled to death in +striving to escape, and some were made prisoners. Their general escaped +this misfortune by the swiftness of his horse. Our commander, being +severely wounded, so much so that he appeared to run the risk of losing +his life, was carried back to the camp. But Comius, having either +gratified his resentment, or, because he had lost the greatest part of +his followers, sent ambassadors to Antonius, and assured him that he +would give hostages as a security that he would go wherever Antonius +should prescribe, and would comply with his orders, and only entreated +that this concession should be made to his fears, that he should not be +obliged to go into the presence of any Roman. As Antonius judged that +his request originated in a just apprehension, he indulged him in it and +accepted his hostages. + + * * * * * + +Caesar, I know, has made a separate commentary of each year's +transactions, which I have not thought it necessary for me to do, +because the following year, in which Lucius Paulus and Caius Marcellus +were consuls, produced no remarkable occurrences in Gaul. But that no +person may be left in ignorance of the place where Caesar and his army +were at that time, I have thought proper to write a few words in +addition to this commentary. + + * * * * * + +XLIX.--Caesar, whilst in winter quarters in the country of the Belgae, +made it his only business to keep the states in amity with him, and to +give none either hopes of, or pretext for, a revolt. For nothing was +further from his wishes than to be under the necessity of engaging in +another war at his departure; lest, when he was drawing his army out of +the country, any war should be left unfinished, which the Gauls would +cheerfully undertake, when there was no immediate danger. Therefore, by +treating the states with respect, making rich presents to the leading +men, imposing no new burdens, and making the terms of their subjection +lighter, he easily kept Gaul (already exhausted by so many unsuccessful +battles) in obedience. + +L.--When the winter quarters were broken up, he himself, contrary to his +usual practice, proceeded to Italy, by the longest possible stages, in +order to visit the free towns and colonies, that he might recommend to +them the petition of Marcus Antonius, his treasurer, for the priesthood. +For he exerted his interest both cheerfully in favour of a man strongly +attached to him, whom he had sent home before him to attend the +election, and zealously to oppose the faction and power of a few men, +who, by rejecting Marcus Antonius, wished to undermine Caesar's +influence when going out of office. Though Caesar heard on the road, +before he reached Italy, that he was created augur, yet he thought +himself in honour bound to visit the free town and colonies, to return +them thanks for rendering such service to Antonius by their presence in +such great numbers [at the election], and at the same time to recommend +to them himself, and his honour in his suit for the consulate the +ensuing year. For his adversaries arrogantly boasted that Lucius +Lentulus and Caius Marcellus had been appointed consuls, who would strip +Caesar of all honour and dignity: and that the consulate had been +injuriously taken from Sergius Galba, though he had been much superior +in votes and interest, because he was united to Caesar, both by +friendship, and by serving as lieutenant under him. + +LI.--Caesar, on his arrival, was received by the principal towns and +colonies with incredible respect and affection; for this was the first +time he came since the war against united Gaul. Nothing was omitted +which could be thought of for the ornament of the gates, roads, and +every place through which Caesar was to pass. All the people with their +children went out to meet him. Sacrifices were offered up in every +quarter. The market places and temples were laid out with +entertainments, as if anticipating the joy of a most splendid triumph. +So great was the magnificence of the richer and zeal of the poorer ranks +of the people. + +LII.--When Caesar had gone through all the states of Cisalpine Gaul, he +returned with the greatest haste to the army at Nemetocenna; and having +ordered all his legions to march from winter quarters to the territories +of the Treviri, he went thither and reviewed them. He made Titus +Labienus governor of Cisalpine Gaul, that he might be the more inclined +to support him in his suit for the consulate. He himself made such +journeys, as he thought would conduce to the health of his men by change +of air; and though he was frequently told that Labienus was solicited by +his enemies, and was assured that a scheme was in agitation by the +contrivance of a few, that the senate should interpose their authority +to deprive him of a part of his army; yet he neither gave credit to any +story concerning Labienus, nor could be prevailed upon to do anything in +opposition to the authority of the senate; for he thought that his cause +would be easily gained by the free voice of the senators. For Caius +Curio, one of the tribunes of the people, having undertaken to defend +Caesar's cause and dignity, had often proposed to the senate, "that if +the dread of Caesar's arms rendered any apprehensive, as Pompey's +authority and arms were no less formidable to the forum, both should +resign their command, and disband their armies. That then the city would +be free, and enjoy its due rights." And he not only proposed this, but +of himself called upon the senate to divide on the question. But the +consuls and Pompey's friends interposed to prevent it; and regulating +matters as they desired, they broke up the meeting. + +LIII.--This testimony of the unanimous voice of the senate was very +great, and consistent with their former conduct; for the preceding year, +when Marcellus attacked Caesar's dignity, he proposed to the senate, +contrary to the law of Pompey and Crassus, to dispose of Caesar's +province, before the expiration of his command, and when the votes were +called for, and Marcellus, who endeavoured to advance his own dignity, +by raising envy against Caesar, wanted a division, the full senate went +over to the opposite side. The spirit of Caesar's foes was not broken by +this, but it taught them, that they ought to strengthen their interest +by enlarging their connections, so as to force the senate to comply with +whatever they resolved on. + +LIV.--After this a decree was passed by the senate, that one legion +should be sent by Pompey, and another by Caesar, to the Parthian war. +But these two legions were evidently drawn from Caesar alone. For the +first legion which Pompey sent to Caesar, he gave Caesar, as if it +belonged to himself, though it was levied in Caesar's province. Caesar, +however, though no one could doubt the design of his enemies, sent the +legion back to Cneius Pompey, and in compliance with the decree of the +senate, ordered the fifteenth, belonging to himself, and which was +quartered in Cisalpine Gaul, to be delivered up. In its room he sent the +thirteenth into Italy, to protect the garrisons from which he had +drafted the fifteenth. He disposed his army in winter quarters, placed +Caius Trebonius, with four legions among the Belgae, and detached Caius +Fabius, with four more, to the Aedui; for he thought that Gaul would be +most secure if the Belgae, a people of the greatest valour, and the +Aedui, who possessed the most powerful influence, were kept in awe by +his armies. + +LV.--He himself set out for Italy; where he was informed on his arrival, +that the two legions sent home by him, and which by the senate's decree, +should have been sent to the Parthian war, had been delivered over to +Pompey, by Caius Marcellus the consul, and were retained in Italy. +Although from this transaction it was evident to every one that war was +designed against Caesar, yet he resolved to submit to any thing, as long +as there were hopes left of deciding the dispute in an equitable manner, +rather than have recourse to arms. + + + * * * * * + + +THE CIVIL WAR + +BOOK I + +I.--When Caesar's letter was delivered to the consuls, they were with +great difficulty, and a hard struggle of the tribunes, prevailed on to +suffer it to be read in the senate; but the tribunes could not prevail, +that any question should be put to the senate on the subject of the +letter. The consuls put the question on the regulation of the state. +Lucius Lentulus the consul promises that he will not fail the senate and +republic, "if they declared their sentiments boldly and resolutely, but +if they turned their regard to Caesar, and courted his favour, as they +did on former occasions, he would adopt a plan for himself, and not +submit to the authority of the senate: that he too had a means of +regaining Caesar's favour and friendship." Scipio spoke to the same +purport, "that it was Pompey's intention not to abandon the republic, if +the senate would support him; but if they should hesitate and act +without energy, they would in vain implore his aid, if they should +require it hereafter." + +II.--This speech of Scipio's, as the senate was convened in the city, +and Pompey was near at hand, seemed to have fallen from the lips of +Pompey himself. Some delivered their sentiments with more moderation, as +Marcellus first, who in the beginning of his speech, said, "that the +question ought not to be put to the senate on this matter, till levies +were made throughout all Italy, and armies raised under whose protection +the senate might freely and safely pass such resolutions as they thought +proper": as Marcus Calidius afterwards, who was of opinion, "that Pompey +should set out for his province, that there might be no cause for arms: +that Caesar was naturally apprehensive as two legions were forced from +him, that Pompey was retaining those troops, and keeping them near the +city to do him injury": as Marcus Rufus, who followed Calidius almost +word for word. They were all harshly rebuked by Lentulus, who +peremptorily refused to propose Calidius's motion. Marcellus, overawed +by his reproofs, retracted his opinion. Thus most of the senate, +intimidated by the expressions of the consul, by the fears of a present +army, and the threats of Pompey's friends, unwillingly and reluctantly +adopted Scipio's opinion, that Caesar should disband his army by a +certain day, and should he not do so, he should be considered as acting +against the state. Marcus Antonius, and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the +people, interposed. The question was immediately put on their +interposition. Violent opinions were expressed: whoever spoke with the +greatest acrimony and cruelty, was most highly commended by Caesar's +enemies. + +III.--The senate having broken up in the evening, all who belonged to +that order were summoned by Pompey. He applauded the forward, and +secured their votes for the next day; the more moderate he reproved and +excited against Caesar. Many veterans, from all parts, who had served in +Pompey's armies, were invited to his standard by the hopes of rewards +and promotions. Several officers belonging to the two legions, which had +been delivered up by Caesar, were sent for. The city and the Comitium +were crowded with tribunes, centurions, and veterans. All the consuls' +friends, all Pompey's connections, all those who bore any ancient enmity +to Caesar, were forced into the senate house. By their concourse and +declarations the timid were awed, the irresolute confirmed, and the +greater part deprived of the power of speaking their sentiments with +freedom. Lucius Piso, the censor, offered to go to Caesar: as did +likewise Lucius Roscius, the praetor, to inform him of these affairs, +and require only six days' time to finish the business. Opinions were +expressed by some to the effect that commissioners should be sent to +Caesar to acquaint him with the senate's pleasure. + +IV.--All these proposals were rejected, and opposition made to them all, +in the speeches of the consul, Scipio, and Cato. An old grudge against +Caesar and chagrin at a defeat actuated Cato. Lentulus was wrought upon +by the magnitude of his debts, and the hopes of having the government of +an army and provinces, and by the presents which he expected from such +princes as should receive the title of friends of the Roman people, and +boasted amongst his friends, that he would be a second Sylla, to whom +the supreme authority should return. Similar hopes of a province and +armies, which he expected to share with Pompey on account of his +connection with him, urged on Scipio; and moreover, [he was influenced +by] the fear of being called to trial, and the adulation and an +ostentatious display of himself and his friends in power, who at that +time had great influence in the republic, and courts of judicature. +Pompey himself, incited by Caesar's enemies, because he was unwilling +that any person should bear an equal degree of dignity, had wholly +alienated himself from Caesar's friendship, and procured a +reconciliation with their common enemies; the greatest part of whom he +had himself brought upon Caesar during his affinity with him. At the +same time, chagrined at the disgrace which he had incurred by converting +the two legions from their expedition through Asia and Syria, to +[augment] his own power and authority, he was anxious to bring matters +to a war. + +V.--For these reasons everything was done in a hasty and disorderly +manner, and neither was time given to Caesar's relations to inform him +[of the state of affairs] nor liberty to the tribunes of the people to +deprecate their own danger, nor even to retain the last privilege, which +Sylla had left them, the interposing their authority; but on the seventh +day they were obliged to think of their own safety, which the most +turbulent tribunes of the people were not accustomed to attend to, nor +to fear being called to an account for their actions, till the eighth +month. Recourse is had to that extreme and final decree of the senate +(which was never resorted to even by daring proposers except when the +city was in danger of being set on fire, or when the public safety was +despaired of). "That the consuls, praetors, tribunes of the people, and +proconsuls in the city should take care that the state received no +injury." These decrees are dated the eighth day before the ides of +January; therefore, in the first five days, on which the senate could +meet, from the day on which Lentulus entered into his consulate, the two +days of election excepted, the severest and most virulent decrees were +passed against Caesar's government, and against those most illustrious +characters, the tribunes of the people. The latter immediately made +their escape from the city, and withdrew to Caesar, who was then at +Ravenna, awaiting an answer to his moderate demands; [to see] if matters +could be brought to a peaceful termination by any equitable act on the +part of the enemies. + +VI.--During the succeeding days the senate is convened outside the city. +Pompey repeated the same things which he had declared through Scipio. He +applauded the courage and firmness of the senate, acquainted them with +his force, and told them that he had ten legions ready; that he was +moreover informed and assured that Caesar's soldiers were disaffected, +and that he could not persuade them to defend or even follow him. +Motions were made in the senate concerning other matters; that levies +should be made through all Italy; that Faustus Sylla should be sent as +propraetor into Mauritania; that money should be granted to Pompey from +the public treasury. It was also put to the vote that king Juba should +be [honoured with the title of] friend and ally. But Marcellus said that +he would not allow this motion for the present. Philip, one of the +tribunes, stopped [the appointment of] Sylla; the resolutions respecting +the other matters passed. The provinces, two of which were consular, the +remainder praetorian, were decreed to private persons; Scipio got Syria, +Lucius Domitius Gaul: Philip and Marcellus were omitted, from a private +motive, and their lots were not even admitted. To the other provinces +praetors were sent, nor was time granted as in former years, to refer to +the people on their appointment, nor to make them take the usual oath, +and march out of the city in a public manner, robed in the military +habit, after offering their vows; a circumstance which had never before +happened. Both the consuls leave the city, and private men had lictors +in the city and capital, contrary to all precedents of former times. +Levies were made throughout Italy, arms demanded, and money exacted from +the municipal towns, and violently taken from the temples. All +distinctions between things human and divine are confounded. + +VII.--These things being made known to Caesar, he harangued his +soldiers; he reminded them "of the wrongs done to him at all times by +his enemies, and complained that Pompey had been alienated from him and +led astray by them through envy and a malicious opposition to his glory, +though he had always favoured and promoted Pompey's honour and dignity. +He complained that an innovation had been introduced into the republic, +that the intercession of the tribunes, which had been restored a few +years before by Sylla, was branded as a crime, and suppressed by force +of arms; that Sylla, who had stripped the tribunes of every other power, +had, nevertheless, left the privilege of intercession unrestrained; that +Pompey, who pretended to restore what they had lost, had taken away the +privileges which they formerly had; that whenever the senate decreed, +"that the magistrates should take care that the republic sustained no +injury" (by which words and decree the Roman people were obliged to +repair to arms), it was only when pernicious laws were proposed; when +the tribunes attempted violent measures; when the people seceded, and +possessed themselves of the temples and eminences of the city; (and +these instances of former times, he showed them were expiated by the +fate of Saturninus and the Gracchi): that nothing of this kind was +attempted now, nor even thought of: that no law was promulgated, no +intrigue with the people going forward, no secession made; he exhorted +them to defend from the malice of his enemies, the reputation and honour +of that general, under whose command they had for nine years most +successfully supported the state; fought many successful battles, and +subdued all Gaul and Germany." The soldiers of the thirteenth legion, +which was present (for in the beginning of the disturbances he had +called it out, his other legions not having yet arrived), all cry out +that they are ready to defend their general, and the tribunes of the +commons, from all injuries. + +VIII.--Having made himself acquainted with the disposition of his +soldiers, Caesar set off with that legion to Ariminum, and there met the +tribunes, who had fled to him for protection; he called his other +legions from winter quarters, and ordered them to follow him. Thither +came Lucius Caesar, a young man, whose father was a lieutenant general +under Caesar. He, after concluding the rest of his speech, and stating +for what purpose he had come, told Caesar that he had commands of a +private nature for him from Pompey; that Pompey wished to clear himself +to Caesar, lest he should impute those actions which he did for the +republic, to a design of affronting him; that he had ever preferred the +interest of the state to his own private connections; that Caesar, too, +for his own honour, ought to sacrifice his desires and resentment to the +public good, and not vent his anger so violently against his enemies, +lest in his hopes of injuring them, he should injure the republic. He +spoke a few words to the same purport from himself, in addition to +Pompey's apology. Roscius, the praetor, conferred with Caesar almost in +the same words, and on the same subject, and declared that Pompey had +empowered him to do so. + +IX.--Though these things seemed to have no tendency towards redressing +his injuries, yet having got proper persons by whom he could communicate +his wishes to Pompey; he required of them both, that as they had +conveyed Pompey's demands to him, they should not refuse to convey his +demands to Pompey; if by so little trouble they could terminate a great +dispute, and liberate all Italy from her fears. + +"That the honour of the republic had ever been his first object, and +dearer to him than life; that he was chagrined, that the favour of the +Roman people was wrested from him by the injurious reports of his +enemies; that he was deprived of a half-year's command, and dragged back +to the city, though the people had ordered that regard should be paid to +his suit for the consulate at the next election, though he was not +present; that, however, he had patiently submitted to this loss of +honour for the sake of the republic; that when he wrote letters to the +senate, requiring that all persons should resign the command of their +armies, he did not obtain even that request; that levies were made +throughout Italy; that the two legions which had been taken from him, +under the pretence of the Parthian war, were kept at home, and that the +state was in arms. To what did all these things tend, unless to his +ruin? But, nevertheless, he was ready to condescend to any terms, and to +endure everything for the sake of the republic. Let Pompey go to his own +province; let them both disband their armies; let all persons in Italy +lay down their arms; let all fears be removed from the city; let free +elections, and the whole republic be resigned to the direction of the +senate and Roman people. That these things might be the more easily +performed, and conditions secured and confirmed by oath, either let +Pompey come to Caesar, or allow Caesar to go to him; it might be that +all their disputes would be settled by an interview." + +X.--Roscius and Lucius Caesar, having received this message, went to +Capua, where they met the consuls and Pompey, and declared to them +Caesar's terms. Having deliberated on the matter, they replied, and sent +written proposals to him by the same persons, the purport of which was, +that Caesar should return into Gaul, leave Ariminum, and disband his +army: if he complied with this, that Pompey would go to Spain. In the +meantime, until security was given that Caesar would perform his +promises, that the consuls and Pompey would not give over their levies. + +XI.--It was not an equitable proposal, to require that Caesar should +quit Ariminum and return to his province; but that he [Pompey] should +himself retain his province and the legions that belonged to another, +and desire that Caesar's army should be disbanded, whilst he himself was +making new levies: and that he should merely promise to go to his +province, without naming the day on which he would set out; so that if +he should not set out till after Caesar's consulate expired, yet he +would not appear bound by any religious scruples about asserting a +falsehood. But his not granting time for a conference, nor promising to +set out to meet him, made the expectation of peace appear very hopeless. +Caesar, therefore, sent Marcus Antonius, with five cohorts from Ariminum +to Arretium; he himself stayed at Ariminum with two legions, with the +intention of raising levies there. He secured Pisaurus, Fanum, and +Ancona, with a cohort each. + +XII.--In the meantime, being informed that Thermus the praetor was in +possession of Iguvium, with five cohorts, and was fortifying the town, +but that the affections of all the inhabitants were very well inclined +towards himself; he detached Curio with three cohorts, which he had at +Ariminum and Pisaurus. Upon notice of his approach, Thermus, distrusting +the affections of the townsmen, drew his cohorts out of it, and made his +escape; his soldiers deserted him on the road, and returned home. Curio +recovered Iguvium, with the cheerful concurrence of all the inhabitants. +Caesar, having received an account of this, and relying on the +affections of the municipal towns, drafted all the cohorts of the +thirteenth legion from the garrisons, and set out for Auximum, a town +into which Attius had brought his cohorts, and of which he had taken +possession, and from which he had sent senators round about the country +of Picenum, to raise new levies. + +XIII.--Upon news of Caesar's approach, the senate of Auximum went in a +body to Attius Varus; and told him that it was not a subject for them to +determine upon: yet neither they, nor the rest of the freemen would +suffer Caius Caesar, a general, who had merited so well of the republic, +after performing such great achievements, to be excluded from their town +and walls; wherefore he ought to pay some regard to the opinion of +posterity, and his own danger. Alarmed at this declaration, Attius Varus +drew out of the town the garrison which he had introduced, and fled. A +few of Caesar's front rank having pursued him, obliged him to halt, and +when the battle began, Varus is deserted by his troops: some of them +disperse to their homes, the rest come over to Caesar; and along with +them, Lucius Pupius, the chief centurion, is taken prisoner and brought +to Caesar. He had held the same rank before in Cneius Pompey's army. But +Caesar applauded the soldiers of Attius, set Pupius at liberty, returned +thanks to the people of Auximum, and promised to be grateful for their +conduct. + +XIV.--Intelligence of this being brought to Rome, so great a panic +spread on a sudden that when Lentulus, the consul, came to open the +treasury, to deliver money to Pompey by the senate's decree, immediately +on opening the hallowed door he fled from the city. For it was falsely +rumoured that Caesar was approaching, and that his cavalry were already +at the gates. Marcellus, his colleague, followed him, and so did most of +the magistrates. Cneius Pompey had left the city the day before, and was +on his march to those legions which he had received from Caesar, and had +disposed in winter quarters in Apulia. The levies were stopped within +the city. No place on this side of Capua was thought secure. At Capua +they first began to take courage and to rally, and determined to raise +levies in the colonies, which had been sent thither by the Julian law: +and Lentulus brought into the public market-place the gladiators which +Caesar maintained there for the entertainment of the people, and +confirmed them in their liberty, and gave them horses and ordered them +to attend him; but afterwards, being warned by his friends that this +action was censured by the judgment of all, he distributed them among +the slaves of the districts of Campania, to keep guard there. + +XV.--Caesar, having moved forward from Auximum, traversed the whole +country of Picenum. All the governors in these countries most cheerfully +received him, and aided his army with every necessary. Ambassadors came +to him even from Cingulum, a town which Labienus had laid out and built +at his own expense, and offered most earnestly to comply with his +orders. He demanded soldiers: they sent them. In the meantime, the +twelfth legion came to join Caesar; with these two he marched to +Asculum, the chief town of Picenum. Lentulus Spinther occupied that town +with ten cohorts; but, on being informed of Caesar's approach, he fled +from the town, and, in attempting to bring off his cohorts with him, was +deserted by a great part of his men. Being left on the road with a small +number, he fell in with Vibullius Rufus, who was sent by Pompey into +Picenum to confirm the people [in their allegiance]. Vibullius, being +informed by him of the transactions in Picenum, takes his soldiers from +him and dismisses him. He collects, likewise, from the neighbouring +countries, as many cohorts as he can from Pompey's new levies. Amongst +them he meets with Ulcilles Hirrus fleeing from Camerinum, with six +cohorts, which he had in the garrison there; by a junction with which he +made up thirteen cohorts. With them he marched by hasty journeys to +Corfinium, to Domitius Aenobarbus, and informed him that Caesar was +advancing with two legions. Domitius had collected about twenty cohorts +from Alba, and the Marsians, Pelignians, and neighbouring states. + +XVI.--Caesar, having recovered Asculum and driven out Lentulus, ordered +the soldiers that had deserted from him to be sought out and a muster to +be made; and, having delayed for one day there to provide corn, he +marched to Corfinium. On his approach, five cohorts, sent by Domitius +from the town, were breaking down a bridge which was over the river, at +three miles' distance from it. An engagement taking place there with +Caesar's advanced-guard, Domitius's men were quickly beaten off from the +bridge and retreated precipitately into the town. Caesar, having marched +his legions over, halted before the town and encamped close by the +walls. + +XVII.--Domitius, upon observing this, sent messengers well acquainted +with the country, encouraged by a promise of being amply rewarded, with +despatches to Pompey to Apulia, to beg and entreat him to come to his +assistance. That Caesar could be easily enclosed by the two armies, +through the narrowness of the country, and prevented from obtaining +supplies: unless he did so, that he and upwards of thirty cohorts, and a +great number of senators and Roman knights, would be in extreme danger. +In the meantime he encouraged his troops, disposed engines on the walls, +and assigned to each man a particular part of the city to defend. In a +speech to the soldiers he promised them lands out of his own estate; to +every private soldier four acres, and a corresponding share to the +centurions and veterans. + +XVIII.--In the meantime, word was brought to Caesar that the people of +Sulmo, a town about seven miles distant from Corfinium, were ready to +obey his orders, but were prevented by Quintus Lucretius, a senator, and +Attius, a Pelignian, who were in possession of the town with a garrison +of seven cohorts. He sent Marcus Antonius thither, with five cohorts of +the eighth legion. The inhabitants, as soon as they saw our standards, +threw open their gates, and all the people, both citizens and soldiers, +went out to meet and welcome Antonius. Lucretius and Attius leaped off +the walls. Attius, being brought before Antonius, begged that he might +be sent to Caesar. Antonius returned the same day on which he had set +out with the cohorts and Attius. Caesar added these cohorts to his own +army, and sent Attius away in safety. The three first days Caesar +employed in fortifying his camp with strong works, in bringing in corn +from the neighbouring free towns, and waiting for the rest of his +forces. Within the three days the eighth legion came to him, and +twenty-two cohorts of the new levies in Gaul, and about three hundred +horse from the king of Noricum. On their arrival he made a second camp +on another part of the town, and gave the command of it to Curio. He +determined to surround the town with a rampart and turrets during the +remainder of the time. Nearly at the time when the greatest part of the +work was completed, all the messengers sent to Pompey returned. + +XIX.--Having read Pompey's letter, Domitius, concealing the truth, gave +out in council that Pompey would speedily come to their assistance; and +encouraged them not to despond, but to provide everything necessary for +the defence of the town. He held private conferences with a few of his +most intimate friends, and determined on the design of fleeing. As +Domitius's countenance did not agree with his words, and he did +everything with more confusion and fear than he had shown on the +preceding days, and as he had several private meetings with his friends, +contrary to his usual practice, in order to take their advice, and as he +avoided all public councils and assemblies of the people, the truth +could be no longer hid nor dissembled; for Pompey had written back in +answer, "That he would not put matters to the last hazard; that Domitius +had retreated into the town of Corfinium, without either his advice or +consent. Therefore, if any opportunity should offer, he [Domitius] +should come to him with the whole force." But the blockade and works +round the town prevented his escape. + +XX.--Domitius's design being noised abroad, the soldiers in Confinium +[**error in original: should be CORFINIUM] early in the evening began to +mutiny, and held a conference with each other by their tribunes and +centurions, and the most respectable amongst themselves: "that they were +besieged by Caesar; that his works and fortifications were almost +finished; that their general, Domitius, on whose hopes and expectations +they had confided, had thrown them off, and was meditating his own +escape; that they ought to provide for their own safety." At first the +Marsians differed in opinion, and possessed themselves of that part of +the town which they thought the strongest. And so violent a dispute +arose between them, that they attempted to fight and decide it by arms. +However, in a little time, by messengers sent from one side to the +other, they were informed of Domitius's meditated flight, of which they +were previously ignorant. Therefore they all with one consent brought +Domitius into public view, gathered round him, and guarded him; and sent +deputies out of their number to Caesar, to say that they were ready to +throw open their gates, to do whatever he should order, and to deliver +up Domitius alive into his hands. + +XXI.--Upon intelligence of these matters, though Caesar thought it of +great consequence to become master of the town as soon as possible, and +to transfer the cohorts to his own camp, lest any change should be +wrought on their inclinations by bribes, encouragement, or fictitious +messages, because in war great events are often brought about by +trifling circumstances; yet, dreading lest the town should be plundered +by the soldiers entering into it, and taking advantage of the darkness +of the night, he commended the persons who came to him, and sent them +back to the town, and ordered the gates and walls to be secured. He +disposed his soldiers on the works, which he had begun, not at certain +intervals, as was his practice before, but in one continued range of +sentinels and stations, so that they touched each other, and formed a +circle round the whole fortification; he ordered the tribunes and +general officers to ride round; and exhorted them not only to be on +their guard against sallies from the town, but also to watch that no +single person should get out privately. Nor was any man so negligent or +drowsy as to sleep that night. To so great height was their expectation +raised, that they were carried away, heart and soul, each to different +objects, what would become of the Corfinians, what of Domitius, what of +Lentulus, what of the rest; what event would be the consequence of +another. + +XXII.--About the fourth watch, Lentulus Spinther said to our sentinels +and guards from the walls, that he desired to have an interview with +Caesar, if permission were given him. Having obtained it, he was +escorted out of town; nor did the soldiers of Domitius leave him till +they brought him into Caesar's presence. He pleaded with Caesar for his +life, and entreated him to spare him, and reminded him of their former +friendship; and acknowledged that Caesar's favours to him were very +great; in that through his interest he had been admitted into the +college of priests; in that after his praetorship he had been appointed +to the government of Spain; in that he had been assisted by him in his +suit for the consulate. Caesar interrupted him in his speech, and told +him, "that he had not left his province to do mischief [to any man], but +to protect himself from the injuries of his enemies; to restore to their +dignity the tribunes of the people who had been driven out of the city +on his account, and to assert his own liberty, and that of the Roman +people, who were oppressed by a few factious men." Encouraged by this +address, Lentulus begged leave to return to the town, that the security +which he had obtained for himself might be an encouragement to the rest +to hope for theirs; saying that some were so terrified that they were +induced to make desperate attempts on their own lives. Leave being +granted him, he departed. + +XXIII.--When day appeared Caesar ordered all the senators and their +children, the tribunes of the soldiers, and the Roman knights, to be +brought before him. Among the persons of senatorial rank were Lucius +Domitius, Publius Lentulus Spinther, Lucius Vibullius Rufus, Sextus +Quintilius Varus, the quaestor, and Lucius Rubrius, besides the son of +Domitius, and several other young men, and a great number of Roman +knights and burgesses, whom Domitius had summoned from the municipal +towns. When they were brought before him he protected them from the +insolence and taunts of the soldiers; told them in few words that they +had not made him a grateful return, on their part, for his very +extraordinary kindness to them, and dismissed them all in safety. Sixty +sestertia, which Domitius had brought with him and lodged in the public +treasury, being brought to Caesar by the magistrates of Corfinium, he +gave them back to Domitius, that he might not appear more moderate with +respect to the life of men than in money matters, though he knew that it +was public money, and had been given by Pompey to pay his army. He +ordered Domitius's soldiers to take the oath to himself, and that day +decamped and performed the regular march. He stayed only seven days +before Corfinium, and marched into Apulia through the country of the +Marrucinians, Frentanians, and Larinates. + +XXIV.--Pompey, being informed of what had passed at Corfinium, marches +from Luceria to Canusium, and thence to Brundusium. He orders all the +forces raised everywhere by the new levies to repair to him. He gives +arms to the slaves that attended the flocks, and appoints horses for +them. Of these he made up about three hundred horse. Lucius, the +praetor, fled from Alba, with six cohorts: Rutilus Lupus, the praetor, +from Tarracina, with three. These having descried Caesar's cavalry at a +distance, which were commanded by Bivius Curius, and having deserted the +praetor, carried their colours to Curius and went over to him. In like +manner during the rest of his march, several cohorts fell in with the +main body of Caesar's army, others with his horse. Cneius Magius, from +Cremona, engineer-general to Pompey, was taken prisoner on the road and +brought to Caesar, but sent back by him to Pompey with this message: "As +hitherto he had not been allowed an interview, and was now on his march +to him at Brundusium, that it deeply concerned the commonwealth and +general safety that he should have an interview with Pompey; and that +the same advantage could not be gained at a great distance when the +proposals were conveyed to them by others, as if terms were argued by +them both in person." + +XXV.--Having delivered this message he marched to Brundusium with six +legions, four of them veterans: the rest those which he had raised in +the late levy and completed on his march, for he had sent all Domitius's +cohorts immediately from Corfinium to Sicily. He discovered that the +consuls were gone to Dyrrachium with a considerable part of the army, +and that Pompey remained at Brundusium with twenty cohorts; but could +not find out, for a certainty, whether Pompey stayed behind to keep +possession of Brundusium, that he might the more easily command the +whole Adriatic sea, with the extremities of Italy and the coast of +Greece, and be able to conduct the war on either side of it, or whether +he remained there for want of shipping; and, being afraid that Pompey +would come to the conclusion that he ought not to relinquish Italy, he +determined to deprive him of the means of communication afforded by the +harbour of Brundusium. The plan of his work was as follows:--Where the +mouth of the port was narrowest he threw up a mole of earth on either +side, because in these places the sea was shallow. Having gone out so +far that the mole could not be continued in the deep water, he fixed +double floats, thirty feet on either side, before the mole. These he +fastened with four anchors at the four corners, that they might not be +carried away by the waves. Having completed and secured them, he then +joined to them other floats of equal size. These he covered over with +earth and mould, that he might not be prevented from access to them to +defend them, and in the front and on both sides he protected them with a +parapet of wicker work; and on every fourth one raised a turret, two +stories high, to secure them the better from being attacked by the +shipping and set on fire. + +XXVI.--To counteract this, Pompey fitted out large merchant ships, which +he found in the harbour of Brundusium: on them he erected turrets three +stories high, and, having furnished them with several engines and all +sorts of weapons, drove them amongst Caesar's works, to break through +the floats and interrupt the works; thus there happened skirmishes every +day at a distance with slings, arrows, and other weapons. Caesar +conducted matters as if he thought that the hopes of peace were not yet +to be given up. And though he was very much surprised that Magius, whom +he had sent to Pompey with a message, was not sent back to him; and +though his attempting a reconciliation often retarded the vigorous +prosecution of his plans, yet he thought that he ought by all means to +persevere in the same line of conduct. He therefore sent Caninius +Rebilus to have an interview with Scribonius Libo, his intimate friend +and relation. He charges him to exhort Libo to effect a peace, but, +above all things, requires that he should be admitted to an interview +with Pompey. He declared that he had great hopes, if that were allowed +him, that the consequence would be that both parties would lay down +their arms on equal terms; that a great share of the glory and +reputation of that event would redound to Libo, if, through his advice +and agency, hostilities should be ended. Libo, having parted from the +conference with Caninius, went to Pompey, and, shortly after, returns +with answer that, as the consuls were absent, no treaty of compositions +could be engaged in without them. Caesar therefore thought it time at +length to give over the attempt which he had often made in vain, and act +with energy in the war. + +XXVII.--When Caesar's works were nearly half finished, and after nine +days were spent in them, the ships which had conveyed the first division +of the army to Dyrrachium being sent back by the consuls, returned to +Brundusium. Pompey, either frightened at Caesar's works or determined +from the beginning to quit Italy, began to prepare for his departure on +the arrival of the ships; and the more effectually to retard Caesar's +attack, lest his soldiers should force their way into the town at the +moment of his departure, he stopped up the gates, built walls across the +streets and avenues, sunk trenches across the ways, and in them fixed +palisadoes and sharp stakes, which he made level with the ground by +means of hurdles and clay. But he barricaded with large beams fastened +in the ground and sharpened at the ends two passages and roads without +the walls, which led to the port. After making these arrangements, he +ordered his soldiers to go on board without noise, and disposed here and +there, on the wall and turrets, some light-armed veterans, archers and +slingers. These he designed to call off by a certain signal, when all +the soldiers were embarked, and left row-galleys for them in a secure +place. + +XXVIII.--The people of Brundusium, irritated by the insolence of +Pompey's soldiers, and the insults received from Pompey himself, were in +favour of Caesar's party. Therefore, as soon as they were aware of +Pompey's departure, whilst his men were running up and down, and busied +about their voyage, they made signs from the tops of the houses: Caesar, +being apprized of the design by them, ordered scaling ladders to be got +ready, and his men to take arms, that he might not lose any opportunity +of coming to an action. Pompey weighed anchor at nightfall. The soldiers +who had been posted on the wall to guard it, were called off by the +signal which had been agreed on, and knowing the roads, ran down to the +ships. Caesar's soldiers fixed their ladders and scaled the walls: but +being cautioned by the people to beware of the hidden stakes and covered +trenches, they halted, and being conducted by the inhabitants by a long +circuit, they reached the port, and captured with their long boats and +small craft two of Pompey's ships, full of soldiers, which had struck +against Caesar's moles. + +XXIX.-Though Caesar highly approved of collecting a fleet, and crossing +the sea, and pursuing Pompey before he could strengthen himself with his +transmarine auxiliaries, with the hope of bringing the war to a +conclusion, yet he dreaded the delay and length of time necessary to +effect it: because Pompey, by collecting all his ships, had deprived him +of the means of pursuing him at present. The only resource left to +Caesar, was to wait for a fleet from the distant regions of Gaul, +Picenum, and the straits of Gibraltar. But this, on account of the +season of the year, appeared tedious and troublesome. He was unwilling +that, in the meantime, the veteran army, and the two Spains, one of +which was bound to Pompey by the strongest obligations, should be +confirmed in his interest; that auxiliaries and cavalry should be +provided and Gaul and Italy reduced in his absence. + +XXX.--Therefore, for the present, he relinquished all intention of +pursuing Pompey, and resolved to march to Spain, and commanded the +magistrates of the free towns to procure him ships, and to have them +conveyed to Brundusium. He detached Valerius, his lieutenant, with one +legion to Sardinia; Curio, the proprietor, to Sicily with three legions; +and ordered him, when he had recovered Sicily, to immediately transport +his army to Africa. Marcus Cotta was at this time governor of Sardinia: +Marcus Cato, of Sicily: and Tubero, by the lots, should have had the +government of Africa. The Caralitani, as soon as they heard that +Valerius was sent against them, even before he left Italy, of their own +accord drove Cotta out of the town; who, terrified because he understood +that the whole province was combined [against him], fled from Sardinia +to Africa. Cato was in Sicily, repairing the old ships of war, and +demanding new ones from the states, and these things he performed with +great zeal. He was raising levies of Roman citizens, among the Lucani +and Brutii, by his lieutenants, and exacting a certain quota of horse +and foot from the states of Sicily. When these things were nearly +completed, being informed of Curio's approach, he made a complaint that +he was abandoned and betrayed by Pompey, who had undertaken an +unnecessary war, without making any preparation, and when questioned by +him and other members in the senate, had assured them that every thing +was ready and provided for the war. After having made these complaints +in a public assembly, he fled from his province. + +XXXI.--Valerius found Sardinia, and Curio, Sicily, deserted by their +governors when they arrived there with their armies. When Tubero arrived +in Africa, he found Attius Varus in the government of the province, who, +having lost his cohorts, as already related, at Auximum, had straightway +fled to Africa, and finding it without a governor, had seized it of his +own accord, and making levies, had raised two legions. From his +acquaintance with the people and country, and his knowledge of that +province, he found the means of effecting this; because a few years +before, at the expiration of his praetorship, he had obtained that +province. He, when Tubero came to Utica with his fleet, prevented his +entering the port or town, and did not suffer his son, though labouring +under sickness, to set foot on shore; but obliged him to weigh anchor +and quit the place. + +XXXIL.--When these affairs were despatched, Caesar, that there might be +an intermission from labour for the rest of the season, drew off his +soldiers to the nearest municipal towns, and set off in person for Rome. +Having assembled the senate, he reminded them of the injustice of his +enemies; and told them, "That he aimed at no extraordinary honour, but +had waited for the time appointed by law, for standing candidate for the +consulate, being contented with what was allowed to every citizen. That +a bill had been carried by the ten tribunes of the people +(notwithstanding the resistance of his enemies, and a very violent +opposition from Cato, who in his usual manner, consumed the day by a +tedious harangue) that he should be allowed to stand candidate, though +absent, even in the consulship of Pompey; and if the latter disapproved +of the bill, why did he allow it to pass? if he approved of it, why +should he debar him [Caesar] from the people's favour? He made mention +of his own patience, in that he had freely proposed that all armies +should be disbanded, by which he himself would suffer the loss both of +dignity and honour. He urged the virulence of his enemies, who refused +to comply with what they required from others, and had rather that all +things should be thrown into confusion, than that they should lose their +power and their armies. He expatiated on their injustice, in taking away +his legions: their cruelty and insolence in abridging the privileges of +the tribunes; the proposals he had made, and his entreaties of an +interview, which had been refused him: For which reasons, he begged and +desired that they would undertake the management of the republic, and +unite with him in the administration of it. But if through fear they +declined it, he would not be a burden to them, but take the management +of it on himself. That deputies ought to be sent to Pompey, to propose a +reconciliation; as he did not regard what Pompey had lately asserted in +the senate, that authority was acknowledged to be vested in those +persons to whom ambassadors were sent, and fear implied in those that +sent them. That these were the sentiments of low, weak minds: that for +his part, as he had made it his study to surpass others in glory, so he +was desirous of excelling them in justice and equity." + +XXXIII.--The senate approved of sending deputies, but none could be +found fit to execute the commission: for every person, from his own +private fears, declined the office. For Pompey, on leaving the city, had +declared in the open senate, that he would hold in the same degree of +estimation, those who stayed in Rome and those in Caesar's camp. Thus +three days were wasted in disputes and excuses. Besides, Lucius +Metellus, one of the tribunes, was suborned by Caesar's enemies, to +prevent this, and to embarrass everything else which Caesar should +propose. Caesar having discovered his intention, after spending several +days to no purpose, left the city, in order that he might not lose any +more time, and went to Transalpine Gaul, without effecting what he had +intended. + +XXXIV.--On his arrival there, he was informed that, Vibullius Rufus, +whom he had taken a few days before at Corfinium, and set at liberty, +was sent by Pompey into Spain; and that Domitius also was gone to seize +Massilia with seven row-galleys, which were fitted up by some private +persons at Igilium and Cosa, and which he had manned with his own +slaves, freedmen, and colonists: and that some young noblemen of +Massilia had been sent before him; whom Pompey, when leaving Rome had +exhorted, that the late services of Caesar should not erase from their +minds the memory of his former favours. On receiving this message, the +Massilians had shut their gates against Caesar, and invited over to them +the Albici, who had formerly been in alliance with them, and who +inhabited the mountains that overhung Massilia: they had likewise +conveyed the corn from the surrounding country, and from all the forts +into the city; had opened armouries in the city: and were repairing the +walls, the fleet, and the gates. + +XXXV.--Caesar sent for fifteen of the principal persons of Massilia to +attend him. To prevent the war commencing among them, he remonstrates +[in the following language]; "that they ought to follow the precedent +set by all Italy, rather than submit to the will of any one man." He +made use of such arguments as he thought would tend to bring them to +reason. The deputies reported his speech to their countrymen, and by the +authority of the state bring him back this answer: "That they understood +that the Roman people was divided into two factions: that they had +neither judgment nor abilities to decide which had the juster cause; but +that the heads of these factions were Cneius Pompey and Caius Caesar, +the two patrons of the state: the former of whom had granted to their +state the lands of the Volcae Arecomici, and Helvii; the latter had +assigned them a part of his conquests in Gaul, and had augmented their +revenue. Wherefore, having received equal favours from both, they ought +to show equal affection to both, and assist neither against the other, +nor admit either into their city or harbours." + +XXXVI.--Whilst this treaty was going forward, Domitius arrived at +Massilia with his fleet, and was received into the city, and made +governor of it. The chief management of the war was entrusted to him. At +his command they send the fleet to all parts; they seize all the +merchantmen they could meet with, and carry them into the harbour; they +apply the nails, timber, and rigging, with which they were furnished to +rig and refit their other vessels. They lay up in the public stores, all +the corn that was found in the ships, and reserve the rest of their +lading and convoy for the siege of the town, should such an event take +place. Provoked at such ill treatment, Caesar led three legions against +Massilia, and resolved to provide turrets, and vinae to assault the +town, and to build twelve ships at Arelas, which being completed and +rigged in thirty days (from the time the timber was cut down), and being +brought to Massilia, he put under the command of Decimus Brutus; and +left Caius Trebonius his lieutenant, to invest the city. + +XXXVII.--Whilst he was preparing and getting these things in readiness, +he sent Caius Fabius one of his lieutenants into Spain with three +legions, which he had disposed in winter quarters in Narbo, and the +neighbouring country; and ordered him immediately to seize the passes of +the Pyrenees, which were at that time occupied by detachments from +Lucius Afranius, one of Pompey's lieutenants. He desired the other +legions, which were passing the winter at a great distance, to follow +close after him. Fabius, according to his orders, by using expedition, +dislodged the party from the hills, and by hasty marches came up with +the army of Afranius. + +XXXVIII.--On the arrival of Vibullius Rufus, whom, we have already +mentioned, Pompey had sent into Spain, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, +his lieutenants (one of whom had the command of Hither Spain, with three +legions; the second of the country from the forest of Castulo to the +river Guadiana with two legions; the third from the river Guadiana to +the country of the Vettones and Lusitania, with the like number of +legions), divided amongst themselves their respective departments. +Petreius was to march from Lusitania through the Vettones, and join +Afranius with all his forces; Varro was to guard all Further Spain with +what legions he had. These matters being settled, reinforcements of +horse and foot were demanded from Lusitania, by Petreius; from the +Celtiberi, Cantabri, and all the barbarous nations which border on the +ocean, by Afranius. When they were raised, Petreius immediately marched +through the Vettones to Afranius. They resolved by joint consent to +carry on the war in the vicinity of Ilerda, on account of the advantages +of its situation. + +XXXIX.--Afranius, as above mentioned, had three legions, Petreius two. +There were besides about eighty cohorts raised in Hither and Further +Spain (of which, the troops belonging to the former province had +shields, those of the latter targets), and about five thousand horse +raised in both provinces. Caesar had sent his legions into Spain, with +about six thousand auxiliary foot, and three thousand horse, which had +served under him in all his former wars, and the same number from Gaul, +which he himself had provided, having expressly called out all the most +noble and valiant men of each state. The bravest of these were from the +Aquitani and the mountaineers, who border on the Province in Gaul. He +had been informed that Pompey was marching through Mauritania with his +legions to Spain, and would shortly arrive. He at the same time borrowed +money from the tribunes and centurions, which he distributed amongst his +soldiers. By this proceeding he gained two points; he secured the +interest of the centurions by this pledge in his hands, and by his +liberality he purchased the affections of his army. + +XL.--Fabius sounded the inclinations of the neighbouring states by +letters and messengers. He had made two bridges over the river Segre, at +the distance of four miles from each other. He sent foraging parties +over these bridges, because he had already consumed all the forage that +was on his side of the river. The generals of Pompey's army did almost +the same thing, and for the same reason: and the horse had frequent +skirmishes with each other. When two of Fabius's legions had, as was +their constant practice, gone forth as the usual protection to the +foragers, and had crossed the river, and the baggage, and all the horse +were following them, on a sudden, from the weight of the cattle, and the +mass of water, the bridge fell, and all the horse were cut off from the +main army, which being known to Petreius and Afranius, from the timber +and hurdles that were carried down the river, Afranius immediately +crossed his own bridge, which communicated between his camp and the +town, with four legions and all the cavalry, and marched against +Fabius's two legions. When his approach was announced, Lucius Plancus, +who had the command of those legions, compelled by the emergency, took +post on a rising ground; and drew up his army with two fronts, that it +might not be surrounded by the cavalry. Thus, though engaged with +superior numbers, he sustained the furious charge of the legions and the +horse. When the battle was begun by the horse, there were observed at a +distance by both sides the colours of two legions, which Caius Fabius +had sent round by the further bridge to reinforce our men, suspecting, +as the event verified, that the enemy's generals would take advantage of +the opportunity which fortune had put in their way, to attack our men. +Their approach put an end to the battle, and each general led back his +legions to their respective camps. + +XLI.--In two days after Caesar came to the camp with nine hundred horse, +which he had retained for a bodyguard. The bridge which had been broken +down by the storm was almost repaired, and he ordered it to be finished +in the night. Being acquainted with the nature of the country, he left +behind him six cohorts to guard the bridge, the camp, and all his +baggage, and the next day set off in person for Ilerda, with all his +forces drawn up in three lines, and halted just before the camp of +Afranius, and having remained there a short time under arms, he offered +him battle on equal terms. When this offer was made, Afranius drew out +his forces, and posted them on the middle of a hill, near his camp. When +Caesar perceived that Afranius declined coming to an engagement, he +resolved to encamp at somewhat less than half a mile's distance from the +very foot of the mountain; and that his soldiers whilst engaged in their +works, might not be terrified by any sudden attack of the enemy, or +disturbed in their work, he ordered them not to fortify it with a wall, +which must rise high, and be seen at a distance, but draw, on the front +opposite the enemy, a trench fifteen feet broad. The first and second +lines continued under arms as was from the first appointed. Behind them +the third line was carrying on the work without being seen; so that the +whole was completed before Afranius discovered that the camp was being +fortified. + +XLII.--In the evening Caesar drew his legions within this trench, and +rested them under arms the next night. The day following he kept his +whole army within it, and as it was necessary to bring materials from a +considerable distance, he for the present pursued the same plan in his +work; and to each legion, one after the other, he assigned one side of +the camp to fortify, and ordered trenches of the same magnitude to be +cut: he kept the rest of the legions under arms without baggage to +oppose the enemy. Afranius and Petreius, to frighten us and obstruct the +work, drew out their forces at the very foot of the mountain, and +challenged us to battle. Caesar, however, did not interrupt his work, +relying on the protection of the three legions, and the strength of the +fosse. After staying for a short time, and advancing no great distance +from the bottom of the hill, they led back their forces to their camp. +The third day Caesar fortified his camp with a rampart, and ordered the +other cohorts which he had left in the upper camp, and his baggage to be +removed to it. + +XLIIL-Between the town of Ilerda and the next hill, on which Afranius +and Petreius were encamped, there was a plain about three hundred paces +broad, and near the middle of it an eminence somewhat raised above the +level: Caesar hoped that if he could get possession of this and fortify +it, he should be able to cut off the enemy from the town, the bridge, +and all the stores which they had laid up in the town. In expectation of +this he led three legions out of the camp, and, drawing up his army in +an advantageous position, he ordered the advanced men of one legion to +hasten forward and seize the eminence. Upon intelligence of this the +cohorts which were on guard before Afranius's camp were instantly sent a +nearer way to occupy the same post. The two parties engage, and as +Afranius's men had reached the eminence first, our men were repulsed, +and, on a reinforcement being sent, they were obliged to turn their +backs and retreat to the standards of legions. + +XLIV.--The manner of fighting of those soldiers was to run forward with +great impetuosity and boldly take a post, and not to keep their ranks +strictly, but to fight in small scattered parties: if hard pressed they +thought it no disgrace to retire and give up the post, being accustomed +to this manner of fighting among the Lusitanians and other barbarous +nations; for it commonly happens that soldiers are strongly influenced +by the customs of those countries in which they have spent much time. +This method, however, alarmed our men, who were not used to such a +description of warfare. For they imagined that they were about to be +surrounded on their exposed flank by the single men who ran forward from +their ranks; and they thought it their duty to keep their ranks, and not +to quit their colours, nor, without good reason, to give up the post +which they had taken. Accordingly, when the advanced guard gave way, the +legion which was stationed on that wing did not keep its ground, but +retreated to the next hill. + +XLV.--Almost the whole army being daunted at this, because it had +occurred contrary to their expectations and custom, Caesar encouraged +his men and led the ninth legion to their relief, and checked the +insolent and eager pursuit of the enemy, and obliged them, in their +turn, to show their backs and retreat to Ilerda, and take post under the +walls. But the soldiers of the ninth legion, being over zealous to +repair the dishonour which had been sustained, having rashly pursued the +fleeing enemy, advanced into disadvantageous ground and went up to the +foot of the mountain on which the town Ilerda was built. And when they +wished to retire they were again attacked by the enemy from the rising +ground. The place was craggy in the front and steep on either side, and +was so narrow that even three cohorts, drawn up in order of battle, +would fill it; but no relief could be sent on the flanks, and the horse +could be of no service to them when hard pressed. From the town, indeed, +the precipice inclined with a gentle slope for near four hundred paces. +Our men had to retreat this way, as they had, through their eagerness, +advanced too inconsiderately. The greatest contest was in this place, +which was much to the disadvantage of our troops, both on account of its +narrowness, and because they were posted at the foot of the mountain, so +that no weapon was thrown at them without effect: yet they exerted their +valour and patience, and bore every wound. The enemy's forces were +increasing, and cohorts were frequently sent to their aid from the camp +through the town, that fresh men might relieve the weary. Caesar was +obliged to do the same, and relieve the fatigued by sending cohorts to +that post. + +XLVI.--After the battle had in this manner continued incessantly for +five hours, and our men had suffered much from superior numbers, having +spent all their javelins, they drew their swords and charged the enemy +up the hill, and, having killed a few, obliged the rest to fly. The +cohorts being beaten back to the wall, and some being driven by their +fears into the town, an easy retreat was afforded to our men. Our +cavalry also, on either flank, though stationed on sloping or low +ground, yet bravely struggled up to the top of the hill, and, riding +between the two armies, made our retreat more easy and secure. Such were +the various turns of fortune in the battle. In the first encounter about +seventy of our men fell: amongst them Quintus Fulgenius, first centurion +of the second line of the fourteenth legion, who, for his extraordinary +valour, had been promoted from the lower ranks to that post. About six +hundred were wounded. Of Afranius's party there were killed Titus +Caecilius, principal centurion, and four other centurions, and above two +hundred men. + +XLVII.--But this opinion is spread abroad concerning this day, that each +party thought that they came off conquerors. Afranius's soldiers, +because, though they were esteemed inferior in the opinion of all, yet +they had stood our attack and sustained our charge, and, at first, had +kept the post and the hill which had been the occasion of the dispute; +and, in the first encounter, had obliged our men to fly: but ours, +because, notwithstanding the disadvantage of the ground and the +disparity of numbers, they had maintained the battle for five hours, had +advanced up the hill sword in hand, and had forced the enemy to fly from +the higher ground and driven them into the town. The enemy fortified the +hill, about which the contest had been, with strong works, and posted a +garrison on it. + +XLVIII.--In two days after this transaction, there happened an +unexpected misfortune. For so great a storm arose, that it was agreed +that there were never seen higher floods in those countries; it swept +down the snow from all the mountains, and broke over the banks of the +river, and in one day carried away both the bridges which Fabius had +built,--a circumstance which caused great difficulties to Caesar's army. +For as our camp, as already mentioned, was pitched between two rivers, +the Segre and Cinca, and as neither of these could be forded for the +space of thirty miles, they were all of necessity confined within these +narrow limits. Neither could the states, which had espoused Caesar's +cause, furnish him with corn, nor the troops, which had gone far to +forage, return, as they were stopped by the waters: nor could the +convoys, coming from Italy and Gaul, make their way to the camp. +Besides, it was the most distressing season of the year, when there was +no corn in the blade, and it was nearly ripe: and the states were +exhausted, because Afranius had conveyed almost all the corn, before +Caesar's arrival, into Ilerda, and whatever he had left, had been +already consumed by Caesar. The cattle, which might have served as a +secondary resource against want, had been removed by the states to a +great distance on account of the war. They who had gone out to get +forage or corn, were chased by the light troops of the Lusitanians, and +the targeteers of Hither Spain, who were well acquainted with the +country, and could readily swim across the river, because it is the +custom of all those people not to join their armies without bladders. + +XLIX.--But Afranius's army had abundance of everything; a great stock of +corn had been provided and laid in long before, a large quantity was +coming in from the whole province: they had a good store of forage. The +bridge of Ilerda afforded an opportunity of getting all these without +any danger, and the places beyond the bridge, to which Caesar had no +access, were as yet untouched. + +L.--Those floods continued several days. Caesar endeavoured to repair +the bridges, but the height of the water did not allow him: and the +cohorts disposed along the banks did not suffer them to be completed; +and it was easy for them to prevent it, both from the nature of the +river and the height of the water, but especially because their darts +were thrown from the whole course of the bank on one confined spot; and +it was no easy matter at one and the same time to execute a work in a +very rapid flood, and to avoid the darts. + +LI.--Intelligence was brought to Afranius that the great convoys, which +were on their march to Caesar, had halted at the river. Archers from the +Rutheni, and horse from the Gauls, with a long train of baggage, +according to the Gallic custom of travelling, had arrived there; there +were besides about six thousand people of all descriptions, with slaves +and freed men. But there was no order, or regular discipline, as every +one followed his own humour, and all travelled without apprehension, +taking the same liberty as on former marches. There were several young +noblemen, sons of senators, and of equestrian rank; there were +ambassadors from several states; there were lieutenants of Caesar's. The +river stopped them all. To attack them by surprise, Afranius set out in +the beginning of the night, with all his cavalry and three legions, and +sent the horse on before, to fall on them unawares; but the Gallic horse +soon got themselves in readiness, and attacked them. Though but few, +they withstood the vast number of the enemy, as long as they fought on +equal terms: but when the legions began to approach, having lost a few +men, they retreated to the next mountains. The delay occasioned by this +battle was of great importance to the security of our men; for having +gained time, they retired to the higher grounds. There were missing that +day about two hundred bow-men, a few horse, and an inconsiderable number +of servants and baggage. + +LII.--However, by all these things, the price of provisions was raised, +which is commonly a disaster attendant, not only on a time of present +scarcity, but on the apprehension of future want. Provisions had now +reached fifty denarii each bushel; and the want of corn had diminished +the strength of the soldiers; and the inconveniences were increasing +every day: and so great an alteration was wrought in a few days, and +fortune had so changed sides, that our men had to struggle with the want +of every necessary; while the enemy had an abundant supply of all +things, and were considered to have the advantage. Caesar demanded from +those states which had acceded to his alliance, a supply of cattle, as +they had but little corn. He sent away the camp followers to the more +distant states, and endeavoured to remedy the present scarcity by every +resource in his power. + +LIII.--Afranius and Petreius, and their friends, sent fuller and more +circumstantial accounts of these things to Rome, to their acquaintances. +Report exaggerated them so that the war appeared to be almost at an end. +When these letters and despatches were received at Rome, a great +concourse of people resorted to the house of Afranius, and +congratulations ran high: several went out of Italy to Cneius Pompey; +some of them, to be the first to bring him the intelligence; others, +that they might not be thought to have waited the issue of the war, and +to have come last of all. + +LIV.--When Caesar's affairs were in this unfavourable position, and all +the passes were guarded by the soldiers and horse of Afranius, and the +bridges could not be prepared, Caesar ordered his soldiers to make ships +of the kind that his knowledge of Britain a few years before had taught +him. First, the keels and ribs were made of light timber, then, the rest +of the hulk of the ships was wrought with wicker-work, and covered over +with hides. When these were finished, he drew them down to the river in +waggons in one night, a distance of twenty-two miles from his camp, and +transported in them some soldiers across the river, and on a sudden took +possession of a hill adjoining the bank. This he immediately fortified, +before he was perceived by the enemy. To this he afterwards transported +a legion: and having begun a bridge on both sides, he finished it in two +days. By this means, he brought safe to his camp the convoys, and those +who had gone out to forage; and began to prepare a conveyance for the +provisions. + +LV.--The same day he made a great part of his horse pass the river, who, +falling on the foragers by surprise as they were dispersed without any +suspicions, intercepted an incredible number of cattle and people; and +when some Spanish light-armed cohorts were sent to reinforce the enemy, +our men judiciously divided themselves into two parts, the one to +protect the spoil, the other to resist the advancing foe, and to beat +them back, and they cut off from the rest and surrounded one cohort, +which had rashly ventured out of the line before the others, and after +putting it to the sword, returned safe with considerable booty to the +camp over the same bridge. + +LVI.--Whilst these affairs are going forward at Ilerda, the Massilians, +adopting the advice of Domitius, prepared seventeen ships of war, of +which eleven were decked. To these they add several smaller vessels, +that our fleet might be terrified by numbers: they man them with a great +number of archers and of the Albici, of whom mention has been already +made, and these they incited by rewards and promises. Domitius required +certain ships for his own use, which he manned with colonists and +shepherds, whom he had brought along with him. A fleet being thus +furnished with every necessary, he advanced with great confidence +against our ships, commanded by Decimus Brutus. It was stationed at an +island opposite to Massilia. + +LVII.--Brutus was much inferior in number of ships; but Caesar had +appointed to that fleet the bravest men selected from all his legions, +antesignani and centurions, who had requested to be employed in that +service. They had provided iron hooks and harpoons, and had furnished +themselves with a vast number of javelins, darts, and missiles. Thus +prepared, and being apprised of the enemy's approach, they put out from +the harbour, and engaged the Massilians. Both sides fought with great +courage and resolution; nor did the Albici, a hardy people, bred on the +highlands and inured to arms, fall much short of our men in valour: and +being lately come from the Massilians, they retained in their minds +their recent promises: and the wild shepherds, encouraged by the hope of +liberty, were eager to prove their zeal in the presence of their +masters. + +LVIII.--The Massilians themselves, confiding in the quickness of their +ships, and the skill of their pilots, eluded ours, and evaded the shock, +and as long as they were permitted by clear space, lengthening their +line they endeavoured to surround us, or to attack single ships with +several of theirs, or to run across our ships, and carry away our oars, +if possible; but when necessity obliged them to come nearer, they had +recourse, from the skill and art of the pilots, to the valour of the +mountaineers. But our men, not having such expert seamen, or skilful +pilots, for they had been hastily drafted from the merchant ships, and +were not yet acquainted even with the names of the rigging, were +moreover impeded by the heaviness and slowness of our vessels, which +having been built in a hurry and of green timber, were not so easily +manoeuvred. Therefore, when Caesar's men had an opportunity of a close +engagement, they cheerfully opposed two of the enemy's ships with one of +theirs. And throwing in the grappling irons, and holding both ships +fast, they fought on both sides of the deck, and boarded the enemy's; +and having killed numbers of the Albici and shepherds, they sank some of +their ships, took others with the men on board, and drove the rest into +the harbour. That day the Massilians lost nine ships, including those +that were taken. + +LIX.--When news of this battle was brought to Caesar at Ilerda, the +bridge being completed at the same time, fortune soon took a turn. The +enemy, daunted by the courage of our horse, did not scour the country as +freely or as boldly as before: but sometimes advancing a small distance +from the camp, that they might have a ready retreat, they foraged within +narrower bounds: at other times, they took a longer circuit to avoid our +outposts and parties of horse; or having sustained some loss, or +descried our horse at a distance, they fled in the midst of their +expedition, leaving their baggage behind them; at length they resolved +to leave off foraging for several days, and, contrary to the practice of +all nations, to go out at night. + +LX.--In the meantime the Oscenses and the Calagurritani, who were under +the government of the Oscenses, send ambassadors to Caesar, and offer to +submit to his orders. They are followed by the Tarraconenses, Jacetani, +and Ausetani, and in a few days more by the Illurgavonenses, who dwell +near the river Ebro. He requires of them all to assist him with corn, to +which they agreed, and having collected all the cattle in the country, +they convey them into his camp. One entire cohort of the +Illurgavonenses, knowing the design of their state, came over to Caesar, +from the place where they were stationed, and carried their colours with +them. A great change is shortly made in the face of affairs. The bridge +being finished, five powerful states being joined to Caesar, a way +opened for the receiving of corn, and the rumours of the assistance of +legions which were said to be on their march, with Pompey at their head, +through Mauritania, having died away, several of the more distant states +revolt from Afranius, and enter into league with Caesar. + +LXI.--Whilst the spirits of the enemy were dismayed at these things, +Caesar, that he might not be always obliged to send his horse a long +circuit round by the bridge, having found a convenient place, began to +sink several drains, thirty feet deep, by which he might draw off a part +of the river Segre, and make a ford over it. When these were almost +finished, Afranius and Petreius began to be greatly alarmed, lest they +should be altogether cut off from corn and forage, because Caesar was +very strong in cavalry. They therefore resolved to quit their posts, and +to transfer the war to Celtiberia. There was, moreover, a circumstance +that confirmed them in this resolution: for of the two adverse parties, +that which had stood by Sertorius in the late war, being conquered by +Pompey, still trembled at his name and sway, though absent: the other +which had remained firm in Pompey's interest, loved him for the favours +which they had received: but Caesar's name was not known to the +barbarians. From these they expected considerable aid, both of horse and +foot, and hoped to protract the war till winter, in a friendly country. +Having come to this resolution, they gave orders to collect all the +ships in the river Ebro, and to bring them to Octogesa, a town situated +on the river Ebro, about twenty miles distant from their camp. At this +part of the river, they ordered a bridge to be made of boats fastened +together, and transported two legions over the river Segre, and +fortified their camp with a rampart, twelve feet high. + +LXII.--Notice of this being given by the scouts, Caesar continued his +work day and night, with very great fatigue to the soldiers, to drain +the river, and so far effected his purpose, that the horse were both +able and bold enough, though with some difficulty and danger, to pass +the river; but the foot had only their shoulders and upper part of their +breast above the water, so that their fording it was retarded, not only +by the depth of the water, but also by the rapidity of the current. +However, almost at the same instant, news was received of the bridge +being nearly completed over the Ebro, and a ford was found in the Segre. + +LXIII.--Now indeed the enemy began to think that they ought to hasten +their march. Accordingly, leaving two auxiliary cohorts in the garrison +at Ilerda, they crossed the Segre with their whole force, and formed one +camp with the two legions which they had led across a few days before. +Caesar had no resource, but to annoy and cut down their rear; since with +his cavalry to go by the bridge, required him to take a long circuit; so +that they would arrive at the Ebro by a much shorter route. The horse, +which he had detached, crossed the ford, and when Afranius and Petreius +had broken up their camp about the third watch, they suddenly appeared +on their rear, and spreading round them in great numbers, began to +retard and impede their march. + +LXIV.--At break of day, it was perceived from the rising grounds which +joined Caesar's camp, that their rear was vigorously pressed by our +horse; that the last line sometimes halted and was broken; at other +times, that they joined battle and that our men were beaten back by a +general charge of their cohorts, and, in their turn, pursued them when +they wheeled about: but through the whole camp the soldiers gathered in +parties, and declared their chagrin that the enemy had been suffered to +escape from their hands and that the war had been unnecessarily +protracted. They applied to their tribunes and centurions, and entreated +them to inform Caesar that he need not spare their labour or consider +their danger; that they were ready and able, and would venture to ford +the river where the horse had crossed. Caesar, encouraged by their zeal +and importunity, though he felt reluctant to expose his army to a river +so exceedingly large, yet judged it prudent to attempt it and make a +trial. Accordingly, he ordered all the weaker soldiers, whose spirit or +strength seemed unequal to the fatigue, to be selected from each +century, and left them, with one legion besides, to guard the camp: the +rest of the legions he drew out without any baggage, and, having +disposed a great number of horses in the river, above and below the +ford, he led his army over. A few of his soldiers being carried away by +the force of the current, were stopped by the horse and taken up, and +not a man perished. His army being safe on the opposite bank, he drew +out his forces and resolved to lead them forward in three battalions: +and so great was the ardour of the soldiers that, notwithstanding the +addition of a circuit of six miles and a considerable delay in fording +the river, before the ninth hour of the day they came up with those who +had set out at the third watch. + +LXV.--When Afranius, who was in company with Petreius, saw them at a +distance, being affrighted at so unexpected a sight, he halted on a +rising ground and drew up his army. Caesar refreshed his army on the +plain that he might not expose them to battle whilst fatigued; and when +the enemy attempted to renew their march, he pursued and stopped them. +They were obliged to pitch their camp sooner than they had intended, for +there were mountains at a small distance; and difficult and narrow roads +awaited them about five miles off. They retired behind these mountains +that they might avoid Caesar's cavalry, and, placing parties in the +narrow roads, stop the progress of his army and lead their own forces +across the Ebro without danger or apprehension. This it was their +interest to attempt and to effect by any means possible; but, fatigued +by the skirmishes all day, and by the labour of their march, they +deferred it till the following day: Caesar likewise encamped on the next +hill. + +LXVI.--About midnight a few of their men who had gone some distance from +the camp to fetch water, being taken by our horse, Caesar is informed by +them that the generals of the enemy were drawing their troops out of the +camp without noise. Upon this information Caesar ordered the signal to +be given and the military shout to be raised for packing up the baggage. +When they heard the shout, being afraid lest they should be stopped in +the night and obliged to engage under their baggage, or lest they should +be confined in the narrow roads by Caesar's horse, they put a stop to +their march and kept their forces in their camp. The next day Petreius +went out privately with a few horse to reconnoitre the country. A +similar movement was made from Caesar's camp. Lucius Decidius Saxa was +detached with a small party to explore the nature of the country. Each +returned with the same account to his camp, that there was a level road +for the next five miles, that there then succeeded a rough and +mountainous country. Whichever should first obtain possession of the +defiles would have no trouble in preventing the other's progress. + +LXVII.--There was a debate in the council between Afranius and Petreius, +and the time of marching was the subject. The majority were of opinion +that they should begin their march at night, "for they might reach the +defiles before they should be discovered." Others, because a shout had +been raised the night before in Caesar's camp, used this as an argument +that they could not leave the camp unnoticed: "that Caesar's cavalry +were patrolling the whole night, and that all the ways and roads were +beset; that battles at night ought to be avoided, because in civil +dissension, a soldier once daunted is more apt to consult his fears than +his oath; that the daylight raised a strong sense of shame in the eyes +of all, and that the presence of the tribunes and centurions had the +same effect: by these things the soldiers would be re strained and awed +to their duty. Wherefore they should, by all means, attempt to force +their way by day; for, though a trifling loss might be sustained, yet +the post which they desired might be secured with safety to the main +body of the army." This opinion prevailed in the council, and the next +day, at the dawn, they resolved to set forward. + +LXVIII.--Caesar, having taken a view of the country, the moment the sky +began to grow white, led his forces from the camp and marched at the +head of his army by a long circuit, keeping to no regular road; for the +road which led to the Ebro and Octogesa was occupied by the enemy's +camp, which lay in Caesar's way. His soldiers were obliged to cross +extensive and difficult valleys. Craggy cliffs, in several places, +interrupted their march, insomuch that their arms had to be handed to +one another, and the soldiers were forced to perform a great part of +their march unarmed, and were lifted up the rocks by each other. But not +a man murmured at the fatigue, because they imagined that there would be +a period to all their toils if they could cut off the enemy from the +Ebro and intercept their convoys. + +LXIX.--At first, Afranius's soldiers ran in high spirits from their camp +to look at us, and in contumelious language upbraided us, "that we were +forced, for want of necessary subsistence, to run away, and return to +Ilerda." For our route was different from what we proposed, and we +appeared to be going a contrary way. But their generals applauded their +own prudence in keeping within their camp, and it was a strong +confirmation of their opinion, that they saw we marched without waggons +or baggage, which made them confident that we could not long endure +want. But when they saw our army gradually wheel to the right, and +observed our van was already passing the line of their camp, there was +nobody so stupid, or averse to fatigue, as not to think it necessary to +march from the camp immediately, and oppose us. The cry to arms was +raised, and all the army, except a few which were left to guard the +camp, set out and marched the direct road to the Ebro. + +LXX.--The contest depended entirely on despatch, which should first get +possession of the defile and the mountain. The difficulty of the roads +delayed Caesar's army, but his cavalry pursuing Afranius's forces, +retarded their march. However, the affair was necessarily reduced to +this point, with respect to Afranius's men, that if they first gained +the mountains, which they desired, they would themselves avoid all +danger, but could not save the baggage of their whole army, nor the +cohorts which they had left behind in the camps, to which, being +intercepted by Caesar's army, by no means could assistance be given. +Caesar first accomplished the march, and having found a plain behind +large rocks, drew up his army there in order of battle and facing the +enemy. Afranius, perceiving that his rear was galled by our cavalry, and +seeing the enemy before him, having come to a hill, made a halt on it. +Thence he detached four cohorts of Spanish light infantry to the highest +mountain which was in view: to this he ordered them to hasten with all +expedition, and to take possession of it, with the intention of going to +the same place with all his forces, then altering his route, and +crossing the hills to Octogesa. As the Spaniards were making towards it +in an oblique direction, Caesar's horse espied them and attacked them, +nor were they able to withstand the charge of the cavalry even for a +moment, but were all surrounded and cut to pieces in the sight of the +two armies. + +LXXI.--There was now an opportunity for managing affairs successfully, +nor did it escape Caesar, that an army daunted at suffering such a loss +before their eyes, could not stand, especially as they were surrounded +by our horse, and the engagement would take place on even and open +ground. To this he was importuned on all sides. The lieutenants, +centurions, and tribunes, gathered round him, and begged "that he would +not hesitate to begin the battle: that the hearts of all the soldiers +were very anxious for it: that Afranius's men had by several +circumstances betrayed signs of fear; in that they had not assisted +their party; in that they had not quitted the hill; in that they did not +sustain the charge of our cavalry, but crowding their standards into one +place, did not observe either rank or order. But if he had any +apprehensions from the disadvantage of the ground, that an opportunity +would be given him of coming to battle in some other place: for that +Afranius must certainly come down, and would not be able to remain there +for want of water." + +LXXII.--Caesar had conceived hopes of ending the affair without an +engagement, or without striking a blow, because he had cut off the +enemy's supplies. Why should he hazard the loss of any of his men, even +in a successful battle? Why should he expose soldiers to be wounded; who +had deserved so well of him? Why, in short, should he tempt fortune? +especially when it was as much a general's duty to conquer by tactics, +as by the sword. Besides, he was moved with compassion for those +citizens, who, he foresaw, must fall: and he had rather gain his object +without any loss or injury to them. This resolution of Caesar was not +generally approved of; but the soldiers openly declared to each other, +that since such an opportunity of victory was let pass, they would not +come to an engagement, even when Caesar should wish it. He persevered +however in his resolution, and retired a little from that place to abate +the enemy's fears. Petreius and Afranius, having got this opportunity, +retired to their camp. Caesar, having disposed parties on the mountains, +and cut off all access to the Ebro, fortified his camp as close to the +enemy as he could. + +LXXIII.--The day following, the generals of his opponents, being alarmed +that they had lost all prospect of supplies, and of access to the Ebro, +consulted as to what other course they should take. There were two +roads, one to Ilerda, if they chose to return, the other to Tarraco, if +they should march to it. Whilst they were deliberating on these matters, +intelligence was brought them that their watering parties were attacked +by our horse: upon which information, they dispose several parties of +horse and auxiliary foot along the road, and intermix some legionary +cohorts, and begin to throw up a rampart from the camp to the water, +that they might be able to procure water within their lines, both +without fear, and without a guard. Petreius and Afranius divided this +task between themselves, and went in person to some distance from their +camp for the purpose of seeing it accomplished. + +LXXIV.--The soldiers having obtained by their absence a free opportunity +of conversing with each other, came out in great numbers, and inquired +each for whatever acquaintance or fellow citizen he had in our camp, and +invited him to him. First they returned them general thanks for sparing +them the day before, when they were greatly terrified, and acknowledged +that they were alive through their kindness; then they inquired about +the honour of our general, and whether they could with safety entrust +themselves to him; and declared their sorrow that they had not done so +in the beginning, and that they had taken up arms against their +relations and kinsmen. Encouraged by these conferences, they desired the +general's parole for the lives of Petreius and Afranius, that they might +not appear guilty of a crime, in having betrayed their generals. When +they were assured of obtaining their demands, they promised that they +would immediately remove their standards, and sent centurions of the +first rank as deputies to treat with Caesar about a peace. In the +meantime some of them invite their acquaintances, and bring them to +their camp, others are brought away by their friends, so that the two +camps seemed to be united into one, and several of the tribunes and +centurions came to Caesar, and paid their respects to him. The same was +done by some of the nobility of Spain, whom they summoned to their +assistance, and kept in their camp as hostages. They inquired after +their acquaintance and friends, by whom each might have the means of +being recommended to Caesar. Even Afranius's son, a young man, +endeavoured by means of Sulpitius the lieutenant, to make terms for his +own and his father's life. Every place was filled with mirth and +congratulations; in the one army, because they thought they had escaped +so impending danger; in the other, because they thought they had +completed so important a matter without blows; and Caesar, in every +man's judgment, reaped the advantage of his former lenity, and his +conduct was applauded by all. + +LXXV.--When these circumstances were announced to Afranius, he left the +work which he had begun, and returned to his camp determined, as it +appeared, whatever should be the event to bear it with an even and +steady mind. Petreius did not neglect himself; he armed his domestics; +with them and the praetorian cohort of Spaniards, and a few foreign +horse, his dependants, whom he commonly kept near him to guard his +person, he suddenly flew to the rampart, interrupted the conferences of +the soldiers, drove our men from the camp, and put to death as many as +he caught. The rest formed into a body, and, being alarmed by the +unexpected danger, wrapped their left arms in their cloaks, and drew +their swords, and in this manner, depending on the nearness of their +camp, defended themselves against the Spaniards, and the horse, and made +good their retreat to the camp, where they were protected by the +cohorts, which were on guard. + +LXXVI.--Petreius, after accomplishing this, went round every maniple, +calling the soldiers by their names and entreating with tears, that they +would not give up him and their absent general Pompey, as a sacrifice to +the vengeance of their enemies. Immediately they ran in crowds to the +general's pavilion, when he required them all to take an oath that they +would not desert nor betray the army nor the generals, nor form any +design distinct from the general interest. He himself swore first to the +tenor of those words, and obliged Afranius to take the same oath. The +tribunes and centurions followed their example; the soldiers were +brought out by centuries, and took the same oath. They gave orders, that +whoever had any of Caesar's soldiers should produce them; as soon as +they were produced, they put them to death publicly in the praetorium, +but most of them concealed those that they had entertained, and let them +out at night over the rampart. Thus the terror raised by the generals, +the cruelty of the punishments, the new obligation of an oath, removed +all hopes of surrender for the present, changed the soldiers' minds, and +reduced matters to the former state of war. + +LXXVII.--Caesar ordered the enemy's soldiers, who had come into his camp +to hold a conference, to be searched for with the strictest diligence, +and sent back. But of the tribunes and centurions, several voluntarily +remained with him, and he afterwards treated them with great respect. +The centurions he promoted to higher ranks, and conferred on the Roman +knights the honour of tribunes. + +LXXVIII.--Afranius's men were distressed in foraging, and procured water +with difficulty. The legionary soldiers had a tolerable supply of corn, +because they had been ordered to bring from Ilerda sufficient to last +twenty-two days; the Spanish and auxiliary forces had none, for they had +but few opportunities of procuring any, and their bodies were not +accustomed to bear burdens; and therefore a great number of them came +over to Caesar every day. Their affairs were under these difficulties; +but of the two schemes proposed, the most expedient seemed to be to +return to Ilerda, because they had left some corn there; and there they +hoped to decide on a plan for their future conduct. Tarraco lay at a +greater distance; and in such a space they knew affairs might admit of +many changes. Their design having met with approbation, they set out +from their camp. Caesar having sent forward his cavalry, to annoy and +retard their rear, followed close after with his legions. Not a moment +passed in which their rear was not engaged with our horse. + +LXXIX.--Their manner of fighting was this: the light cohorts closed +their rear, and frequently made a stand on the level grounds. If they +had a mountain to ascend, the very nature of the place readily secured +them from any danger; for the advanced guards, from the rising grounds, +protected the rest in their ascent. When they approached a valley or +declivity, and the advanced men could not impart assistance to the +tardy, our horse threw their darts at them from the rising grounds with +advantage; then their affairs were in a perilous situation; the only +plan left was, that whenever they came near such places, they should +give orders to the legions to halt, and by a violent effort repulse our +horse; and these being forced to give way, they should suddenly, with +the utmost speed, run all together down to the valley, and having passed +it, should face about again on the next hill. For so far were they from +deriving any assistance from their horse (of which they had a large +number), that they were obliged to receive them into the centre of their +army, and themselves protect them, as they were daunted by former +battles. And on their march no one could quit the line without being +taken by Caesar's horse. + +LXXX.--Whilst skirmishes were fought in this manner, they advanced but +slowly and gradually, and frequently halted to help their rear, as then +happened. For having advanced four miles, and being very much harassed +by our horse, they took post on a high mountain, and there entrenched +themselves on the front only, facing the enemy; and did not take their +baggage off their cattle. When they perceived that Caesar's camp was +pitched, and the tents fixed up, and his horse sent out to forage, they +suddenly rushed out about twelve o'clock the same day, and, having hopes +that we should be delayed by the absence of our horse, they began to +march, which Caesar perceiving, followed them with the legions that +remained. He left a few cohorts to guard his baggage, and ordered the +foragers to be called home at the tenth hour, and the horse to follow +him. The horse shortly returned to their daily duty on march, and +charged the rear so vigorously, that they almost forced them to fly; and +several privates and some centurions were killed. The main body of +Caesar's army was at hand, and universal ruin threatened them. + +LXXXI.--Then indeed, not having opportunity either to choose a +convenient position for their camp, or to march forward, they were +obliged to halt, and to encamp at a distance from water, and on ground +naturally unfavourable. But for the reasons already given, Caesar did +not attack them, nor suffer a tent to be pitched that day, that his men +might be the readier to pursue them whether they attempted to run off by +night or by day. Observing the defect in their position, they spent the +whole night in extending their works, and turn their camp to ours. The +next day, at dawn, they do the same, and spend the whole day in that +manner, but in proportion as they advanced their works, and extended +their camp, they were farther distant from the water; and one evil was +remedied by another. The first night, no one went out for water. The +next day, they left a guard in the camp, and led out all their forces to +water: but not a person was sent to look for forage. Caesar was more +desirous that they should be humbled by these means, and forced to come +to terms, than decide the contest by battle. Yet he endeavoured to +surround them with a wall and trench, that he might be able to check +their most sudden sally, to which he imagined that they must have +recourse. Hereupon, urged by want of fodder, that they might be the +readier for a march, they killed all their baggage cattle. + +LXXXII.--In this work, and the deliberations on it, two days were spent. +By the third day a considerable part of Caesar's works was finished. To +interrupt his progress, they drew out their legions about the eighth +hour, by a certain signal, and placed them in order of battle before +their camp. Caesar calling his legions off from their work, and ordering +the horse to hold themselves in readiness, marshalled his army: for to +appear to decline an engagement contrary to the opinion of the soldiers +and the general voice, would have been attended with great disadvantage. +But for the reasons already known, he was dissuaded from wishing to +engage, and the more especially, because the short space between the +camps, even if the enemy were put to flight, would not contribute much +to a decisive victory; for the two camps were not distant from each +other above two thousand feet. Two parts of this were occupied by the +armies, and one third left for the soldiers to charge and make their +attack. If a battle should be begun, the nearness of the camps would +afford a ready retreat to the conquered party in the flight. For this +reason Caesar had resolved to make resistance, if they attacked him, but +not to be the first to provoke the battle. + +LXXXIII.--Afranius's five legions were drawn up in two lines, the +auxiliary cohorts formed the third line, and acted as reserves. Caesar +had three lines, four cohorts out of each of the five legions formed the +first line. Three more from each legion followed them, as reserves: and +three others were behind these. The slingers and archers were stationed +in the centre of the line; the cavalry closed the flanks. The hostile +armies being arranged in this manner, each seemed determined to adhere +to his first intention: Caesar not to hazard a battle, unless forced to +it; Afranius to interrupt Caesar's works. However, the matter was +deferred, and both armies kept under arms till sunset; when they both +returned to their camp. The next day Caesar prepared to finish the works +which he had begun. The enemy attempted to pass the river Segre by a +ford. Caesar, having perceived this, sent some light-armed Germans and a +party of horse across the river, and disposed several parties along the +banks to guard them. + +LXXXIV.--At length, beset on all sides, their cattle having been four +days without fodder, and having no water, wood, or corn, they beg a +conference; and that, if possible, in a place remote from the soldiers. +When this was refused by Caesar, but a public interview offered if they +chose it, Afranius's son was given as a hostage to Caesar. They met in +the place appointed by Caesar. In the hearing of both armies, Afranius +spoke thus: "That Caesar ought not to be displeased either with him or +his soldiers, for wishing to preserve their attachment to their general, +Cneius Pompey. That they had now sufficiently discharged their duty to +him, and had suffered punishment enough, in having endured the want of +every necessary: but now, pent up almost like wild beasts, they were +prevented from procuring water, and prevented from walking abroad; and +were not able to bear the bodily pain or the mental disgrace: but +confessed themselves vanquished: and begged and entreated, if there was +any room left for mercy, that they should not be necessitated to suffer +the most severe penalties." These sentiments were delivered in the most +submissive and humble language. + +LXXXV.--Caesar replied, "That either to complain or sue for mercy became +no man less than him: for that every other person had done their duty: +himself, in having declined to engage on favourable terms, in an +advantageous situation and time, that all things tending to a peace +might be totally unembarrassed: his army, in having preserved and +protected the men whom they had in their power, notwithstanding the +injuries which they had received, and the murder of their comrades; and +even Afranius's soldiers, who of themselves treated about concluding a +peace, by which they thought that they would secure the lives of all. +Thus, that the parties on both sides inclined to mercy: that the +generals only were averse to peace: that they paid no regard to the laws +either of conference or truce; and had most inhumanly put to death +ignorant persons, who were deceived by a conference: that therefore, +they had met that fate which usually befalls men from excessive +obstinacy and arrogance; and were obliged to have recourse, and most +earnestly desire that which they had shortly before disdained. That for +his part, he would not avail himself of their present humiliation, or +his present advantage, to require terms by which his power might be +increased, but only that those armies, which they had maintained for so +many years to oppose him, should be disbanded: for six legions had been +sent into Spain, and a seventh raised there, and many and powerful +fleets provided, and generals of great military experience sent to +command them, for no other purpose than to oppose him; that none of +these measures were adopted to keep the Spains in peace, or for the use +of the province, which, from the length of the peace, stood in need of +no such aid; that all these things were long since designed against him: +that against him a new sort of government was established, that the same +person should be at the gates of Rome, to direct the affairs of the +city; and though absent, have the government of two most warlike +provinces for so many years: that against him the laws of the +magistrates had been altered; that the late praetors and consuls should +not be sent to govern the provinces as had been the constant custom, but +persons approved of and chosen by a faction. That against him the excuse +of age was not admitted: but persons of tried experience in former wars +were called up to take the command of the armies, that with respect to +him only, the routine was not observed which had been allowed to all +generals, that, after a successful war, they should return home and +disband their armies, if not with some mark of honour, at least without +disgrace: that he had submitted to all these things patiently, and would +still submit to them: nor did he now desire to take their army from them +and keep it to himself (which, however, would not be a difficult +matter), but only that they should not have it to employ against him: +and therefore, as he said before, let them quit the provinces, and +disband their army. If this was complied with, he would injure no +person; that these were the last and only conditions of peace." + +LXXXVI.--It was very acceptable and agreeable to Afranius's soldiers, as +might be easily known from their signs of joy, that they who expected +some injury after this defeat, should obtain without solicitation the +reward of a dismissal. For when a debate was introduced about the place +and time of their dismissal, they all began to express, both by words +and signs, from the rampart where they stood, that they should be +discharged immediately: for although every security might be given that +they would be disbanded, still the matter would be uncertain, if it was +deferred to a future day. After a short debate on either side, it was +brought to this issue: that those who had any settlement or possession +in Spain, should be immediately discharged: the rest at the river Var. +Caesar gave security that they should receive no damage, and that no +person should be obliged against his inclination to take the military +oath under him. + +LXXXVII.--Caesar promised to supply them with corn from the present +time, till they arrived at the river Var. He further adds, that whatever +any of them lost in the war, which was in the possession of his +soldiers, should be restored to those that lost them. To his soldiers he +made a recompense in money for those things, a just valuation being +made. Whatever disputes Afranius's soldiers had afterwards amongst +themselves, they voluntarily submitted to Caesar's decision. Afranius +and Petreius, when pay was demanded by the legions, a sedition almost +breaking out, asserted that the time had not yet come, and required that +Caesar should take cognizance of it: and both parties were content with +his decision. About a third part of their army being dismissed in two +days, Caesar ordered two of his legions to go before, the rest to follow +the vanquished enemy: that they should encamp at a small distance from +each other. The execution of this business he gave in charge to Quintus +Fufius Kalenus, one of his lieutenants. According to his directions, +they marched from Spain to the river Var, and there the rest of the army +was disbanded. + + + +BOOK II + +I.--Whilst these things were going forward in Spain, Caius Trebonius, +Caesar's lieutenant, who had been left to conduct the assault of +Massilia, began to raise a mound, vineae, and turrets against the town, +on two sides: one of which was next the harbour and docks, the other on +that part where there is a passage from Gaul and Spain to that sea which +forces itself up the mouth of the Rhone. For Massilia is washed almost +on three sides by the sea, the remaining fourth part is the only side +which has access by land. A part even of this space, which reaches to +the fortress, being fortified by the nature of the country, and a very +deep valley, required a long and difficult siege. To accomplish these +works, Caius Trebonius sends for a great quantity of carriages and men +from the whole Province, and orders hurdles and materials to be +furnished. These things being provided, he raised a mound eighty feet in +height. + +II.--But so great a store of everything necessary for a war had been a +long time before laid up in the town, and so great a number of engines, +that no vineae made of hurdles could withstand their force. For poles +twelve feet in length, pointed with iron, and these too shot from very +large engines, sank into the ground through four rows of hurdles. +Therefore the arches of the vineae were covered over with beams a foot +thick, fastened together, and under this the materials of the agger were +handed from one to another. Before this was carried a testudo sixty feet +long, for levelling the ground, made also of very strong timber, and +covered over with every thing that was capable of protecting it against +the fire and stones thrown by the enemy. But the greatness of the works, +the height of the wall and towers, and the multitude of engines retarded +the progress of our works. Besides, frequent sallies were made from the +town by the Albici, and fire was thrown on our mound and turrets. These +our men easily repulsed, and, doing considerable damage to those who +sallied, beat them back into the town. + +III.--In the meantime, Lucius Nasidius, being sent by Cneius Pompey with +a fleet of sixteen sail, a few of which had beaks of brass, to the +assistance of Lucius Domitius and the Massilians, passed the straits of +Sicily without the knowledge or expectation of Curio, and, putting with +his fleet into Messana, and making the nobles and senate take flight +with the sudden terror, carried off one of their ships out of dock. +Having joined this to his other ships, he made good his voyage to +Massilia, and, having sent in a galley privately, acquaints Domitius and +the Massilians of his arrival, and earnestly encourages them to hazard +another battle with Brutus's fleet with the addition of his aid. + +IV.--The Massilians, since their former loss, had brought the same +number of old ships from the docks, and had repaired and fitted them out +with great industry: they had a large supply of seamen and pilots. They +had got several fishing-smacks, and covered them over, that the seamen +might be secure against darts: these they filled with archers and +engines. With a fleet thus appointed, encouraged by the entreaties and +tears of all the old men, matrons, and virgins to succour the state in +this hour of distress, they went on board with no less spirit and +confidence than they had fought before. For it happens, from a common +infirmity of human nature, that we are more flushed with confidence, or +more vehemently alarmed at things unseen, concealed, and unknown, as was +the case then. For the arrival of Lucius Nasidius had filled the state +with the most sanguine hopes and wishes. Having got a fair wind, they +sailed out of port and went to Nasidius to Taurois, which is a fort +belonging to the Massilians, and there ranged their fleet and again +encouraged each other to engage, and communicated their plan of +operation. The command of the right division was given to the +Massilians, that of the left to Nasidius. + +V.--Brutus sailed to the same place with an augmented fleet: for to +those made by Caesar at Arelas were added six ships taken from the +Massilians, which he had refitted since the last battle and had +furnished with every necessary. Accordingly, having encouraged his men +to despise a vanquished people whom they had conquered when yet +unbroken, he advanced against them full of confidence and spirit. From +Trebonius's camp and all the higher grounds it was easy to see into the +town--how all the youth which remained in it, and all persons of more +advanced years, with their wives and children, and the public guards, +were either extending their hands from the wall to the heavens, or were +repairing to the temples of the immortal gods, and, prostrating +themselves before their images, were entreating them to grant them +victory. Nor was there a single person who did not imagine that his +future fortune depended on the issue of that day; for the choice of +their youth and the most respectable of every age, being expressly +invited and solicited, had gone on board the fleet, that if any adverse +fate should befall them they might see that nothing was left for them to +attempt, and, if they proved victorious, they might have hopes of +preserving the city, either by their internal resources or by foreign +assistance. + +VI-.-When the battle was begun, no effort of valour was wanting to the +Massilians, but, mindful of the instructions which they had a little +before received from their friends, they fought with such spirit as if +they supposed that they would never have another opportunity to attempt +a defence, and as if they believed that those whose lives should be +endangered in the battle would not long precede the fate of the rest of +the citizens, who, if the city was taken, must undergo the same fortune +of war. Our ships being at some distance from each other, room was +allowed both for the skill of their pilots and the manoeuvring of their +ships; and if at any time ours, gaining an advantage by casting the iron +hooks on board their ships, grappled with them, from all parts they +assisted those who were distressed. Nor, after being joined by the +Albici, did they decline coming to close engagement, nor were they much +inferior to our men in valour. At the same time, showers of darts, +thrown from a distance from the lesser ships, suddenly inflicted several +wounds on our men when off their guard and otherwise engaged; and two of +their three-decked galleys, having descried the ship of Decimus Brutus, +which could be easily distinguished by its flag, rowed up against him +with great violence from opposite sides: but Brutus, seeing into their +designs, by the swiftness of his ship extricated himself with such +address as to get clear, though only by a moment. From the velocity of +their motion they struck against each other with such violence that they +were both excessively injured by the shock; the beak, indeed, of one of +them being broken off, the whole ship was ready to founder, which +circumstance being observed, the ships of Brutus's fleet, which were +nearest that station, attack them when in this disorder and sink them +both. + +VII.--But Nasidius's ships were of no use, and soon left the fight; for +the sight of their country, or the entreaties of their relations, did +not urge them to run a desperate risk of their lives. Therefore, of the +number of the ships not one was lost: of the fleet of the Massilians +five were sunk, four taken, and one ran off with Nasidius: all that +escaped made the best of their way to Hither Spain, but one of the rest +was sent forward to Massilia for the purpose of bearing this +intelligence, and when it came near the city, the whole people crowded +out to hear the tidings, and on being informed of the event, were so +oppressed with grief, that one would have imagined that the city had +been taken by an enemy at the same moment. The Massilians, however, +began to make the necessary preparations for the defence of their city +with unwearied energy. + +VIII.--The legionary soldiers who had the management of the works on the +right side observed, from the frequent sallies of the enemy, that it +might prove a great protection to them to build a turret of brick under +the wall for a fort and place of refuge, which they at first built low +and small, [to guard them] against sudden attacks. To it they retreated, +and from it they made defence if any superior force attacked them; and +from it they sallied out either to repel or pursue the enemy. It +extended thirty feet on every side, and the thickness of the walls was +five feet. But afterwards, as experience is the best master in +everything on which the wit of man is employed, it was found that it +might be of considerable service if it was raised to the usual height of +turrets, which was effected in the following manner. + +IX.-When the turret was raised to the height for flooring, they laid it +on the walls in such a manner that the ends of the joists were covered +by the outer face of the wall, that nothing should project to which the +enemy's fire might adhere. They, moreover, built over the joists with +small bricks as high as the protection of the plutei and vineae +permitted them; and on that place they laid two beams across, angle-ways, +at a small distance from the outer walls, to support the rafters +which were to cover the turret, and on the beams they laid joists across +in a direct line, and on these they fastened down planks. These joists +they made somewhat longer, to project beyond the outside of the wall, +that they might serve to hang a curtain on them to defend and repel all +blows whilst they were building the walls between that and the next +floor, and the floor of this story they faced with bricks and mortar, +that the enemy's fire might do them no damage; and on this they spread +mattresses, lest the weapons thrown from engines should break through +the flooring, or stones from catapults should batter the brickwork. +They, moreover, made three mats of cable ropes, each of them the length +of the turret walls, and four feet broad, and, hanging them round the +turret on the three sides which faced the enemy, fastened them to the +projecting joists. For this was the only sort of defence which, they had +learned by experience in other places, could not be pierced by darts or +engines. But when that part of the turret which was completed was +protected and secured against every attempt of the enemy, they removed +the plutei to other works. They began to suspend gradually, and raise by +screws from the first-floor, the entire roof of the turret, and then +they elevated it as high as the length of the mats allowed. Hid and +secured within these coverings, they built up the walls with bricks, and +again, by another turn of the screw, cleared a place for themselves to +proceed with the building; and, when they thought it time to lay another +floor, they laid the ends of the beams, covered in by the outer bricks +in like manner as in the first story, and from that story they again +raised the uppermost floor and the mat-work. In this manner, securely +and without a blow or danger, they raised it six stories high, and in +laying the materials left loop-holes in such places as they thought +proper for working their engines. + +X.--When they were confident that they could protect the works which lay +around from this turret, they resolved to build a musculus, sixty feet +long, of timber, two feet square, and to extend it from the brick tower +to the enemy's tower and wall. This was the form of it: two beams of +equal length were laid on the ground, at the distance of four feet from +each other; and in them were fastened small pillars, five feet high, +which were joined together by braces, with a gentle slope, on which the +timber which they must place to support the roof of the musculus should +be laid: upon this were laid beams, two feet square, bound with iron +plates and nails. To the upper covering of the musculus and the upper +beams, they fastened laths, four fingers square, to support the tiles +which were to cover the musculus. The roof being thus sloped and laid +over in rows in the same manner as the joists were laid on the braces, +the musculus was covered with tiles and mortar, to secure it against +fire, which might be thrown from the wall. Over the tiles hides are +spread, to prevent the water let in on them by spouts from dissolving +the cement of the bricks. Again, the hides were covered over with +mattresses, that they might not be destroyed by fire or stones. The +soldiers under the protection of the vineae, finish this whole work to +the very tower, and suddenly, before the enemy were aware of it, moved +it forward by naval machinery, by putting rollers under it, close up to +the enemy's turret, so that it even touched the building. + +XI.--The townsmen, affrighted at this unexpected stroke, bring forward +with levers the largest stones they can procure; and pitching them from +the wall, roll them down on the musculus. The strength of the timber +withstood the shock; and whatever fell on it slid off, on account of the +sloping roof. When they perceived this, they altered their plan and set +fire to barrels, filled with resin and tar, and rolled them down from +the wall on the musculus. As soon as they fell on it, they slid off +again, and were removed from its side by long poles and forks. In the +meantime, the soldiers, under cover of the musculus, were looting out +with crowbars the lowest stones of the enemy's turret, with which the +foundation was laid. The musculus was defended by darts, thrown from +engines by our men from the brick tower, and the enemy were beaten off +from the wall and turrets; nor was a fair opportunity of defending the +walls given them. At length several stones being picked away from the +foundation of that turret next the musculus, part of it fell down +suddenly, and the rest, as if following it, leaned forward. + +XII.--Hereupon, the enemy, distressed at the sudden fall of the turret, +surprised at the unforeseen calamity, awed by the wrath of the gods, and +dreading the pillage of their city, rush all together out of the gate +unarmed, with their temples bound with fillets, and suppliantly stretch +out their hands to the officers and the army. At this uncommon +occurrence, the whole progress of the war was stopped, and the soldiers, +turning away from the battle, ran eagerly to hear and listen to them. +When the enemy came up to the commanders and the army, they all fell +down at their feet, and besought them "to wait till Caesar's arrival; +they saw that their city was taken, our works completed, and their tower +undermined, therefore they desisted from a defence; that no obstacle +could arise, to prevent their being instantly plundered at a beck, as +soon as he arrived, if they refused to submit to his orders." They +inform them that, "if the turret had entirely fallen down, the soldiers +could not be withheld from forcing into the town and sacking it, in +hopes of getting spoil." These and several other arguments to the same +effect were delivered, as they were a people of great learning, with +great pathos and lamentations. + +XIII.--The lieutenants, moved with compassion, draw off the soldiers +from the work, desist from the assault, and leave sentinels on the +works. A sort of a truce having been made through compassion for the +besieged, the arrival of Caesar is anxiously awaited; not a dart was +thrown from the walls or by our men, but all remit their care and +diligence, as if the business was at an end. For Caesar had given +Trebonius strict charge not to suffer the town to be taken by storm, +lest the soldiers, too much irritated both by abhorrence of their +revolt, by the contempt shown to them, and by their long labour, should +put to the sword all the grown-up inhabitants, as they threatened to do. +And it was with difficulty that they were then restrained from breaking +into the town, and they were much displeased, because they imagined that +they were prevented by Trebonius from taking possession of it. + +XIV.--But the enemy, destitute of all honour, only waited a time and +opportunity for fraud and treachery. And after an interval of some days, +when our men were careless and negligent, on a sudden, at noon, when +some were dispersed, and others indulging themselves in rest on the very +works, after the fatigue of the day, and their arms were all laid by and +covered up, they sallied out from the gates, and, the wind being high +and favourable to them, they set fire to our works; and the wind spread +it in such a manner that, in the same instant, the agger, plutei, +testudo, tower, and engines all caught the flames and were consumed +before we could conceive how it had occurred. Our men, alarmed at such +an unexpected turn of fortune, lay hold on such arms as they could find. +Some rush from the camp; an attack is made on the enemy: but they were +prevented, by arrows and engines from the walls, from pursuing them when +they fled. They retired to their walls, and there, without fear, set the +musculus and brick tower on fire. Thus, by the perfidy of the enemy and +the violence of the storm, the labour of many months was destroyed in a +moment. The Massilians made the same attempt the next day, having got +such another storm. They sallied out against the other tower and agger, +and fought with more confidence. But as our men had on the former +occasion given up all thoughts of a contest, so, warned by the event of +the preceding day, they had made every preparation for a defence. +Accordingly, they slew several, and forced the rest to retreat into the +town without effecting their design. + +XV.--Trebonius began to provide and repair what had been destroyed, with +much greater zeal on the part of the soldiers; for when they saw that +their extraordinary pains and preparations had an unfortunate issue, +they were fired with indignation that, in consequence of the impious +violation of the truce, their valour should be held in derision. There +was no place left them from which the materials for their mound could be +fetched, in consequence of all the timber, far and wide, in the +territories of the Massilians, having been cut down and carried away; +they began therefore to make an agger of a new construction, never heard +of before, of two walls of brick, each six feet thick, and to lay floors +over them of almost the same breadth with the agger, made of timber. But +wherever the space between the walls, or the weakness of the timber, +seemed to require it, pillars were placed underneath and traversed beams +laid on to strengthen the work, and the space which was floored was +covered over with hurdles, and the hurdles plastered over with mortar. +The soldiers, covered overhead by the floor, on the right and left by +the wall, and in the front by the mantlets, carried whatever materials +were necessary for the building without danger: the business was soon +finished--the loss of their laborious work was soon repaired by the +dexterity and fortitude of the soldiers. Gates for making sallies were +left in the wall in such places as they thought proper. + +XVI.--But when the enemy perceived that those works, which they had +hoped could not be replaced without a great length of time, were put +into so thorough repair by a few days' labour and diligence, that there +was no room for perfidy or sallies, and that no means were left them by +which they could either hurt the men by resistance or the works by fire, +and when they found by former examples that their town could be +surrounded with a wall and turrets on every part by which it was +accessible by land, in such a manner that they could not have room to +stand on their own fortifications, because our works were built almost +on the top of their walls by our army, and darts could be thrown from +our hands, and when they perceived that all advantage arising from their +engines, on which they had built great hopes, was totally lost, and that +though they had an opportunity of fighting with us on equal terms from +walls and turrets, they could perceive that they were not equal to our +men in bravery, they had recourse to the same proposals of surrender as +before. + +XVII.--In Further Spain, Marcus Varro, in the beginning of the +disturbances, when he heard of the circumstances which took place in +Italy, being diffident of Pompey's success, used to speak in a very +friendly manner of Caesar. That though, being pre-engaged to Cneius +Pompey in quality of lieutenant, he was bound in honour to him, that, +nevertheless, there existed a very intimate tie between him and Caesar; +that he was not ignorant of what was the duty of a lieutenant, who bore +an office of trust; nor of his own strength, nor of the disposition of +the whole province to Caesar. These sentiments he constantly expressed +in his ordinary conversation, and did not attach himself to either +party. But afterwards, when he found that Caesar was detained before +Massilia, that the forces of Petreius had effected a junction with the +army of Afranius, that considerable reinforcements had come to their +assistance, that there were great hopes and expectations, and heard that +the whole Hither province had entered into a confederacy, and of the +difficulties to which Caesar was reduced afterwards at Ilerda for want +of provisions, and Afranius wrote to him a fuller and more exaggerated +account of these matters, he began to regulate his movements by those of +fortune. + +XVIII.--He made levies throughout the province; and, having completed +his two legions, he added to them about thirty auxiliary cohorts: he +collected a large quantity of corn to send partly to the Massilians, +partly to Afranius and Petreius. He commanded the inhabitants of Gades +to build ten ships of war; besides, he took care that several others +should be built in Spain. He removed all the money and ornaments from +the temple of Hercules to the town of Gades, and sent six cohorts +thither from the province to guard them, and gave the command of the +town of Gades to Caius Gallonius, a Roman knight, and friend of +Domitius, who had come thither sent by Domitius to recover an estate for +him; and he deposited all the arms, both public and private, in +Gallonius's house. He himself [Varro] made severe harangues against +Caesar. He often pronounced from his tribunal that Caesar had fought +several unsuccessful battles, and that a great number of his men had +deserted to Afranius. That he had these accounts from undoubted +messengers, and authority on which he could rely. By these means he +terrified the Roman citizens of that province, and obliged them to +promise him for the service of the state one hundred and ninety thousand +sesterces, twenty thousand pounds weight of silver, and a hundred and +twenty thousand bushels of wheat. He laid heavier burdens on those +states which he thought were friendly disposed to Caesar, and billeted +troops on them; he passed judgment against some private persons, and +condemned to confiscation the properties of those who had spoken or made +orations against the republic, and forced the whole province to take an +oath of allegiance to him and Pompey. Being informed of all that +happened in Hither Spain, he prepared for war. This was his plan of +operations. He was to retire with his two legions to Gades, and to lay +up all the shipping and provisions there. For he had been informed that +the whole province was inclined to favour Caesar's party. He thought +that the war might be easily protracted in an island, if he was provided +with corn and shipping. Caesar, although called back to Italy by many +and important matters, yet had determined to leave no dregs of war +behind him in Spain, because he knew that Pompey had many dependants and +clients in the Hither province. + +XIX.--Having therefore sent two legions into Further Spain under the +command of Quintus Cassius, tribune of the people; he himself advances +with six hundred horse by forced marches, and issues a proclamation, +appointing a day on which the magistrates and nobility of all the states +should attend him at Corduba. This proclamation being published through +the whole province, there was not a state that did not send a part of +their senate to Corduba, at the appointed time; and not a Roman citizen +of any note but appeared that day. At the same time the senate at +Corduba shut the gates of their own accord against Varro, and posted +guards and sentinels on the wall and in the turrets, and detained two +cohorts (called Colonicae, which had come there accidentally), for the +defence of the town. About the same time the people of Carmona, which is +by far the strongest state in the whole province, of themselves drove +out of the town the cohorts, and shut the gates against them, although +three cohorts had been detached by Varro to garrison the citadel. + +XX.--But Varro was in greater haste on this account to reach Gades with +his legion as soon as possible, lest he should be stopped either on his +march or on crossing over to the island. The affection of the province +to Caesar proved so great and so favourable, that he received a letter +from Gades, before he was far advanced on his march: that as soon as the +nobility of Gades heard of Caesar's proclamation, they had combined with +the tribune of the cohorts, which were in garrison there, to drive +Gallonius out of the town, and to secure the city and island for Caesar. +That having agreed on the design they had sent notice to Gallonius, to +quit Gades of his own accord whilst he could do it with safety; if he +did not, they would take measures for themselves; that for fear of this +Gallonius had been induced to quit the town. When this was known, one of +Varro's two legions, which was called Vernacula, carried off the colours +from Varro's camp, he himself standing by and looking on, and retired to +Hispalis, and took post in the market and public places without doing +any injury, and the Roman citizens residing there approved so highly of +this act, that every one most earnestly offered to entertain them in +their houses. When Varro, terrified at these things, having altered his +route, proposed going to Italica, he was informed by his friends that +the gates were shut against him. Then indeed, when intercepted from +every road, he sends word to Caesar that he was ready to deliver up the +legion which he commanded. He sends to him Sextus Caesar, and orders him +to deliver it up to him. Varro, having delivered up the legion, went to +Caesar to Corduba, and having laid before him the public accounts, +handed over to him most faithfully whatever money he had, and told him +what quantity of corn and shipping he had, and where. + +XXI.--Caesar made a public oration at Corduba, in which he returned +thanks to all severally: to the Roman citizens, because they had been +zealous to keep the town in their own power; to the Spaniards, for +having driven out the garrison; to the Gaditani, for having defeated the +attempts of his enemies, and asserted their own liberty; to the Tribunes +and Centurions who had gone there as a guard, for having by their valour +confirmed them in their purpose. He remitted the tax which the Roman +citizens had promised to Varro for the public use: he restored their +goods to those who he was informed had incurred that penalty by speaking +too freely, having given public and private rewards to some: he filled +the rest with flattering hopes of his future intentions; and having +stayed two days at Corduba, he set out for Gades: he ordered the money +and ornaments which had been carried away from the temple of Hercules, +and lodged in the houses of private persons, to be replaced in the +temple. He made Quintus Cassius governor of the province, and assigned +him four legions. He himself, with those ships which Marcus Varro had +built, and others which the Gaditani had built by Varro's orders, +arrived in a few days at Tarraco, where ambassadors from the greatest +part of the nearer province waited his arrival. Having in the same +manner conferred marks of honour both publicly and privately on some +states, he left Tarraco, and went thence by land to Narbo, and thence to +Massilia. There he was informed that a law was passed for creating a +dictator, and that he had been nominated dictator by Marcus Lepidus the +praetor. + +XXII.--The Massilians, wearied out by misfortunes of every sort, reduced +to the lowest ebb for want of corn, conquered in two engagements at sea, +defeated in their frequent sallies, and struggling moreover with a fatal +pestilence, from their long confinement and change of victuals (for they +all subsisted on old millet and damaged barley, which they had formerly +provided and laid up in the public stores against an emergency of this +kind), their turret being demolished, a great part of their wall having +given way, and despairing of any aid, either from the provinces or their +armies, for these they had heard had fallen into Caesar's power, +resolved to surrender now without dissimulation. But a few days before, +Lucius Domitius, having discovered the intention of the Massilians, and +having procured three ships, two of which he gave up to his friends, +went on board the third himself, having got a brisk wind, put out to +sea. Some ships, which by Brutus's orders were constantly cruising near +the port, having espied him, weighed anchor, and pursued him. But of +these, the ship on board of which he was, persevered itself, and +continuing its flight, and by the aid of the wind got out of sight: the +other two, affrighted by the approach of our galleys, put back again +into the harbour. The Massilians conveyed their arms and engines out of +the town, as they were ordered: brought their ships out of the port and +docks, and delivered up the money in their treasury. When these affairs +were despatched, Caesar, sparing the town more out of regard to their +renown and antiquity than to any claim they could lay to his favour, +left two legions in garrison there, sent the rest to Italy, and set out +himself for Rome. + +XXIII.--About the same time Caius Curio, having sailed from Sicily to +Africa, and from the first despising the forces of Publius Attius Varus, +transported only two of the four legions which he had received from +Caesar, and five hundred horse, and having spent two days and three +nights on the voyage, arrived at a place called Aquilaria, which is +about twenty-two miles distant from Clupea, and in the summer season has +a convenient harbour, and is enclosed by two projecting promontories. +Lucius Caesar, the son, who was waiting his arrival near Clupea with ten +ships which had been taken near Utica in a war with the pirates, and +which Publius Attius had had repaired for this war, frightened at the +number of our ships, fled the sea, and running his three-decked covered +galley on the nearest shore, left her there and made his escape by land +to Adrumetum. Caius Considius Longus, with a garrison of one legion, +guarded this town. The rest of Caesar's fleet, after his flight, retired +to Adrumetum. Marcus Rufus, the quaestor, pursued him with twelve ships, +which Curio had brought from Sicily as convoy to the merchantmen, and +seeing a ship left on the shore, he brought her off by a towing rope, +and returned with his fleet to Curio. + +XXIV.--Curio detached Marcus before with the fleet to Utica, and marched +thither with his army. Having advanced two days, he came to the river +Bagrada, and there left Caius Caninius Rebilus, the lieutenant, with the +legions; and went forward himself with the horse to view the Cornelian +camp, because that was reckoned a very eligible position for encamping. +It is a straight ridge, projecting into the sea, steep and rough on both +sides, but the ascent is more gentle on that part which lies opposite +Utica. It is not more than a mile distant from Utica in a direct line. +But on this road there is a spring, to which the sea comes up, and +overflows; an extensive morass is thereby formed; and if a person would +avoid it, he must make a circuit of six miles to reach the town. + +XXV.--Having examined this place, Curio got a view of Varus's camp, +joining the wall and town, at the gate called Bellica, well fortified by +its natural situation, on one side by the town itself, on the other by a +theatre which is before the town, the approaches to the town being +rendered difficult and narrow by the very extensive out-buildings of +that structure. At the same time he observed the roads very full of +carriages and cattle which they were conveying from the country into the +town on the sudden alarm. He sent his cavalry after them to plunder them +and get the spoil. And at the same time Varus had detached as a guard +for them six hundred Numidian horse, and four hundred foot, which king +Juba had sent to Utica as auxiliaries a few days before. There was a +friendship subsisting between his [Juba's] father and Pompey, and a feud +between him and Curio, because he, when a tribune of the people, had +proposed a law, in which he endeavoured to make public property of the +kingdom of Juba. The horse engaged; but the Numidians were not able to +stand our first charge; but a hundred and twenty being killed, the rest +retreated into their camp near the town. In the meantime, on the arrival +of his men-of-war, Curio ordered proclamation to be made to the merchant +ships, which lay at anchor before Utica, in number about two hundred, +that he would treat as enemies all that did not set sail immediately for +the Cornelian camp. As soon as the proclamation was made, in an instant +they all weighed anchor and left Utica, and repaired to the place +commanded them. This circumstance furnished the army with plenty of +everything. + +XXVI.--After these transactions, Curio returned to his camp at Bagrada; +and by a general shout of the whole army was saluted imperator. The next +day he led his army to Utica, and encamped near the town. Before the +works of the camp were finished, the horse upon guard brought him word +that a large supply of horse and foot sent by king Juba were on their +march to Utica, and at the same time a cloud of dust was observed, and +in a moment the front of the line was in sight. Curio, surprised at the +suddenness of the affair, sent on the horse to receive their first +charge, and detain them. He immediately called off his legions from the +work, and put them in battle array. The horse began the battle: and +before the legions could be completely marshalled and take their ground, +the king's entire forces being thrown into disorder and confusion, +because they had marched without any order, and were under no +apprehensions, betake themselves to flight: almost all the enemy's horse +being safe, because they made a speedy retreat into the town along the +shore, Caesar's soldiers slay a great number of their infantry. + +XXVII.--The next night two Marsian centurions, with twenty-two men +belonging to the companies, deserted from Curio's camp to Attius Varus. +They, whether they uttered the sentiments which they really entertained, +or wished to gratify Varus (for what we wish we readily give credit to, +and what we think ourselves, we hope is the opinion of other men), +assured him, that the minds of the whole army were disaffected to Curio, +that it was very expedient that the armies should be brought in view of +each other, and an opportunity of a conference be given. Induced by +their opinion, Varus the next day led his troops out of the camp: Curio +did so in like manner, and with only one small valley between them, each +drew up his forces. + +XXVIII.--In Varus's army there was one Sextus Quintilius Varus who, as +we have mentioned before, was at Corfinium. When Caesar gave him his +liberty, he went over to Africa; now, Curio had transported to Africa +those legions which Caesar had received under his command a short time +before at Corfinium: so that the officers and companies were still the +same, excepting the change of a few centurions. Quintilius, making this +a pretext for addressing them, began to go round Curio's lines, and to +entreat the soldiers "not to lose all recollection of the oath which +they took first to Domitius and to him their quaestor, nor bear arms +against those who had shared the same fortune, and endured the same +hardships in a siege, nor fight for those by whom they had been +opprobriously called deserters." To this he added a few words by way of +encouragement, what they might expect from his own liberality, if they +should follow him and Attius. On the delivery of this speech, no +intimation of their future conduct is given by Curio's army, and thus +both generals led back their troops to their camp. + +XXIX.--However, a great and general fear spread through Curio's camp, +for it is soon increased by the various discourses of men. For every one +formed an opinion of his own; and to what he had heard from others, +added his own apprehensions. When this had spread from a single author +to several persons, and was handed from one another, there appeared to +be many authors for such sentiments as these: ["That it was a civil war; +that they were men; and therefore that it was lawful for them to act +freely, and follow which party they pleased." These were the legions +which a short time before had belonged to the enemy; for the custom of +offering free towns to those who joined the opposite party had changed +Caesar's kindness. For the harshest expressions of the soldiers in +general did not proceed from the Marsi and Peligni, as those which +passed in the tents the night before; and some of their fellow soldiers +heard them with displeasure. Some additions were also made to them by +those who wished to be thought more zealous in their duty.] + +XXX.--For these reasons, having called a council, Curio began to +deliberate on the general welfare. There were some opinions, which +advised by all means an attempt to be made, and an attack on Varus's +camp; for when such sentiments prevailed among the soldiers, they +thought idleness was improper. In short, they said, "that it was better +bravely to try the hazard of war in a battle, than to be deserted and +surrounded by their own troops, and forced to submit to the greatest +cruelties." There were some who gave their opinion, that they ought to +withdraw at the third watch to the Cornelian camp; that by a longer +interval of time the soldiers might be brought to a proper way of +thinking; and also, that if any misfortune should befall them, they +might have a safer and readier retreat to Sicily, from the great number +of their ships. + +XXXI.--Curio, censuring both measures, said, "that the one was as +deficient in spirit, as the other exceeded in it: that the latter +advised a shameful flight, and the former recommended us to engage at a +great disadvantage. For on what, says he, can we rely that we can storm +a camp, fortified both by nature and art? Or, indeed, what advantage do +we gain if we give over the assault, after having suffered considerable +loss; as if success did not acquire for a general the affection of his +army, and misfortune their hatred? But what does a change of camp imply +but a shameful flight, and universal despair, and the alienation of the +army? For neither ought the obedient to suspect that they are +distrusted, nor the insolent to know that we fear them; because our +fears augment the licentiousness of the latter, and diminish the zeal of +the former. But if, says he, we were convinced of the truth of the +reports of the disaffection of the army (which I indeed am confident are +either altogether groundless, or at least less than they are supposed to +be), how much better to conceal and hide our suspicions of it, than by +our conduct confirm it? Ought not the defects of an army to be as +carefully concealed as the wounds in our bodies, lest we should increase +the enemy's hopes? but they moreover advise us to set out at midnight, +in order, I suppose, that those who attempt to do wrong may have a +fairer opportunity; for conduct of this kind is restrained either by +shame or fear, to the display of which the night is most adverse. +Wherefore, I am neither so rash as to give my opinion that we ought to +attack their camp without hopes of succeeding; nor so influenced by fear +as to despond: and I imagine that every expedient ought first to be +tried; and I am in a great degree confident that I shall form the same +opinion as yourselves on this matter." + +XXXII.--Having broken up the council he called the soldiers together, +and reminded them "what advantage Caesar had derived from their zeal at +Corfinium; how by their good offices and influence he had brought over a +great part of Italy to his interest. For, says he, all the municipal +towns afterwards imitated you and your conduct; nor was it without +reason that Caesar judged so favourably, and the enemy so harshly of +you. For Pompey, though beaten in no engagement, yet was obliged to +shift his ground, and leave Italy, from the precedent established by +your conduct. Caesar committed me, whom he considered his dearest +friend, and the provinces of Sicily and Africa, without which he was not +able to protect Rome or Italy, to your protection. There are some here +present who encourage you to revolt from us; for what can they wish for +more, than at once to ruin us, and to involve you in a heinous crime? or +what baser opinions could they in their resentment entertain of you, +than that you would betray those who acknowledged themselves indebted to +you for everything, and put yourselves in the power of those who think +they have been ruined by you? Have you not heard of Caesar's exploits in +Spain? that he routed two armies, conquered two generals, recovered two +provinces, and effected all this within forty days after he came in +sight of the enemy? Can those who were not able to stand against him +whilst they were uninjured resist him when they are ruined? Will you, +who took part with Caesar whilst victory was uncertain, take part with +the conquered enemy when the fortune of the war is decided, and when you +ought to reap the reward of your services? For they say that they have +been deserted and betrayed by you, and remind you of a former oath. But +did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Lucius Domitius desert you? Did +he not, when you were ready to submit to the greatest difficulties, cast +you off? Did he not, without your privacy, endeavour to effect his own +escape? When you were betrayed by him, were you not preserved by +Caesar's generosity? And how could he think you bound by your oath to +him, when, after having thrown up the ensigns of power, and abdicated +his government, he became a private person, and a captive in another's +power? A new obligation is left upon you, that you should disregard the +oath, by which you are at present bound; and have respect only to that +which was invalidated by the surrender of your general, and his +diminution of rank. But I suppose, although you are pleased with Caesar, +you are offended with me; however I shall not boast of my services to +you, which still are inferior to my own wishes or your expectations. +But, however, soldiers have ever looked for the rewards of labour at the +conclusion of a war; and what the issue of it is likely to be, not even +you can doubt. But why should I omit to mention my own diligence and +good fortune, and to what a happy crisis affairs are now arrived? Are +you sorry that I transported the army safe and entire, without the loss +of a single ship? That on my arrival, in the very first attack, I routed +the enemy's fleet? That twice in two days I defeated the enemy's horse? +That I carried out of the very harbour and bay, two hundred of the +enemy's victuallers, and reduced them to that situation that they can +receive no supplies either by land or sea? Will you divorce yourselves +from this fortune and these generals; and prefer the disgrace of +Corfinium, the defeat of Italy, the surrender of both Spains, and the +prestige of the African war? I, for my part, wished to be called a +soldier of Caesar's; you honoured me with the title of Imperator. If you +repent your bounty, I give it back to you; restore to me my former name +that you may not appear to have conferred the honour on me as a +reproach." + +XXXIII.--The soldiers, being affected by this oration, frequently +attempted to interrupt him whilst he was speaking, so that they appeared +to bear with excessive anguish the suspicion of treachery, and when he +was leaving the assembly they unanimously besought him to be of good +spirits, and not hesitate to engage the enemy and put their fidelity and +courage to a trial. As the wishes and opinions of all were changed by +this act, Curio, with the general consent, determined, whenever +opportunity offered, to hazard a battle. The next day he led out his +forces and ranged them in order of battle on the same ground where they +had been posted the preceding day; nor did Attius Varus hesitate to draw +out his men, that, if any occasion should offer, either to tamper with +our men or to engage on equal terms, he might not miss the opportunity. + +XXXIV.-There lay between the two armies a valley, as already mentioned, +not very deep, but of a difficult and steep ascent. Each was waiting +till the enemy's forces should attempt to pass it, that they might +engage with the advantage of the ground. At the same time, on the left +wing, the entire cavalry of Publius Attius, and several light-armed +infantry intermixed with them, were perceived descending into the +valley. Against them Curio detached his cavalry and two cohorts of the +Marrucini, whose first charge the enemy's horse were unable to stand, +but, setting spurs to their horses, fled back to their friends: the +light-infantry being deserted by those who had come out along with them, +were surrounded and cut to pieces by our men. Varus's whole army, facing +that way, saw their men flee and cut down. Upon which Rebilus, one of +Caesar's lieutenants, whom Curio had brought with him from Sicily +knowing that he had great experience in military matters, cried out, +"You see the enemy are daunted, Curio! why do you hesitate to take +advantage of the opportunity?" Curio, having merely "expressed this, +that the soldiers should keep in mind the professions which they had +made to him the day before," then ordered them to follow him, and ran +far before them all. The valley was so difficult of ascent that the +foremost men could not struggle up it unless assisted by those behind. +But the minds of Attius's soldiers being prepossessed with fear and the +flight and slaughter of their men, never thought of opposing us; and +they all imagined that they were already surrounded by our horse, and, +therefore, before a dart could be thrown or our men come near them, +Varus's whole army turned their backs and retreated to their camp. + +XXXV.-In this flight one Fabius, a Pelignian and common soldier in +Curio's army, pursuing the enemy's rear, with a loud voice shouted to +Varus by his name, and often called him, so that he seemed to be one of +his soldiers, who wished to speak to him and give him advice. When +Varus, after being repeatedly called, stopped and looked at him, and +inquired who he was and what he wanted, he made a blow with his sword at +his naked shoulder and was very near killing Varus, but he escaped the +danger by raising his shield to ward off the blow. Fabius was surrounded +by the soldiers near him and cut to pieces; and by the multitude and +crowds of those that fled, the gates of the camps were thronged and the +passage stopped, and a greater number perished in that place without a +stroke than in the battle and flight. Nor were we far from driving them +from this camp; and some of them ran straightway to the town without +halting. But both the nature of the ground and the strength of the +fortifications prevented our access to the camp; for Curio's soldiers, +marching out to battle, were without those things which were requisite +for storming a camp. Curio, therefore, led his army back to the camp, +with all his troops safe except Fabius. Of the enemy about six hundred +were killed and a thousand wounded, all of whom, after Curio's return, +and several more under pretext of their wounds, but in fact through +fear, withdrew from the camp into the town, which Varus perceiving and +knowing the terror of his army, leaving a trumpeter in his camp and a +few tents for show, at the third watch led back his army quietly into +the town. + +XXXVI.--The next day Curio resolved to besiege Utica, and to draw lines +about it. In the town there was a multitude of people, ignorant of war, +owing to the length of the peace; some of them Uticans, very well +inclined to Caesar, for his favours to them; the Roman population was +composed of persons differing widely in their sentiments. The terror +occasioned by former battles was very great; and therefore they openly +talked of surrendering, and argued with Attius that he should not suffer +the fortune of them all to be ruined by his obstinacy. Whilst these +things were in agitation, couriers, who had been sent forward, arrived +from king Juba, with the intelligence that he was on his march, with +considerable forces, and encouraged them to protect and defend their +city, a circumstance which greatly comforted their desponding hearts. + +XXXVII.--The same intelligence was brought to Curio; but for some time +he could not give credit to it, because he had so great confidence in +his own good fortune. And at this time Caesar's success in Spain was +announced in Africa by messages and letters. Being elated by all these +things, he imagined that the king would not dare to attempt anything +against him. But when he found out, from undoubted authority, that his +forces were less than twenty miles distant from Utica, abandoning his +works, he retired to the Cornelian camp. Here he began to lay in corn +and wood, and to fortify his camp, and immediately despatched orders to +Sicily, that his two legions and the remainder of his cavalry should be +sent to him. His camp was well adapted for protracting a war, from the +nature and strength of the situation, from its proximity to the sea, and +the abundance of water and salt, of which a great quantity had been +stored up from the neighbouring salt-pits. Timber could not fail him +from the number of trees, nor corn, with which the lands abounded. +Wherefore, with the general consent, Curio determined to wait for the +rest of his forces, and protract the war. + +XXXVIII.--This plan being settled, and his conduct approved of, he is +informed by some deserters from the town that Juba had stayed behind in +his own kingdom, being called home by a neighbouring war, and a dispute +with the people of Leptis; and that Sabura, his commander-in-chief, who +had been sent with a small force, was drawing near to Utica. Curio +rashly believing this information, altered his design, and resolved to +hazard a battle. His youth, his spirits, his former good fortune and +confidence of success, contributed much to confirm this resolution. +Induced by these motives, early in the night he sent all his cavalry to +the enemy's camp near the river Bagrada, of which Sabura, of whom we +have already spoken, was the commander. But the king was coming after +them with all his forces, and was posted at a distance of six miles +behind Sabura. The horse that were sent perform their march that night, +and attack the enemy unawares and unexpectedly; for the Numidians, after +the usual barbarous custom, encamped here and there without any +regularity. The cavalry having attacked them, when sunk in sleep and +dispersed, killed a great number of them; many were frightened and ran +away. After which the horse returned to Curio, and brought some +prisoners with them. + +XXXIX.--Curio had set out at the fourth watch with all his forces, +except five cohorts which he left to guard the camp. Having advanced six +miles, he met the horse, heard what had happened, and inquired from the +captives who commanded the camp at Bagrada. They replied Sabura. Through +eagerness to perform his journey, he neglected to make further +inquiries, but looking back to the company next him, "Don't you see, +soldiers," says he, "that the answer of the prisoners corresponds with +the account of the deserters, that the king is not with him, and that he +sent only a small force which was not able to withstand a few horse? +Hasten then to spoil, to glory; that we may now begin to think of +rewarding you, and returning you thanks." The achievements of the horse +were great in themselves, especially if their small number be compared +with the vast host of Numidians. However, the account was enlarged by +themselves, as men are naturally inclined to boast of their own merit. +Besides, many spoils were produced; the men and horses that were taken +were brought into their sight, that they might imagine that every moment +of time which intervened was a delay to their conquest. By this means +the hopes of Curio were seconded by the ardour of the soldiers. He +ordered the horse to follow him, and hastened his march, that he might +attack them as soon as possible, while in consternation after their +flight. But the horse, fatigued by the expedition of the preceding +night, were not able to keep up with him, but fell behind in different +places. Even this did not abate Curio's hopes. + +XL.--Juba, being informed by Sabura of the battle in the night, sent to +his relief two thousand Spanish and Gallic horse, which he was +accustomed to keep near him to guard his person, and that part of his +infantry on which he had the greatest dependence, and he himself +followed slowly after with the rest of his forces and forty elephants, +suspecting that as Curio had sent his horse before, he himself would +follow them. Sabura drew up his army, both horse and foot, and commanded +them to give way gradually and retreat through the pretence of fear; +that when it was necessary he would give them the signal for battle, and +such orders as he found circumstances required. Curio, as his idea of +their present behaviour was calculated to confirm his former hopes, +imagined that the enemy were running away, and led his army from the +rising grounds down to the plain. + +XLI.--And when he had advanced from this place about sixteen miles, his +army being exhausted with the fatigue, he halted. Sabura gave his men +the signal, marshalled his army, and began to go around his ranks and +encourage them. But he made use of the foot only for show; and sent the +horse to the charge: Curio was not deficient in skill, and encouraged +his men to rest all their hopes in their valour. Neither were the +soldiers, though wearied, nor the horse, though few and exhausted with +fatigue, deficient in ardour to engage, and courage: but the latter were +in number but two hundred: the rest had dropped behind on the march. +Wherever they charged they forced the enemy to give ground, but they +were not able to pursue them far when they fled, or to press their +horses too severely. Besides, the enemy's cavalry began to surround us +on both wings and to trample down our rear. When any cohorts ran forward +out of the line, the Numidians, being fresh, by their speed avoided our +charge, and surrounded ours when they attempted to return to their post, +and cut them off from the main body. So that it did not appear safe +either to keep their ground and maintain their ranks, or to issue from +the line, and run the risk. The enemy's troops were frequently +reinforced by assistance sent from Juba; strength began to fail our men +through fatigue; and those who had been wounded could neither quit the +field nor retire to a place of safety, because the whole field was +surrounded by the enemy's cavalry. Therefore, despairing of their own +safety, as men usually do in the last moment of their lives, they either +lamented their unhappy deaths, or recommended their parents to the +survivors, if fortune should save any from the impending danger. All +were full of fear and grief. + +XLII.--When Curio perceived that in the general consternation neither +his exhortations nor entreaties were attended to, imagining that the +only hope of escaping in their deplorable situation was to gain the +nearest hills, he ordered the colours to be borne that way. But a party +of horse, that had been sent by Sabura, had already got possession of +them. Now indeed our men were reduced to extreme despair: and some of +them were killed by the cavalry in attempting to escape: some fell to +the ground unhurt. Cneius Domitius, commander of the cavalry, standing +round Curio with a small party of horse, urged Curio to endeavour to +escape by flight, and to hasten to his camp; and assured him that he +would not forsake him. But Curio declared that he would never more +appear in Caesar's sight, after losing the army which had been committed +by Caesar to his charge, and accordingly fought till he was killed. Very +few of the horse escaped from that battle, but those who had stayed +behind to refresh their horses having perceived at a distance the defeat +of the whole army, retired in safety to their camp. + +XLIII.--The soldiers were all killed to a man. Marcus Rufus, the +quaestor, who was left behind in the camp by Curio, having got +intelligence of these things, encouraged his men not to be disheartened. +They beg and entreat to be transported to Sicily. He consented, and +ordered the masters of the ships to have all the boats brought close to +the shore early in the evening. But so great was the terror in general +that some said that Juba's forces were marching up, others that Varus +was hastening with his legions, and that they already saw the dust +raised by their coming; of which not one circumstance had happened: +others suspected that the enemy's fleet would immediately be upon them. +Therefore, in the general consternation, every man consulted his own +safety. Those who were on board of the fleet, were in a hurry to set +sail, and their flight hastened the masters of the ships of burden. A +few small fishing boats attended their duty and his orders. But as the +shores were crowded, so great was the struggle to determine who of such +a vast number should first get on board, that some of the vessels sank +with the weight of the multitude, and the fears of the rest delayed them +from coming to the shore. + +XLIV.--From which circumstances it happened that a few foot and aged +men, that could prevail either through interest or pity, or who were +able to swim to the ships, were taken on board, and landed safe in +Sicily. The rest of the troops sent their centurions as deputies to +Varus at night, and surrendered themselves to him. But Juba, the next +day having spied their cohorts before the town, claimed them as his +booty, and ordered a great part of them to be put to the sword; a few he +selected and sent home to his own realm. Although Varus complained that +his honour was insulted by Juba, yet he dare not oppose him: Juba rode +on horseback into the town, attended by several senators, amongst whom +were Servius Sulpicius and Licinius Damasippus, and in a few days +arranged and ordered what he would have done in Utica, and in a few days +more returned to his own kingdom, with all his forces. + + + +BOOK III + +I.--Julius Caesar, holding the election as dictator, was himself +appointed consul with Publius Servilius; for this was the year in which +it was permitted by the laws that he should be chosen consul. This +business being ended, as credit was beginning to fail in Italy, and the +debts could not be paid, he determined that arbitrators should be +appointed: and that they should make an estimate of the possessions and +properties [of the debtors], how much they were worth before the war, +and that they should be handed over in payment to the creditors. This he +thought the most likely method to remove and abate the apprehension of +an abolition of debt, the usual consequence of civil wars and +dissensions, and to support the credit of the debtors. He likewise +restored to their former condition (the praetors and tribunes first +submitting the question to the people) some persons condemned for +bribery at the elections, by virtue of Pompey's law, at the time when +Pompey kept his legions quartered in the city (these trials were +finished in a single day, one judge hearing the merits, and another +pronouncing the sentences), because they had offered their service to +him in the beginning of the civil war, if he chose to accept them; +setting the same value on them as if he had accepted them, because they +had put themselves in his power. For he had determined that they ought +to be restored, rather by the judgment of the people, than appear +admitted to it by his bounty: that he might neither appear ungrateful in +repaying an obligation, nor arrogant in depriving the people of their +prerogative of exercising this bounty. + +II.--In accomplishing these things, and celebrating the Latin festival, +and holding all the elections, he spent eleven days; and having resigned +the dictatorship, set out from the city, and went to Brundisium, where +he had ordered twelve legions and all his cavalry to meet him. But he +scarcely found as many ships as would be sufficient to transport fifteen +thousand legionary soldiers and five hundred horse. This [the scarcity +of shipping] was the only thing that prevented Caesar from putting a +speedy conclusion to the war. And even these troops embarked very short +of their number, because several had fallen in so many wars in Gaul, and +the long march from Spain had lessened their number very much, and a +severe autumn in Apulia and the district about Brundisium, after the +very wholesome countries of Spain and Gaul, had impaired the health of +the whole army. + +III.--Pompey having got a year's respite to provide forces, during which +he was not engaged in war, nor employed by an enemy, had collected a +numerous fleet from Asia, and the Cyclades, from Corcyra, Athens, +Pontus, Bithynia, Syria, Cilicia, Phoenicia, and Egypt, and had given +directions that a great number should be built in every other place. He +had exacted a large sum of money from Asia, Syria, and all the kings, +dynasts, tetrarchs, and free states of Achaia; and had obliged the +corporations of those provinces, of which he himself had the government, +to count down to him a large sum. + +IV.--He had made up nine legions of Roman citizens; five from Italy, +which he had brought with him; one veteran legion from Sicily, which +being composed of two, he called the Gemella; one from Crete and +Macedonia, of veterans who had been discharged by their former generals, +and had settled in those provinces; two from Asia, which had been levied +by the activity of Lentulus. Besides he had distributed among his +legions a considerable number, by way of recruits, from Thessaly, +Boeotia, Achaia, and Epirus: with his legions he also intermixed the +soldiers taken from Caius Antonius. Besides these, he expected two +legions from Syria, with Scipio; from Crete, Lacedaemon, Pontus, Syria, +and other states, he got about three thousand archers, six cohorts of +slingers, two thousand mercenary soldiers, and seven thousand horse; six +hundred of which, Deiotarus had brought from Gaul; Ariobarzanes, five +hundred from Cappadocia. Cotus had given him about the same number from +Thrace, and had sent his son Sadalis with them. From Macedonia there +were two hundred, of extraordinary valour, commanded by Rascipolis; five +hundred Gauls and Germans; Gabinius's troops from Alexandria, whom Aulus +Gabinius had left with king Ptolemy, to guard his person. Pompey, the +son, had brought in his fleet eight hundred, whom he had raised among +his own and his shepherds' slaves. Tarcundarius, Castor and Donilaus had +given three hundred from Gallograecia: one of these came himself, the +other sent his son. Two hundred were sent from Syria by Comagenus +Antiochus, whom Pompey rewarded amply. The most of them were archers. To +these were added Dardanians, and Bessians, some of them mercenaries; +others procured by power and influence: also, Macedonians, Thessalians, +and troops from other nations and states, which completed the number +which we mentioned before. + +V.--He had laid in vast quantities of corn from Thessaly, Asia, Egypt, +Crete, Cyrene, and other countries. He had resolved to fix his winter +quarters at Dyrrachium, Apollonia, and the other sea-ports, to hinder +Caesar from passing the sea: and for this purpose had stationed his +fleet along the sea-coast. The Egyptian fleet was commanded by Pompey, +the son: the Asiatic, by Decimus Laelius, and Caius Triarius: the +Syrian, by Caius Cassius: the Rhodian, by Caius Marcellus, in +conjunction with Caius Coponius; and the Liburnian, and Achaian, by +Scribonius Libo, and Marcus Octavius. But Marcus Bibulus was appointed +commander-in-chief of the whole maritime department, and regulated every +matter. The chief direction rested upon him. + +VI.--When Caesar came to Brundisium, he made a speech to the soldiers: +"That since they were now almost arrived at the termination of their +toils and dangers, they should patiently submit to leave their slaves +and baggage in Italy, and to embark without luggage, that a greater +number of men might be put on board: that they might expect everything +from victory and his liberality." They cried out with one voice, "he +might give what orders he pleased, that they would cheerfully fulfil +them." He accordingly set sail the fourth day of January, with seven +legions on board, as already remarked. The next day he reached land, +between the Ceraunian rocks and other dangerous places; meeting with a +safe road for his shipping to ride in, and dreading all other ports +which he imagined were in possession of the enemy, he landed his men at +a place called Pharsalus, without the loss of a single vessel. + +VII.--Lucretius Vespillo and Minutius Rufus were at Oricum, with +eighteen Asiatic ships, which were given into their charge by the orders +of Decimus Laelius: Marcus Bibulus at Corcyra, with a hundred and ten +ships. But they had not the confidence to dare to move out of the +harbour; though Caesar had brought only twelve ships as a convoy, only +four of which had decks; nor did Bibulus, his fleet being disordered and +his seamen dispersed, come up in time: for Caesar was seen at the +continent before any account whatsoever of his approach had reached +those regions. + +VIII.--Caesar, having landed his soldiers, sent back his ships the same +night to Brundisium, to transport the rest of his legions and cavalry. +The charge of this business was committed to lieutenant Fufius Kalenus, +with orders to be expeditious in transporting the legions. But the ships +having put to sea too late, and not having taken advantage of the night +breeze, fell a sacrifice on their return. For Bibulus, at Corcyra, being +informed of Caesar's approach, hoped to fall in with some part of our +ships, with their cargoes, but found them empty; and having taken about +thirty, vented on them his rage at his own remissness, and set them all +on fire: and, with the same flames, he destroyed the mariners and +masters of the vessels, hoping by the severity of the punishment to +deter the rest. Having accomplished this affair, he filled all the +harbours and shores from Salona to Oricum with his fleets. Having +disposed his guard with great care, he lay on board himself in the depth +of winter, declining no fatigue or duty, and not waiting for +reinforcements, in hopes that he might come within Caesar's reach. + +IX.--But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet, Marcus Octavius +sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona; and having +spirited up the Dalmatians, and other barbarous nations, he drew Issa +off from its connection with Caesar; but not being able to prevail with +the council of Salona, either by promises or menaces, he resolved to +storm the town. But it was well fortified by its natural situation, and +a hill. The Roman citizens built wooden towers, the better to secure it; +but when they were unable to resist, on account of the smallness of +their numbers, being weakened by several wounds, they stooped to the +last resource, and set at liberty all the slaves old enough to bear +arms; and cutting the hair off the women's heads, made ropes for their +engines. Octavius, being informed of their determination, surrounded the +town with five encampments, and began to press them at once with a siege +and storm. They were determined to endure every hardship, and their +greatest distress was the want of corn. They, therefore, sent deputies +to Caesar, and begged a supply from him; all other inconveniences they +bore by their own resources, as well as they could: and after a long +interval, when the length of the siege had made Octavius's troops more +remiss than usual, having got an opportunity at noon, when the enemy +were dispersed, they disposed their wives and children on the walls, to +keep up the appearance of their usual attention; and forming themselves +into one body, with the slaves whom they had lately enfranchised, they +made an attack on Octavius's nearest camp, and having forced that, +attacked the second with the same fury; and then the third and the +fourth, and then the other, and beat them from them all: and having +killed a great number, obliged the rest and Octavius himself to fly for +refuge to their ships. This put an end to the blockade. Winter was now +approaching, and Octavius, despairing of capturing the town, after +sustaining such considerable losses, withdrew to Pompey, to Dyrrachium. + +X.--We have mentioned that Vibullius Rufus, an officer of Pompey's, had +fallen twice into Caesar's power; first at Corfinium, and afterwards in +Spain. Caesar thought him a proper person, on account of his favours +conferred on him, to send with proposals to Pompey: and he knew that he +had an influence over Pompey. This was the substance of his proposals: +"That it was the duty of both, to put an end to their obstinacy, and +forbear hostilities, and not tempt fortune any further; that sufficient +loss had been suffered on both sides, to serve as a lesson and +instruction to them, to render them apprehensive of future calamities, +by Pompey, in having been driven out of Italy, and having lost Sicily, +Sardinia, and the two Spains, and one hundred and thirty cohorts of +Roman citizens, in Italy and Spain: by himself, in the death of Curio, +and the loss of so great an army in Africa, and the surrender of his +soldiers in Corcyra. Wherefore, they should have pity on themselves, and +the republic: for, from their own misfortunes, they had sufficient +experience of what fortune can effect in war. That this was the only +time to treat of peace; when each had confidence in his own strength, +and both seemed on an equal footing. Since, if fortune showed ever so +little favour to either, he who thought himself superior, would not +submit to terms of accommodation; nor would he be content with an equal +division, when he might expect to obtain the whole. That, as they could +not agree before, the terms of peace ought to be submitted to the senate +and people in Rome. That in the meantime, it ought to content the +republic and themselves, if they both immediately took oath in a public +assembly, that they would disband their forces within the three +following days. That having divested themselves of the arms and +auxiliaries, on which they placed their present confidence, they must +both of necessity acquiesce in the decision of the people and senate. To +give Pompey the fuller assurance of his intentions, he would dismiss all +his forces on land, even his garrisons. + +XI.--Vibullius, having received this commission from Caesar, thought it +no less necessary to give Pompey notice of Caesar's sudden approach, +that he might adopt such plans as the circumstance required, than to +inform him of Caesar's message; and therefore continuing his journey by +night as well as by day, and taking fresh horses for despatch, he posted +away to Pompey, to inform him that Caesar was marching towards him with +all his forces. Pompey was at this time in Candavia, and was on his +march from Macedonia to his winter quarters in Apollonia and Dyrrachium; +but surprised at the unexpected news, he determined to go to Apollonia +by speedy marches, to prevent Caesar from becoming master of all the +maritime states. But as soon as Caesar had landed his troops, he set off +the same day for Oricum: when he arrived there, Lucius Torquatus, who +was governor of the town by Pompey's appointment, and had a garrison of +Parthinians in it, endeavoured to shut the gates and defend the town, +and ordered the Greeks to man the walls, and to take arms. But as they +refused to fight against the power of the Roman people, and as the +citizens made a spontaneous attempt to admit Caesar, despairing of any +assistance, he threw open the gates, and surrendered himself and the +town to Caesar, and was preserved safe from injury by him. + +XII.--Having taken Oricum, Caesar marched without making any delay to +Apollonia. Staberius the governor, hearing of his approach, began to +bring water into the citadel, and to fortify it, and to demand hostages +of the town's people. But they refuse to give any, or to shut their +gates against the consul, or to take upon them to judge contrary to what +all Italy and the Roman people had judged. As soon as he knew their +inclinations, he made his escape privately. The inhabitants of Apollonia +sent ambassadors to Caesar, and gave him admission into their town. +Their example was followed by the inhabitants of Bullis, Amantia, and +the other neighbouring states, and all Epirus: and they sent ambassadors +to Caesar, and promised to obey his commands. + +XIII.--But Pompey having received information of the transactions at +Oricum and Apollonia, began to be alarmed for Dyrrachium, and +endeavoured to reach it, marching day and night. As soon as it was said +that Caesar was approaching, such a panic fell upon Pompey's army, +because in his haste he had made no distinction between night and day, +and had marched without intermission, that they almost every man +deserted their colours in Epirus and the neighbouring countries; several +threw down their arms, and their march had the appearance of a flight. +But when Pompey had halted near Dyrrachium, and had given orders for +measuring out the ground for his camp, his army even yet continuing in +their fright, Labienus first stepped forward and swore that he would +never desert him, and would share whatever fate fortune should assign to +him. The other lieutenants took the same oath, and the tribunes and +centurions followed their example: and the whole army swore in like +manner. Caesar, finding the road to Dyrrachium already in the possession +of Pompey, was in no great haste, but encamped by the river Apsus, in +the territory of Apollonia, that the states which had deserved his +support might be certain of protection from his out-guards and forts; +and there he resolved to wait the arrival of his other legions from +Italy, and to winter in tents. Pompey did the same; and pitching his +camp on the other side of the river Apsus, collected there all his +troops and auxiliaries. + +XIV.--Kalenus, having put the legions and cavalry on board at +Brundisium, as Caesar had directed him, as far as the number of his +ships allowed, weighed anchor: and having sailed a little distance from +port, received a letter from Caesar, in which he was informed, that all +the ports and the whole shore was occupied by the enemy's fleet: on +receiving this information he returned into the harbour, and recalled +all the vessels. One of them, which continued the voyage and did not +obey Kalenus's command, because it carried no troops, but was private +property, bore away for Oricum, and was taken by Bibulus, who spared +neither slaves nor free men, nor even children; but put all to the +sword. Thus the safety of the whole army depended on a very short space +of time and a great casualty. + +XV.--Bibulus, as has been observed before, lay with his fleet near +Oricum, and as he debarred Caesar of the liberty of the sea and +harbours, so he was deprived of all intercourse with the country by +land; for the whole shore was occupied by parties disposed in different +places by Caesar. And he was not allowed to get either wood or water, or +even anchor near the land. He was reduced to great difficulties, and +distressed with extreme scarcity of every necessary; insomuch that he +was obliged to bring, in transports from Corcyra, not only provisions, +but even wood and water; and it once happened that, meeting with violent +storms, they were forced to catch the dew by night which fell on the +hides that covered their decks; yet all these difficulties they bore +patiently and without repining, and thought they ought not to leave the +shores and harbours free from blockade. But when they were suffering +under the distress which I have mentioned, and Libo had joined Bibulus, +they both called from on ship-board to Marcus Acilius and Statius +Marcus, the lieutenants, one of whom commanded the town, the other the +guards on the coast, that they wished to speak to Caesar on affairs of +importance, if permission should be granted them. They add something +further to strengthen the impression that they intended to treat about +an accommodation. In the meantime they requested a truce, and obtained +it from them; for what they proposed seemed to be of importance, and it +was well known that Caesar desired it above all things, and it was +imagined that some advantage would be derived from Bibulus's proposals. + +XVI.--Caesar having set out with one legion to gain possession of the +more remote states, and to provide corn, of which he had but a small +quantity, was at this time at Buthrotum, opposite to Corcyra. There +receiving Acilius and Marcus's letters, informing him of Libo's and +Bibulus's demands, he left his legion behind him, and returned himself +to Oricum. When he arrived, they were invited to a conference. Libo came +and made an apology for Bibulus, "that he was a man of strong passion, +and had a private quarrel against Caesar, contracted when he was aedile +and praetor; that for this reason he had avoided the conference, lest +affairs of the utmost importance and advantage might be impeded by the +warmth of his temper. That it now was and ever had been Pompey's most +earnest wish, that they should be reconciled, and lay down their arms; +but they were not authorized to treat on that subject, because they +resigned the whole management of the war, and all other matters, to +Pompey, by order of the council. But when they were acquainted with +Caesar's demands, they would transmit them to Pompey, who would conclude +all of himself by their persuasions. In the meantime, let the truce be +continued till the messengers could return from him; and let no injury +be done on either side." To this he added a few words of the cause for +which they fought, and of his own forces and resources. + +XVII.--To this, Caesar did not then think proper to make any reply, nor +do we now think it worth recording. But Caesar required "that he should +be allowed to send commissioners to Pompey, who should suffer no +personal injury; and that either they should grant it, or should take +his commissioners in charge, and convey them to Pompey. That as to the +truce, the war in its present state was so divided, that they by their +fleet deprived him of his shipping and auxiliaries; while he prevented +them from the use of the land and fresh water; and if they wished that +this restraint should be removed from them, they should relinquish their +blockade of the seas, but if they retained the one, he in like manner +would retain the other; that nevertheless, the treaty of accommodation +might still be carried on, though these points were not conceded, and +that they need not be an impediment to it." They would neither receive +Caesar's commissioners, nor guarantee their safety, but referred the +whole to Pompey. They urged and struggled eagerly to gain the one point +respecting a truce. But when Caesar perceived that they had proposed the +conference merely to avoid present danger and distress, but that they +offered no hopes or terms of peace, he applied his thoughts to the +prosecution of the war. + +XVIII.--Bibulus, being prevented from landing for several days, and +being seized with a violent distemper from the cold and fatigue, as he +could neither be cured on board, nor was willing to desert the charge +which he had taken upon him, was unable to bear up against the violence +of the disease. On his death, the sole command devolved on no single +individual, but each admiral managed his own division separately, and at +his own discretion. Vibullius, as soon as the alarm, which Caesar's +unexpected arrival had raised, was over, began again to deliver Caesar's +message in the presence of Libo, Lucius Lucceius, and Theophanes, to +whom Pompey used to communicate his most confidential secrets. He had +scarcely entered on the subject when Pompey interrupted him, and forbade +him to proceed. "What need," says he, "have I of life or Rome, if the +world shall think I enjoy them by the bounty of Caesar; an opinion which +can never be removed whilst it shall be thought that I have been brought +back by him to Italy, from which I set out." After the conclusion of the +war, Caesar was informed of these expressions by some persons who were +present at the conversation. He attempted, however, by other means to +bring about a negotiation of peace. + +XIX.--Between Pompey's and Caesar's camp there was only the river Apsus, +and the soldiers frequently conversed with each other; and by a private +arrangement among themselves, no weapons were thrown during their +conferences. Caesar sent Publius Vatinius, one of his lieutenants, to +the bank of the river, to make such proposals as should appear most +conducive to peace; and to cry out frequently with a loud voice +[asking], "Are citizens permitted to send deputies to citizens to treat +of peace? a concession which had been made even to fugitives on the +Pyrenean mountains, and to robbers, especially when by so doing they +would prevent citizens from fighting against citizens." Having spoken +much in humble language, as became a man pleading for his own and the +general safety, and being listened to with silence by the soldiers of +both armies, he received an answer from the enemy's party that Aulus +Varro proposed coming the next day to a conference, and that deputies +from both sides might come without danger, and explain their wishes, and +accordingly a fixed time was appointed for the interview. When the +deputies met the next day, a great multitude from both sides assembled, +and the expectations of every person concerning this subject were raised +very high, and their minds seemed to be eagerly disposed for peace. +Titus Labienus walked forward from the crowd, and in submissive terms +began to speak of peace, and to argue with Vatinius. But their +conversation was suddenly interrupted by darts thrown from all sides, +from which Vatinius escaped by being protected by the arms of the +soldiers. However, several were wounded; and among them Cornelius +Balbus, Marcus Plotius, and Lucius Tiburtius, centurions, and some +privates; hereupon Labienus exclaimed, "Forbear, then, to speak any more +about an accommodation, for we can have no peace unless we carry +Caesar's head back with us." + +XX.--At the same time in Rome, Marcus Caelius Rufus, one of the +praetors, having undertaken the cause of the debtors, on entering into +his office, fixed his tribunal near the bench of Caius Trebonius, the +city praetor, and promised if any person appealed to him in regard to +the valuation and payment of debts made by arbitration, as appointed by +Caesar when in Rome, that he would relieve them. But it happened, from +the justice of Trebonius's decrees and his humanity (for he thought that +in such dangerous times justice should be administered with moderation +and compassion), that not one could be found who would offer himself the +first to lodge an appeal. For to plead poverty, to complain of his own +private calamities, or the general distresses of the times, or to assert +the difficulty of setting the goods to sale, is the behaviour of a man +even of a moderate temper; but to retain their possessions entire, and +at the same time acknowledge themselves in debt, what sort of spirit, +and what impudence would it not have argued! Therefore nobody was found +so unreasonable as to make such demands. But Caelius proved more severe +to those very persons for whose advantage it had been designed; and +starting from this beginning, in order that he might not appear to have +engaged in so dishonourable an affair without effecting something, he +promulgated a law, that all debts should be discharged in six equal +payments, of six months each, without interest. + +XXI.--When Servilius, the consul, and the other magistrates opposed him, +and he himself effected less than he expected, in order to raise the +passions of the people, he dropped it, and promulgated two others; one, +by which he remitted the annual rents of the houses to the tenants, the +other, an act of insolvency: upon which the mob made an assault on Caius +Trebonius, and having wounded several persons, drove him from his +tribunal. The consul Servilius informed the senate of his proceedings, +who passed a decree that Caelius should be removed from the management +of the republic. Upon this decree, the consul forbade him the senate; +and when he was attempting to harangue the people, turned him out of the +rostrum. Stung with the ignominy and with resentment, he pretended in +public that he would go to Caesar, but privately sent messengers to +Milo, who had murdered Clodius, and had been condemned for it; and +having invited him into Italy, because he had engaged the remains of the +gladiators to his interest, by making them supple presents, he joined +him, and sent him to Thurinum to tamper with the shepherds. When he +himself was on his road to Casilinum, at the same time that his military +standards and arms were seized at Capua, his slaves seen at Naples, and +the design of betraying the town discovered: his plots being revealed, +and Capua shut against him, being apprehensive of danger, because the +Roman citizens residing there had armed themselves, and thought he ought +to be treated as an enemy to the state, he abandoned his first design, +and changed his route. + +XXII.--Milo in the meantime despatched letters to the free towns, +purporting that he acted as he did by the orders and commands of Pompey, +conveyed to him by Bibulus: and he endeavoured to engage in his interest +all persons whom he imagined were under difficulties by reason of their +debts. But not being able to prevail with them, he set at liberty some +slaves from the work-houses, and began to assault Cosa in the district +of Thurinum. There having received a blow of a stone thrown from the +wall of the town which was commanded by Quintus Pedius with one legion, +he died of it; and Caelius having set out, as he pretended for Caesar, +went to Thurii, where he was put to death as he was tampering with some +of the freemen of the town, and was offering money to Caesar's Gallic +and Spanish horse, which he had sent there to strengthen the garrison. +And thus these mighty beginnings, which had embroiled Italy, and kept +the magistrates employed, found a speedy and happy issue. + +XXIII.--Libo having sailed from Oricum, with a fleet of fifty ships, +which he commanded, came to Brundisium, and seized an island, which lies +opposite to the harbour; judging it better to guard that place, which +was our only pass to sea, than to keep all the shores and ports blocked +up by a fleet. By his sudden arrival, he fell in with some of our +transports, and set them on fire, and carried off one laden with corn; +he struck great terror into our men, and having in the night landed a +party of soldiers and archers, he beat our guard of horse from their +station, and gained so much by the advantage of situation, that he +despatched letters to Pompey, that if he pleased he might order the rest +of the ships to be hauled upon shore and repaired; for that with his own +fleet he could prevent Caesar from receiving his auxiliaries. + +XXIV.--Antonius was at this time at Brundisium, and relying on the +valour of his troops, covered about sixty of the long-boats belonging to +the men-of-war with penthouses and bulwarks of hurdles, and put on board +them select soldiers; and disposed them separately along the shore: and +under the pretext of keeping the seamen in exercise, he ordered two +three-banked galleys, which he had built at Brundisium, to row to the +mouth of the port. When Libo saw them advancing boldly towards him, he +sent five four-banked galleys against them, in hopes of intercepting +them. When these came near our ships, our veteran soldiers retreated +within the harbour. The enemy, urged by their eagerness to capture them, +pursued them unguardedly; for instantly the boats of Antonius, on a +certain signal, rowed with great violence from all parts against the +enemy; and at the first charge took one of the four-banked galleys, with +the seamen and marines, and forced the rest to flee disgracefully. In +addition to this loss, they were prevented from getting water by the +horse which Antonius had disposed along the sea-coast. Libo, vexed at +the distress and disgrace, departed from Brundisium, and abandoned the +blockade. + +XXV.--Several months had now elapsed, and winter was almost gone, and +Caesar's legions and shipping were not coming to him from Brundisium, +and he imagined that some opportunities had been neglected, for the +winds had at least been often favourable, and he thought that he must +trust to them at last. And the longer it was deferred, the more eager +were those who commanded Pompey's fleet to guard the coast, and were +more confident of preventing our getting assistance: they receive +frequent reproofs from Pompey by letter, that as they had not prevented +Caesar's arrival at the first, they should at least stop the remainder +of his army: and they were expecting that the season for transporting +troops would become more unfavourable every day, as the winds grew +calmer. Caesar, feeling some trouble on this account, wrote in severe +terms to his officers at Brundisium, [and gave them orders] that as soon +as they found the wind to answer, they should not let the opportunity of +setting sail pass by, if they were even to steer their course to the +shore of Apollonia: because there they might run their ships on ground. +That these parts principally were left unguarded by the enemy's fleet, +because they dare not venture too far from the harbour. + +XXVI.--They [his officers], exerting boldness and courage, aided by the +instructions of Marcus Antonius, and Fufius Kalenus, and animated by the +soldiers strongly encouraging them, and declining no danger for Caesar's +safety, having got a southerly wind, weighed anchor, and the next day +were carried past Apollonia and Dyrrachium, and being seen from the +continent, Quintus Coponius, who commanded the Rhodian fleet at +Dyrrachium, put out of the port with his ships; and when they had almost +come up with us, in consequence of the breeze dying away, the south wind +sprang up afresh, and rescued us. However, he did not desist from his +attempt, but hoped by the labour and perseverance of his seamen to be +able to bear up against the violence of the storm; and although we were +carried beyond Dyrrachium, by the violence of the wind, he nevertheless +continued to chase us. Our men, taking advantage of fortune's kindness, +for they were still afraid of being attacked by the enemy's fleet, if +the wind abated, having come near a port, called Nymphaeum, about three +miles beyond Lissus, put into it (this port is protected from a +south-west wind, but is not secure against a south wind); and thought less +danger was to be apprehended from the storm than from the enemy. But as +soon as they were within the port, the south wind, which had blown for +two days, by extraordinary good luck veered round to the south-west. + +XXVII.--Here one might observe the sudden turns of fortune. We who, a +moment before, were alarmed for ourselves, were safely lodged in a very +secure harbour: and they who had threatened ruin to our fleet, were +forced to be uneasy on their own account: and thus, by a change of +circumstances, the storm protected our ships, and damaged the Rhodian +fleet to such a degree, that all their decked ships, sixteen in number, +foundered, without exception, and were wrecked: and of the prodigious +number of seamen and soldiers, some lost their lives by being dashed +against the rocks, others were taken by our men: but Caesar sent them +all safe home. + +XXVIII.--Two of our ships, that had not kept up with the rest, being +overtaken by the night, and not knowing what port the rest had made to, +came to an anchor opposite Lissus. Otacilius Crassus, who commanded +Pompey's fleet, detached after them several barges and small craft, and +attempted to take them. At the same time, he treated with them about +capitulating, and promised them their lives if they would surrender. One +of them carried two hundred and twenty recruits, the other was manned +with somewhat less than two hundred veterans. Here it might be seen what +security men derive from a resolute spirit. For the recruits, frightened +at the number of vessels, and fatigued with the rolling of the sea; and +with sea-sickness, surrendered to Otacilius, after having first received +his oath, that the enemy would not injure them; but as soon as they were +brought before him, contrary to the obligation of his oath, they were +inhumanly put to death in his presence. But the soldiers of the veteran +legion, who had also struggled, not only with the inclemency of the +weather, but by labouring at the pump, thought it their duty to remit +nothing of their former valour: and having protracted the beginning of +the night in settling the terms, under pretence of surrendering, they +obliged the pilot to run the ship aground: and having got a convenient +place on the shore, they spent the rest of the night there, and at +daybreak, when Otacilius had sent against them a party of the horse, who +guarded that part of the coast, to the number of four hundred, besides +some armed men, who had followed them from the garrison, they made a +brave defence, and having killed some of them, retreated in safety to +our army. + +XXIX.--After this action, the Roman citizens, who resided at Lissus, a +town which Caesar had before assigned them, and had carefully fortified, +received Antony into their town, and gave him every assistance. +Otacilius, apprehensive for his own safety, escaped out of the town, and +went to Pompey. All his forces, whose number amounted to three veteran +legions, and one of recruits, and about eight hundred horse, being +landed, Antony sent most of his ships back to Italy, to transport the +remainder of the soldiers and horse. The pontons, which are a sort of +Gallic ships, he left at Lissus with this object, that if Pompey, +imagining Italy defenceless, should transport his army thither (and this +notion was spread among the common people), Caesar might have some means +of pursuing him; and he sent messengers to him with great despatch, to +inform him in what part of the country he had landed his army, and what +number of troops he had brought over with him. + +XXX.--Caesar and Pompey received this intelligence almost at the same +time; for they had seen the ships sail past Apollonia and Dyrrachium. +They directed their march after them by land; but at first they were +ignorant to what part they had been carried; but when they were informed +of it, they each adopted a different plan; Caesar, to form a junction +with Antonius as soon as possible, Pompey, to oppose Antonius's forces +on their march to Caesar, and, if possible, to fall upon them +unexpectedly from ambush. And the same day they both led out their +armies from their winter encampment along the river Apsus; Pompey, +privately by night; Caesar, openly by day. But Caesar had to march a +longer circuit up the river to find a ford. Pompey's route being easy, +because he was not obliged to cross the river, he advanced rapidly and +by forced marches against Antonius, and being informed of his approach, +chose a convenient situation, where he posted his forces; and kept his +men close within camp, and forbade fires to be kindled, that his arrival +might be the more secret. An account of this was immediately carried to +Antonius by the Greeks. He despatched messengers to Caesar, and confined +himself in his camp for one day. The next day Caesar came up with him. +On learning his arrival, Pompey, to prevent his being hemmed in between +two armies, quitted his position, and went with all his forces to +Asparagium, in the territory of Dyrrachium, and there encamped in a +convenient situation. + +XXXI.--During these times, Scipio, though he had sustained some losses +near mount Amanus, had assumed to himself the title of imperator, after +which he demanded large sums of money from the states and princes. He +had also exacted from the tax-gatherers two years' rents that they owed; +and enjoined them to lend him the amount of the next year, and demanded +a supply of horse from the whole province. When they were collected, +leaving behind him his neighbouring enemies, the Parthians (who shortly +before had killed Marcus Crassus, the imperator, and had kept Marcus +Bibulus besieged), he drew his legions and cavalry out of Syria; and +when he came into the province, which was under great anxiety and fear +of the Parthian war, and heard some declarations of the soldiers, "That +they would march against an enemy, if he would lead them on; but would +never bear arms against a countryman and consul"; he drew off his +legions to winter quarters to Pergamus, and the most wealthy cities, and +made them rich presents: and in order to attach them more firmly to his +interest, permitted them to plunder the cities. + +XXXII.--In the meantime, the money which had been demanded from the +province at large, was most rigorously exacted. Besides, many new +imposts of different kinds were devised to gratify his avarice. A tax of +so much a head was laid on every slave and child. Columns, doors, corn, +soldiers, sailors, arms, engines, and carriages, were made subject to a +duty. Wherever a name could be found for anything, it was deemed a +sufficient reason for levying money on it. Officers were appointed to +collect it, not only in the cities, but in almost every village and +fort: and whosoever of them acted with the greatest rigour and +inhumanity, was esteemed the best man, and best citizen. The province +was overrun with bailiffs and officers, and crowded with overseers and +tax-gatherers; who, besides the duties imposed, exacted a gratuity for +themselves; for they asserted, that being expelled from their own homes +and countries, they stood in need of every necessary; endeavouring by a +plausible pretence to colour the most infamous conduct. To this was +added the most exorbitant interest, as usually happens in times of war; +the whole sums being called in, on which occasion they alleged that the +delay of a single day was a donation. Therefore, in those two years, the +debt of the province was doubled: but notwithstanding, taxes were +exacted, not only from the Roman citizens, but from every corporation +and every state. And they said that these were loans, exacted by the +senate's decree. The taxes of the ensuing year were demanded beforehand +as a loan from the collectors, as on their first appointment. + +XXXIII.--Moreover, Scipio ordered the money formerly lodged in the +temple of Diana at Ephesus, to be taken out with the statues of that +goddess which remained there. When Scipio came to the temple, letters +were delivered to him from Pompey, in the presence of several senators, +whom he had called upon to attend him; [informing him] that Caesar had +crossed the sea with his legions; that Scipio should hasten to him with +his army, and postpone all other business. As soon as he received the +letter, he dismissed his attendants, and began to prepare for his +journey to Macedonia; and a few days after set out. This circumstance +saved the money at Ephesus. + +XXXIV.--Caesar, having effected a junction with Antonius's army, and +having drawn his legion out of Oricum, which he had left there to guard +the coast, thought he ought to sound the inclination of the provinces, +and march farther into the country; and when ambassadors came to him +from Thessaly and Aetolia, to engage that the states in those countries +would obey his orders, if he sent a garrison to protect them, he +despatched Lucius Cassius Longinus, with the twenty-seventh, a legion +composed of young soldiers, and two hundred horse, to Thessaly: and +Caius Calvisius Sabinus, with five cohorts, and a small party of horse, +into Aetolia. He recommended them to be especially careful to provide +corn, because those regions were nearest to him. He ordered Cneius +Domitius Calvinus to march into Macedonia with two legions, the eleventh +and twelfth, and five hundred horse; from which province, Menedemus, the +principal man of those regions, on that side which is called the Free, +having come as ambassador, assured him of the most devoted affection of +all his subjects. + +XXXV.--Of these Calvisius, on his first arrival in Aetolia, being very +kindly received, dislodged the enemy's garrisons in Calydon and +Naupactus, and made himself master of the whole country. Cassius went to +Thessaly with his legion. As there were two factions there, he found the +citizens divided in their inclinations. Hegasaretus, a man of +established power, favoured Pompey's interest. Petreius, a young man of +a most noble family, warmly supported Caesar with his own and his +friends' influence. + +XXXVI.--At the same time, Domitius arrived in Macedonia: and when +numerous embassies had begun to wait on him from many of the states, +news was brought that Scipio was approaching with his legions, which +occasioned various opinions and reports; for in strange events, rumour +generally goes before. Without making any delay in any part of +Macedonia, he marched with great haste against Domitius; and when he was +come within about twenty miles of him, wheeled on a sudden towards +Cassius Longinus in Thessaly. He effected this with such celerity, that +news of his march and arrival came together; for to render his march +expeditious, he left the baggage of his legions behind him at the river +Haliacmon, which divides Macedonia from Thessaly, under the care of +Marcus Favonius, with a guard of eight cohorts, and ordered him to build +a strong fort there. At the same time, Cotus's cavalry, which used to +infest the neighbourhood of Macedonia, flew to attack Cassius's camp, at +which Cassius being alarmed, and having received information of Scipio's +approach, and seen the horse, which he imagined to be Scipio's, he +betook himself to the mountains that environ Thessaly, and thence began +to make his route towards Ambracia. But when Scipio was hastening to +pursue him, despatches overtook him from Favonius, that Domitius was +marching against him with his legions, and that he could not maintain +the garrison over which he was appointed, without Scipio's assistance. +On receipt of these despatches, Scipio changed his designs and his +route, desisted from his pursuit of Cassius, and hastened to relieve +Favonius. Accordingly, continuing his march day and night, he came to +him so opportunely, that the dust raised by Domitius's army, and +Scipio's advanced guard, were observed at the same instant. Thus, the +vigilance of Domitius saved Cassius, and the expedition of Scipio, +Favonius. + +XXXVII--Scipio, having stayed for two days in his camp, along the river +Haliacmon, which ran between him and Domitius's camp, on the third day, +at dawn, led his army across a ford, and having made a regular +encampment the day following, drew up his forces in front of his camp. +Domitius thought he ought not to show any reluctance, but should draw +out his forces and hazard a battle. But as there was a plain six miles +in breadth between the two camps, he posted his army before Scipio's +camp; while the latter persevered in not quitting his entrenchment. +However, Domitius with difficulty restrained his men, and prevented +their beginning a battle; the more so as a rivulet with steep banks, +joining Scipio's camp, retarded the progress of our men. When Scipio +perceived the eagerness and alacrity of our troops to engage, suspecting +that he should be obliged the next day, either to fight, against his +inclination, or to incur great disgrace by keeping within his camp, +though he had come with high expectation, yet by advancing rashly, made +a shameful end; and at night crossed the river, without even giving the +signal for breaking up the camp, and returned to the ground from which +he came, and there encamped near the river, on an elevated situation. +After a few days, he placed a party of horse in ambush in the night, +where our men had usually gone to forage for several days before. And +when Quintus Varus, commander of Domitius's horse, came there as usual, +they suddenly rushed from their ambush. But our men bravely supported +their charge, and returned quickly every man to his own rank, and in +their turn, made a general charge on the enemy: and having killed about +eighty of them, and put the rest to flight, retreated to their camp with +the loss of only two men. + +XXXVIII.--After these transactions, Domitius, hoping to allure Scipio to +a battle, pretended to be obliged to change his position through want of +corn, and having given the signal for decamping, advanced about three +miles, and posted his army and cavalry in a convenient place, concealed +from the enemy's view. Scipio being in readiness to pursue him, detached +his cavalry and a considerable number of light infantry to explore +Domitius's route. When they had marched a short way, and their foremost +troops were within reach of our ambush, their suspicions being raised by +the neighing of the horses, they began to retreat: and the rest who +followed them, observing with what speed they retreated, made a halt. +Our men, perceiving that the enemy had discovered their plot, and +thinking it in vain to wait for any more, having got two troops in their +power, intercepted them. Among them was Marcus Opimius, general of the +horse, but he made his escape: they either killed or took prisoners all +the rest of these two troops, and brought them to Domitius. + +XXXIX.--Caesar, having drawn his garrisons out of the sea-ports, as +before mentioned, left three cohorts at Oricum to protect the town, and +committed to them the charge of his ships of war, which he had +transported from Italy. Acilius, as lieutenant-general, had the charge +of this duty and the command of the town; he drew the ships into the +inner part of the harbour, behind the town, and fastened them to the +shore, and sank a merchant-ship in the mouth of the harbour to block it +up; and near it he fixed another at anchor, on which he raised a turret, +and faced it to the entrance of the port, and filled it with soldiers, +and ordered them to keep guard against any sudden attack. + +XL.--Cneius, Pompey's son, who commanded the Egyptian fleet, having got +intelligence of these things, came to Oricum, and weighed up the ship, +that had been sunk, with a windlass, and by straining at it with several +ropes, and attacked the other which had been placed by Acilius to watch +the port with several ships, on which he had raised very high turrets, +so that fighting as it were from an eminence, and sending fresh men +constantly to relieve the fatigued, and at the same time attempting the +town on all sides by land, with ladders and his fleet, in order to +divide the force of his enemies, he overpowered our men by fatigue, and +the immense number of darts, and took the ship, having beat off the men +who were put on board to defend it, who, however, made their escape in +small boats; and at the same time he seized a natural mole on the +opposite side, which almost formed an island over against the town. He +carried over land, into the inner part of the harbour, four galleys, by +putting rollers under them, and driving them on with levers. Then +attacking on both sides the ships of war which were moored to the shore, +and were not manned, he carried off four of them, and set the rest on +fire. After despatching this business, he left Decimus Laelius, whom he +had taken away from the command of the Asiatic fleet, to hinder +provisions from being brought into the town from Biblis and Amantia, and +went himself to Lissus, where he attacked thirty merchantmen, left +within the port by Antonius, and set them on fire. He attempted to storm +Lissus, but being delayed three days by the vigorous defence of the +Roman citizens who belonged to that district, and of the soldiers which +Caesar had sent to keep garrison there, and having lost a few men in the +assault, he returned without effecting his object. + +XLI.--As soon as Caesar heard that Pompey was at Asparagium, he set out +for that place with his army, and having taken the capital of the +Parthinians on his march, where there was a garrison of Pompey's, he +reached Pompey in Macedonia, on the third day, and encamped beside him; +and the day following, having drawn out all his forces before his camp, +he offered Pompey battle. But perceiving that he kept within his +trenches, he led his army back to his camp, and thought of pursuing some +other plan. Accordingly, the day following, he set out with all his +forces by a long circuit, through a difficult and narrow road to +Dyrrachium; hoping, either that Pompey would be compelled to follow him +to Dyrrachium, or that his communication with it might be cut off, +because he had deposited there all his provisions and mat['e]riel of +war. And so it happened; for Pompey, at first not knowing his design, +because he imagined he had taken a route in a different direction from +that country, thought that the scarcity of provisions had obliged him to +shift his quarters; but having afterwards got true intelligence from his +scouts, he decamped the day following, hoping to prevent him by taking a +shorter road; which Caesar suspecting might happen, encouraged his +troops to submit cheerfully to the fatigue, and having halted a very +small part of the night, he arrived early in the morning at Dyrrachium, +when the van of Pompey's army was visible at a distance, and there he +encamped. + +XLII.--Pompey, being cut off from Dyrrachium, as he was unable to effect +his purpose, took a new resolution, and entrenched himself strongly on a +rising ground, which is called Petra, where ships of a small size can +come in, and be sheltered from some winds. Here he ordered a part of his +men-of-war to attend him, and corn and provisions to be brought from +Asia, and from all the countries of which he kept possession. Caesar, +imagining that the war would be protracted to too great a length, and +despairing of his convoys from Italy, because all the coasts were +guarded with great diligence by Pompey's adherents; and because his own +fleets, which he had built during the winter, in Sicily, Gaul, and +Italy, were detained; sent Lucius Canuleius into Epirus to procure corn; +and because these countries were too remote, he fixed granaries in +certain places, and regulated the carriage of the corn for the +neighbouring states. He likewise gave directions that search should be +made for whatever corn was in Lissus, the country of the Parthini, and +all the places of strength. The quantity was very small, both from the +nature of the land (for the country is rough and mountainous, and the +people commonly import what grain they use); and because Pompey had +foreseen what would happen, and some days before had plundered the +Parthini, and having ravaged and dug up their houses, carried off all +the corn, which he collected by means of his horse. + +XLIII.--Caesar, on being informed of these transactions, pursued +measures suggested by the nature of the country. For round Pompey's +camps there were several high and rough hills. These he first of all +occupied with guards, and raised strong forts on them. Then drawing a +fortification from one fort to another, as the nature of each position +allowed, he began to draw a line of circumvallation round Pompey; with +these views; as he had but a small quantity of corn, and Pompey was +strong in cavalry, that he might furnish his army with corn and other +necessaries from all sides with less danger: secondly, to prevent Pompey +from foraging, and thereby render his horse ineffectual in the +operations of the war; and thirdly, to lessen his reputation, on which +he saw he depended greatly, among foreign nations, when a report should +have spread throughout the world that he was blockaded by Caesar, and +dare not hazard a battle. + +XLIV.--Neither was Pompey willing to leave the sea and Dyrrachium, +because he had lodged his mat['e]riel there, his weapons, arms, and +engines; and supplied his army with corn from it by his ships: nor was +he able to put a stop to Caesar's works without hazarding a battle, +which at that time he had determined not to do. Nothing was left but to +adopt the last resource, namely, to possess himself of as many hills as +he could, and cover as great an extent of country as possible with his +troops, and divide Caesar's forces as much as possible; and so it +happened: for having raised twenty-four forts, and taken in a compass of +fifteen miles, he got forage in this space, and within this circuit +there were several fields lately sown, in which the cattle might feed in +the meantime. And as our men, who had completed their works by drawing +lines of communication from one fort to another, were afraid that +Pompey's men would sally out from some part, and attack us in the rear; +so the enemy were making a continued fortification in a circuit within +ours to prevent us from breaking in on any side, or surrounding them on +the rear. But they completed their works first; both because they had a +greater number of men, and because they had a smaller compass to +enclose. When Caesar attempted to gain any place, though Pompey had +resolved not to oppose him with his whole force or to come to a general +engagement; yet he detached to particular places slingers and archers, +with which his army abounded, and several of our men were wounded, and +filled with great dread of the arrows; and almost all the soldiers made +coats or coverings for themselves of hair cloths, tarpaulins, or raw +hides to defend them against the weapons. + +XLV.--In seizing the posts, each exerted his utmost power: Caesar, to +confine Pompey within as narrow a compass as possible; Pompey, to occupy +as many hills as he could in as large a circuit as possible, and several +skirmishes were fought in consequence of it. In one of these, when +Caesar's ninth legion had gained a certain post, and had begun to +fortify it; Pompey possessed himself of a hill near to and opposite the +same place, and endeavoured to annoy the men while at work; and as the +approach on one side was almost level, he first surrounded it with +archers and slingers, and afterwards by detaching a strong party of +light infantry, and using his engines, he stopped our works: and it was +no easy matter for our men at once to defend themselves, and to proceed +with their fortifications. When Caesar perceived that his troops were +wounded from all sides, he determined to retreat and give up the post; +his retreat was down a precipice, on which account they pushed on with +more spirit, and would not allow us to retire, because they imagined +that we resigned the place through fear. It is reported that Pompey said +that day in triumph to his friends about him, "That he would consent to +be accounted a general of no experience, if Caesar's legions effected a +retreat without considerable loss from that ground into which they had +rashly advanced." + +XLVI.--Caesar, being uneasy about the retreat of his soldiers, ordered +hurdles to be carried to the further side of the hill, and to be placed +opposite to the enemy, and behind them a trench of a moderate breadth to +be sunk by his soldiers under shelter of the hurdles: and the ground to +be made as difficult as possible. He himself disposed slingers in +convenient places to cover our men in their retreat. These things being +completed, he ordered his legions to file off. Pompey's men insultingly +and boldly pursued and chased us, levelling the hurdles that were thrown +up in the front of our works, in order to pass over the trench. Which as +soon as Caesar perceived, being afraid that his men would appear not to +retreat, but to be repulsed, and that greater loss might be sustained, +when his men were almost half way down the hill, he encouraged them by +Antonius, who commanded that legion, ordered the signal of battle to be +sounded, and a charge to be made on the enemy. The soldiers of the ninth +legion suddenly closing their files threw their javelins, and advancing +impetuously from the low ground up the steep, drove Pompey's men +precipitately before them, and obliged them to turn their backs; but +their retreat was greatly impeded by the hurdles that lay in a long line +before them, and the pallisadoes which were in their way, and the +trenches that were sunk. But our men being contented to retreat without +injury, having killed several of the enemy, and lost but five of their +own, very quietly retired, and having seized some other hills somewhat +on this side of that place, completed their fortifications. + +XLVII.--This method of conducting a war was new and unusual, as well on +account of the number of forts, the extent and greatness of the works, +and the manner of attack and defence, as on account of other +circumstances. For all who have attempted to besiege any person, have +attacked the enemy when they were frightened or weak, or after a defeat; +or have been kept in fear of some attack, when they themselves have had +a superior force both of foot and horse. Besides, the usual design of a +siege is to cut off the enemy's supplies. On the contrary, Caesar, with +an inferior force, was enclosing troops sound and unhurt, and who had +abundance of all things. For there arrived every day a prodigious number +of ships, which brought them provisions: nor could the wind blow from +any point that would not be favourable to some of them. Whereas, Caesar, +having consumed all the corn far and near, was in very great distress, +but his soldiers bore all with uncommon patience. For they remembered +that they lay under the same difficulties last year in Spain, and yet by +labour and patience had concluded a dangerous war. They recollected too +that they had suffered an alarming scarcity at Alesia, and a much +greater at Avaricum, and yet had returned victorious over mighty +nations. They refused neither barley nor pulse when offered them, and +they held in great esteem cattle, of which they got great quantities +from Epirus. + +XLVIII.--There was a sort of root, called chara, discovered by the +troops which served under Valerius. This they mixed up with milk, and it +greatly contributed to relieve their want. They made it into a sort of +bread. They had great plenty of it: loaves made of this, when Pompey's +men upbraided ours with want, they frequently threw among them to damp +their hopes. + +XLIX.--The corn was now beginning to ripen, and their hope supported +their want, as they were confident of having abundance in a short time. +And there were frequently heard declarations of the soldiers on guard, +in discourse with each other, that they would rather live on the bark of +the trees, than let Pompey escape from their hands. For they were often +told by deserters, that they could scarcely maintain their horses, and +that their other cattle was dead: that they themselves were not in good +health from their confinement within so narrow a compass, from the +noisome smell, the number of carcasses, and the constant fatigue to +them, being men unaccustomed to work, and labouring under a great want +of water. For Caesar had either turned the course of all the rivers and +streams which ran to the sea, or had dammed them up with strong works. +And as the country was mountainous, and the valleys narrow at the +bottom, he enclosed them with piles sunk in the ground, and heaped up +mould against them to keep in the water. They were therefore obliged to +search for low and marshy grounds, and to sink wells, and they had this +labour in addition to their daily works. And even these springs were at +a considerable distance from some of their posts, and soon dried up with +the heat. But Caesar's army enjoyed perfect health and abundance of +water, and had plenty of all sorts of provisions except corn; and they +had a prospect of better times approaching, and saw greater hopes laid +before them by the ripening of the grain. + +L.--In this new kind of war, new methods of managing it were invented by +both generals. Pompey's men, perceiving by our fires at night, at what +part of the works our cohorts were on guard, coming silently upon them +discharged their arrows at random among the whole multitude, and +instantly retired to their camp: as a remedy against which our men were +taught by experience to light their fires in one place, and keep guard +in another. + + * * * * * + +LI.--In the meantime, Publius Sylla, whom Caesar at his departure had +left governor of his camp, came up with two legions to assist the +cohort; upon whose arrival Pompey's forces were easily repulsed. Nor did +they stand the sight and charge of our men, and the foremost falling, +the rest turned their backs and quitted the field. But Sylla called our +men in from the pursuit, lest their ardour should carry them too far, +but most people imagine, that if he had consented to a vigorous pursuit, +the war might have been ended that day. His conduct however does not +appear to deserve censure; for the duties of a lieutenant-general and of +a commander-in-chief are very different; the one is bound to act +entirely according to his instructions, the other to regulate his +conduct without control, as occasion requires. Sylla, being deputed by +Caesar to take care of the camp, and having rescued his men, was +satisfied with that, and did not desire to hazard a battle (although +this circumstance might probably have had a successful issue), that he +might not be thought to have assumed the part of the general. One +circumstance laid the Pompeians under great difficulty in making good a +retreat: for they had advanced from disadvantageous ground, and were +posted on the top of a hill. If they attempted to retire down the steep, +they dreaded the pursuit of our men from the rising ground, and there +was but a short time till sunset: for in hopes of completing the +business, they had protracted the battle almost till night. Taking +therefore measures suited to their exigency, and to the shortness of the +time, Pompey possessed himself of an eminence, at such a distance from +our fort, that no weapon discharged from an engine could reach him. Here +he took up a position, and fortified it, and kept all his forces there. + +LII.--At the same time, there were engagements in two other places; for +Pompey had attacked several forts at once, in order to divide our +forces; that no relief might be sent from the neighbouring posts. In one +place, Volcatius Tullus sustained the charge of a legion with three +cohorts, and beat them off the field. In another, the Germans, having +sallied over our fortifications, slew several of the enemy, and +retreated safe to our camp. + +LIII.--Thus six engagements having happened in one day, three at +Dyrrachium, and three at the fortifications, when a computation was made +of the number of slain, we found that about two thousand fell on +Pompey's side, several of them volunteer veterans and centurions. Among +them was Valerius, the son of Lucius Flaccus, who as praetor had +formerly had the government of Asia, and six military standards were +taken. Of our men, not more than twenty were missing in all the action. +But in the fort, not a single soldier escaped without a wound; and in +one cohort, four centurions lost their eyes. And being desirous to +produce testimony of the fatigue they underwent, and the danger they +sustained, they counted to Caesar about thirty thousand arrows which had +been thrown into the fort; and in the shield of the centurion Scaeva, +which was brought to him, were found two hundred and thirty holes. In +reward for this man's services both to himself and the republic, Caesar +presented to him two hundred thousand pieces of copper money, and +declared him promoted from the eighth to the first centurion. For it +appeared that the fort had been in a great measure saved by his +exertions; and he afterwards very amply rewarded the cohorts with double +pay, corn, clothing, and other military honours. + +LIV.--Pompey, having made great additions to his works in the night, the +following days built turrets, and having carried his works fifteen feet +high, faced that part of his camp with mantlets; and after an interval +of five days, taking advantage of a second cloudy night, he barricaded +all the gates of his camp to hinder a pursuit, and about midnight +quietly marched off his army, and retreated to his old fortifications. + +LV.--Aetolia, Acarnania, and Amphilochis, being reduced, as we have +related, by Cassius Longinus, and Calvisius Sabinus, Caesar thought he +ought to attempt the conquest of Achaia, and to advance farther into the +country. Accordingly, he detached Fufius thither, and ordered Quintus +Sabinus and Cassius to join him with their cohorts. Upon notice of their +approach, Rutilius Lupus, who commanded in Achaia, under Pompey, began +to fortify the Isthmus, to prevent Fufius from coming into Achaia. +Kalenus recovered Delphi, Thebes, and Orchomenus, by a voluntary +submission of those states. Some he subdued by force, the rest he +endeavoured to win over to Caesar's interest, by sending deputies round +to them. In these things, principally, Fufius was employed. + +LVI.--Every day afterwards, Caesar drew up his army on a level ground, +and offered Pompey battle, and led his legions almost close to Pompey's +camp; and his front line was at no greater distance from the rampart +than that no weapons from their engines could reach it. But Pompey, to +save his credit and reputation with the world, drew out his legions, but +so close to his camp that his rear lines might touch the rampart, and +that his whole army, when drawn up, might be protected by the darts +discharged from it. + +LVII.--Whilst these things were going forward in Achaia and at +Dyrrachium, and when it was certainly known that Scipio was arrived in +Macedonia, Caesar, never losing sight of his first intention, sends +Clodius to him, an intimate friend to both, whom Caesar, on the +introduction and recommendation of Pompey, had admitted into the number +of his acquaintance. To this man he gave letters and instructions to +Pompey, the substance of which was as follows: "That he had made every +effort towards peace, and imputed the ill success of those efforts to +the fault of those whom he had employed to conduct those negotiations: +because they were afraid to carry his proposals to Pompey at an improper +time. That Scipio had such authority, that he could not only freely +explain what conduct met his approbation, but even in some degree +enforce his advice, and govern him [Pompey] if he persisted in error; +that he commanded an army independent of Pompey, so that besides his +authority, he had strength to compel; and if he did so, all men would be +indebted to him for the quiet of Italy, the peace of the provinces, and +the preservation of the empire." These proposals Clodius made to him, +and for some days at the first appeared to have met with a favourable +reception, but afterwards was not admitted to an audience; for Scipio +being reprimanded by Favonius, as we found afterwards when the war was +ended, and the negotiation having miscarried, Clodius returned to +Caesar. + +LVIII.--Caesar, that he might the more easily keep Pompey's horse +enclosed within Dyrrachium, and prevent them from foraging, fortified +the two narrow passes already mentioned with strong works, and erected +forts at them. Pompey perceiving that he derived no advantage from his +cavalry, after a few days had them conveyed back to his camp by sea. +Fodder was so exceedingly scarce that he was obliged to feed his horses +upon leaves stripped off the trees, or the tender roots of reeds +pounded. For the corn which had been sown within the lines was already +consumed, and they would be obliged to supply themselves with fodder +from Corcyra and Acarnania, over a long tract of sea; and as the +quantity of that fell short, to increase it by mixing barley with it, +and by these methods support their cavalry. But when not only the barley +and fodder in these parts were consumed, and the herbs cut away, when +the leaves too were not to be found on the trees, the horses being +almost starved, Pompey thought he ought to make some attempt by a sally. + +LIX.--In the number of Caesar's cavalry were two Allobrogians, brothers, +named Roscillus and Aegus, the sons of Abducillus, who for several years +possessed the chief power in his own state; men of singular valour, +whose gallant services Caesar had found very useful in all his wars in +Gaul. To them, for these reasons, he had committed the offices of +greatest honour in their own country, and took care to have them chosen +into the senate at an unusual age, and had bestowed on them lands taken +from the enemy, and large pecuniary rewards, and from being needy had +made them affluent. Their valour had not only procured them Caesar's +esteem, but they were beloved by the whole army. But presuming on +Caesar's friendship, and elated with the arrogance natural to a foolish +and barbarous people, they despised their countrymen, defrauded their +cavalry of their pay, and applied all the plunder to their own use. +Displeased at this conduct, their soldiers went in a body to Caesar, and +openly complained of their ill usage; and to their other charges added, +that false musters were given in to Caesar, and the surcharged pay +applied to their own use. + +LX.--Caesar, not thinking it a proper time to call them to account, and +willing to pardon many faults, on account of their valour, deferred the +whole matter, and gave them a private rebuke, for having made a traffic +of their troops, and advised them to expect everything from his +friendship, and by his past favours to measure their future hopes. This, +however, gave them great offence, and made them contemptible in the eyes +of the whole army. Of this they became sensible, as well from the +reproaches of others, as from the judgment of their own minds, and a +consciousness of guilt. Prompted then by shame, and perhaps imagining +that they were not liberated from trial, but reserved to a future day, +they resolved to break off from us, to put their fortune to a new +hazard, and to make trial of new connections. And having conferred with +a few of their clients, to whom they could venture to entrust so base an +action, they first attempted to assassinate Caius Volusenus, general of +the horse (as was discovered at the end of the war), that they might +appear to have fled to Pompey after conferring an important service on +him. But when that appeared too difficult to put in execution, and no +opportunity offered to accomplish it, they borrowed all the money they +could, as if they designed to make satisfaction and restitution for what +they had defrauded: and having purchased a great number of horses, they +deserted to Pompey along with those whom they had engaged in their plot. + +LXI.--As they were persons nobly descended and of liberal education, and +had come with a great retinue, and several cattle, and were reckoned men +of courage, and had been in great esteem with Caesar, and as it was a +new and uncommon event, Pompey carried them round all his works, and +made an ostentatious show of them, for till that day, not a soldier, +either horse or foot, had deserted from Caesar to Pompey, though there +were desertions almost every day from Pompey to Caesar: but more +commonly among the soldiers levied in Epirus and Aetolia, and in those +countries which were in Caesar's possession. But the brothers, having +been acquainted with all things, either what was incomplete in our +works, or what appeared to the best judges of military matters to be +deficient, the particular times, the distance of places, and the various +attention of the guards, according to the different temper and character +of the officer who commanded the different posts, gave an exact account +of all to Pompey. + +LXII.--Upon receiving this intelligence, Pompey, who had already formed +the design of attempting a sally, as before mentioned, ordered the +soldiers to make ozier coverings for their helmets, and to provide +fascines. These things being prepared, he embarked on board small boats +and row galleys by night, a considerable number of light infantry and +archers, with all their fascines, and immediately after midnight, he +marched sixty cohorts drafted from the greater camp and the outposts, to +that part of our works which extended towards the sea, and were at the +farthest distance from Caesar's greater camp. To the same place he sent +the ships, which he had freighted with the fascines and light-armed +troops; and all the ships of war that lay at Dyrrachium; and to each he +gave particular instructions: at this part of the lines Caesar had +posted Lentulus Marcellinus, the quaestor, with the ninth legion, and as +he was not in a good state of health, Fulvius Costhumus was sent to +assist him in the command. + +LXIII.--At this place, fronting the enemy, there was a ditch fifteen +feet wide, and a rampart ten feet high, and the top of the rampart was +ten feet in breadth. At an interval of six hundred feet from that there +was another rampart turned the contrary way, with the works lower. For +some days before, Caesar, apprehending that our men might be surrounded +by sea, had made a double rampart there, that if he should be attacked +on both sides, he might have the means in defending himself. But the +extent of the lines, and the incessant labour for so many days, because +he had enclosed a circuit of seventeen miles with his works, did not +allow time to finish them. Therefore the transverse rampart which should +make a communication between the other two, was not yet completed. This +circumstance was known to Pompey, being told to him by the Allobrogian +deserters, and proved of great disadvantage to us. For when our cohorts +of the ninth legion were on guard by the sea-side, Pompey's army arrived +suddenly by break of day, and their approach was a surprise to our men, +and at the same time, the soldiers that came by sea cast their darts on +the front rampart; and the ditches were filled with fascines: and the +legionary soldiers terrified those that defended the inner rampart, by +applying the scaling ladders, and by engines and weapons of all sorts, +and a vast multitude of archers poured round upon them from every side. +Besides, the coverings of oziers, which they had laid over their +helmets, were a great security to them against the blows of stones which +were the only weapons that our soldiers had. And therefore, when our men +were oppressed in every manner, and were scarcely able to make +resistance, the defect in our works was observed, and Pompey's soldiers, +landing between the two ramparts, where the work was unfinished, +attacked our men in the rear, and having beat them from both sides of +the fortification, obliged them to flee. + +LXIV.--Marcellinus, being informed of this disorder, detached some +cohorts to the relief of our men, who seeing them flee from the camp, +were neither able to persuade them to rally at their approach, nor +themselves to sustain the enemy's charge. And in like manner, whatever +additional assistance was sent, was infected by the fears of the +defeated, and increased the terror and danger. For retreat was prevented +by the multitude of the fugitives. In that battle, when the eagle-bearer +was dangerously wounded, and began to grow weak, having got sight of our +horse, he said to them, "This eagle have I defended with the greatest +care for many years, at the hazard of my life, and now in my last +moments restore it to Caesar with the same fidelity. Do not, I conjure +you, suffer a dishonour to be sustained in the field, which never before +happened to Caesar's army, but deliver it safe into his hands." By this +accident the eagle was preserved, but all the centurions of the first +cohorts were killed, except the principal. + +LXV.--And now the Pompeians, after great havoc of our troops, were +approaching Marcellinus's camp, and had struck no small terror into the +rest of the cohorts, when Marcus Antonius, who commanded the nearest +fort, being informed of what had happened, was observed descending from +the rising ground with twelve cohorts. His arrival checked the +Pompeians, and encouraged our men to recover from their extreme +affright. And shortly after, Caesar having got notice by the smoke from +all the forts, which was the usual signal on such occasions, drafted off +some cohorts from the outposts, and went to the scene of action. And +having there learnt the loss he had sustained, and perceiving that +Pompey had forced our works, and had encamped along the coast, so that +he was at liberty to forage, and had a communication with his shipping, +he altered his plan for conducting the war, as his design had not +succeeded, and ordered a strong encampment to be made near Pompey. + +LXVI.--When this work was finished, Caesar's scouts observed that some +cohorts, which to them appeared like a legion, were retired behind the +wood, and were on their march to the old camp. The situation of the two +camps was as follows: a few days before, when Caesar's ninth legion had +opposed a party of Pompey's troops, and were endeavouring to enclose +them, Caesar's troops formed a camp in that place. This camp joined a +certain wood, and was not above four hundred paces distant from the sea. +Afterwards, changing his design for certain reasons, Caesar removed his +camp to a small distance beyond that place; and after a few days, Pompey +took possession of it, and added more extensive works, leaving the inner +rampart standing, as he intended to keep several legions there. By this +means, the lesser camp included within the greater, answered the purpose +of a fort and citadel. He had also carried an entrenchment from the left +angle of the camp to the river, about four hundred paces, that his +soldiers might have more liberty and less danger in fetching water. But +he too, changing his design for reasons not necessary to be mentioned, +abandoned the place. In this condition the camp remained for several +days, the works being all entire. + +LXVII.--Caesar's scouts brought him word that the standard of a legion +was carried to this place. That the same thing was seen he was assured +by those in the higher forts. This place was half a mile distant from +Pompey's new camp. Caesar, hoping to surprise this legion, and anxious +to repair the loss sustained that day, left two cohorts employed in the +works to make an appearance of entrenching himself, and by a different +route, as privately as he could, with his other cohorts amounting to +thirty-three, among which was the ninth legion, which had lost so many +centurions, and whose privates were greatly reduced in number, he +marched in two lines against Pompey's legion and his lesser camp. Nor +did this first opinion deceive him. For he reached the place before +Pompey could have notice of it; and though the works were strong, yet +having made the attack with the left wing, which he commanded in person, +he obliged the Pompeians to quit the rampart in disorder. A barricade +had been raised before the gates, at which a short contest was +maintained, our men endeavouring to force their way in, and the enemy to +defend the camp; Titus Pulcio, by whose means we have related that Caius +Antonius's army was betrayed, defending them with singular courage. But +the valour of our men prevailed, and having cut down the barricade, they +first forced the greater camp, and after that the fort which was +enclosed within it: and as the legion on its repulse had retired to +this, they slew several defending themselves there. + +LXVIII.--But Fortune, who exerts a powerful influence as well in other +matters, as especially in war, effects great changes from trifling +causes, as happened at this time. For the cohorts on Caesar's right +wing, through ignorance of the place, followed the direction of that +rampart, which ran along from the camp to the river, whilst they were in +search of a gate, and imagined that it belonged to the camp. But when +they found that it led to the river, and that nobody opposed them, they +immediately climbed over the rampart, and were followed by all our +cavalry. + +LXIX.--In the meantime Pompey, by the great delay which this occasioned, +being informed of what had happened, marched with the fifth legion, +which he called away from their work to support his party; and at the +same time his cavalry were advancing up to ours, and an army in order of +battle was seen at a distance by our men who had taken possession of the +camp, and the face of affairs was suddenly changed. For Pompey's legion, +encouraged by the hope of speedy support, attempted to make a stand at +the Decuman gate, and made a bold charge on our men. Caesar's cavalry, +who had mounted the rampart by a narrow breach, being apprehensive of +their retreat, were the first to flee. The right wing, which had been +separated from the left, observing the terror of the cavalry, to prevent +their being overpowered within the lines, were endeavouring to retreat +by the same way as they burst in; and most of them, lest they should be +engaged in the narrow passes, threw themselves down a rampart ten feet +high into the trenches; and the first being trodden to death, the rest +procured their safety and escaped over their bodies. The soldiers of the +left wing, perceiving from the rampart that Pompey was advancing, and +their own friends fleeing, being afraid that they should be enclosed +between the two ramparts, as they had an enemy both within and without, +strove to secure their retreat the same way they came. All was disorder, +consternation, and flight; insomuch that, when Caesar laid hold of the +colours of those who were running away, and desired them to stand, some +left their horses behind, and continued to run in the same manner; +others through fear even threw away their colours, nor did a single man +face about. + +LXX.--In this calamity, the following favourable circumstance occurred +to prevent the ruin of our whole army, viz., that Pompey suspecting an +ambuscade (because, as I suppose, the success had far exceeded his +hopes, as he had seen his men a moment before fleeing from the camp), +durst not for some time approach the fortification; and that his horse +were retarded from pursuing, because the passes and gates were in +possession of Caesar's soldiers. Thus a trifling circumstance proved of +great importance to each party; for the rampart drawn from the camp to +the river, interrupted the progress and certainty of Caesar's victory, +after he had forced Pompey's camp. The same thing, by retarding the +rapidity of the enemy's pursuit, preserved our army. + +LXXI.--In the two actions of this day, Caesar lost nine hundred and +sixty rank and file, several Roman knights of distinction, Felginas +Tuticanus Gallus, a senator's son; Caius Felginas from Placentia; Aulus +Gravius from Puteoli; Marcus Sacrativir from Capua; and thirty-two +military tribunes and centurions. But the greatest part of all these +perished without a wound, being trodden to death in the trenches, on the +ramparts and banks of the river by reason of the terror and flight of +their own men. Pompey, after this battle, was saluted Imperator; this +title he retained, and allowed himself to be addressed by it afterwards. +But neither in his letters to the senate, nor in the fasces, did he use +the laurel as a mark of honour. But Labienus, having obtained his +consent that the prisoners should be delivered up to him, had them all +brought out, as it appeared, to make a show of them, and that Pompey +might place a greater confidence in him who was a deserter; and calling +them fellow soldiers, and asking them in the most insulting manner +whether it was usual with veterans to flee, ordered them to be put to +death in the sight of the whole army. + +LXXII.-Pompey's party were so elated with confidence and spirit at this +success, that they thought no more of the method of conducting the war, +but thought that they were already conquerors. They did not consider +that the smallness of our numbers, and the disadvantage of the place and +the confined nature of the ground occasioned by their having first +possessed themselves of the camp, and the double danger both from within +and without the fortifications, and the separation of the army into two +parts, so that the one could not give relief to the other, were the +cause of our defeat. They did not consider, in addition, that the +contest was not decided by a vigorous attack, nor a regular battle; and +that our men had suffered greater loss from their numbers and want of +room, than they had sustained from the enemy. In fine, they did not +reflect on the common casualties of war; how trifling causes, either +from groundless suspicions, sudden affright, or religious scruples, have +oftentimes been productive of considerable losses; how often an army has +been unsuccessful either by the misconduct of the general, or the +oversight of a tribune; but as if they had proved victorious by their +valour, and as if no change could ever take place, they published the +success of the day throughout the world by reports and letters. + +LXXIII.--Caesar, disappointed in his first intentions, resolved to +change the whole plan of his operations. Accordingly, he at once called +in all out-posts, gave over the siege, and collecting his army into one +place, addressed his soldiers and encouraged them "not to be troubled at +what had happened, nor to be dismayed at it, but to weigh their many +successful engagements against one disappointment, and that, too, a +trifling one. That they ought to be grateful to Fortune, through whose +favour they had recovered Italy without the effusion of blood; through +whose favour they had subdued the two Spains, though protected by a most +warlike people under the command of the most skilful and experienced +generals: through whose favour they had reduced to submission the +neighbouring states that abounded with corn: in fine, that they ought to +remember with what success they had been all transported safe through +blockading fleets of the enemy, which possessed not only the ports, but +even the coasts: that if all their attempts were not crowned with +success, the defects of Fortune must be supplied by industry; and +whatever loss had been sustained, ought to be attributed rather to her +caprices than to any faults in him: that he had chosen a safe ground for +the engagement, that he had possessed himself of the enemy's camp; that +he had beaten them out, and overcome them when they offered resistance; +but whether their own terror or some mistake, or whether Fortune herself +had interrupted a victory almost secured and certain, they ought all now +to use their utmost efforts to repair by their valour the loss which had +been incurred; if they did so, their misfortunes would turn to their +advantage, as it happened at Gergovia, and those who feared to face the +enemy would be the first to offer themselves to battle. + +LXXIV.--Having concluded his speech, he disgraced some standard-bearers, +and reduced them to the ranks; for the whole army was seized with such +grief at their loss, and with such an ardent desire of repairing their +disgrace, that not a man required the command of his tribune or +centurion, but they imposed each on himself severer labours than usual +as a punishment, and at the same time were so inflamed with eagerness to +meet the enemy, that the officers of the first rank, sensibly affected +at their entreaties, were of opinion that they ought to continue in +their present posts, and commit their fate to the hazard of a battle. +But, on the other hand, Caesar could not place sufficient confidence in +men so lately thrown into consternation, and thought he ought to allow +them time to recover their dejected spirits; and having abandoned his +works, he was apprehensive of being distressed for want of corn. + +LXXV.--Accordingly, suffering no time to intervene but what was +necessary for a proper attention to be paid to the sick and wounded, he +sent on all his baggage privately in the beginning of the night from his +camp to Apollonia, and ordered them not to halt till they had performed +their journey; and he detached one legion with them as a convoy. This +affair being concluded, having retained only two legions in his camp; he +marched the rest of his army out at three o'clock in the morning by +several gates, and sent them forward by the same route; and in a short +space after, that the military practice might be preserved, and his +march known as late as possible, he ordered the signal for decamping to +be given; and setting out immediately, and following the rear of his own +army, he was soon out of sight of the camp. Nor did Pompey, as soon as +he had notice of his design, make any delay to pursue him; but with a +view to surprise them whilst encumbered with baggage on their march, and +not yet recovered from their fright, he led his army out of his camp, +and sent his cavalry on to retard our rear; but was not able to come up +with them, because Caesar had got far before him, and marched without +baggage. But when we reached the river Genusus, the banks being steep, +their horse overtook our rear, and detained them by bringing them to +action. To oppose whom, Caesar sent his horse, and intermixed with them +about four hundred of his advanced light troops, who attacked their +horse with such success, that having routed them all, and killed +several, they returned without any loss to the main body. + +LXXVI.--Having performed the exact march which he had proposed that day, +and having led his army over the river Genusus, Caesar posted himself in +his old camp opposite Asparagium; and kept his soldiers close within the +entrenchments; and ordered the horse, who had been sent out under +pretence of foraging, to retire immediately into the camp, through the +Decuman gate. Pompey, in like manner, having completed the same day's +march, took post in his old camp at Asparagium; and his soldiers, as +they had no work (the fortifications being entire), made long +excursions, some to collect wood and forage; others, invited by the +nearness of the former camp, laid up their arms in their tents, and +quitted the entrenchments in order to bring what they had left behind +them, because the design of marching being adopted in a hurry, they had +left a considerable part of their waggons and luggage behind. Being thus +incapable of pursuing, as Caesar had foreseen, about noon he gave the +signal for marching, led out his army, and doubling that day's march, he +advanced eight miles beyond Pompey's camp; who could not pursue him, +because his troops were dispersed. + +LXXVII.--The next day Caesar sent his baggage forward early in the +night, and marched off himself immediately after the fourth watch: that +if he should be under the necessity of risking an engagement, he might +meet a sudden attack with an army free from incumbrance. He did so for +several days successively, by which means he was enabled to effect his +march over the deepest rivers, and through the most intricate roads +without any loss. For Pompey, after the first day's delay, and the +fatigue which he endured for some days in vain, though he exerted +himself by forced marches, and was anxious to overtake us, who had got +the start of him, on the fourth day desisted from the pursuit, and +determined to follow other measures. + +LXXVIII.--Caesar was obliged to go to Apollonia, to lodge his wounded, +pay his army, confirm his friends, and leave garrisons in the towns. But +for these matters, he allowed no more time than was necessary for a +person in haste. And being apprehensive for Domitius, lest he should be +surprised by Pompey's arrival, he hastened with all speed and +earnestness to join him; for he planned the operations of the whole +campaign on these principles: that if Pompey should march after him, he +would be drawn off from the sea, and from those forces which he had +provided in Dyrrachium, and separated from his corn and magazines, and +be obliged to carry on the war on equal terms; but if he crossed over +into Italy, Caesar, having effected a junction with Domitius, would +march through Illyricum to the relief of Italy; but if he endeavoured to +storm Apollonia and Oricum, and exclude him from the whole coast, he +hoped, by besieging Scipio, to oblige him, of necessity, to come to his +assistance. Accordingly, Caesar despatching couriers, writes to +Domitius, and acquaints him with his wishes on the subject: and having +stationed a garrison of four cohorts at Apollonia, one at Lissus, and +three at Oricum, besides those who were sick of their wounds, he set +forward on his march through Epirus and Acarnania. Pompey, also, +guessing at Caesar's design, determined to hasten to Scipio, that if +Caesar should march in that direction, he might be ready to relieve him; +but that if Caesar should be unwilling to quit the sea-coast and +Corcyra, because he expected legions and cavalry from Italy, he himself +might fall on Domitius with all his forces. + +LXXIX.--For these reasons, each of them studied despatch, that he might +succour his friends, and not miss an opportunity of surprising his +enemies. But Caesar's engagements at Apolloma had carried him aside from +the direct road. Pompey had taken the short road to Macedonia, through +Candavia. To this was added another unexpected disadvantage, that +Domitius, who for several days had been encamped opposite Scipio, had +quitted that post for the sake of provisions, and had marched to +Heraclea Sentica, a city subject to Candavia; so that fortune herself +seemed to throw him in Pompey's way. Of this, Caesar was ignorant up to +this time. Letters likewise being sent by Pompey through all the +provinces and states, with an account of the action at Dyrrachium, very +much enlarged and exaggerated beyond the real facts, a rumour had been +circulated, that Caesar had been defeated and forced to flee, and had +lost almost all his forces. These reports had made the roads dangerous, +and drawn off some states from his alliance: whence it happened, that +the messengers despatched by Caesar, by several different roads to +Domitius, and by Domitius to Caesar, were not able by any means to +accomplish their journey. But the Allobroges, who were in the retinue of +Aegus and Roscillus, and who had deserted to Pompey, having met on the +road a scouting party of Domitius; either from old acquaintance, because +they had served together in Gaul, or elated with vain glory, gave them +an account of all that had happened, and informed them of Caesar's +departure, and Pompey's arrival. Domitius, who was scarce four hours' +march distant, having got intelligence from these, by the courtesy of +the enemy, avoided the danger, and met Caesar coming to join him at +Aeginium, a town on the confines of and opposite to Thessaly. + +LXXX.--The two armies being united, Caesar marched to Gomphi, which is +the first town of Thessaly on the road from Epirus. Now, the +Thessalians, a few months before, had of themselves sent ambassadors to +Caesar, offering him the free use of everything in their power, and +requesting a garrison for their protection. But the report, already +spoken of, of the battle at Dyrrachium, which it had exaggerated in many +particulars, had arrived before him. In consequence of which, +Androsthenes, the praetor of Thessaly, as he preferred to be the +companion of Pompey's victory, rather than Caesar's associate in his +misfortunes, collected all the people, both slaves and freemen, from the +country into the town and shut the gates, and despatched messengers to +Scipio and Pompey "to come to his relief, that he could depend on the +strength of the town, if succour was speedily sent; but that it could +not withstand a long siege." Scipio, as soon as he received advice of +the departure of the armies from Dyrrachium, had marched with his +legions to Larissa: Pompey was not yet arrived near Thessaly. Caesar +having fortified his camp, ordered scaling ladders and pent-houses to be +made for a sudden assault, and hurdles to be provided. As soon as they +were ready, he exhorted his soldiers, and told them of what advantage it +would be to assist them with all sorts of necessaries if they made +themselves masters of a rich and plentiful town: and, at the same time, +to strike terror into other states by the example of this, and to effect +this with speed, before auxiliaries could arrive. Accordingly, taking +advantage of the unusual ardour of the soldiers, he began his assault on +the town at a little after three o'clock on the very day on which he +arrived, and took it, though defended with very high walls, before +sunset, and gave it up to his army to plunder, and immediately decamped +from before it, and marched to Metropolis, with such rapidity as to +outstrip any messenger or rumour of the taking of Gomphi. + +LXXXI.--The inhabitants of Metropolis, at first influenced by the same +rumours, followed the same measures, shut the gates and manned their +walls. But when they were made acquainted with the fate of the city of +Gomphi by some prisoners, whom Caesar had ordered to be brought up to +the walls, they threw open their gates. As he preserved them with the +greatest care, there was not a state in Thessaly (except Larissa, which +was awed by a strong army of Scipio's), but on comparing the fate of the +inhabitants of Metropolis with the severe treatment of Gomphi, gave +admission to Caesar, and obeyed his orders. Having chosen a position +convenient for procuring corn, which was now almost ripe on the ground, +he determined there to wait Pompey's arrival, and to make it the centre +of all his warlike operations. + +LXXXII.--Pompey arrived in Thessaly a few days after, and having +harangued the combined army, returned thanks to his own men, and +exhorted Scipio's soldiers, that as the victory was now secured, they +should endeavour to merit a part of the rewards and booty. And receiving +all the legions into one camp, he shared his honours with Scipio, +ordered the trumpet to be sounded at his tent, and a pavilion to be +erected for him. The forces of Pompey being thus augmented, and two such +powerful armies united, their former expectations were confirmed, and +their hopes of victory so much increased, that whatever time intervened +was considered as so much delay to their return into Italy: and whenever +Pompey acted with slowness and caution, they used to exclaim, that it +was the business only of a single day, but that he had a passion for +power, and was delighted in having persons of consular and praetorian +rank in the number of his slaves. And they now began to dispute openly +about rewards and priesthoods, and disposed of the consulate for several +years to come. Others put in their claims for the houses and properties +of all who were in Caesar's camp, and in that council there was a warm +debate, whether Lucius Hirrus, who had been sent by Pompey against the +Parthians, should be admitted a candidate for the praetorship in his +absence at the next election; his friends imploring Pompey's honour to +fulfil the engagements which he had made to him at his departure, that +he might not seem deceived through his authority: whilst others, +embarked in equal labour and danger, pleaded that no individual ought to +have a preference before all the rest. + +LXXXIII.--Already Domitius, Scipio, and Lentulus Spinthur, in their +daily quarrels about Caesar's priesthood, openly abused each other in +the most scurrilous language. Lentulus urging the respect due to his +age, Domitius boasting his interest in the city and his dignity, and +Scipio presuming on his alliance with Pompey. Attius Rufus charged +Lucius Afranius before Pompey with betraying the army in the action that +happened in Spain, and Lucius Domitius declared in the council that it +was his wish that, when the war should be ended, three billets should be +given to all the senators who had taken part with them in the war, and +that they should pass sentence on every single person who had stayed +behind at Rome, or who had been within Pompey's garrisons and had not +contributed their assistance in the military operations; that by the +first billet they should-have power to acquit, by the second to pass +sentence of death, and by the third to impose a pecuniary fine. In +short, Pompey's whole army talked of nothing but the honours or sums of +money which were to be their rewards, or of vengeance on their enemies; +and never considered how they were to defeat their enemies, but in what +manner they should use their victory. + +LXXXIV.--Corn being provided, and his soldiers refreshed, and a +sufficient time having elapsed since the engagement at Dyrrachium, when +Caesar thought he had sufficiently sounded the disposition of his +troops, he thought that he ought to try whether Pompey had any intention +or inclination to come to a battle. Accordingly he led his troops out of +the camp, and ranged them in order of battle, at first on their own +ground, and at a small distance from Pompey's camp: but afterwards for +several days in succession he advanced from his own camp, and led them +up to the hills on which Pompey's troops were posted, which conduct +inspired his army every day with fresh courage. However he adhered to +his former purpose respecting his cavalry, for as he was by many degrees +inferior in number, he selected the youngest and most active of the +advanced guard, and desired them to fight intermixed with the horse, and +they by constant practice acquired experience in this kind of battle. By +these means it was brought to pass that a thousand of his horse would +dare, even on open ground, to stand against seven thousand of Pompey's, +if occasion required, and would not be much terrified by their number. +For even on one of those days he was successful in a cavalry action, and +killed one of the two Allobrogians who had deserted to Pompey, as we +before observed, and several others. + +LXXXV.--Pompey, because he was encamped on a hill, drew up his army at +the very foot of it, ever in expectation, as may be conjectured, that +Caesar would expose himself to this disadvantageous situation. Caesar, +seeing no likelihood of being able to bring Pompey to an action, judged +it the most expedient method of conducting the war, to decamp from that +post, and to be always in motion: with this hope, that by shifting his +camp and removing from place to place, he might be more conveniently +supplied with corn, and also, that by being in motion he might get some +opportunity of forcing them to battle, and might by constant marches +harass Pompey's army, which was not accustomed to fatigue. These matters +being settled, when the signal for marching was given, and the tents +struck, it was observed that shortly before, contrary to his daily +practice, Pompey's army had advanced farther than usual from his +entrenchments, so that it appeared possible to come to an action on +equal ground. Then Caesar addressed himself to his soldiers, when they +were at the gates of the camp, ready to march out. "We must defer," says +he, "our march at present, and set our thoughts on battle, which has +been our constant wish; let us then meet the foe with resolute souls. We +shall not hereafter easily find such an opportunity." He immediately +marched out at the head of his troops. + +LXXXVI.--Pompey also, as was afterward known, at the unanimous +solicitation of his friends, had determined to try the fate of a battle. +For he had even declared in council a few days before that, before the +battalions came to battle, Caesar's army would be put to the rout. When +most people expressed their surprise at it, "I know," says he, "that I +promise a thing almost incredible; but hear the plan on which I proceed, +that you may march to battle with more confidence and resolution. I have +persuaded our cavalry, and they have engaged to execute it, as soon as +the two armies have met, to attack Caesar's right wing on the flank, and +enclosing their army on the rear, throw them into disorder, and put them +to the rout, before we shall throw a weapon against the enemy. By this +means we shall put an end to the war, without endangering the legions, +and almost without a blow. Nor is this a difficult matter, as we far +outnumber them in cavalry." At the same time he gave them notice to be +ready for battle on the day following, and since the opportunity which +they had so often wished for was now arrived, not to disappoint the +opinion generally entertained of their experience and valour. + +LXXXVII.--After him Labienus spoke, as well to express his contempt of +Caesar's forces, as to extol Pompey's scheme with the highest encomiums. +"Think not, Pompey," says he, "that this is the army which conquered +Gaul and Germany; I was present at all those battles and do not speak at +random on a subject to which I am a stranger: a very small part of that +army now remains, great numbers lost their lives, as must necessarily +happen in so many battles, many fell victims to the autumnal pestilence +in Italy, many returned home, and many were left behind on the +continent. Have you not heard that the cohorts at Brundisium are +composed of invalids? The forces which you now behold, have been +recruited by levies lately made in Hither Spain, and the greater part +from the colonies beyond the Po; moreover, the flower of the forces +perished in the two engagements at Dyrrachium." Having so said, he took +an oath, never to return to his camp unless victorious; and he +encouraged the rest to do the like. Pompey applauded his proposal, and +took the same oath; nor did any person present hesitate to take it. +After this had passed in the council they broke up full of hopes and +joy, and in imagination anticipated victory; because they thought that +in a matter of such importance, no groundless assertion could be made by +a general of such experience. + +LXXXVIII.--When Caesar had approached near Pompey's camp, he observed +that his army was drawn up in the following manner:--On the left wing +were the two legions delivered over by Caesar at the beginning of the +disputes in compliance with the senate's decree, one of which was called +the first, the other the third. Here Pompey commanded in person. Scipio +with the Syrian legions commanded the centre. The Cilician legion in +conjunction with the Spanish cohorts, which we said were brought over by +Afranius, were disposed on the right wing. These Pompey considered his +steadiest troops. The rest he had interspersed between the centre and +the wing, and he had a hundred and ten complete cohorts; these amounted +to forty-five thousand men. He had besides two cohorts of volunteers, +who having received favours from him in former wars, flocked to his +standard: these were dispersed through his whole army. The seven +remaining cohorts he had disposed to protect his camp, and the +neighbouring forts. His right wing was secured by a river with steep +banks; for which reason he placed all his cavalry, archers, and +slingers, on his left wing. + +LXXXIX.--Caesar, observing his former custom, had placed the tenth +legion on the right, the ninth on the left, although it was very much +weakened by the battles at Dyrrachium. He placed the eighth legion so +close to the ninth, as to almost make one of the two, and ordered them +to support one another. He drew up on the field eighty cohorts, making a +total of twenty-two thousand men. He left two cohorts to guard the camp. +He gave the command of the left wing to Antonius, of the right to P. +Sulla, and of the centre to Cn. Domitius: he himself took his post +opposite Pompey. At the same time, fearing, from the disposition of the +enemy which we have previously mentioned, lest his right wing might be +surrounded by their numerous cavalry, he rapidly drafted a single cohort +from each of the legions composing the third line, formed of them a +fourth line, and opposed them to Pompey's cavalry, and, acquainting them +with his wishes, admonished them that the success of that day depended +on their courage. At the same time he ordered the third line, and the +entire army not to charge without his command: that he would give the +signal whenever he wished them to do so. + +XC.--When he was exhorting his army to battle, according to the military +custom, and spoke to them of the favours that they had constantly +received from him, he took especial care to remind them "that he could +call his soldiers to witness the earnestness with which he had sought +peace, the efforts that he had made by Vatinius to gain a conference +[with Labienus], and likewise by Claudius to treat with Scipio, in what +manner he had exerted himself at Oricum, to gain permission from Libo to +send ambassadors; that he had been always reluctant to shed the blood of +his soldiers, and did not wish to deprive the republic of one or other +of her armies." After delivering this speech, he gave by a trumpet the +signal to his soldiers, who were eagerly demanding it, and were very +impatient for the onset. + +XCI.--There was in Caesar's army a volunteer of the name of Crastinus, +who the year before had been first centurion of the tenth legion, a man +of pre-eminent bravery. He, when the signal was given, says, "Follow me, +my old comrades, and display such exertions in behalf of your general as +you have determined to do: this is our last battle, and when it shall be +won, he will recover his dignity, and we our liberty." At the same time +he looked back to Caesar, and said, "General, I will act in such a +manner to-day, that you will feel grateful to me living or dead." After +uttering these words he charged first on the right wing, and about one +hundred and twenty chosen volunteers of the same century followed. + +XCII.--There was so much space left between the two lines, as sufficed +for the onset of the hostile armies: but Pompey had ordered his soldiers +to await Caesar's attack, and not to advance from their position, or +suffer their line to be put into disorder. And he is said to have done +this by the advice of Caius Triarius, that the impetuosity of the charge +of Caesar's soldiers might be checked, and their line broken, and that +Pompey's troops remaining in their ranks, might attack them while in +disorder; and he thought that the javelins would fall with less force if +the soldiers were kept in their ground, than if they met them in their +course; at the same time he trusted that Caesar's soldiers, after +running over double the usual ground, would become weary and exhausted +by the fatigue. But to me Pompey seems to have acted without sufficient +reason: for there is a certain impetuosity of spirit and an alacrity +implanted by nature in the hearts of all men, which is inflamed by a +desire to meet the foe. This a general should endeavour not to repress, +but to increase; nor was it a vain institution of our ancestors, that +the trumpets should sound on all sides, and a general shout be raised; +by which they imagined that the enemy were struck with terror, and their +own army inspired with courage. + +XCIII.--But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with +their javelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men +did not run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom, +and being practised in former battles, they of their own accord +repressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might not +come up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after a +short respite they again renewed their course, and threw their javelins, +and instantly drew their swords, as Caesar had ordered them. Nor did +Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received our javelins, stood +our charge, and maintained their ranks: and having launched their +javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the same time Pompey's horse, +according to their orders, rushed out at once from his left wing, and +his whole host of archers poured after them. Our cavalry did not +withstand their charge: but gave ground a little, upon which Pompey's +horse pressed them more vigorously, and began to file off in troops, and +flank our army. When Caesar perceived this, he gave the signal to his +fourth line, which he had formed of the six cohorts. They instantly +rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse with such fury, that not a man +of them stood; but all wheeling about, not only quitted their post, but +galloped forward to seek a refuge in the highest mountains. By their +retreat the archers and slingers, being left destitute and defenceless, +were all cut to pieces. The cohorts, pursuing their success, wheeled +about upon Pompey's left wing, whilst his infantry still continued to +make battle, and attacked them in the rear. + +XCIV.--At the same time Caesar ordered his third line to advance, which +till then had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new and +fresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and others +having made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able to +maintain their ground, but all fled, nor was Caesar deceived in his +opinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to his +soldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts which he had +placed as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalry +were routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; by +them the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to be +the first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and that part +of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown into +confusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreated +straightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions, +whom he had placed to guard the praetorian gate, with a loud voice, that +the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp," says he, "defend it with +diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit the other +gates, and encourage the guards of the camp." Having thus said, he +retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting the issue. + +XCV.--Caesar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their +entrenchment, and thinking that he ought not to allow them any respite +to recover from their fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of +fortune's kindness, and to attack the camp. Though they were fatigued by +the intense heat, for the battle had continued till mid-day, yet, being +prepared to undergo any labour, they cheerfully obeyed his command. The +camp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guard +it, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreign auxiliaries. +For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from the field of battle, +affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrown away their arms and +military standards, had their thoughts more engaged on their further +escape than on the defence of the camp. Nor could the troops who were +posted on the battlements long withstand the immense number of our +darts, but fainting under their wounds, quitted the place, and under the +conduct of their centurions and tribunes, fled, without stopping, to the +high mountains which joined the camp. + +XCVI.--In Pompey's camp you might see arbours in which tables were laid, +a large quantity of plate set out, the floors of the tents covered with +fresh sods, the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy, and +many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and a +confidence of victory, so that it might readily be inferred that they +had no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulged +themselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxury +Caesar's army, distressed and suffering troops, who had always been in +want of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced the +trenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit, +went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with all +speed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same despatch +collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nor +night, he arrived at the sea-side, attended by only thirty horse, and +went on board a victualling barque, often complaining, as we have been +told, that he had been so deceived in his expectation, that he was +almost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he had +expected victory, as they began the flight. + +XCVII.--Caesar having possessed himself of Pompey's camp, urged his +soldiers not to be too intent on plunder, and lose the opportunity of +completing their conquest. Having obtained their consent, he began to +draw lines round the mountain. The Pompeians distrusting the position, +as there was no water on the mountain, abandoned it, and all began to +retreat towards Larissa; which Caesar perceiving, divided his troops, +and ordering part of his legions to remain in Pompey's camp, sent back a +part to his own camp, and taking four legions with him, went by a +shorter road to intercept the enemy: and having marched six miles, drew +up his army. But the Pompeians observing this, took post on a mountain +whose foot was washed by a river. Caesar having encouraged his troops, +though they were greatly exhausted by incessant labour the whole day, +and night was now approaching, by throwing up works cut off the +communication between the river and the mountain, that the enemy might +not get water in the night. As soon as the work was finished, they sent +ambassadors to treat about a capitulation. A few senators who had +espoused that party, made their escape by night. + +XCVIII.--At break of day, Caesar ordered all those who had taken post on +the mountain, to come down from the higher grounds into the plain, and +pile their arms. When they did this without refusal, and with +outstretched arms, prostrating themselves on the ground, with tears, +implored his mercy: he comforted them and bade them rise, and having +spoken a few words of his own clemency to alleviate their fears, he +pardoned them all, and gave orders to his soldiers that no injury should +be done to them, and nothing taken from them. Having used this +diligence, he ordered the legions in his camp to come and meet him, and +those which were, with him to take their turn of rest, and go back to +the camp; and the same day went to Larissa. + +XCIX.--In that battle, no more than two hundred privates were missing, +but Caesar lost about thirty centurions, valiant officers. Crastinus, +also, of whom mention was made before, fighting most courageously, lost +his life by the wound of a sword in the mouth; nor was that false which +he declared when marching to battle: for Caesar entertained the highest +opinion of his behaviour in that battle, and thought him highly +deserving of his approbation. Of Pompey's army, there fell about fifteen +thousand; but upwards of twenty-four thousand were made prisoners: for +even the cohorts which were stationed in the forts, surrendered to +Sylla. Several others took shelter in the neighbouring states. One +hundred and eighty stands of colours, and nine eagles, were brought to +Caesar. Lucius Domitius, fleeing from the camp to the mountains, his +strength being exhausted by fatigue, was killed by the horse. + +C.--About this time, Decimus Laelius arrived with his fleet at +Brundisium and in the same manner as Libo had done before, possessed +himself of an island opposite the harbour of Brundisium. In like manner, +Valimus, who was then governor of Brundisium, with a few decked barques, +endeavoured to entice Laelius's fleet, and took one five-benched galley +and two smaller vessels that had ventured farther than the rest into a +narrow part of the harbour: and likewise disposing the horse along the +shore, strove to prevent the enemy from procuring fresh water. But +Laelius having chosen a more convenient season of the year for his +expedition, supplied himself with water brought in transports from +Corcyra and Dyrrachium, and was not deterred from his purpose; and till +he had received advice of the battle in Thessaly, he could not be forced +either by the disgrace of losing his ships, or by the want of +necessaries, to quit the port and islands. + +CI.--Much about the same time, Cassius arrived in Sicily with a fleet of +Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cilicians: and as Caesar's fleet was divided +into two parts, Publius Sulpicius the praetor commanding one division at +Vibo near the straits, Pomponius the other at Messana, Cassius got into +Messana with his fleet before Pomponius had notice of his arrival, and +having found him in disorder, without guards or discipline, and the wind +being high and favourable, he filled several transports with fir, pitch, +and tow, and other combustibles, and sent them against Pomponius's +fleet, and set fire to all his ships, thirty-five in number, twenty of +which were armed with beaks: and this action struck such terror, that +though there was a legion in garrison at Messana, the town with +difficulty held out, and had not the news of Caesar's victory been +brought at that instant by the horse stationed along the coast, it was +generally imagined that it would have been lost, but the town was +maintained till the news arrived very opportunely; and Cassius set sail +from thence to attack Sulpicius's fleet at Vibo, and our ships being +moored to the land, to strike the same terror, he acted in the same +manner as before. The wind being favourable, he sent into the port about +forty ships provided with combustibles, and the flame catching on both +sides, five ships were burnt to ashes. And when the fire began to spread +wider by the violence of the wind, the soldiers of the veteran legions, +who had been left to guard the fleet, being considered as invalids, +could not endure the disgrace, but of themselves went on board the ships +and weighed anchor, and having attacked Cassius's fleet, captured two +five-banked galleys, in one of which was Cassius himself; but he made +his escape by taking to a boat. Two three-banked galleys were taken +besides. Intelligence was shortly after received of the action in +Thessaly, so well authenticated, that the Pompeians themselves gave +credit to it; for they had hitherto believed it a fiction of Caesar's +lieutenants and friends. Upon which intelligence Cassius departed with +his fleet from that coast. + +CII.--Caesar thought he ought to postpone all business and pursue +Pompey, whithersoever he should retreat; that he might not be able to +provide fresh forces, and renew the war; he therefore marched on every +day, as far as his cavalry were able to advance, and ordered one legion +to follow him by shorter journeys. A proclamation was issued by Pompey +at Amphipolis, that all the young men of that province, Grecians and +Roman citizens, should take the military oath; but whether he issued it +with an intention of preventing suspicion, and to conceal as long as +possible his design of fleeing farther, or to endeavour to keep +possession of Macedonia by new levies, if nobody pursued him, it is +impossible to judge. He lay at anchor one night, and calling together +his friends in Amphipolis, and collecting a sum of money for his +necessary expenses, upon advice of Caesar's approach, set sail from that +place, and arrived in a few days at Mitylene. Here he was detained two +days, and having added a few galleys to his fleet he went to Cilicia, +and thence to Cyprus. There he is informed that, by the consent of all +the inhabitants of Antioch and Roman citizens who traded there, the +castle had been seized to shut him out of the town; and that messengers +had been despatched to all those who were reported to have taken refuge +in the neighbouring states, that they should not come to Antioch; that +if they did that, it would be attended with imminent danger to their +lives. The same thing had happened to Lucius Lentulus, who had been +consul the year before, and to Publius Lentulus a consular senator, and +to several others at Rhodes, who having followed Pompey in his flight, +and arrived at the island, were not admitted into the town or port; and +having received a message to leave that neighbourhood, set sail much +against their will; for the rumour of Caesar's approach had now reached +those states. + +CIII.--Pompey, being informed of these proceedings, laid aside his +design of going to Syria, and having taken the public money from the +farmers of the revenue, and borrowed more from some private friends, and +having put on board his ships a large quantity of brass for military +purposes, and two thousand armed men, whom he partly selected from the +slaves of the tax farmers, and partly collected from the merchants, and +such persons as each of his friends thought fit on this occasion, he +sailed for Pelusium. It happened that king Ptolemy, a minor, was there +with a considerable army, engaged in war with his sister Cleopatra, whom +a few months before, by the assistance of his relations and friends, he +had expelled from the kingdom; and her camp lay at a small distance from +his. To him Pompey applied to be permitted to take refuge in Alexandria, +and to be protected in his calamity by his powerful assistance, in +consideration of the friendship and amity which had subsisted between +his father and him. But Pompey's deputies having executed their +commission, began to converse with less restraint with the king's +troops, and to advise them to act with friendship to Pompey, and not to +think meanly of his bad fortune. In Ptolemy's army were several of +Pompey's soldiers, of whom Gabinius had received the command in Syria, +and had brought them over to Alexandria, and at the conclusion of the +war had left with Ptolemy the father of the young king. + +CIV.--The king's friends, who were regents of the kingdom during the +minority, being informed of these things, either induced by fear, as +they afterwards declared, lest Pompey should corrupt the king's army, +and seize on Alexandria and Egypt; or despising his bad fortune, as in +adversity friends commonly change to enemies, in public gave a +favourable answer to his deputies, and desired him to come to the king; +but secretly laid a plot against him, and despatched Achillas, captain +of the king's guards, a man of singular boldness, and Lucius Septimius a +military tribune to assassinate him. Being kindly addressed by them, and +deluded by an acquaintance with Septimius, because in the war with the +pirates the latter had commanded a company under him, he embarked in a +small boat with a few attendants, and was there murdered by Achillas and +Septimius. In like manner, Lucius Lentulus was seized by the king's +order, and put to death in prison. + +CV.--When Caesar arrived in Asia, he found that Titus Ampius had +attempted to remove the money from the temple of Diana at Ephesus; and +for this purpose had convened all the senators in the province that he +might have them to attest the sum, but was interrupted by Caesar's +arrival, and had made his escape. Thus, on two occasions, Caesar saved +the money of Ephesus. It was also remarked at Elis, in the temple of +Minerva, upon calculating and enumerating the days, that on the very day +on which Caesar had gained his battle, the image of Victory which was +placed before Minerva, and faced her statue, turned about towards the +portal and entrance of the temple; and the same day, at Antioch in +Syria, such a shout of an army and sound of trumpets was twice heard, +that the citizens ran in arms to the walls. The same thing happened at +Ptolemais; a sound of drums too was heard at Pergamus, in the private +and retired parts of the temple, into which none but the priests are +allowed admission, and which the Greeks call Adyta (the inaccessible), +and likewise at Tralles, in the temple of Victory, in which there stood +a statue consecrated to Caesar; a palm-tree at that time was shown that +had sprouted up from the pavement, through the joints of the stones, and +shot up above the roof. + +CVI.--After a few days' delay in Asia, Caesar, having heard that Pompey +had been seen in Cyprus, and conjecturing that he had directed his +course into Egypt, on account of his connection with that kingdom, set +out for Alexandria with two legions (one of which he ordered to follow +him from Thessaly, the other he called in from Achaia, from Fufius, the +lieutenant-general) and with eight hundred horse, ten ships of war from +Rhodes, and a few from Asia. These legions amounted but to three +thousand two hundred men; the rest, disabled by wounds received in +various battles, by fatigue and the length of their march, could not +follow him. But Caesar, relying on the fame of his exploits; did not +hesitate to set forward with a feeble force, and thought that he would +be secure in any place. At Alexandria he was informed of the death of +Pompey: and at his landing there, heard a cry among the soldiers whom +the king had left to garrison the town, and saw a crowd gathering +towards him, because the fasces were carried before him; for this the +whole multitude thought an infringement of the king's dignity. Though +this tumult was appeased, frequent disturbances were raised for several +days successively, by crowds of the populace, and a great many of his +soldiers were killed in all parts of the city. + +CVIL--Having observed this, he ordered other legions to be brought to +him from Asia, which he had made up out of Pompey's soldiers; for he was +himself detained against his will, by the etesian winds, which are +totally unfavourable to persons on a voyage from Alexandria. In the +meantime, considering that the disputes of the princes belonged to the +jurisdiction of the Roman people, and of him as consul, and that it was +a duty more incumbent on him, as in his former consulate a league had +been made with Ptolemy the late king, under sanction both of a law, and +a decree of the senate, he signified that it was his pleasure, that king +Ptolemy, and his sister Cleopatra, should disband their armies, and +decide their disputes in his presence by justice, rather than by the +sword. + +CVIII.--A eunuch named Pothinus, the boy's tutor, was regent of the +kingdom on account of his youthfulness. He at first began to complain +amongst his friends, and to express his indignation, that the king +should be summoned to plead his cause: but afterwards, having prevailed +on some of those whom he had made acquainted with his views to join him, +he secretly called the army away from Pelusium to Alexandria, and +appointed Achillas, already spoken of, commander-in-chief of the forces. +Him he encouraged and animated by promises both in his own and the +king's name, and instructed him both by letters and messages how he +should act. By the will of Ptolemy the father, the elder of his two sons +and the more advanced in years of his two daughters were declared his +heirs, and for the more effectual performance of his intention, in the +same will he conjured the Roman people by all the gods, and by the +league which he had entered into at Rome, to see his will executed. One +of the copies of his will was conveyed to Rome by his ambassadors to be +deposited in the treasury, but the public troubles preventing it, it was +lodged with Pompey: another was left sealed up, and kept at Alexandria. + +CIX.--Whilst these things were debated before Caesar, and he was very +anxious to settle the royal disputes as a common friend and arbitrator; +news was brought on a sudden that the king's army and all his cavalry +were on their march to Alexandria. Caesar's forces were by no means so +strong that he could trust to them, if he had occasion to hazard a +battle without the town. His only resource was to keep within the town +in the most convenient places, and get information of Achillas's +designs. However he ordered his soldiers to repair to their arms; and +advised the king to send some of his friends, who had the greatest +influence, as deputies to Achillas and to signify his royal pleasure. +Dioscorides and Serapion, the persons sent by him, who had both been +ambassadors at Rome, and had been in great esteem with Ptolemy the +father, went to Achillas. But as soon as they appeared in his presence, +without hearing them, or learning the occasion of their coming, he +ordered them to be seized and put to death. One of them, after receiving +a wound, was taken up and carried off by his attendants as dead: the +other was killed on the spot. Upon this, Caesar took care to secure the +king's person, both supposing that the king's name would have great +influence with his subjects, and to give the war the appearance of the +scheme of a few desperate men, rather than of having been begun by the +king's consent. + +CX.--The forces under Achillas did not seem despicable, either for +number, spirit, or military experience; for he had twenty thousand men +under arms. They consisted partly of Gabinius's soldiers, who were now +become habituated to the licentious mode of living at Alexandria, and +had forgotten the name and discipline of the Roman people, and had +married wives there, by whom the greatest part of them had children. To +these was added a collection of highwaymen and free-booters, from Syria, +and the province of Cilicia, and the adjacent countries. Besides several +convicts and transports had been collected: for at Alexandria all our +runaway slaves were sure of finding protection for their persons on the +condition that they should give in their names, and enlist as soldiers: +and if any of them was apprehended by his master, he was rescued by a +crowd of his fellow soldiers, who being involved in the same guilt, +repelled, at the hazard of their lives, every violence offered to any of +their body. These by a prescriptive privilege of the Alexandrian army, +used to demand the king's favourites to be put to death, pillage the +properties of the rich to increase their pay, invest the king's palace, +banish some from the kingdom, and recall others from exile. Besides +these, there were two thousand horse, who had acquired the skill of +veterans by being in several wars in Alexandria. These had restored +Ptolemy the father to his kingdom, had killed Bibulus's two sons; and +had been engaged in war with the Egyptians; such was their experience in +military affairs. + +CXI.--Full of confidence in his troops, and despising the small number +of Caesar's soldiers, Achillas seized Alexandria, except that part of +the town which Caesar occupied with his troops. At first he attempted to +force the palace; but Caesar had disposed his cohorts through the +streets, and repelled his attack. At the same time there was an action +at the port: where the contest was maintained with the greatest +obstinacy. For the forces were divided, and the fight maintained in +several streets at once, and the enemy endeavoured to seize with a +strong party the ships of war; of which fifty had been sent to Pompey's +assistance, but after the battle in Thessaly had returned home. They +were all of either three or five banks of oars, well equipped and +appointed with every necessary for a voyage. Besides these, there were +twenty-two vessels with decks, which were usually kept at Alexandria, to +guard the port. If they made themselves masters of these, Caesar being +deprived of his fleet, they would have the command of the port and whole +sea, and could prevent him from procuring provisions and auxiliaries. +Accordingly that spirit was displayed, which ought to be displayed when +the one party saw that a speedy victory depended on the issue, and the +other their safety. But Caesar gained the day, and set fire to all those +ships, and to others which were in the docks, because he could not guard +so many places with so small a force; and immediately he conveyed some +troops to the Pharos by his ships. + +CXIL--The Pharos is a tower on an island, of prodigious height, built +with amazing works, and takes its name from the island. This island +lying over against Alexandria forms a harbour; but on the upper side it +is connected with the town by a narrow way eight hundred paces in +length, made by piles sunk in the sea, and by a bridge. In this island +some of the Egyptians have houses, and a village as large as a town; and +whatever ships from any quarter, either through mistaking the channel, +or by the storm, have been driven from their course upon the coast, they +constantly plunder like pirates. And without the consent of those who +are masters of the Pharos, no vessels can enter the harbour, on account +of its narrowness. Caesar being greatly alarmed on this account, whilst +the enemy were engaged in battle, landed his soldiers, seized the +Pharos, and placed a garrison in it. By this means he gained this point, +that he could be supplied without danger with corn and auxiliaries: for +he sent to all the neighbouring countries, to demand supplies. In other +parts of the town, they fought so obstinately, that they quitted the +field with equal advantage, and neither were beaten (in consequence of +the narrowness of the passes); and a few being killed on both sides, +Caesar secured the most necessary posts, and fortified them in the +night. In this quarter of the town was a wing of the king's palace, in +which Caesar was lodged on his first arrival, and a theatre adjoining +the house which served as for citadel, and commanded an avenue to the +port and other docks. These fortifications he increased during the +succeeding days, that he might have them before him as a rampart, and +not be obliged to fight against his will. In the meantime Ptolemy's +younger daughter, hoping the throne would become vacant, made her escape +from the palace to Achillas, and assisted him in prosecuting the war. +But they soon quarrelled about the command, which circumstance enlarged +the presents to the soldiers, for each endeavoured by great sacrifices +to secure their affection. Whilst the enemy was thus employed, Pothinus, +tutor to the young king, and regent of the kingdom, who was in Caesar's +part of the town, sent messengers to Achillas, and encouraged him not to +desist from his enterprise, nor to despair of success; but his +messengers being discovered and apprehended, he was put to death by +Caesar. Such was the commencement of the Alexandrian war. + + + + * * * * * + + +INDEX + +N.B. The numerals refer to the book, the figures to the chapter. G. +stands for the Gallic War, C. for the Civil. + +Acarn[=a]n[)i]a, a region of Greece, _Carnia_ + +Acco, prince of the Sen[)o]nes, his conduct on Caesar's approach, G. vi. +4; condemned in a council of the Gauls, vi. 44 + +Achaia, sometimes taken for all Greece, but most commonly for a part of +it only; in Peloponnesus, _Romania alta_ + +Achillas, captain of Ptolemy's guards, sent to kill Pompey, C. iii. 104; +appointed by Pothinus commander of all the Egyptian forces, _ibid_. 108; +heads an army of twenty thousand veteran troops, _ibid_. 110 + +Acilla, or Achilla, or Acholla. There were two cities in Africa of this +name, one inland, the other on the coast. The modern name of the latter +is _Elalia_ + +Acilius, Caesar's lieutenant, C. iii. 15 + +Act[)i]um, a promontory of Epirus, now called the _Cape of Tigalo_, +famous for a naval victory gained near it, by Augustus, over M. Antony + +Act[)i]us, a Pelignian, one of Pompey's followers, taken by Caesar, and +dismissed in safety, C. i. 18 + +Act[)i]us Rufus accuses L. Apanius of treachery, C. iii. 83 + +Act[)i]us Varus prevents Tubero from landing in Africa, C. i. 31; his +forces, C. ii. 23; his camp, _ibid_. 25; engages Curio, _ibid_. 34; his +danger, defeat, and stratagem, _ibid_. 35 + +Adcant[)u]annus sallies upon Crassus at the head of a chosen body of +troops, G. iii. 22 + +Add[)u]a, the _Adda_, a river that rises in the Alps, and, separating +the duchy of Milan from the state of Venice, falls into the Po above +Cremona + +Adriatic Sea, the _Gulf of Venice_, at the extremity of which that city +is situated + +Adrum[=e]tum, a town in Africa, _Mahometta_; held by Considius Longus +with a garrison of one legion, C. ii. 23 + +Aduat[)u]uci (in some editions Atuatici), descendants of the Teutones +and Cimbri, G. ii. 29; they furnish twenty-nine thousand men to the +general confederacy of Gaul, _ibid_. 4; Caesar obliges them to submit, +_ibid_. 29 + +Aed[)u]i, the _Autunois_, a people of Gaul, near _Autun_, in the country +now called _Lower Burgundy_; they complain to Caesar of the ravages +committed in their territories by the Helvetii, G. i. 11; join in a +petition against Ariovistus, _ibid_. 33; at the head of one of the two +leading factions of Gaul, G. vi. 12; Caesar quiets an intestine +commotion among them, C. vii. 33; they revolt from the Romans, G. vii. +54; their law concerning magistrates, _ibid_. 33; their clients, i. 31; +vii. 75 + +Aeg[=e]an Sea, the _Archipelago_, a part of the Mediterranean which lies +between Greece, Asia Minor, and the Isle of Crete + +Aeg[=i]n[)i]um, a town of Thessaly; Domitius joins Caesar near that +place, C. iii. 79 + +Aegus and Roscillus, their perfidious behaviour towards Caesar, C. iii. +59, 60 + +Aegyptus, _Egypt,_ an extensive country of Africa, bounded on the west +by part of Marmarica and the deserts of Lybia, on the north by the +Mediterranean, on the east by the Sinus Arabicus, and a line drawn from +Arsino[)e] to Rhinocolura, and on the south by Aethiopia. Egypt, +properly so called, may be described as consisting of the long and +narrow valley which follows the course of the Nile from Syene +(_Assooan_) to _Cairo,_ near the site of the ancient Memphis. The name +by which this country is known to Europeans comes from the Greeks, some +of whose writers inform us that it received this appellation from +Aegyptus, son of Belus, it having been previously called Aeria. In the +Hebrew scriptures it is called Mitsraim, and also Matsor and Harets +Cham; of these names, however, the first is the one most commonly +employed + +Aemilia Via, a Roman road in Italy, from Rimini to Aquileia, and from +Pisa to Dertona + +Aet[=o]lia, a country of Greece, _Despotato;_ recovered from Pompey by +the partisans of Caesar, C. iii. 35 + +Afr[=a]nius, Pompey's lieutenant, his exploits in conjunction with +Petreius, C. i. 38; resolves to carry the war into Celtiberia, _ibid_. +61; surrenders to Caesar, _ibid_. 84 + +Afr[)i]ca, one of the four great continents into which the earth is +divided; the name seems to have been originally applied by the Romans to +the country around Carthage, the first part of the continent with which +they became acquainted, and is said to have been derived from a small +Carthaginian district on the northern coast, called _Frigi._ Hence, even +when the name had become applied to the whole continent, there still +remained in Roman geography the district of Africa Proper, on the +Mediterranean coast, corresponding to the modem kingdom of _Tunis,_ with +part of that of _Tripoli_ + +Agend[)i]cum, a city of the Senones, _Sens_; Caesar quarters four +legions there, G. vi. 44; Labienus leaves his baggage in it under a +guard of new levies, and sets out for Lutetia, G. vii. 57 + +Alba, a town of Latium, in Italy, _Albano_; Domitius levies troops in +that neighbourhood, C. i. 15 + +Alb[=i]ci, a people of Gaul, unknown; some make them the same with the +_Vivarois_; taken into the service of the Marseillians, C. i. 34 + +Albis, the _Elbe,_ a large and noble river in Germany, which has its +source in the Giant's Mountains in Silesia, on the confines of Bohemia, +and passing through Bohemia, Upper and Lower Saxony, falls into the +North Sea at Ritzbuttel, about sixty miles below Hamburg + +Alces, a species of animals somewhat resembling an elk, to be found in +the Hercynian forests, C. vi. 27 + +Alemanni, or Alamanni, a name assumed by a confederacy of German tribes, +situated between the Neckar and the Upper Rhine, who united to resist +the encroachments of the Roman power. According to Mannert, they derived +their origin from the shattered remains of the army of Ariovistus +retired, after the defeat and death of their leader, to the mountainous +country of the Upper Rhine. After their overthrow by Clovis, king of the +Salian Franks, they ceased to exist as one nation, and were dispersed +over Gaul, Switzerland, and Nether Italy. From them L'Allemagne, the +French name for Germany, is derived + +Alemannia, the country inhabited by the Alemanni + +Alesia, or Alexia, a town of the Mandubians, _Alise_; Caesar shuts up +Vercingetorix there, C. vii. 68; surrounds it with lines of +circumvallation and contravallation, _ibid_. 69, 72; obliges it to +surrender, _ibid_. 89 + +Alexandr[=i]a, a city of Egypt, _Scanderia_. It was built by Alexander +the Great, 330 years before Christ; Caesar pursues Pompey thither, C. +iii. 106 + +Aliso, by some supposed to be the town now called _Iselburg_; or, +according to Junius, _Wesel_, in the duchy of Cleves, but more probably +_Elsen_ + +Allier (El[=a]ver), Caesar eludes the vigilance of Vercingetorix, and by +an artifice passes that river, G. vii. 35 + +All[)o]br[)o]ges, an ancient people of Gallia Transalp[=i]na, who +inhabited the country which is now called _Dauphiny, Savoy,_ and +_Piedmont_. The name, Allobroges, means highlanders, and is derived from +Al, "high," and Broga, "land." They are supposed to be disaffected to +the Romans, G. i. 6; complain to Caesar of the ravages of the +Helvetians, _ibid_. 11 + +Alps, a ridge of high mountains, which separates France and Germany from +Italy. That part of them which separates Dauphiny from Piedmont was +called the Cottian Alps. Their name is derived from their height, Alp +being an old Celtic appellation for "a lofty mountain"; Caesar crosses +them with five legions, G. i. 10; sends Galba to open a free passage +over them to the Roman merchants, G. iii. 1 + +Alsati[)a], a province of Germany, in the upper circle of the Rhine, +_Alsace_ + +Amagetobr[)i]a, a city of Gaul, unknown; famous for a defeat of the +Gauls there by Ariovistus, G. i. 31 + +Amant[)i]a, a town in Macedonia, _Porto Raguseo_; it submits to Caesar, +and sends ambassadors to know his pleasure, C. iii. 12 + +Am[=a]nus, a mountain of Syria, _Alma Daghy,_ near which Scipio sustains +some losses, C. iii. 31 + +Am[=a]ni Pylae, or Am[=a]nicae Portae, _Straits of Scanderona_ + +Ambarri, a people of Gaul, uncertain; they complain to Caesar of the +ravages committed in their territories by the Helvetii, G. i. 11 + +Ambialites, a people of Gaul, of _Lamballe in Bretagne_. Others take the +word to be only a different name for the Ambiani; they join in a +confederacy with the Veneti against Caesar, G. iii. 9 + +Ambi[=a]ni, or Ambianenses, the people of _Amiens;_ they furnish ten +thousand men to the general confederacy of the Belgians against Caesar, +G. ii. 4; sue for peace, and submit themselves to Caesar's pleasure, G. +ii. 15 + +Ambi[=a]num, a city of Belgium, _Amiens_ + +Amb[)i]b[)a]ri, a people of Gaul, inhabiting _Ambie_, in Normandy +Amb[)i][)o]rix, his artful speech to Sabinus and Cotta, G. v. 27; Caesar +marches against him, G. vi. 249. Ravages and lays waste his territories, +_ibid_. 34; endeavours in vain to get him into his hands, _ibid_. 43 + +Ambivar[)e]ti, a people of Gaul, the _Vivarais_. They are ordered to +furnish their contingent for raising the siege of Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Ambivar[=i]ti, an ancient people of _Brabant_, between the Rhine and the +Maese; the German cavalry sent to forage among them, G. iv. 9 + +Ambr[)a]c[)i]a, a city of Epirus, _Arta_; Cassius directs his march +thither, C. iii. 36 + +Ambrones, an ancient people, who lived in the country which is now +called the _Canton of Bern_, in Switzerland + +Amph[)i]l[)o]chia, a region of Epirus, _Anfilocha_. Its inhabitants +reduced by Cassius Longinus, C. iii. 55 + +Amph[)i]p[)o]lis, a city of Macedonia, _Cristopoli_, or _Emboli_. An +edict in Pompey's name published there, C. iii. 102 + +Anartes, a people of Germany, _Walachians_, _Servians_, or _Bulgarians_, +bordering upon the Hercynian Forest, G. vi. 25 + +Anas, a river of Spain, the _Guadiana_, or _Rio Roydera_, bounding that +part of Spain under the government of Petreius, C. i. 38 + +Anc[)a]l[=i]tes, a people of Britain, of the hundred of _Henley_, in +Oxfordshire; they send ambassadors to Caesar with an offer of +submission, G. v. 21 + +Anch[)i][)a]los, a city of Thrace, near the Euxine Sea, now called +_Kenkis_ + +Ancibarii, or Ansivarii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, of and +about the town of _Ansestaet_, or _Amslim_ + +Anc[=o]na, _Ancona_, a city of Italy, on the coast of Pisenum. It is +supposed to derive its name from the Greek word [Greek: agkon], an angle +or elbow, on account of the angular form of the promontory on which it +is built. The foundation of Ancona is ascribed by Strabo to some +Syracusans, who were fleeing from the tyranny of Dionysius. Livy speaks +of it as a naval station of great importance in the wars of Rome with +the Illyrians. We find it occupied by Caesar (C. i. 2) shortly after +crossing the Rubicon; Caesar takes possession of it with a garrison of +one cohort, C. i. 11 + +Andes, _Angers_, in France, the capital of the duchy of Anjou + +Andes, a people of Gaul, the ancient inhabitants of the duchy of Anjou; +Caesar puts his troops into winter quarters among them, G. ii. 35 + +Andomad[=u]num Ling[)o]num, a large and ancient city of Champagne, at +the source of the river Marne, _Langres_ + +Anglesey (Mona), an island situated between Britain and Ireland, where +the night, during the winter, is said to be a month long, G. v. 13 + +Angrivarii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, who dwelt between the +Ems and the Weser, below the Lippe + +Ansivarii, see _Ancibarii_ + +Antioch[=i]a, _Antachia_, an ancient and famous city, once the capital +of Syria, or rather of the East. It is situate on two rivers, the +Orontes and the Phaspar, not far from the Mediterranean; refuses to +admit the fugitives after the battle of Pharsalia, C. iii. 102 + +Ant[=o]nius (Mark Antony), Caesar's lieutenant, G. vii. i i; quaestor, +G. viii. 2; governor of Brundusium, C. iii. 24; his standing for that +priesthood, G. vii. 50; obliges Libo to raise the siege of Brundusium, +C. iii. 24; and in conjunction with Kalenus transports Caesar's troops +to Greece, _ibid_. 26 + +Apam[=e]a, _Apami_, a city of Bithynia, built by Nicomedes, the son of +Prusias + +Apennine Mountains, a large chain of mountains, branching off from the +Maritime Alps, in the neighbourhood of Genoa, running diagonally from +the Ligurian Gulf to the Adriatic, in the vicinity of Ancona; from which +it continues nearly parallel with the latter gulf, as far as the +promontory of Garg[=a]nus, and again inclines to Mare Inf[)e]rum, till +it finally terminates in the promontory of Leucopetra, near Rhegium. The +etymology of the name given to these mountains must be traced to the +Celtic, and appears to combine two terms of that language nearly +synonymous, Alp, or Ap, "a high mountain," and Penn, "a summit" + +Apoll[=o]n[)i]a, a city of Macedonia, _Piergo_. Pompey resolves to +winter there, C. iii. 5; Caesar makes himself master of it, _ibid_. iii. +12 + +Appia Via, the Appian road which led from Rome to Campania, and from the +sea to Brundusium. It was made, as Livy informs us, by the censor, +Appius Caecus, A.U.C. 442, and was, in the first instance, only laid +down as far as Capua, a distance of about 125 miles. It was subsequently +carried on to Beneventum, and finally to Brundusium. According to +Eustace (_Classical Tour_, vol. iii.), such parts of the Appian Way as +have escaped destruction, as at _Fondi_ and _Mola_, show few traces of +wear and decay after a duration of two thousand years + +Apsus, a river of Macedonia, the _Aspro_. Caesar and Pompey encamp over +against each other on the banks of that river, C. iii. 13 + +Apulia, a region of Italy, _la Puglia_. Pompey quarters there the +legions sent by Caesar, C. i. 14 + +Aquil[=a]ria, a town of Africa, near Clupea. Pompey quarters there the +legions sent by Caesar, C. i. 14; Curio arrives there with the troops +designed against Africa. C. ii. 23 + +Aquileia, formerly a famous and considerable city of Italy, not far from +the Adriatic, now little more than a heap of ruins, _Aquilegia_. Caesar +draws together the troops quartered there, G. i. 10 + +Aquitania, a third part of ancient Gaul, now containing _Guienne_, +_Gascony_, etc. + +Aquit[=a]ni, the Aquitanians reduced under the power of the Romans by +Crassus, G. iii. 20-22; very expert in the art of mining, _ibid_. 21 + +Arar, or Araris, a river of Gaul, the Sa[^o]ne; the Helvetians receive a +considerable check in passing this river, G. i. 12 + +Arduenna Silva, the forest of _Ardenne_, in France, reaching from the +Rhine to the city of Tournay, in the low countries; Indutiom[)a]rus +conceals in it the infirm and aged, G. v. 3; Caesar crosses it in quest +of Ambiorix, G. vi. 29 + +Arecomici Volcae, Caesar plants garrisons among them, G. vii. 7 + +Arel[=a]te, or Arel[=a]tum, or Arelas, a city of Gaul, _Arles_. Caesar +orders twelve galleys to be built there, C. i. 36 + +Ar[)i]m[)i]num, a city of Italy, _Rimini_; Caesar having sounded the +disposition of his troops, marches thither, C. i. 8 + +Ar[)i][)o]vistus, king of the Germans, his tyrannical conduct towards +the Gauls, G. i. 31; Caesar sends ambassadors to him demanding an +interview, _ibid_. 34; he is defeated and driven entirely out of Gaul, +_ibid_. 52 + +Arles, see _Arelate_ + +Arm[)e]n[)i]a, a country of Asia, divided into the greater or lesser, +and now called _Turcomania_ + +Armorici, the ancient people of Armorica, a part of Gallia Celtica, now +_Bretagne_; they assemble in great numbers to attack L. Roscius in his +winter quarters, G. v. 53 + +Arr[=e]t[)i]um, a city of Etruria, in Italy, _Arezzo_; Antony sent +thither with five cohorts, C. i. 10 + +Arverni, an ancient people of France, on the Loire, whose chief city was +Arvernum, now _Clermont_, the capital of _Auvergne_; suddenly invaded, +and their territories ravaged by Caesar, G. vii. 8 + +Asculum, a town of Italy, _Ascoli_; Caesar takes possession of it, C. i. +16 + +Asparagium, a town in Macedonia, unknown; Pompey encamps near it with +all his forces, C. iii. 30 + +Astigi, or Astingi, a people of Andalusia, in Spain + +Athens, one of the most ancient and noble cities of Greece, the capital +of Attica. It produced some of the most distinguished statesmen, +orators, and poets that the world ever saw, and its sculptors and +painters have been rarely rivalled, never surpassed. No city on the +earth has ever exercised an equal influence on the educated men of all +ages. It contributes to fit out a fleet for Pompey, C. iii. 3 + +Atreb[)a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, who lived in that part of the +Netherlands which is now called _Artois_; they furnish fifteen thousand +men to the general confederacy of Gaul, G. ii. 4 + +Attica, a country of Greece, between Achaia and Macedonia, famous on +account of its capital, Athens + +Attuarii, a people of ancient Germany, who inhabited between the Maese +and the Rhine, whose country is now a part of the duchy of _Gueldes_ + +Atuatuca, a strong castle, where Caesar deposited all his baggage, on +setting out in pursuit of Ambiorix, G. vi. 32; the Germans unexpectedly +attack it, _ibid_. 35 + +Augustod[=u]num, _Autun_, a very ancient city of Burgundy, on the river +Arroux + +Aulerci Eburovices, a people of Gaul, in the country of _Evreux_, in +Normandy + +Aulerci Brannovices, a people of Gaul, _Morienne_ + +Aulerci Cenomanni, a people of Gaul, the country of _Maine_ + +Aulerci Diablintes, a people of Gaul, _le Perche_ + +Aulerci reduced by P. Crassus, G, ii. 34; massacre their senate, and +join Viridovix, G. iii. 17; Aulerci Brannovices ordered to furnish their +contingent to the relief of Alesia, G. vii. 7; Aulerci Cenomanni furnish +five thousand, _ibid_.; Aulerci Eburovices three thousand, _ibid_. + +Ausci, a people of Gaul, those of _Auchs_ or _Aux_, in Gascony; they +submit to Crassus and send hostages, G. iii. 27 + +Auset[=a]ni, a people of Spain, under the Pyrenean mountains; they send +ambassadors to Caesar, with an offer of submission, C. i. 60 + +Aux[)i]mum, a town in Italy, _Osimo_, or _Osmo_; Caesar makes himself +master of it, C. i. 15 + +Av[=a]r[)i]cum, a city of Aquitaine, the capital of the Biturigians, +_Bourges_; besieged by Caesar, G. vii. 13; and at last taken by storm, +_ibid_. 31 + +Ax[)o]na, the river _Aisne_, Caesar crosses it in his march against the +Belgians, G. ii. 5, 6 + +Bac[=e]nis, a forest of ancient Germany, which parted the Suevi from the +Cherusci; by some supposed to be the Forests of _Thuringia_, by others +the _Black Forest_; the Suevians encamp at the entrance of that wood, +resolving there to await the approach of the Romans, G vi. 10 + +Bac[)u]lus, P. Sextius, his remarkable bravery, G. vi. 38 + +Baet[)i]ca, in the ancient geography, about a third part of Spain, +containing _Andalusia_, and a part of _Granada_ + +Bagr[)a]das, a river of Africa, near Ut[)i]ca, the _Begrada_; Curio +arrives with his army at that river, C. ii. 38 + +Bale[=a]res Ins[)u]lae, several islands in the Mediterranean Sea, +formerly so called, of which _Majorca_ and _Minorca_ are the chief; the +inhabitants famous for their dexterity in the use of the sling, G. ii. 7 + +Bat[)a]vi, the ancient inhabitants of the island of Batavia + +Batavia, or Batavorum Insula, _Holland_, a part of which still retains +the name of _Betuwe_; formed by the Meuse and the Wal, G. iv. 10 + +Belgae, the inhabitants of Gallia Belgica. The original Belgae were +supposed to be of German extraction; but passing the Rhine, settled +themselves in Gaul. The name Belgae belongs to the Cymric language, in +which, under the form _Belgiaid_, the radical of which is _Belg_, it +signifies warlike; they are the most warlike people of Gaul, G. i. 1; +withstand the invasion of the Teutones and Cimbri, G. ii. 4; originally +of German extraction, _ibid_.; Caesar obliges them to decamp and return +to their several habitations, _ibid_. 11 + +Belgia, Belgium, or Gallia Belgica, the _Low Countries_, or +_Netherlands_ + +Bellocassi, or Velocasses, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Bayeux_, in Normandy; they furnish three thousand men to the relief of +Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Bell[)o]v[)a]ci, an ancient renowned people among the Belgae, inhabiting +the country now called _Beauvais_ in France; they furnish a hundred +thousand men to the general confederacy of Belgium, G. ii. 4; join in +the general defection under Vercingetorix, G. vii. 59; again take up +arms against Caesar, viii. 7; but are compelled to submit and sue for +pardon + +Bergea, a city of Macedonia, now called _Veria_ + +Berones, see _Retones_ + +Bessi, a people of Thrace, _Bessarabia_; they make part of Pompey's +army, C. iii. 4 + +Bethuria, a region of Hispania Lusitanica, _Estremadura_ + +Bibracte, a town of Burgundy, now called _Autun_, the capital of the +Aedui; Caesar, distressed for want of corn, marches thither to obtain a +supply, G. i. 23 + +Bibrax, a town of Rheims, _Braine_, or _Bresne_; attacked with great +fury by the confederate Belgians, G. ii. 6 + +Bibr[)o]ci, a people of Britain; according to Camden, _the hundred of +Bray_, in Berkshire; they send ambassadors to Caesar to sue for peace, +G. v. 21 + +Bib[)u]lus burns thirty of Caesar's ships, C. iii. 8; his hatred of +Caesar, _ibid_. 8, 16; his cruelty towards the prisoners that fell into +his hands, _ibid_. 14; his death, _ibid_. 18; death of his two sons, +_ibid_. 110 + +Bigerriones, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now called +_Bigorre,_ in Gascony; they surrender and give hostages to Crassus, G. +iii. 27 + +Bithynia, a country of Asia Minor, adjoining to Troas, over against +Thrace, _Becsangial_ + +Bit[:u]r[)i]ges, a people of Guienne, in France, of the country of +_Berry;_ they join with the Arverni in the general defection under +Vercingetorix, G. vii. 5 + +Boeotia, a country in Greece; separated from Attica by Mount Citheron. +It had formerly several other names and was famous for its capital, +Thebes; it is now called _Stramulipa_ + +Boii, an ancient people of Germany who, passing the Rhine, settled in +Gaul, the _Bourbonnois;_ they join with the Helvetians in their +expedition against Gaul, G. i. 5; attack the Romans in flank, _ibid_. +25; Caesar allows them to settle among the Aeduans, _ibid_. 28 + +Bor[=a]ni, an ancient people of Germany, supposed by some to be the same +as the Burii + +Bosphor[=a]ni, a people bordering upon the Euxine Sea, _the Tartars_ + +Bosph[)o]rus, two straits of the sea so called, one Bosphorus Thracius, +now the _Straits of Constantinople;_ the other Bosphorus Climerius, now +the _Straits of Caffa_ + +Brannov[=i]ces, the people of _Morienne,_ in France + +Brannovii furnished their contingent to the relief of Alesia, C. vii. 75 + +Bratuspant[)i]um, a city of Gaul, belonging to the Bellov[)a]ci, +_Beauvais;_ it submits, and obtains pardon from Caesar, G. ii. 13 + +Bridge built by Caesar over the Rhine described, G. iv. 7 + +Br[)i]tannia, Caesar's expedition thither, G. iv. 20; description of the +coast, 23; the Romans land in spite of the vigorous opposition of the +islanders, 26; the Britons send ambassadors to Caesar to desire a peace, +which they obtain on delivery of hostages, 27; they break the peace on +hearing that Caesar's fleet was destroyed by a storm, and set upon the +Roman foragers, 30; their manner of fighting in chariots; they fall upon +the Roman camp, but are repulsed, and petition again for peace, which +Caesar grants them, 33-35; Caesar passes over into their island a second +time, v. 8; drives them from the woods where they had taken refuge, 9; +describes their manners and way of living, 12; defeats them in several +encounters, 15-21; grants them a peace, on their giving hostages, and +agreeing to pay a yearly tribute, 22 + +Brundusium, a city of Italy, _Brindisi._ By the Greeks it was called +[Greek: Brentesion], which in the Messapian language signified a stag's +head, from the resemblance which its different harbours and creeks bore +to that object; Pompey retires thither with his forces, C. i. 24; Caesar +lays siege to it, 26; Pompey escapes from it by sea, upon which it +immediately surrenders to Caesar, 28; Libo blocks up the port with a +fleet, C. iii. 24; but by the valour of Antony is obliged to retire, +_ibid_. + +Brutii, a people of Italy, _the Calabrians._ They were said to be +runaway slaves and shepherds of the Lucanians, who, after concealing +themselves for a time, became at last numerous enough to attack their +masters, and succeeded at length in gaining their independence. Their +very name is said to indicate that they were revolted slaves: [Greek: +Brettious gar kalousi apostatas], says Strabo, speaking of the Lucanians + +Br[=u]tus, appointed to command the fleet in the war against the people +of Vannes, G. iii. 11; engages and defeats at sea the Venetians, 14; and +also the people of Marseilles, C. i. 58; engages them a second time with +the same good fortune, ii. 3 + +Bullis, a town in Macedonia, unknown; it sends ambassadors to Caesar +with an offer of submission, C. iii. 12 + +Buthr[=o]tum, a city of Epirus, _Butrinto,_ or _Botronto_ + +Byzantium, an ancient city of Thrace, called at different times Ligos, +Nova Roma, and now _Constantinople_ + +Cabill[=o]num, a city of ancient Gaul, _Chalons sur Sa[^o]ne_ + +Cad[=e]tes, a people of Gaul, unknown + +Cadurci, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of _Quercy_ + +Caeraesi, a people of Belgic Gaul, inhabiting the country round Namur; +they join in the general confederacy of Belgium against Caesar, G. i. 4 + +Caesar, hastens towards Gaul, C. i. 7; refuses the Helvetians a passage +through the Roman province, _ibid_.; his answer to their ambassadors, +14; defeats and sends them back into their own country, 25-27; sends +ambassadors to Ariovistus, 34; calls a council of war: his speech, 40; +begins his march, 41; his speech to Ariovistus, 43; totally routs the +Germans, and obliges them to repass the Rhine, 53; his war with the +Belgians, ii. 2; reduces the Suessi[)o]nes and Bellov[)a]ci, 12, 13; his +prodigious slaughter of the Nervians, 20-27; obliges the Atuatici to +submit, 32; prepares for the war against the Venetians, iii. 9; defeats +them in a naval engagement, and totally subdues them, 14, 15; is obliged +to put his army into winter quarters, before he can complete the +reduction of the Menapians and Morini, 29; marches to find out the +Germans; his answer to their ambassadors, iv. 8; attacks them in their +camp and routs them, 14, 15; crosses the Rhine, and returns to Gaul, 17 +--19; his expedition into Britain described, 22; refits his navy, 31; +comes to the assistance of his foragers whom the Britons had attacked, +34; returns to Gaul, 36; gives orders for building a navy, v. 1; his +preparations for a second expedition into Britain, 2; marches into the +country of Treves to prevent a rebellion, 3; marches to Port Itius, and +invites all the princes of Gaul to meet him there, 5; sets sail for +Britain, 8; describes the country and customs of the inhabitants, 12; +fords the river Thames, and puts Cassivellaunus, the leader of the +Britons, to flight, 18; imposes a tribute upon the Britons and returns +into Gaul, 23; routs the Nervians, and relieves Cicero, 51; resolves to +winter in Gaul, 53; his second expedition into Germany, vi. 9; his +description of the manners of the Gauls and Germans, 13; his return into +Gaul, and vigorous prosecution of the war against Ambiorix, 27; crosses +the mountains of the Cevennes in the midst of winter, and arrives at +Auvergne, which submits, vii. 8; takes and sacks Genabum, 11; takes +Noviodunum, and marches from thence to Avaricum, 12; his works before +Alesia, 69; withstands all the attacks of the Gauls, and obliges the +place to surrender, 89; marches into the country of the Biturigians, and +compels them to submit, viii. 2; demands Guturvatus, who is delivered up +and put to death, 38; marches to besiege Uxellodunum, 39; cuts off the +hands of the besieged at Uxellodunum, 44; marches to Corfinium, and +besieges it, C. i. 16, which in a short time surrenders, 22; he marches +through Abruzzo, and great part of the kingdom of Naples, 23; his +arrival at Brundusium, and blockade of the haven, 24; commits the siege +of Marseilles to the case of Brutus and Trebonius, 36; his expedition to +Spain, 37; his speech to Afranius, 85; comes to Marseilles, which +surrenders. C. ii. 22; takes Oricum, iii. 8; marches to Dyrrhachium to +cut off Pompey's communication with that place, 41; sends Canuleius into +Epirus for corn, 42; besieges Pompey in his camp, his reasons for it, +43; encloses Pompey's works within his fortifications: a skirmish +between them, 45; his army reduced to great straits for want of +provisions, 47; offers Pompey battle, which he declines, 56; sends +Clodius to Scipio, to treat about a peace, whose endeavours prove +ineffectual, 57; joins Domitius, storms and takes the town of Gomphis in +Thessaly, in four hours' time, 80; gains a complete victory over Pompey +in the battle of Pharsalia, 93; summons Ptolemy and Cleopatra to attend +him, 107; burns the Alexandrian fleet, 111 + +Caesar[=e]a, the chief city of Cappadocia + +Caesia Sylva, the _Caesian_ Forest, supposed to be a part of the +Hercynian Forest, about the duchy of Cleves and Westphalia + +Calagurritani, a people of Hispania Tarraconensis, inhabiting the +province of _Calahorra;_ send ambassadors to Caesar with an offer of +submission, C. i. 60 + +Cal[)e]tes, an ancient people of Belgic Gaul, inhabiting the country +called _Le Pais de Caulx,_ in Normandy, betwixt the Seine and the sea; +they furnish ten thousand men in the general revolt of Belgium, G. ii. 4 + +Cal[)y]don, a city of Aetolia, _Ayton,_ C. iii. 35 + +C[)a]m[)e]r[=i]num, a city of Umbria, in Italy, _Camarino_ + +Camp[=a]n[)i]a, the most pleasant part of Italy, in the kingdom of +Naples, now called _Terra di Lavoro_ + +Campi Can[=i]ni, a place in the Milanese, in Italy, not far from +Belizona + +Campi Catalaunici, supposed to be the large plain which begins about two +miles from Chalons sur Marne + +Cam[=u]l[)o]g[=e]nus appointed commander-in-chief by the Parisians, G. +vii. 57; obliges Labienus to decamp from before Paris, _ibid.;_ is +slain, 62 + +Cadav[)i]a, a country of Macedonia, _Canovia_ + +Caninefates, an ancient people of the lower part of Germany, near +Batavia, occupying the country in which Gorckum, on the Maese, in South +Holland, now is + +Can[=i]nius sets Duracius at liberty, who had been shut up in Limonum by +Dumnacus, G. viii. 26; pursues Drapes, 30; lays siege to Uxellodunum, 33 + +Cant[)a]bri, the Cantabrians, an ancient warlike people of Spain, +properly of the provinces of _Guipuscoa_ and _Biscay_; they are obliged +by Afranius to furnish a supply of troops, C. i. 38 + +Cantium, a part of England, _the county of Kent_ + +C[)a]nus[=i]um, a city of Apulia, in Italy, _Canosa_. The splendid +remains of antiquity discovered among the ruins of Canosa, together with +its coins, establish the Grecian origin of the place + +Cappadocia, a large country in Asia Minor, upon the Euxine Sea + +Capr[)e]a, _Capri_, an island on the coast of Campania + +Cap[)u]a, _Capha_, a city in the kingdom of Naples, in the Provincia di +Lavoro + +C[)a]r[)a]les, a city of Sardinia, _Cagliari_ + +C[)a]r[)a]l[)i]t[=a]ni, the people of _Cagliari_, in Sardinia; they +declare against Pompey, and expel Cotta with his garrison, C. i. 30 + +Carc[)a]so, a city of Gaul, _Carcassone_ + +Carm[=o]na, a town of Hispania Baetica, _Carmone_; declares for Caesar, +and expels the enemy's garrison, C. ii. 19 + +Carni, an ancient people, inhabiting a part of Noricum, whose country is +still called _Carniola_ + +Carn[=u]tes, an ancient people of France, inhabiting the territory now +called _Chartres_; Caesar quarters some troops among them, G. ii. 35; +they openly assassinate Tasgetins, G. v. 25; send ambassadors to Caesar +and submit, vi. 4; offer to be the first in taking up alms against the +Romans, vii. 2; attack the Biturigians, but are dispersed and put to +flight by Caesar. viii. 5 + +Carpi, an ancient people near the Danube + +Cassandr[)e]a, a city of Macedonia, _Cassandria_ + +Cassi, a people of ancient Britain, _the hundred of Caishow_, in +_Hertfordshire_; they send ambassadors and submit to Caesar, G. v. 21 + +Caesil[=i]num, a town in Italy, _Castelluzzo_ + +Cassivellaunus, chosen commander-in-chief of the confederate Britons, G. +v. 11; endeavours in vain to stop the course of Caesar's conquests, 18; +is obliged to submit, and accept Caesar's terms, 22 + +Cassius, Pompey's lieutenant, burns Caesar's fleet in Sicily, C. iii. +101 + +Castellum Menapiorum, _Kessel_, a town in Brabant, on the river Neerse, +not far from the Maese + +Cast[)i]cus, the son of Catam['a]ntaledes, solicited by Orgetorix to +invade the liberty of his country, G. i. 3 + +Castra Posthumiana, a town in Hispania Baetica, _Castro el Rio_ + +Castra Vetera, an ancient city in Lower Germany, in the duchy of Cleves; +some say where _Santon_, others where _Byrthon_ now is + +Castulonensis Saltus, a city of Hispania Tarraconensis, _Castona la +Vieja_ + +Cativulcus takes up arms against the Romans at the instigation of +Indutiomarus, G. v. 24; poisons himself, vi. 31 + +Cato of Utica, the source of his hatred to Caesar, C. i. 4; made praetor +of Sicily, prepares for war, and abdicates his province, 30 + +Catur[)i]ges, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Embrun_, or _Ambrun_, or _Chagres_; oppose Caesar's passage over the +Alps, G. i. 10 + +Cavalry, their institution and manner of fighting among the Germans, G. +i. 48, iv. 2 + +Cavarillus taken and brought before Caesar, G. vii. 62 + +Cavarinus, the Senones attempt to assassinate him, G. v. 54; Caesar +orders him to attend him with the cavalry of the Senones, vi. 5 + +Cebenna Mons, the mountains of the _Cevennes_, in Gaul, separating the +Helvians from Auvergne + +Celeja, a city of Noricum Mediterraneum, now _Cilley_ + +Celtae, a people of Thrace, about the mountains of Rhodope and Haemus + +Celtae, an ancient people of Gaul, in that part called Gallia Comata, +between the Garumna (_Garonne_) and Sequana (_Seine_), from whom that +country was likewise called Gallia Celtica. They were the most powerful +of the three great nations that inhabited Gaul, and are supposed to be +the original inhabitants of that extensive country. It is generally +supposed that they called themselves _Gail_, or _Gael_, out of which +name the Greeks formed their [Greek: Keltai], and the Romans Galli. +Some, however, deduce the name from the Gaelic "_Ceilt,_" an inhabitant +of the forest + +Celt[)i]b[=e]ri, an ancient people of Spain, descended from the Celtae, +who settled about the River Iberus, or _Ebro_, from whom the country was +called Celtiberia, now _Arragon_; Afranius obliges them to furnish a +supply of troops, C. i. 38 + +Celtillus, the father of Vercingetorix, assassinated by the Arverni, G. +vii. 4 + +Cenimagni, or Iceni, an ancient people of Britain, inhabiting the +counties of _Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire_, and _Huntingdonshire_ + +Cenis Mons, that part of the Alps which separates Savoy from Piedmont + +Cenni, an ancient people of Celtic extraction + +Cenom[=a]ni, a people of Gallia Celtica, in the country now called _Le +Manseau_, adjoining to that of the Insubres + +Centr[=o]nes, an ancient people of Flanders, about the city of +_Courtray_, dependent on the Nervians + +Centr[=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +Tarantaise + +Cerauni Montes, Mountains of Epirus, _Monti di Chimera_ + +Cerc[=i]na, an island on the coast of Africa, _Chercara, Cercare_ + +Cevennes, mountains of, Caesar passes them in the midst of winter, +though covered with snow six feet deep, G. vii. 8 + +Chara, a root which served to support Caesar's army in extreme +necessity, C. iii. 48; manner of preparing it, _ibid_. + +Chariots, manner of fighting with them among the Britons, G. iv. 33; +dexterity of the British charioteers, _ibid_. + +Cherron[=e]sus, a peninsula of Africa, near Alexandria + +Cherson[=e]sus Cimbr[=i]ca, a peninsula on the Baltic, now _Jutland_, +part of _Holstein, Ditmarsh_, and _Sleswic_ + +Cherusci, a great and warlike people of ancient Germany, between the +Elbe and the Weser, about the country now called _Mansfield_, part of +the duchy of _Brunswick_, and the dioceses of _Hildesheim_ and +_Halberstadt_. The Cherusci, under the command of Arminius (Hermann), +lured the unfortunate Varus into the wilds of the Saltus Teutoburgiensis +(Tutinger Wold), where they massacred him and his whole army. They were +afterwards defeated by Germanicus, who, on his march through the forest +so fatal to his countrymen, found the bones of the legions where they +had been left to blanch by their barbarian conqueror.--See Tacitus's +account of the March of the Roman Legions through the German forests, +_Annals,_ b. i. c. 71 + +Cicero, Quintus, attacked in his winter quarters by Ambi[)o]rix, G. v. +39; informs Caesar of his distress, who marches to relieve him, 46; +attacked unexpectedly by the Sigambri, who are nevertheless obliged to +retire, vi. 36 + +Cimbri, _the Jutlanders,_ a very ancient northern people, who inhabited +Chersonesus Cimbrica + +Cing[)e]t[)o]rix, the leader of one of the factions among the Treviri, +and firmly attached to Caesar, G. v. 3; declared a public enemy, and his +goods confiscated by Indutiom[)a]rus, 56 + +Cing[)u]lum, a town of Pic[=e]num, in Italy, _Cingoli_ + +Cleopatra, engaged in a war with her brother Ptolemy, C. iii. 103 + +Clod[)i]us sent by Caesar to Scipio, to treat about a peace, but without +effect, C. iii. 90 + +Cocas[=a]tes, a people of Gaul, according to some the _Bazadois_ + +Caelius Rufus raises a sedition in Rome, C. iii. 20; is expelled that +city, then joins with Milo, 21; he is killed, 22 + +C[)o]imbra, an ancient city of Portugal, once destroyed, but now +rebuilt, on the river _Mendego_ + +Colchis, a country in Asia, near Pontus, including the present +_Mingrelia_ and _Georgia_ + +Com[=a]na Pont[)i]ca, a city of Asia Minor, _Com,_ or, _Tabachzan_ + +Com[=a]na of Cappadocia, _Arminacha_ + +Comius sent by Caesar into Britain to dispose the British states to +submit, G. iv. 21; persuades the Bellov[)a]ci to furnish their +contingent to the relief of Alesia, vii. 76; his distrust of the Romans, +occasioned by an attempt to assassinate him, viii. 23; harasses the +Romans greatly, and intercepts their convoys, 47; attacks Volusenus +Quadratus, and runs him through the thigh, 48; submits to Antony, on +condition of not appearing in the presence of any Roman, _ibid_. + +Compsa, a city of Italy, _Conza,_ or _Consa_ + +Concordia, an ancient city of the province of _Triuli,_ in Italy, now in +ruins + +Condr[=u]si, or Condr[=u]s[=o]nes, an ancient people of Belgium, +dependent on the Treviri, whose country is now called _Condrotz_, +between Liege and Namur + +Conetod[=u]nus heads the Carnutes in their revolt from the Romans, and +the massacre at Genabum, G. vii. 3 + +Confluens Mosae et Rheni, the confluence of the Meuse and Rhine, or the +point where the Meuse joins the Vahalis, or Waal, which little river +branches out from the Rhine + +Convictolit[=a]nis, a division on his account among the Aeduans, C. vii. +32; Caesar confirms his election to the supreme magistracy, 33; he +persuades Litavicus and his brothers to rebel, 37 + +Corc[=y]ra, an island of Epirus, _Corfu_ + +Cord[)u]ba, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Cordova;_ Caesar summons the +leading men of the several states of Spain to attend him there, C. ii. +19; transactions of that assembly, 21 + +Corf[=i]n[)i]um, a town belonging to the Peligni, in Italy, _St. +Pelino,_ al. _Penlina;_ Caesar lays siege to it, C. i. 16; and obliges +it to surrender, 24 + +Corinth, a famous and rich city of Achaia, in Greece, in the middle of +the Isthmus going into Peloponnesus + +Corneli[=a]na Castra, a city of Africa, between Carthage and Utica + +Correus, general of the Bellov[)a]ci, with six thousand foot, and a +thousand horse, lies in ambush for the Roman foragers, and attacks the +Roman cavalry with a small party, but is routed and killed, G. viii. 19 + +Cors[)i]ca, a considerable island in the Mediterranean Sea, near +Sardinia, which still retains its name + +Cosanum, a city of Calabria, in Italy, _Cassano_ + +Cotta, L. Aurunculeius, dissents from Sabinus in relation to the advice +given them by Ambiorix, G. v. 28; his behaviour when attacked by the +Gauls, 33; is slain, with the great part of his men, after a brave +resistance, 37 + +Cotuatus and Conetodunus massacre all the Roman merchants at Genabum, G. +vii. 3 + +Cotus, a division on his account among the Aeduans, G. vii. 32; obliged +to desist from his pretensions to the supreme magistracy, 33 + +Crassus, P., his expedition into Aquitaine, G. iii. 20; reduces the +Sotiates, 22; and other states, obliging them to give hostages, 27 + +Crast[)i]nus, his character, and courage at the battle of Pharsalia, C. +iii. 91; where he is killed, 99 + +Cr[)e]m[=o]na, an ancient city of Gallia Cisalpina, which retains its +name to this day, and is the metropolis of the _Cremonese_, in Italy + +Crete, one of the noblest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, now called +_Candia_ + +Critognatus, his extraordinary speech and proposal to the garrison of +Alesia, G. vii. 77 + +Curio obliges Cato to abandon the defence of Cicily, C. i. 30; sails for +Africa, and successfully attacks Varus, ii. 25; his speech to revive the +courage of his men, 32; defeats Varus, 34; giving too easy credit to a +piece of false intelligence, is cut off with his whole army, 42 + +Curiosol[=i]tae, a people of Gaul, inhabiting _Cornoualle,_ in Bretagne + +Cycl[)a]des, islands in the Aegean Sea, _L'Isole dell' Archipelago_ + +Cyprus, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, between Syria and Cilicia, +_Cipro_ + +Cyr[=e]ne, an ancient and once a fine city of Africa, situate over +against Matapan, the most southern cape of Morea, _Cairoan_ + +Cyz[=i]cus, Atraki, formerly one of the largest cities of Asia Minor, in +an island of the same name, in the Black Sea + +Dacia, an ancient country of Scythia, beyond the Danube, containing part +of _Hungary, Transylvania, Walachia,_ and _Moldavia_ + +Dalm[=a]tia, a part of Illyricum, now called _Sclavonia_, lying between +Croatia, Bosnia, Servia, and the Adriatic Gulf + +D[=a]n[)u]b[)i]us, the largest river in Europe, which rises in the Black +Forest, and after flowing through that country, Bavaria, Austria, +Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, receiving in its +course a great number of noted rivers, some say sixty, and 120 minor +streams, falls into the Black or Euxine Sea, in two arms + +Dard[=a]nia, the ancient name of a country in Upper Moesia, which became +afterwards a part of Dacia; _Rascia_, and part of _Servia_ + +Dec[=e]tia, a town in Gaul,_Decise_, on the Loire + +Delphi, a city of Achaia, _Delpho_, al. _Salona_ + +Delta, a very considerable province of Egypt, at the mouth of the Nile, +_Errif_ + +Diablintes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country called _Le +Perche_; al. _Diableres_, in Bretagne; al. _Lintes_ of Brabant; al. +_Lendoul_, over against Britain + +Divit[)i][)a]cus, the Aeduan, his attachment to the Romans and Caesar, +G. i. 19; Caesar, for his sake, pardons his brother Dumnorix, _ibid_.; +he complains to Caesar, in behalf of the rest of the Gauls, of the +cruelty of Ariovistus, 31; marches against the Bellov[)a]ci create a +diversion in favour of Caesar, ii. 10; intercedes for the Bellov[)a]ci, +and obtains their pardon from Caesar, 14; goes to Rome to implore aid of +the senate, but without effect, vi. 12 + +Domitius Ahenobarbus, besieged by Caesar in Corfinium, writes to Pompey +for assistance, C. i. 15; seized by his own troops, who offer to deliver +him up to Caesar, 20; Caesar's generous behaviour towards him, 23; he +enters Marseilles, and is entrusted with the supreme command, 36; is +defeated in a sea fight by Decimus Brutus, 58; escapes with great +difficulty a little before the surrender of Marseilles, ii. 22 + +Domitius Calvinus, sent by Caesar into Macedonia, comes very opportunely +to the relief of Cassius Longinus, C. iii. 34; gains several advantages +over Scipio, 32 + +Drapes, in conjunction with Luterius, seizes Uxellodunum, G. viii. 30; +his camp stormed, and himself made prisoner, 29; he starves himself, 44 + +Druids, priests so called, greatly esteemed in Gaul, and possessed of +many valuable privileges, G. vi. 13 + +D[=u]bis, a river of Burgundy, _Le Doux_ + +Dumn[)a]cus besieges Duracius in Limonum, G. viii. 26; is defeated by +Fabius, 27 + +Dumn[)o]rix, the brother of Divitiacus, his character, G. i. 15; +persuades the noblemen of Gaul not to go with Caesar into Britain, v. 5; +deserts, and is killed for his obstinacy, 6 + +Duracius besieged in Limonum by Dumnacus, general of the Andes, G. viii. +26 + +Durocort[=o]rum, a city of Gaul, _Rheims_ + +D[)y]rrh[)a]ch[)i]um, a city of Macedonia, _Durazzo, Drazzi_; Caesar +endeavours to enclose Pompey within his lines near that place, C. iii. +41 + +Ebur[=o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, inhabiting part of the +country, now the bishopric of _Liege_, and the county of _Namur_. Caesar +takes severe vengeance on them for their perfidy, G. vi. 34, 35 + +Eb[=u]r[)o]v[=i]ces, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Evreux_, in Normandy; they massacre their senate, and join with +Viridovix, G. iii. 17 + +Egypt, see _Aegypt_ + +El[=a]ver, a river of Gaul, the _Allier_ + +Eleut[=e]ti Cadurci, a branch of the Cadurci, in Aquitania. They are +called in many editions Eleutheri Cadurci, but incorrectly, since +Eleutheri is a term of Greek origin, and besides could hardly be applied +to a Gallic tribe like the Eleuteti, who, in place of being free [Greek: +eleutheroi], seem to have been clients of the Arverni; they furnish +troops to the relief of Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Elis, a city of Peloponnesus, _Belvidere_ + +Elus[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Euse_, in Gascony + +Eph[)e]sus, an ancient and celebrated city of Asia Minor, _Efeso_; the +temple of Diana there in danger of being stripped, G. iii. 32 + +Epidaurus, a maritime city of Dalmatia, _Ragusa_ + +Ep[=i]rus, a country in Greece, between Macedonia, Achaia, and the +Ionian Sea, by some now called _Albania inferior_ + +Eporedorix, treacherously revolts from Caesar, G. vii. 54 + +Essui, a people of Gaul; the word seems to be a corruption from Aedui, +C. v. 24 + +Etesian winds detain Caesar at Alexandria, which involves him in a new +war, C. iii. 107 + +Eusubii, corrupted from _Unelli_, or _Lexovii_, properly the people of +_Lisieux_, in Normandy + +Fabius, C., one of Caesar's lieutenants, sent into Spain, with three +legions, C. i. 37; builds two bridges over the Segre for the convenience +of foraging, 40 + +Fanum, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Fano_, C. i. 11 + +Fortune, her wonderful power and influence on matters of war, G. vi. 30 + +Faesulae, _Fiesoli_, an ancient city of Italy, in the duchy of Florence, +anciently one of the twelve considerable cities of Etruria. + +Flavum, anciently reckoned the eastern mouth of the Rhine, now called +the _Ulie_, and is a passage out of the Zuyder Sea into the North Sea + +Gab[)a]li, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Givaudan_. Their chief city was Anduitum, now _Mende_, G. vii. 64; they +join the general confederacy of Vercingetorix, and give hostages to +Luterius, G. vii. 7 + +Gadit[=a]ni, the people of Gades, C. ii. 18 + +Gal[=a]tia, a country in Asia Minor, lying between Cappadocia, Pontus, +and Paphlagonia, now called _Chiangare_ + +Galba Sergius, sent against the Nantuates, Veragrians, and Seduni, G. +iii. 1; the barbarians attack his camp unexpectedly, but are repulsed +with great loss, iii. 6 + +Galli, the Gauls, the people of ancient Gaul, now _France_; their +country preferable to that of the Germans, G. i. 31; their manner of +attacking towns, ii.6; of greater stature than the Romans, 30; quick and +hasty in their resolves, iii.8; forward in undertaking wars, but soon +fainting under misfortunes, 19; their manners, chiefs, druids, +discipline, cavalry, religion, origin, marriages, and funerals, vi.13; +their country geographically described, i.1 + +Gall[=i]a, the ancient and renowned country of Gaul, now _France_. It +was divided by the Romans into-- + +Gallia Cisalpina, Tonsa, or Togata, now _Lombardy_, between the Alps and +the river Rubicon: and-- + +Gallia Transalpina, or Com[=a]ta, comprehending _France, Holland, the +Netherlands_: and farther subdivided into-- + +Gallia Belg[)i]ca, now a part of _Lower Germany_, and the _Netherlands_, +with _Picardy_; divided by Augustus into Belgica and Germania__ and the +latter into Prima and Secunda + +Gallia Celt[)i]ca, now _France_ properly so called, divided by Augustus +into Lugdun[=e]nsis, and Rothomagensis + +Gallia Aquitan[)i]ca, now _Gascony_; divided by Augustus into Prima, +Secunda, and Tertia: and-- + +Gallia Narbonensis, or Bracc[=a]ta, now _Languedoc, Dauphiny_, and +_Provence_ + +Gallograecia, a country of Asia Minor, the same as _Galatia_ + +Gar[=i]tes, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now called _Gavre, +Gavaraan_ + +Garoceli, or Graioc[)e]li, an ancient people of Gaul, about _Mount +Genis_, or _Mount Genevre_ others place them in the _Val de Gorienne_; +they oppose Caesar's passage over the Alps, G. i. 10 + +Garumna, the _Garonne_, one of the largest rivers of France, which, +rising in the Pyrenees, flows through Guienne, forms the vast Bay of +Garonne, and falls, by two mouths, into the British Seas. The Garonne is +navigable as far as _Toulouse_, and communicates with the Mediterranean +by means of the great canal, G. i. 1 + +Garumni, an ancient people of Gaul, in the neighbourhood of the +_Garonne_, G. iii. 27 + +Geld[=u]ra, a fortress of the Ubii, on the Rhine, not improbably the +present village of _Gelb_, on that river eleven German miles from +N[=e]us + +Gen[)a]bum, _Orleans_, an ancient town in Gaul, famous for the massacre +of the Roman citizens committed there by the Carn[=u]tes + +Gen[=e]va, a city of Savoy, now a free republic, upon the borders of +Helvetia, where the Rhone issues from the Lake Lemanus, anciently a city +of the Allobr[)o]ges + +Gen[=u]sus, a river of Macedonia, uncertain + +Gerg[=o]via, the name of two cities in ancient Gaul, the one belonging +to the Boii, the other to the Arverni. The latter was the only Gallic +city which baffled the attacks of Caesar + +Gerg[=o]via of the Averni, Vercingetorix expelled thence by Gobanitio, +G. vii. 4; the Romans attacking it eagerly, are repulsed with great +slaughter, 50 + +Gerg[=o]via of the Boii, besieged in vain by Vercingetorix, G. vii. 9 + +Germania, _Germany_, one of the largest countries of Europe, and the +mother of those nations which, on the fall of the Roman empire, +conquered all the rest. The name appears to be derived from _wer_, war, +and _man_, a man, and signifies the country of warlike men + +Germans, habituated from their infancy to arms, G. i. 36; their manner +of training their cavalry, 48; their superstition 50; defeated by +Caesar, 53; their manners, religion, vi. 23; their huge stature and +strength, G. i. 39 + +G[=e]tae, an ancient people of Scythia, who inhabited betwixt Moesia and +Dacia, on each side of the Danube. Some think their country the same +with the present _Walachia_, or _Moldavia_ + +Getulia, a province in the kingdom of Morocco, in Barbary + +Gomphi, a town in Thessaly, _Gonfi_, refusing to open its gates to +Caesar, is stormed and taken, C. iii. 80 + +Gord[=u]ni, a people of Belgium, the ancient inhabitants of _Ghent_, +according to others of _Courtray_; they join with Ambiorix in his attack +of Cicero's camp, G. v. 39 + +Got[=i]ni, an ancient people of Germany, who were driven out of their +country by Maroboduus Graecia, _Greece,_ a large part of Europe, called +by the Turks _Rom[=e]lia,_ containing many countries, provinces, and +islands, once the nursery of arts, learning, and sciences + +Graioc[)e]li, see _Garoceli_ + +Grudii, the inhabitants about _Louvaine,_ or, according to some, about +_Bruges;_ they join with Ambiorix in his attack of Cicero's camp, G. v. +39 + +Gugerni, a people of ancient Germany, who dwelt on the right banks of +the Rhine, between the Ubii and the Batavi + +Gutt[=o]nes, or Gyth[=o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, inhabiting +about the Vistula + +Haemus, a mountain dividing Moesia and Thrace, _Argentaro_ + +Haliacmon, a river of Macedonia, uncertain; Scipio leaves Favonius with +orders to build a fort on that river, C. iii. 36 + +Har[=u]des, or Har[=u]di, a people of Gallia Celtica, supposed to have +been originally Germans: and by some to have inhabited the country about +_Constance_ Helv[=e]tia, _Switzerland,_ now divided into thirteen +cantons + +Helv[=e]tii, _the Helvetians, or Switzers,_ ancient inhabitants of the +country of _Switzerland;_ the most warlike people of Gaul, G. i. 1; +their design of abandoning their own country, 2; attacked with +considerable loss near the river Sa[^o]ne, 12; vanquished and obliged to +return home by Caesar, 26 + +Helvii, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now possessed +by the _Vivarois;_ Caesar marches into their territories, G. vii. 7 + +Heracl[=e]a, a city of Thrace, on the Euxine Sea, _Pantiro_ + +Heracl[=e]a Sent[)i]ca, a town in Macedonia, _Chesia_ + +Hercynia Silva, _the Hercinian Forest,_ the largest forest of ancient +Germany, being reckoned by Caesar to have been sixty days' journey in +length, and nine in breadth. Many parts of it have been since cut down, +and many are yet remaining; of which, among others, is that called the +_Black Forest;_ its prodigious extent, G. vi. 4 + +Hermand[=u]ri, an ancient people of Germany, particularly in the country +now called _Misnia,_ in Upper Saxony; though they possessed a much +larger tract of land, according to some, all _Bohemia_ + +Hermin[)i]us Mons, a mountain of _Lusitania, Monte Arm[)i]no;_ according +to others, _Monte della Strella_ + +Her[)u]li, an ancient northern people, who came first out of Scandavia, +but afterwards inhabited the country now called _Mecklenburg_ in Lower +Saxony, towards the Baltic + +Hibernia, _Ireland,_ a considerable island to the west of Great Britain, +G. v. 13 + +Hisp[=a]n[)i]a, Spain, one of the most considerable kingdoms of Europe, +divided by the ancients into Tarraconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania. This +name appears to be derived from the Phoenician _Saphan,_ a rabbit, vast +numbers of these animals being found there by the Phoenician colonists + +Ib[=e]rus, a river of Hispania Tarraconensis, the _Ebro,_ C. i. 60 + +Iccius, or Itius Portus, a seaport town of ancient Gaul; _Boulogne,_ or, +according to others, _Calais_ + +Ig[)i]l[)i]um, an island in the Tuscan Sea, _il Giglio, l'Isle du Lys_ + +Ig[)u]v[)i]um, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Gubio;_ it forsakes Pompey, +and submits to Caesar, C. i. 12 + +Illurgavonenses, a people of Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus; +they submit to Caesar, and supply him with corn, C. i. 60 + +Illurgis, a town of Hispania Baetica, _Illera_ + +Induti[)o]m[)a]rus, at the head of a considerable faction among the +Treviri, G. v. 3; endeavouring to make himself master of Labienus's +camp, is repulsed and slain, 53 + +Is[)a]ra, the _Is[`e]re,_ a river of France, which rises in Savoy, and +falls into the Rhone above Valance + +Isauria, a province anciently of Asia Minor, now a part of _Caramania,_ +and subject to the Turks + +Issa (an island of the Adriatic Sea, _Lissa_), revolts from Caesar at +the instigation of Octavius, C. iii. 9 + +Ister, that part of the Danube which passed by Illyricum + +Istr[)i]a, a country now in Italy, under the Venetians, bordering on +Illyricum, so called from the river Ister + +Istr[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Lower Moesia, near the south entrance of the +Danube, _Prostraviza_ + +It[)a]l[)i]a, _Italy,_ one of the most famous countries in Europe, once +the seat of the Roman empire, now under several princes, and free +commonwealths + +It[)a]l[)i]ca, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Servila la Veja;_ according +to others, _Alcala del Rio;_ shuts its gates against Varro, C. ii. 20 + +Itius Portus, Caesar embarks there for Britain, G. v. 5 + +It[=u]raea, a country of Palestine, _Sacar_ + +Jacet[=a]ni, or Lacet[=a]ni, a people of Spain, near the Pyrenean +Mountains; revolt from Afranius and submit to Caesar, C. i. 60 + +Jadert[=i]ni, a people so called from their capital Jadera, a city of +Illyricum, _Zara_ + +Juba, king of Numidia, strongly attached to Pompey, C. ii. 25; advances +with a large army to the relief of Utica, 36; detaches a part of his +troops to sustain Sabura, 40; defeats Cario, ii. 42; his cruelty, ii. 44 + +J[=u]ra, a mountain in Gallia Belgica, which separated the Sequani from +the Helvetians, most of which is now called _Mount St. Claude._ The name +appears to be derived from the Celtic, _jou-rag,_ which signifies the +"domain of God;" the boundary of the Helvetians towards the Sequani, G. +i. 2 + +Labi[=e]nus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, is attacked in his camp, G. v. +58, vi. 6; his stratagem, G. vii. 60; battle with the Gauls, G. vii. 59; +is solicited by Caesar's enemies to join their party, G. viii. 52; built +the town of Cingulum, C. i. 15; swears to follow Pompey, C. iii. 13; his +dispute with Valerius about a peace, C. iii. 19; his cruelty towards +Caesar's followers, C. iii. 71; flatters Pompey, C. iii. 87 + +Lacus B[)e]n[=a]cus, _Lago di Guardo,_ situated in the north of Italy, +between Verona, Brescia, and Trent + +Lacus Lem[)a]nus, the lake upon which Geneva stands, formed by the River +Rhone, between _Switzerland_ to the north, and Savoy to the south, +commonly called the _Lake of Geneva_, G. i. 2, 8 + +Larin[=a]tes, the people of Larinum, a city of Italy, _Larino_; C. i. 23 + +Larissa, the principal city of Thessaly, a province of Macedonia, on the +river Peneo + +L[)a]t[=i]ni, the inhabitants of Latium, an ancient part of Italy, +whence the Latin tongue is so called + +Lat[=o]br[)i]gi, a people of Gallia Belgica, between the Allobroges and +Helvetii, in the country called _Lausanne_; abandon their country, G. i. +5; return, G. i. 28; their number, G. i. 29 + +Lemnos, an island in the Aegean Sea, now called _Stalimane_ + +Lemov[=i]ces, an ancient people of Gaul, _le Limosin_, G. vii. 4 + +Lemov[=i]ces Armorici, the people of _St. Paul de Leon_ + +Lenium, a town in Lusitania, unknown + +Lent[)u]lus Marcellinus, the quaestor, one of Caesar's followers, C. +iii. 62 + +Lentulus and Marcellus, the consuls, Caesar's enemies, G. viii. 50; +leave Rome through fear of Caesar, C. i. 14 + +Lenunc[)u]li, fishing-boats, C. ii. 43 + +Lepontii, a people of the Alps, near the valley of _Leventini_, G. iv. +10 + +Leuci, a people of Gallia Belgica, where now Lorrain is, well skilled in +darting. Their chief city is now called _Toul_, G. i. 40 + +Lev[)a]ci, a people of Brabant, not far from Louvain, whose chief town +is now called _Leew_; dependants on the Nervii, G. v. 39 + +Lex, law of the Aedui respecting the election of magistrates, G. vii. 33 + +Lex, Julian law, C. ii. 14 + +Lex, the Pompeian law respecting bribery, C. iii. 1 + +Lex, two Caelian laws, C. iii. 20, 21 + +Lexovii, an ancient people of Gaul, _Lisieux_ in Normandy, G. iii. 11, +17 + +Liberty of the Gauls, G. iii. 8; the desire of, G. v. 27; the sweetness +of, G. iii. 10; the incitement to, G. vii. 76; C. i. 47 + +Libo, praefect of Pompey's fleet, C. iii. 5; converses with Caesar at +Oricum, C. iii. 16; takes possession of the Island at Brundisium, C. +iii. 23; threatens the partisans of Caesar, C. iii. 24; withdraws from +Brundisium, _ibid_. + +Liburni, an ancient people of Illyricum, inhabiting part of the present +_Croatia_ + +Liger, or Ligeris, the _Loire_; one of the greatest and most celebrated +rivers of France, said to receive one hundred and twelve rivers in its +course; it rises in Velay, and falls into the Bay of Aquitain, below +Nantz, G. iii. 5 + +Lig[)u]ria, a part of ancient Italy, extending from the Apennines to the +Tuscan Sea, containing _Ferrara_, and the territories of _Genoa_ + +Limo, or Lim[=o]num, a city of ancient Gaul, _Poitiers_ + +Ling[)o]nes, a people of Gallia Belgica, inhabiting in and about +_Langres_, in Champagne, G. i. 26, 40 + +Liscus, one of the Aedui, accuses Dumnorix to Caesar, G. i. 16, 17 + +Lissus, an ancient city of Macedonia, _Alessio_ + +Litavicus, one of the Aedui, G. vii. 37; his treachery and flight, G. +vii. 38 + +Lucani, an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the country now called +_Basilicate_ + +Luceria, an ancient city of Italy, _Lucera_ + +Lucretius Vespillo, one of Pompey's followers, C. iii. 7 + +Lucterius or Laterius, one of the Cadurci, vii. 5, 7 + +Lusit[=a]nia, _Portugal_, a kingdom on the west of Spain, formerly a +part of it + +Lusitanians, light-armed troops, C. i. 48 + +Lutetia, _Paris_, an ancient and famous city, now the capital of all +France, on the river _Seine_ + +Lygii, an ancient people of Upper Germany, who inhabited the country now +called _Silesia_, and on the borders of _Poland_ + +M[)a]c[)e]d[=o]nia, a large country, of great antiquity and fame, +containing several provinces, now under the Turks + +Macedonian cavalry among Pompey's troops, C. iii. 4 + +Mae[=o]tis Palus, a vast lake in the north part of Scythia, now called +_Marbianco_, or _Mare della Tana_. It is about six hundred miles in +compass, and the river Tanais disembogues itself into it + +Maget[)o]br[)i]a, or Amagetobria, a city of Gaul, near which Ariovistus +defeated the combined forces of the Gauls. It is supposed to correspond +to the modern _Moigte de Broie_, near the village of _Pontailler_ + +Mandub[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, _l'Anxois_, in Burgundy; their +famine and misery, G. vii. 78 + +Mandubratius, a Briton, G. v. 20 + +Marcellus, Caesar's enemy, G. viii 53 + +Marcius Crispus, is sent for a protection to the inhabitants of Thabena + +Marcomanni, a nation of the Suevi, whom Cluverius places between the +Rhine, the Danube and the Neckar; who settled, however, under +Maroboduus, in _Bohemia_ and _Moravia_. The name Marcomanni signifies +border-men. Germans, G. i. 51 + +Marruc[=i]ni, an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the country now +called _Abruzzo_, C. i. 23; ii. 34 + +Mars, G. vi. 17 + +Marsi, an ancient people of Italy inhabiting the country now called +_Ducato de Marsi_, C. ii. 27 + +Massilia, _Marseilles_, a large and flourishing city of Provence, in +France, on the Mediterranean, said to be very ancient, and, according to +some, built by the Phoenicians, but as Justin will have it, by the +Phocaeans, in the time of Tarquinius, king of Rome + +Massilienses, the inhabitants of Marseilles, C. i. 34-36 + +Matisco, an ancient city of Gaul, _Mascon_, G. vii. 90 + +Matr[)o]na, a river in Gaul, the _Marne_, G. i. 1 + +Mauritania, _Barbary_, an extensive region of Africa, divided into M. +Caesariensis, Tingitana, and Sitofensis + +Mediomatr[=i]ces, a people of Lorrain, on the Moselle, about the city of +_Mentz_, G. iv. 10 + +Mediterranean Sea, the first discovered sea in the world, still very +famous, and much frequented, which breaks in from the Atlantic Ocean, +between Spain and Africa, by the straits of Gibraltar, or Hercules' +Pillar, the _ne plus ultra_ of the ancients + +Meldae, according to some the people of _Meaux_; but more probably +corrupted from _Belgae_ + +Melodunum, an ancient city of Gaul, upon the Seine, above Paris, +_Melun_, G. vii. 58, 60 + +Menapii, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, who inhabited on both +sides of the Rhine. Some take them for the inhabitants of _Cleves_, and +others of _Antwerp, Ghent_, etc., G. ii. 4; iii. 9 + +Menedemus, C. iii. 34 + +Mercurius, G. v. 17 + +Mes[)o]p[)o]t[=a]mia, a large country in the middle of Asia, between the +Tigris and the Euphrates, _Diarbeck_ + +Mess[=a]na, an ancient and celebrated city of Sicily, still known by the +name of _Messina_, C. iii. 101 + +M[)e]taurus, a river of Umbria, now called _Metoro_, in the duchy of +Urbino + +Metios[=e]dum, an ancient city of Gaul, on the Seine, below Paris, +_Corbeil_, G. vii. 61 + +Metr[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Thessaly, between Pharsalus and Gomphi, C. +iii. 11 + +Milo, C. iii. 21 + +Minerva, G. vi. 12 + +Minutius Rufus, C. iii. 7 + +Mitylene, a city of Lesbos, _Metelin_ + +Moesia, a country of Europe, and a province of the ancient Illyricum, +bordering on Pannonia, divided into the Upper, containing _Bosnia_ and +_Servia_, and the Lower, called _Bulgaria_ + +Mona, in Caesar, the Isle of _Man_; in Ptolemy, _Anglesey_, G. v. 13 + +Mor[)i]ni, an ancient people of the Low Countries, who probably +inhabited on the present coast of _Bologne_, on the confines of +_Picardy_ and _Artois_, because Caesar observes that from their country +was the nearest passage to Britain, G. ii. 4 + +Moritasgus, G. v. 54 + +Mosa, the _Maess_, or _Meuse_, a large river of Gallia Belgica, which +falls into the German Ocean below the Briel, G. iv. 10 + +Mosella, the _Moselle_, a river which, running through Lorrain, passes +by Triers and falls unto the Rhine at Coblentz, famous for the vines +growing in the neighbourhood of it + +Mysia, a country of Asia Minor, not far from the Hellespont, divided +Into Major and Minor + +Nabathaei, an ancient people of Arabia, uncertain + +Nann[=e]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country about +_Nantes_, G. iii. 9 + +Nantu[=a]tes, an ancient people of the north part of Savoy, whose +country is now called _Le Chablais_, G. iii. 1 + +Narbo, _Narbonne_, an ancient Roman city in Languedoc, in France, said +to be built a hundred and thirty-eight years before the birth of Christ, +G. iii. 20 + +Narisci, the ancient people of the country now called _Nortgow_, in +Germany, the capital of which is the famous city of Nuremburg + +Nasua, the brother of Cimberius, and commander of the hundred cantons of +the Suevi, who encamped on the banks of the Rhine with the intention of +crossing that river, G. i. 37 + +Naupactus, an ancient and considerable city of Aetolia, now called +_Lepanto_, C. iii. 35 + +Nem[=e]tes, a people of ancient Germany, about the city of Spire, on the +Rhine, G. i. 51 + +Nemetocenna, a town of Belgium, not known for certain; according to +some, _Arras_, G. viii, 47 + +Neocaesarea, the capital of Ponts, on the river Licus, now called +_Tocat_ + +Nervii, an ancient people of _Gallia Belgica_, thought to have dwelt in +the now diocese of _Cambray_. They attacked Caesar on his march, and +fought until they were almost annihilated, G. ii. 17 + +Nessus, or Nestus, a river is Thrace, _Nesto_ Nicaea, a city of +Bithynia, now called _Isnick_, famous for the first general council, +anno 324, against Arianism + +Nit[=o]br[)i]ges, an ancient people of Gaul, whose territory lay on +either side of the Garonne, and corresponded to the modern Agennois, in +the department of Lot-et-Garonne. Their capital was Agrimum, now +_Agen_, G. vii. 7, 31, 46, 75 + +Noreia, a city on the borders of Illyricum, in the province of Styria, +near the modern village of Newmarket, about nine German miles from +Aquileia, G. i. 5 + +N[=o]r[)i]cae Alpes, that part of the Alps which were in, or bordering +upon, Noricum + +N[=o]r[)i]cum, anciently a large country, and now comprehending a great +part of _Austria, Styria, Carinthia_, part of _Tyrol, Bavaria_, etc., +and divided into Noricum Mediterraneum and Ripense. It was first +conquered by the Romans under Tiberius, in the reign of Augustus, and +was celebrated for its mineral treasures, especially iron + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Belgarum, an ancient city of Belgic Gaul, now +called _Noyon_ + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Bitur[)i]gum, _Neuvy_, or _Neufvy_, G. vii. 12 + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Aeduorum, _Nevers_, G. vii. 55 + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Suessionum, _Soissons, al. Noyon_, G. ii. 12 + +N[)o]v[)i]om[=a]gum, _Spire_, an ancient city of Germany, in the now +upper circle of the Rhine, and on that river + +Numantia, a celebrated city of ancient Spain, famous for a gallant +resistance against the Romans, in a siege of fourteen years; _Almasan_ + +Numeius, G. i. 7 + +Num[)i]dae, the inhabitants of, G. ii. 7 + +Numid[)i]a, an ancient and celebrated kingdom of Africa, bordering on +Mauritania; _Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli_, etc. + +N[=y]mphaeum, a promontory of Illyricum, exposed to the south wind, and +distant about three miles from Lissus, _Alessio_, C. iii. 26 + +Oc[)e]lum, a town situated among the Cottian Alps, Usseau in Piedmont, +G. i. 10 + +Octavius, C. iii. 9 + +Octod[=u]rus, a town belonging to the Veragrians, among the Pennine +Alps, now _Martigny_ in the Valois, G. iii. 1 Octog[=e]sa, a city of +Hispania Tarraconensis, _Mequinenza_, C. i. 61 + +Ollovico, G. vii. 31 + +Orch[)o]m[)e]nus, a town in Boeotia, _Orcomeno_, C. iii. 5 5 + +Orcynia, the name given by Greek writers to the Hercynian forest + +Orget[=o]rix, G. i. 2, 3 + +Or[)i]cum, a town in Epirus, _Orco, or Orcha_, C. iii. 11, 12 + +Osc[=e]nses, the people of Osca, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis, now +_Huescar_, C. i. 60 + +Os[=i]sm[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, one of the Gentes Armoricae. +Their country occupied part of Neodron Brittany; capital Vorganium, +afterwards Osismii, and now _Korbez_. In this territory also stood +Brivatas Portus, now _Brest_, G. i. 34 + +Otacilii, C. iii. 28 + +Padua, the _Po_, the largest river in Italy, which rises in Piedmont, +and dividing Lombardy into two parts, falls into the Adriatic Sea, by +many mouths; south of Venice + +Paem[=a]ni, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica; according to some, +those of _Luxemburg_; according to others, the people of _Pemont_, near +the Black Forest, in part of the modern _Lugen_, G. ii. 4 + +P[)a]laeste, a town in Epirus, near Oricurn + +Pann[=o]n[)i]a, a very large country in the ancient division of Europe, +divided into the Upper and Lower, and comprehended betwixt Illyricum, +the Danube, and the mountains Cethi + +P[)a]ris[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now +called the _Isle of France_. Their capital was Lutetia, afterwards +Parisii, now _Paris_, G. vi. 3 + +P[=a]rth[)i]a, a country in Asia, lying between Media, Caramania, and +the Hyreanian Sea + +Parthians at war with Rome, C. iii. 31 + +P[=a]rth[=i]ni, a people of Macedonia; their chief city taken by storm, +C. iii. 41 + +P[=e]l[=i]gni, a people of Italy in Abruzzo, C. i. 15 + +P[)e]l[)o]ponn[=e]sus, the _Morea_, a famous, large, and fruitful +peninsula of Greece, now belonging to the Venetians + +P[=e]l[=u]s[)i]um, an ancient and celebrated city of Egypt, _Belbais_; +Pompey goes to it, C. iii. 103; taken by Mithridates + +P[=e]rg[)a]mus, an ancient and famous city of Mysia, _Pergamo_ + +Per[)i]nthus, a city of Thrace, about a day's journey west of +Constantinople, now in a decaying condition, and called _Heraclea_ + +P[=e]rs[)i]a, one of the largest, most ancient and celebrated kingdoms +of Asia + +P[=e]tra, an ancient city of Macedonia, uncertain + +Petreius, one of Pompey's lieutenants, C. i. 38 + +P[=e]tr[)o]g[)o]r[)i]i, a country in Gaul, east of the mouth of the +Garumna; their chief city was Vesuna, afterwards Petrocorii, now +_Perigueux_, the capital of Perigord + +Pe[=u]c[=i]ni, the inhabitants of the islands of Peuce, in one of the +mouths of the Danube + +Ph[=a]rs[=a]l[)i]a, a part of Thessaly, famous for the battle between +Caesar and Pompey, which decided the fate of the Roman commonwealth + +Pharus, an isle facing the port of Alexandria in ancient Egypt; _Farion_ + +Phasis, a large river in Colchis, now called _Fasso_, which flows into +the Euxine Sea + +Ph[)i]lippi, a city of Macedonia, on the confines of Thrace, _Filippo_ + +Ph[)i]l[=i]pp[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Thrace, near the river Hebrus, +_Filippopoli_ + +Phr[)y]g[)i]a, two countries in Asia Minor, one called Major, the other +Minor + +P[=i]c[=e]num, an ancient district of Italy, lying eastward of Umbria; +_the March of Ancona_; according to others, _Piscara_ + +P[=i]cti, _Picts_, an ancient barbarous northern people, who by +inter-marriages became, in course of time, one nation with the Scots; but +are originally supposed to have come out of Denmark or Scythia, to the +Isles of Orkney, and from thence into Scotland + +P[=i]ct[)o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, along the southern bank of +the Liger, or Loire. Their capital was Limonum, afterwards Pictones, now +_Paitross_, in the department _de la Vienne_, G. iii. 11 + +Pir[=u]stae, an ancient people of Dalmatia, Illyricum, on the confines +of Pannonia. They are the same as the Pyraci of Pliny (H. N. iii. 22), +G. v. i + +P[)i]saurum, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Pisaro_ + +Piso, an Aquitanian, slain, G. iv. 12 + +Placentia, an ancient city of Gallia Cisalpina, near the Po, now the +metropolis of the duchy of _Piacenza_, which name it also bears + +Pleum[)o]si, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, subject to the +Nervians, and inhabiting near _Tournay_ + +Pompey, at first friendly to Caesar, G. vi. 1; subsequently estranged, +G. viii. 53; could not bear an equal his authority, power, and +influence, C. i. 61; sends ambassadors to Caesar, C. i. 8, 10; always +received great respect from Caesar, C. i. 8; Caesar desires to bring him +to an engagement, C. iii. 66; his unfortunate flight, C. iii. 15, 94, +102; his death, C. iii. 6, 7. + +Pomponius, C. iii. 101 + +Pontus Eux[=i]nus, the _Euxine,_ or _Black Sea_, from the Aegean along +the Hellespont, to the Maeotic Lake, between Europe and Asia + +Posth[)u]m[)i][=a]na Castra, an ancient town in Hispania Baetica, now +called _Castro el Rio_ + +Pothinus, king Ptolemy's tutor, C. iii. 108; his death, C. iii. 112 + +Praeciani, an ancient people of Gaul, _Precius_; they surrendered to the +Romans, G. iii. 27 + +Provincia Rom[=a]na, or Romanorum, one of the southern provinces of +France, the first the Romans conquered and brought into the form of a +province, whence it obtained its name; which it still in some degree +retains, being called at this day _Provence_. It extended from the +Pyrenees to the Alps, along the coast. _Provence_ is only part of the +ancient Provincia, which in its full extent included the departments of +Pyr['e]n['e]es-Orientales, l'Arri[`e]ge, Aude[**Note: misprint "Ande" in +the original], Haute Garonne, Tarn, Herault, Gard, Vaucluse, Bouches-du- +Rh[^o]ne, Var, Basses-Alpes, Hautes-Alpes, La Dr[^o]me, l'Is[`e]re, +l'Ain + +Prusa, or Prusas, _Bursa_, a city of Bithynia, at the foot of Olympus, +built by Hannibal + +Ptolemaeius, Caesar interferes between him and Cleopatra, C. iii. 107; +his father's will, C. iii. 108; Caesar takes the royal youth into his +power, C. iii. 109 + +Pt[)o]l[)e]m[=a]is, an ancient city of Africa, _St. Jean d'Acre_ + +Publius Attius Varus, one of Pompey's generals, C. ii. 23 Pyrenaei +Montes, the _Pyrenees_, or _Pyrenean mountains_, one of the largest +chains of mountains in Europe, which divide Spain from France, running +from east to west eighty-five leagues in length. The name is derived +from the _Celtic Pyren_ or _Pyrn_, a high mountain, hence also Brenner, +in the Tyrol + +Ravenna, a very ancient city of Italy, near the coast of the Adriatic +Gulf, which still retains its ancient name. In the decline of the Roman +empire, it was sometimes the seat of the emperors of the West; as it was +likewise of the Visi-Gothic kingdom, C. i. 5 + +Raur[=a]ci, a people of ancient Germany, near the Helvetii, who +inhabited near where _Basle_ in Switzerland now is; they unite with the +Helvetii, and leave home, G. i. 5, 29 + +Rebilus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, a man of great military +experience, C. ii. 34 + +Remi, the people of _Rheims_, a very ancient, fine, and populous city of +France, in the province of Champagne, on the river Vesle; surrender to +Caesar, G. ii. 3; their influence and power with Caesar, G. v. 54; vi. +64; they fall into an ambuscade of the Bellovaci, G. viii. 12 + +Rh[-e][)d]ones, an ancient people of Gaul inhabiting about _Rennes,_ in +Bretagne; they surrender to the Romans, G. ii. 34 + +Rhaetia, the country of the _Grisons,_ on the Alps, near the Hercynian +Forest + +Rhenus, the _Rhine,_ a large and famous river in Germany, which it +formerly divided from Gaul. It springs out of the Rhaetian Alps, in the +western borders of Switzerland, and the northern of the Grisons, from +two springs which unite near Coire, and falls into the Meuse and the +German Ocean, by two mouths, whence Virgil calls it Rhenus bicornis. It +passes through Lacus Brigantinus, or the Lake of Constance, and Lacus +Acronius or the Lake of Zell, and then continues its westerly direction +to Basle (Basiliae). It then bends northward, and separates Germany from +France, and further down Germany from Belgium. At Schenk the Rhine sends +off its left-hand branch, the Vahalis (Waal), by a western course to +join the Mosa or Meuse. The Rhine then flows on a few miles, and again +separates into two branches--the one to the right called the Flevo, or +Felvus, or Flevum--now the Yssel, and the other called the Helium, now +the _Leek_. The latter joins the Mosa above Rotterdam. The Yssel was +first connected with the Rhine by the canal of Drusus. It passed through +the small lake of Flevo before reaching the sea which became expanded +into what is now called the Zuyder Zee by increase of water through the +Yssel from the Rhine. The whole course of the Rhine is nine hundred +miles, of which six hundred and thirty are navigable from Basle to the +sea.--G. iv. 10, 16, 17; vi. 9, etc.; description of it, G. iv. 10 + +Rh[)o]d[)a]nus, the _Rhone_, one of the most celebrated rivers of +France, which rises from a double spring in Mont de la Fourche, a part +of the Alps, on the borders of Switzerland, near the springs of the +Rhine. It passes through the Lacus Lemanus, Lake of Geneva, and flows +with a swift and rapid current in a southern direction into the Sinus +Gallicus, or Gulf of Lyons. Its whole course is about four hundred miles + +Rhod[)o]pe, a famous mountain of Thrace, now called _Valiza_ + +Rh[)o]dus, Rhodes, a celebrated island in the Mediterranean, upon the +coast of Asia Minor, over against Caria + +Rhynd[)a]gus, a river of Mysia in Asia, which falls into the Propontis + +R[)o]ma, _Rome_, once the seat of the Roman empire, and the capital of +the then known world, now the immediate capital of Camagna di Roma only, +on the river Tiber, and the papal seat; generally supposed to have been +built by Romulus, in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, B.C. 753 + +Roscillus and Aegus, brothers belonging to the Allobroges, revolt from +Caesar to Pompey, C. iii. 59 + +Roxol[-a]ni, a people of Scythia Europaea, bordering upon the Alani; +their country, anciently called Roxolonia, is now _Red Russia_ + +R[)u]t[-e]ni, an ancient people of Gaul, to the north-west of the Volcae +Arecomici, occupying the district now called Le Rauergne. Their capital +was Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now Rhodes, G. i. 45; vii. 7, etc. + +S[=a]bis, _the Sambre_, a river of the Low Countries, which rises in +Picardy, and falls into the Meuse at Namur, G. ii. 16, 18; vi. 33 + +Sabura, general of king Juba, C. ii. 38; his stratagem against Curio, C. +ii. 40; his death, C. ii. 95 + +Sadales, the son of king Cotys, brings forces to Pompey, C. iii. 4 + +Salassii, an ancient city of Piedmont, whose chief town was where now +_Aosta_ is situate + +Salluvii, _Sallyes_, a people of Gallia Narbonensis, about where _Aix_ +now is + +Sal[=o]na, an ancient city of Dalmatia, and a Roman colony; the place +where Dioclesian was born, and whither he retreated, after he had +resigned the imperial dignity + +S[=a]lsus, a river of Hispania Baetica, _Rio Salado_, or _Guadajos_ + +S[)a]m[)a]r[:o]br[=i]va, _Amiens_, an ancient city of Gallia Belgica, +enlarged and beautified by the emperor Antoninus Pius, now Amicus, the +chief city of Picardy, on the river Somme; assembly of the, Gauls held +there, G. v. 24 + +S[=a]nt[)o]nes, the ancient inhabitants of _Guienne_, or _Xantoigne_, G. +i. 10 + +S[=a]rd[)i]n[)i]a, a large island in the Mediterranean, which in the +time of the Romans had forty-two cities, it now belongs to the Duke of +Savoy, with the title of king + +S[=a]rm[=a]t[)i]a, a very large northern country, divided into Sarmatia +Asiatica, containing _Tartary, Petigora, Circassia_, and the country of +the _Morduitae_; and Sarmatia Europaea, containing _Russia_, part of +_Poland, Prussia_, and _Lithuania_ + +Savus, the _Save_, a large river which rises in Upper Carniola, and +falls into the Danube at Belgrade + +Scaeva, one of Caesar's centurions, displays remarkable valour, C. iii. +5 3; his shield is pierced in two hundred and thirty places + +Sc[=a]ldis, the _Scheld_, a noted river in the Low Countries, which +rises in Picardy, and washing several of the principal cities of +Flanders and Brabant in its course, falls into the German Ocean by two +mouths, one retaining its own name, and the other called the _Honte_. +Its whole course does not exceed a hundred and twenty miles. G. vi. 33 + +Scandinav[)i]a, anciently a vast northern peninsula, containing what is +yet called _Schonen_, anciently Scania, belonging to _Denmark_; and part +of _Sweden_, _Norway_, and _Lapland_ + +Scipio, his opinion of Pompey and Caesar, C. i. 1, 21; his flight, C. +iii. 37 + +S[)e]d[=u]l[)i]us, general of the Lemovices; his death, G. vii. 38 + +S[=e]d[=u]ni, a people of Gaul, to the south-east of the Lake of Geneva, +occupying the upper part of the Valais. Their chief town was Civitus +Sedunorum, now _Sion_, G. iii. i + +S[=e]d[=u]s[)i]i, an ancient people of Germany, on the borders of +Suabia, G. i. 51 + +S[=e]gni, an ancient German nation, neighbours of the Condrusi, +_Zulpich_ + +S[=e]g[=o]nt[)i][=a]ci, a people of ancient Britain, inhabiting about +Holshot, in Hampshire, G. v. 21 + +Segovia, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Sagovia la Menos_ + +S[)e]g[=u]s[)i][=a]ni, a people of Gallia Celtica, about where _Lionois +Forest_ is now situate + +Sen[)o]nes, an ancient nation of the Celtae, inhabiting the country +about the _Senonois_, in Gaul + +Sequ[)a]na, the _Seine_, one of the principal rivers of France, which +rising in the duchy of Burgundy, not far from a town of the same name, +and running through Paris, and by Rouen, forms at Candebec a great arm +of the sea + +Sequ[)a]ni, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, inhabiting the country +now called the _Franche Comt['e]_, or the _Upper Burgundy_; they bring +the Germans into Gaul, G. vi. 12; lose the chief power, _ibid_. + +Servilius the consul, C. iii. 21 + +S[=e]s[=u]v[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Seez_; +they surrender to the Romans, G. ii. 34 + +Sextus Bibaculus, sick in the camp, G. vi. 38; fights bravely against +the enemy, _ibid_. + +Sextus Caesar, C. ii. 20 + +Sextus, Quintilius Varus, qaestor, C. i. 23; C. ii. 28 + +Sib[=u]z[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country +around the _Adour_; they surrender to the Romans, G. iii. 27 + +Sicil[)i]a, _Sicily_, a large island in the Tyrrhene Sea, at the +south-west point of Italy, formerly called the storehouse of the Roman +empire, it was the first province the Romans possessed out of Italy, +C. i. 30 + +S[)i]c[)o]ris, a river in Catalonia, the _Segre_ + +S[)i]g[)a]mbri, or S[)i]c[)a]mbri, an ancient people of Lower Germany, +between the Maese and the Rhine, where _Cuelderland_ is; though by some +placed on the banks of the Maine, G. iv. 18 + +Silicensis, a river of Hispania Baetica, _Rio de las Algamidas_. Others +think it a corruption from _Singuli_ + +Sinuessa, a city of Campania, not far from the Save, an ancient Roman +colony, now in a ruinous condition; _Rocca di Mondragon['e]_ + +Soldurii, G. iii. 22 + +S[)o]t[)i][=a]tes, or Sontiates, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting +the country about _Aire_; conquered by Caesar Aquillus, G. iii. 20, 21 + +Sp[=a]rta, a city of Peloponnesus, now called _Mucithra_, said to be as +ancient as the days of the patriarch Jacob + +Spolet[)i]um, _Spoleto_, a city of great antiquity, of Umbria, in Italy, +the capital of a duchy of the same name, on the river Tesino, where are +yet some stately ruins of ancient Roman and Gothic edifices + +Statius Marcus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. iii. i 5 + +S[)u][=e]ss[)i][=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, _les Soissanois_; a +kindred tribe with the Remi, G. ii. 3; surrender to Caesar, G. iii. 13 + +Su[=e]vi, an ancient, great, and warlike people of Germany, who +possessed the greatest part of it, from the Rhine to the Elbe, but +afterwards removed from the northern parts, and settled about the +Danube; and some marched into Spain, where they established a kingdom, +the greatest nation in Germany, G. i. 37, 51, 54; hold a levy against +the Romans, G. iv. 19; the Germans say that not even the gods are a +match for them, G. iii. 7; the Ubii pay them tribute, G. iv. 4 + +S[=u]lmo, an ancient city of Italy, _Sulmona_; its inhabitants declare +in favour of Caesar, C. i. 18 + +Sulpicius, one of Caesar's lieutenants, stationed among the Aedui, C. i. +74 + +Supplications decreed in favour of Caesar on several occasions, G. ii. +15; _ibid_. 35; iv. 38 + +Suras, one of the Aeduan nobles, taken prisoner, G. viii. 45 + +Sylla, though a most merciless tyrant, left to the tribunes the right of +giving protection, C. i. 5, 73 + +Syrac[=u]sae, _Saragusa_, once one of the noblest cities of Sicily, said +to have been built by Archias, a Corinthian, about seven hundred years +before Christ. The Romans besieged and took it during the second Punic +war, on which occasion the great Archimedes was killed + +S[=y]rtes, _the Deserts of Barbary_; also two dangerous sandy gulfs in +the Mediterranean, upon the coast of Barbary, in Africa, called the one +Syrtis Magna, now the _Gulf of Sidra_; the other Syrtis Parva, now the +_Gulf of Capes_ + +T[)a]m[)e]sis, the _Thames_, a celebrated and well-known river of Great +Britain; Caesar crosses it, G. v. 18 + +Tan[)a]is, the _Don_, a very large river in Scythia, dividing Asia from +Europe. It rises in the province of Resan, in Russia, and flowing +through Crim-Tartary, runs into the Maeotic Lake, near a city of the +same name, now in ruins + +T[=a]rb[=e]lli, a people of ancient Gaul, near the Pyrenees, inhabiting +about _Ays_ and _Bayonne_, in the country of _Labourd_; they surrender +to Crassus, G. iii. 27 + +Tarcundarius Castor, assists Pompey with three hundred cavalry, C. iii. +4 + +Tarr[)a]c[=i]na, an ancient city of Italy, which still retains the same +name + +T[=a]rr[)a]co, _Tarragona_, a city of Spain, which in ancient time gave +name to that part of it called Hispania Tarraconensis; by some said to +be built by the Scipios, though others say before the Roman conquest, +and that they only enlarged it. It stands on the mouth of the river +Tulcis, now _el Fracoli_, with a small haven on the Mediterranean; its +inhabitants desert to Caesar, C. i. 21, 60 + +Tar[=u]s[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, uncertain; according to +some, _le Teursan_; they surrender to the Romans, G. iii. 13, 23, 27 + +Tasg[=e]t[)i]us, chief of the Carnutes, slain by his countrymen, G. v. +25 + +Taur[=o]is, a fortress of the inhabitants of Massilia + +Taurus, an island in the Adriatic Sea, unknown + +Taurus Mons, the largest mountain in all Asia, extending from the Indian +to the Aegean Seas, called by different names in different countries, +viz., Imaus, Caucasus, Caspius, Cerausius, and in Scripture, Ar[)a]rat. +Herbert says it is fifty English miles over, and 1500 long + +Taximagulus, one of the four kings or princes that reigned over Kent, G. +v. 22 + +Tect[)o]s[)a]ges, a branch of the Volcae, G. vi. 24 + +Tegea, a city of Africa, unknown + +Tenchth[)e]ri, a people of ancient Germany, bordering on the Rhine, near +_Overyssel_; they and the Usip[)e]tes arrive at the banks of the Rhine, +iv. 4; cross that river by a stratagem, _ibid_.; are defeated with great +slaughter, _ibid_. 15 + +Tergeste, a Roman colony, its inhabitants in the north of Italy cut off +by an incursion, G. viii. 24 + +Terni, an ancient Roman colony, on the river Nare, twelve miles from +Spol[=e]tum + +Teutomatus, king of the Nitobriges, G. vii. 31 + +Teut[)o]nes, or Teutoni, an ancient people bordering on the Cimbri, the +common ancient name for all the Germans, whence they yet call themselves +_Teutsche_, and their country _Teutschland_; they are repelled from the +territories of the Belgae, G. ii. 4 + +Thebae, Thebes, a city of Boeotia, in Greece, said to have been built by +Cadmus, destroyed by Alexander the Great, but rebuilt, and now known by +the name of _Stives_; occupied by Kalenus, C. iii. 55 + +Therm[)o]pylae, a famous pass on the great mountain Oeta, leading into +Phocis, in Achaia, now called _Bocca di Lupa_ + +Thessaly, a country of Greece, formerly a great part of Macedonia, now +called _Janna_; in conjunction with Aetolia, sends ambassadors to +Caesar, C. iii. 34; reduced by Caesar, _ibid_. 81 + +Thessalon[=i]ca, a chief city of Macedonia, now called _Salonichi_ + +Thracia, a large country of Europe, eastward from Macedonia, commonly +called _Romania_, bounded by the Euxine and Aegean Seas + +Th[=u]r[=i]i, or T[=u]r[=i]i, an ancient people of Italy, _Torre +Brodogneto_ + +Tigur[=i]nus Pagus, one of the four districts into which the Helvetii +were divided according to Caesar, the ancient inhabitants of the canton +of _Zurich_ in Switzerland, cut to pieces by Caesar, G. i. 12 + +Titus Ampius attempts sacrilege, but is prevented, C. iii. 105 + +Tol[=o]sa, _Thoulouse_, a city of Aquitaine, of great antiquity, the +capital of Languedoc, on the Garonne + +Toxandri, an ancient people of the Low Countries, about _Breda_, and +_Gertruydenburgh_; but according to some, of the diocese of _Liege_ + +Tralles, an ancient city of Lydia in, Asia Minor, _Chara_, C. iii. 105 + +Trebonius, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. i. 36; torn down from the +tribunal, C. iii. 21; shows remarkable industry in repairing the works, +C. ii. 14; and humanity, C. iii. 20 + +Trev[)i]ri, the people of _Treves_, or _Triers_, a very ancient city of +Lower Germany, on the Moselle, said to have been built by Trebetas, the +brother of Ninus. It was made a Roman colony in the time of Augustus, +and became afterwards the most famous city of Gallia Belgica. It was for +some time the seat of the western empire, but it is now only the seat of +the ecclesiastical elector named from it, G. i. 37; surpass the rest of +the Gauls in cavalry, G. ii. 24; solicit the Germans to assist them +against the Romans, G. v. 2, 55; their bravery, G. viii. 25; their +defeat, G. vi. 8, vii. 63 + +Tr[)i]b[)o]ci, or Tr[)i]b[)o]ces, a people of ancient Germany, +inhabiting the country of _Alsace_, G. i. 51 + +Tribunes of the soldiers and centurions desert to Caesar, C. i. 5 + +Tribunes (of the people) flee to Caesar, C. i. 5 + +Trin[)o]bantes, a people of ancient Britain, inhabitants of the counties +of _Middlesex_ and _Hertfordshire_, G. v. 20 + +Troja, _Troy_, a city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, near Mount _Ida_, +destroyed by the Greeks, after a ten years' siege + +Tubero is prevented by Attius Varus from landing on the African coast, +G. i. 31 + +Tulingi, an ancient people of Germany, who inhabited about where now +_Stulingen_ in Switzerland is; border on the Helvetii, G. i. 5 + +Tungri, an ancient people inhabiting about where Tongres, in Liege, now +is + +Tur[=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Tours_ + +Tusc[)i], or Hetrusci, the inhabitants of _Tuscany_, a very large and +considerable region of Italy, anciently called Tyrrh[=e]nia, and Etruria + +Ubii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, who inhabited about where +_Cologne_ and the duchy of _Juliers_ now are. They seek protection from +the Romans against the Suevi, G. iv. 3; tributary to the Suevi, _ibid_.; +declare in favour of Caesar, G. iv. 9, 14 + +Ulcilles Hirrus, one of Pompey's officers, C. i. 15 + +Ulla, or Ulia, a town in Hispania Baetica, in regard to whose situation +geographers are not agreed; some making it _Monte Major_, others +_Vaena_, others _Vilia_ + +Umbria, a large country of Italy, on both sides of the Apennines + +Unelli, an ancient people of Gaul, uncertain, G. ii. 34 + +Urbigenus, one of the cantons of the Helvetii, G. i. 27 + +Usip[)e]tes, an ancient people of Germany, who frequently changed their +habitation + +Usita, a town unknown + +Uxellod[=u]num, a town in Gaul, whose situation is not known; according +to some, _Ussoldun_ besieged and stormed, G. viii. 32 + +Vah[)a]lis, the _Waal_, the middle branch of the Rhine, which, passing +by Nim[)e]guen, falls into the Meuse, above Gorcum, G. iv. 10 + +Valerius Flaccus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. i. 30; his death, C. +iii. 5 3 + +Val[=e]t[)i][)a]cus, the brother of Cotus, G. vii. 32 + +Vangi[)o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, about the city of _Worms_, +G. i. 51 + +V[=a]r[=e]nus, a centurion, his bravery, G. v. 44 + +Varro, one of Pompey's lieutenants, C. i. 38; his feelings towards +Caesar, C. ii. 17; his cohorts driven out by the inhabitants of Carmona, +C. ii. 19; his surrender, C. ii. 20 + +V[=a]rus, the _Var_, a river of Italy, that flows into the Mediterranean +Sea, C. i. 87 + +Varus, one of Pompey's lieutenants, is afraid to oppose Juba. C. ii. 44; +his flight, C. ii. 34 + +Vatinius, one of Caesar's followers, C. iii. 100 + +V[)e]launi, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Velai_ + +Vellaunod[=u]num, a town in Gaul, about which geographers are much +divided; some making it _Auxerre_, others _Chasteau Landon_, others +_Villeneuve_ in Lorraine, others _Veron_. It surrenders, G. vii. 11 + +Velocasses, an ancient people of Normandy, about _Rouen_, G. ii. 4 + +V[)e]n[)e]ti, this name was anciently given as well to the _Venetians_ +as to the people of _Vannes_, in Bretagne, in Gaul, for which last it +stands in Caesar. They were powerful by sea, G. iii. 1; their senate is +put to death by Caesar, G. iii. 16; they are completely defeated, +_ibid_. 15; and surrender, _ibid_. 16 + +Veragri, a people of Gallia Lugdunensls, whose chief town was Aguanum, +now _St. Maurice_, G. iii. 1 + +Verb[)i]g[)e]nus, or Urb[)i]g[)e]nus Pagus, a nation or canton of the +Helvetians, inhabiting the country in the neighbourhood of _Orbe_ + +Vercelli Campi, the _Plains of Vercellae_, famous for a victory the +Romans obtained there over the Cimbri. The city of that name is in +Piedmont on the river Sesia, on the borders of the duchy of Milan + +Vercingetorix, the son of Celtillus, receives the title of king from his +followers, G. vii. 4; his plans, G. vii. 8; is accused of treachery, G. +vii. 20; his acts, G. vii. 8; surrenders to Caesar, G. vii. 82 + +Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, one of the Gallic leaders, G. vii. 76; +taken prisoner, G. vii. 88 + +Vergobr[)e]tus, the name given to the chief magistrate among the Aedui, +G. i. 16 + +V[)e]r[)u]doct[)i]us, one of the Helvetian embassy who request +permission from Caesar to pass through the province, G. i. 7 + +Veromand[)u]i, a people of Gallia Belgica, whose country, now a part of +Picardy, is still called _Vermandois_ + +Ver[=o]na, a city of Lombardy, the capital of a province of the same +name, on the river Adige, said to have been built by the Gauls two +hundred and eighty-two years before Christ. It has yet several remains +of antiquity + +Vertico, one of the Nervii. He was in Cicero's camp when it was attacked +by the Eburones, and prevailed on a slave to carry a letter to Caesar +communicating that information, G. v. 49 + +Vertiscus, general of the Remi, G. viii. 12 + +Vesontio, _Besan[,c]on_, the capital of the Sequani, now the chief city +of Burgundy, G. i. 38 + +Vett[=o]nes, a people of Spain, inhabiting the province of +_Estremadura_, C. i. 38 + +Vibo, a town in Italy, not far from the Sicilian Straits, _Bibona_ + +Vibullius Rufus, one of Pompey's followers, C. i. 15 + +Vienna, a city of Narbonese Gaul, _Vienne in Dauphiny_, G. vii. 9 + +Vindel[)i]ci, an ancient people of Germany, inhabitants of the country +of Vindelicia, otherwise called Raetia secunda + +Viridomarus, a nobleman among the Aedui, G. vii. 38 + +Viridorix, king of the Unelli, G. iii. 17 + +Vist[)u]la, the _Weichsel_, a famous river of Poland, which rises in the +Carpathian mountains, in Upper Silesia, and falls into the Baltic, not +far from Dantzic, by three mouths + +Visurgis, the _Weser_, a river of Lower Germany, which rises in +Franconia, and, among other places of note, passing by Bremen, falls +into the German Ocean, not far from the mouth of the Elbe, between that +and the Ems + +V[)o]c[=a]tes, a people of Gaul, on the confines of the Lapurdenses, G. +iii. 23 + +Vocis, the king of the Norici, G. i. 58 + +V[)o]contii, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Die_, in +Dauphiny, and _Vaison_ in the county of Venisse + +Vog[)e]sus Mons, the mountain of _Vauge_ in Lorrain, or, according to +others, _de Faucilles_, G. iv. 10 + +Volcae Arecom[)i]ci, and Tectosages, an ancient people of Gaul, +inhabiting the _Upper_ and _Lower Languedoc_ + +Volcae, a powerful Gallic tribe, divided into two branches, the +Tectosages and Arecomici, G. vii. 7 + +Volcatius Tullus, one of Caesar's partisans, C. iii. 52 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of "De Bello Gallico" and Other +Commentaries, by Caius Julius Caesar + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10657 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries + +Author: Caius Julius Caesar + +Release Date: January 9, 2004 [EBook #10657] +[Date last updated: January 23, 2006] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DE BELLO GALLICO *** + + + + +Produced by Stan Goodman, Ted Garvin, Carol David and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +Typographical errors in the original have been corrected and noted +using the notation ** . + +Macrons, breves, umlauts etc have been removed from the body of the text +since they were very obtrusive and made reading difficult. However, they +are retained in the Index for reference. + +The convention used for these marks is: +Macron (straight line over letter) [=x] +Umlaut (2 dots over letter) [:x] +Grave accent [`x] +Acute accent ['x] +Circumflex [^x] +Breve (u-shaped symbol over letter) [)x] +Cedilla [,x] +] + + * * * * * + + + + +EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY + +EDITED BY ERNEST RHYS + + +CLASSICAL + + + +CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES + +TRANSLATED BY W. A. MACDEVITT + +WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY + +THOMAS DE QUINCEY + + +THIS IS NO. 702 OF _EVERYMAN'S LIBRARY_. THE PUBLISHERS WILL BE PLEASED +TO SEND FREELY TO ALL APPLICANTS A LIST OF THE PUBLISHED AND PROJECTED +VOLUMES ARRANGED UNDER THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: + + * * * * * + +TRAVEL--SCIENCE--FICTION + +THEOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY + +HISTORY--CLASSICAL + +FOR YOUNG PEOPLE + +ESSAYS--ORATORY + +POETRY & DRAMA + +BIOGRAPHY + +REFERENCE + +ROMANCE + + * * * * * + +THE ORDINARY EDITION IS BOUND IN CLOTH WITH GILT DESIGN AND COLOURED +TOP. THERE IS ALSO A LIBRARY EDITION IN REINFORCED CLOTH + + + + +THE SAGES OF OLD LIVE AGAIN IN US + +GLANVILL + + + + + +"DE BELLO GALLICO" & OTHER COMMENTARIES: +OF CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR + + +FIRST PUBLISHED IN THIS EDITION, 1915 +REPRINTED 1923, 1929 + + + +INTRODUCTION + +BY THOMAS DE QUINCEY + +The character of the First Caesar has perhaps never been worse +appreciated than by him who in one sense described it best; that is, +with most force and eloquence wherever he really _did_ comprehend it. +This was Lucan, who has nowhere exhibited more brilliant rhetoric, nor +wandered more from the truth, than in the contrasted portraits of Caesar +and Pompey. The famous line, _"Nil actum reputans si quid superesset +agendum,"_ is a fine feature of the real character, finely expressed. +But, if it had been Lucan's purpose (as possibly, with a view to +Pompey's benefit, in some respects it was) utterly and extravagantly to +falsify the character of the great Dictator, by no single trait could he +more effectually have fulfilled that purpose, nor in fewer words, than +by this expressive passage, _"Gaudensque viam fecisse ruina."_ Such a +trait would be almost extravagant applied even to Marius, who (though in +many respects a perfect model of Roman grandeur, massy, columnar, +imperturbable, and more perhaps than any one man recorded in History +capable of justifying the bold illustration of that character in Horace, +"_Si fractus illabatur orbis, impavidum ferient ruinae_") had, however, +a ferocity in his character, and a touch of the devil in him, very +rarely united with the same tranquil intrepidity. But, for Caesar, the +all-accomplished statesman, the splendid orator, the man of elegant +habits and polished taste, the patron of the fine arts in a degree +transcending all example of his own or the previous age, and as a man of +general literature so much beyond his contemporaries, except Cicero, +that he looked down even upon the brilliant Sylla as an illiterate +person--to class such a man with the race of furious destroyers exulting +in the desolations they spread is to err not by an individual trait, but +by the whole genus. The Attilas and the Tamerlanes, who rejoice in +avowing themselves the scourges of God, and the special instruments of +his wrath, have no one feature of affinity to the polished and humane +Caesar, and would as little have comprehended his character as he could +have respected theirs. Even Cato, the unworthy hero of Lucan, might have +suggested to him a little more truth in this instance, by a celebrated +remark which he made on the characteristic distinction of Caesar, in +comparison with other revolutionary disturbers; for, said he, whereas +others had attempted the overthrow of the state in a continued paroxysm +of fury, and in a state of mind resembling the lunacy of intoxication, +Caesar, on the contrary, among that whole class of civil disturbers, was +the only one who had come to the task in a temper of sobriety and +moderation _(unum accessisse sobrium ad rempublicam delendam)_.... + +Great as Caesar was by the benefit of his original nature, there can be +no doubt that he, like others, owed something to circumstances; and +perhaps amongst those which were most favourable to the premature +development of great self-dependence we must reckon the early death of +his father. It is, or it is not, according to the nature of men, an +advantage to be orphaned at as early age. Perhaps utter orphanage is +rarely or never such: but to lose a father betimes may, under +appropriate circumstances, profit a strong mind greatly. To Caesar it +was a prodigious benefit that he lost his father when not much more than +fifteen. Perhaps it was an advantage also to his father that he died +thus early. Had he stayed a year longer, he might have seen himself +despised, baffled, and made ridiculous. For where, let us ask, in any +age, was the father capable of adequately sustaining that relation to +the unique Caius Julius--to him, in the appropriate language of +Shakespeare + + "The foremost man of all this world?" + +And, in this fine and Caesarean line, "this world" is to be understood +not of the order of co-existences merely,` but also of the order of +successions; he was the foremost man not only of his contemporaries, but +also, within his own intellectual class, of men generally--of all that +ever should come after him, or should sit on thrones under the +denominations of Czars, Kesars, or Caesars of the Bosphorus and the +Danube; of all in every age that should inherit his supremacy of mind, +or should subject to themselves the generations of ordinary men by +qualities analogous to his. Of this infinite superiority some part must +be ascribed to his early emancipation from paternal control. There are +very many cases in which, simply from considerations of sex, a female +cannot stand forward as the head of a family, or as its suitable +representative. If they are even ladies paramount, and in situations of +command, they are also women. The staff of authority does not annihilate +their sex; and scruples of female delicacy interfere for ever to unnerve +and emasculate in their hands the sceptre however otherwise potent. +Hence we see, in noble families, the merest boys put forward to +represent the family dignity, as fitter supporters of that burden than +their mature mothers. And of Caesar's mother, though little is recorded, +and that little incidentally, this much at least we learn--that, if she +looked down upon him with maternal pride and delight, she looked up to +him with female ambition as the re-edifier of her husband's honours,-- +looked with reverence as to a column of the Roman grandeur and with fear +and feminine anxieties as to one whose aspiring spirit carried him but +too prematurely into the fields of adventurous strife. One slight and +evanescent sketch of the relations which subsisted between Caesar and +his mother, caught from the wrecks of time, is preserved both by +Plutarch and Suetonius. We see in the early dawn the young patrician +standing upon the steps of his patrimonial portico, his mother with her +arms wreathed about his neck, looking up to his noble countenance, +sometimes drawing auguries of hope from features so fitted for command, +sometimes boding an early blight to promises so dangerously magnificent. +That she had something of her son's aspiring character, or that he +presumed so much in a mother of his, we learn from the few words which +survive of their conversation. He addressed to her no language that +could tranquillise her fears. On the contrary, to any but a Roman mother +his valedictory words, taken in connexion with the known determination +of his character, were of a nature to consummate her depression, as they +tended to confirm the very worst of her fears. He was then going to +stand his chance in a popular electioneering contest for an office of +the highest dignity, and to launch himself upon the storms of the Campus +Martius. At that period, besides other and more ordinary dangers, the +bands of gladiators, kept in the pay of the more ambitious or turbulent +amongst the Roman nobles, gave a popular tone of ferocity and of +personal risk to the course of such contests; and, either to forestall +the victory of an antagonist, or to avenge their own defeat, it was not +at all impossible that a body of incensed competitors might intercept +his final triumph by assassination. For this danger, however, he had no +leisure in his thoughts of consolation; the sole danger which _he_ +contemplated, or supposed his mother to contemplate, was the danger of +defeat, and for that he reserved his consolations. He bade her fear +nothing; for that his determination was to return with victory, and with +the ensigns of the dignity he sought, or to return a corpse. + +Early indeed did Caesar's trials commence; and it is probable, that, had +not the death of his father, by throwing him prematurely upon his own +resources, prematurely developed the masculine features of his +character, forcing him whilst yet a boy under the discipline of civil +conflict and the yoke of practical life, even _his_ energies might have +been insufficient to sustain them. His age is not exactly ascertained; +but it is past a doubt that he had not reached his twentieth year when +he had the hardihood to engage in a struggle with Sylla, then Dictator, +and exercising the immoderate powers of that office with the licence and +the severity which History has made so memorable. He had neither any +distinct grounds of hope, nor any eminent example at that time, to +countenance him in this struggle--which yet he pushed on in the most +uncompromising style, and to the utmost verge of defiance. The subject +of the contest gives it a further interest. It was the youthful wife of +the youthful Caesar who stood under the shadow of the great Dictator's +displeasure; not personally, but politically, on account of her +connexions: and her it was, Cornelia, the daughter of a man who had been +four times consul, that Caesar was required to divorce: but he spurned +the haughty mandate, and carried his determination to a triumphant +issue, notwithstanding his life was at stake, and at one time saved only +by shifting his place of concealment every night; and this young lady it +was who afterwards became the mother of his only daughter. Both mother +and daughter, it is remarkable, perished prematurely, and at critical +periods of Caesar's life; for it is probable enough that these +irreparable wounds to Caesar's domestic affections threw him with more +exclusiveness of devotion upon the fascinations of glory and ambition +than might have happened under a happier condition of his private life. +That Caesar should have escaped destruction in this unequal contest with +an enemy then wielding the whole thunders of the state, is somewhat +surprising; and historians have sought their solution of the mystery in +the powerful intercessions of the vestal virgins, and several others of +high rank amongst the connexions of his great house. These may have done +something; but it is due to Sylla, who had a sympathy with everything +truly noble, to suppose him struck with powerful admiration for the +audacity of the young patrician, standing out in such severe solitude +among so many examples of timid concession; and that to this magnanimous +feeling in the Dictator much of the indulgence which he showed may have +been really due. In fact, according to some accounts, it was not Sylla, +but the creatures of Sylla (_adjutores_), who pursued Caesar. We know, +at all events, that Sylla formed a right estimate of Caesar's character, +and that, from the complexion of his conduct in this one instance, he +drew that famous prophecy of his future destiny; bidding his friends +beware of that slipshod boy, "for that in him lay couchant many a +Marius." A grander testimony to the awe which Caesar inspired, or from +one who knew better the qualities of that Cyclopean man by whose scale +he measured the patrician boy, cannot be imagined. + +It is not our intention, or consistent with our plan, to pursue this +great man through the whole circumstances of his romantic career; though +it is certain that many parts of his life require investigation much +keener than has ever been applied to them, and that many might be placed +in a new light. Indeed, the whole of this most momentous section of +ancient history ought to be recomposed with the critical scepticism of a +Niebuhr, and the same comprehensive collation, resting, if possible, on +the felicitous interpretation of authorities. In reality it is the hinge +upon which turned the future destiny of the whole earth, and, having +therefore a common relation to all modern nations whatsoever, should +naturally have been cultivated with the zeal which belongs to a personal +concern. In general, the anecdotes which express most vividly the +grandeur of character in the first Caesar are those which illustrate his +defiance of danger in extremity: the prodigious energy and rapidity of +his decisions and motions in the field (looking to which it was that +Cicero called him [Greek: teras] or portentous revelation); the skill +with which he penetrated the designs of his enemies, and the electric +speed with which he met disasters with remedy and reparation, or, where +that was impossible, with relief; the extraordinary presence of mind +which he showed in turning adverse omens to his own advantage, as when, +upon stumbling in coming on shore (which was esteemed a capital omen of +evil), he transfigured as it were in one instant its whole meaning by +exclaiming, "Thus, and by this contact with the earth, do I take +possession of thee, O Africa!" in that way giving to an accident the +semblance of a symbolic purpose. Equally conspicuous was the grandeur of +fortitude with which he faced the whole extent of a calamity when +palliation could do no good, "non negando, minuendove, sed insuper +amplificando, _ementiendoque_"; as when, upon finding his soldiery +alarmed at the approach of Juba, with forces really great, but +exaggerated by their terrors, he addressed them in a military harangue +to the following effect:--"Know that within a few days the king will +come up with us, bringing with him sixty thousand legionaries, thirty +thousand cavalry, one hundred thousand light troops, besides three +hundred elephants. Such being the case, let me hear no more of +conjectures and opinions, for you have now my warrant for the fact, +whose information is past doubting. Therefore, be satisfied; otherwise, +I will put every man of you on board some crazy old fleet, and whistle +you down the tide--no matter under what winds, no matter towards what +shore." Finally, we might seek for _characteristic_ anecdotes of Caesar +in his unexampled liberalities and contempt of money. + +Upon this last topic it is the just remark of Casaubon that some +instances of Caesar's munificence have been thought apocryphal, or to +rest upon false readings, simply from ignorance of the heroic scale upon +which the Roman splendours of that age proceeded. A forum which Caesar +built out of the products of his last campaign, by way of a present to +the Roman people, cost him--for the ground merely on which it stood-- +nearly eight hundred thousand pounds. To the citizens of Rome he +presented, in one _congiary_, about two guineas and a half a head. To +his army, in one _donation_, upon the termination of the Civil War, he +gave a sum which allowed about two hundred pounds a man to the infantry, +and four hundred to the cavalry. It is true that the legionary troops +were then much reduced by the sword of the enemy, and by the tremendous +hardships of their last campaigns. In this, however, he did perhaps no +more than repay a debt. For it is an instance of military attachment, +beyond all that Wallenstein or any commander, the most beloved amongst +his troops, has ever experienced, that, on the breaking out of the Civil +War, not only did the centurions of every legion severally maintain a +horse soldier, but even the privates volunteered to serve without pay, +and (what might seem impossible) without their daily rations. This was +accomplished by subscriptions amongst themselves, the more opulent +undertaking for the maintenance of the needy. Their disinterested love +for Caesar appeared in another and more difficult illustration: it was a +traditionary anecdote in Rome that the majority of those amongst +Caesar's troops who had the misfortune to fall into the enemy's hands +refused to accept their lives under the condition of serving against +_him_. + +In connexion with this subject of his extraordinary munificence, there +is one aspect of Caesar's life which has suffered much from the +misrepresentations of historians, and that is--the vast pecuniary +embarrassments under which he laboured, until the profits of war had +turned the scale even more prodigiously in his favour. At one time of +his life, when appointed to a foreign office, so numerous and so +clamorous were his creditors that he could not have left Rome on his +public duties had not Crassus come forward with assistance in money, or +by guarantees, to the amount of nearly two hundred thousand pounds. And +at another he was accustomed to amuse himself with computing how much +money it would require to make him worth exactly nothing (_i.e._ simply +to clear him of debts); this, by one account, amounted to upwards of two +millions sterling. Now, the error of historians has been to represent +these debts as the original ground of his ambition and his revolutionary +projects, as though the desperate condition of his private affairs had +suggested a civil war to his calculations as the best or only mode of +redressing it. Such a policy would have resembled the last desperate +resource of an unprincipled gambler, who, on seeing his final game at +chess, and the accumulated stakes depending upon it, all on the brink of +irretrievable sacrifice, dexterously upsets the chess-board, or +extinguishes the lights. But Julius, the one sole patriot of Rome, could +find no advantage to his plans in darkness or in confusion. Honestly +supported, he would have crushed the oligarchies of Rome by crushing in +its lairs that venal and hunger-bitten democracy which made oligarchy +and its machineries resistless. Caesar's debts, far from being +stimulants and exciting causes of his political ambition, stood in an +inverse relation to the ambition; they were its results, and represented +its natural costs, being contracted from first to last in the service of +his political intrigues, for raising and maintaining a powerful body of +partisans, both in Rome and elsewhere. Whosoever indeed will take the +trouble to investigate the progress of Caesar's ambition, from such +materials as even yet remain, may satisfy himself that the scheme of +revolutionizing the Republic, and placing himself at its head, was no +growth of accident or circumstances; above all, that it did not arise +upon any so petty and indirect a suggestion as that of his debts; but +that his debts were in their very first origin purely ministerial to his +wise, indispensable, and patriotic ambition; and that his revolutionary +plans were at all periods of his life a direct and foremost object, but +in no case bottomed upon casual impulses. In this there was not only +patriotism, but in fact the one sole mode of patriotism which could have +prospered, or could have found a field of action. + +Chatter not, sublime reader, commonplaces of scoundrel moralists against +ambition. In some cases ambition is a hopeful virtue; in others (as in +the Rome of our resplendent Julius) ambition was the virtue by which any +other could flourish. It had become evident to everybody that Rome, +under its present constitution, must fall; and the sole question was--by +whom? Even Pompey, not by nature of an aspiring turn, and prompted to +his ambitious course undoubtedly by circumstances and, the friends who +besieged him, was in the habit of saying, "Sylla potuit: ego non +potero?" _Sylla found it possible: shall I find it not so?_ Possible to +do what? To overthrow the political system of the Republic. This had +silently collapsed into an order of things so vicious, growing also so +hopelessly worse, that all honest patriots invoked a purifying +revolution, even though bought at the heavy price of a tyranny, rather +than face the chaos of murderous distractions to which the tide of feuds +and frenzies was violently tending. + +Such a revolution at such a price was not less Pompey's object than +Caesar's. In a case, therefore, where no benefit of choice was allowed +to Rome as respected the thing, but only as respected the person, Caesar +had the same right to enter the arena in the character of combatant as +could belong to any one of his rivals. And that he _did_ enter that +arena constructively, and by secret design, from his very earliest +manhood, may be gathered from this--that he suffered no openings towards +a revolution, provided they had any hope in them, to escape his +participation. It is familiarly known that he was engaged pretty deeply +in the conspiracy of Catiline, and that he incurred considerable risk on +that occasion; but it is less known that he was a party to at least two +other conspiracies. There was even a fourth, meditated by Crassus, which +Caesar so far encouraged as to undertake a journey to Rome from a very +distant quarter merely with a view to such chances as it might offer to +him; but, as it did not, upon examination, seem to him a very promising +scheme, he judged it best to look coldly upon it, or not to embark in it +by any personal co-operation. Upon these and other facts we build our +inference--that the scheme of a revolution was the one great purpose of +Caesar from his first entrance upon public life. Nor does it appear that +he cared much by whom it was undertaken, provided only there seemed to +be any sufficient resources for carrying it through, and for sustaining +the first collision with the regular forces of the existing oligarchies, +taking or _not_ taking the shape of triumvirates. He relied, it seems, +on his own personal superiority for raising him to the head of affairs +eventually, let who would take the nominal lead at first. + +To the same result, it will be found, tended the vast stream of Caesar's +liberalities. From the senator downwards to the lowest _faex Romuli_, he +had a hired body of dependents, both in and out of Rome, equal in +numbers to a nation. In the provinces, and in distant kingdoms, he +pursued the same schemes. Everywhere he had a body of mercenary +partisans; kings even are known to have taken his pay. And it is +remarkable that even in his character of commander-in-chief, where the +number of legions allowed to him for the accomplishment of his Gaulish +mission raised him for a number of years above all fear of coercion or +control, he persevered steadily in the same plan of providing for the +distant day when he might need assistance, not _from_ the state, but +_against_ the state. For, amongst the private anecdotes which came to +light under the researches made into his history after his death, was +this--that, soon after his first entrance upon his government in Gaul, +he had raised, equipped, disciplined, and maintained, from his own +private funds, a legion amounting, possibly, to six or seven thousand +men, who were bound to no sacrament of military obedience to the state, +nor owed fealty to any auspices except those of Caesar. This legion, +from the fashion of their crested helmets, which resembled the heads of +a small aspiring bird, received the popular name of the _Alauda_ (or +Lark) legion. And very singular it was that Cato, or Marcellus, or some +amongst those enemies of Caesar who watched his conduct during the +period of his Gaulish command with the vigilance of rancorous malice, +should not have come to the knowledge of this fact; in which case we may +be sure that it would have been denounced to the Senate. + +Such, then, for its purpose and its uniform motive, was the sagacious +munificence of Caesar. Apart from this motive, and considered in and for +itself, and simply with a reference to the splendid forms which it often +assumed, this munificence would furnish the materials for a volume. The +public entertainments of Caesar, his spectacles and shows, his +naumachiae, and the pomps of his unrivalled triumphs (the closing +triumphs of the Republic), were severally the finest of their kind which +had then been brought forward. Sea-fights were exhibited upon the +grandest scale, according to every known variety of nautical equipment +and mode of conflict, upon a vast lake formed artificially for that +express purpose. Mimic land-fights were conducted, in which all the +circumstances of real war were so faithfully rehearsed that even +elephants "indorsed with towers," twenty on each side, took part in the +combat. Dramas were represented in every known language (_per omnium +linguarum histriones_). And hence (that is, from the conciliatory +feeling thus expressed towards the various tribes of foreigners resident +in Rome) some have derived an explanation of what is else a mysterious +circumstance amongst the ceremonial observances at Caesar's funeral-- +that all people of foreign nations then residing at Rome distinguished +themselves by the conspicuous share which they took in the public +mourning; and that, beyond all other foreigners, the Jews for night +after night kept watch and ward about the Emperor's grave. Never before, +according to traditions which lasted through several generations in +Rome, had there been so vast a conflux of the human race congregated to +any one centre, on any one attraction of business or of pleasure, as to +Rome on occasion of these triumphal spectacles exhibited by Caesar. + +In our days, the greatest occasional gatherings of the human race are in +India, especially at the great fair of the _Hurdwar_ on the Ganges in +northern Hindustan: a confluence of some millions is sometimes seen at +that spot, brought together under the mixed influences of devotion and +commercial business, but very soon dispersed as rapidly as they had been +convoked. Some such spectacle of nations crowding upon nations, and some +such Babylonian confusion of dresses, complexions, languages, and +jargons, was then witnessed at Rome. Accommodations within doors, and +under roofs of houses, or roofs of temples, was altogether impossible. +Myriads encamped along the streets, and along the high-roads, fields, or +gardens. Myriads lay stretched on the ground, without even the slight +protection of tents, in a vast circuit about the city. Multitudes of +men, even senators, and others of the highest rank, were trampled to +death in the crowds. And the whole family of man might seem at that time +to be converged at the bidding of the dead Dictator. But these, or any +other themes connected with the public life of Caesar, we notice only in +those circumstances which have been overlooked, or partially +represented, by historians. Let us now, in conclusion, bring forward, +from the obscurity in which they have hitherto lurked, the anecdotes +which describe the habits of his private life, his tastes, and personal +peculiarities. + +In person, he was tall, fair, gracile, and of limbs distinguished for +their elegant proportions. His eyes were black and piercing. These +circumstances continued to be long remembered, and no doubt were +constantly recalled to the eyes of all persons in the imperial palaces +by pictures, busts, and statues; for we find the same description of his +personal appearance three centuries afterwards in a work of the Emperor +Julian's. He was a most accomplished horseman, and a master +(_peritissimus_) in the use of arms. But, notwithstanding his skill and +horsemanship, it seems that, when he accompanied his army on marches, he +walked oftener than he rode; no doubt, with a view to the benefit of his +example, and to express that sympathy with his soldiers which gained him +their hearts so entirely. On other occasions, when travelling apart from +his army, he seems more frequently to have ridden in a carriage than on +horseback. His purpose, in this preference, must have been with a view +to the transport of luggage. The carriage which he generally used was a +_rheda_, a sort of gig, or rather curricle; for it was a _four_-wheeled +carriage, and adapted (as we find from the imperial regulations for the +public carriages, etc.) to the conveyance of about half a ton. The mere +personal baggage which Caesar carried with him was probably +considerable; for he was a man of elegant habits, and in all parts of +his life sedulously attentive to elegance of personal appearance. The +length of journeys which he accomplished within a given time appears +even to us at this day, and might well therefore appear to his +contemporaries, truly astonishing. A distance of one hundred miles was +no extraordinary day's journey for him in a _rheda_, such as we have +described it. So refined were his habits, and so constant his demand for +the luxurious accommodations of polished life as it then existed in +Rome, that he is said to have carried with him, as indispensable parts +of his personal baggage, the little ivory lozenges, squares and circles +or ovals, with other costly materials, wanted for the tessellated +flooring of his tent. Habits such as these will easily account for his +travelling in a carriage rather than on horseback. + +The courtesy and obliging disposition of Caesar were notorious; and both +were illustrated in some anecdotes which survived for generations in +Rome. Dining on one occasion, as an invited guest, at a table where the +servants had inadvertently, for salad-oil, furnished some sort of coarse +lamp-oil, Caesar would not allow the rest of the company to point out +the mistake to their host, for fear of shocking him too much by exposing +what might have been construed into inhospitality. At another time, +whilst halting at a little _cabaret_, when one of his retinue was +suddenly taken ill, Caesar resigned to his use the sole bed which the +house afforded. Incidents as trifling as these express the urbanity of +Caesar's nature; and hence one is the more surprised to find the +alienation of the Senate charged, in no trifling degree, upon a gross +and most culpable failure in point of courtesy. Caesar, it is alleged-- +but might we presume to call upon antiquity for its authority?-- +neglected to rise from his seat, on their approaching him with an +address of congratulation. It is said, and we can believe it, that he +gave deeper offence by this one defect in a matter of ceremonial +observance than by all his substantial attacks upon their privileges. +What we find it difficult to believe is not that result from that +offence--this is no more than we should all anticipate--not _that_, but +the possibility of the offence itself, from one so little arrogant as +Caesar, and so entirely a man of the world. He was told of the disgust +which he had given; and we are bound to believe his apology, in which he +charged it upon sickness, that would not at the moment allow him to +maintain a standing attitude. Certainly the whole tenor of his life was +not courteous only, but kind, and to his enemies merciful in a degree +which implied so much more magnanimity than men in general could +understand that by many it was put down to the account of weakness. + +Weakness, however, there was none in Caius Caesar; and, that there might +be none, it was fortunate that conspiracy should have cut him off in the +full vigour of his faculties, in the very meridian of his glory, and on +the brink of completing a series of gigantic achievements. Amongst these +are numbered:--a digest of the entire body of laws, even then become +unwieldy and oppressive; the establishment of vast and comprehensive +public libraries, Greek as well as Latin; the chastisement of Dacia +(that needed a cow-hiding for insolence as much as Affghanistan from us +in 1840); the conquest of Parthia; and the cutting a ship canal through +the Isthmus of Corinth. The reformation of the Calendar he had already +accomplished. And of all his projects it may be said that they were +equally patriotic in their purpose and colossal in their proportions. + +As an orator, Caesar's merit was so eminent that, according to the +general belief, had he found time to cultivate this department of civil +exertion, the received supremacy of Cicero would have been made +questionable, or the honour would have been divided. Cicero himself was +of that opinion, and on different occasions applied the epithet +_splendidus_ to Caesar, as though in some exclusive sense, or with some +peculiar emphasis, due to him. His taste was much simpler, chaster, and +less inclined to the _florid_ and Asiatic, than that of Cicero. So far +he would, in that condition of the Roman culture and feeling, have been +less acceptable to the public; but, on the other hand, he would have +compensated this disadvantage by much more of natural and Demosthenic +fervour. + +In literature, the merits of Caesar are familiar to most readers. Under +the modest title of _Commentaries_, he meant to offer the records of his +Gallic and British campaigns, simply as notes, or memoranda, afterwards +to be worked up by regular historians; but, as Cicero observes, their +merit was such in the eyes of the discerning that all judicious writers +shrank from the attempt to alter them. In another instance of his +literary labours he showed a very just sense of true dignity. Rightly +conceiving that everything patriotic was dignified, and that to +illustrate or polish his native language was a service of real and +paramount patriotism, he composed a work on the grammar and orthoepy of +the Latin language. Cicero and himself were the only Romans of +distinction in that age who applied themselves with true patriotism to +the task of purifying and ennobling their mother tongue. Both were aware +of a transcendent value in the Grecian literature as it then stood; but +that splendour did not depress their hopes of raising their own to +something of the same level. As respected the natural wealth of the two +languages, it was the private opinion of Cicero that the Latin had the +advantage; and, if Caesar did not accompany him to that length--which, +perhaps, under some limitations he ought to have done--he yet felt that +it was but the more necessary to draw forth any special or exceptional +advantage which it really had. + +Was Caesar, upon the whole, the greatest of men? We restrict the +question, of course, to the classes of men great in _action_: great by +the extent of their influence over their social contemporaries; great by +throwing open avenues to extended powers that previously had been +closed; great by making obstacles once vast to become trivial, or prizes +that once were trivial to be glorified by expansion. I (said Augustus +Caesar) found Rome built of brick; but I left it built of marble. Well, +my man, we reply, for a wondrously little chap, you did what in +Westmoreland they call a good _darroch_ (day's work); and, if _navvies_ +had been wanted in those days, you should have had our vote to a +certainty. But Caius Julius, even under such a limitation of the +comparison, did a thing as much transcending this as it was greater to +project Rome across the Alps and the Pyrenees,--expanding the grand +Republic into crowning provinces of 1. France (_Gallia_), 2. Belgium, 3. +Holland (_Batavia_), 4. England (_Britannia_), 5. Savoy (_Allobroges_), +6. Switzerland (_Helvetia_), 7. Spain (_Hispania_),--than to decorate a +street or to found an amphitheatre. Dr. Beattie once observed that, if +that question as to the greatest man in action upon the rolls of History +were left to be collected from the suffrages already expressed in books +and scattered throughout the literature of all nations, the scale would +be found to have turned prodigiously in Caesar's favour as against any +single competitor; and there is no doubt whatsoever that even amongst +his own countrymen, and his own contemporaries, the same verdict would +have been returned, had it been collected upon the famous principle of +Themistocles, that he should be reputed the first whom the greatest +number of rival voices had pronounced to be the second. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +_Works_: Latin folio, Rome, 1469; Venice, 1471; Florence, 1514; London, +1585. De Bello Gallico, Esslingen (?), 1473. Translations by John +Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester (John Rastell), of Julius Caesar's +Commentaries-"newly translated into Englyshe ... as much as concerneth +thys realme of England"--1530 folio; by Arthur Goldinge, The Eyght +Bookes of C. Julius Caesar, London, 1563, 1565, 1578, 1590; by Chapman, +London, 1604 folio; by Clem. Edmonds, London, 1609; the same, with +Hirtius, 1655, 1670, 1695 folio with commendatory verses by Camden, +Daniel, and Ben Johnson (_sic_). Works: Translated by W. Duncan, 1753, +1755; by M. Bladen, 8th ed., 1770; MacDevitt, Bohn's Library, 1848. De +Bello Gallico, translated by R. Mongan, Dublin, 1850; by J.B. Owgan and +C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated +by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of +Gaul, 1911). Caesar's Gallic War, translated by Rev. F.P. Long, Oxford, +1911; Books IV. and V. translated by C.H. Prichard, Cambridge, 1912. For +Latin text of De Bello Gallico see Bell's Illustrated Classical Series; +Dent's Temple Series of Classical Texts, 1902; Macmillan and Co., 1905; +and Blackie's Latin Texts, 1905-7. + + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS + + +THE WAR IN GAUL + +THE CIVIL WAR + + + + + +THE COMMENTARIES OF +CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR + + +THE WAR IN GAUL + +BOOK I + +I.--All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae +inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are +called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other +in language, customs and laws. The river Garonne separates the Gauls +from the Aquitani; the Marne and the Seine separate them from the +Belgae. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are +farthest from the civilisation and refinement of [our] Province, and +merchants least frequently resort to them and import those things which +tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germans, +who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; +for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in +valour, as they contend with the Germans in almost daily battles, when +they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage +war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that +the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhone: it is bounded +by the river Garonne, the ocean, and the territories of the Belgae: it +borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the +river Rhine, and stretches towards the north. The Belgae rise from the +extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; +and look towards the north and the rising sun. Aquitania extends from +the river Garonne to the Pyrenaean mountains and to that part of the +ocean which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun and +the north star. + +II.--Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the most distinguished and +wealthy. He, when Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso were consuls, incited +by lust of sovereignty, formed a conspiracy among the nobility, and +persuaded the people to go forth from their territories with all their +possessions, [saying] that it would be very easy, since they excelled +all in valour, to acquire the supremacy of the whole of Gaul. To this he +the more easily persuaded them, because the Helvetii are confined on +every side by the nature of their situation; on one side by the Rhine, a +very broad and deep river, which separates the Helvetian territory from +the Germans; on a second side by the Jura, a very high mountain which is +[situated] between the Sequani and the Helvetii; on a third by the Lake +of Geneva, and by the river Rhone, which separates our Province from the +Helvetii. From these circumstances it resulted that they could range +less widely, and could less easily make war upon their neighbours; for +which reason men fond of war [as they were] were affected with great +regret. They thought, that considering the extent of their population, +and their renown for warfare and bravery, they had but narrow limits, +although they extended in length 240, and in breadth 180 [Roman] miles. + +III.--Induced by these considerations, and influenced by the authority +of Orgetorix, they determined to provide such things as were necessary +for their expedition--to buy up as great a number as possible of beasts +of burden and waggons--to make their sowings as large as possible, so +that on their march plenty of corn might be in store--and to establish +peace and friendship with the neighbouring states. They reckoned that a +term of two years would be sufficient for them to execute their designs; +they fix by decree their departure for the third year. Orgetorix is +chosen to complete these arrangements. He took upon himself the office +of ambassador to the states: on this journey he persuades Casticus, the +son of Catamantaledes (one of the Sequani, whose father had possessed +the sovereignty among the people for many years, and had been styled +"_friend_" by the senate of the Roman people), to seize upon the +sovereignty in his own state, which his father had held before him, and +he likewise persuades Dumnorix, an Aeduan, the brother of Divitiacus, +who at that time possessed the chief authority in the state, and was +exceedingly beloved by the people, to attempt the same, and gives him +his daughter in marriage. He proves to them that to accomplish their +attempts was a thing very easy to be done, because he himself would +obtain the government of his own state; that there was no doubt that the +Helvetii were the most powerful of the whole of Gaul; he assures them +that he will, with his own forces and his own army, acquire the +sovereignty for them. Incited by this speech, they give a pledge and +oath to one another, and hope that, when they have seized the +sovereignty, they will, by means of the three most powerful and valiant +nations, be enabled to obtain possession of the whole of Gaul. + +IV.--When this scheme was disclosed to the Helvetii by informers, they, +according to their custom, compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in +chains; it was the law that the penalty of being burned by fire should +await him if condemned. On the day appointed for the pleading of his +cause, Orgetorix drew together from all quarters to the court all his +vassals to the number of ten thousand persons; and led together to the +same place, and all his dependants and debtor-bondsmen, of whom he had a +great number; by means of these he rescued himself from [the necessity +of] pleading his cause. While the state, incensed at this act, was +endeavouring to assert its right by arms, and the magistrates were +mustering a large body of men from the country, Orgetorix died; and +there is not wanting a suspicion, as the Helvetii think, of his having +committed suicide. + +V.--After his death, the Helvetii nevertheless attempt to do that which +they had resolved on, namely, to go forth from their territories. When +they thought that they were at length prepared for this undertaking, +they set fire to all their towns, in number about twelve--to their +villages about four hundred--and to the private dwellings that remained; +they burn up all the corn, except what they intend to carry with them; +that after destroying the hope of a return home, they might be the more +ready for undergoing all dangers. They order every one to carry forth +from home for himself provisions for three months, ready ground. They +persuade the Rauraci, and the Tulingi, and the Latobrigi, their +neighbours, to adopt the same plan, and after burning down their towns +and villages, to set out with them: and they admit to their party and +unite to themselves as confederates the Boii, who had dwelt on the other +side of the Rhine, and had crossed over into the Norican territory, and +assaulted Noreia. + +VI.--There were in all two routes by which they could go forth from +their country--one through the Sequani, narrow and difficult, between +Mount Jura and the river Rhone (by which scarcely one waggon at a time +could be led; there was, moreover, a very high mountain overhanging, so +that a very few might easily intercept them); the other, through our +Province, much easier and freer from obstacles, because the Rhone flows +between the boundaries of the Helvetii and those of the Allobroges, who +had lately been subdued, and is in some places crossed by a ford. The +furthest town of the Allobroges, and the nearest to the territories of +the Helvetii, is Geneva. From this town a bridge extends to the +Helvetii. They thought that they should either persuade the Allobroges, +because they did not seem as yet well-affected towards the Roman people, +or compel them by force to allow them to pass through their territories. +Having provided everything for the expedition, they appoint a day on +which they should all meet on the bank of the Rhone. This day was the +fifth before the kalends of April [_i.e._ the 28th of March], in the +consulship of Lucius Piso and Aulus Gabinius [B.C. 58]. + +VII.--When it was reported to Caesar that they were attempting to make +their route through our Province, he hastens to set out from the city, +and, by as great marches as he can, proceeds to Further Gaul, and +arrives at Geneva. He orders the whole Province [to furnish] as great a +number of soldiers as possible, as there was in all only one legion in +Further Gaul: he orders the bridge at Geneva to be broken down. When the +Helvetii are apprised of his arrival, they send to him, as ambassadors, +the most illustrious men of their state (in which embassy Numeius and +Verudoctius held the chief place), to say "that it was their intention +to march through the Province without doing any harm, because they had" +[according to their own representations] "no other route:--that they +requested they might be allowed to do so with his consent." Caesar, +inasmuch as he kept in remembrance that Lucius Cassius, the consul, had +been slain, and his army routed and made to pass under the yoke by the +Helvetii, did not think that [their request] ought to be granted; nor +was he of opinion that men of hostile disposition, if an opportunity of +marching through the Province were given them, would abstain from +outrage and mischief. Yet, in order that a period might intervene, until +the soldiers whom he had ordered [to be furnished] should assemble, he +replied to the ambassadors, that he would take time to deliberate; if +they wanted anything, they might return on the day before the ides of +April [on April 12th]. + +VIII.--Meanwhile, with the legion which he had with him and the soldiers +who had assembled from the Province, he carries along for nineteen +[Roman, not quite eighteen English] miles a wall, to the height of +sixteen feet, and a trench, from the lake of Geneva, which flows into +the river Rhone, to Mount Jura, which separates the territories of the +Sequani from those of the Helvetii. When that work was finished, he +distributes garrisons, and closely fortifies redoubts, in order that he +may the more easily intercept them, if they should attempt to cross over +against his will. When the day which he had appointed with the +ambassadors came, and they returned to him, he says that he cannot, +consistently with the custom and precedent of the Roman people, grant +any one a passage through the Province; and he gives them to understand +that, if they should attempt to use violence, he would oppose them. The +Helvetii, disappointed in this hope, tried if they could force a passage +(some by means of a bridge of boats and numerous rafts constructed for +the purpose; others, by the fords of the Rhone, where the depth of the +river was least, sometimes by day, but more frequently by night), but +being kept at bay by the strength of our works, and by the concourse of +the soldiers, and by the missiles, they desisted from this attempt. + +IX.--There was left one way, [namely] through the Sequani, by which, on +account of its narrowness, they could not pass without the consent of +the Sequani. As they could not of themselves prevail on them, they send +ambassadors to Dumnorix the Aeduan, that through his intercession they +might obtain their request from the Sequani. Dumnorix, by his popularity +and liberality, had great influence among the Sequani, and was friendly +to the Helvetii, because out of that state he had married the daughter +of Orgetorix; and, incited by lust of sovereignty, was anxious for a +revolution, and wished to have as many states as possible attached to +him by his kindness towards them. He, therefore, undertakes the affair, +and prevails upon the Sequani to allow the Helvetii to march through +their territories, and arranges that they should give hostages to each +other--the Sequani not to obstruct the Helvetii in their march--the +Helvetii, to pass without mischief and outrage. + +X.--It-is again told Caesar that the Helvetii intend to march through +the country of the Sequani and the Aedui into the territories of the +Santones, which are not far distant from those boundaries of the +Tolosates, which [viz. Tolosa, Toulouse] is a state in the Province. If +this took place, he saw that it would be attended with great danger to +the Province to have warlike men, enemies of the Roman people, bordering +upon an open and very fertile tract of country. For these reasons he +appointed Titus Labienus, his lieutenant, to the command of the +fortification which he had made. He himself proceeds to Italy by forced +marches, and there levies two legions, and leads out from winter-quarters +three which were wintering around Aquileia, and with these five +legions marches rapidly by the nearest route across the Alps into +Further Gaul. Here the Centrones and the Graioceli and the Caturiges, +having taken possession of the higher parts, attempt to obstruct the +army in their march. After having routed these in several battles, he +arrives in the territories of the Vocontii in the Further Province on +the seventh day from Ocelum, which is the most remote town of the Hither +Province; thence he leads his army into the country of the Allobroges, +and from the Allobroges to the Segusiani. These people are the first +beyond the Province on the opposite side of the Rhone. + +XI.--The Helvetii had by this time led their forces over through the +narrow defile and the territories of the Sequani, and had arrived at the +territories of the Aedui, and were ravaging their lands. The Aedui, as +they could not defend themselves and their possessions against them, +send ambassadors to Caesar to ask assistance, [pleading] that they had +at all times so well deserved of the Roman people, that their fields +ought not to have been laid waste--their children carried off into +slavery--their towns stormed, almost within sight of our army. At the +same time the Ambarri, the friends and kinsmen of the Aedui, apprise +Caesar that it was not easy for them, now that their fields had been +devastated, to ward off the violence of the enemy from their towns: the +Allobroges likewise, who had villages and possessions on the other side +of the Rhone, betake themselves in flight to Caesar and assure him that +they had nothing remaining, except the soil of their land. Caesar, +induced by these circumstances, decides that he ought not to wait until +the Helvetii, after destroying all the property of his allies, should +arrive among the Santones. + +XII.--There is a river [called] the Saone, which flows through the +territories of the Aedui and Sequani into the Rhone with such incredible +slowness, that it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction it +flows. This the Helvetii were crossing by rafts and boats joined +together. When Caesar was informed by spies that the Helvetii had +already conveyed three parts of their forces across that river, but that +the fourth part was left behind on this side of the Saone, he set out +from the camp with three legions during the third watch, and came up +with that division which had not yet crossed the river. Attacking them, +encumbered with baggage, and not expecting him, he cut to pieces a great +part of them; the rest betook themselves to flight, and concealed +themselves in the nearest woods. That canton [which was cut down] was +called the Tigurine; for the whole Helvetian state is divided into four +cantons. This single canton having left their country, within the +recollection of our fathers, had slain Lucius Cassius the consul, and +had made his army pass under the yoke [B.C. 107]. Thus, whether by +chance, or by the design of the immortal gods, that part of the +Helvetian state which had brought a signal calamity upon the Roman +people was the first to pay the penalty. In this Caesar avenged not only +the public, but also his own personal wrongs, because the Tigurini had +slain Lucius Piso the lieutenant [of Cassius], the grandfather of Lucius +Calpurnius Piso, his [Caesar's] father-in-law, in the same battle as +Cassius himself. + +XIII.--This battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the +remaining forces of the Helvetii, he procures a bridge to be made across +the Saone, and thus leads his army over. The Helvetii, confused by his +sudden arrival, when they found that he had effected in one day what +they themselves had with the utmost difficulty accomplished in twenty, +namely, the crossing of the river, send ambassadors to him; at the head +of which embassy was Divico, who had been commander of the Helvetii in +the war against Cassius. He thus treats with Caesar:--that, "if the +Roman people would make peace with the Helvetii they would go to that +part and there remain, where Caesar might appoint and desire them to be; +but if he should persist in persecuting them with war, that he ought to +remember both the ancient disgrace of the Roman people and the +characteristic valour of the Helvetii. As to his having attacked one +canton by surprise, [at a time] when those who had crossed the river +could not bring assistance to their friends, that he ought not on that +account to ascribe very much to his own valour, or despise them; that +they had so learned from their sires and ancestors, as to rely more on +valour than on artifice or stratagem. Wherefore let him not bring it to +pass that the place, where they were standing, should acquire a name, +from the disaster of the Roman people and the destruction of their army +or transmit the remembrance [of such an event to posterity]." + +XIV.--To these words Caesar thus replied:--that "on that very account he +felt less hesitation, because he kept in remembrance those circumstances +which the Helvetian ambassadors had mentioned, and that he felt the more +indignant at them, in proportion as they had happened undeservedly to +the Roman people: for if they had been conscious of having done any +wrong it would not have been difficult to be on their guard, but for +that very reason had they been deceived, because neither were they aware +that any offence had been given by them, on account of which they should +be afraid, nor did they think that they ought to be afraid without +cause. But even if he were willing to forget their former outrage, could +he also lay aside the remembrance of the late wrongs, in that they had +against his will attempted a route through the Province by force, in +that they had molested the Aedui, the Ambarri, and the Allobroges? That +as to their so insolently boasting of their victory, and as to their +being astonished that they had so long committed their outrages with +impunity, [both these things] tended to the same point; for the immortal +gods are wont to allow those persons whom they wish to punish for their +guilt sometimes a greater prosperity and longer impunity, in order that +they may suffer the more severely from a reverse of circumstances. +Although these things are so, yet, if hostages were to be given him by +them in order that he may be assured they will do what they promise, and +provided they will give satisfaction to the Aedui for the outrages which +they had committed against them and their allies, and likewise to the +Allobroges, he [Caesar] will make peace with them." Divico replied, that +"the Helvetii had been so trained by their ancestors that they were +accustomed to receive, not to give, hostages; of that fact the Roman +people were witness." Having given this reply, he withdrew. + +XV.--On the following day they move their camp from that place; Caesar +does the same, and sends forward all his cavalry, to the number of four +thousand (which he had drawn together from all parts of the Province and +from the Aedui and their allies), to observe towards what parts the +enemy are directing their march. These, having too eagerly pursued the +enemy's rear, come to a battle with the cavalry of the Helvetii in a +disadvantageous place, and a few of our men fall. The Helvetii, elated +with this battle because they had with five hundred horse repulsed so +large a body of horse, began to face us more boldly, sometimes too from +their rear to provoke our men by an attack. Caesar [however] restrained +his men from battle, deeming it sufficient for the present to prevent +the enemy from rapine, forage, and depredation. They marched for about +fifteen days in such a manner that there was not more than five or six +miles between the enemy's rear and our van. + +XVI.--Meanwhile, Caesar kept daily importuning the Aedui for the corn +which they had promised in the name of their state; for, in consequence +of the coldness (Gaul being, as before said, situated towards the +north), not only was the corn in the fields not ripe, but there was not +in store a sufficiently large quantity even of fodder: besides he was +unable to use the corn which he had conveyed in ships up the river +Saone, because the Helvetii, from whom he was unwilling to retire, had +diverted their march from the Saone. The Aedui kept deferring from day +to day, and saying that it was being "collected--brought in--on the +road." When he saw that he was put off too long, and that the day was +close at hand on which he ought to serve out the corn to his soldiers,-- +having called together their chiefs, of whom he had a great number in +his camp, among them Divitiacus, and Liscus who was invested with the +chief magistracy (whom the Aedui style the Vergobretus, and who is +elected annually, and has power of life and death over his countrymen), +he severely reprimands them, because he is not assisted by them on so +urgent an occasion, when the enemy were so close at hand, and when +[corn] could neither be bought nor taken from the fields, particularly +as, in a great measure urged by their prayers, he had undertaken the +war; much more bitterly, therefore, does he complain of his being +forsaken. + +XVII.--Then at length Liscus, moved by Caesar's speech, discloses what +he had hitherto kept secret:--that "there are some whose influence with +the people is very great, who, though private men, have more power than +the magistrates themselves: that these by seditious and violent language +are deterring the populace from contributing the corn which they ought +to supply; [by telling them] that, if they cannot any longer retain the +supremacy of Gaul, it were better to submit to the government of Gauls +than of Romans, nor ought they to doubt that, if the Romans should +overpower the Helvetii, they would wrest their freedom from the Aedui +together with the remainder of Gaul. By these very men [said he] are our +plans, and whatever is done in the camp, disclosed to the enemy; that +they could not be restrained by _him_: nay more, he was well aware that, +though compelled by necessity, he had disclosed the matter to Caesar, at +how great a risk he had done it; and for that reason, he had been silent +as long as he could." + +XVIII.--Caesar perceived that, by this speech of Liscus, Dumnorix, the +brother of Divitiacus, was indicated; but, as he was unwilling that +these matters should be discussed while so many were present, he +speedily dismisses the council, but detains Liscus: he inquires from him +when alone, about those things which he had said in the meeting. He +[Liscus] speaks more unreservedly and boldly. He [Caesar] makes +inquiries on the same points privately of others, and discovers that it +is all true; that "Dumnorix is the person, a man of the highest daring, +in great favour with the people on account of his liberality, a man +eager for a revolution: that for a great many years he has been in the +habit of contracting for the customs and all the other taxes of the +Aedui at a small cost, because when _he_ bids, no one dares to bid +against him. By these means he has both increased his own private +property and amassed great means for giving largesses; that he maintains +constantly at his own expense and keeps about his own person a great +number of cavalry, and that not only at home, but even among the +neighbouring states, he has great influence, and for the sake of +strengthening this influence has given his mother in marriage among the +Bituriges to a man the most noble and most influential there; that he +has himself taken a wife from among the Helvetii, and has given his +sister by the mother's side and his female relations in marriage into +other states; that he favours and wishes well to the Helvetii on account +of this connection; and that he hates Caesar and the Romans, on his own +account, because by their arrival his power was weakened, and his +brother, Divitiacus, restored to his former position of influence and +dignity: that, if anything should happen to the Romans, he entertains +the highest hope of gaining the sovereignty by means of the Helvetii, +but that under the government of the Roman people he despairs not only +of royalty but even of that influence which he already has." Caesar +discovered too, on inquiring into the unsuccessful cavalry engagement +which had taken place a few days before, that the commencement of that +flight had been made by Dumnorix and his cavalry (for Dumnorix was in +command of the cavalry which the Aedui had sent for aid to Caesar); that +by their flight the rest of the cavalry was dismayed. + +XIX.--After learning these circumstances, since to these suspicions the +most unequivocal facts were added, viz., that he had led the Helvetii +through the territories of the Sequani; that he had provided that +hostages should be mutually given; that he had done all these things, +not only without any orders of his [Caesar's] and of his own state's, +but even without their [the Aedui] knowing anything of it themselves; +that he [Dumnorix] was reprimanded by the [chief] magistrate of the +Aedui; he [Caesar] considered that there was sufficient reason why he +should either punish him himself, or order the state to do so. One thing +[however] stood in the way of all this--that he had learned by +experience his brother Divitiacus's very high regard for the Roman +people, his great affection towards him, his distinguished faithfulness, +justice, and moderation; for he was afraid lest by the punishment of +this man, he should hurt the feelings of Divitiacus. Therefore, before +he attempted anything, he orders Divitiacus to be summoned to him, and +when the ordinary interpreters had been withdrawn, converses with him +through Caius Valerius Procillus, chief of the province of Gaul, an +intimate friend of his, in whom he reposed the highest confidence in +everything; at the same time he reminds him of what was said about +Dumnorix in the council of the Gauls, when he himself was present, and +shows what each had said of him privately in his [Caesar's] own +presence; he begs and exhorts him, that, without offence to his +feelings, he may either himself pass judgment on him [Dumnorix] after +trying the case, or else order the [Aeduan] state to do so. + +XX.-Divitiacus, embracing Caesar, begins to implore him, with many +tears, that "he would not pass any very severe sentence upon his +brother; saying, that he knows that those [charges] are true, and that +nobody suffered more pain on that account than he himself did; for when +he himself could effect a very great deal by his influence at home and +in the rest of Gaul, and he [Dumnorix] very little on account of his +youth, the latter had become powerful through his means, which power and +strength he used not only to the lessening of his [Divitiacus] +popularity, but almost to his ruin; that he, however, was influenced +both by fraternal affection and by public opinion. But if anything very +severe from Caesar should befall him [Dumnorix], no one would think that +it had been done without his consent, since he himself held such a place +in Caesar's friendship; from which circumstance it would arise that the +affections of the whole of Gaul would be estranged from him." As he was +with tears begging these things of Caesar in many words, Caesar takes +his right hand, and, comforting him, begs him to make an end of +entreating, and assures him that his regard for him is so great that he +forgives both the injuries of the republic and his private wrongs, at +his desire and prayers. He summons Dumnorix to him; he brings in his +brother; he points out what he censures in him; he lays before him what +he of himself perceives, and what the state complains of; he warns him +for the future to avoid all grounds of suspicion; he says that he +pardons the past, for the sake of his brother, Divitiacus. He sets spies +over Dumnorix that he may be able to know what he does, and with whom he +communicates. + +XXI.--Being on the same day informed by his scouts that the enemy had +encamped at the foot of a mountain eight miles from his own camp, he +sent persons to ascertain what the nature of the mountain was, and of +what kind the ascent on every side. Word was brought back that it was +easy. During the third watch he orders Titus Labienus, his lieutenant +with praetorian powers, to ascend to the highest ridge of the mountain +with two legions, and with those as guides who had examined the road; he +explains what his plan is. He himself during the fourth watch, hastens +to them by the same route by which the enemy had gone, and sends on all +the cavalry before him. Publius Considius, who was reputed to be very +experienced in military affairs, and had been in the army of Lucius +Sulla, and afterwards in that of Marcus Crassus, is sent forward with +the scouts. + +XXII.--At day-break, when the summit of the mountain was in the +possession of Titus Labienus, and he himself was not further off than a +mile and half from the enemy's camp, nor, as he afterwards ascertained +from the captives, had either his arrival or that of Labienus been +discovered; Considius, with his horse at full gallop, comes up to him-- +says that the mountain which he [Caesar] wished should be seized by +Labienus, is in possession of the enemy; that he has discovered this by +the Gallic arms and ensigns. Caesar leads off his forces to the next +hill: [and] draws them up in battle-order. Labienus, as he had been +ordered by Caesar not to come to an engagement unless [Caesar's] own +forces were seen near the enemy's camp, that the attack upon the enemy +might be made on every side at the same time, was, after having taken +possession of the mountain, waiting for our men, and refraining from +battle. When, at length, the day was far advanced, Caesar learned +through spies that the mountain was in possession of his own men, and +that the Helvetii had moved their camp, and that Considius, struck with +fear, had reported to him, as seen, that which he had not seen. On that +day he follows the enemy at his usual distance, and pitches his camp +three miles from theirs. + +XXIII.--The next day (as there remained in all only two days' space [to +the time] when he must serve out the corn to his army, and as he was not +more than eighteen miles from Bibracte, by far the largest and best-stored +town of the Aedui) he thought that he ought to provide for a +supply of corn; and diverted his march from the Helvetii, and advanced +rapidly to Bibracte. This circumstance is reported to the enemy by some +deserters from Lucius Aemilius, a captain of the Gallic horse. The +Helvetii, either because they thought that the Romans, struck with +terror, were retreating from them, the more so, as the day before, +though they had seized on the higher grounds, they had not joined +battle; or because they flattered themselves that they might be cut off +from the provisions, altering their plan and changing their route, began +to pursue and to annoy our men in the rear. + +XXIV.--Caesar, when he observes this, draws off his forces to the next +hill, and sent the cavalry to sustain the attack of the enemy. He +himself, meanwhile, drew up on the middle of the hill a triple line of +his four veteran legions in such a manner that he placed above him on +the very summit the two legions which he had lately levied in Hither +Gaul, and all the auxiliaries; and he ordered that the whole mountain +should be covered with men, and that meanwhile the baggage should be +brought together into one place, and the position be protected by those +who were posted in the upper line. The Helvetii, having followed with +all their waggons, collected their baggage into one place: they +themselves, after having repulsed our cavalry and formed a phalanx, +advanced up to our front line in very close order. + +XXV.--Caesar, having removed out of sight first his own horse, then +those of all, that he might make the danger of all equal, and do away +with the hope of flight, after encouraging his men, joined battle. His +soldiers, hurling their javelins from the higher ground, easily broke +the enemy's phalanx. That being dispersed, they made a charge on them +with drawn swords. It was a great hindrance to the Gauls in fighting, +that, when several of their bucklers had been by one stroke of the +(Roman) javelins pierced through and pinned fast together, as the point +of the iron had bent itself, they could neither pluck it out, nor, with +their left hand entangled, fight with sufficient ease; so that many, +after having long tossed their arm about, chose rather to cast away the +buckler from their hand, and to fight with their person unprotected. At +length, worn out with wounds, they began to give way, and as there was +in the neighbourhood a mountain about a mile off, to betake themselves +thither. When the mountain had been gained, and our men were advancing +up, the Boii and Tulingi, who with about 15,000 men closed the enemy's +line of march and served as a guard to their rear, having assailed our +men on the exposed flank as they advanced [prepared] to surround them; +upon seeing which, the Helvetii, who had betaken themselves to the +mountain, began to press on again and renew the battle. The Romans +having faced about, advanced to the attack in two divisions; the first +and second line to withstand those who had been defeated and driven off +the field; the third to receive those who were just arriving. + +XXVI.--Thus was the contest long and vigorously carried on with doubtful +success. When they could no longer withstand the attacks of our men, the +one division, as they had begun to do, betook themselves to the +mountain; the other repaired to their baggage and waggons. For during +the whole of this battle, although the fight lasted from the seventh +hour [_i.e._ 12 (noon)--1 P.M.] to eventide, no one could see an enemy +with his back turned. The fight was carried on also at the baggage till +late in the night, for they had set waggons in the way as a rampart, and +from the higher ground kept throwing weapons upon our men, as they came +on, and some from between the waggons and the wheels kept darting their +lances and javelins from beneath, and wounding our men. After the fight +had lasted some time, our men gained possession of their baggage and +camp. There the daughter and one of the sons of Orgetorix were taken. +After that battle about 130,000 men [of the enemy] remained alive, who +marched incessantly during the whole of that night; and after a march +discontinued for no part of the night, arrived in the territories of the +Lingones on the fourth day, whilst our men, having stopped for three +days, both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of +the slain, had not been able to follow them. Caesar sent letters and +messengers to the Lingones [with orders] that they should not assist +them with corn or with anything else; for that if they should assist +them, he would regard them in the same light as the Helvetii. After the +three days' interval he began to follow them himself with all his +forces. + +XXVII.--The Helvetii, compelled by the want of everything, sent +ambassadors to him about a surrender. When these had met him in the way +and had thrown themselves at his feet, and speaking in suppliant tone +had with tears sued for peace, and [when] he had ordered them to await +his arrival, in the place where they then were, they obeyed his +commands. When Caesar arrived at that place, he demanded hostages, their +arms, and the slaves who had deserted to them. Whilst those things are +being sought for and got together, after a night's interval, about 6000 +men of that canton which is called the Verbigene, whether terrified by +fear, lest, after delivering up their arms, they should suffer +punishment, or else induced by the hope of safety, because they supposed +that, amid so vast a multitude of those who had surrendered themselves, +_their_ flight might either be concealed or entirely overlooked, having +at night-fall departed out of the camp of the Helvetii, hastened to the +Rhine and the territories of the Germans. + +XXVIII.--But when Caesar discovered this, he commanded those through +whose territories they had gone, to seek them, out and to bring them +back again, if they meant to be acquitted before him; and considered +them, when brought back, in the light of enemies; he admitted all the +rest to a surrender, upon their delivering up the hostages, arms, and +deserters. He ordered the Helvetii, the Tulingi, and the Latobrigi to +return to their territories from which they had come, and as there was +at home nothing whereby they might support their hunger, all the +productions of the earth having been destroyed, he commanded the +Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of corn; and ordered them +to rebuild the towns and villages which they had burnt. This he did, +chiefly on this account, because he was unwilling that the country, from +which the Helvetii had departed, should be untenanted, lest the Germans, +who dwell on the other side of the Rhine, should, on account of the +excellence of the lands, cross over from their own territories into +those of the Helvetii, and become borderers upon the province of Gaul +and the Allobroges. He granted the petition of the Aedui, that they +might settle the Boii, in their own (_i.e._ in the Aeduan) territories, +as these were known to be of distinguished valour to whom they gave +lands, and whom they afterwards admitted to the same state of rights and +freedom as themselves. + +XXIX.--In the camp of the Helvetii, lists were found, drawn up in Greek +characters, and were brought to Caesar, in which an estimate had been +drawn up, name by name, of the number which had gone forth from their +country of those who were able to bear arms; and likewise the boys, the +old men, and the women, separately. Of all which items the total was:- + +Of the _Helvetii_ [lit. of the heads of the Helvetii] 263,000 +Of the _Tulingi_ 36,000 +Of the _Latobrigi_ 14,000 +Of the _Rauraci_ 23,000 +Of the _Boii_ 32,000 + ------- +The sum of all amounted to 368,000 + +Out of these, such as could bear arms [amounted] to about 92,000. When +the _census_ of those who returned home was taken, as Caesar had +commanded, the number was found to be 110,000. + +XXX.--When the war with the Helvetii was concluded, ambassadors from +almost all parts of Gaul, the chiefs of states, assembled to +congratulate Caesar, [saying] that they were well aware, that, although +he had taken vengeance on the Helvetii in war, for the old wrongs done +by them to the Roman people, yet that circumstance had happened no less +to the benefit of the land of Gaul than of the Roman people, because the +Helvetii, while their affairs were most flourishing, had quitted their +country with the design of making war upon the whole of Gaul, and +seizing the government of it, and selecting, out of a great abundance, +that spot for an abode which they should judge to be the most convenient +and most productive of all Gaul, and hold the rest of the states as +tributaries. They requested that they might be allowed to proclaim an +assembly of the whole of Gaul for a particular day, and to do that with +Caesar's permission, [stating] that they had some things which, with the +general consent, they wished to ask of him. This request having been +granted, they appointed a day for the assembly, and ordained by an oath +with each other, that no one should disclose [their deliberations] +except those to whom this [office] should be assigned by the general +assembly. + +XXXI.--When that assembly was dismissed, the same chiefs of states, who +had before been to Caesar, returned, and asked that they might be +allowed to treat with him privately (in secret) concerning the safety of +themselves and of all. That request having been obtained, they all threw +themselves in tears at Caesar's feet, [saying] that they no less begged +and earnestly desired that what they might say should not be disclosed +than that they might obtain those things which they wished for; inasmuch +as they saw that, if a disclosure were made, they should be put to the +greatest tortures. For these Divitiacus the Aeduan spoke and told him:-- +"That there were two parties in the whole of Gaul: that the Aedui stood +at the head of one of these, the Arverni of the other. After these had +been violently struggling with one another for the superiority for many +years, it came to pass that the Germans were called in for hire by the +Arverni and the Sequani. That about 15,000 of them [_i.e._ of the +Germans] had at first crossed the Rhine: but after that these wild and +savage men had become enamoured of the lands and the refinement and the +abundance of the Gauls, more were brought over, that there were now as +many as 120,000 of them in Gaul: that with these the Aedui and their +dependants had repeatedly struggled in arms, that they had been routed +and had sustained a great calamity--had lost all their nobility, all +their senate, all their cavalry. And that broken by such engagements and +calamities, although they had formerly been very powerful in Gaul, both +from their own valour and from the Roman people's hospitality and +friendship, they were now compelled to give the chief nobles of their +state as hostages to the Sequani, and to bind their state by an oath, +that they would neither demand hostages in return, nor supplicate aid +from the Roman people, nor refuse to be for ever under their sway and +empire. That he was the only one out of all the state of the Aedui who +could not be prevailed upon to take the oath or to give his children as +hostages. On that account he had fled from his state and had gone to the +senate at Rome to beseech aid, as he alone was bound neither by oath nor +hostages. But a worse thing had befallen the victorious Sequani than the +vanquished Aedui, for Ariovistus, the king of the Germans, had settled +in their territories, and had seized upon a third of their land, which +was the best in the whole of Gaul, and was now ordering them to depart +from another third part, because a few months previously 24,000 men of +the Harudes had come to him, for whom room and settlements must be +provided. The consequence would be, that in a few years they would all +be driven from the territories of Gaul, and all the Germans would cross +the Rhine; for neither must the land of Gaul be compared with the land +of the Germans, nor must the habit of living of the latter be put on a +level with that of the former. Moreover, [as for] Ariovistus, no sooner +did he defeat the forces of the Gauls in a battle, which took place at +Magetobria, than [he began] to lord it haughtily and cruelly, to demand +as hostages the children of all the principal nobles, and wreak on them +every kind of cruelty, if everything was not done at his nod or +pleasure; that he was a savage, passionate, and reckless man, and that +his commands could no longer be borne. Unless there was some aid in +Caesar and the Roman people, the Gauls must all do the same thing that +the Helvetii had done, [viz.] emigrate from their country, and seek +another dwelling place, other settlements remote from the Germans, and +try whatever fortune may fall to their lot. If these things were to be +disclosed to Ariovistus, [Divitiacus adds] that he doubts not that he +would inflict the most severe punishment on all the hostages who are in +his possession, [and says] that Caesar could, either by his own +influence and by that of his army, or by his late victory, or by name of +the Roman people, intimidate him, so as to prevent a greater number of +Germans being brought over the Rhine, and could protect all Gaul from +the outrages of Ariovistus." + +XXXII.--When this speech had been delivered by Divitiacus, all who were +present began with loud lamentation to entreat assistance of Caesar. +Caesar noticed that the Sequani were the only people of all who did none +of those things which the others did, but, with their heads bowed down, +gazed on the earth in sadness. Wondering what was the reason of this +conduct, he inquired of themselves. No reply did the Sequani make, but +silently continued in the same sadness. When he had repeatedly +inquired of them and could not elicit any answer at all, the same +Divitiacus the Aeduan answered, that--"the lot of the Sequani was more +wretched and grievous than that of the rest, on this account, because +they alone durst not even in secret complain or supplicate aid; and +shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus [even when] absent, just as if he +were present; for, to the rest, despite of everything, there was an +opportunity of flight given; but all tortures must be endured by the +Sequani, who had admitted Ariovistus within their territories, and whose +towns were all in his power." + +XXXIII.--Caesar, on being informed of these things, cheered the minds of +the Gauls with his words, and promised that this affair should be an +object of his concern, [saying] that he had great hopes that Ariovistus, +induced both by his kindness and his power, would put an end to his +oppression. After delivering this speech, he dismissed the assembly; +and, besides those statements, many circumstances induced him to think +that this affair ought to be considered and taken up by him; especially +as he saw that the Aedui, styled [as they had been] repeatedly by the +senate "brethren" and "kinsmen," were held in the thraldom and dominion +of the Germans, and understood that their hostages were with Ariovistus +and the Sequani, which in so mighty an empire [as that] of the Roman +people he considered very disgraceful to himself and the republic. That, +moreover, the Germans should by degrees become accustomed to cross the +Rhine, and that a great body of them should come into Gaul, he saw +[would be] dangerous to the Roman people, and judged that wild and +savage men would not be likely to restrain themselves, after they had +possessed themselves of all Gaul, from going forth into the province and +thence marching into Italy (as the Cimbri and Teutones had done before +them), particularly as the Rhone [was the sole barrier that] separated +the Sequani from our province. Against which events he thought he ought +to provide as speedily as possible. Moreover, Ariovistus, for his part, +had assumed to himself such pride and arrogance that he was felt to be +quite insufferable. + +XXXIV.--He therefore determined to send ambassadors to Ariovistus to +demand of him to name some intermediate spot for a conference between +the two, [saying] that he wished to treat with him on state-business and +matters of the highest importance to both of them. To this embassy +Ariovistus replied, that if he himself had had need of anything from +Caesar, he would have gone to him; and that if Caesar wanted anything +from him he ought to come to him. That, besides, neither dare he go +without an army into those parts of Gaul which Caesar had possession of, +nor could he, without great expense and trouble, draw his army together +to one place; that to him, moreover, it appeared strange what business +either Caesar or the Roman people at all had in his own Gaul, which he +had conquered in war. + +XXXV.--When these answers were reported to Caesar, he sends ambassadors +to him a second time with this message "Since, after having been treated +with so much kindness by himself and the Roman people (as he had in his +consulship [B.C. 59] been styled 'king and friend' by the senate), he +makes this recompense to [Caesar] himself and the Roman people, [viz.] +that when invited to a conference he demurs, and does not think that it +concerns him to advise and inform himself about an object of mutual +interest, these are the things which he requires of him; first, that he +do not any more bring over any body of men across the Rhine into Gaul; +in the next place, that he restore the hostages which he has from the +Aedui, and grant the Sequani permission to restore to them with his +consent those hostages which they have, and that he neither provoke the +Aedui by outrage nor make war upon them or their allies; if he would +accordingly do this," [Caesar says] that "he himself and the Roman +people will entertain a perpetual feeling of favour and friendship +towards him; but that if he [Caesar] does not obtain [his desires], that +he (forasmuch as in the consulship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso +[B.C. 61] the senate had decreed that, whoever should have the +administration of the province of Gaul should, as far as he could do so +consistently with the interests of the republic, protect the Aedui and +the other friends of the Roman people) will not overlook the wrongs of +the Aedui." + +XXXVI.--To this Ariovistus replied, that "the right of war was, that +they who had conquered should govern those whom they had conquered, in +what manner they pleased; that in that way the Roman people were wont to +govern the nations which they had conquered, not according to the +dictation of any other, but according to their own discretion. If he for +his part did not dictate to the Roman people as to the manner in which +they were to exercise their right, he ought not to be obstructed by the +Roman people in his right; that the Aedui, inasmuch as they had tried +the fortune of war and had engaged in arms and been conquered, had +become tributaries to him; that Caesar was doing a great injustice, in +that by his arrival he was making his revenues less valuable to him; +that he should not restore their hostages to the Aedui, but should not +make war wrongfully either upon them or their allies, if they abided by +that which had been agreed on, and paid their tribute annually: if they +did _not_ continue to do that, the Roman people's name of 'brothers' +would avail them nought. As to Caesar's threatening him that be would +not overlook the wrongs of the Aedui, [he said] that no one had ever +entered into a contest with _him_ [Ariovistus] without utter ruin to +himself. That Caesar might enter the lists when he chose; he would feel +what the invincible Germans, well-trained [as they were] beyond all +others to arms, who for fourteen years had not been beneath a roof, +could achieve by their valour." + +XXXVII.--At the same time that this message was delivered to Caesar, +ambassadors came from the Aedui and the Treviri; from the Aedui to +complain that the Harudes, who had lately been brought over into Gaul, +were ravaging their territories; that they had not been able to purchase +peace from Ariovistus, even by giving hostages: and from the Treviri, +[to state] that a hundred cantons of the Suevi had encamped on the banks +of the Rhine, and were attempting to cross it; that the brothers, Nasuas +and Cimberius, headed them. Being greatly alarmed at these things, +Caesar thought that he ought to use all despatch, lest, if this new band +of Suevi should unite with the old troops of Ariovistus, he [Ariovistus] +might be less easily withstood. Having, therefore, as quickly as he +could, provided a supply of corn, he hastened to Ariovistus by forced +marches. + +XXXVIII.--When he had proceeded three days' journey, word was brought to +him that Ariovistus was hastening with all his forces to seize on +Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani, and had advanced +three days' journey from his territories. Caesar thought that he ought +to take the greatest precautions lest this should happen, for there was +in that town a most ample supply of everything which was serviceable for +war; and so fortified was it by the nature of the ground as to afford a +great facility for protracting the war, inasmuch as the river Doubs +almost surrounds the whole town, as though it were traced round it with +a pair of compasses. A mountain of great height shuts in the remaining +space, which is not more than 600 feet, where the river leaves a gap, in +such a manner that the roots of that mountain extend to the river's bank +on either side. A wall thrown around it makes a citadel of this +[mountain], and connects it with the town. Hither Caesar hastens by +forced marches by night and day, and, after having seized the town, +stations a garrison there. + +XXXIX.--Whilst he is tarrying a few days at Vesontio, on account of corn +and provisions; from the inquiries of our men and the reports of the +Gauls and traders (who asserted that the Germans were men of huge +stature, of incredible valour and practice in arms, that ofttimes they, +on encountering them, could not bear even their countenance, and the +fierceness of their eyes)--so great a panic on a sudden seized the whole +army, as to discompose the minds and spirits of all in no slight degree. +This first arose from the tribunes of the soldiers, the prefects and the +rest, who, having followed Caesar from the city [Rome] from motives of +friendship, had no great experience in military affairs. And alleging, +some of them one reason, some another, which they said made it necessary +for them to depart, they requested that by his consent they might be +allowed to withdraw; some, influenced by shame, stayed behind in order +that they might avoid the suspicion of cowardice. These could neither +compose their countenance, nor even sometimes check their tears: but +hidden in their tents, either bewailed their fate, or deplored with +their comrades the general danger. Wills were sealed universally +throughout the whole camp. By the expressions and cowardice of these +men, even those who possessed great experience in the camp, both +soldiers and centurions, and those [the decurions] who were in command +of the cavalry, were gradually disconcerted. Such of them as wished to +be considered less alarmed, said that they did not dread the enemy, but +feared the narrowness of the roads and the vastness of the forests which +lay between them and Ariovistus, or else that the supplies could not be +brought up readily enough. Some even declared to Caesar that when he +gave orders for the camp to be moved and the troops to advance, the +soldiers would not be obedient to the command, nor advance in +consequence of their fear. + +XL.--When Caesar observed these things, having called a council, and +summoned to it the centurions of all the companies, he severely +reprimanded them, "particularly for supposing that it belonged to them +to inquire or conjecture, either in what direction they were marching, +or with what object. That Ariovistus, during his [Caesar's] consulship, +had most anxiously sought after the friendship of the Roman people; why +should any one judge that he would so rashly depart from his duty? He +for his part was persuaded that, when his demands were known and the +fairness of the terms considered, he would reject neither his nor the +Roman people's favour. But even if, driven on by rage and madness, he +should make war upon them, what after all were they afraid of?--or why +should they despair either of their own valour or of his zeal? Of that +enemy a trial had been made within our fathers' recollection, when, on +the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutones by Caius Marius, the army was +regarded as having deserved no less praise than their commander himself. +It had been made lately, too, in Italy; during the rebellion of the +slaves, whom, however, the experience and training which they had +received from us, assisted in some respect. From which a judgment might +be formed of the advantages which resolution carries with it,--inasmuch +as those whom for some time they had groundlessly dreaded when unarmed, +they had afterwards vanquished, when well armed and flushed with +success. In short, that these were the same men whom the Helvetii, in +frequent encounters, not only in their own territories, but also in +theirs [the German], have generally vanquished, and yet cannot have been +a match for our army. If the unsuccessful battle and flight of the Gauls +disquieted any, these, if they made inquiries, might discover that, when +the Gauls had been tired out by the long duration of the war, +Ariovistus, after he had many months kept himself in his camp and in the +marshes, and had given no opportunity for an engagement, fell suddenly +upon them, by this time despairing of a battle and scattered in all +directions, and was victorious more through stratagem and cunning than +valour. But though there had been room for such stratagem against savage +and unskilled men, not even [Ariovistus] himself expected that thereby +our armies could be entrapped. That those who ascribed their fear to a +pretence about the [deficiency of] supplies and the narrowness of the +roads, acted presumptuously, as they seemed either to distrust their +general's discharge of his duty, or to dictate to him. That these things +were his concern; that the Sequani, the Leuci, and the Lingones were to +furnish the corn; and that it was already ripe in the fields; that as to +the road they would soon be able to judge for themselves. As to its +being reported that the soldiers would not be obedient to command, or +advance, he was not at all disturbed at that; for he knew that in the +case of all those whose army had not been obedient to command, either +upon some mismanagement of an affair, fortune had deserted them, or, +that upon some crime being discovered, covetousness had been clearly +proved [against them]. His integrity had been seen throughout his whole +life, his good fortune in the war with the Helvetii. That he would +therefore instantly set about what he had intended to put off till a +more distant day, and would break up his camp the next night, in the +fourth watch, that he might ascertain, as soon as possible, whether a +sense of honour and duty, or whether fear had more influence with them. +But that, if no one else should follow, yet he would go with only the +tenth legion, of which he had no misgivings, and it should be his +praetorian cohort."--This legion Caesar had both greatly favoured, and +in it, on account of its valour, placed the greatest confidence. + +XLI.-Upon the delivery of this speech, the minds of all were changed in +a surprising, manner, and the highest ardour and eagerness for +prosecuting the war were engendered; and the tenth legion was the first +to return thanks to him, through their military tribunes, for his having +expressed this most favourable opinion of them; and assured him that +they were quite ready to prosecute the war. Then, the other legions +endeavoured, through their military tribunes and the centurions of the +principal companies, to excuse themselves to Caesar, [saying] that they +had never either doubted or feared, or supposed that the determination +of the conduct of the war was theirs and not their general's. Having +accepted their excuse, and having had the road carefully reconnoitred by +Divitiacus, because in him of all others he had the greatest faith, [he +found] that by a circuitous route of more than fifty miles he might lead +his army through open parts; he then set out in the fourth watch, as he +had said [he would]. On the seventh day, as he did not discontinue his +march, he was informed by scouts that the forces of Ariovistus were only +four and twenty miles distant from ours. + +XLII.--Upon being apprised of Caesar's arrival, Ariovistus sends +ambassadors to him, [saying] that what he had before requested as to a +conference, might now, as far as his permission went, take place, since +he [Caesar] had approached nearer, and he considered that he might now +do it without danger. Caesar did not reject the proposal and began to +think that he was now returning to a rational state of mind, as he +spontaneously proffered that which he had previously refused to him when +requesting it; and was in great hopes that, in consideration of his own +and the Roman people's great favours towards him, the issue would be +that he would desist from his obstinacy upon his demands being made +known. The fifth day after that was appointed as the day of conference. +Meanwhile, as ambassadors were being often sent to and fro between them, +Ariovistus demanded that Caesar should not bring any foot-soldier with +him to the conference, [saying] that "he was afraid of being ensnared by +him through treachery; that both should come accompanied by cavalry; +that he would not come on any other condition." Caesar, as he neither +wished that the conference should, by an excuse thrown in the way, be +set aside, nor durst trust his life to the cavalry of the Gauls, decided +that it would be most expedient to take away from the Gallic cavalry all +their horses, and thereon to mount the legionary soldiers of the tenth +legion, in which he placed the greatest confidence; in order that he +might have a body-guard as trustworthy as possible, should there be any +need for action. And when this was done, one of the soldiers of the +tenth legion said, not without a touch of humour, "that Caesar did more +for them than he had promised; he had promised to have the tenth legion +in place of his praetorian cohort; but he now converted them into +horse." + +XLIII.--There was a large plain, and in it a mound of earth of +considerable size. This spot was at nearly an equal distance from both +camps. Thither, as had been appointed, they came for the conference. +Caesar stationed the legion, which he had brought [with him] on +horseback, 200 paces from this mound. The cavalry of Ariovistus also +took their stand at an equal distance. Ariovistus then demanded that +they should confer on horseback, and that, besides themselves, they +should bring with them ten men each to the conference. When they were +come to the place, Caesar, in the opening of his speech, detailed his +own and the senate's favours towards him [Ariovistus], "in that he had +been styled king, in that [he had been styled] friend, by the senate-- +in that very considerable presents had been sent him; which circumstance +he informed him had both fallen to the lot of few, and had usually been +bestowed in consideration of important personal services; that he, +although he had neither an introduction, nor a just ground for the +request, had obtained these honours through the kindness and munificence +of himself [Caesar] and the senate. He informed him too, how old and how +just were the grounds of connexion that existed between themselves [the +Romans] and the Aedui, what decrees of the senate had been passed in +their favour, and how frequent and how honourable; how from time +immemorial the Aedui had held the supremacy of the whole of Gaul; even +[said Caesar] before they had sought our friendship; that it was the +custom of the Roman people to desire not only that its allies and +friends should lose none of their property, but be advanced in +influence, dignity, and honour: who then could endure that what they had +brought with them to the friendship of the Roman people, should be torn +from them?" He then made the same demands which he had commissioned the +ambassadors to make, that [Ariovistus] should not make war either upon +the Aedui or their allies, that he should restore the hostages; that, if +he could not send back to their country any part of the Germans, he +should at all events suffer none of them any more to cross the Rhine. + +XLIV.--Ariovistus replied briefly to the demands of Caesar; but +expatiated largely on his own virtues, "that he had crossed the Rhine +not of his own accord, but on being invited and sent for by the Gauls; +that he had not left home and kindred without great expectations and +great rewards; that he had settlements in Gaul, granted by the Gauls +themselves; that the hostages had been given by their own good-will; +that he took by right of war the tribute which conquerors are accustomed +to impose on the conquered; that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but +the Gauls upon him; that all the states of Gaul came to attack him, and +had encamped against him; that all their forces had been routed and +beaten by him in a single battle; that if they chose to make a second +trial, he was ready to encounter them again; but if they chose to enjoy +peace, it was unfair to refuse the tribute, which of their own free-will +they had paid up to that time. That the friendship of the Roman people +ought to prove to him an ornament and a safeguard, not a detriment; and +that he sought it with that expectation. But if through the Roman people +the tribute was to be discontinued, and those who surrendered to be +seduced from him, he would renounce the friendship of the Roman people +no less heartily than he had sought it. As to his leading over a host of +Germans into Gaul, that he was doing this with a view of securing +himself, not of assaulting Gaul: that there was evidence of this, in +that he did not come without being invited, and in that he did not make +war, but merely warded it off. That he had come into Gaul before the +Roman people. That never before this time did a Roman army go beyond the +frontiers of the province of Gaul. What [said he] does [Caesar] desire? +--why come into his [Ariovistus's] domains?--that this was his province +of Gaul, just as that is ours. As it ought not to be pardoned in him, if +he were to make an attack upon our territories; so, likewise, that we +were unjust to obstruct him in his prerogative. As for Caesar's saying +that the Aedui had been styled 'brethren' by the senate, he was not so +uncivilized nor so ignorant of affairs, as not to know that the Aedui in +the very last war with the Allobroges had neither rendered assistance to +the Romans, nor received any from the Roman people in the struggles +which the Aedui had been maintaining with him and with the Sequani. He +must feel suspicious that Caesar, though feigning friendship as the +reason for his keeping an army in Gaul; was keeping it with the view of +crushing him. And that unless he depart, and withdraw his army from +these parts, he shall regard him not as a friend, but as a foe; and +that, even if he should put him to death, he should do what would please +many of the nobles and leading men of the Roman people; he had assurance +of that from themselves through their messengers, and could purchase the +favour and the friendship of them all by his [Caesar's] death. But if he +would depart and resign to him the free possession of Gaul, he would +recompense him with a great reward, and would bring to a close whatever +wars he wished to be carried on, without any trouble or risk to him." + +XLV.--Many things were stated by Caesar to the effect [to show]: "why he +could not waive the business, and that neither his nor the Roman +people's practice would suffer him to abandon most meritorious allies, +nor did he deem that Gaul belonged to Ariovistus rather than to the +Roman people; that the Arverni and the Ruteni had been subdued in war by +Quintus Fabius Maximus, and that the Roman people had pardoned them and +had not reduced them into a province or imposed a tribute upon them. And +if the most ancient period was to be regarded--then was the sovereignty +of the Roman people in Gaul most just: if the decree of the senate was +to be observed, then ought Gaul to be free, which they [the Romans] had +conquered in war, and had permitted to enjoy its own laws." + +XLVI.--While these things are being transacted in the conference, it was +announced to Caesar that the cavalry of Ariovistus were approaching +nearer the mound, and were riding up to our men, and casting stones and +weapons at them. Caesar made an end of his speech and betook himself to +his men; and commanded them that they should by no means return a weapon +upon the enemy. For though he saw that an engagement with the cavalry +would be without any danger to his chosen legion, yet he did not think +proper to engage, lest, after the enemy were routed, it might be said +that they had been ensnared by him under the sanction of a conference. +When it was spread abroad among the common soldiery with what +haughtiness Ariovistus had behaved at the conference, and how he had +ordered the Romans to quit Gaul, and how his cavalry had made an attack +upon our men, and how this had broken off the conference, a much greater +alacrity and eagerness for battle was infused into our army. + +XLVII.--Two days after, Ariovistus sends ambassadors to Caesar, to state +"that he wished to treat with him about those things which had been +begun to be treated of between them, but had not been concluded"; [and +to beg] that "he would either again appoint a day for a conference; or, +if he were not willing to do that, that he would send one of his +[officers] as an ambassador to him." There did not appear to Caesar any +good reason for holding a conference; and the more so as the day before +the Germans could not be restrained from casting weapons at our men. He +thought he should not without great danger send to him as ambassador one +of his [Roman] officers, and should expose him to savage men. It seemed +[therefore] most proper to send to him C. Valerius Procillus, the son of +C. Valerius Caburus, a young man of the highest courage and +accomplishments (whose father had been presented with the freedom of the +city by C. Valerius Flaccus), both on account of his fidelity and on +account of his knowledge of the Gallic language, which Ariovistus, by +long practice, now spoke fluently; and because in his case the Germans +would have no motive for committing violence; and [as his colleague] M. +Mettius, who had shared the hospitality of Ariovistus. He commissioned +them to learn what Ariovistus had to say, and to report to him. But when +Ariovistus saw them before him in his camp, he cried out in the presence +of his army, "Why were they come to him? was it for the purpose of +acting as spies?" He stopped them when attempting to speak, and cast +them into chains. + +XLVIII.--The same day he moved his camp forward and pitched under a hill +six miles from Caesar's camp. The day following he led his forces past +Caesar's camp, and encamped two miles beyond him; with this design--that +he might cut off Caesar from, the corn and provisions which might be +conveyed to him from the Sequani and the Aedui. For five successive days +from that day, Caesar drew out his forces before the camp, and put them +in battle order, that, if Ariovistus should be willing to engage in +battle, an opportunity might not be wanting to him. Ariovistus all this +time kept his army in camp: but engaged daily in cavalry skirmishes. The +method of battle in which the Germans had practised themselves was this. +There were 6000 horse, and as many very active and courageous foot, one +of whom each of the horse selected out of the whole army for his own +protection. By these [foot] they were constantly accompanied in their +engagements; to these the horse retired; these on any emergency rushed +forward; if any one, upon receiving a very severe wound, had fallen from +his horse, they stood around him: if it was necessary to advance +farther: than usual, or to retreat more rapidly, so great, from +practice, was their swiftness, that, supported by the manes of the +horses, they could keep pace with their speed. + +XLIX.--Perceiving that Ariovistus kept himself in camp, Caesar, that he +might not any longer be cut off from provisions, chose a convenient +position for a camp beyond that place in which the Germans had encamped, +at about 600 paces from them, and having drawn up his army in three +lines, marched to that place. He ordered the first and second lines to +be under arms; the third to fortify the camp. This place was distant +from the enemy about 600 paces, as has been stated. Thither Ariovistus +sent light troops, about 16,000 men in number, with all his cavalry; +which forces were to intimidate our men, and hinder them in their +fortification. Caesar nevertheless, as he had before arranged, ordered +two lines to drive off the enemy: the third to execute the work. The +camp being fortified, he left there two legions and a portion of the +auxiliaries; and led back the other four legions into the larger camp. + +L.--The next day, according to his custom, Caesar led out his forces +from both camps, and having advanced a little from the larger one, drew +up his line of battle, and gave the enemy an opportunity of fighting. +When he found that they did not even then come out [from their +entrenchments], he led back his army into camp about noon. Then at last +Ariovistus sent part of his forces to attack the lesser camp. The battle +was vigorously maintained on both sides till the evening. At sunset, +after many wounds had been inflicted and received, Ariovistus led back +his forces into camp. When Caesar inquired of his prisoners, wherefore +Ariovistus did not come to an engagement, he discovered this to be the +reason--that among the Germans it was the custom for their matrons to +pronounce from lots and divination whether it were expedient that the +battle should be engaged in or not; that they had said, "that it was not +the will of heaven that the Germans should conquer, if they engaged in +battle before the new moon." + +LI.--The day following, Caesar left what seemed sufficient as a guard +for both camps; [and then] drew up all the auxiliaries in sight of the +enemy, before the lesser camp, because he was not very powerful in the +number of legionary soldiers, considering the number of the enemy; that +[thereby] he might make use of his auxiliaries for appearance. He +himself, having drawn up his army in three lines, advanced to the camp +of the enemy. Then at last of necessity the Germans drew their forces +out of camp, and disposed them canton by canton, at equal distances, the +Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii, Suevi; and +surrounded their whole army with their chariots and waggons, that no +hope might be left in flight. On these they placed their women, who, +with dishevelled hair and in tears, entreated the soldiers, as they went +forward to battle, not to deliver them into slavery to the Romans. + +LII.--Caesar appointed over each legion a lieutenant and a questor, that +every one might have them as witnesses of his valour. He himself began +the battle at the head of the right wing, because he had observed that +part of the enemy to be the least strong. Accordingly our men, upon the +signal being given, vigorously made an attack upon the enemy, and the +enemy so suddenly and rapidly rushed forward, that there was no time for +casting the javelins at them. Throwing aside [therefore] their javelins, +they fought with swords hand to hand. But the Germans, according to +their custom, rapidly forming a phalanx, sustained the attack of our +swords. There were found very many of our soldiers who leaped upon the +phalanx, and with their hands tore away the shields, and wounded the +enemy from above. Although the army of the enemy was routed on the left +wing and put to flight, they [still] pressed heavily on our men from the +right wing, by the great number of their troops. On observing which, P. +Crassus, a young man, who commanded the cavalry--as he was more +disengaged than those who were employed in the fight--sent the third +line as a relief to our men who were in distress. + +LIII.--Thereupon the engagement was renewed, and all the enemy turned +their backs, nor did they cease to flee until they arrived at the river +Rhine, about fifty miles from that place. There some few, either relying +on their strength, endeavoured to swim over, or, finding boats, procured +their safety. Among the latter was Ariovistus, who meeting with a small +vessel tied to the bank, escaped in it: our horse pursued and slew all +the rest of them. Ariovistus had two wives, one a Suevan by nation, whom +he had brought with him from home; the other a Norican, the sister of +king Vocion, whom he had married in Gaul, she having been sent [thither +for that purpose] by her brother. Both perished in that flight. Of their +two daughters, one was slain, the other captured. C. Valerius Procillus, +as he was being dragged by his guards in the flight, bound with a triple +chain, fell into the hands of Caesar himself, as he was pursuing the +enemy with his cavalry. This circumstance indeed afforded Caesar no less +pleasure than the victory itself; because he saw a man of the first rank +in the province of Gaul, his intimate acquaintance and friend, rescued +from the hand of the enemy, and restored to him, and that fortune had +not diminished aught of the joy and exultation [of that day] by his +destruction. He [Procillus] said that in his own presence the lots had +been thrice consulted respecting him, whether he should immediately be +put to death by fire, or be reserved for another time: that by the +favour of the lots he was uninjured. M. Mettius, also, was found and +brought back to him [Caesar]. + +LIV.--This battle having been reported beyond the Rhine, the Suevi, who +had come to the banks of that river, began to return home, when the +Ubii, who dwelt nearest to the Rhine, pursuing them, while much alarmed, +slew a great number of them. Caesar having concluded two very important +wars in one campaign, conducted his army into winter quarters among the +Sequani, a little earlier than the season of the year required. He +appointed Labienus over the winter quarters, and set out in person for +Hither Gaul to hold the assizes. + + + +BOOK II + +I.--While Caesar was in winter quarters in Hither Gaul, as we have shown +above, frequent reports were brought to him, and he was also informed by +letters from Labienus, that all the Belgae, who we have said are a third +part of Gaul, were entering into a confederacy against the Roman people, +and giving hostages to one another; that the reasons of the confederacy +were these--first, because they feared that, after all [Celtic] Gaul was +subdued, our army would be led against them; secondly, because they were +instigated by several of the Gauls; some of whom as [on the one hand] +they had been unwilling that the Germans should remain any longer in +Gaul, so [on the other] they were dissatisfied that the army of the +Roman people should pass the winter in it, and settle there; and others +of them, from a natural instability and fickleness of disposition, were +anxious for a revolution; [the Belgae were instigated] by several, also, +because the government in Gaul was generally seized upon by the more +powerful persons and by those who had the means of hiring troops, and +they could less easily effect this object under our dominion. + +II.--Alarmed by these tidings and letters, Caesar levied two new legions +in Hither Gaul, and, at the beginning of summer, sent Q. Pedius, his +lieutenant, to conduct them further into Gaul. He himself, as soon as +there began to be plenty of forage, came to the army. He gives a +commission to the Senones and the other Gauls who were neighbours of the +Belgae, to learn what is going on amongst them [_i.e._ the Belgae], and +inform him of these matters. These all uniformly reported that troops +were being raised, and that an army was being collected in one place. +Then, indeed, he thought that he ought not to hesitate about proceeding +towards them, and having provided supplies, moves his camp, and in about +fifteen days arrives at the territories of the Belgae. + +III.--As he arrived there unexpectedly and sooner than any one +anticipated, the Remi, who are the nearest of the Belgae to [Celtic] +Gaul, sent to him Iccius and Antebrogius, [two of] the principal persons +of the state, as their ambassadors: to tell him that they surrendered +themselves and all their possessions to the protection and disposal of +the Roman people: and that they had neither combined with the rest of +the Belgae, nor entered into any confederacy against the Roman people: +and were prepared to give hostages, to obey his commands, to receive him +into their towns, and to aid him with corn and other things; that all +the rest of the Belgae were in arms; and that the Germans, who dwell on +this side the Rhine, had joined themselves to them; and that so great +was the infatuation of them all that they could not restrain even the +Suessiones, their own brethren and kinsmen, who enjoy the same rights, +and the same laws, and who have one government and one magistracy [in +common] with themselves, from uniting with them. + +IV.--When Caesar inquired of them what states were in arms, how powerful +they were, and what they could do in war, he received the following +information: that the greater part of the Belgae were sprung from the +Germans, and that having crossed the Rhine at an early period, they had +settled there, on account of the fertility of the country, and had +driven out the Gauls who inhabited those regions; and that they were the +only people who, in the memory of our fathers, when all Gaul was +overrun, had prevented the Teutones and the Cimbri from entering their +territories; the effect of which was that, from the recollection of +those events, they assumed to themselves great authority and haughtiness +in military matters. The Remi said that they had known accurately +everything respecting their number, because, being united to them by +neighbourhood and by alliances, they had learnt what number each state +had in the general council of the Belgae promised for that war. That the +Bellovaci were the most powerful amongst them in valour, influence, and +number of men; that these could muster 100,000 armed men, [and had] +promised 60,000 picked men out of that number, and demanded for +themselves the command of the whole war. That the Suessiones were their +nearest neighbours and possessed a very extensive and fertile country; +that among them, even in our own memory, Divitiacus, the most powerful +man of all Gaul, had been king; who had held the government of a great +part of these regions, as well as of Britain; that their king at present +was Galba; that the direction of the whole war was conferred by the +consent of all upon him, on account of his integrity and prudence; that +they had twelve towns; that they had promised 50,000 armed men; and that +the Nervii, who are reckoned the most warlike among them, and are +situated at a very great distance, [had promised] as many; the +Atrebates, 15,000; the Ambiani, 10,000; the Morini, 25,000; the Menapu, +9000; the Caleti, 10,000; the Velocasses and the Veromandui as many; the +Aduatuci, 19,000; that the Condrusi, the Eburones, the Caeraesi, the +Paemani, who are called by the common name of Germans, [had promised], +they thought, to the number of 40,000. + +V.--Caesar, having encouraged the Remi, and addressed them courteously, +ordered the whole senate to assemble before him, and the children of +their chief men to be brought to him as hostages; all which commands +they punctually performed by the day [appointed]. He, addressing himself +to Divitiacus the Aeduan, with great earnestness, points out how much it +concerns the republic and their common security, that the forces of the +enemy should be divided, so that it might not be necessary to engage +with so large a number at one time. [He asserts] that this might be +effected if the Aedui would lead their forces into the territories of +the Bellovaci, and begin to lay waste their country. With these +instructions he dismissed him from his presence. After he perceived that +all the forces of the Belgae, which had been collected in one place, +were approaching towards him, and learnt from the scouts whom he had +sent out, and [also] from the Remi, that they were not then far distant, +he hastened to lead his army over the Aisne, which is on the borders of +the Remi, and there pitched his camp. This position fortified one side +of his camp by the banks of the river, rendered the country which lay in +his rear secure from the enemy, and furthermore ensured that provisions +might without danger be brought to him by the Remi and the rest of the +states. Over that river was a bridge: there he places a guard; and on +the other side of the river he leaves Q. Titurus Sabinus, his +lieutenant, with six cohorts. He orders him to fortify a camp with a +rampart twelve feet in height, and a trench eighteen feet in breadth. + +VI.--There was a town of the Remi, by name Bibrax, eight miles distant +from this camp. This the Belgae on their march began to attack with +great vigour. [The assault] was with difficulty sustained for that day. +The Gauls' mode of besieging is the same as that of the Belgae: when +after having drawn a large number of men around the whole of the +fortifications, stones have begun to be cast against the wall on all +sides, and the wall has been stript of its defenders, [then], forming a +testudo, they advance to the gates and undermine the wall: which was +easily effected on this occasion; for while so large a number were +casting stones and darts, no one was able to maintain his position upon +the wall. When night had put an end to the assault, Iccius, who was then +in command of the town, one of the Remi, a man of the highest rank and +influence amongst his people, and one of those who had come to Caesar as +ambassador [to sue] for a peace, sends messengers to him, [to report] +"That, unless assistance were sent to him, he could not hold out any +longer." + +VII.--Thither immediately after midnight, Caesar, using as guides the +same persons who had come to him as messengers from Iccius, sends some +Numidian and Cretan archers, and some Balearian slingers as a relief to +the townspeople, by whose arrival both a desire to resist together with +the hope of [making good their] defence was infused into the Remi, and, +for the same reason, the hope of gaining the town abandoned the enemy. +Therefore, after staying a short time before the town, and laying waste +the country of the Remi, when all the villages and buildings which they +could approach had been burnt, they hastened with all their forces to +the camp of Caesar, and encamped within less than two miles [of it]; and +their camp, as was indicated by the smoke and fires, extended more than +eight miles in breadth. + +VIII.--Caesar at first determined to decline a battle, as well on +account of the great number of the enemy as their distinguished +reputation for valour: daily, however, in cavalry actions, he strove to +ascertain by frequent trials what the enemy could effect by their +prowess and what our men would dare. When he perceived that our men were +not inferior, as the place before the camp was naturally convenient and +suitable for marshalling an army (since the hill where the camp was +pitched, rising gradually from the plain, extended forward in breadth as +far as the space which the marshalled army could occupy, and had steep +declines of its side in either direction, and gently sloping in front +gradually sank to the plain), on either side of that hill he drew a +cross trench of about four hundred paces, and at the extremities of that +trench built forts, and placed there his military engines, lest, after +he had marshalled his army, the enemy, since they were so powerful in +point of number, should be able to surround his men in the flank, while +fighting. After doing this, and leaving in the camp the two legions +which he had last raised, that, if there should be any occasion, they +might be brought as a reserve, he formed the other six legions in order +of battle before the camp. The enemy, likewise, had drawn up their +forces which they had brought out of the camp. + +IX.--There was a marsh of no great extent between our army and that of +the enemy. The latter were waiting to see if our men would pass this; +our men, also, were ready in arms to attack them while disordered, if +the first attempt to pass should be made by them. In the meantime battle +was commenced between the two armies by a cavalry action. When neither +army began to pass the marsh, Caesar, upon the skirmishes of the horse +[proving] favourable to our men, led back his forces into the camp. The +enemy immediately hastened from that place to the river Aisne, which it +has been stated was behind our camp. Finding a ford there, they +endeavoured to lead a part of their forces over it; with the design, +that, if they could, they might carry by storm the fort which Q. +Titurius, Caesar's lieutenant, commanded, and might cut off the bridge; +but, if they could not do that, they should lay waste the lands of the +Remi, which were of great use to us in carrying on the war, and might +hinder our men from foraging. + +X.--Caesar, being apprised of this by Titurius, leads all his cavalry +and light-armed Numidians, slingers and archers, over the bridge, and +hastens towards them. There was a severe struggle in that place. Our +men, attacking in the river the disordered enemy, slew a great part of +them. By the immense number of their missiles they drove back the rest, +who in a most courageous manner were attempting to pass over their +bodies, and surrounded with their cavalry, and cut to pieces those who +had first crossed the river. The enemy, when they perceived that their +hopes had deceived them both with regard to their taking the town by +storm and also their passing the river, and did not see our men advance +to a more disadvantageous place for the purpose of fighting, and when +provisions began to fail them, having called a council, determined that +it was best for each to return to his country, and resolved to assemble +from all quarters to defend those into whose territories the Romans +should first march an army; that they might contend in their own rather +than in a foreign country, and might enjoy the stores of provisions +which they possessed at home. Together with other causes, this +consideration also led them to that resolution, viz.: that they had +learnt that Divitiacus and the Aedui were approaching the territories of +the Bellovaci. And it was impossible to persuade the latter to stay any +longer, or to deter them from conveying succour to their own people. + +XI.--That matter being determined on, marching out of their camp at the +second watch, with great noise and confusion, in no fixed order, nor +under any command, since each sought for himself the foremost place in +the journey, and hastened to reach home, they made their departure +appear very like a flight. Caesar, immediately learning this through his +scouts, [but] fearing an ambuscade, because he had not yet discovered +for what reason they were departing, kept his army and cavalry within +the camp. At daybreak, the intelligence having been confirmed by the +scouts, he sent forward his cavalry to harass their rear; and gave the +command of it to two of his lieutenants, Q. Pedius, and L. Aurunculeius +Cotta. He ordered T. Labienus, another of his lieutenants, to follow +them closely with three legions. These, attacking their rear, and +pursuing them for many miles, slew a great number of them as they were +fleeing; while those in the rear with whom they had come up, halted, and +bravely sustained the attack of our soldiers; the van, because they +appeared to be removed from danger, and were not restrained by any +necessity or command, as soon as the noise was heard, broke their ranks, +and, to a man, rested their safety in flight. Thus without any risk [to +themselves] our men killed as great a number of them as the length of +the day allowed; and at sunset desisted from the pursuit, and betook +themselves into the camp, as they had been commanded. + +XII.--On the day following, before the enemy could recover from their +terror and flight, Caesar led his army into the territories of the +Suessiones, which are next to the Remi, and having accomplished a long +march, hastens to the town named Noviodunum. Having attempted to take it +by storm on his march, because he heard that it was destitute of +[sufficient] defenders, he was not able to carry it by assault, on +account of the breadth of the ditch and the height of the wall, though +few were defending it. Therefore, having fortified the camp, he began to +bring up the vineae, and to provide whatever things were necessary for +the storm. In the meantime, the whole body of the Suessiones, after +their flight, came the next night into the town. The vineae having been +quickly brought up against the town, a mound thrown up, and towers +built, the Gauls, amazed by the greatness of the works, such as they had +neither seen nor heard of before, and struck, also, by the despatch of +the Romans, send ambassadors to Caesar respecting a surrender, and +succeed in consequence of the Remi requesting that they [the Suessiones] +might be spared. + +XIII.--Caesar, having received as hostages the first men of the state, +and even the two sons of king Galba himself; and all the arms in the +town having been delivered up, admitted the Suessiones to a surrender, +and led his army against the Bellovaci. Who, when they had conveyed +themselves and all their possessions into the town called Bratuspantium, +and Caesar with his army was about five miles distant from that town, +all the old men, going out of the town, began to stretch out their hands +to Caesar, and to intimate by their voice that they would throw +themselves on his protection and power, nor would contend in arms +against the Roman people. In like manner, when he had come up to the +town, and there pitched his camp, the boys and the women from the wall, +with outstretched hands, after their custom, begged peace from the +Romans. + +XIV.--For these Divitiacus pleads (for after the departure of the +Belgae, having dismissed the troops of the Aedui, he had returned to +Caesar). "The Bellovaci had at all times been in the alliance and +friendship of the Aeduan state; that they had revolted from the Aedui +and made war upon the Roman people, being urged thereto by their nobles, +who said that the Aedui, reduced to slavery by Caesar, were suffering +every indignity and insult. That they who had been the leaders of that +plot, because they perceived how great a calamity they had brought upon +the state, had fled into Britain. That not only the Bellovaci, but also +the Aedui, entreated him to use his [accustomed] clemency and lenity +towards them [the Bellovaci]: which if he did, he would increase the +influence of the Aedui among all the Belgae, by whose succour and +resources they had been accustomed to support themselves whenever any +wars occurred." + +XV.--Caesar said that on account of his respect for Divitiacus and the +Aeduans, he would receive them into his protection, and would spare +them; but, because the state was of great influence among the Belgae, +and pre-eminent in the number of its population, he demanded 600 +hostages. When these were delivered, and all the arms in the town +collected, he went from that place into the territories of the Ambiani, +who, without delay, surrendered themselves and all their possessions. +Upon their territories bordered the Nervii, concerning whose character +and customs when Caesar inquired he received the following information: +--That "there was no access for merchants to them; that they suffered no +wine and other things tending to luxury to be imported; because they +thought that by their use the mind is enervated and the courage +impaired: that they were a savage people and of great bravery: that they +upbraided and condemned the rest of the Belgae who had surrendered +themselves to the Roman people and thrown aside their national courage: +that they openly declared they would neither send ambassadors, nor +accept any condition of peace." + +XVI.--After he had made three days' march through their territories, he +discovered from some prisoners, that the river Sambre was not more than +ten miles from his camp: that all the Nervii had stationed themselves on +the other side of that river, and together with the Atrebates and the +Veromandui, their neighbours, were there awaiting the arrival of the +Romans; for they had persuaded both these nations to try the same +fortune of war [as themselves]: that the forces of the Aduatuci were +also expected by them, and were on their march; that they had put their +women, and those who through age appeared useless for war, in a place to +which there was no approach for an army, on account of the marshes. + +XVII.--Having learnt these things, he sends forward scouts and +centurions to choose a convenient place for the camp. And as a great +many of the surrounding Belgae and other Gauls, following Caesar, +marched with him; some of these, as was afterwards learnt from the +prisoners, having accurately observed, during those days, the army's +method of marching, went by night to the Nervii, and informed them that +a great number of baggage-trains passed between the several legions, and +that there would be no difficulty, when the first legion had come into +the camp, and the other legions were at a great distance, to attack that +legion while under baggage, which being routed, and the baggage-train +seized, it would come to pass that the other legions would not dare to +stand their ground. It added weight also to the advice of those who +reported that circumstance, that the Nervii, from early times, because +they were weak in cavalry (for not even at this time do they attend to +it, but accomplish by their infantry whatever they can), in order that +they might the more easily obstruct the cavalry of their neighbours if +they came upon them for the purpose of plundering, having cut young +trees, and bent them, by means of their numerous branches [extending] on +to the sides, and the quick-briars and thorns springing up between them, +had made these hedges present a fortification like a wall, through which +it was not only impossible to enter, but even to penetrate with the eye. +Since [therefore] the march of our army would be obstructed by these +things, the Nervii thought that the advice ought not to be neglected by +them. + +XVIII.--The nature of the ground which our men had chosen for the camp +was this: A hill, declining evenly from the top, extended to the river +Sambre, which we have mentioned above: from this river there arose a +[second] hill of like ascent, on the other side and opposite to the +former, and open from about 200 paces at the lowest part; but in the +upper part, woody, (so much so) that it was not easy to see through it +into the interior. Within those woods the enemy kept themselves in +concealment; a few troops of horse-soldiers appeared on the open ground, +along the river. The depth of the river was about three feet. + +XIX.--Caesar, having sent his cavalry on before, followed close after +them with all his forces; but the plan and order of the march was +different from that which the Belgae had reported to the Nervii. For as +he was approaching the enemy Caesar, according to his custom, led on [as +the van] six legions unencumbered by baggage; behind them he had placed +the baggage-trains of the whole army; then the two legions which had +been last raised closed the rear, and were a guard for the baggage-train. +Our horse, with the slingers and archers, having passed the river, +commenced action with the cavalry of the enemy. While they from +time to time betook themselves into the woods to their companions, and +again made an assault out of the wood upon our men, who did not dare to +follow them in their retreat further than the limit to which the plain +and open parts extended, in the meantime the six legions which had +arrived first, having measured out the work, began to fortify the camp. +When the first part of the baggage-train of our army was seen by those +who lay hid in the woods, which had been agreed on among them as the +time for commencing action, as soon as they had arranged their line of +battle and formed their ranks within the woods, and had encouraged one +another, they rushed out suddenly with all their forces and made an +attack upon our horse. The latter being easily routed and thrown into +confusion, the Nervii ran down to the river with such incredible speed +that they seemed to be in the woods, the river, and close upon us almost +at the same time. And with the same speed they hastened up the hill to +our camp and to those who were employed in the works. + +XX.--Caesar had everything to do at one time: the standard to be +displayed, which was the sign when it was necessary to run to arms; the +signal to be given by the trumpet; the soldiers to be called off from +the works; those who had proceeded some distance for the purpose of +seeking materials for the rampart, to be summoned; the order of battle +to be formed; the soldiers to be encouraged; the watchword to be given. +A great part of these arrangements was prevented by the shortness of +time and the sudden approach and charge of the enemy. Under these +difficulties two things proved of advantage; [first] the skill and +experience of the soldiers, because, having been trained by former +engagements, they could suggest to themselves what ought to be done, as +conveniently as receive information from others; and [secondly] that +Caesar had forbidden his several lieutenants to depart from the works +and their respective legions, before the camp was fortified. These, on +account of the near approach and the speed of the enemy, did not then +wait for any command from Caesar, but of themselves executed whatever +appeared proper. + +XXI.--Caesar, having given the necessary orders, hastened to and fro +into whatever quarter fortune carried him to animate the troops, and +came to the tenth legion. Having encouraged the soldiers with no further +speech than that "they should keep up the remembrance of their wonted +valour, and not be confused in mind, but valiantly sustain the assault +of the enemy"; as the latter were not farther from them than the +distance to which a dart could be cast, he gave the signal for +commencing battle. And having gone to another quarter for the purpose of +encouraging [the soldiers], he finds them fighting. Such was the +shortness of the time, and so determined was the mind of the enemy on +fighting, that time was wanting not only for affixing the military +insignia, but even for putting on the helmets and drawing off the covers +from the shields. To whatever part any one by chance came from the works +(in which he had been employed), and whatever standards he saw first, at +these he stood, lest in seeking his own company he should lose the time +for fighting. + +XXII.--The army having been marshalled, rather as the nature of the +ground and the declivity of the hill and the exigency of the time, than +as the method and order of military matters required; whilst the legions +in the different places were withstanding the enemy, some in one +quarter, some in another, and the view was obstructed by the very thick +hedges intervening, as we have before remarked, neither could proper +reserves be posted, nor could the necessary measures be taken in each +part, nor could all the commands be issued by one person. Therefore, in +such an unfavourable state of affairs, various events of fortune +followed. + +XXIII.--The soldiers of the ninth and tenth legions, as they had been +stationed on the left part of the army, casting their weapons, speedily +drove the Atrebates (for that division had been opposed to them), who +were breathless with running and fatigue, and worn out with wounds, from +the higher ground into the river; and following them as they were +endeavouring to pass it, slew with their swords a great part of them +while impeded (therein). They themselves did not hesitate to pass the +river; and having advanced to a disadvantageous place, when the battle +was renewed, they [nevertheless] again put to flight the enemy, who had +returned and were opposing them. In like manner, in another quarter two +different legions, the eleventh and the eighth, having routed the +Veromandui, with whom they had engaged, were fighting from the higher +ground upon the very banks of the river. But, almost the whole camp on +the front and on the left side being then exposed, since the twelfth +legion was posted in the right wing, and the seventh at no great +distance from it, all the Nervii, in a very close body, with +Boduognatus, who held the chief command, as their leader, hastened +towards that place; and part of them began to surround the legions on +their unprotected flank, part to make for the highest point of the +encampment. + +XXIV.--At the same time our horsemen, and light-armed infantry, who had +been with those who, as I have related, were routed by the first assault +of the enemy, as they were betaking themselves into the camp, met the +enemy face to face, and again sought flight into another quarter; and +the camp-followers who from the Decuman Gate and from the highest ridge +of the hill had seen our men pass the river as victors, when, after +going out for the purposes of plundering, they looked back and saw the +enemy parading in our camp, committed themselves precipitately to +flight; at the same time there arose the cry and shout of those who came +with the baggage-train; and they (affrighted) were carried some one way, +some another. By all these circumstances the cavalry of the Treviri were +much alarmed (whose reputation for courage is extraordinary among the +Gauls, and who had come to Caesar, being sent by their state as +auxiliaries), and, when they saw our camp filled with a large number of +the enemy, the legions hard pressed and almost held surrounded, the +camp-retainers, horsemen, slingers, and Numidians fleeing on all sides +divided and scattered, they, despairing of our affairs, hastened home, +and related to their state that the Romans were routed and conquered, +[and] that the enemy were in possession of their camp and baggage-train. + +XXV.--Caesar proceeded, after encouraging the tenth legion, to the right +wing; where he perceived that his men were hard pressed, and that in +consequence of the standards of the twelfth legion being collected +together in one place, the crowded soldiers were a hindrance to +themselves in the fight; that all the centurions of the fourth cohort +were slain, and the standard-bearer killed, the standard itself lost, +almost all the centurions of the other cohorts either wounded or slain, +and among them the chief centurion of the legion, P. Sextius Baculus, a +very valiant man, who was so exhausted by many and severe wounds, that +he was already unable to support himself; he likewise perceived that the +rest were slackening their efforts, and that some, deserted by those in +the rear, were retiring from the battle and avoiding the weapons; that +the enemy [on the other hand], though advancing from the lower ground, +were not relaxing in front, and were [at the same time] pressing hard on +both flanks; he also perceived that the affair was at a crisis, and that +there was not any reserve which could be brought up; having therefore +snatched a shield from one of the soldiers in the rear (for he himself +had come without a shield), he advanced to the front of the line, and +addressing the centurions by name, and encouraging the rest of the +soldiers, he ordered them to carry forward the standards, and extend the +companies, that they might the more easily use their swords. On his +arrival, as hope was brought to the soldiers and their courage restored, +whilst every one for his own part, in the sight of his general, desired +to exert his utmost energy, the impetuosity of the enemy was a little +checked. + +XXVI.--Caesar, when he perceived that the seventh legion, which stood +close by him, was also hard pressed by the enemy, directed the tribunes +of the soldiers to effect a junction of the legions gradually, and make +their charge upon the enemy with a double front; which having been done, +since they brought assistance the one to the other, nor feared lest +their rear should be surrounded by the enemy, they began to stand their +ground more boldly, and to fight more courageously. In the meantime, the +soldiers of the two legions which had been in the rear of the army, as a +guard for the baggage-train, upon the battle being reported to them, +quickened their pace, and were seen by the enemy on the top of the hill; +and Titus Labienus, having gained possession of the camp of the enemy, +and observed from the higher ground what was going on in our camp, sent +the tenth legion as a relief to our men, who, when they had learnt from +the flight of the horse and the sutlers in what position the affair was, +and in how great danger the camp and the legion and the commander were +involved, left undone nothing [which tended] to despatch. + +XXVI.--By their arrival, so great a change of matters was made, that our +men, even those who had fallen down exhausted with wounds, leant on +their shields, and renewed the fight: then the camp-retainers, though +unarmed, seeing the enemy completely dismayed, attacked [them though] +armed; the horsemen too, that they might by their valour blot out the +disgrace of their flight, thrust themselves before the legionary +soldiers in all parts of the battle. But the enemy, even in the last +hope of safety, displayed such great courage that when the foremost of +them had fallen, the next stood upon them prostrate, and fought from +their bodies; when these were overthrown, and their corpses heaped up +together, those who survived cast their weapons against our men +[thence], as from a mound, and returned our darts which had fallen +between [the armies]; so that it ought not to be concluded, that men of +such great courage had injudiciously dared to pass a very broad river, +ascend very high banks, and come up to a very disadvantageous place; +since their greatness of spirit had rendered these actions easy, +although in themselves very difficult. + +XXVIII.--This battle being ended, and the nation and name of the Nervii +being almost reduced to annihilation, their old men, whom together with +the boys and women we have stated to have been collected together in the +fenny places and marshes, on this battle having been reported to them, +since they were convinced that nothing was an obstacle to the +conquerors, and nothing safe to the conquered, sent ambassadors to +Caesar by the consent of all who remained, and surrendered themselves to +him; and in recounting the calamity of their state, said that their +senators were reduced from 600 to three; that from 60,000 men they [were +reduced] to scarcely 500 who could bear arms; whom Caesar, that he might +appear to use compassion towards the wretched and the suppliant, most +carefully spared; and ordered them to enjoy their own territories and +towns, and commanded their neighbours that they should restrain +themselves and their dependants from offering injury or outrage [to +them]. + +XXIX.--When the Aduatuci, of whom we have written above, were coming +with all their forces to the assistance of the Nervii, upon this battle +being reported to them, they returned home after they were on the march; +deserting all their towns and forts, they conveyed together all their +possessions into one town, eminently fortified by nature. While this +town had on all sides around it very high rocks and precipices, there +was left on one side a gently ascending approach, of not more than 200 +feet in width; which place they had fortified with a very lofty double +wall: besides, they had placed stones of great weight and sharpened +stakes upon the walls. They were descended from the Cimbri and Teutones, +who, when they were marching into our province and Italy, having +deposited on this side the river Rhine such of their baggage-trains as +they could not drive or convey with them, left 6000 of their men as a +guard and defence for them. These having, after the destruction of their +countrymen, been harassed for many years by their neighbours, while one +time they waged war offensively, and at another resisted it when waged +against them, concluded a peace with the consent of all, and chose this +place as their settlement. + +XXX.--And on the first arrival of our army they made frequent sallies +from the town, and contended with our men in trifling skirmishes: +afterwards, when hemmed in by a rampart of twelve feet [in height], and +fifteen miles in circuit, they kept themselves within the town. When, +vineae having been brought up and a mound raised, they observed that a +tower also was being built at a distance, they at first began to mock +the Romans from their wall, and to taunt them with the following +speeches. "For what purpose was so vast a machine constructed at so +great a distance?" "With what hands," or "with what strength did they, +especially [as they were] men of such very small stature" (for our +shortness of stature, in comparison with the great size of their bodies, +is generally a subject of much contempt to the men of Gaul), "trust to +place against their walls a tower of such great weight." + +XXXI.--But when they saw that it was being moved, and was approaching +their walls, startled by the new and unaccustomed sight, they sent +ambassadors to Caesar [to treat] about peace; who spoke in the following +manner: "That they did not believe the Romans waged war without divine +aid, since they were able to move forward machines of such a height with +so great speed, and thus fight from close quarters: that they resigned +themselves and all their possessions to [Caesar's] disposal: that they +begged and earnestly entreated one thing, viz., that if perchance, +agreeably to his clemency and humanity, which they had heard of from +others, he should resolve that the Aduatuci were to be spared, he would +not deprive them of their arms; that all their neighbours were enemies +to them and envied their courage, from whom they could not defend +themselves if their arms were delivered up: that it was better for them, +if they should be reduced to that state, to suffer any fate from the +Roman people, than to be tortured to death by those among whom they had +been accustomed to rule." + +XXXII.--To these things Caesar replied, "That he, in accordance with his +custom, rather than owing to their desert, should spare the state, if +they should surrender themselves before the battering-ram should touch +the wall; but that there was no condition of surrender, except upon +their arms being delivered up; that he should do to them that which he +had done in the case of the Nervii, and would command their neighbours +not to offer any injury to those who had surrendered to the Roman +people." The matter being reported to their countrymen, they said that +they would execute his commands. Having cast a very large quantity of +their arms from the wall into the trench which was before the town, so +that the heaps of arms almost equalled the top of the wall and the +rampart, and nevertheless having retained and concealed, as we +afterwards discovered, about a third part in the town, the gates were +opened, and they enjoyed peace for that day. + +XXXIII.--Towards evening Caesar ordered the gates to be shut, and the +soldiers to go out of the town, lest the townspeople should receive any +injury from them by night. They [the Aduatuci], by a design before +entered into, as we afterwards understood, because they believed that, +as a surrender had been made, our men would dismiss their guards, or at +least would keep watch less carefully, partly with those arms which they +had retained and concealed, partly with shields made of bark or +interwoven wickers, which they had hastily covered over with skins (as +the shortness of time required) in the third watch, suddenly made a +sally from the town with all their forces [in that direction] in which +the ascent to our fortifications seemed the least difficult. The signal +having been immediately given by fires, as Caesar had previously +commanded, a rush was made thither [_i.e._ by the Roman soldiers] from +the nearest fort; and the battle was fought by the enemy as vigorously +as it ought to be fought by brave men, in the last hope of safety, in a +disadvantageous place, and against those who were throwing their weapons +from a rampart and from towers; since all hope of safety depended on +their courage alone. About 4000 of the men having been slain, the rest +were forced back into the town. The day after, Caesar, after breaking +open the gates, which there was no one then to defend, and sending in +our soldiers, sold the whole spoil of that town. The number of 53,000 +persons was reported to him by those who had bought them. + +XXXIV.--At the same time he was informed by P. Crassus, whom he had sent +with one legion against the Veneti, the Unelli, the Osismii, the +Curiosolitae, the Sesuvii, the Aulerci, and the Rhedones, which are +maritime states, and touch upon the [Atlantic] ocean, that all these +nations were brought under the dominion and power of the Roman people. + +XXXV.--These things being achieved, [and] all Gaul being subdued, so +high an opinion of this war was spread among the barbarians, that +ambassadors were sent to Caesar by those nations who dwelt beyond the +Rhine, to promise that they would give hostages and execute his +commands. Which embassies Caesar, because he was hastening into Italy +and Illyricum, ordered to return to him at the beginning of the +following summer. He himself, having led his legions into winter-quarters +among the Carnutes, the Andes, and the Turones, which states +were close to those regions in which he had waged war, set out for +Italy; and a thanksgiving of fifteen days was decreed for those +achievements, upon receiving Caesar's letter; [an honour] which before +that time had been conferred on none. + + + +BOOK III + +I.--When Caesar was setting out for Italy, he sent Servius Galba with +the twelfth legion and part of the cavalry against the Nantuates, the +Veragri, and Seduni, who extend from the territories of the Allobroges, +and the lake of Geneva, and the river Rhone to the top of the Alps. The +reason for sending him was, that he desired that the pass along the +Alps, through which [the Roman] merchants had been accustomed to travel +with great danger, and under great imposts, should be opened. He +permitted him, if he thought it necessary, to station the legion in +these places, for the purpose of wintering. Galba having fought some +successful battles, and stormed several of their forts, upon ambassadors +being sent to him from all parts and hostages given and a peace +concluded, determined to station two cohorts among the Nantuates, and to +winter in person with the other cohorts of that legion in a village of +the Veragri, which is called Octodurus; and this village being situated +in a valley, with a small plain annexed to it, is bounded on all sides +by very high mountains. As this village was divided into two parts by a +river, he granted one part of it to the Gauls, and assigned the other, +which had been left by them unoccupied, to the cohorts to winter in. He +fortified this [latter] part with a rampart and a ditch. + +II.--When several days had elapsed in winter quarters, and he had +ordered corn to be brought in, he was suddenly informed by his scouts +that all the people had gone off in the night from that part of the town +which he had given up to the Gauls, and that the mountains which hung +over it were occupied by a very large force of the Sedani and Veragri. +It had happened for several reasons that the Gauls suddenly formed the +design of renewing the war and cutting off that legion. First, because +they despised a single legion, on account of its small number, and that +not quite full (two cohorts having been detached, and several +individuals being absent, who had been despatched for the purpose of +seeking provision); then, likewise, because they thought that on account +of the disadvantageous character of the situation, even their first +attack could not be sustained [by us] when they would rush from the +mountains into the valley, and discharge their weapons upon us. To this +was added, that they were indignant that their children were torn from +them under the title of hostages, and they were persuaded that the +Romans designed to seize upon the summits of the Alps, and unite those +parts to the neighbouring province [of Gaul], not only to secure the +passes, but also as a constant possession. + +III.--Having received these tidings, Galba, since the works of the +winter quarters and the fortifications were not fully completed, nor was +sufficient preparation made with regard to corn and other provisions +(since, as a surrender had been made, and hostages received, he had +thought he need entertain no apprehension of a war), speedily summoning +a council, began to anxiously inquire their opinions. In which council, +since so much sudden danger had happened contrary to the general +expectation, and almost all the higher places were seen already covered +with a multitude of armed men, nor could [either] troops come to their +relief, or provisions be brought in, as the passes were blocked up [by +the enemy]; safety being now nearly despaired of, some opinions of this +sort were delivered; that, "leaving their baggage, and making a sally, +they should hasten away for safety by the same routes by which they had +come thither." To the greater part, however, it seemed best, reserving +that measure to the last, to await the issue of the matter, and to +defend the camp. + +IV.--A short time only having elapsed, so that time was scarcely given +for arranging and executing those things which they had determined on, +the enemy, upon the signal being given, rushed down [upon our men] from +all parts, and discharged stones and darts upon our rampart. Our men at +first, while their strength was fresh, resisted bravely, nor did they +cast any weapon ineffectually from their higher station. As soon as any +part of the camp, being destitute of defenders, seemed to be hard +pressed, thither they ran, and brought assistance. But they were +over-matched in this, that the enemy when wearied by the long continuance +of the battle, went out of the action, and others with fresh strength +came in their place; none of which things could be done by our men, owing +to the smallness of their number; and not only was permission not given +to the wearied [Roman] to retire from the fight, but not even to the +wounded [was liberty granted] to quit the post where he had been +stationed, and recover. + +V.--When they had now been fighting for more than six hours, without +cessation, and not only strength, but even weapons were failing our men, +and the enemy were pressing on more rigorously, and had begun to +demolish the rampart and to fill up the trench, while our men were +becoming exhausted, and the matter was now brought to the last +extremity, P. Sextius Baculus, a centurion of the first rank, whom we +have related to have been disabled by severe wounds in the engagement +with the Nervii, and also C. Volusenus, a tribune of the soldiers, a man +of great skill and valour, hasten to Galba, and assure him that the only +hope of safety lay in making a sally, and trying the last resource. +Whereupon, assembling the centurions, he quickly gives orders to the +soldiers to discontinue the fight a short time, and only collect the +weapons flung [at them], and recruit themselves after their fatigue, and +afterwards, upon the signal being given, sally forth from the camp, and +place in their valour all their hope of safety. + +VI.--They do what they were ordered; and, making a sudden sally from all +the gates [of the camp], leave the enemy the means neither of knowing +what was taking place, nor of collecting themselves. Fortune thus taking +a turn, [our men] surround on every side, and slay those who had +entertained the hope of gaining the camp, and having killed more than +the third part of an army of more than 30,000 men (which number of the +barbarians it appeared certain had come up to our camp), put to flight +the rest when panic-stricken, and do not suffer them to halt even upon +the higher grounds. All the forces of the enemy being thus routed, and +stripped of their arms, [our men] betake themselves to their camp and +fortifications. Which battle being finished, inasmuch as Galba was +unwilling to tempt fortune again, and remembered that he had come into +winter quarters with one design, and saw that he had met with a +different state of affairs; chiefly however urged by the want of corn +and provision, having the next day burned all the buildings of that +village, he hastens to return into the province; and as no enemy opposed +or hindered his march, he brought the legion safe into the [country of +the] Nantuates, thence into [that of] the Allobroges, and there +wintered. + +VII.--These things being achieved, while Caesar had every reason to +suppose that Gaul was reduced to a state of tranquillity, the Belgae +being overcome, the Germans expelled, the Seduni among the Alps +defeated, and when he had, therefore, in the beginning of winter, set +out for Illyricum, as he wished to visit those nations, and acquire a +knowledge of their countries, a sudden war sprang up in Gaul. The +occasion of that war was this: P. Crassus, a young man, had taken up his +winter quarters with the seventh legion among the Andes, who border upon +the [Atlantic] ocean. He, as there was a scarcity of corn in those +parts, sent out some officers of cavalry and several military tribunes +amongst the neighbouring states, for the purpose of procuring corn and +provision; in which number T. Terrasidius was sent amongst the Esubii; +M. Trebius Gallus amongst the Curiosolitae; Q. Velanius, with T. Silius, +amongst the Veneti. + +VIII.--The influence of this state is by far the most considerable of +any of the countries on the whole sea coast, because the Veneti both +have a very great number of ships, with which they have been accustomed +to sail to Britain, and [thus] excel the rest in their knowledge and +experience of nautical affairs; and as only a few ports lie scattered +along that stormy and open sea, of which they are in possession, they +hold as tributaries almost all those who are accustomed to traffic in +that sea. With them arose the beginning [of the revolt] by their +detaining Silius and Velanius; for they thought that they should recover +by their means the hostages which they had given to Crassus. The +neighbouring people, led on by their influence (as the measures of the +Gauls are sudden and hasty), detain Trebius and Terrasidius for the same +motive; and quickly sending ambassadors, by means of their leading men, +they enter into a mutual compact to do nothing except by general +consent, and abide the same issue of fortune; and they solicit the other +states to choose rather to continue in that liberty which they had +received from their ancestors, than endure slavery under the Romans. All +the sea coast being quickly brought over to their sentiments, they send +a common embassy to P. Crassus [to say], "If he wished to receive back +his officers, let him send back to them their hostages." + +IX.--Caesar, being informed of these things by Crassus, since he was so +far distant himself, orders ships of war to be built in the meantime on +the river Loire, which flows into the ocean; rowers to be raised from +the province; sailors and pilots to be provided. These matters being +quickly executed, he himself, as soon as the season of the year permits, +hastens to the army. The Veneti, and the other states also, being +informed of Caesar's arrival, when they reflected how great a crime they +had committed, in that the ambassadors (a character which had amongst +all nations ever been sacred and inviolable) had by them been detained +and thrown into prison, resolve to prepare for a war in proportion to +the greatness of their danger, and especially to provide those things +which appertain to the service of a navy; with the greater confidence, +inasmuch as they greatly relied on the nature of their situation. They +knew that the passes by land were cut off by estuaries, that the +approach by sea was most difficult, by reason of our ignorance of the +localities, [and] the small number of the harbours, and they trusted +that our army would not be able to stay very long among them, on account +of the insufficiency of corn; and again, even if all these things should +turn out contrary to their expectation, yet they were very powerful in +their navy. They, well understood that the Romans neither had any number +of ships, nor were acquainted with the shallows, the harbours, or the +islands of those parts where they would have to carry on the war; and +that navigation was very different in a narrow sea from what it was in +the vast and open ocean. Having come to this resolution, they fortify +their towns, convey corn into them from the country parts, bring +together as many ships as possible to Venetia, where it appeared Caesar +would at first carry on the war. They unite to themselves as allies for +that war, the Osismii, the Lexovii, the Nannetes, the Ambiliati, the +Morini, the Diablintes, and the Menapii; and send for auxiliaries from +Britain, which is situated over against those regions. + +X.--There were these difficulties which we have mentioned above, in +carrying on the war, but many things, nevertheless, urged Caesar to that +war; the open insult offered to the state in the detention of the Roman +knights, the rebellion raised after surrendering, the revolt after +hostages were given, the confederacy of so many states, but principally, +lest if [the conduct of] this part was overlooked, the other nations +should think that the same thing was permitted them. Wherefore, since he +reflected that almost all the Gauls were fond of revolution, and easily +and quickly excited to war; that all men likewise, by nature, love +liberty and hate the condition of slavery, he thought he ought to divide +and more widely distribute his army, before more states should join the +confederation. + +XI.--He therefore sends T. Labienus, his lieutenant, with the cavalry to +the Treviri, who are nearest to the river Rhine. He charges him to visit +the Remi and the other Belgians, and to keep them in their allegiance +and repel the Germans (who were said to have been summoned by the Belgae +to their aid) if they attempted to cross the river by force in their +ships. He orders P. Crassus to proceed into Aquitania with twelve +legionary cohorts and a great number of the cavalry, lest auxiliaries +should be sent into Gaul by these states, and such great nations be +united. He sends Q. Titurius Sabinus, his lieutenant, with three +legions, among the Unelli, the Curiosolitae, and the Lexovii, to take +care that their forces should be kept separate from the rest. He +appoints D. Brutus, a young man, over the fleet and those Gallic vessels +which he had ordered to be furnished by the Pictones and the Santoni, +and the other provinces which remained at peace; and commands him to +proceed towards the Veneti, as soon as he could. He himself hastens +thither with the land forces. + +XII.--The sites of their towns were generally such that, being placed on +extreme points [of land] and on promontories, they neither had an +approach by land when the tide had rushed in from the main ocean, which +always happens twice in the space of twelve hours; nor by ships, +because, upon the tide ebbing again, the ships were likely to be dashed +upon the shoals. Thus, by either circumstance, was the storming of their +towns rendered difficult; and if at any time perchance the Veneti, +overpowered by the greatness of our works (the sea having been excluded +by a mound and large dams, and the latter being made almost equal in +height to the walls of the town), had begun to despair of their +fortunes, bringing up a large number of ships, of which they had a very +great quantity, they carried off all their property and betook +themselves to the nearest towns; there they again defended themselves by +the same advantages of situation. They did this the more easily during a +great part of the summer, because our ships were kept back by storms, +and the difficulty of sailing was very great in that vast and open sea, +with its strong tides and its harbours far apart and exceedingly few in +number. + +XIII.--For their ships were built and equipped after this manner. The +keels were somewhat flatter than those of our ships, whereby they could +more easily encounter the shallows and the ebbing of the tide: the prows +were raised very high, and in like manner the sterns were adapted to the +force of the waves and storms [which they were formed to sustain]. The +ships were built wholly of oak, and designed to endure any force and +violence whatever; the benches, which were made of planks a foot in +breadth, were fastened by iron spikes of the thickness of a man's thumb; +the anchors were secured fast by iron chains instead of cables, and for +sails they used skins and thin dressed leather. These [were used] either +through their want of canvas and their ignorance of its application, or +for this reason, which is more probable, that they thought that such +storms of the ocean, and such violent gales of wind could not be +resisted by sails, nor ships of such great burden be conveniently enough +managed by them. The encounter of our fleet with these ships was of such +a nature that our fleet excelled in speed alone, and the plying of the +oars; other things, considering the nature of the place [and] the +violence of the storms, were more suitable and better adapted on their +side; for neither could our ships injure theirs with their beaks (so +great was their strength), nor on account of their height was a weapon +easily cast up to them; and for the same reason they were less readily +locked in by rocks. To this was added, that whenever a storm began to +rage and they ran before the wind, they both could weather the storm +more easily and heave to securely in the shallows, and when left by the +tide feared nothing from rocks and shelves: the risk of all which things +was much to be dreaded by our ships. + +XIV.--Caesar, after taking many of their towns, perceiving that so much +labour was spent in vain and that the flight of the enemy could not be +prevented on the capture of their towns, and that injury could not be +done them, he determined to wait for his fleet. As soon as it came up +and was first seen by the enemy, about 220 of their ships, fully +equipped and appointed with every kind of [naval] implement, sailed +forth from the harbour, and drew up opposite to ours; nor did it appear +clear to Brutus, who commanded the fleet, or to the tribunes of the +soldiers and the centurions, to whom the several ships were assigned, +what to do, or what system of tactics to adopt; for they knew that +damage could not be done by their beaks; and that, although turrets were +built [on their decks], yet the height of the stems of the barbarian +ships exceeded these; so that weapons could not be cast up from [our] +lower position with sufficient effect, and those cast by the Gauls fell +the more forcibly upon us. One thing provided by our men was of great +service, [viz.] sharp hooks inserted into and fastened upon poles, of a +form not unlike the hooks used in attacking town walls. When the ropes +which fastened the sail-yards to the masts were caught by them and +pulled, and our vessel vigorously impelled with the oars, they [the +ropes] were severed; and when they were cut away, the yards necessarily +fell down; so that as all the hope of the Gallic vessels depended on +their sails and rigging, upon these being cut away, the entire +management of the ships was taken from them at the same time. The rest +of the contest depended on courage; in which our men decidedly had the +advantage; and the more so because the whole action was carried on in +the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that no act, a little more +valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved, for all the hills and +higher grounds, from which there was a near prospect of the sea, were +occupied by our army. + +XV.--The sail-yards [of the enemy], as we have said, being brought down, +although two and [in some cases] three ships [of theirs] surrounded each +one [of ours], the soldiers strove with the greatest energy to board the +ships of the enemy: and, after the barbarians observed this taking +place, as a great many of their ships were beaten, and as no relief for +that evil could be discovered, they hastened to seek safety in flight. +And, having now turned their vessels to that quarter in which the wind +blew, so great a calm and lull suddenly arose, that they could not move +out of their place, which circumstance, truly, was exceedingly opportune +for finishing the business; for our men gave chase and took them one by +one, so that very few out of all the number, [and those] by the +intervention of night, arrived at the land, after the battle had lasted +almost from the fourth hour till sunset. + +XVI.--By this battle the war with the Veneti and the whole of the sea +coast was finished; for both all the youth, and all, too, of more +advanced age, in whom there was any discretion or rank, had assembled in +that battle; and they had collected in that one place whatever naval +forces they had anywhere; and when these were lost, the survivors had no +place to retreat to, nor means of defending their towns. They +accordingly surrendered themselves and all their possessions to Caesar, +on whom Caesar thought that punishment should be inflicted the more +severely, in order that for the future the rights of ambassadors might +be more carefully respected, by barbarians: having, therefore, put to +death all their senate, he sold the rest for slaves. + +XVII.--While these things are going on amongst the Veneti, Q. Titurius +Sabinus with those troops which he had received from Caesar, arrives in +the territories of the Unelli. Over these people Viridovix ruled, and +held the chief command of all those states which had revolted: from +which he had collected a large and powerful army. And in those few days, +the Aulerci and the Sexovii, having slain their senate because they +would not consent to be promoters of the war, shut their gates [against +us] and united themselves to Viridovix; a great multitude besides of +desperate men and robbers assembled out of Gaul from all quarters, whom +the hope of plundering and the love of fighting had called away from +husbandry and their daily labour. Sabinus kept himself within his camp, +which was in a position convenient for everything; while Viridovix +encamped over against him at a distance of two miles, and daily bringing +out his forces, gave him an opportunity of fighting; so that Sabinus had +now not only come into contempt with the enemy, but also was somewhat +taunted by the speeches of our soldiers; and furnished so great a +suspicion of his cowardice that the enemy presumed to approach even to +the very rampart of our camp. He adopted this conduct for the following +reason: because he did not think that a lieutenant ought to engage in +battle with so great a force, especially while he who held the chief +command was absent, except on advantageous ground or some favourable +circumstance presented itself. + +XVIII.--After having established this suspicion of his cowardice, he +selected a certain suitable and crafty Gaul, who was one of those whom +he had with him as auxiliaries. He induces him by great gifts and +promises to go over to the enemy; and informs [him] of what he wished to +be done. Who, when he arrives amongst them as a deserter, lays before +them the fears of the Romans; and informs them by what difficulties +Caesar himself was harassed, and that the matter was not far removed +from this--that Sabinus would the next night privately draw off his army +out of the camp and set forth to Caesar, for the purpose of carrying +[him] assistance, which, when they heard, they all cry out together that +an opportunity of successfully conducting their enterprise ought not to +be thrown away; that they ought to go to the [Roman] camp. Many things +persuaded the Gauls to this measure; the delay of Sabinus during the +previous days; the positive assertion of the [pretended] deserter; want +of provisions, for a supply of which they had not taken the requisite +precautions; the hope springing from the Venetic war; and [also] because +in most cases men willingly believe what they wish. Influenced by these +things, they do not discharge Viridovix and the other leaders from the +council, before they gained permission from them to take up arms and +hasten to [our] camp; which being granted, rejoicing as if victory were +fully certain, they collected faggots and brushwood, with which to fill +up the Roman trenches, and hasten to the camp. + +XIX.--The situation of the camp was a rising ground, gently sloping from +the bottom for about a mile. Thither they proceeded with great speed (in +order that as little time as possible might be given to the Romans to +collect and arm themselves), and arrived quite out of breath. Sabinus +having encouraged his men, gives them the signal, which they earnestly +desired. While the enemy were encumbered by reason of the burdens which +they were carrying, he orders a sally to be suddenly made from two gates +[of the camp]. It happened, by the advantage of situation, by the +unskilfulness and the fatigue of the enemy, by the valour of our +soldiers, and their experience in former battles, that they could not +stand one attack of our men, and immediately turned their backs: and our +men with full vigour followed them while disordered, and slew a great +number of them; the horse pursuing the rest, left but few, who escaped +by flight. Thus at the same time, Sabinus was informed of the naval +battle and Caesar of victory gained by Sabinus; and all the states +immediately surrendered themselves to Titurius: for as the temper of the +Gauls is impetuous and ready to undertake wars, so their mind is weak, +and by no means resolute in enduring calamities. + +XX.--About the same time, P. Crassus, when he had arrived in Aquitania +(which, as has been before said, both from its extent of territory and +the great number of its people, is to be reckoned a third part of Gaul), +understanding that he was to wage war in these parts, where a few years +before L. Valerius Praeconinus, the lieutenant, had been killed, and his +army routed, and from which L. Manilius, the proconsul, had fled with +the loss of his baggage, he perceived that no ordinary care must be used +by him. Wherefore, having provided corn, procured auxiliaries and +cavalry, [and] having summoned by name many valiant men from Tolosa, +Carcaso, and Narbo, which are the states of the province of Gaul, that +border on these regions [Aquitania], he led his army into the +territories of the Sotiates. On his arrival being known, the Sotiates +having brought together great forces and [much] cavalry, in which their +strength principally lay, and assailing our army on the march, engaged +first in a cavalry action, then when their cavalry was routed, and our +men pursuing, they suddenly display their infantry forces, which they +had placed in ambuscade in a valley. These attacked our men [while] +disordered, and renewed the fight. + +XXI.--The battle was long and vigorously contested, since the Sotiates, +relying on their former victories, imagined that the safety of the whole +of Aquitania rested on their valour; [and] our men, on the other hand, +desired it might be seen what they could accomplish without their +general and without the other legions, under a very young commander; at +length the enemy, worn out with wounds, began to turn their backs, and a +great number of them being slain, Crassus began to besiege the +[principal] town of the Sotiates on his march. Upon their valiantly +resisting, he raised vineae and turrets. They at one time attempting a +sally, at another forming mines to our rampart and vineae (at which the +Aquitani are eminently skilled, because in many places amongst them +there are copper mines); when they perceived that nothing could be +gained by these operations through the perseverance of our men, they +send ambassadors to Crassus, and entreat him to admit them to a +surrender. Having obtained it, they, being ordered to deliver up their +arms, comply. + +XXII.--And while the attention of our men is engaged in that matter, in +another part Adcantuannus, who held the chief command, with 600 devoted +followers, whom they call soldurii (the conditions of whose association +are these,--that they enjoy all the conveniences of life with those to +whose friendship they have devoted themselves: if anything calamitous +happen to them, either they endure the same destiny together with them, +or commit suicide: nor hitherto, in the memory of men, has there been +found any one who, upon his being slain to whose friendship he had +devoted himself, refused to die); Adcantuannus, [I say] endeavouring to +make a sally with these, when our soldiers had rushed together to arms, +upon a shout being raised at that part of the fortification, and a +fierce battle had been fought there, was driven back into the town, yet +he obtained from Crassus [the indulgence] that he should enjoy the same +terms of surrender [as the other inhabitants]. + +XXIII.--Crassus, having received their arms and hostages, marched into +the territories of the Vocates and the Tarusates. But then, the +barbarians being alarmed, because they had heard that a town fortified +by the nature of the place and by art had been taken by us in a few days +after our arrival there, began to send ambassadors into all quarters, to +combine, to give hostages one to another, to raise troops. Ambassadors +also are sent to those states of Hither Spain which are nearest to +Aquitania, and auxiliaries and leaders are summoned from them; on whose +arrival they proceed to carry on the war with great confidence, and with +a great host of men. They who had been with Q. Sertorius the whole +period [of his war in Spain] and were supposed to have very great skill +in military matters, are chosen leaders. These, adopting the practice of +the Roman people, begin to select [advantageous] places, to fortify +their camp, to cut off our men from provisions, which, when Crassus +observes, [and likewise] that his forces, on account of their small +number, could not safely be separated; that the enemy both made +excursions and beset the passes, and [yet] left sufficient guard for +their camp; that on that account, corn and provision could not very +conveniently be brought up to him, and that the number of the enemy was +daily increased, he thought that he ought not to delay in giving battle. +This matter being brought to a council, when he discovered that all +thought the same thing, he appointed the next day for the fight. + +XXIV.--Having drawn out all his forces at the break of day, and +marshalled them in a double line, he posted the auxiliaries in the +centre, and waited to see what measures the enemy would take. They, +although on account of their great number and their ancient renown in +war, and the small number of our men, they supposed they might safely +fight, nevertheless considered it safer to gain the victory without any +wound, by besetting the passes [and] cutting off the provisions: and if +the Romans, on account of the want of corn, should begin to retreat, +they intended to attack them while encumbered in their march and +depressed in spirit [as being assailed while] under baggage. This +measure being approved of by the leaders and the forces of the Romans +drawn out, the enemy [still] kept themselves in their camp. Crassus +having remarked this circumstance, since the enemy, intimidated by their +own delay, and by the reputation [_i.e._ for cowardice arising thence] +had rendered our soldiers more eager for fighting, and the remarks of +all were heard [declaring] that no longer ought delay to be made in +going to the camp, after encouraging his men, he marches to the camp of +the enemy, to the great gratification of his own troops. + +XXV.--There, while some were filling up the ditch, and others, by +throwing a large number of darts, were driving the defenders from the +rampart and fortifications, and the auxiliaries, on whom Crassus did not +much rely in the battle, by supplying stones and weapons [to the +soldiers], and by conveying turf to the mound, presented the appearance +and character of men engaged in fighting; while also the enemy were +fighting resolutely and boldly, and their weapons, discharged from their +higher position, fell with great effect; the horse, having gone round +the camp of the enemy, reported to Crassus that the camp was not +fortified with equal care on the side of the Decuman gate, and had an +easy approach. + +XXVI.--Crassus, having exhorted the commanders of the horse to animate +their men by great rewards and promises, points out to them what he +wished to have done. They, as they had been commanded, having brought +out the four cohorts, which, as they had been left as a guard for the +camp, were not fatigued by exertion, and having led them round by a +somewhat longer way, lest they could be seen from the camp of the enemy, +when the eyes and minds of all were intent upon the battle, quickly +arrived at those fortifications which we have spoken of, and, having +demolished these, stood in the camp of the enemy before they were seen +by them, or it was known what was going on. And then, a shout being +heard in that quarter, our men, their strength having been recruited +(which usually occurs on the hope of victory), began to fight more +vigorously. The enemy, surrounded on all sides, [and] all their affairs +being despaired of, made great attempts to cast themselves down over the +ramparts and to seek safety in flight. These the cavalry pursued over +the very open plains, and after leaving scarcely a fourth part out of +the number of 50,000, which it was certain had assembled out of +Aquitania and from the Cantabri, returned late at night to the camp. + +XXVII.--Having heard of this battle, the greatest part of Aquitania +surrendered itself to Crassus, and of its own accord sent hostages, in +which number were the Tarbelli, the Bigerriones, the Preciani, the +Vocasates, the Tarusates, the Elurates, the Garites, the Ausci, the +Garumni, the Sibuzates, the Cocosates. A few [and those] most remote +nations, relying on the time of the year, because winter was at hand, +neglected to do this. + +XXVIII.--About the same time Caesar, although the summer was nearly +past, yet since, all Gaul being reduced, the Morini and the Menapii +alone remained in arms, and had never sent ambassadors to him [to make a +treaty] of peace, speedily led his army thither, thinking that that war +might soon be terminated. They resolved to conduct the war on a very +different method from the rest of the Gauls; for as they perceived that +the greatest nations [of Gaul] who had engaged in war, had been routed +and overcome, and as they possessed continuous ranges of forests and +morasses, they removed themselves and all their property thither. When +Caesar had arrived at the opening of these forests, and had begun to +fortify his camp, and no enemy was in the meantime seen, while our men +were dispersed on their respective duties, they suddenly rushed out from +all parts of the forest, and made an attack on our men. The latter +quickly took up arms and drove them back again to their forests; and +having killed a great many, lost a few of their own men while pursuing +them too far through those intricate places. + +XXIX.--During the remaining days after this, Caesar began to cut down +the forests; and that no attack might be made on the flank of the +soldiers, while unarmed and not foreseeing it, he placed together +(opposite to the enemy) all that timber which was cut down, and piled it +up as a rampart on either flank. When a great space had been, with +incredible speed, cleared in a few days, when the cattle [of the enemy] +and the rear of their baggage-train were already seized by our men, and +they themselves were seeking for the thickest parts of the forests, +storms of such a kind came on that the work was necessarily suspended, +and, through the continuance of the rains, the soldiers could not any +longer remain in their tents. Therefore, having laid waste all their +country, [and] having burnt their villages and houses, Caesar led back +his army and stationed them in winter-quarters among the Aulerci and +Lexovii, and the other states which had made war upon him last. + + + +BOOK IV + +I.-The following winter (this was the year in which Cn. Pompey and M. +Crassus were consuls), those Germans [called] the Usipetes, and likewise +the Tenchtheri, with a great number of men, crossed the Rhine, not far +from the place at which that river discharges itself into the sea. The +motive for crossing [that river] was that, having been for several years +harassed by the Suevi, they were constantly engaged in war, and hindered +from the pursuits of agriculture. The nation of the Suevi is by far the +largest and the most warlike nation of all the Germans. They are said to +possess a hundred cantons, from each of which they yearly send from +their territories for the purpose of war a thousand armed men: the +others who remain at home, maintain [both] themselves and those engaged +in the expedition. The latter again, in their turn, are in arms the year +after: the former remain at home. Thus neither husbandry nor the art and +practice of war are neglected. But among them there exists no private +and separate land; nor are they permitted to remain more than one year +in one place for the purpose of residence. They do not live much on +corn, but subsist for the most part on milk and flesh, and are much +[engaged] in hunting; which circumstance must, by the nature of their +food, and by their daily exercise and the freedom of their life (for +having from boyhood been accustomed to no employment, or discipline, +they do nothing at all contrary to their inclination), both promote +their strength and render them men of vast stature of body. And to such +a habit have they brought themselves, that even in the coldest parts +they wear no clothing whatever except skins, by reason of the scantiness +of which a great portion of their body is bare, and besides they bathe +in open rivers. + +II.--Merchants have access to them rather that they may have persons to +whom they may sell those things which they have taken in war, than +because they need any commodity to be imported to them. Moreover, even +as to labouring cattle, in which the Gauls take the greatest pleasure, +and which they procure at a great price, the Germans do not employ such +as are imported, but those poor and ill-shaped animals which belong to +their country; these, however, they render capable of the greatest +labour by daily exercise. In cavalry actions they frequently leap from +their horses and fight on foot; and train their horses to stand still in +the very spot on which they leave them, to which they retreat with great +activity when there is occasion; nor, according to their practice, is +anything regarded as more unseemly, or more unmanly, than to use +housings. Accordingly, they have the courage, though they be themselves +but few, to advance against any number whatever of horse mounted with +housings. They on no account permit wine to be imported to them, because +they consider that men degenerate in their powers of enduring fatigue, +and are rendered effeminate by that commodity. + +III.--They esteem it their greatest praise as a nation that the lands +about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great extent, inasmuch +as [they think] that by this circumstance is indicated that a great +number of nations cannot, withstand their power; and thus on one side of +the Suevi the lands are said to lie desolate for about six hundred +miles. On the other side they border on the Ubii, whose state was large +and flourishing, considering the condition of the Germans, and who are +somewhat more refined than those of the same race and the rest [of the +Germans], and that because they border on the Rhine, and are much +resorted to by merchants, and are accustomed to the manners of the +Gauls, by reason of their approximity to them. Though the Suevi, after +making the attempt frequently and in several wars, could not expel this +nation from their territories, on account of the extent and population +of their state, yet they made them tributaries, and rendered them less +distinguished and powerful [than they had ever been]. + +IV.--In the same condition were the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri (whom we +have mentioned above), who for many years resisted the power of the +Suevi, but being at last driven from their possessions, and having +wandered through many parts of Germany, came to the Rhine, to districts +which the Menapii inhabited, and where they had lands, houses, and +villages on either side of the river. The latter people, alarmed by the +arrival of so great a multitude, removed from those houses which they +had on the other side of the river, and having placed guards on this +side the Rhine, proceeded to hinder the Germans from crossing. They, +finding themselves, after they had tried all means, unable either to +force a passage on account of their deficiency in shipping, or cross by +stealth on account of the guards of the Menapii, pretended to return to +their own settlements and districts; and, after having proceeded three +days' march, returned; and their cavalry having performed the whole of +this journey in one night, cut off the Menapii, who were ignorant of, +and did not expect [their approach, and] who, having moreover been +informed of the departure of the Germans by their scouts, had without +apprehension returned to their villages beyond the Rhine. Having slain +these, and seized their ships, they crossed the river before that part +of the Menapii, who were at peace in their settlements over the Rhine, +were apprised of [their intention]; and seizing all their houses, +maintained themselves upon their provisions during the rest of the +winter. + +V.--Caesar, when informed of these matters, fearing the fickle +disposition of the Gauls, who are easily prompted to take up +resolutions, and much addicted to change, considered that nothing was to +be entrusted to them; for it is the custom of that people to compel +travellers to stop, even against their inclination, and inquire what +they may have heard, or may know, respecting any matter; and in towns +the common people throng around merchants and force them to state from +what countries they come, and what affairs they know of there. They +often engage in resolutions concerning the most important matters, +induced by these reports and stories alone; of which they must +necessarily instantly repent, since they yield to mere unauthorised +reports; and since most people give to their questions answers framed +agreeably to their wishes. + +VI.--Caesar, being aware of their custom, in order that he might not +encounter a more formidable war, sets forward to the army earlier in the +year than he was accustomed to do. When he had arrived there, he +discovered that those things, which he had suspected would occur, had +taken place; that embassies had been sent to the Germans by some of the +states, and that they had been entreated to leave the Rhine, and had +been promised that all things which they desired should be provided by +the Gauls. Allured by this hope, the Germans were then making excursions +to greater distances, and had advanced to the territories of the +Eburones and the Condrusi, who are under the protection of the Treviri. +After summoning the chiefs of Gaul, Caesar thought proper to pretend +ignorance of the things which he had discovered; and having conciliated +and confirmed their minds, and ordered some cavalry to be raised, +resolved to make war against the Germans. + +VII.--Having provided corn and selected his cavalry, he began to direct +his march towards those parts in which he heard the Germans were. When +he was distant from them only a few days' march, ambassadors come to him +from their state; whose speech was as follows:--"That the Germans +neither make war upon the Roman people first, nor do they decline, if +they are provoked, to engage with them in arms; for that this was the +custom of the Germans handed down to them from their forefathers, to +resist whatsoever people make war upon them and not to avert it by +entreaty; this, however, they confessed,--that they had come hither +reluctantly, having been expelled from their country. If the Romans were +disposed to accept their friendship, they might be serviceable allies to +them; and let them either assign them lands, or permit them to retain +those which they had acquired by their arms; that they are inferior to +the Suevi alone, to whom not even the immortal gods can show themselves +equal; that there was none at all besides on earth whom they could not +conquer." + +VIII.--To these remarks Caesar replied in such terms as he thought +proper; but the conclusion of his speech was, "That he could make no +alliance with them, if they continued in Gaul; that it was not probable +that they who were not able to defend their own territories, should get +possession of those of others, nor were there any lands lying waste in +Gaul which could be given away, especially to so great a number of men, +without doing wrong [to others]; but they might, if they were desirous, +settle in the territories of the Ubii; whose ambassadors were then with +him, and were complaining of the aggressions of the Suevi, and +requesting assistance from him; and that he would obtain this request +from them." + +IX.--The ambassadors said that they would report these things to their +countrymen; and, after having deliberated on the matter, would return to +Caesar after the third day, they begged that he would not in the +meantime advance his camp nearer to them. Caesar said that he could not +grant them even that; for he had learned that they had sent a great part +of their cavalry over the Meuse to the Ambivariti, some days before, for +the purpose of plundering and procuring forage. He supposed that they +were then waiting for these horse, and that the delay was caused on this +account. + +X.--The Meuse rises from mount Le Vosge, which is in the territories of +the Lingones; and, having received a branch of the Rhine, which is +called the Waal, forms the island of the Batavi, and not more than +eighty miles from it it falls into the ocean. But the Rhine takes its +course among the Lepontii, who inhabit the Alps, and is carried with a +rapid current for a long distance through the territories of the +Sarunates, Helvetii, Sequani, Mediomatrici, Tribuci, and Treviri, and +when it approaches the ocean, divides into several branches; and, having +formed many and extensive islands, a great part of which are inhabited +by savage and barbarous nations (of whom there are some who are supposed +to live on fish and the eggs of sea-fowl), flows into the ocean by +several mouths. + +XI.--When Caesar was not more than twelve miles distant from the enemy, +the ambassadors return to him, as had been arranged; who meeting him on +the march, earnestly entreated him not to advance any farther. When they +could not obtain this, they begged him to send on a despatch to those +who had marched in advance of the main army, and forbid them to engage; +and grant them permission to send ambassadors to the Ubii, and if the +princes and senate of the latter would give them security by oath, they +assured Caesar that they would accept such conditions as might be +proposed by him; and requested that he would give them the space of +three days for negotiating these affairs. Caesar thought that these +things tended to the self-same point [as their other proposal]; [namely] +that, in consequence of a delay of three days intervening, their horse +which were at a distance might return; however, he said, that he would +not that day advance farther than four miles for the purpose of +procuring water; he ordered that they should assemble at that place in +as large a number as possible the following day, that he might inquire +into their demands. In the meantime he sends messengers to the officers +who had marched in advance with all the cavalry to order them not to +provoke the enemy to an engagement, and if they themselves were +assailed, to sustain the attack until he came up with the army. + +XII.--But the enemy, as soon as they saw our horse, the number of which +was 5000, whereas they themselves had not more than 800 horse, because +those which had gone over the Meuse for the purpose of foraging had not +returned, while our men had no apprehensions, because their ambassadors +had gone away from Caesar a little before, and that day had been +requested by them as a period of truce, made an onset on our men, and +soon threw them into disorder. When our men, in their turn, made a +stand, they, according to their practice, leaped from their horses to +their feet, and stabbing our horses in the belly and overthrowing a +great many of our men, put the rest to flight, and drove them forward so +much alarmed that they did not desist from their retreat till they had +come in sight of our army. In that encounter seventy-four of our horse +were slain; among them, Piso, an Aquitanian, a most valiant man, and +descended from a very illustrious family; whose grandfather had held the +sovereignty of his state, and had been styled friend by our senate. He, +while he was endeavouring to render assistance to his brother who was +surrounded by the enemy, and whom he rescued from danger, was himself +thrown from his horse, which was wounded under him, but still opposed +[his antagonists] with the greatest intrepidity, as long as he was able +to maintain the conflict. When at length he fell, surrounded on all +sides and after receiving many wounds, and his brother, who had then +retired from the fight, observed it from a distance, he spurred on his +horse, threw himself upon the enemy, and was killed. + +XIII.--After this engagement, Caesar considered that neither ought +ambassadors to be received to audience, nor conditions be accepted by +him from those who, after having sued for peace by way of stratagem and +treachery, had made war without provocation. And to wait till the +enemy's forces were augmented and their cavalry had returned, he +concluded, would be the greatest madness; and knowing the fickleness of +the Gauls, he felt how much influence the enemy had already acquired +among them by this one skirmish. He [therefore] deemed that no time for +converting measures ought to be afforded them. After having resolved on +these things and communicated his plans to his lieutenants and quaestor +in order that he might not suffer any opportunity for engaging to escape +him, a very seasonable event occurred, namely, that on the morning of +the next day, a large body of Germans, consisting of their princes and +old men, came to the camp to him to practise the same treachery and +dissimulation; but, as they asserted, for the purpose of acquitting +themselves for having engaged in a skirmish the day before, contrary to +what had been agreed and to what, indeed, they themselves had requested; +and also if they could by any means obtain a truce by deceiving him. +Caesar, rejoicing that they had fallen into his power, ordered them to +be detained. He then drew all his forces out of the camp, and commanded +the cavalry, because he thought they were intimidated by the late +skirmish, to follow in the rear. + +XIV.--Having marshalled his army in three lines, and in a short time +performed a march of eight miles, he arrived at the camp of the enemy +before the Germans could perceive what was going on; who being suddenly +alarmed by all the circumstances, both by the speediness of our arrival +and the absence of their own officers, as time was afforded neither for +concerting measures nor for seizing their arms, are perplexed as to +whether it would be better to lead out their forces against the enemy, +or to defend their camp, or seek their safety by flight. Their +consternation being made apparent by their noise and tumult, our +soldiers, excited by the treachery of the preceding day, rushed into the +camp: such of them as could readily get their arms for a short time +withstood our men, and gave battle among their carts and baggage-waggons; +but the rest of the people, [consisting] of boys and women (for they had +left their country and crossed the Rhine with all their families), began +to fly in all directions; in pursuit of whom Caesar sent the cavalry. + +XV.--The Germans when, upon hearing a noise behind them, [they looked +and] saw that their families were being slain, throwing away their arms +and abandoning their standards, fled out of the camp, and when they had +arrived at the confluence of the Meuse and the Rhine, the survivors +despairing of farther escape, as a great number of their countrymen had +been killed, threw themselves into the river and there perished, +overcome by fear, fatigue, and the violence of the stream. Our soldiers, +after the alarm of so great a war, for the number of the enemy amounted +to 430,000, returned to their camp, all safe to a man, very few being +even wounded. Caesar granted those whom he had detained in the camp +liberty of departing. They however, dreading revenge and torture from +the Gauls, whose lands they had harassed, said that they desired to +remain with him. Caesar granted them permission. + +XVI.--The German war being finished, Caesar thought it expedient for him +to cross the Rhine, for many reasons; of which this was the most +weighty, that, since he saw the Germans were so easily urged to go into +Gaul, he desired they should have their fears for their own territories +when they discovered that the army of the Roman people both could and +dared pass the Rhine. There was added also, that that portion of the +cavalry of the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, which I have above related +to have crossed the Meuse for the purpose of plundering and procuring +forage, and was not present at the engagement, had betaken themselves, +after the retreat of their countrymen, across the Rhine into the +territories of the Sigambri, and united themselves to them. When Caesar +sent ambassadors to them, to demand that they should give up to him +those who had made war against him and against Gaul, they replied, "That +the Rhine bounded the empire of the Roman people; if he did not think it +just for the Germans to pass over into Gaul against his consent, why did +he claim that anything beyond the Rhine should be subject to his +dominion or power?" The Ubii also, who alone, out of all the nations +lying beyond the Rhine, had sent ambassadors to Caesar, and formed an +alliance and given hostages, earnestly entreated "that he would bring +them assistance, because they were grievously oppressed by the Suevi; +or, if he was prevented from doing so by the business of the +commonwealth, he would at least transport his army over the Rhine; that +that would be sufficient for their present assistance and their hope for +the future; that so great was the name and the reputation of his army, +even among the most remote nations of the Germans, arising from the +defeat of Ariovistus and this last battle which was fought, that they +might be safe under the fame and friendship of the Roman people." They +promised a large number of ships for transporting the army. + +XVII.--Caesar, for those reasons which I have mentioned, had resolved to +cross the Rhine; but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be +sufficiently safe, nor considered consistent with his own dignity or +that of the Roman people. Therefore, although the greatest difficulty in +forming a bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, +rapidity, and depth of the river, he nevertheless considered that it +ought to be attempted by him, or that his army ought not otherwise to be +led over. He devised this plan of a bridge. He joined together at the +distance of two feet, two piles, each a foot and a half thick, sharpened +a little at the lower end, and proportioned in length to the depth of +the river. After he had, by means of engines, sunk these into the river, +and fixed them at the bottom, and then driven them in with rammers, not +quite perpendicularly, like a stake, but bending forward and sloping, so +as to incline in the direction of the current of the river; he also +placed two [other piles] opposite to these, at the distance of forty +feet lower down, fastened together in the same manner, but directed +against the force and current of the river. Both these, moreover, were +kept firmly apart by beams two feet thick (the space which the binding +of the piles occupied), laid in at their extremities between two braces +on each side; and in consequence of these being in different directions +and fastened on sides the one opposite to the other, so great was the +strength of the work, and such the arrangement of the materials, that in +proportion as the greater body of water dashed against the bridge, so +much the closer were its parts held fastened together. These beams were +bound together by timber laid over them in the direction of the length +of the bridge, and were [then] covered over with laths and hurdles; and +in addition to this, piles were driven into the water obliquely, at the +lower side of the bridge, and these serving as buttresses, and being +connected with every portion of the work, sustained the force of the +stream: and there were others also above the bridge, at a moderate +distance; that if trunks of trees or vessels were floated down the river +by the barbarians for the purpose of destroying the work, the violence +of such things might be diminished by these defences, and might not +injure the bridge. + +XVIII.--Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the +whole work was completed, and the whole army led over. Caesar, leaving a +strong guard at each end of the bridge, hastens into the territories of +the Sigambri. In the meantime ambassadors from several nations come to +him, whom, on their suing for peace and alliance, he answers in a +courteous manner, and orders hostages to be brought to him. But the +Sigambri, at the very time the bridge was begun to be built, made +preparations for a flight (by the advice of such of the Tenchtheri and +Usipetes as they had amongst them), and quitted their territories and +conveyed away all their possessions, and concealed themselves in deserts +and woods. + +XIX.--Caesar, having remained in their territories a few days, and burnt +all their villages and houses, and cut down their corn, proceeded into +the territories of the Ubii; and having promised them his assistance, if +they were ever harassed by the Suevi, he learned from them these +particulars: that the Suevi, after they had by means of their scouts +found that the bridge was being built, had called a council, according +to their custom, and sent orders to all parts of their state to remove +from the towns and convey their children, wives, and all their +possessions into the woods, and that all who could bear arms should +assemble in one place; that the place thus chosen was nearly the centre +of those regions which the Suevi possessed; that in this spot they had +resolved to await the arrival of the Romans, and give them battle there. +When Caesar discovered this, having already accomplished all those +things on account of which he had resolved to lead his army over, +namely, to strike fear into the Germans, take vengeance on the Sigambri, +and free the Ubii from the invasion of the Suevi, having spent +altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had advanced +far enough to serve both honour and interest, he returned into Gaul, and +cut down the bridge. + +XX.--During the short part of summer which remained, Caesar, although in +these countries, as all Gaul lies towards the north, the winters are +early, nevertheless resolved to proceed into Britain, because he +discovered that in almost all the wars with the Gauls succours had been +furnished to our enemy from that country; and even if the time of year +should be insufficient for carrying on the war, yet he thought it would +be of great service to him if he only entered the island, and saw into +the character of the people, and got knowledge of their localities, +harbours, and landing-places, all which were for the most part unknown +to the Gauls. For neither does any one except merchants generally go +thither, nor even to them was any portion of it known, except the +sea-coast and those parts which are opposite to Gaul. Therefore, after +having called up to him the merchants from all parts, he could learn +neither what was the size of the island, nor what or how numerous were +the nations which inhabited it, nor what system of war they followed, +nor what customs they used, nor what harbours were convenient for a +great number of large ships. + +XXI.--He sends before him Caius Volusenus with a ship of war, to acquire +a knowledge of these particulars before he in person should make a +descent into the island, as he was convinced that this was a judicious +measure. He commissioned him to thoroughly examine into all matters, and +then return to him as soon as possible. He himself proceeds to the +Morini with all his forces. He orders ships from all parts of the +neighbouring countries, and the fleet which the preceding summer he had +built for the war with the Veneti, to assemble in this place. In the +meantime, his purpose having been discovered, and reported to the +Britons by merchants, ambassadors come to him from several states of the +island, to promise that they will give hostages, and submit to the +government of the Roman people. Having given them an audience, he after +promising liberally, and exhorting them to continue in that purpose, +sends them back to their own country, and [despatches] with them +Commius, whom, upon subduing the Atrebates, he had created king there, a +man whose courage and conduct he esteemed, and who he thought would be +faithful to him, and whose influence ranked highly in those countries. +He orders him to visit as many states as he could, and persuade them to +embrace the protection of the Roman people, and apprise them that he +would shortly come thither. Volusenus, having viewed the localities as +far as means could be afforded one who dared not leave his ship and +trust himself to barbarians, returns to Caesar on the fifth day, and +reports what he had there observed. + +XXII.--While Caesar remains in these parts for the purpose of procuring +ships, ambassadors come to him from a great portion of the Morini, to +plead their excuse respecting their conduct on the late occasion; +alleging that it was as men uncivilised, and as those who were +unacquainted with our custom, that they had made war upon the Roman +people, and promising to perform what he should command. Caesar, +thinking that this had happened fortunately enough for him, because he +neither wished to leave an enemy behind him, nor had an opportunity for +carrying on a war, by reason of the time of year, nor considered that +employment in such trifling matters was to be preferred to his +enterprise on Britain, imposes a large number of hostages; and when +these were brought, he received them to his protection. Having collected +together and provided about eighty transport ships, as many as he +thought necessary for conveying over two legions, he assigned such +[ships] of war as he had besides to the quaestor, his lieutenants, and +officers of cavalry. There were in addition to these eighteen ships of +burden which were prevented, eight miles from that place, by winds, from +being able to reach the same port. These he distributed amongst the +horse; the rest of the army he delivered to Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. +Aurunculeius Cotta, his lieutenants, to lead into the territories of the +Menapii and those cantons of the Morini from which ambassadors had not +come to him. He ordered P. Sulpicius Rufus, his lieutenant, to hold +possession of the harbour, with such a garrison as he thought +sufficient. + +XXIII.--These matters being arranged, finding the weather favourable for +his voyage, he set sail about the third watch, and ordered the horse to +march forward to the farther port, and there embark and follow him. As +this was performed rather tardily by them, he himself reached Britain +with the first squadron of ships, about the fourth hour of the day, and +there saw the forces of the enemy drawn up in arms on all the hills. The +nature of the place was this: the sea was confined by mountains so close +to it that a dart could be thrown from their summit upon the shore. +Considering this by no means a fit place for disembarking, he remained +at anchor till the ninth hour, for the other ships to arrive there. +Having in the meantime assembled the lieutenants and military tribunes, +he told them both what he had learnt from Volusenus, and what he wished +to be done; and enjoined them (as the principle of military matters, and +especially as maritime affairs, which have a precipitate and uncertain +action, required) that all things should be performed by them at a nod +and at the instant. Having dismissed them, meeting both with wind and +tide favourable at the same time, the signal being given and the anchor +weighed, he advanced about seven miles from that place, and stationed +his fleet over against an open and level shore. + +XXIV.--But the barbarians, upon perceiving the design of the Romans, +sent forward their cavalry and charioteers, a class of warriors of whom +it is their practice to make great use in their battles, and following +with the rest of their forces, endeavoured to prevent our men landing. +In this was the greatest difficulty, for the following reasons, namely, +because our ships, on account of their great size, could be stationed +only in deep water; and our soldiers, in places unknown to them, with +their hands embarrassed, oppressed with a large and heavy weight of +armour, had at the same time to leap from the ships, stand amidst the +waves, and encounter the enemy; whereas they, either on dry ground, or +advancing a little way into the water, free in all their limbs, in +places thoroughly known to them, could confidently throw their weapons +and spur on their horses, which were accustomed to this kind of service. +Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of +battle, our men did not all exert the same vigour and eagerness which +they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground. + +XXV.--When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships of war, the +appearance of which was somewhat strange to the barbarians and the +motion more ready for service, to be withdrawn a little from the +transport vessels, and to be propelled by their oars, and be stationed +towards the open flank of the enemy, and the enemy to be beaten off and +driven away with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great +service to our men; for the barbarians being startled by the form of our +ships and the motions of our oars and the nature of our engines, which +was strange to them, stopped, and shortly after retreated a little. And +while our men were hesitating [whether they should advance to the +shore], chiefly on account of the depth of the sea, he who carried the +eagle of the tenth legion, after supplicating the gods that the matter +might turn out favourably to the legion, exclaimed, "Leap, fellow +soldiers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. I, for my +part, will perform my duty to the commonwealth and my general." When he +had said this with a loud voice, he leaped from the ship and proceeded +to bear the eagle toward the enemy. Then our men, exhorting one another +that so great a disgrace should not be incurred, all leaped from the +ship. When those in the nearest vessels saw them, they speedily followed +and approached the enemy. + +XXVI.--The battle was maintained vigorously on both sides. Our men, +however, as they could neither keep their ranks, nor get firm footing, +nor follow their standards, and as one from one ship and another from +another assembled around whatever standards they met, were thrown into +great confusion. But the enemy, who were acquainted with all the +shallows, when from the shore they saw any coming from a ship one by +one, spurred on their horses, and attacked them while embarrassed; many +surrounded a few, others threw their weapons upon our collected forces +on their exposed flank. When Caesar observed this, he ordered the boats +of the ships of war and the spy sloops to be filled with soldiers, and +sent them up to the succour of those whom he had observed in distress. +Our men, as soon as they made good their footing on dry ground, and all +their comrades had joined them, made an attack upon the enemy, and put +them to flight, but could not pursue them very far, because the horse +had not been able to maintain their course at sea and reach the island. +This alone was wanting to Caesar's accustomed success. + +XXVII.--The enemy being thus vanquished in battle, as soon as they +recovered after their flight, instantly sent ambassadors to Caesar to +negotiate about peace. They promised to give hostages and perform what +he should command. Together with these ambassadors came Commius the +Atrebatian, who, as I have above said, had been sent by Caesar into +Britain. Him they had seized upon when leaving his ship, although in the +character of ambassador he bore the general's commission to them, and +thrown into chains: then after the battle was fought, they sent him +back, and in suing for peace cast the blame of that act upon the common +people, and entreated that it might be pardoned on account of their +indiscretion. Caesar, complaining that after they had sued for peace, +and had voluntarily sent ambassadors into the continent for that +purpose, they had made war without a reason, said that he would pardon +their indiscretion, and imposed hostages, a part of whom they gave +immediately; the rest they said they would give in a few days, since +they were sent for from remote places. In the meantime they ordered +their people to return to the country parts, and the chiefs assembled +from all quarters, and proceeded to surrender themselves and their +states to Caesar. + +XXVIII.--A peace being established by these proceedings four days after +we had come into Britain, the eighteen ships, to which reference has +been made above, and which conveyed the cavalry, set sail from the upper +port with a gentle gale; when, however, they were approaching Britain +and were seen from the camp, so great a storm suddenly arose that none +of them could maintain their course at sea; and some were taken back to +the same port from which they had started;--others, to their great +danger, were driven to the lower part of the island, nearer to the west; +which, however, after having cast anchor, as they were getting filled +with water, put out to sea through necessity in a stormy night, and made +for the continent. + +XXIX.--It happened that night to be full moon, which usually occasions +very high tides in that ocean; and that circumstance was unknown to our +men. Thus, at the same time, the tide began to fill the ships of war +which Caesar had provided to convey over his army, and which he had +drawn up on the strand; and the storm began to dash the ships of burden +which were riding at anchor against each other; nor was any means +afforded our men of either managing them or of rendering any service. A +great many ships having been wrecked, inasmuch as the rest, having lost +their cables, anchors, and other tackling, were unfit for sailing, a +great confusion, as would necessarily happen, arose throughout the army; +for there were no other ships in which they could be conveyed back, and +all things which are of service in repairing vessels were wanting, and +corn for the winter had not been provided in those places, because it +was understood by all that they would certainly winter in Gaul. + +XXX.--On discovering these things the chiefs of Britain, who had come up +after the battle was fought to perform those conditions which Caesar had +imposed, held a conference, when they perceived that cavalry, and ships, +and corn were wanting to the Romans, and discovered the small number of +our soldiers from the small extent of the camp (which, too, was on this +account more limited than ordinary because Caesar had conveyed over his +legions without baggage), and thought that the best plan was to renew +the war, and cut off our men from corn and provisions and protract the +affair till winter; because they felt confident that, if they were +vanquished or cut off from a return, no one would afterwards pass over +into Britain for the purpose of making war. Therefore, again entering +into a conspiracy, they began to depart from the camp by degrees and +secretly bring up their people from the country parts. + +XXXI.--But Caesar, although he had not as yet discovered their measures, +yet, both from what had occurred to his ships, and from the circumstance +that they had neglected to give the promised hostages, suspected that +the thing would come to pass which really did happen. He therefore +provided remedies against all contingencies; for he daily conveyed corn +from the country parts into the camp, used the timber and brass of such +ships as were most seriously damaged for repairing the rest, and ordered +whatever things besides were necessary for this object to be brought to +him from the continent. And thus, since that business was executed by +the soldiers with the greatest energy, he effected that, after the loss +of twelve ships, a voyage could be made well enough in the rest. + +XXXII.--While these things are being transacted, one legion had been +sent to forage, according to custom, and no suspicion of war had arisen +as yet, and some of the people remained in the country parts, others +went backwards and forwards to the camp, they who were on duty at the +gates of the camp reported to Caesar that a greater dust than was usual +was seen in that direction in which the legion had marched. Caesar, +suspecting that which was [really the case],--that some new enterprise +was undertaken by the barbarians, ordered the two cohorts which were on +duty to march into that quarter with him, and two other cohorts to +relieve them on duty; the rest to be armed and follow him immediately. +When he had advanced some little way from the camp, he saw that his men +were overpowered by the enemy and scarcely able to stand their ground, +and that, the legion being crowded together, weapons were being cast on +them from all sides. For as all the corn was reaped in every part with +the exception of one, the enemy, suspecting that our men would repair to +that, had concealed themselves in the woods during the night. Then +attacking them suddenly, scattered as they were, and when they had laid +aside their arms, and were engaged in reaping, they killed a small +number, threw the rest into confusion, and surrounded them with their +cavalry and chariots. + +XXXIII.--Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, +they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally +break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the +noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between +the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The +charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance from the +battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters +are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready +retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of +horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry; and by daily practice +and exercise attain to such expertness that they are accustomed, even on +a declining and steep place, to check their horses at full speed, and +manage and turn them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on +the yoke, and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to +their chariots again. + +XXXIV.-Under these circumstances, our men being dismayed by the novelty +of this mode of battle, Caesar most seasonably brought assistance; for +upon his arrival the enemy paused, and our men recovered from their +fear; upon which, thinking the time unfavourable for provoking the enemy +and coming to an action, he kept himself in his own quarter, and, a +short time having intervened, drew back the legions into the camp. While +these things were going on, and all our men engaged, the rest of the +Britons, who were in the fields, departed. Storms then set in for +several successive days, which both confined our men to camp and +hindered the enemy from attacking us. In the meantime the barbarians +despatched messengers to all parts and reported to their people the +small number of our soldiers, and how good an opportunity was given for +obtaining spoil and for liberating themselves for ever, if they should +only drive the Romans from their camp. Having by these means speedily +got together a large force of infantry and of cavalry, they came up to +the camp. + +XXXV.--Although Caesar anticipated that the same thing which had +happened on former occasions would then occur--that, if the enemy were +routed, they would escape from danger by their speed; still, having got +about thirty horse, which Commius the Atrebatian, of whom mention has +been made, had brought over with him [from Gaul], he drew up the legions +in order of battle before the camp. When the action commenced, the enemy +were unable to sustain the attack of our men long, and turned their +backs; our men pursued them as far as their speed and strength +permitted, and slew a great number of them; then, having destroyed and +burnt everything far and wide, they retreated to their camp. + +XXXVI.--The same day, ambassadors sent by the enemy came to Caesar to +negotiate a peace. Caesar doubled the number of hostages which he had +before demanded; and ordered that they should be brought over to the +continent, because, since the time of the equinox was near, he did not +consider that, with his ships out of repair, the voyage ought to be +deferred till winter. Having met with favourable weather he set sail a +little after midnight, and all his fleet arrived safe at the continent, +except two of the ships of burden which could not make the same port +which the other ships did, and were carried a little lower down. + +XXXVII.--When our soldiers, about 300 in number, had been drawn out of +these two ships, and were marching to the camp, the Morini, whom Caesar, +when setting forth for Britain, had left in a state of peace, excited by +the hope of spoil, at first surrounded them with a small number of men, +and ordered them to lay down their arms, if they did not wish to be +slain; afterwards however, when they, forming a circle, stood on their +defence, a shout was raised and about 6000 of the enemy soon assembled; +which being reported, Caesar sent all the cavalry in the camp as a +relief to his men. In the meantime our soldiers sustained the attack of +the enemy, and fought most valiantly for more than four hours, and, +receiving but few wounds themselves, slew several of them. But after our +cavalry came in sight, the enemy, throwing away their arms, turned their +backs, and a great number of them were killed. + +XXXVIII.--The day following Caesar sent Labienus, his lieutenant, with +those legions which he had brought back from Britain, against the +Morini, who had revolted; who, as they had no place to which they might +retreat, on account of the drying up of their marshes (which they had +availed themselves of as a place of refuge the preceding year), almost +all fell into the power of Labienus. In the meantime Caesar's +lieutenants, Q. Titurius and L. Cotta, who had led the legions into the +territories of the Menapii, having laid waste all their lands, cut down +their corn and burnt their houses, returned to Caesar because the +Menapii had all concealed themselves in their thickest woods. Caesar +fixed the winter quarters of all the legions amongst the Belgae. Thither +only two British states sent hostages; the rest omitted to do so. For +these successes, a thanksgiving of twenty days was decreed by the senate +upon receiving Caesar's letter. + + + +BOOK V + +I.--Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius being consuls, Caesar when +departing from his winter quarters into Italy, as he had been accustomed +to do yearly, commands the lieutenants whom he appointed over the +legions to take care that during the winter as many ships as possible +should be built, and the old repaired. He plans the size and shape of +them. For despatch of lading, and for drawing them on shore, he makes +them a little lower than those which we have been accustomed to use in +our sea; and that so much the more, because he knew that, on account of +the frequent changes of the tide, less swells occurred there; for the +purpose of transporting little and a great number of horses, [he makes +them] a little broader than those which we use in other seas. All these +he orders to be constructed for lightness and expedition, to which +object their lowness contributes greatly. He orders those things which +are necessary for equipping ships to be brought thither from Spain. He +himself, on the assizes of Hither Gaul being concluded, proceeds into +Illyricum, because he heard that the part of the province nearest them +was being laid waste by the incursions of the Pirustae. When he had +arrived there, he levies soldiers upon the states, and orders them to +assemble at an appointed place. Which circumstance having been reported +[to them], the Pirustae send ambassadors to him to inform him that no +part of those proceedings was done by public deliberation, and assert +that they were ready to make compensation by all means for the injuries +[inflicted]. Caesar, accepting their defence, demands hostages, and +orders them to be brought to him on a specified day, and assures them +that unless they did so he would visit their state with war. These being +brought to him on the day which he had ordered, he appoints arbitrators +between the states, who should estimate the damages and determine the +reparation. + +II.--These things being finished, and the assizes being concluded, he +returns into Hither Gaul, and proceeds thence to the army. When he had +arrived there, having made a survey of the winter quarter, he finds +that, by the extraordinary ardour of the soldiers, amidst the utmost +scarcity of all materials, about six hundred ships of that kind which we +have described above, and twenty-eight ships of war, had been built, and +were not far from that state that they might be launched in a few days. +Having commended the soldiers and those who had presided over the work, +he informs them what he wishes to be done, and orders all the ships to +assemble at port Itius, from which port he had learned that the passage +into Britain was shortest, [being only] about thirty miles from the +continent. He left what seemed a sufficient number of soldiers for that +design; he himself proceeds into the territories of the Treviri with +four legions without baggage, and 800 horse, because they neither came +to the general diets [of Gaul], nor obeyed his commands, and were, +moreover, said to be tampering with the Germans beyond the Rhine. + +III.--This state is by far the most powerful of all Gaul in cavalry, and +has great forces of infantry, and as we have remarked above, borders on +the Rhine. In that state, two persons, Indutiomarus and Cingetorix, were +then contending with each other for the supreme power; one of whom, as +soon as the arrival of Caesar and his legions was known, came to him; +assures him that he and all his party would continue in their +allegiance, and not revolt from the alliance of the Roman people, and +informs him of the things which were going on amongst the Treviri. But +Indutiomarus began to collect cavalry and infantry, and make +preparations for war, having concealed those who by reason of their age +could not be under arms in the forest Arduenna, which is of immense +size, [and] extends from the Rhine across the country of the Treviri to +the frontiers of the Remi. But after that, some of the chief persons of +the state, both influenced by their friendship for Cingetorix, and +alarmed at the arrival of our army, came to Caesar and began to solicit +him privately about their own interests, since they could not provide +for the safety of the state; Indutiomarus, dreading lest he should be +abandoned by all, sends ambassadors to Caesar, to declare that he +absented himself from his countrymen, and refrained from coming to him +on this account, that he might the more easily keep the state in its +allegiance, lest on the departure of all the nobility the commonalty +should, in their indiscretion, revolt. And thus the whole state was at +his control; and that he, if Caesar would permit, would come to the camp +to him, and would commit his own fortunes and those of the state to his +good faith. + +IV.--Caesar, though he discerned from what motive these things were +said, and what circumstance deterred him from his meditated plan, still, +in order that he might not be compelled to waste the summer among the +Treviri, while all things were prepared for the war with Britain, +ordered Indutiomarus to come to him with 200 hostages. When these were +brought, [and] among them his son and near relations whom he had +demanded by name, he consoled Indutiomarus, and enjoined him to continue +in his allegiance; yet, nevertheless, summoning to him the chief men of +the Treviri, he reconciled them individually to Cingetorix: this he both +thought should be done by him in justice to the merits of the latter, +and also judged that it was of great importance that the influence of +one whose singular attachment towards him he had fully seen, should +prevail as much as possible among his people. Indutiomarus was very much +offended at this act, [seeing that] his influence was diminished among +his countrymen; and he, who already before had borne a hostile mind +towards us, was much more violently inflamed against us through +resentment at this. + +V.--These matters being settled, Caesar went to port Itius with the +legions. There he discovers that forty ships which had been built in the +country of the Meldi, having been driven back by a storm, had been +unable to maintain their course, and had returned to the same port from +which they had set out; he finds the rest ready for sailing, and +furnished with everything. In the same place, the cavalry of the whole +of Gaul, in number 4000, assembles, and [also] the chief persons of all +the states; he had determined to leave in Gaul a very few of them, whose +fidelity towards him he had clearly discerned, and take the rest with +him as hostages; because he feared a commotion in Gaul when he should be +absent. + +VI.--There was together with the others, Dumnorix, the Aeduan, of whom +we have made previous mention. Him in particular he had resolved to have +with him, because he had discovered him to be fond of change, fond of +power, possessing great resolution, and great influence among the Gauls. +To this was added that Dumnorix had before said in an assembly of +Aeduans, that the sovereignty of the state had been made over to him by +Caesar; which speech the Aedui bore with impatience and yet dared not +send ambassadors to Caesar for the purpose of either rejecting or +deprecating [that appointment]. That fact Caesar had learned from his +own personal friends. He at first strove to obtain by every entreaty +that he should be left in Gaul; partly, because, being unaccustomed to +sailing, he feared the sea; partly, because he said he was prevented by +divine admonitions. After he saw that this request was firmly refused +him, all hope of success being lost, he began to tamper with the chief +persons of the Gauls, to call them apart singly and exhort them to +remain on the continent; to agitate them with the fear that it was not +without reason that Gaul should be stript of all her nobility; that it +was Caesar's design to bring over to Britain and put to death all those +whom he feared to slay in the sight of Gaul, to pledge his honour to the +rest, to ask for their oath that they would by common deliberation +execute what they should perceive to be necessary for Gaul. These things +were reported to Caesar by several persons. + +VII.--Having learned this fact, Caesar, because he had conferred so much +honour upon the Aeduan state, determined that Dumnorix should be +restrained and deterred by whatever means he could; and that, because he +perceived his insane designs to be proceeding farther and farther, care +should be taken lest he might be able to injure him and the +commonwealth. Therefore, having stayed about twenty-five days in that +place, because the north wind, which usually blows a great part of every +season, prevented the voyage, he exerted himself to keep Dumnorix in his +allegiance [and] nevertheless learn all his measures: having at length +met with favourable weather, he orders the foot soldiers and the horse +to embark in the ships. But, while the minds of all were occupied, +Dumnorix began to take his departure from the camp homewards with the +cavalry of the Aedui, Caesar being ignorant of it. Caesar, on this +matter being reported to him, ceasing from his expedition and deferring +all other affairs, sends a great part of the cavalry to pursue him, and +commands that he be brought back; he orders that if he use violence and +do not submit, that he be slain: considering that Dumnorix would do +nothing as a rational man while he himself was absent, since he had +disregarded his command even when present. He, however, when recalled, +began to resist and defend himself with his hand, and implore the +support of his people, often exclaiming that "he was free and the +subject of a free state." They surround and kill the man as they had +been commanded; but the Aeduan horsemen all return to Caesar. + +VIII.--When these things were done [and] Labienus, left on the continent +with three legions and 2000 horse, to defend the harbours and provide +corn, and discover what was going on in Gaul, and take measures +according to the occasion and according to the circumstance; he himself, +with five legions and a number of horse, equal to that which he was +leaving on the continent, set sail at sunset and [though for a time] +borne forward by a gentle south-west wind, he did not maintain his +course, in consequence of the wind dying away about midnight, and being +carried on too far by the tide, when the sun rose, espied Britain passed +on his left. Then, again, following the change of tide, he urged on with +the oars that he might make that port of the island in which he had +discovered the preceding summer that there was the best landing-place, +and in this affair the spirit of our soldiers was very much to be +extolled; for they with the transports and heavy ships, the labour of +rowing not being [for a moment] discontinued, equalled the speed of the +ships of war. All the ships reached Britain nearly at mid-day; nor was +there seen a [single] enemy in that place, but, as Caesar afterwards +found from some prisoners, though large bodies of troops had assembled +there, yet being alarmed by the great number of our ships, more than +eight hundred of which, including the ships of the preceding year, and +those private vessels which each had built for his own convenience, had +appeared at one time, they had quitted the coast and concealed +themselves among the higher points. + +IX.--Caesar, having disembarked his army and chosen a convenient place +for the camp, when he discovered from the prisoners in what part the +forces of the enemy had lodged themselves, having left ten cohorts and +300 horse at the sea, to be a guard to the ships, hastens to the enemy, +at the third watch, fearing the less for the ships for this reason, +because he was leaving them fastened at anchor upon an even and open +shore; and he placed Q. Atrius over the guard of the ships. He himself, +having advanced by night about twelve miles, espied the forces of the +enemy. They, advancing to the river with their cavalry and chariots from +the higher ground, began to annoy our men and give battle. Being +repulsed by our cavalry, they concealed themselves in woods, as they had +secured a place admirably fortified by nature and by art, which, as it +seemed, they had before prepared on account of a civil war; for all +entrances to it were shut up by a great number of felled trees. They +themselves rushed out of the woods to fight here and there, and +prevented our men from entering their fortifications. But the soldiers +of the seventh legion, having formed a testudo and thrown up a rampart +against the fortification, took the place and drove them out of the +woods, receiving only a few wounds. But Caesar forbade his men to pursue +them in their flight any great distance; both because he was ignorant of +the nature of the ground, and because, as a great part of the day was +spent, he wished time to be left for the fortification of the camp. + +X.--The next day, early in the morning, he sent both foot-soldiers and +horse in three divisions on an expedition to pursue those who had fled. +These having advanced a little way, when already the rear [of the enemy] +was in sight, some horse came to Caesar from Quintus Atrius, to report +that the preceding night, a very great storm having arisen, almost all +the ships were dashed to pieces and cast upon the shore, because neither +the anchors and cables could resist, nor could the sailors and pilots +sustain the violence of the storm; and thus great damage was received by +that collision of the ships. + +XI.--These things being known [to him], Caesar orders the legions and +cavalry to be recalled and to cease from their march; he himself returns +to the ships: he sees clearly before him almost the same things which he +had heard of from the messengers and by letter, so that, about forty +ships being lost, the remainder seemed capable of being repaired with +much labour. Therefore he selects workmen from the legions, and orders +others to be sent for from the continent; he writes to Labienus to build +as many ships as he could with those legions which were with him. He +himself, though the matter was one of great difficulty and labour, yet +thought it to be most expedient for all the ships to be brought up on +shore and joined with the camp by one fortification. In these matters he +employed about ten days, the labour of the soldiers being unremitting +even during the hours of night. The ships having been brought up on +shore and the camp strongly fortified, he left the same forces which he +did before as a guard for the ships; he sets out in person for the same +place that he had returned from. When he had come thither, greater +forces of the Britons had already assembled at that place, the chief +command and management of the war having been entrusted to +Cassivellaunus, whose territories a river, which is called the Thames, +separates from the maritime states at about eighty miles from the sea. +At an earlier period perpetual wars had taken place between him and the +other states; but, greatly alarmed by our arrival, the Britons had +placed him over the whole war and the conduct of it. + +XII.--The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they +say that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the +island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from +the country of the Belgae for the purpose of plunder and making war; +almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which +being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there +and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is countless, +and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like +those of the Gauls: the number of cattle is great. They use either brass +or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their money. Tin is +produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron; but the quantity +of it is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, +is timber of every description, except beech and fir. They do not regard +it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, +breed them for amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate +than in Gaul, the colds being less severe. + +XIII.--The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is +opposite to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither +almost all ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower +looks to the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies +towards Spain and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is +reckoned, than Britain by one-half; but the passage [from it] into +Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of this +voyage is an island, which is called Mona; many smaller islands besides +are supposed to lie [there], of which islands some have written that at +the time of the winter solstice it is night there for thirty consecutive +days. We, in our inquiries about that matter, ascertained nothing, +except that, by accurate measurements with water, we perceived the +nights to be shorter there than on the continent. The length of this +side, as their account states, is 700 miles. The third side is towards +the north, to which portion of the island no land is opposite; but an +angle of that side looks principally towards Germany. This side is +considered to be 800 miles in length. Thus the whole island is [about] +2000 miles in circumference. + +XIV.--The most civilised of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, +which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the +Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live +on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye +themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have +a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have +every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and +even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among +brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by +these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom +respectively each was first espoused when a virgin. + +XV.--The horse and charioteers of the enemy contended vigorously in a +skirmish with our cavalry on the march; yet so that our men were +conquerors in all parts, and drove them to their woods and hills; but, +having slain a great many, they pursued too eagerly, and lost some of +their men. But the enemy, after some time had elapsed, when our men were +off their guard, and occupied in the fortification of the camp, rushed +out of the woods, and making an attack upon those who were placed on +duty before the camp, fought in a determined manner; and two cohorts +being sent by Caesar to their relief, and these severally the first of +two legions, when these had taken up their position at a very small +distance from each other, as our men were disconcerted by the unusual +mode of battle, the enemy broke through the middle of them most +courageously, and retreated thence in safety. That day, Q. Laberius +Durus, a tribune of the soldiers, was slain. The enemy, since more +cohorts were sent against them, were repulsed. + +XVI.--In the whole of this method of fighting since the engagement took +place under the eyes of all and before the camp, it was perceived that +our men, on account of the weight of their arms, inasmuch as they could +neither pursue [the enemy when] retreating, nor dare quit their +standards, were little suited to this kind of enemy; that the horse also +fought with great danger, because they [the Britons] generally retreated +even designedly, and, when they had drawn off our men a short distance +from the legions, leaped from their chariots and fought on foot in +unequal [and to them advantageous] battle. But the system of cavalry +engagement is wont to produce equal danger, and indeed the same, both to +those who retreat and those who pursue. To this was added, that they +never fought in close order, but in small parties and at great +distances, and had detachments placed [in different parts], and then the +one relieved the other, and the vigorous and fresh succeeded the +wearied. + +XVII.--The following day the enemy halted on the hills, a distance from +our camp, and presented themselves in small parties, and began to +challenge our horse to battle with less spirit than the day before. But +at noon, when Caesar had sent three legions, and all the cavalry with C. +Trebonius, the lieutenant, for the purpose of foraging, they flew upon +the foragers suddenly from all quarters, so that they did not keep off +[even] from the standards and the legions. Our men making an attack on +them vigorously, repulsed them; nor did they cease to pursue them until +the horse, relying on relief, as they saw the legions behind them, drove +the enemy precipitately before them, and, slaying a great number of +them, did not give them the opportunity either of rallying or halting, +or leaping from their chariots. Immediately after this retreat, the +auxiliaries who had assembled from all sides, departed; nor after that +time did the enemy ever engage with us in very large numbers. + +XVIII.--Caesar, discovering their design, leads his army into the +territories of Cassivellaunus to the river Thames; which river can be +forded in one place only, and that with difficulty. When he had arrived +there, he perceives that numerous forces of the enemy were marshalled on +the other bank of the river; the bank also was defended by sharp stakes +fixed in front, and stakes of the same kind fixed under the water were +covered by the river. These things being discovered from [some] +prisoners and deserters, Caesar, sending forward the cavalry, ordered +the legions to follow them immediately. But the soldiers advanced with +such speed and such ardour, though they stood above the water by their +heads only, that the enemy could not sustain the attack of the legions +and of the horse, and quitted the banks, and committed themselves to +flight. + +XIX.--Cassivellaunus, as we have stated above, all hope [rising out] of +battle being laid aside, the greater part of his forces being dismissed, +and about 4000 charioteers only being left, used to observe our marches +and retire a little from the road, and conceal himself in intricate and +woody places, and in those neighbourhoods in which he had discovered we +were about to march, he used to drive the cattle and the inhabitants +from the fields into the woods; and, when our cavalry, for the sake of +plundering and ravaging the more freely, scattered themselves among the +fields, he used to send out charioteers from the woods by all the +well-known roads and paths, and, to the great danger of our horse, engage +with them; and this source of fear hindered them from straggling very +extensively. The result was that Caesar did not allow excursions to be +made to a great distance from the main body of the legions, and ordered +that damage should be done to the enemy in ravaging their lands and +kindling fires only so far as the legionary soldiers could, by their own +exertion and marching, accomplish it. + +XX.--In the meantime, the Trinobantes, almost the most powerful state of +those parts, from which the young man Mandubratius embracing the +protection of Caesar had come to the continent of Gaul to [meet] him +(whose father, Imanuentius, had possessed the sovereignty in that state, +and had been killed by Cassivellaunus; he himself had escaped death by +flight), send ambassadors to Caesar, and promise that they will +surrender themselves to him and perform his commands; they entreat him +to protect Mandubratius from the violence of Cassivellaunus, and send to +their state some one to preside over it, and possess the government. +Caesar demands forty hostages from them, and corn for his army, and +sends Mandubratius to them. They speedily performed the things demanded, +and sent hostages to the number appointed, and the corn. + +XXI.--The Trinobantes being protected and secured from any violence of +the soldiers, the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci, the Ancalites, the Bibroci, +and the Cassi, sending embassies, surrender themselves to Caesar. From +them he learns that the capital town of Cassivellaunus was not far from +that place, and was defended by woods and morasses, and a very large +number of men and of cattle had been collected in it. (Now the Britons, +when they have fortified the intricate woods, in which they are wont to +assemble for the purpose of avoiding the incursion of an enemy, with an +entrenchment and a rampart, call them a town.) Thither he proceeds with +his legions: he finds the place admirably fortified by nature and art; +he, however, undertakes to attack it in two directions. The enemy, +having remained only a short time, did not sustain the attack of our +soldiers, and hurried away on the other side of the town. A great amount +of cattle was found there, and many of the enemy were taken and slain in +their flight. + +XXII.--While these things are going forward in those places, +Cassivellaunus sends messengers into Kent, which, we have observed +above, is on the sea, over which districts four several kings reigned, +Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax, and commands them to +collect all their forces, and unexpectedly assail and storm the naval +camp. When they had come to the camp, our men, after making a sally, +slaying many of their men, and also capturing a distinguished leader +named Lugotorix, brought back their own men in safety. Cassivellaunus, +when this battle was reported to him, as so many losses had been +sustained, and his territories laid waste, being alarmed most of all by +the desertion of the states, sends ambassadors to Caesar [to treat] +about a surrender through the mediation of Commius the Atrebatian. +Caesar, since he had determined to pass the winter on the continent, on +account of the sudden revolts of Gaul, and as much of the summer did not +remain, and he perceived that even that could be easily protracted, +demands hostages, and prescribes what tribute Britain should pay each +year to the Roman people; he forbids and commands Cassivellaunus that he +wage not war against Mandubratius or the Trinobantes. + +XXIII.--When he had received the hostages, he leads back the army to the +sea, and finds the ships repaired. After launching these, because he had +a large number of prisoners, and some of the ships had been lost in the +storm, he determines to convey back his army at two embarkations. And it +so happened, that out of so large a number of ships, in so many voyages, +neither in this nor in the previous year was any ship missing which +conveyed soldiers; but very few out of those which were sent back to him +from the continent empty, as the soldiers of the former convoy had been +disembarked, and out of those (sixty in number) which Labienus had taken +care to have built, reached their destination; almost all the rest were +driven back, and when Caesar had waited for them for some time in vain, +lest he should be debarred from a voyage by the season of the year, +inasmuch as the equinox was at hand, he of necessity stowed his soldiers +the more closely, and, a very great calm coming on, after he had weighed +anchor at the beginning of the second watch, he reached land at break of +day and brought in all the ships in safety. + +XXIV.--The ships having been drawn up and a general assembly of the +Gauls held at Samarobriva, because the corn that year had not prospered +in Gaul by reason of the droughts, he was compelled to station his army +in its winter-quarters, differently from the former years, and to +distribute the legions among several states: one of them he gave to C. +Fabius, his lieutenant, to be marched into the territories of the +Morini; a second to Q. Cicero, into those of the Nervii; a third to L. +Roscius, into those of the Essui; a fourth he ordered to winter with T. +Labienus among the Remi in the confines of the Treviri; he stationed +three in Belgium; over these he appointed M. Crassus, his questor, and +L. Munatius Plancus and C. Trebonius, his lieutenants. One legion which +he had raised last on the other side of the Po, and five cohorts, he +sent amongst the Eburones, the greatest portion of whom lie between the +Meuse and the Rhine, [and] who were under the government of Ambiorix and +Cativolcus. He ordered Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, +his lieutenants, to take the command of these soldiers. The legions +being distributed in this manner, he thought he could most easily remedy +the scarcity of corn; and yet the winter-quarters of all these legions +(except that which he had given to L. Roscius to be led into the most +peaceful and tranquil neighbourhood) were comprehended within [about] +100 miles. He himself in the meanwhile, until he had stationed the +legions and knew that the several winter-quarters were fortified, +determined to stay in Gaul. + +XXV.--There was among the Carnutes a man named Tasgetius, born of very +high rank, whose ancestors had held the sovereignty in his state. To him +Caesar had restored the position of his ancestors, in consideration of +his prowess and attachment towards him, because in all his wars he had +availed himself of his valuable services. His personal enemies had +killed him when in the third year of his reign, many even of his own +state being openly promoters [of that act]. This event is related to +Caesar. He fearing, because several were involved in the act, that the +state might revolt at their instigation, orders Lucius Plancus, with a +legion, to proceed quickly from Belgium to the Carnutes, and winter +there, and arrest and send to him the persons by whose instrumentality +he should discover that Tasgetius was slain. In the meantime, he was +apprised by all the lieutenants and questors to whom he had assigned the +legions, that they had arrived in winter-quarters, and that the place +for the quarters was fortified. + +XXVI.--About fifteen days after they had come into winter-quarters, the +beginning of a sudden insurrection and revolt arose from Ambiorix and +Cativolcus, who, though they had met with Sabinus and Cotta at the +borders of their kingdom, and had conveyed corn into our winter-quarters, +induced by the messages of Indutiomarus, one of the Treviri, +excited their people, and after having suddenly assailed the soldiers, +engaged in procuring wood, came with a large body to attack the camp. +When our men had speedily taken up arms and had ascended the rampart, +and sending out some Spanish horse on one side, had proved conquerors in +a cavalry action, the enemy, despairing of success, drew off their +troops from the assault. Then they shouted, according to their custom, +that some of our men should go forward to a conference, [alleging] that +they had some things which they desired to say respecting the common +interest, by which they trusted their disputes could be removed. + +XXVII.--C. Arpineius, a Roman knight, the intimate friend of Q. +Titurius, and with him Q. Junius, a certain person from Spain, who +already on previous occasions had been accustomed to go to Ambiorix, at +Caesar's mission, is sent to them for the purpose of a conference: +before them Ambiorix spoke to this effect: "That he confessed that for +Caesar's kindness towards him he was very much indebted to him, inasmuch +as by his aid he had been freed from a tribute which he had been +accustomed to pay to the Aduatuci, his neighbours; and because his own +son and the son of his brother had been sent back to him, whom, when +sent in the number of hostages, the Aduatuci had detained among them in +slavery and in chains; and that he had not done that which he had done +in regard to the attacking of the camp, either by his own judgment or +desire, but by the compulsion of his state; and that his government was +of that nature, that the people had as much of authority over him as he +over the people. To the state moreover the occasion of the war was this +--that it could not withstand the sudden combination of the Gauls; that +he could easily prove this from his own weakness, since he was not so +little versed in affairs as to presume that with his forces he could +conquer the Roman people; but that it was the common resolution of Gaul; +that that day was appointed for the storming of all Caesar's +winter-quarters, in order that no legion should be able to come to the +relief of another legion, that Gauls could not easily deny Gauls, +especially when a measure seemed entered into for recovering their common +freedom. Since he had performed his duty to them on the score of patriotism +[he said], he has now regard to gratitude for the kindness of Caesar; that +he warned, that he prayed Titurius by the claims of hospitality, to +consult for his and his soldiers' safety; that a large force of the +Germans had been hired and had passed the Rhine; that it would arrive in +two days; that it was for them to consider whether they thought fit, +before the nearest people perceived it, to lead off their soldiers when +drawn out of winter-quarters, either to Cicero or to Labienus; one of +whom was about fifty miles distant from them, the other rather more; +that this he promised and confirmed by oath, that he would give them a +safe passage through his territories; and when he did that, he was both +consulting for his own state, because it would be relieved from the +winter-quarters, and also making a requital to Caesar for his +obligations." + +XXVIII.--Arpineius and Junius relate to the lieutenants what they had +heard. They, greatly alarmed by the unexpected affair, though those +things were spoken by an enemy, still thought they were not to be +disregarded; and they were especially influenced by this consideration, +that it was scarcely credible that the obscure and humble state of the +Eburones had dared to make war upon the Roman people of their own +accord. Accordingly, they refer the matter to a council, and a, great +controversy arises among them. L. Aurunculeius, and several tribunes of +the soldiers and the centurions of the first rank, were of opinion "that +nothing should be done hastily, and that they should not depart from the +camp without Caesar's orders"; they declared, "that any forces of the +Germans, however great, might be encountered by fortified winter-quarters; +that this fact was a proof [of it]; that they had sustained the first +assault of the Germans most valiantly, inflicting many wounds upon them; +that they were not distressed for corn; that in the meantime relief +would come both from the nearest winter-quarters and from Caesar"; lastly, +they put the query, "what could be more undetermined, more undignified, +than to adopt measures respecting the most important affairs on the +authority of an enemy?" + +XXIX.--In opposition to those things Titurius exclaimed, "That they +would do this too late, when greater forces of the enemy, after a +junction with the Germans, should have assembled; or when some disaster +had been received in the neighbouring winter-quarters; that the +opportunity for deliberating was short; that he believed that Caesar had +set forth into Italy, as the Carnutes would not otherwise have taken the +measure of slaying Tasgetius, nor would the Eburones, if he had been +present, have come to the camp with so great defiance of us; that he did +not regard the enemy, but the fact, as the authority; that the Rhine was +near; that the death of Ariovistus and our previous victories were +subjects of great indignation to the Germans; that Gaul was inflamed, +that after having received so many defeats she was reduced under the +sway of the Roman people, her pristine glory in military matters being +extinguished." Lastly, "who would persuade himself of this, that +Ambiorix had resorted to a design of that nature without sure grounds? +That his own opinion was safe on either side; if there be nothing very +formidable, they would go without danger to the nearest legion; if all +Gaul conspired with the Germans, their only safety lay in despatch. What +issue would the advice of Cotta and of those who differed from him, +have? from which, if immediate danger was not to be dreaded, yet +certainly famine, by a protracted siege, was." + +XXX.--This discussion having been held on the two sides, when opposition +was offered strenuously by Cotta and the principal officers, "Prevail," +said Sabinus, "if so you wish it"; and he said it with a louder voice, +that a great portion of the soldiers might hear him; "nor am I the +person among you," he said, "who is most powerfully alarmed by the +danger of death; these will be aware of it, and then, if any thing +disastrous shall have occurred, they will demand a reckoning at your +hands; these, who, if it were permitted by you, united three days hence +with the nearest winter-quarters, may encounter the common condition of +war with the rest, and not, as if forced away and separated far from the +rest, perish either by the sword or by famine." + +XXXI.--They rise from the council, detain both, and entreat, that "they +do not bring the matter into the greatest jeopardy by their dissension +and obstinacy; the affair was an easy one, if only they all thought and +approved of the same thing, whether they remain or depart; on the other +hand, they saw no security in dissension." The matter is prolonged by +debate till midnight. At last Cotta, being overruled, yields his assent; +the opinion of Sabinus prevails. It is proclaimed that they will march +at day-break; the remainder of the night is spent without sleep, since +every soldier was inspecting his property, [to see] what he could carry +with him, and what, out of the appurtenances of the winter-quarters, he +would be compelled to leave; every reason is suggested to show why they +could not stay without danger, and how that danger would be increased by +the fatigue of the soldiers and their want of sleep. At break of day +they quit the camp, in a very extended line and with a very large amount +of baggage, in such a manner as men who were convinced that the advice +was given by Ambiorix, not as an enemy, but as most friendly [towards +them]. + +XXXII.--But the enemy, after they had made the discovery of their +intended departure by the noise during the night and their not retiring +to rest, having placed an ambuscade in two divisions in the woods, in a +suitable and concealed place, two miles from the camp, waited for the +arrival of the Romans; and when the greater part of the line of march +had descended into a considerable valley, they suddenly presented +themselves on either side of that valley, and began both to harass the +rear and hinder the van from ascending, and to give battle in a place +exceedingly disadvantageous to our men. + +XXXIII.--Then at length Titurius, as one who had provided nothing +beforehand, was confused, ran to and fro, and set about arranging his +troops; these very things, however, he did timidly and in such a manner +that all resources seemed to fail him: which generally happens to those +who are compelled to take council in the action itself. But Cotta, who +had reflected that these things might occur on the march, and on that +account had not been an adviser of the departure, was wanting to the +common safety in no respect; both in addressing and encouraging the +soldiers, he performed the duties of a general, and in the battle those +of a soldier. And since they [Titurius and Cotta] could less easily +perform everything by themselves, and provide what was to be done in +each place, by reason of the length of the line of march, they ordered +[the officers] to give the command that they should leave the baggage +and form themselves into an orb, which measure, though in a contingency +of that nature it was not to be condemned, still turned out +unfortunately; for it both diminished the hope of our soldiers and +rendered the enemy more eager for the fight, because it appeared that +this was not done without the greatest fear and despair. Besides that +happened, which would necessarily be the case, that the soldiers for the +most part quitted their ensigns and hurried to seek and carry off from +the baggage whatever each thought valuable, and all parts were filled +with uproar and lamentation. + +XXXIV.--But judgment was not wanting to the barbarians; for their +leaders ordered [the officers] to proclaim through the ranks "that no +man should quit his place; that the booty was theirs, and for them was +reserved whatever the Romans should leave; therefore let them consider +that all things depended on their victory." Our men were equal to them +in fighting, both in courage and in number, and though they were +deserted by their leader and by fortune, yet they still placed all hope +of safety in their valour, and as often as any cohort sallied forth on +that side, a great number of the enemy usually fell. Ambiorix, when he +observed this, orders the command to be issued that they throw their +weapons from a distance and do not approach too near, and in whatever +direction the Romans should make an attack, there give way (from the +lightness of their appointments and from their daily practice no damage +could be done them); [but] pursue them when betaking themselves to their +standards again. + +XXXV.--Which command having been most carefully obeyed, when any cohort +had quitted the circle and made a charge, the enemy fled very +precipitately. In the meantime, that part of the Roman army, of +necessity, was left unprotected, and the weapons received on their open +flank. Again, when they had begun to return to that place from which +they had advanced, they were surrounded both by those who had retreated +and by those who stood next them; but if, on the other hand, they wished +to keep their place, neither was an opportunity left for valour, nor +could they, being crowded together, escape the weapons cast by so large +a body of men. Yet, though assailed by so many disadvantages, [and] +having received many wounds, they withstood the enemy, and, a great +portion of the day being spent, though they fought from day-break till +the eighth hour, they did nothing which was unworthy of them. At length, +each thigh of T. Balventius, who the year before had been chief +centurion, a brave man and one of great authority, is pierced with a +javelin; Q. Lucanius, of the same rank, fighting most valiantly, is +slain while he assists his son when surrounded by the enemy; L. Cotta, +the lieutenant, when encouraging all the cohorts and companies, is +wounded full in the mouth by a sling. + +XXXVI.--Much troubled by these events, Q. Titurius, when he had +perceived Ambiorix in the distance encouraging his men, sends to him his +interpreter, Cn. Pompey, to beg that he would spare him and his +soldiers. He, when addressed, replied, "If he wished to confer with him, +it was permitted; that he hoped what pertained to the safety of the +soldiers could be obtained from the people; that to him however +certainly no injury would be done, and that he pledged his faith to that +effect." He consults with Cotta, who had been wounded, whether it would +appear right to retire from battle, and confer with Ambiorix; [saying] +that he hoped to be able to succeed respecting his own and the soldiers' +safety. Cotta says he will not go to an armed enemy, and in that +perseveres. + +XXXVII.--Sabinus orders those tribunes of the soldiers whom he had at +the time around him, and the centurions of the first ranks, to follow +him, and when he had approached near to Ambiorix, being ordered to throw +down his arms, he obeys the order and commands his men to do the same. +In the meantime, while they treat upon the terms, and a longer debate +than necessary is designedly entered into by Ambiorix, being surrounded +by degrees, he is slain. Then they according to their custom shout out +"Victory," and raise their war-cry, and, making an attack on our men, +break their ranks. There L. Cotta, while fighting, is slain, together +with the greater part of the soldiers; the rest betake themselves to the +camp from which they had marched forth, and one of them, L. Petrosidius, +the standard bearer, when he was overpowered by the great number of the +enemy, threw the eagle within the entrenchments and is himself slain +while fighting with the greatest courage before the camp. They with +difficulty sustain the attack till night; despairing of safety, they all +to a man destroy themselves in the night. A few escaping from the +battle, make their way to Labienus at winter-quarters, after wandering +at random through the woods, and inform him of these events. + +XXXVIII.--Elated by this victory, Ambiorix marches immediately with his +cavalry to the Aduatuci, who bordered on his kingdom; he halts neither +day nor night, and orders the infantry to follow him closely. Having +related the exploit and roused the Aduatuci, the next day he arrived +among the Nervii, and entreats "that they should not throw away the +opportunity of liberating themselves for ever and of punishing the +Romans for those wrongs which they had received from them"; [he tells +them] "that two lieutenants have been slain, and that a large portion of +the army has perished; that it was not a matter of difficulty for the +legion which was wintering with Cicero to be cut off, when suddenly +assaulted; he declares himself ready to co-operate in that design." He +easily gains over the Nervii by this speech. + +XXXIX.--Accordingly, messengers having been forthwith despatched to the +Centrones, the Grudii, the Levaci, the Pleumoxii, and the Geiduni, all +of whom are under their government, they assemble as large bodies as +they can, and rush unexpectedly to the winter-quarters of Cicero, the +report of the death of Titurius not having as yet been conveyed to him. +That also occurred to him which was the consequence of a necessary +work,--that some soldiers who had gone off into the woods for the +purpose of procuring timber and therewith constructing fortifications, +were intercepted by the sudden arrival of [the enemy's] horse. These +having been entrapped, the Eburones, the Nervii, and the Aduatuci and +all their allies and dependants, begin to attack the legion: our men +quickly run together to arms and mount the rampart: they sustained the +attack that day with great difficulty, since the enemy placed all their +hope in despatch, and felt assured that, if they obtained this victory, +they would be conquerors for ever. + +XL.--Letters are immediately sent to Caesar by Cicero, great rewards +being offered [to the messengers] if they carried them through. All the +passes having been beset, those who were sent are intercepted. During +the night as many as 120 towers are raised with incredible despatch out +of the timber which they had collected for the purpose of fortification: +the things which seemed necessary to the work are completed. The +following day the enemy, having collected far greater forces, attack the +camp [and] fill up the ditch. Resistance is made by our men in the same +manner as the day before: this same thing is done afterwards during the +remaining days. The work is carried on incessantly in the night: not +even to the sick, or wounded, is opportunity given for rest: whatever +things are required for resisting the assault of the next day are +provided during the night: many stakes burnt at the end, and a large +number of mural pikes are procured: towers are built up, battlements and +parapets are formed of interwoven hurdles. Cicero himself, though he was +in very weak health, did not leave himself the night-time for repose, so +that he was forced to spare himself by the spontaneous movement and +entreaties of the soldiers. + +XLI.--Then these leaders and chiefs of the Nervii, who had any intimacy +and grounds of friendship with Cicero, say they desire to confer with +him. When permission was granted, they recount the same things which +Ambiorix had related to Titurius, namely, "that all Gaul was in arms, +that the Germans had passed the Rhine, that the winter-quarters of +Caesar and of the others were attacked." They report in addition also, +about the death of Sabinus. They point to Ambiorix for the purpose of +obtaining credence; "they are mistaken," say they, "if they hoped for +any relief from those who distrust their own affairs; that they bear +such feelings towards Cicero and the Roman people that they deny them +nothing but winter-quarters and are unwilling that this practice should +become constant; that through their [the Nervii's] means it is possible +for them [the Romans] to depart from their winter-quarters safely and to +proceed without fear into whatever parts they desire." To these Cicero +made only one reply: "that it is not the custom of the Roman people to +accept any condition from an armed enemy: if they are willing to lay +down their arms, they may employ him as their advocate and send +ambassadors to Caesar: that he believed, from his [Caesar's] justice, +they would obtain the things which they might request." + +XLII.--Disappointed in this hope, the Nervii surround the winter-quarters +with a rampart eleven feet high, and a ditch thirteen feet in +depth. These military works they had learnt from our men in the +intercourse of former years, and, having taken some of our army +prisoners, were instructed by them: but, as they had no supply of iron +tools which are requisite for this service, they were forced to cut the +turf with their swords, and to empty out the earth with their hands and +cloaks, from which circumstance the vast number of the men could be +inferred; for in less than three hours they completed a fortification of +ten miles in circumference; and during the rest of the days they began +to prepare and construct towers of the height of the ramparts, and +grappling irons, and mantlets, which the same prisoners had taught them. + +XLIII.--On the seventh day of the attack, a very high wind having sprung +up, they began to discharge by their slings hot balls made of burnt or +hardened clay, and heated javelins, upon the huts, which, after the +Gallic custom, were thatched with straw. These quickly took fire, and by +the violence of the wind, scattered their flames in every part of the +camp. The enemy following up their success with a very loud shout, as if +victory were already obtained and secured, began to advance their towers +and mantlets, and climb the rampart with ladders. But so great was the +courage of our soldiers, and such their presence of mind, that though +they were scorched on all sides, and harassed by a vast number of +weapons, and were aware that their baggage and their possessions were +burning, not only did no one quit the rampart for the purpose of +withdrawing from the scene, but scarcely did any one even then look +behind; and they all fought most vigorously and most valiantly. This day +was by far the most calamitous to our men; it had this result, however, +that on that day the largest number of the enemy was wounded and slain, +since they had crowded beneath the very rampart, and the hindmost did +not afford the foremost a retreat. The flame having abated a little, and +a tower having been brought up in a particular place and touching the +rampart, the centurions of the third cohort retired from the place in +which they were standing, and drew off all their men: they began to call +on the enemy by gestures and by words, to enter if they wished; but none +of them dared to advance. Then stones having been cast from every +quarter, the enemy were dislodged, and their tower set on fire. + +XLIV.--In that legion there were two very brave men, centurions, who +were now approaching the first ranks, T. Pulfio, and L. Varenus. These +used to have continual disputes between them which of them should be +preferred, and every year used to contend for promotion with the utmost +animosity. When the fight was going on most vigorously before the +fortifications, Pulfio, one of them, says, "Why do you hesitate, +Varenus? or what [better] opportunity of signalising your valour do you +seek? This very day shall decide our disputes." When he had uttered +these words, he proceeds beyond the fortifications, and rushes on that +part of the enemy which appeared the thickest. Nor does Varenus remain +within the rampart, but respecting the high opinion of all, follows +close after. Then, when an inconsiderable space intervened, Pulfio +throws his javelin at the enemy, and pierces one of the multitude who +was running up, and while the latter was wounded and slain, the enemy +cover him with their shields, and all throw their weapons at the other +and afford him no opportunity of retreating. The shield of Pulfio is +pierced and a javelin is fastened in his belt. This circumstance turns +aside his scabbard and obstructs his right hand when attempting to draw +his sword: the enemy crowd around him when [thus] embarrassed. His rival +runs up to him and succours him in this emergency. Immediately the whole +host turn from Pulfio to him, supposing the other to be pierced through +by the javelin. Varenus rushes on briskly with his sword and carries on +the combat hand to hand, and having slain one man, for a short time +drove back the rest: while he urges on too eagerly, slipping into a +hollow, he fell. To him, in his turn, when surrounded, Pulfio brings +relief; and both having slain a great number, retreat into the +fortifications amidst the highest applause. Fortune so dealt with both +in this rivalry and conflict, that the one competitor was a succour and +a safeguard to the other, nor could it be determined which of the two +appeared worthy of being preferred to the other. + +XLV.--In proportion as the attack became daily more formidable and +violent, and particularly because, as a great number of the soldiers +were exhausted with wounds, the matter had come to a small number of +defenders, more frequent letters and messengers were sent to Caesar; a +part of which messengers were taken and tortured to death in the sight +of our soldiers. There was within our camp a certain Nervian, by name +Vertico, born in a distinguished position, who in the beginning of the +blockade had deserted to Cicero, and had exhibited his fidelity to him. +He persuades his slave, by the hope of freedom, and by great rewards, to +convey a letter to Caesar. This he carries out bound about his javelin, +and mixing among the Gauls without any suspicion by being a Gaul, he +reaches Caesar. From him they received information of the imminent +danger of Cicero and the legion. + +XLVI.--Caesar having received the letter about the eleventh hour of the +day, immediately sends a messenger to the Bellovaci, to M. Crassus, +questor there, whose winter-quarters were twenty-five miles distant from +him. He orders the legion to set forward in the middle of the night and +come to him with despatch. Crassus set out with the messenger. He sends +anther to C. Fabius, the lieutenant, ordering him to lead forth his +legion into the territories of the Atrebates, to which he knew his march +must be made. He writes to Labienus to come with his legion to the +frontiers of the Nervii, if he could do so to the advantage of the +commonwealth: he does not consider that the remaining portion of the +army, because it was somewhat farther distant, should be waited for; but +assembles about 400 horse from the nearest winter-quarters. + +XLVII.--Having been apprised of the arrival of Crassus by the scouts at +about the third hour, he advances twenty miles that day. He appoints +Crassus over Samarobriva and assigns him a legion, because he was +leaving there the baggage of the army, the hostages of the states, the +public documents, and all the corn, which he had conveyed thither for +passing the winter. Fabius, without delaying a moment, meets him on the +march with his legion, as he had been commanded. Labienus, having learnt +the death of Sabinus and the destruction of the cohorts, as all the +forces of the Treviri had come against him, beginning to fear lest, if +he made a departure from his winter-quarters, resembling a flight, he +should not be able to support the attack of the enemy, particularly +since he knew them to be elated by their recent victory, sends back a +letter to Caesar, informing him with what great hazard he would lead out +his legion from winter-quarters; he relates at large the affair which +had taken place among the Eburones; he informs him that all the infantry +and cavalry of the Treviri had encamped at a distance of only three +miles from his own camp. + +XLVIII.--Caesar, approving of his motives, although he was disappointed +in his expectation of three legions, and reduced to two, yet placed his +only hopes of the common safety in despatch. He goes into the +territories of the Nervii by long marches. There he learns from some +prisoners what things are going on in the camp of Cicero, and in how +great jeopardy the affair is. Then with great rewards he induces a +certain man of the Gallic horse to convey a letter to Cicero. This he +sends written in Greek characters, lest the letter being intercepted, +our measures should be discovered by the enemy. He directs him, if he +should be unable to enter, to throw his spear with the letter fastened +to the thong inside the fortifications of the camp. He writes in the +letter, that he having set out with his legions, will quickly be there: +he entreats him to maintain his ancient valour. The Gaul apprehending +danger, throws his spear as he had been directed. It by chance stuck in +a tower, and, not being observed by our men for two days, was seen by a +certain soldier on the third day: when taken down, it was carried to +Cicero. He, after perusing it, reads it out in an assembly of the +soldiers, and fills all with the greatest joy. Then the smoke of the +fires was seen in the distance, a circumstance which banished all doubt +of the arrival of the legions. + +XLIX.--The Gauls, having discovered the matter through their scouts, +abandon the blockade, and march towards Caesar with all their forces: +these were about 60,000 armed men. Cicero, an opportunity being now +afforded, again begs of that Vertico, the Gaul, whom we mentioned above, +to convey back a letter to Caesar; he advises him to perform his journey +warily; he writes in the letter that the enemy had departed and had +turned their entire force against him. When this letter was brought to +him about the middle of the night, Caesar apprises his soldiers of its +contents, and inspires them with courage for fighting: the following +day, at the dawn, he moves his camp, and, having proceeded four miles, +he espies the forces of the enemy on the other side of a considerable +valley and rivulet. It was an affair of great danger to fight with such +large forces in a disadvantageous situation. For the present, therefore, +inasmuch as he knew that Cicero was released from the blockade, and +thought that he might, on that account, relax his speed, he halted there +and fortifies a camp in the most favourable position he can. And this, +though it was small in itself, [there being] scarcely 7000 men, and +these too without baggage, still by the narrowness of the passages, he +contracts as much as he can, with this object, that he may come into the +greatest contempt with the enemy. In the meanwhile, scouts having been +sent in all directions, he examines by what most convenient path he +might cross the valley. + +L.--That day, slight skirmishes of cavalry having taken place near the +river, both armies kept in their own positions: the Gauls, because they +were awaiting larger forces which had not then arrived; Caesar, [to see] +if perchance by pretence of fear he could allure the enemy towards his +position, so that he might engage in battle, in front of his camp, on +this side of the valley; if he could not accomplish this, that, having +inquired about the passes, he might cross the valley and the river with +the less hazard. At day-break the cavalry of the enemy approaches to the +camp and joins battle with our horse. Caesar orders the horse to give +way purposely, and retreat to the camp: at the same time he orders the +camp to be fortified with a higher rampart in all directions, the gates +to be barricaded, and in executing these things as much confusion to be +shown as possible, and to perform them under the pretence of fear. + +LI.--Induced by all these things the enemy lead over their forces and +draw up their line in a disadvantageous position; and as our men also +had been led down from the ramparts, they approach nearer, and throw +their weapons into the fortification from all sides, and sending heralds +round, order it to be proclaimed that, if "any, either Gaul or Roman, +was willing to go over to them before the third hour, it was permitted; +after that time there would not be permission"; and so much did they +disregard our men, that the gates having been blocked up with single +rows of turf as a mere appearance, because they did not seem able to +burst in that way, some began to pull down the rampart with their hands, +others to fill up the trenches. Then Caesar, making a sally from all the +gates, and sending out the cavalry, soon puts the enemy to flight, so +that no one at all stood his ground with the intention of fighting; and +he slew a great number of them, and deprived all of their arms. + +LII.--Caesar, fearing to pursue them very far, because woods and +morasses intervened, and also [because] he saw that they suffered no +small loss in abandoning their position, reaches Cicero the same day +with all his forces safe. He witnesses with surprise the towers, +mantlets, and [other] fortifications belonging to the enemy: the legion +having been drawn out, he finds that even every tenth soldier had not +escaped without wounds. From all these things he judges with what danger +and with what great courage matters had been conducted; he commends +Cicero according to his desert and likewise the legion; he addresses +individually the centurions and the tribunes of the soldiers, whose +valour he had discovered to have been signal. He receives information of +the death of Sabinus and Cotta from the prisoners. An assembly being +held the following day, he states the occurrence; he consoles and +encourages the soldiers; he suggests that the disaster, which had been +occasioned by the misconduct and rashness of his lieutenant, should be +borne with a patient mind, because by the favour of the immortal gods +and their own valour, neither was lasting joy left to the enemy, nor +very lasting grief to them. + +LIII.--In the meanwhile the report respecting the victory of Caesar is +conveyed to Labienus through the country of the Remi with incredible +speed, so that, though he was about sixty miles distant from the +winter-quarter of Cicero, and Caesar had arrived there after the ninth +hour, before midnight a shout arose at the gates of the camp, by which +shout an indication of the victory and a congratulation on the part of +the Remi were given to Labienus. This report having been carried to the +Treviri, Indutiormarus, who had resolved to attack the camp of Labienus +the following day, flies by night and leads back all his forces into the +country of the Treviri. Caesar sends back Fabius with his legion to his +winter-quarters; he himself determines to winter with three legions near +Samarobriva in three different quarters, and, because such great +commotions had arisen in Gaul, he resolved to remain during the whole +winter with the army himself. For the disaster respecting the death of +Sabinus having been circulated among them, almost all the states of Gaul +were deliberating about war, sending messengers and embassies into all +quarters, inquiring what further measure they should take, and holding +councils by night in secluded places. Nor did any period of the whole +winter pass over without fresh anxiety to Caesar, or without his +receiving some intelligence respecting the meetings and commotions of +the Gauls. Among these, he is informed by L. Roscius, the lieutenant +whom he had placed over the thirteenth legion, that large forces of +those states of the Gauls, which are called the Armoricae, had assembled +for the purpose of attacking him and were not more than eight miles +distant; but intelligence respecting the victory of Caesar being carried +[to them], had retreated in such a manner that their departure appeared +like a flight. + +LIV.--But Caesar, having summoned to him the principal persons of each +state, in one case by alarming them, since he declared that he knew what +was going on, and in another case by encouraging them, retained a great +part of Gaul in its allegiance. The Senones, however, which is a state +eminently powerful and one of great influence among the Gauls, +attempting by general design to slay Cavarinus whom Caesar had created +king among them (whose brother, Moritasgus, had held the sovereignty at +the period of the arrival of Caesar in Gaul, and whose ancestors had +also previously held it) when he discovered their plot and fled, pursued +him even to the frontiers [of the state], and drove him from his kingdom +and his home; and, after having sent ambassadors to Caesar for the +purpose of concluding a peace, when he ordered all their senate to come +to him, did not obey that command. So far did it operate among those +barbarian people, that there were found some to be the first to wage +war; and so great a change of inclinations did it produce in all, that +except the Aedui and the Remi, whom Caesar had always held in especial +honour, the one people for their long standing and uniform fidelity +towards the Roman people, the other for their late service in the Gallic +war, there was scarcely a state which was not suspected by us. And I do +not know whether that ought much to be wondered at, as well for several +other reasons, as particularly because they who ranked above all nations +for prowess in war, most keenly regretted that they had lost so much of +that reputation as to submit to commands from the Roman people. + +LV.--But the Treviri and Indutiomarus let no part of the entire winter +pass without sending ambassadors across the Rhine, importuning the +states, promising money, and asserting that, as a large portion of our +army had been cut off, a much smaller portion remained. However, none of +the German states could be induced to cross the Rhine, since "they had +twice essayed it," they said, "in the war with Ariovistus and in the +passage of the Tenchtheri there; that fortune was not to be tempted any +more." Indutiomarus disappointed in this expectation, nevertheless began +to raise troops, and discipline them, and procure horses from the +neighbouring people and allure to him by great rewards the outlaws and +convicts throughout Gaul. And such great influence had he already +acquired for himself in Gaul by these means, that embassies were +flocking to him in all directions, and seeking, publicly and privately, +his favour and friendship. + +LVI.--When he perceived that they were coming to him voluntarily; that +on the one side the Senones and the Carnutes were stimulated by their +consciousness of guilt, on the other side the Nervii and the Aduatuci +were preparing war against the Romans, and that forces of volunteers +would not be wanting to him if he began to advance from his own +territories, he proclaims an armed council (this according to the custom +of the Gauls is the commencement of war) at which, by a common law, all +the youth were wont to assemble in arms; whoever of them comes last is +killed in the sight of the whole assembly after being racked with every +torture. In that council he declares Cingetorix, the leader of the other +faction, his own son-in-law (whom we have above mentioned, as having +embraced the protection of Caesar, and never having deserted him) an +enemy and confiscates his property. When these things were finished, he +asserts in the council that he, invited by the Senones and the Carnutes, +and several other states of Gaul, was about to march thither through the +territories of the Remi, devastate their lands, and attack the camp of +Labienus: before he does that, he informs them of what he desires to be +done. + +LVII.--Labienus, since he was confining himself within a camp strongly +fortified by the nature of the ground and by art, had no apprehensions +as to his own and the legion's danger, but was devising that he might +throw away no opportunity of conducting the war successfully. +Accordingly, the speech of Indutiomarus, which he had delivered in the +council, having been made known [to him] by Cingetorix and his allies, +he sends messengers to the neighbouring states and summons horse from +all quarters: he appoints to them a fixed day for assembling. In the +meantime, Indutiomarus, with all his cavalry, nearly every day used to +parade close to his [Labienus's] camp; at one time, that he might inform +himself of the situation of the camp; at another time, for the purpose +of conferring with or of intimidating him. Labienus confined his men +within the fortifications and promoted the enemy's belief of his fear by +whatever methods he could. + +LVIII.--Since Indutiomarus was daily advancing up to the camp with +greater defiance, all the cavalry of the neighbouring states which he +[Labienus] had taken care to have sent for, having been admitted in one +night, he confined all his men within the camp by guards with such great +strictness, that that fact could by no means be reported or carried to +the Treviri. In the meanwhile Indutiomarus, according to his daily +practice, advances up to the camp and spends a great part of the day +there: his horse cast their weapons, and with very insulting language +call out our men to battle. No reply being given by our men, the enemy +when they thought proper, depart towards evening in a disorderly and +scattered manner, Labienus unexpectedly sends out all the cavalry by two +gates; he gives this command and prohibition, that, when the enemy +should be terrified and put to flight (which he foresaw would happen, as +it did), they should all make for Indutiomarus, and no one wound any man +before he should have seen him slain, because he was unwilling that he +should escape, in consequence of gaining time by the delay [occasioned +by the pursuit] of the rest. He offers great rewards for those who +should kill him: he sends up the cohorts as a relief to the horse. The +issue justifies the policy of the man, and, since all aimed at one, +Indutiomarus is slain, having been overtaken at the very ford of the +river, and his head is carried to the camp: the horse, when returning, +pursue and slay all whom they can. This affair having been known, all +the forces of the Eburones and the Nervii which had assembled, depart; +and for a short time after this action, Caesar was less harassed in the +government of Gaul. + + + +BOOK VI + +I.--Caesar, expecting for many reasons a greater commotion in Gaul, +resolves to hold a levy by the means of M. Silanus, C. Antistius +Reginus, and T. Sextius, his lieutenants: at the same time he requested +of Cn. Pompey, the proconsul, that since he was remaining near the city +invested with military command for the interests of the commonwealth, he +would command those men whom when consul he had levied by the military +oath in Cisalpine Gaul, to join their respective corps, and to proceed +to him; thinking it of great importance, as far as regarded the opinion +which the Gauls would entertain for the future, that the resources of +Italy should appear so great, that if any loss should be sustained in +war, not only could it be repaired in a short time, but likewise be +further supplied by still larger forces. And when Pompey had granted +this to the interests of the commonwealth and the claims of friendship, +Caesar having quickly completed the levy by means of his lieutenants, +after three legions had been both formed and brought to him before the +winter [had] expired, and the number of those cohorts which he had lost +under Q. Titurius had been doubled, taught the Gauls, both by his +dispatch and by his forces, what the discipline and the power of the +Roman people could accomplish. + +II.--Indutiomarus having been slain, as we have stated, the government +was conferred upon his relatives by the Treviri. They cease not to +importune the neighbouring Germans and to promise them money: when they +could not obtain [their object] from those nearest them, they try those +more remote. Having found some states willing to accede to their wishes, +they enter into a compact with them by a mutual oath, and give hostages +as a security for the money: they attach Ambiorix to them by an alliance +and confederacy. Caesar, on being informed of their acts, since he saw +that war was being prepared on all sides, that the Nervii, Aduatuci, and +Menapii, with the addition of all the Germans on this side of the Rhine +were under arms, that the Senones did not assemble according to his +command, and were concerting measures with the Carnutes and the +neighbouring states, that the Germans were importuned by the Treviri in +frequent embassies, thought that he ought to take measures for the war +earlier [than usual]. + +III.-Accordingly, while the winter was not yet ended, having +concentrated the four nearest legions, he marched unexpectedly into the +territories of the Nervii, and before they could either assemble, or +retreat, after capturing a large number of cattle and of men, and +wasting their lands and giving up that booty to the soldiers, compelled +them to enter into a surrender and give him hostages. That business +having been speedily executed, he again led his legions back into +winter-quarters. Having proclaimed a council of Gaul in the beginning of +the spring, as he had been accustomed [to do], when the deputies from +the rest, except the Senones, the Carnutes, and the Treviri, had come, +judging this to be the commencement of war and revolt, that he might +appear to consider all things of less consequence [than that war], he +transfers the council to Lutetia of the Parisii. These were adjacent to +the Senones, and had united their state to them during the memory of +their fathers, but were thought to have no part in the present plot. +Having proclaimed this from the tribunal, he advances the same day +towards the Senones with his legions and arrives among them by long +marches. + +IV.--Acco, who had been the author of that enterprise, on being informed +of his arrival, orders the people to assemble in the towns; to them, +while attempting this and before it could be accomplished, news is +brought that the Romans are close at hand: through necessity they give +over their design and send ambassadors to Caesar for the purpose of +imploring pardon; they make advances to him through the Aedui, whose +state was from ancient times under the protection of Rome. Caesar +readily grants them pardon and receives their excuse at the request of +the Aedui; because he thought that the summer season was one for an +impending war, not for an investigation. Having imposed one hundred +hostages, he delivers these to the Aedui to be held in charge by them. +To the same place the Carnutes send ambassadors and hostages, employing +as their mediators the Remi, under whose protection they were: they +receive the same answers. Caesar concludes the council and imposes a +levy of cavalry on the states. + +V.--This part of Gaul having been tranquillized, he applies himself +entirely both in mind and soul to the war with the Treviri and Ambiorix. +He orders Cavarinus to march with him with the cavalry of the Senones, +lest any commotion should arise either out of his hot temper, or out of +the hatred of the state which he had incurred. After arranging these +things, as he considered it certain that Ambiorix would not contend in +battle, he watched his other plans attentively. The Menapii bordered on +the territories of the Eburones, and were protected by one continued +extent of morasses and woods; and they alone out of Gaul had never sent +ambassadors to Caesar on the subject of peace. Caesar knew that a tie of +hospitality subsisted between them and Ambiorix: he also discovered that +the latter had entered into an alliance with the Germans by means of the +Treviri. He thought that these auxiliaries ought to be detached from him +before he provoked him to war; lest he, despairing of safety, should +either proceed to conceal himself in the territories of the Menapii, or +should be driven to coalesce with the Germans beyond the Rhine. Having +entered upon this resolution, he sends the baggage of the whole army to +Labienus, in the territories of the Treviri and orders two legions to +proceed to him: he himself proceeds against the Menapii with five +lightly-equipped legions. They, having assembled no troops, as they +relied on the defence of their position, retreat into the woods and +morasses, and convey thither all their property. + +VI.--Caesar, having divided his forces with C. Fabius, his lieutenant, +and M. Crassus, his questor, and having hastily constructed some +bridges, enters their country in three divisions, burns their houses and +villages, and gets possession of a large number of cattle and men. +Constrained by these circumstances, the Menapii send ambassadors to him +for the purpose of suing for peace. He, after receiving hostages, +assures them that he will consider them in the number of his enemies if +they shall receive within their territories either Ambiorix or his +ambassadors. Having determinately settled these things, he left among +the Menapii, Commius the Atrebatian with some cavalry as a guard; he +himself proceeds toward the Treviri. + +VII.--While these things are being performed by Caesar, the Treviri, +having drawn together large forces of infantry and of cavalry, were +preparing to attack Labienus and the legion which was wintering in their +territories, and were already not further distant from him than a +journey of two days, when they learn that two legions had arrived by the +order of Caesar. Having pitched their camp fifteen miles off, they +resolve to await the support of the Germans. Labienus, having learned +the design of the enemy, hoping that through their rashness there would +be some opportunity of engaging, after leaving a guard of five cohorts +for the baggage, advances against the enemy with twenty-five cohorts and +a large body of cavalry, and, leaving the space of a mile between them, +fortifies his camp. There was between Labienus and the enemy a river +difficult to cross and with steep banks: this neither did he himself +design to cross, nor did he suppose the enemy would cross it. Their hope +of auxiliaries was daily increasing. He [Labienus] openly says in a +council that "since the Germans are said to be approaching, he would not +bring into uncertainty his own and the army's fortunes, and the next day +would move his camp at early dawn. These words are quickly carried to +the enemy, since out of so large a number of cavalry composed of Gauls, +nature compelled some to favour the Gallic interests. Labienus, having +assembled the tribunes of the soldiers and principal centurions by +night, states what his design is, and, that he may the more easily give +the enemy a belief of his fears, he orders the camp to be moved with +greater noise and confusion than was usual with the Roman people. By +these means he makes his departure [appear], like a retreat. These +things, also, since the camps were so near, are reported to the enemy by +scouts before daylight. + +VIII.--Scarcely had the rear advanced beyond the fortifications when the +Gauls, encouraging one another "not to cast from their hands the +anticipated booty, that it was a tedious thing, while the Romans were +panic stricken, to be waiting for the aid of the Germans, and that their +dignity did not suffer them to fear to attack with such great forces so +small a band, particularly when retreating and encumbered," do not +hesitate to cross the river and give battle in a disadvantageous +position. Labienus suspecting that these things would happen, was +proceeding quietly, and using the same pretence of a march, in order +that he might entice them across the river. Then, having sent forward +the baggage some short distance and placed it on a certain eminence, he +says, "Soldiers, you have the opportunity you have sought: you hold the +enemy in an encumbered and disadvantageous position: display to us your +leaders the same valour you have ofttimes displayed to your general: +imagine that he is present and actually sees these exploits." At the +same time he orders the troops to face about towards the enemy and form +in line of battle, and, despatching a few troops of cavalry as a guard +for the bag gage, he places the rest of the horse on the wings. Our men, +raising a shout, quickly throw their javelins at the enemy. They, when, +contrary to their expectation, they saw those whom they believed to be +retreating, advance towards them with threatening banners, were not able +to sustain even the charge, and, being put to flight at the first +onslaught, sought the nearest woods: Labienus pursuing them with the +cavalry, upon a large number being slain, and several taken prisoners, +got possession of the state a few days after; for the Germans who were +coming to the aid of the Treviri, having been informed of their flight, +retreated to their homes. The relations of Indutiomarus, who had been +the promoters of the revolt, accompanying them, quitted their own state +with them. The supreme power and government were delivered to +Cingetorix, whom we have stated to have remained firm in his allegiance +from the commencement. + +IX.--Caesar, after he came from the territories of the Menapii into +those of the Treviri, resolved for two reasons to cross the Rhine; one +of which was, because they had sent assistance to the Treviri against +him; the other, that Ambiorix might not have a retreat among them. +Having determined on these matters, he began to build a bridge a little +above that place, at which he had before conveyed over his army. The +plan having been known and laid down, the work is accomplished in a few +days by the great exertion of the soldiers. Having left a strong guard +at the bridge on the side of the Treviri, lest any commotion should +suddenly arise among them, he leads over the rest of the forces and the +cavalry. The Ubii, who before had sent hostages and come to a +capitulation, send ambassadors to him, for the purpose of vindicating +themselves, to assure him that "neither had auxiliaries been sent to the +Treviri from their state, nor had they violated their allegiance"; they +entreat and beseech him "to spare them, lest, in his common hatred of +the Germans, the innocent should suffer the penalty of the guilty: they +promise to give more hostages, if he desire them." Having investigated +the case, Caesar finds that the auxiliaries had been sent by the Suevi; +he accepts the apology of the Ubii, and makes minute inquiries +concerning the approaches and the routes to the territories of the +Suevi. X.--In the meanwhile he is informed by the Ubii, a few days +after, that the Suevi are drawing all their forces into one place, and +are giving orders to those nations which are under their government to +send auxiliaries of infantry and of cavalry. Having learned these +things, he provides a supply of corn, selects a proper place for his +camp, and commands the Ubii to drive off their cattle and carry away all +their possessions from the country parts into the towns, hoping that +they, being a barbarous and ignorant people, when harassed by the want +of provisions, might be brought to an engagement on disadvantageous +terms: he orders them to send numerous scouts among the Suevi, and learn +what things are going on among them. They execute the orders, and, a few +days having intervened, report that all the Suevi, after certain +intelligence concerning the army of the Romans had come, retreated with +all their own forces and those of their allies, which they had +assembled, to the utmost extremities of their territories: that there is +a wood there of very great extent, which is called Bacenis; that this +stretches a great way into the interior, and, being opposed as a natural +barrier, defends from injuries and incursions the Cherusci against the +Suevi, and the Suevi against the Cherusci: that at the entrance of that +forest the Suevi had determined to await the coming up of the Romans. + +XI.--Since we have come to this place, it does not appear to be foreign +to our subject to lay before the reader an account of the manners of +Gaul and Germany, and wherein these nations differ from each other. In +Gaul there are factions not only in all the states, and in all the +cantons and their divisions, but almost in each family, and of these +factions those are the leaders who are considered according to their +judgment to possess the greatest influence, upon whose will and +determination the management of all affairs and measures depends. And +that seems to have been instituted in ancient times with this view, that +no one of the common people should be in want of support against one +more powerful; for none [of those leaders] suffers his party to be +oppressed and defrauded, and if he do otherwise, he has no influence +among his party. This same policy exists throughout the whole of Gaul; +for all the states are divided into two factions. + +XII.--When Caesar arrived in Gaul, the Aedui were the leaders of one +faction, the Sequani of the other. Since the latter were less powerful +by themselves, inasmuch as the chief influence was from of old among the +Aedui, and their dependencies were great, they had united to themselves +the Germans and Ariovistus, and had brought them over to their party by +great sacrifices and promises. And having fought several successful +battles and slain all the nobility of the Aedui, they had so far +surpassed them in power, that they brought over, from the Aedui to +themselves, a large portion of their dependants and received from them +the sons of their leading men as hostages, and compelled them to swear +in their public character that they would enter into no design against +them; and held a portion of the neighbouring land, seized on by force, +and possessed the sovereignty of the whole of Gaul. Divitiacus urged by +this necessity, had proceeded to Rome to the senate, for the purpose of +entreating assistance, and had returned without accomplishing his +object. A change of affairs ensued on the arrival of Caesar, the +hostages were returned to the Aedui, their old dependencies restored, +and new acquired through Caesar (because those who had attached +themselves to their alliance saw that they enjoyed a better state and a +milder government), their other interests, their influence, their +reputation were likewise increased, and in consequence, the Sequani lost +the sovereignty. The Remi succeeded to their place, and, as it was +perceived that they equalled the Aedui in favour with Caesar, those, who +on account of their old animosities could by no means coalesce with the +Aedui, consigned themselves in clientship to the Remi. The latter +carefully protected them. Thus they possessed both a new and suddenly +acquired influence. Affairs were then in that position, that the Aedui +were considered by far the leading people, and the Remi held the second +post of honour. + +XIII.--Throughout all Gaul there are two orders of those men who are of +any rank and dignity: for the commonality is held almost in the +condition of slaves, and dares to undertake nothing of itself and is +admitted to no deliberation. The greater part, when they are pressed +either by debt, or the large amount of their tributes, or the oppression +of the more powerful, give themselves up in vassalage to the nobles, who +possess over them the same rights without exception as masters over +their slaves. But of these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the +other that of the knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, +conduct the public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters +of religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for the +purpose of instruction, and they [the Druids] are in great honour among +them. For they determine respecting almost all controversies, public and +private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder has been +committed, if there be any dispute about an inheritance, if any about +boundaries, these same persons decide it; they decree rewards and +punishments if any one, either in a private or public capacity, has not +submitted to their decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. +This among them is the most heavy punishment. Those who have been thus +interdicted are esteemed in the number of the impious and the criminal: +all shun them, and avoid their society and conversation, lest they +receive some evil from their contact; nor is justice administered to +them when seeking it, nor is any dignity bestowed on them. Over all +these Druids one presides, who possesses supreme authority among them. +Upon his death, if any individual among the rest is pre-eminent in +dignity, he succeeds; but, if there are many equal, the election is made +by the suffrages of the Druids; sometimes they even contend for the +presidency with arms. These assemble at a fixed period of the year in a +consecrated place in the territories of the Carnutes, which is reckoned +the central region of the whole of Gaul. Hither all, who have disputes, +assemble from every part, and submit to their decrees and +determinations. This institution is supposed to have been devised in +Britain, and to have been brought over from it into Gaul; and now those +who desire to gain a more accurate knowledge of that system generally +proceed thither for the purpose of studying it. + +XIV.--The Druids do not go to war, nor pay tribute together with the +rest; they have an exemption from military service and a dispensation in +all matters. Induced by such great advantages, many embrace this +profession of their own accord, and [many] are sent to it by their +parents and relations. They are said there to learn by heart a great +number of verses; accordingly some remain in the course of training +twenty years. Nor do they regard it lawful to commit these to writing, +though in almost all other matters, in their public and private +transactions, they use Greek characters. That practice they seem to me +to have adopted for two reasons; because they neither desire their +doctrines to be divulged among the mass of the people, nor those who +learn, to devote themselves the less to the efforts of memory, relying +on writing; since it generally occurs to most men, that, in their +dependence on writing, they relax their diligence in learning +thoroughly, and their employment of the memory. They wish to inculcate +this as one of their leading tenets, that souls do not become extinct, +but pass after death from one body to another, and they think that men +by this tenet are in a great degree excited to valour, the fear of death +being disregarded. They likewise discuss and impart to the youth many +things respecting the stars and their motion, respecting the extent of +the world and of our earth, respecting the nature of things, respecting +the power and the majesty of the immortal gods. + +XV.--The other order is that of the knights. These, when there is +occasion and any war occurs (which before Caesar's arrival was for the +most part wont to happen every year, as either they on their part were +inflicting injuries or repelling those which others inflicted on them), +are all engaged in war. And those of them most distinguished by birth +and resources, have the greatest number of vassals and dependants about +them. They acknowledge this sort of influence and power only. + +XVI.--The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious +rites; and on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe +diseases and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either +sacrifice men as victims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and +employ the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they +think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, +the mind of the immortal gods cannot be rendered propitious, and they +have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have +figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of osiers they fill with +living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the +flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in +theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the +immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have +recourse to the oblation of even the innocent. + +XVII.--They worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have +many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they +consider him, the guide of their journeys and marches, and believe him +to have very great influence over the acquisition of gain and mercantile +transactions. Next to him they worship Apollo, and Mars, and Jupiter, +and Minerva; respecting these deities they have for the most part the +same belief as other nations: that Apollo averts diseases, that Minerva +imparts the invention of manufactures, that Jupiter possesses the +sovereignty of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides over wars. To him +when they have determined to engage in battle, they commonly vow those +things they shall take in war. When they have conquered, they sacrifice +whatever captured animals may have survived the conflict, and collect +the other things into one place. In many states you may see piles of +these things heaped up in their consecrated spots; nor does it often +happen that any one, disregarding the sanctity of the case, dares either +to secrete in his house things captured, or take away those deposited; +and the most severe punishment, with torture, has been established for +such a deed. + +XVIII.--All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god Dis, +and say that this tradition has been handed down by the Druids. For that +reason they compute the divisions of every season, not by the number of +days, but of nights; they keep birthdays and the beginnings of months +and years in such an order that the day follows the night. Among the +other usages of their life, they differ in this from almost all other +nations, that they do not permit their children to approach them openly +until they are grown up so as to be able to bear the service of war; and +they regard it as indecorous for a son of boyish age to stand in public +in the presence of his father. + +XIX.--Whatever sums of money the husbands have received in the name of +dowry from their wives, making an estimate of it, they add the same +amount out of their own estates. An account is kept of all this money +conjointly, and the profits are laid by: whichever of them shall have +survived [the other], to that one the portion of both reverts, together +with the profits of the previous time. Husbands have power of life and +death over their wives as well as over their children: and when the +father of a family, born in a more than commonly distinguished rank, has +died, his relations assemble, and, if the circumstances of his death are +suspicious, hold an investigation upon the wives in the manner adopted +towards slaves; and if proof be obtained, put them to severe torture, +and kill them. Their funerals, considering the state of civilization +among the Gauls, are magnificent and costly; and they cast into the fire +all things, including living creatures, which they suppose to have been +dear to them when alive; and, a little before this period, slaves and +dependants, who were ascertained to have been beloved by them, were, +after the regular funeral rites were completed, burnt together with +them. + +XX.--Those states which are considered to conduct their commonwealth +more judiciously, have it ordained by their laws, that, if any person +shall have heard by rumour and report from his neighbours anything +concerning the commonwealth, he shall convey it to the magistrate and +not impart it to any other; because it has been discovered that +inconsiderate and inexperienced men were often alarmed by false reports +and driven to some rash act, or else took hasty measures in affairs of +the highest importance. The magistrates conceal those things which +require to be kept unknown; and they disclose to the people whatever +they determine to be expedient. It is not lawful to speak of the +commonwealth, except in council. + +XXI.--The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have neither +Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to +sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they +behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, +namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other +deities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in +the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves +to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest +time, receive the greatest commendation among their people: they think +that by this the growth is promoted, by this the physical powers are +increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of +a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful +acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe +promiscuously in the rivers and [only] use skins or small cloaks of +deers' hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked. + +XXII.--They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large +portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any +one a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but the +magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the tribes and +families, who have united together, as much land as, and in the place in +which, they think proper, and the year after compel them to remove +elsewhere. For this enactment they advance many reasons--lest seduced by +long-continued custom, they may exchange their ardour in the waging of +war for agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensive +estates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from their possessions; +lest they construct their houses with too great a desire to avoid cold +and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, from which cause +divisions and discords arise; and that they may keep the common people +in a contented state of mind, when each sees his own means placed on an +equality with [those of] the most powerful. + +XXIII.--It is the greatest glory to the several states to have as wide +deserts as possible around them, their frontiers having been laid waste. +They consider this the real evidence of their prowess, that their +neighbours shall be driven out of their lands and abandon them, and that +no one dare settle near them; at the same time they think that they +shall be on that account the more secure, because they have removed the +apprehension of a sudden incursion. When a state either repels war waged +against it, or wages it against another, magistrates are chosen to +preside over that war with such authority, that they have power of life +and death. In peace there is no common magistrate, but the chiefs of +provinces and cantons administer justice and determine controversies +among their own people. Robberies which are committed beyond the +boundaries of each state bear no infamy, and they avow that these are +committed for the purpose of disciplining their youth and of preventing +sloth. And when any of their chiefs has said in an assembly "that he +will be their leader, let those who are willing to follow, give in their +names"; they who approve of both the enterprise and the man arise and +promise their assistance and are applauded by the people; such of them +as have not followed him are accounted in the number of deserters and +traitors, and confidence in all matters is afterwards refused them. To +injure guests they regard as impious; they defend from wrong those who +have come to them for any purpose whatever, and esteem them inviolable; +to them the houses of all are open and maintenance is freely supplied. + +XXIV.--And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans +in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the +great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent +colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly, the Volcae Tectosages seized on +those parts of Germany which are the most fruitful [and lie] around the +Hercynian forest (which, I perceive, was known by report to Eratosthenes +and some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia) and settled there. +Which nation to this time retains its position in those settlements, and +has a very high character for justice and military merit: now also they +continue in the same scarcity, indigence, hardihood, as the Germans, and +use the same food and dress; but their proximity to the Province and +knowledge of commodities from countries beyond the sea supplies to the +Gauls many things tending to luxury as well as civilization. Accustomed +by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many engagements, they do +not even compare themselves to the Germans in prowess. + +XXV.--The breadth of this Hercynian forest, which has been referred to +above, is to a quick traveller, a journey of nine days. For it cannot be +otherwise computed, nor are they acquainted with the measures of roads. +It begins at the frontiers of the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, and +extends in a right line along the river Danube to the territories of the +Daci and the Anartes: it bends thence to the left in a different +direction from the river, and owing to its extent touches the confines +of many nations; nor is there any person belonging to this part of +Germany who says that he either has gone to the extremity of that +forest, though he had advanced a journey of sixty days, or has heard in +what place it begins. It is certain that many kinds of wild beasts are +produced in it which have not been seen in other parts; of which the +following are such as differ principally from other animals, and appear +worthy of being committed to record. + +XXVI.--There is an ox of the shape of a stag, between whose ears a horn +rises from the middle of the forehead, higher and straighter than those +horns which are known to us. From the top of this, branches, like palms; +stretch out a considerable distance. The shape of the female and of the +male is the same; the appearance and the size of the horns is the same. + +XXVII.--There are also [animals] which are called elks. The shape of +these, and the varied colour of their skins, is much like roes, but in +size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have +legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose +of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they +raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them; they lean +themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take +their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of +these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they +either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far +that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When +they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by +their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with +them. + +XXVIII.-There is a third kind, consisting of those animals which are +called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of the +appearance, colour, and shape of a bull. Their strength and speed are +extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast which they have +espied. These the Germans take with much pains in pits and kill them. +The young men harden themselves with this exercise, and practice +themselves in this kind of hunting, and those who have slain the +greatest number of them, having produced the horns in public, to serve +as evidence, receive great praise. But not even when taken very young +can they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape, and +appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our oxen. These +they anxiously seek after, and bind at the tips with silver, and use as +cups at their most sumptuous entertainments. + +XXIX.--Caesar, after he discovered through the Ubian scouts that the +Suevi had retired into their woods, apprehending a scarcity of corn, +because, as we have observed above, all the Germans pay very little +attention to agriculture, resolved not to proceed any farther; but, that +he might not altogether relieve the barbarians from the fear of his +return, and that he might delay their succours, having led back his +army, he breaks down, to the length of 200 feet, the farther end of the +bridge, which joined the banks of the Ubii, and, at the extremity of the +bridge raises towers of four stories, and stations a guard of twelve +cohorts for the purpose of defending the bridge, and strengthens the +place with considerable fortifications. Over that fort and guard he +appointed C. Volcatius Tullus, a young man; he himself, when the corn +began to ripen, having set forth for the war with 40 Ambiorix (through +the forest Arduenna, which is the largest of all Gaul, and reaches from +the banks of the Rhine and the frontiers of the Treviri to those of the +Nervii, and extends over more than 500 miles), he sends forward L. +Minucius Basilus with all the cavalry, to try if he might gain any +advantage by rapid marches and the advantage of time, he warns him to +forbid fires being made in the camp, lest any indication of his approach +be given at a distance: he tells him that he will follow immediately. + +XXX.--Basilus does as he was commanded; having performed his march +rapidly, and even surpassed the expectations of all, he surprises in the +fields many not expecting him; through their information he advances +towards Ambiorix himself, to the place in which he was said to be with a +few horse. Fortune accomplishes much, not only in other matters, but +also in the art of war. For as it happened by a remarkable chance, that +he fell upon [Ambiorix] himself unguarded and unprepared, and that his +arrival was seen by the people before the report or information of his +arrival was carried thither; so it was an incident of extraordinary +fortune that, although every implement of war which he was accustomed to +have about him was seized, and his chariots and horses surprised, yet he +himself escaped death. But it was effected owing to this circumstance, +that his house being surrounded by a wood, (as are generally the +dwellings of the Gauls, who, for the purpose of avoiding heat, mostly +seek the neighbourhood of woods and rivers) his attendants and friends +in a narrow spot sustained for a short time the attack of our horse. +While they were fighting, one of his followers mounted him on a horse: +the woods sheltered him as he fled. Thus fortune tended much both +towards his encountering and his escaping danger. + +XXXI.--Whether Ambiorix did not collect his forces from cool +deliberation, because he considered he ought not to engage in a battle, +or [whether] he was debarred by time and prevented by the sudden arrival +of our horse, when he supposed the rest of the army was closely +following, is doubtful; but certainly, despatching messengers through +the country, he ordered every one to provide for himself; and a part of +them fled into the forest Arduenna, a part into the extensive morasses; +those who were nearest the ocean, concealed themselves in the islands +which the tides usually form; many, departing from their territories, +committed themselves and all their possessions to perfect strangers. +Cativolcus, king of one-half of the Eburones, who had entered into the +design together with Ambiorix, since, being now worn out by age, he was +unable to endure the fatigue either of war or flight, having cursed +Ambiorix with every imprecation, as the person who had been the +contriver of that measure, destroyed himself with the juice of the yew +tree, of which there is a great abundance in Gaul and Germany. + +XXXII.--The Segui and Condrusi, of the nation and number of the Germans, +and who are between the Eburones and the Treviri, sent ambassadors to +Caesar to entreat that he would not regard them in the number of his +enemies, nor consider that the cause of all the Germans on this side the +Rhine was one and the same; that they had formed no plans of war, and +had sent no auxiliaries to Ambiorix. Caesar, having ascertained this +fact by an examination of his prisoners commanded that if any of the +Eburones in their flight had repaired to them, they should be sent back +to him; he assures them that if they did that, he will not injure their +territories. Then, having divided his forces into three parts, he sent +the baggage of all the legions to Aduatuca. That is the name of a fort. +This is nearly in the middle of the Eburones, where Titurius and +Aurunculeius had been quartered for the purpose of wintering. This place +he selected as well on other accounts as because the fortifications of +the previous year remained, in order that he might relieve the labour of +the soldiers. He left the fourteenth legion as a guard for the baggage, +one of those three which he had lately raised in Italy and brought over. +Over that legion and camp he places Q. Tullius Cicero and gives him 200 +horse. + +XXXIII.--Having divided the army, he orders T. Labienus to proceed with +three legions towards the ocean into those parts which border on the +Menappii; he sends C. Trebonius with a like number of legions to lay +waste that district which lies contiguous to the Aduatuci; he himself +determines to go with the remaining three to the river Sambre, which +flows into the Meuse, and to the most remote parts of Arduenna, whither +he heard that Ambiorix had gone with a few horse. When departing, he +promises that he will return before the end of the seventh day, on which +day he was aware corn was due to that legion which was being left in +garrison. He directs Labienus and Trebonius to return by the same day, +if they can do so agreeably to the interests of the republic; so that +their measures having been mutually imparted, and the plans of the enemy +having been discovered, they might be able to commence a different line +of operations. + +XXXIV.--There was, as we have above observed, no regular army, nor a +town, nor a garrison which could defend itself by arms; but the people +were scattered in all directions. Where either a hidden valley, or a +woody spot, or a difficult morass furnished any hope of protection or of +security to any one, there he had fixed himself. These places were known +to those that dwelt in the neighbourhood, and the matter demanded great +attention, not so much in protecting the main body of the army (for no +peril could occur to them altogether from those alarmed and scattered +troops), as in preserving individual soldiers; which in some measure +tended to the safety of the army. For both the desire of booty was +leading many too far, and the woods with their unknown and hidden routes +would not allow them to go in large bodies. If he desired the business +to be completed and the race of those infamous people to be cut off, +more bodies of men must be sent in several directions and the soldiers +must be detached on all sides; if he were disposed to keep the companies +at their standards, as the established discipline and practice of the +Roman army required, the situation itself was a safeguard to the +barbarians, nor was there wanting to individuals the daring to lay +secret ambuscades and beset scattered soldiers. But amidst difficulties +of this nature as far as precautions could be taken by vigilance, such +precautions were taken; so that some opportunities of injuring the enemy +were neglected, though the minds of all were burning to take revenge, +rather than that injury should be effected with any loss to our +soldiers. Caesar despatches messengers to the neighbouring states; by +the hope of booty he invites all to him, for the purpose of plundering +the Eburones, in order that the life of the Gauls might be hazarded in +the woods rather than the legionary soldiers; at the same time, in order +that a large force being drawn around them, the race and name of that +state may be annihilated for such a crime. A large number from all +quarters speedily assembles. + +XXXV.--These things were going on in all parts of the territories of the +Eburones, and the seventh day was drawing near, by which day Caesar had +purposed to return to the baggage and the legion. Here it might be +learned how much fortune achieves in war, and how great casualties she +produces. The enemy having been scattered and alarmed, as we related +above, there was no force which might produce even a slight occasion of +fear. The report extends beyond the Rhine to the Germans that the +Eburones are being pillaged, and that all were without distinction +invited to the plunder. The Sigambri, who are nearest to the Rhine, by +whom, we have mentioned above, the Tenchtheri and Usipetes were received +after their retreat, collect 2000 horse; they cross the Rhine in ships +and barks thirty miles below that place where the bridge was entire and +the garrison left by Caesar; they arrive at the frontiers of the +Eburones, surprise many who were scattered in flight, and get possession +of a large amount of cattle, of which barbarians are extremely covetous. +Allured by booty, they advance farther; neither morass nor forest +obstructs these men, born amidst war and depredations; they inquire of +their prisoners in what parts Caesar is; they find that he has advanced +farther, and learn that all the army has removed. Thereon one of the +prisoners says, "Why do you pursue such wretched and trifling spoil; +you, to whom it is granted to become even now most richly endowed by +fortune? In three hours you can reach Aduatuca; there the Roman army has +deposited all its fortunes; there is so little of a garrison that not +even the wall can be manned, nor dare any one go beyond the +fortifications." A hope having been presented them, the Germans leave in +concealment the plunder they had acquired; they themselves hasten to +Aduatuca, employing as their guide the same man by whose information +they had become informed of these things. + +XXXVI.--Cicero, who during all the foregoing days had kept his soldiers +in camp with the greatest exactness, and agreeably to the injunctions of +Caesar, had not permitted even any of the camp-followers to go beyond +the fortification, distrusting on the seventh day that Caesar would keep +his promise as to the number of days, because he heard that he had +proceeded farther, and no report as to his return was brought to him, +and being urged at the same time by the expressions of those who called +his tolerance almost a siege, if, forsooth, it was not permitted them to +go out of the camp, since he might expect no disaster, whereby he could +be injured, within three miles of the camp, while nine legions and all +the cavalry were under arms, and the enemy scattered and almost +annihilated, sent five cohorts into the neighbouring cornlands, between +which and the camp only one hill intervened, for the purpose of +foraging. Many soldiers of the legions had been left invalided in the +camp, of whom those who had recovered in this space of time, being about +300, are set together under one standard; a large number of soldiers' +attendants besides, with a great number of beasts of burden, which had +remained in the camp, permission being granted, follow them. + +XXXVII.--At this very time, the German horse by chance come up, and +immediately, with the same speed with which they had advanced, attempt +to force the camp at the Decuman gate, nor were they seen, in +consequence of woods lying in the way on that side, before they were +just reaching the camp: so much so, that the sutlers who had their +booths under the rampart had not an opportunity of retreating within the +camp. Our men, not anticipating it, are perplexed by the sudden affair, +and the cohort on the outpost scarcely sustains the first attack. The +enemy spread themselves on the other sides to ascertain if they could +find any access. Our men with difficulty defend the gates; the very +position of itself and the fortification secures the other accesses. +There is a panic in the entire camp, and one inquires of another the +cause of the confusion, nor do they readily determine whither the +standards should be borne, nor into what quarter each should betake +himself. One avows that the camp is already taken, another maintains +that, the enemy having destroyed the army and commander-in-chief, are +come thither as conquerors; most form strange superstitious fancies from +the spot, and place before their eyes the catastrophe of Cotta and +Titurius, who had fallen in the same fort. All being greatly +disconcerted by this alarm, the belief of the barbarians is strengthened +that there is no garrison within, as they had heard from their prisoner. +They endeavour to force an entrance and encourage one another not to +cast from their hands so valuable a prize. + +XXXVIII.-P. Sextius Baculus, who had led a principal century under +Caesar (of whom we have made mention in previous engagements), had been +left an invalid in the garrison, and had now been five days without +food. He, distrusting his own safety and that of all, goes forth from +his tent unarmed; he sees that the enemy are close at hand and that the +matter is in the utmost danger; he snatches arms from those nearest, and +stations himself at the gate. The centurions of that cohort which was on +guard follow him; for a short time they sustain the fight together. +Sextius faints, after receiving many wounds; he is with difficulty +saved, drawn away by the hands of the soldiers. This space having +intervened, the others resume courage, so far as to venture to take +their place on the fortifications and present the aspect of defenders. + +XXXIX.--The foraging having in the meantime been completed, our soldiers +distinctly hear the shout; the horse hasten on before and discover in +what danger the affair is. But here there is no fortification to receive +them, in their alarm: those last enlisted and unskilled in military +discipline turn their faces to the military tribune and the centurions; +they wait to find what orders may be given by them. No one is so +courageous as not to be disconcerted by the suddenness of the affair. +The barbarians, espying our standard in the distance, desist from the +attack; at first they suppose that the legions, which they had learned +from their prisoners had removed farther off, had returned; afterwards, +despising their small number, they make an attack on them at all sides. + +XL.-The camp-followers run forward to the nearest rising ground; being +speedily driven from this they throw themselves among the standards and +companies: they thus so much the more alarm the soldiers already +affrighted. Some propose that, forming a wedge, they suddenly break +through, since the camp was so near; and if any part should be +surrounded and slain, they fully trust that at least the rest may be +saved; others, that they take their stand on an eminence, and all +undergo the same destiny. The veteran soldiers, whom we stated to have +set out together [with the others] under a standard, do not approve of +this. Therefore encouraging each other, under the conduct of Caius +Trebonius, a Roman knight, who had been appointed over them, they break +through the midst of the enemy, and arrive in the camp safe to a man. +The camp-attendants and the horse following close upon them with the +same impetuosity, are saved by the courage of the soldiers. But those +who had taken their stand upon the eminence having even now acquired no +experience of military matters, neither could persevere in that +resolution which they approved of, namely, to defend themselves from +their higher position, nor imitate that vigour and speed which they had +observed to have availed others; but, attempting to reach the camp, had +descended into an unfavourable situation. The Centurions, some of whom +had been promoted for their valour from the lower ranks of other legions +to higher ranks in this legion, in order that they might not forfeit +their glory for military exploits previously acquired, fell together +fighting most valiantly. The enemy having been dislodged by their +valour, a part of the soldiers arrived safe in camp contrary to their +expectations; a part perished, surrounded by the barbarians. + +XLI.--The Germans, despairing of taking the camp by storm, because they +saw that our men had taken up their position on the fortifications, +retreated beyond the Rhine with that plunder which they had deposited in +the woods. And so great was the alarm, even after the departure of the +enemy, that when C. Volusenus, who had been sent with the cavalry, +arrived that night, he could not gain credence that Caesar was close at +hand with his army safe. Fear had so pre-occupied the minds of all, +that, their reason being almost estranged, they said that all the other +forces having been cut off, the cavalry alone had arrived there by +flight, and asserted that, if the army were safe, the Germans would not +have attacked the camp: which fear the arrival of Caesar removed. + +XLII.--He, on his return, being well aware of the casualties of war, +complained of one thing [only], namely, that the cohorts had been sent +away from the outposts and garrison [duty], and pointed out that room +ought not to have been left for even the most trivial casualty; that +fortune had exercised great influence in the sudden arrival of their +enemy; much greater, in that she had turned the barbarians away from the +very rampart and gates of the camp. Of all which events, it seemed the +most surprising that the Germans, who had crossed the Rhine with this +object, that they might plunder the territories of Ambiorix, being led +to the camp of the Romans, rendered Ambiorix a most acceptable service. + +XLIII.--Caesar, having again marched to harass the enemy, after +collecting a large number [of auxiliaries] from the neighbouring states, +despatches them in all directions. All the villages and all the +buildings, which each beheld, were on fire: spoil was being driven off +from all parts; the corn not only was being consumed by so great numbers +of cattle and men, but also had fallen to the earth, owing to the time +of the year and the storms; so that if any had concealed themselves for +the present, still, it appeared likely that they must perish through +want of all things, when the army should be drawn off. And frequently it +came to that point, as so large a body of cavalry had been sent abroad +in all directions, that the prisoners declared Ambiorix had just then +been seen by them in flight, and had not even passed out of sight, so +that the hope of overtaking him being raised, and unbounded exertions +having been resorted to, those who thought they should acquire the +highest favour with Caesar, nearly overcame nature by their ardour, and +continually a little only seemed wanting to complete success; but he +rescued himself by [means of] lurking-places and forests, and, concealed +by the night, made for other districts and quarters, with no greater +guard than that of four horsemen, to whom alone he ventured to confide +his life. + +XLIV.--Having devastated the country in such a manner, Caesar leads back +his army with the loss of two cohorts to Durocortorum of the Remi, and, +having summoned a council of Gaul to assemble at that place, he resolved +to hold an investigation respecting the conspiracy of the Senones and +Carnutes, and having pronounced a most severe sentence upon Acco, who +had been the contriver of that plot, he punished him after the custom of +our ancestors. Some fearing a trial, fled; when he had forbidden these +fire and water, he stationed in winter quarters two legions at the +frontiers of the Treviri, two among the Lingones, the remaining six at +Agendicum, in the territories of the Senones; and, having provided corn +for the army, he set out for Italy, as he had determined, to hold the +assizes. + + + +BOOK VII + +I.--Gaul being tranquil, Caesar, as he had determined, sets out for +Italy to hold the provincial assizes. There he receives intelligence of +the death of Clodius; and, being informed of the decree of the senate +[to the effect] that all the youth of Italy should take the military +oath, he determined to hold a levy throughout the entire province. +Report of these events is rapidly borne into Transalpine Gaul. The Gauls +themselves add to the report, and invent what the case seemed to +require, [namely] that Caesar was detained by commotions in the city, +and could not, amidst so violent dissensions, come to his army. Animated +by this opportunity, they who already, previously to this occurrence, +were indignant that they were reduced beneath the dominion of Rome, +begin to organize their plans for war more openly and daringly. The +leading men of Gaul, having convened councils among themselves in the +woods, and retired places, complain of the death of Acco: they point out +that this fate may fall in turn on themselves: they bewail the unhappy +fate of Gaul; and by every sort of promises and rewards, they earnestly +solicit some to begin the war, and assert the freedom of Gaul at the +hazard of their lives. They say that special care should be paid to +this, that Caesar should be cut off from his army, before their secret +plans should be divulged. That this was easy, because neither would the +legions, in the absence of their general, dare to leave their winter +quarters, nor could the general reach his army without a guard: finally, +that it was better to be slain in battle than not to recover their +ancient glory in war, and that freedom which they had received from +their forefathers. + +II.--Whilst these things are in agitation, the Carnutes declare "that +they would decline no danger for the sake of the general safety," and +promise that they would be the first of all to begin the war; and since +they cannot at present take precautions, by giving and receiving +hostages, that the affair shall not be divulged they require that a +solemn assurance be given them by oath and plighted honour, their +military standards being brought together (in which manner their most +sacred obligations are made binding), that they should not be deserted +by the rest of the Gauls on commencing the war. + +III.--When the appointed day came, the Carnutes, under the command of +Cotuatus and Conetodunus, desperate men, meet together at Genabum, and +slay the Roman citizens who had settled there for the purpose of trading +(among the rest, Caius Fusius Cita, a distinguished Roman knight, who by +Caesar's orders had presided over the provision department), and plunder +their property. The report is quickly spread among all the states of +Gaul; for, whenever a more important and remarkable event takes place, +they transmit the intelligence through their lands and districts by a +shout; the others take it up in succession, and pass it to their +neighbours, as happened on this occasion; for the things which were done +at Genabum at sunrise were heard in the territories of the Arverni +before the end of the first watch, which is an extent of more than a +hundred and sixty miles. + +IV.--There in like manner, Vercingetorix the son of Celtillus the +Arvernian, a young man of the highest power (whose father had held the +supremacy of entire Gaul, and had been put to death by his fellow +citizens, for this reason, because he aimed at sovereign power), +summoned together his dependents, and easily excited them. On his design +being made known, they rush to arms: he is expelled from the town of +Gergovia by his uncle Gobanitio and the rest of the nobles, who were of +opinion, that such an enterprise ought not to be hazarded: he did not +however desist, but held in the country a levy of the needy and +desperate. Having collected such a body of troops, he brings over to his +30 sentiments such of his fellow citizens as he has access to: he +exhorts them to take up arms in behalf of the general freedom, and +having assembled great forces he drives from the state his opponents, by +whom he had been expelled a short time previously. He is saluted king by +his partisans; he sends ambassadors in every direction, he conjures them +to adhere firmly to their promise. He quickly attaches to his interests +the Senones, Parisii, Pictones, Cadurci, Turones, Aulerci, Lemovice, and +all the others who border on the ocean; the supreme command is conferred +on him by unanimous consent. On obtaining this authority, he demands +hostages from all these states, he orders a fixed number of soldiers to +be sent to him immediately; he determines what quantity of arms each +state shall prepare at home, and before what time; he pays particular +attention to the cavalry. To the utmost vigilance he adds the utmost +rigour of authority; and by the severity of his punishments brings over +the wavering: for on the commission of a greater crime he puts the +perpetrators to death by fire and every sort of tortures; for a slighter +cause, he sends home the offenders with their ears cut off, or one of +their eyes put out, that they may be an example to the rest, and +frighten others by the severity of their punishment. + +V.--Having quickly collected an army by their punishments, he sends +Lucterius, one of the Cadurci, a man of the utmost daring, with part of +his forces, into the territory of the Ruteni; and marches in person into +the country of the Bituriges. On his arrival, the Bituriges send +ambassadors to the Aedui, under whose protection they were, to solicit +aid in order that they might more easily resist the forces of the enemy. +The Aedui, by the advice of the lieutenants whom Caesar had left with +the army, send supplies of horse and foot to succour the Bituriges. When +they came to the river Loire, which separates the Bituriges from the +Aedui, they delayed a few days there, and, not daring to pass the river, +return home, and send back word to the lieutenants that they had +returned through fear of the treachery of the Bituriges, who, they +ascertained, had formed this design, that if the Aedui should cross the +river, the Bituriges on the one side, and the Arverni on the other, +should surround them. Whether they did this for the reason which they +alleged to the lieutenants, or influenced by treachery, we think that we +ought not to state as certain, because we have no proof. On their +departure, the Bituriges immediately unite themselves to the Arverni. + +VI.--These affairs being announced to Caesar in Italy at the time when +he understood that matters in the city had been reduced to a more +tranquil state by the energy of Cneius Pompey, he set out for +Transalpine Gaul. After he had arrived there, he was greatly at a loss +to know by what means he could reach his army. For if he should summon +the legions into the province, he was aware that on their march they +would have to fight in his absence; he foresaw too, that if he himself +should endeavour to reach the army, he would act injudiciously, in +trusting his safety even to those who seemed to be tranquillized. + +VII.--In the meantime Lucterius the Cadurcan, having been sent into the +country of the Ruteni, gains over that state to the Arverni. Having +advanced into the country of the Nitiobriges, and Gabali, he receives +hostages from both nations, and, assembling a numerous force, marches to +make a descent on the province in the direction of Narbo. Caesar, when +this circumstance was announced to him, thought that the march to Narbo +ought to take the precedence of all his other plans. When he arrived +there, he encourages the timid, and stations garrisons among the Ruteni, +in the province of the Volcae Arecomici, and the country around Narbo +which was in the vicinity of the enemy; he orders a portion of the +forces from the province, and the recruits which he had brought from +Italy, to rendezvous among the Helvii who border on the territories of +the Arverni. + +VIII.--These matters being arranged, and Lucterius now checked and +forced to retreat, because he thought it dangerous to enter the line of +Roman garrisons, Caesar marches into the country of the Helvii; although +mount Cevennes, which separates the Arverni from the Helvii, blocked up +the way with very deep snow, as it was the severest season of the year; +yet having cleared away the snow to the depth of six feet, and having +opened the roads, he reaches the territories of the Arverni, with +infinite labour to his soldiers. This people being surprised, because +they considered themselves defended by the Cevennes as by a wall, and +the paths at this season of the year had never before been passable even +to individuals, he orders the cavalry to extend themselves as far as +they could, and strike as great a panic as possible into the enemy. +These proceedings are speedily announced to Vercingetorix by rumour and +his messengers. Around him all the Arverni crowd in alarm, and solemnly +entreat him to protect their property, and not to suffer them to be +plundered by the enemy, especially as he saw that all the war was +transferred into their country. Being prevailed upon by their entreaties +he moves his camp from the country of the Bituriges in the direction of +the Arverni. + +IX.--Caesar, having delayed two days in that place, because he had +anticipated that, in the natural course of events, such would be the +conduct of Vercingetorix, leaves the army under pretence of raising +recruits and cavalry: he places Brutus, a young man, in command of these +forces; he gives him instructions that the cavalry should range as +extensively as possible in all directions; that he would exert himself +not to be absent from the camp longer than three days. Having arranged +these matters, he marches to Vienna by as long journeys as he can, when +his own soldiers did not expect him. Finding there a fresh body of +cavalry, which he had sent on to that place several days before, +marching incessantly night and day, he advanced rapidly through the +territory of the Aedui into that of the Lingones, in which two legions +were wintering, that, if any plan affecting his own safety should have +been organised by the Aedui, he might defeat it by the rapidity of his +movements. When he arrived there, he sends information to the rest of +the legions, and gathers all his army into one place before intelligence +of his arrival could be announced to the Arverni. + +Vercingetorix, on hearing this circumstance, leads back his army into +the country of the Bituriges; and after marching from it to Gergovia, a +town of the Boii, whom Caesar had settled there after defeating them in +the Helvetian war, and had rendered tributary to the Aedui, he +determined to attack it. + +X.--This action caused great perplexity to Caesar in the selection of +his plans; [he feared] lest, if he should confine his legions in one +place for the remaining portion of the winter, all Gaul should revolt +when the tributaries of the Aedui were subdued, because it would appear +that there was in him no protection for his friends; but if he should +draw them too soon out of their winter quarters, he might be distressed +by the want of provisions, in consequence of the difficulty of +conveyance. It seemed better, however, to endure every hardship than to +alienate the affections of all his allies, by submitting to such an +insult. Having, therefore, impressed on the Aedui the necessity of +supplying him with provisions, he sends forward messengers to the Boii +to inform them of his arrival, and encourage them to remain firm in +their allegiance, and resist the attack of the enemy with great +resolution. Having left two legions and the luggage of the entire army +at Agendicum, he marches to the Boii. + +XI.--On the second day, when he came to Vellaunodunum, a town of the +Senones, he determined to attack it, in order that he might not leave an +enemy in his rear, and might the more easily procure supplies of +provisions, and drew a line of circumvallation around it in two days: on +the third day, ambassadors being sent from the town to treat of a +capitulation, he orders their arms to be brought together, their cattle +to be brought forth, and six hundred hostages to be given. He leaves +Caius Trebonius, his lieutenant, to complete these arrangements; he +himself sets out with the intention of marching as soon as possible to +Genabum, a town of the Carnutes, who having then for the first time +received information of the siege of Vellaunodunum, as they thought that +it would be protracted to a longer time, were preparing a garrison to +send to Genabum for the defence of that town. Caesar arrived here in two +days; after pitching his camp before the town, being prevented by the +time of the day, he defers the attack to the next day, and orders his +soldiers to prepare whatever was necessary for that enterprise; and as a +bridge over the Loire connected the town of Genabum with the opposite +bank, fearing lest the inhabitants should escape by night from the town, +he orders two legions to keep watch under arms. The people of Genabum +came forth silently from the city before midnight, and began to cross +the river. When this circumstance was announced by scouts, Caesar, +having set fire to the gates, sends in the legions which he had ordered +to be ready, and obtains possession of the town so completely, that very +few of the whole number of the enemy escaped being taken alive, because +the narrowness of the bridge and the roads prevented the multitude from +escaping. He pillages and burns the town, gives the booty to the +soldiers, then leads his army over the Loire, and marches into the +territories of the Bituriges. + +XII.--Vercingetorix, when he ascertained the arrival of Caesar, desisted +from the siege [of Gergovia], and marched to meet Caesar. The latter had +commenced to besiege Noviodunum; and when ambassadors came from this +town to beg that he would pardon them and spare their lives, in order +that he might execute the rest of his designs with the rapidity by which +he had accomplished most of them, he orders their arms to be collected, +their horses to be brought forth, and hostages to be given. A part of +the hostages being now delivered up, when the rest of the terms were +being performed, a few centurions and soldiers being sent into the town +to collect the arms and horses, the enemy's cavalry, which had +outstripped the main body of Vercingetorix's army, was seen at a +distance; as soon as the townsmen beheld them, and entertained hopes of +assistance, raising a shout, they began to take up arms, shut the gates, +and line the walls. When the centurions in the town understood from the +signal-making of the Gauls that they were forming some new design, they +drew their swords and seized the gates, and recovered all their men +safe. + +XIII.--Caesar orders the horse to be drawn out of the camp, and +commences a cavalry action. His men being now distressed, Caesar sends +to their aid about four hundred German horse, which he had determined, +at the beginning, to keep with himself. The Gauls could not withstand +their attack, but were put to flight, and retreated to their main body, +after losing a great number of men. When they were routed, the townsmen, +again intimidated, arrested those persons by whose exertions they +thought that the mob had been roused, and brought them to Caesar, and +surrendered themselves to him. When these affairs were accomplished, +Caesar marched to the Avaricum, which was the largest and best fortified +town in the territories of the Bituriges, and situated in a most fertile +tract of country; because he confidently expected that on taking that +town, he would reduce beneath his dominion the state of the Bituriges. + +XIV.--Vercingetorix, after sustaining such a series of losses at +Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum, summons his men to a council. He +impresses on them "that the war must be prosecuted on a very different +system from that which had been previously adopted; but they should by +all means aim at this object, that the Romans should be prevented from +foraging and procuring provisions; that this was easy, because they +themselves were well supplied with cavalry and were likewise assisted by +the season of the year; that forage could not be cut; that the enemy +must necessarily disperse, and look for it in the houses, that all these +might be daily destroyed by the horse. Besides that the interests of +private property must be neglected for the sake of the general safety; +that the villages and houses ought to be fired, over such an extent of +country in every direction from Boia, as the Romans appeared capable of +scouring in their search for forage. That an abundance of these +necessaries could be supplied to them, because they would be assisted by +the resources of those in whose territories the war would be waged: that +the Romans either would not bear the privation, or else would advance to +any distance from the camp with considerable danger; and that it made no +difference whether they slew them or stripped them of their baggage, +since, if it was lost, they could not carry on the war. Besides that, +the towns ought to be burnt which were not secured against every danger +by their fortifications or natural advantages; that there should not be +places of retreat for their own countrymen for declining military +service, nor be exposed to the Romans as inducements to carry off +abundance of provisions and plunder. If these sacrifices should appear +heavy or galling, that they ought to consider it much more distressing +that their wives and children should be dragged off to slavery, and +themselves slain; the evils which must necessarily befall the conquered. + +XV.--This opinion having been approved of by unanimous consent, more +than twenty towns of the Bituriges are burnt in one day. Conflagrations +are beheld in every quarter; and although all bore this with great +regret, yet they laid before themselves this consolation, that, as the +victory was certain, they could quickly recover their losses. There is a +debate concerning Avaricum in the general council, whether they should +decide that it should be burnt or defended. The Bituriges threw +themselves at the feet of all the Gauls, and entreat that they should +not be compelled to set fire with their own hands to the fairest city of +almost the whole of Gaul, which was both a protection and ornament to +the state; they say that "they could easily defend it, owing to the +nature of the ground, for, being enclosed almost on every side by a +river and a marsh, it had only one entrance, and that very narrow." +Permission being granted to them at their earnest request, Vercingetorix +at first dissuades them from it, but afterwards concedes the point, +owing to their entreaties and the compassion of the soldiers. A proper +garrison is selected for the town. + +XVI.--Vercingetorix follows closely upon Caesar by shorter marches, and +selects for his camp a place defended by woods and marshes, at the +distance of fifteen miles from Avaricum. There he received intelligence +by trusty scouts, every hour in the day, of what was going on at +Avaricum, and ordered whatever he wished to be done; he closely watched +all our expeditions for corn and forage, and whenever they were +compelled to go to a greater distance, he attacked them when dispersed, +and inflicted severe loss upon them; although the evil was remedied by +our men, as far as precautions could be taken, by going forth at +irregular times, and by different ways. + +XVII.--Caesar pitching his camp at that side of the town which was not +defended by the river and marsh, and had a very narrow approach, as we +have mentioned, began to raise the vineae and erect two towers; for the +nature of the place prevented him from drawing a line of +circumvallation. He never ceased to importune the Boii and Aedui for +supplies of corn; of whom the one [the Aedui], because they were acting +with no zeal, did not aid him much; the others [the Boii], as their +resources were not great, quickly consumed what they had. Although the +army was distressed by the greatest want of corn, through the poverty of +the Boii, the apathy of the Aedui, and the burning of the houses, to +such a degree, that for several days the soldiers were without corn, and +satisfied their extreme hunger with cattle driven from the remote +villages; yet no language was heard from them unworthy of the majesty of +the Roman people and their former victories. Moreover, when Caesar +addressed the legions, one by one, when at work, and said that he would +raise the siege, if they felt the scarcity too severely, they +unanimously begged him "not to do so; that they had served for several +years under his command in such a manner, that they never submitted to +insult, and never abandoned an enterprise without accomplishing it; that +they should consider it a disgrace if they abandoned the siege after +commencing it; that it was better to endure every hardship than not to +avenge the manes of the Roman citizens who perished at Genabum by the +perfidy of the Gauls." They entrusted the same declarations to the +centurions and military tribunes, that through them they might be +communicated to Caesar. + +XVIII.--When the towers had now approached the walls, Caesar ascertained +from the captives that Vercingetorix, after destroying the forage, had +pitched his camp nearer Avaricum, and that he himself with the cavalry +and light-armed infantry, who generally fought among the horse, had gone +to lay an ambuscade in that quarter to which he thought that our troops +would come the next day to forage. On learning these facts, he set out +from the camp secretly at midnight, and reached the camp of the enemy +early in the morning. They having quickly learned the arrival of Caesar +by scouts, hid their cars and baggage in the thickest parts of the +woods, and drew up all their forces in a lofty and open space: which +circumstance being announced, Caesar immediately ordered the baggage to +be piled, and the arms to be got ready. + +XIX.--There was a hill of a gentle ascent from the bottom; a dangerous +and impassable marsh, not more than fifty feet broad, begirt it on +almost every side. The Gauls, having broken down the bridges, posted +themselves on this hill, in confidence of their position, and being +drawn up in tribes according to their respective states, held all the +fords and passages of that marsh with trusty guards, thus determined +that if the Romans should attempt to force the marsh, they would +overpower them from the higher ground while sticking in it, so that +whoever saw the nearness of the position, would imagine that the two +armies were prepared to fight on almost equal terms; but whoever should +view accurately the disadvantage of position, would discover that they +were showing off an empty affectation of courage. Caesar clearly points +out to his soldiers, who were indignant that the enemy could bear the +sight of them at the distance of so short a space, and were earnestly +demanding the signal for action, "with how great loss and the death of +how many gallant men the victory would necessarily be purchased: and +when he saw them so determined to decline no danger for his renown, that +he ought to be considered guilty of the utmost injustice if he did not +hold their life dearer than his own personal safety." Having thus +consoled his soldiers, he leads them back on the same day to the camp, +and determined to prepare the other things which were necessary for the +siege of the town. + +XX.--Vercingetorix, when he had returned to his men, was accused of +treason, in that he had moved his camp nearer the Romans, in that he had +gone away with all the cavalry, in that he had left so great forces +without a commander, in that, on his departure, the Romans had come at +such a favourable season, and with such despatch; that all these +circumstances could not have happened accidentally or without design; +that he preferred holding the sovereignty of Gaul by the grant of +Caesar, to acquiring it by their favour. Being accused in such a manner, +he made the following reply to these charges:--"That his moving his camp +had been caused by want of forage, and had been done even by their +advice; that his approaching near the Romans had been a measure dictated +by the favourable nature of the ground, which would defend him by its +natural strength; that the service of the cavalry could not have been +requisite in marshy ground, and was useful in that place to which they +had gone; that he, on his departure, had given the supreme command to no +one intentionally, lest he should be induced by the eagerness of the +multitude to hazard an engagement, to which he perceived that all were +inclined, owing to their want of energy, because they were unable to +endure fatigue any longer. That, if the Romans in the meantime came up +by chance, they [the Gauls] should feel grateful to fortune; if invited +by the information of some one they should feel grateful to him, because +they were enabled to see distinctly from the higher ground the smallness +of the number of their enemy, and despise the courage of those who, not +daring to fight, retreated disgracefully into their camp. That he +desired no power from Caesar by treachery, since he could have it by +victory, which was now assured to himself and to all the Gauls; nay, +that he would even give them back the command, if they thought that they +conferred honour on him, rather then received safety from him. That you +may be assured," said he, "that I speak these words with truth;--listen +to these Roman soldiers!" He produces some camp-followers whom he had +surprised on a foraging expedition some days before, and had tortured by +famine and confinement. They being previously instructed in what answers +they should make when examined, say, "That they were legionary soldiers, +that, urged by famine and want, they had recently gone forth from the +camp, [to see] if they could find any corn or cattle in the fields; that +the whole army was distressed by a similar scarcity, nor had any one now +sufficient strength, nor could bear the labour of the work; and +therefore that the general was determined, if he made no progress in the +siege, to draw off his army in three days." "These benefits," says +Vercingetorix, "you receive from me, whom you accuse of treason--me, by +whose exertions you see so powerful and victorious an army almost +destroyed by famine, without shedding one drop of your blood; and I have +taken precautions that no state shall admit within its territories this +army in its ignominious flight from this place." + +XXI.--The whole multitude raise a shout and clash their arms, according +to their custom, as they usually do in the case of him whose speech they +approve; [they exclaim] that Vercingetorix was a consummate general, and +that they had no doubt of his honour; that the war could not be +conducted with greater prudence. They determine that ten thousand men +should be picked out of the entire army and sent into the town, and +decide that the general safety should not be entrusted to the Bituriges +alone, because they were aware that the glory of the victory must rest +with the Bituriges, if they made good the defence of the town. + +XXII.--To the extraordinary valour of our soldiers, devices of every +sort were opposed by the Gauls; since they are a nation of consummate +ingenuity, and most skilful in imitating and making those things which +are imparted by any one; for they turned aside the hooks with nooses, +and when they had caught hold of them firmly, drew them on by means of +engines, and undermined the mound the more skilfully on this account, +because there are in their territories extensive iron mines, and +consequently every description of mining operations is known and +practised by them. They had furnished, moreover, the whole wall on every +side with turrets, and had covered them with skins. Besides, in their +frequent sallies by day and night, they attempted either to set fire to +the mound, or attack our soldiers when engaged in the works; and, +moreover, by splicing the upright timbers of their own towers, they +equalled the height of ours, as fast as the mound had daily raised them, +and countermined our mines, and impeded the working of them by stakes +bent and sharpened at the ends, and boiling pitch, and stones of very +great weight, and prevented them from approaching the walls. + +XXIII.--But this is usually the form of all the Gallic walls. Straight +beams, connected lengthwise and two feet distant from each other at +equal intervals, are placed together on the ground; these are mortised +on the inside, and covered with plenty of earth. But the intervals which +we have mentioned, are closed up in front by large stones. These being +thus laid and cemented together, another row is added above, in such a +manner that the same interval may be observed, and that the beams may +not touch one another, but equal spaces intervening, each row of beams +is kept firmly in its place by a row of stones. In this manner the whole +wall is consolidated, until the regular height of the wall be completed. +This work, with respect to appearance and variety, is not unsightly, +owing to the alternate rows of beams and stones, which preserve their +order in right lines; and, besides, it possesses great advantages as +regards utility and the defence of cities; for the stone protects it +from fire, and the wood from the battering ram, since it [the wood] +being mortised in the inside with rows of beams, generally forty feet +each in length, can neither be broken through nor torn asunder. + +XXIV.--The siege having been impeded by so many disadvantages, the +soldiers, although they were retarded during the whole time, by the mud, +cold, and constant showers, yet by their incessant labour overcame all +these obstacles, and in twenty-five days raised a mound three hundred +and thirty feet broad and eighty feet high. When it almost touched the +enemy's walls, and Caesar, according to his usual custom, kept watch at +the work, and encouraged the soldiers not to discontinue the work for a +moment: a little before the third watch they discovered that the mound +was sinking, since the enemy had set it on fire by a mine; and at the +same time a shout was raised along the entire wall, and a sally was made +from two gates on each side of the turrets. Some at a distance were +casting torches and dry wood from the wall on the mound, others were +pouring on it pitch, and other materials, by which the flame might be +excited, so that a plan could hardly be formed, as to where they should +first run to the defence, or to what part aid should be brought. +However, as two legions always kept guard before the camp by Caesar's +orders, and several of them were at stated times at the work, measures +were promptly taken, that some should oppose the sallying party, others +draw back the towers and make a cut in the rampart; and moreover, that +the whole army should hasten from the camp to extinguish the flames. + +XXV.--When the battle was going on in every direction, the rest of the +night being now spent, and fresh hopes of victory always arose before +the enemy: the more so on this account because they saw the coverings of +our towers burnt away, and perceived that we, being exposed, could not +easily go to give assistance, and they themselves were always relieving +the weary with fresh men, and considered that all the safety of Gaul +rested on this crisis; there happened in my own view a circumstance +which, having appeared to be worthy of record, we thought it ought not +to be omitted. A certain Gaul before the gate of the town, who was +casting into the fire opposite the turret balls of tallow and fire which +were passed along to him, was pierced with a dart on the right side and +fell dead. One of those next him stepped over him as he lay, and +discharged the same office: when the second man was slain in the same +manner by a wound from a cross-bow, a third succeeded him, and a fourth +succeeded the third: nor was this post left vacant by the besieged, +until, the fire of the mound having been extinguished, and the enemy +repulsed in every direction, an end was put to the fighting. + +XXVI.--The Gauls having tried every expedient, as nothing had succeeded, +adopted the design of fleeing from the town the next day, by the advice +and order of Vercingetorix. They hoped that, by attempting it at the +dead of night, they would effect it without any great loss of men, +because the camp of Vercingetorix was not far distant from the town, and +the extensive marsh which intervened was likely to retard the Romans in +the pursuit. And they were now preparing to execute this by night, when +the matrons suddenly ran out into the streets, and weeping cast +themselves at the feet of their husbands, and requested of them, with +every entreaty, that they should not abandon themselves and their common +children to the enemy for punishment, because the weakness of their +nature and physical powers prevented them from taking to flight. When +they saw that they (as fear does not generally admit of mercy in extreme +danger) persisted in their resolution, they began to shout aloud, and +give intelligence of their flight to the Romans. The Gauls being +intimidated by fear of this, lest the passes should be pre-occupied by +the Roman cavalry, desisted from their design. + +XXVII.--The next day Caesar, the tower being advanced, and the works +which he had determined to raise being arranged, a violent storm +arising, thought this no bad time for executing his designs, because he +observed the guards arranged on the walls a little too negligently, and +therefore ordered his own men to engage in their work more remissly, and +pointed out what he wished to be done. He drew up his soldiers in a +secret position within the vineae, and exhorts them to reap, at least, +the harvest of victory proportionate to their exertions. He proposed a +reward for those who should first scale the walls, and gave the signal +to the soldiers. They suddenly flew out from all quarters and quickly +filled the wall. + +XXVIII.--The enemy being alarmed by the suddenness of the attack, were +dislodged from the wall and towers, and drew up, in form of a wedge, in +the market-place and the open streets, with this intention that, if an +attack should be made on any side, they should fight with their line +drawn up to receive it. When they saw no one descending to the level +ground, and the enemy extending themselves along the entire wall in +every direction, fearing lest every hope of flight should be cut off, +they cast away their arms, and sought, without stopping, the most remote +parts of the town. A part was then slain by the infantry when they were +crowding upon one another in the narrow passage of the gates; and a part +having got without the gates, were cut to pieces by the cavalry: nor was +there one who was anxious for the plunder. Thus, being excited by the +massacre at Genabum and the fatigue of the siege, they spared neither +those worn out with years, women, or children. Finally, out of all that +number, which amounted to about forty thousand, scarcely eight hundred, +who fled from the town when they heard the first alarm, reached +Vercingetorix in safety: and he, the night being now far spent, received +them in silence after their flight (fearing that any sedition should +arise in the camp from their entrance in a body and the compassion of +the soldiers), so that, having arranged his friends and the chiefs of +the states at a distance on the road, he took precautions that they +should be separated and conducted to their fellow countrymen, to +whatever part of the camp had been assigned to each state from the +beginning. + +XXIX.--Vercingetorix having convened an assembly on the following day, +consoled and encouraged his soldiers in the following words:--"That they +should not be too much depressed in spirit, nor alarmed at their loss; +that the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a +kind of art and skill in assault, with which they themselves were +unacquainted; that whoever expected every event in the war to be +favourable, erred; that it never was his opinion that Avaricum should be +defended, of the truth of which statement he had themselves as +witnesses, but that it was owing to the imprudence of the Bituriges, and +the too ready compliance of the rest, that this loss was sustained; +that, however, he would soon compensate it by superior advantages; for +that he would, by his exertions, bring over those states which severed +themselves from the rest of the Gauls, and would create a general +unanimity throughout the whole of Gaul, the union of which not even the +whole earth could withstand, and that he had it already almost effected; +that in the meantime it was reasonable that he should prevail on them, +for the sake of the general safety, to begin to fortify their camp, in +order that they might the more easily sustain the sudden attacks of the +enemy." + +XXX.--This speech was not disagreeable to the Gauls, principally, +because he himself was not disheartened by receiving so severe a loss, +and had not concealed himself, nor shunned the eyes of the people: and +he was believed to possess greater foresight and sounder judgment than +the rest, because, when the affair was undecided, he had at first been +of opinion that Avaricum should be burnt, and afterwards that it should +be abandoned. Accordingly, as ill success weakens the authority of other +generals, so, on the contrary, his dignity increased daily, although a +loss was sustained: at the same time they began to entertain hopes, on +his assertion, of uniting the rest of the states to themselves, and on +this occasion, for the first time, the Gauls began to fortify their +camps, and were so alarmed that although they were men unaccustomed to +toil, yet they were of opinion that they ought to endure and suffer +everything which should be imposed upon them. + +XXXI.--Nor did Vercingetorix use less efforts than he had promised, to +gain over the other states, and [in consequence] endeavoured to entice +their leaders by gifts and promises. For this object he selected fitting +emissaries by whose subtle pleading or private friendship each of the +nobles could be most easily influenced. He takes care that those who +fled to him on the storming of Avaricum should be provided with arms and +clothes. At the same time, that his diminished forces should be +recruited, he levies a fixed quota of soldiers from each state, and +defines the number and day before which he should wish them brought to +the camp, and orders all the archers, of whom there was a very great +number in Gaul, to be collected and sent to him. By these means, the +troops which were lost at Avaricum are speedily replaced. In the +meantime, Teutomarus, the son of Ollovicon, the king of the Nitiobriges, +whose father had received the appellation of friend from our senate, +came to him with a great number of his own horse and those whom he had +hired from Aquitania. + +XXXII.--Caesar, after delaying several days at Avaricum, and finding +there the greatest plenty of corn and other provisions, refreshed his +army after their fatigue and privation. The winter being almost ended, +when he was invited by the favourable season of the year to prosecute +the war and march against the enemy, [and try] whether he could draw +them from the marshes and woods, or else press them by a blockade; some +noblemen of the Aedui came to him as ambassadors to entreat "that in an +extreme emergency he should succour their state; that their affairs were +in the utmost danger, because, whereas single magistrates had been +usually appointed in ancient times and held the power of king for a +single year, two persons now exercised this office, and each asserted +that he was appointed according to their laws. That one of them was +Convictolitanis, a powerful and illustrious youth; the other Cotus, +sprung from a most ancient family, and personally a man of very great +influence and extensive connections. His brother Valetiacus had borne +the same office during the last year: that the whole state was up in +arms; the senate divided, the people divided; that each of them had his +own adherents; and that, if the animosity would be fomented any longer +the result would be that one part of the state would come to a collision +with the other; that it rested with his activity and influence to +prevent it." + +XXXIII.--Although Caesar considered it ruinous to leave the war and the +enemy, yet, being well aware what great evils generally arise from +internal dissensions, lest a state so powerful and so closely connected +with the Roman people, which he himself had always fostered and honoured +in every respect, should have recourse to violence and arms, and that +the party which had less confidence in its own power should summon aid +from Vercingetorix, he determined to anticipate this movement; and +because, by the laws of the Aedui, it was not permitted those who held +the supreme authority to leave the country, he determined to go in +person to the Aedui, lest he should appear to infringe upon their +government and laws, and summoned all the senate, and those between whom +the dispute was, to meet him at Decetia. When almost all the state had +assembled there, and he was informed that one brother had been declared +magistrate by the other, when only a few persons were privately summoned +for the purpose, at a different time and place from what he ought, +whereas the laws not only forbade two belonging to one family to be +elected magistrates while each was alive, but even deterred them from +being in the senate, he compelled Cotus to resign his office; he ordered +Convictolitanis, who had been elected by the priests, according to the +usage of the state, in the presence of the magistrates, to hold the +supreme authority. + +XXXIV.--Having pronounced this decree between [the contending parties], +he exhorted the Aedui to bury in oblivion their disputes and +dissensions, and, laying aside all these things, devote themselves to +the war, and expect from him, on the conquest of Gaul, those rewards +which they should have earned, and send speedily to him all their +cavalry and ten thousand infantry, which he might place in different +garrisons to protect his convoys of provisions, and then divided his +army into two parts: he gave Labienus four legions to lead into the +country of the Senones and Parisii; and led in person six into the +country of the Arverni, in the direction of the town of Gergovia, along +the banks of the Allier. He gave part of the cavalry to Labienus, and +kept part to himself. Vercingetorix, on learning this circumstance, +broke down all the bridges over the river and began to march on the +other bank of the Allier. + +XXXV.--When each army was in sight of the other, and was pitching their +camp almost opposite that of the enemy, scouts being distributed in +every quarter, lest the Romans should build a bridge and bring over +their troops; it was to Caesar a matter attended with great +difficulties, lest he should be hindered from passing the river during +the greater part of the summer, as the Allier cannot generally be forded +before the autumn. Therefore, that this might not happen, having pitched +his camp in a woody place opposite to one of those bridges which +Vercingetorix had taken care should be broken down, the next day he +stopped behind with two legions in a secret place: he sent on the rest +of the forces as usual, with all the baggage, after having selected some +cohorts, that the number of the legions might appear to be complete. +Having ordered these to advance as far as they could, when now, from the +time of day, he conjectured they had come to an encampment, he began to +rebuild the bridge on the same piles, the lower part of which remained +entire. Having quickly finished the work and led his legions across, he +selected a fit place for a camp, and recalled the rest of his troops. +Vercingetorix, on ascertaining this fact, went before him by forced +marches, in order that he might not be compelled to come to an action +against his will. + +XXXVI.--Caesar, in five days' march, went from that place to Gergovia, +and after engaging in a slight cavalry skirmish that day, on viewing the +situation of the city, which, being built on a very high mountain, was +very difficult of access, he despaired of taking it by storm, and +determined to take no measures with regard to besieging it before he +should secure a supply of provisions. But Vercingetorix, having pitched +his camp on the mountain near the town, placed the forces of each state +separately and at small intervals around himself, and having occupied +all the hills of that range as far as they commanded a view [of the +Roman encampment], he presented a formidable appearance; he ordered the +rulers of the states, whom he had selected as his council of war, to +come to him daily at the dawn, whether any measure seemed to require +deliberation or execution. Nor did he allow almost any day to pass +without testing in a cavalry action, the archers being intermixed, what +spirit and valour there was in each of his own men. There was a hill +opposite the town, at the very foot of that mountain, strongly fortified +and precipitous on every side (which if our men could gain, they seemed +likely to exclude the enemy from a great share of their supply of water, +and from free foraging; but this place was occupied by them with a weak +garrison): however, Caesar set out from the camp in the silence of +night, and dislodging the garrison before succour could come from the +town, he got possession of the place and posted two legions there, and +drew from the greater camp to the less a double trench twelve feet +broad, so that the soldiers could even singly pass secure from any +sudden attack of the enemy. + +XXXVII.--Whilst these affairs were going on at Gergovia, +Convictolitanis, the Aeduan, to whom we have observed the magistracy was +adjudged by Caesar, being bribed by the Arverni, holds a conference with +certain young men, the chief of whom were Litavicus and his brothers, +who were born of a most noble family. He shares the bribe with them, and +exhorts them to "remember that they were free and born for empire; that +the state of the Aedui was the only one which retarded the most certain +victory of the Gauls; that the rest were held in check by its authority; +and, if it was brought over, the Romans would not have room to stand on +in Gaul; that he had received some kindness from Caesar, only so far, +however, as gaining a most just cause by his decision; but that he +assigned more weight to the general freedom; for, why should the Aedui +go to Caesar to decide concerning their rights and laws, rather than the +Romans come to the Aedui?" The young men being easily won over by the +speech of the magistrate and the bribe, when they declared that they +would even be leaders in the plot, a plan for accomplishing it was +considered, because they were confident their state could not be induced +to undertake the war on slight grounds. It was resolved that Litavicus +should have the command of the ten thousand which were being sent to +Caesar for the war, and should have charge of them on their march, and +that his brothers should go before him to Caesar. They arrange the other +measures, and the manner in which they should have them done. + +XXXVIII.--Litavicus, having received the command of the army, suddenly +convened the soldiers, when he was about thirty miles distant from +Gergovia, and, weeping, said, "Soldiers, whither are we going? All our +knights and all our nobles have perished. Eporedorix and Viridomarus, +the principal men of the state, being accused of treason, have been +slain by the Romans without even permission to plead their cause. Learn +this intelligence from those who have escaped from the massacre; for I, +since my brothers and all my relations have been slain, am prevented by +grief from declaring what has taken place." Persons are brought forward +whom he had instructed in what he would have them say, and make the same +statements to the soldiery as Litavicus had made: that all the knights +of the Aedui were slain because they were said to have held conferences +with the Arverni; that they had concealed themselves among the multitude +of soldiers, and had escaped from the midst of the slaughter. The Aedui +shout aloud and conjure Litavicus to provide for their safety. "As if," +said he, "it were a matter of deliberation, and not of necessity, for us +to go to Gergovia and unite ourselves to the Arverni. Or have we any +reasons to doubt that the Romans, after perpetrating the atrocious +crime, are now hastening to slay us? Therefore, if there be any spirit +in us, let us avenge the death of those who have perished in a most +unworthy manner, and let us slay these robbers." He points to the Roman +citizens, who had accompanied them, in reliance on his protection. He +immediately seizes a great quantity of corn and provisions, cruelly +tortures them, and then puts them to death, sends messengers throughout +the entire state of the Aedui, and rouses them completely by the same +falsehood concerning the slaughter of their knights and nobles; he +earnestly advises them to avenge, in the same manner as he did, the +wrongs which they had received. + +XXXIX.--Eporedorix, the Aeduan, a young man born in the highest rank and +possessing very great influence at home, and, along with Viridomarus, of +equal age and influence, but of inferior birth, whom Caesar had raised +from a humble position to the highest rank, on being recommended to him +by Divitiacus, had come in the number of horse, being summoned by Caesar +by name. These had a dispute with each other for precedence, and in the +struggle between the magistrates they had contended with their utmost +efforts, the one for Convictolitanis, the other for Cotus. Of these +Eporedorix, on learning the design of Litavicus, lays the matter before +Caesar almost at midnight; he entreats that Caesar should not suffer +their state to swerve from the alliance with the Roman people, owing to +the depraved counsels of a few young men, which he foresaw would be the +consequence if so many thousand men should unite themselves to the +enemy, as their relations could not neglect their safety, nor the state +regard it as a matter of slight importance. + +XL.--Caesar felt great anxiety on this intelligence, because he had +always especially indulged the state of the Aedui, and, without any +hesitation, draws out from the camp four light-armed legions and all the +cavalry: nor had he time, at such a crisis, to contract the camp, +because the affair seemed to depend upon despatch. He leaves Caius +Fabius, his lieutenant, with two legions to guard the camp. When he +ordered the brothers of Litavicus to be arrested, he discovers that they +had fled a short time before to the camp of the enemy. He encouraged his +soldiers "not to be disheartened by the labour of the journey on such a +necessary occasion," and, after advancing twenty-five miles, all being +most eager, he came in sight of the army of the Aedui, and, by sending +on his cavalry, retards and impedes their march; he then issues strict +orders to all his soldiers to kill no one. He commands Eporedorix and +Viridomarus, who they thought were killed, to move among the cavalry and +address their friends. When they were recognized and the treachery of +Litavicus discovered, the Aedui began to extend their hands to intimate +submission, and, laying down their arms, to deprecate death. Litavicus, +with his clansmen, who after the custom of the Gauls consider it a crime +to desert their patrons, even in extreme misfortune, flees forth to +Gergovia. + +XLI.--Caesar, after sending messengers to the state of the Aedui, to +inform them that they whom he could have put to death by the right of +war were spared through his kindness, and after giving three hours of +the night to his army for his repose, directed his march to Gergovia. +Almost in the middle of the journey, a party of horse that were sent by +Fabius stated in how great danger matters were; they inform him that the +camp was attacked by a very powerful army, while fresh men were +frequently relieving the wearied, and exhausting our soldiers by the +incessant toil, since, on account of the size of the camp, they had +constantly to remain on the rampart; that many had been wounded by the +immense number of arrows and all kinds of missiles; that the engines +were of great service in withstanding them; that Fabius, at their +departure, leaving only two gates open, was blocking up the rest, and +was adding breast-works to the ramparts, and was preparing himself for a +similar casualty on the following day. Caesar, after receiving this +information, reached the camp before sunrise owing to the very great +zeal of his soldiers. + +XLII.--Whilst these things are going on at Gergovia, the Aedui, on +receiving the first announcements from Litavicus, leave themselves no +time to ascertain the truth of these statements. Some are stimulated by +avarice, others by revenge and credulity, which is an innate propensity +in that race of men to such a degree that they consider a slight rumour +as an ascertained fact. They plunder the property of the Roman citizens, +and either massacre them or drag them away to slavery. Convictolitanis +increases the evil state of affairs, and goads on the people to fury, +that by the commission of some outrage they may be ashamed to return to +propriety. They entice from the town of Cabillonus, by a promise of +safety, Marcus Aristius, a military tribune, who was on his march to his +legion; they compel those who had settled there for the purpose of +trading to do the same. By constantly attacking them on their march they +strip them of all their baggage; they besiege day and night those that +resisted; when many were slain on both sides, they excite a greater +number to arms. + +XLIII.--In the meantime, when intelligence was brought that all their +soldiers were in Caesar's power, they run in a body to Aristius; they +assure him that nothing had been done by public authority; they order an +inquiry to be made about the plundered property; they confiscate the +property of Litavicus and his brothers; they send ambassadors to Caesar +for the purpose of clearing themselves. They do all this with a view to +recover their soldiers; but being contaminated by guilt, and charmed by +the gains arising from the plundered property, as that act was shared in +by many, and being tempted by the fear of punishment, they began to form +plans of war and stir up the other states by embassies. Although Caesar +was aware of this proceeding, yet he addresses the ambassadors with as +much mildness as he can: "That he did not think worse of the state on +account of the ignorance and fickleness of the mob, nor would diminish +his regard for the Aedui." He himself, fearing a greater commotion in +Gaul, in order to prevent his being surrounded by all the states, began +to form plans as to the manner in which he should return from Gergovia +and again concentrate his forces, lest a departure arising from the fear +of a revolt should seem like a flight. + +XLIV.--Whilst he was considering these things an opportunity of acting +successfully seemed to offer. For, when he had come into the smaller +camp for the purpose of securing the works, he noticed that the hill in +the possession of the enemy was stript of men, although, on the former +days, it could scarcely be seen on account of the numbers on it. Being +astonished, he inquires the reason of it from the deserters, a great +number of whom flocked to him daily. They all concurred in asserting, +what Caesar himself had already ascertained by his scouts, that the back +of that hill was almost level; but likewise woody and narrow, by which +there was a pass to the other side of the town; that they had serious +apprehensions for this place, and had no other idea, on the occupation +of one hill by the Romans, than that, if they should lose the other, +they would be almost surrounded, and cut off from all egress and +foraging; that they were all summoned by Vercingetorix to fortify this +place. + +XLV.--Caesar, on being informed of this circumstance, sends several +troops of horse to the place immediately after midnight; he orders them +to range in every quarter with more tumult than usual. At dawn he orders +a large quantity of baggage to be drawn out of the camp, and the +muleteers with helmets, in the appearance and guise of horsemen, to ride +round the hills. To these he adds a few cavalry, with instructions to +range more widely to make a show. He orders them all to seek the same +quarter by a long circuit; these proceedings were seen at a distance +from the town, as Gergovia commanded a view of the camp, nor could the +Gauls ascertain at so great a distance what certainty there was in the +manoeuvre. He sends one legion to the same hill, and after it had +marched a little, stations it in the lower ground, and conceals it in +the woods. The suspicions of the Gauls are increased, and all their +forces are marched to that place to defend it. Caesar, having perceived +the camp of the enemy deserted, covers the military insignia of his men, +conceals the standards, and transfers his soldiers in small bodies from +the greater to the less camp, and points out to the lieutenants whom he +had placed in command over the respective legions, what he should wish +to be done; he particularly advises them to restrain their men from +advancing too far, through their desire of fighting, or their hope of +plunder; he sets before them what disadvantages the unfavourable nature +of the ground carries with it; that they could be assisted by despatch +alone: that success depended on a surprise, and not on a battle. After +stating these particulars, he gives the signal for action, and detaches +the Aedui at the same time by another ascent an the right. + +XLVI.--The town wall was 1200 paces distant from the plain and foot of +the ascent, in a straight line, if no gap intervened; whatever circuit +was added to this ascent, to make the hill easy, increased the length of +the route. But almost in the middle of the hill, the Gauls had +previously built a wall six feet high, made of large stones, and +extending in length as far as the nature of the ground permitted, as a +barrier to retard the advance of our men; and leaving all the lower +space empty, they had filled the upper part of the hill, as far as the +wall of the town, with their camps very close to one another. The +soldiers, on the signal being given, quickly advance to this +fortification, and passing over it, make themselves masters of the +separate camps. And so great was their activity in taking the camps, +that Teutomarus, the king of the Nitiobriges, being suddenly surprised +in his tent, as he had gone to rest at noon, with difficulty escaped +from the hands of the plunderers, with the upper part of his person +naked, and his horse wounded. + +XLVII.--Caesar, having accomplished the object which he had in view, +ordered the signal to be sounded for a retreat; and the soldiers of the +tenth legion, by which he was then accompanied, halted. But the soldiers +of the other legions, not hearing the sound of the trumpet, because +there was a very large valley between them, were however kept back by +the tribunes of the soldiers and the lieutenants, according to Caesar's +orders; but being animated by the prospect of speedy victory, and the +flight of the enemy, and the favourable battles of former periods, they +thought nothing so difficult that their bravery could not accomplish it; +nor did they put an end to the pursuit, until they drew nigh to the wall +of the town and the gates. But then, when a shout arose in every quarter +of the city, those who were at a distance being alarmed by the sudden +tumult, fled hastily from the town, since they thought that the enemy +were within the gates. The matrons begin to cast their clothes and +silver over the wall, and bending over as far as the lower part of the +bosom, with outstretched hands beseech the Romans to spare them, and not +to sacrifice to their resentment even women and children, as they had +done at Avaricum. Some of them let themselves down from the walls by +their hands, and surrendered to our soldiers. Lucius Fabius, a centurion +of the eighth legion, who, it was ascertained, had said that day among +his fellow soldiers that he was excited by the plunder of Avaricum, and +would not allow any one to mount the wall before him, finding three men +of his own company, and being raised up by them, scaled the wall. He +himself, in turn, taking hold of them one by one, drew them up to the +wall. + +XLVIII.--In the meantime those who had gone to the other part of the +town to defend it, as we have mentioned above, at first, aroused by +hearing the shouts, and, afterwards, by frequent accounts that the town +was in possession of the Romans, sent forward their cavalry, and +hastened in larger numbers to that quarter. As each first came he stood +beneath the wall, and increased the number of his countrymen engaged in +action. When a great multitude of them had assembled, the matrons, who a +little before were stretching their hands from the walls to the Romans, +began to beseech their countrymen, and after the Gallic fashion to show +their dishevelled hair, and bring their children into public view. +Neither in position nor in numbers was the contest an equal one to the +Romans; at the same time, being exhausted by running and the long +continuation of the fight, they could not easily withstand fresh and +vigorous troops. + +XLIX.--Caesar, when he perceived that his soldiers were fighting on +unfavourable ground, and that the enemy's forces were increasing, being +alarmed for the safety of his troops, sent orders to Titus Sextius, one +of his lieutenants, whom he had left to guard the smaller camp, to lead +out his cohorts quickly from the camp, and post them at the foot of the +hill, on the right wing of the enemy; that if he should see our men +driven from the ground, he should deter the enemy from following too +closely. He himself, advancing with the legion a little from that place +where he had taken his post, awaited the issue of the battle. + +L.--While the fight was going on most vigorously, hand to hand, and the +enemy depended on their position and numbers, our men on their bravery, +the Aedui suddenly appeared on our exposed flank, as Caesar had sent +them by another ascent on the right, for the sake of creating a +diversion. These, from the similarity of their arms, greatly terrified +our men; and although they were discovered to have their right shoulders +bare, which was usually the sign of those reduced to peace, yet the +soldiers suspected that this very thing was done by the enemy to deceive +them. At the same time Lucius Fabius the centurion, and those who had +scaled the wall with him, being surrounded and slain, were cast from the +wall. Marcus Petreius, a centurion of the same legion, after attempting +to hew down the gates, was overpowered by numbers, and, despairing of +his safety, having already received many wounds, said to the soldiers of +his own company who followed him: "Since I cannot save you as well as +myself, I shall at least provide for your safety, since I allured by the +love of glory, led you into this danger, do you save yourselves when an +opportunity is given." At the same time he rushed into the midst of the +enemy, and slaying two of them, drove back the rest a little from the +gate. When his men attempted to aid him, "In vain," he says, "you +endeavour to procure my safety since blood and strength are now failing +me, therefore leave this, while you have the opportunity, and retreat to +the legion." Thus he fell fighting a few moments after, and saved his +men by his own death. + +LI.--Our soldiers, being hard pressed on every side, were dislodged from +their position, with the loss of forty-six centurions; but the tenth +legion, which had been posted in reserve on ground a little more level, +checked the Gauls in their eager pursuit. It was supported by the +cohorts of the thirteenth legion, which, being led from the smaller +camp, had, under the command of Titus Sextius, occupied the higher +ground. The legions, as soon as they reached the plain, halted and faced +the enemy. Vercingetorix led back his men from the part of the hill +within the fortifications. On that day little less than seven hundred of +the soldiers were missing. + +LII.--On the next day, Caesar, having called a meeting, censured the +rashness and avarice of his soldiers, "In that they had judged for +themselves how far they ought to proceed, or what they ought to do, and +could not be kept back by the tribunes of the soldiers and the +lieutenants;" and stated, "what the disadvantage of the ground could +effect, what opinion he himself had entertained at Avaricum, when having +surprised the enemy without either general or cavalry, he had given up a +certain victory, lest even a trifling loss should occur in the contest +owing to the disadvantage of position. That as much as he admired the +greatness of their courage, since neither the fortifications of the +camp, nor the height of the mountain, nor the wall of the town could +retard them; in the same degree he censured their licentiousness and +arrogance, because they thought that they knew more than their general +concerning victory, and the issue of actions: and that he required in +his soldiers forbearance and self-command, not less than valour and +magnanimity." + +LIII.--Having held this assembly, and having encouraged the soldiers at +the conclusion of his speech, "That they should not be dispirited on +this account, nor attribute to the valour of the enemy what the +disadvantage of position had caused;" entertaining the same views of his +departure that he had previously had, he led forth the legions from the +camp, and drew up his army in order of battle in a suitable place. When +Vercingetorix, nevertheless, would not descend to the level ground, a +slight cavalry action, and that a successful one, having taken place, he +led back his army into the camp. When he had done this, the next day, +thinking that he had done enough to lower the pride of the Gauls, and to +encourage the minds of his soldiers, he moved his camp in the direction +of the Aedui. The enemy not even then pursuing us, on the third day he +repaired the bridge over the river Allier, and led over his whole army. + +LIV.--Having then held an interview with Viridomarus and Eporedorix the +Aeduans, he learns that Litavicus had set out with all the cavalry to +raise the Aedui; that it was necessary that they too should go before +him to confirm the state in their allegiance. Although he now saw +distinctly the treachery of the Aedui in many things, and was of opinion +that the revolt of the entire state would be hastened by their +departure; yet he thought that they should not be detained, lest he +should appear either to offer an insult, or betray some suspicion of +fear. He briefly states to them when departing his services towards the +Aedui: in what a state and how humbled he had found them, driven into +their towns, deprived of their lands, stripped of all their forces, a +tribute imposed on them, and hostages wrested from them with the utmost +insult; and to what condition and to what greatness he had raised them, +[so much so] that they had not only recovered their former position, but +seemed to surpass the dignity and influence of all the previous eras of +their history. After giving these admonitions he dismissed them. + +LV.--Noviodunum was a town of the Aedui, advantageously situated on the +banks of the Loire. Caesar had conveyed hither all the hostages of Gaul, +the corn, public money, a great part of his own baggage and that of his +army; he had sent hither a great number of horses, which he had +purchased in Italy and Spain on account of this war. When Eporedorix and +Viridomarus came to this place, and received information of the +disposition of the state, that Litavicus had been admitted by the Aedui +into Bibracte, which is a town of the greatest importance among them, +that Convictolitanis the chief magistrate and a great part of the senate +had gone to meet him, that ambassadors had been publicly sent to +Vercingetorix to negotiate a peace and alliance; they thought that so +great an opportunity ought not to be neglected. Therefore, having put to +the sword the garrison of Noviodunum and those who had assembled there +for the purpose of trading or were on their march, they divided the +money and horses among themselves; they took care that the hostages of +the [different] states should be brought to Bibracte, to the chief +magistrate; they burnt the town to prevent its being of any service to +the Romans, as they were of opinion that they could not hold it; they +carried away in their vessels whatever corn they could in the hurry; +they destroyed the remainder, by [throwing it] into the river or setting +it on fire; they themselves began to collect forces from the +neighbouring country, to place guards and garrisons in different +positions along the banks of the Loire, and to display the cavalry on +all sides to strike terror into the Romans, [to try] if they could cut +them off from a supply of provisions. In which expectation they were +much aided, from the circumstance that the Loire had swollen to such a +degree from the melting of the snows, that it did not seem capable of +being forded at all. + +LVI.--Caesar on being informed of these movements was of opinion that he +ought to make haste, even if he should run some risk in completing the +bridges, in order that he might engage before greater forces of the +enemy should be collected in that place. For no one even then considered +it an absolutely necessary act, that changing his design he should +direct his march into the Province, both because the infamy and disgrace +of the thing, and the intervening mount Cevennes, and the difficulty of +the roads prevented him; and especially because he had serious +apprehensions for the safety of Labienus whom he had detached, and those +legions whom he had sent with him. Therefore, having made very long +marches by day and night, he came to the river Loire, contrary to the +expectation of all; and having by means of the cavalry found out a ford, +suitable enough considering the emergency, of such depth that their arms +and shoulders could be above water for supporting their accoutrements, +he dispersed his cavalry in such a manner as to break the force of the +current, and having confounded the enemy at the first sight, led his +army across the river in safety; and finding corn and cattle in the +fields, after refreshing his army with them, he determined to march into +the country of the Senones. + +LVII.--Whilst these things are being done by Caesar, Labienus, leaving +at Agendicum the recruits who had lately arrived from Italy, to guard +the baggage, marches with four legions to Lutetia (which is a town of +the Parisii, situated on an island of the river Seine), whose arrival +being discovered by the enemy, numerous forces arrived from the +neighbouring states. The supreme command is entrusted to Camulogenus, +one of the Aulerci, who, although almost worn out with age, was called +to that honour on account of his extraordinary knowledge of military +tactics. He, when he observed that there was a large marsh which +communicated with the Seine, and rendered all that country impassable, +encamped there, and determined to prevent our troops from passing it. + +LVIII.--Labienus at first attempted to raise vineae, fill up the marsh +with hurdles and clay, and secure a road. After he perceived that this +was too difficult to accomplish, he issued in silence from his camp at +the third watch, and reached Melodunum by the same route by which he +came. This is a town of the Senones, situated on an island in the Seine, +as we have just before observed of Lutetia. Having seized upon about +fifty ships and quickly joined them together, and having placed soldiers +in them, he intimidated by his unexpected arrival the inhabitants, of +whom a great number had been called out to the war, and obtains +possession of the town without a contest. Having repaired the bridge, +which the enemy had broken down during the preceding days, he led over +his army, and began to march along the banks of the river to Lutetia. +The enemy, on learning the circumstance from those who had escaped from +Melodunum, set fire to Lutetia, and order the bridges of that town to be +broken down: they themselves set out from the marsh, and take their +position on the banks of the Seine, over against Lutetia and opposite +the camp of Labienus. + +LIX.--Caesar was now reported to have departed from Gergovia; +intelligence was likewise brought to them concerning the revolt of the +Aedui, and a successful rising in Gaul; and that Caesar, having been +prevented from prosecuting his journey and crossing the Loire, and +having been compelled by the want of corn, had marched hastily to the +province. But the Bellovaci, who had been previously disaffected of +themselves, on learning the revolt of the Aedui, began to assemble +forces and openly to prepare for war; Then Labienus, as the change in +affairs was so great, thought that he must adopt a very different system +from what he had previously intended, and he did not now think of making +any new acquisitions, or of provoking the enemy to an action; but that +he might bring back his army safe to Agendicum. For, on one side, the +Bellovaci, a state which held the highest reputation for prowess in +Gaul, were pressing on him; and Camulogenus, with a disciplined and +well-equipped army, held the other side; moreover, a very great river +separated and cut off the legions from the garrison and baggage. He saw +that, in consequence of such great difficulties being thrown in his way, +he must seek aid from his own energy of disposition. + +LX.--Having, therefore, called a council of war a little before evening, +he exhorted his soldiers to execute with diligence and energy such +commands as he should give; he assigns the ships which he had brought +from Melodunum to Roman knights, one to each, and orders them to fall +down the river silently for four miles, at the end of the fourth watch, +and there wait for him. He leaves the five cohorts, which he considered +to be the most steady in action, to guard the camp; he orders the five +remaining cohorts of the same legion to proceed a little after midnight +up the river with all their baggage, in a great tumult. He collects also +some small boats; and sends them in the same direction, with orders to +make a loud noise in rowing. He himself, a little after, marched out in +silence, and, at the head of three legions, seeks that place to which he +had ordered the ships to be brought. + +LXI.--When he had arrived there, the enemy's scouts, as they were +stationed along every part of the river, not expecting an attack, +because a great storm had suddenly arisen, were surprised by our +soldiers: the infantry and cavalry are quickly transported, under the +superintendence of the Roman knights, whom he had appointed to that +office. Almost at the same time, a little before daylight, intelligence +was given to the enemy that there was an unusual tumult in the camp of +the Romans, and that a strong force was marching up the river, and that +the sound of oars was distinctly heard in the same quarter, and that +soldiers were being conveyed across in ships a little below. On hearing +these things, because they were of opinion that the legions were passing +in three different places, and that the entire army, being terrified by +the revolt of the Aedui, were preparing for flight, they divided their +forces also into three divisions. For leaving a guard opposite to the +camp and sending a small body in the direction of Metiosedum, with +orders to advance as far as the ships would proceed, they led the rest +of their troops against Labienus. + +LXII.--By day-break all our soldiers were brought across and the army of +the enemy was in sight. Labienus, having encouraged his soldiers "to +retain the memory of their ancient valour, and so many most successful +actions, and imagine Caesar himself, under whose command they had so +often routed the enemy, to be present," gives the signal for action. At +the first onset the enemy are beaten and put to flight in the right +wing, where the seventh legion stood: on the left wing, which position +the twelfth legion held, although the first ranks fell transfixed by the +javelins of the Romans, yet the rest resisted most bravely; nor did any +one of them show the slightest intention of flying. Camulogenus, the +general of the enemy, was present and encouraged his troops. But when +the issue of the victory was still uncertain, and the circumstances +which were taking place on the left wing were announced to the tribunes +of the seventh legion, they faced about their legion to the enemy's rear +and attacked it: not even then did any one retreat, but all were +surrounded and slain. Camulogenus met the same fate. But those who were +left as a guard opposite the camp of Labienus, when they heard that the +battle was commenced, marched to aid their countrymen and take +possession of a hill, but were unable to withstand the attack of the +victorious soldiers. In this manner, mixed with their own fugitives, +such as the woods and mountains did not shelter were cut to pieces by +our cavalry. When this battle was finished, Labienus returns to +Agendicum, where the baggage of the whole army had been left: from it he +marched with all his forces to Caesar. + +LXIII.--The revolt of the Aedui being known, the war grows more +dangerous. Embassies are sent by them in all directions: as far as they +can prevail by influence, authority, or money, they strive to excite the +state [to revolt]. Having got possession of the hostages whom Caesar had +deposited with them, they terrify the hesitating by putting them to +death. The Aedui request Vercingetorix to come to them and communicate +his plans of conducting the war. On obtaining this request they insist +that the chief command should be assigned to them; and when the affair +became a disputed question, a council of all Gaul is summoned to +Bibracte. They come together in great numbers and from every quarter to +the same place. The decision is left to the votes of the mass: all to a +man approve of Vercingetorix as their general. The Remi, Lingones, and +Treviri were absent from this meeting; the two former because they +attached themselves to the alliance of Rome; the Treviri because they +were very remote and were hard pressed by the Germans; which was also +the reason of their being absent during the whole war, and their sending +auxiliaries to neither party. The Aedui are highly indignant at being +deprived of the chief command; they lament the change of fortune, and +miss Caesar's indulgence towards them; however, after engaging in the +war, they do not dare to pursue their own measures apart from the rest. +Eporedorix and Viridomarus, youths of the greatest promise, submit +reluctantly to Vercingetorix. + +LXIV.--The latter demands hostages from the remaining states: nay, more, +appointed a day for this proceeding; he orders all the cavalry, fifteen +thousand in number, to quickly assemble here; he says that he will be +content with the infantry which he had before, and would not tempt +fortune nor come to a regular engagement; but since he had abundance of +cavalry, it would be very easy for him to prevent the Romans from +obtaining forage or corn, provided that they themselves should +resolutely destroy their corn and set fire to their houses, by which +sacrifice of private property they would evidently obtain perpetual +dominion and freedom. After arranging these matters he levies ten +thousand infantry on the Aedui and Segusiani, who border on our +province: to these he adds eight hundred horse. He sets over them the +brother of Eporedorix, and orders him to wage war against the +Allobroges. On the other side he sends the Gabali and the nearest +cantons of the Arverni against the Helvii; he likewise sends the Ruteni +and Cadurci to lay waste the territories of the Volcae Arecomici. +Besides, by secret messages and embassies, he tampers with the +Allobroges, whose minds, he hopes, had not yet settled down after the +excitement of the late war. To their nobles he promises money, and to +their state the dominion of the whole province. + +LXV.--The only guards provided against all these contingencies were +twenty-two cohorts, which were collected from the entire province by +Lucius Caesar, the lieutenant, and opposed to the enemy in every +quarter. The Helvii, voluntarily engaging in battle with their +neighbours, are defeated, and Caius Valerius Donotaurus, the son of +Caburus, the principal man of the state, and several others, being +slain, they are forced to retire within their towns and fortifications. +The Allobroges, placing guards along the course of the Rhine, defend +their frontiers with great vigilance and energy. Caesar, as he perceived +that the enemy were superior in cavalry, and he himself could receive no +aid from the province or Italy, while all communication was cut off, +sends across the Rhine into Germany to those states which he had subdued +in the preceding campaigns, and summons from them cavalry and the +light-armed infantry, who were accustomed to engage among them. On their +arrival, as they were mounted on unserviceable horses, he takes horses +from the military tribunes and the rest, nay, even from the Roman +knights and veterans, and distributes them among the Germans. + +LXVI.--In the meantime, whilst these things are going on, the forces of +the enemy from the Arverni, and the cavalry which had been demanded from +all Gaul, meet together. A great number of these having been collected, +when Caesar was marching into the country of the Sequani, through the +confines of the Lingones, in order that he might the more easily render +aid to the province, Vercingetorix encamped in three camps, about ten +miles from the Romans: and having summoned the commanders of the cavalry +to a council, he shows that the time of victory was come; that the +Romans were fleeing into the province and leaving Gaul; that this was +sufficient for obtaining immediate freedom; but was of little moment in +acquiring peace and tranquillity for the future; for the Romans would +return after assembling greater forces, and would not put an end to the +war; Therefore they should attack them on their march, when encumbered. +If the infantry should [be obliged to] relieve their cavalry, and be +retarded by doing so, the march could not be accomplished: if, +abandoning their baggage, they should provide for their safety (a result +which, he trusted, was more likely to ensue), they would lose both +property and character. For as to the enemy's horse, they ought not to +entertain a doubt that none of them would dare to advance beyond the +main body. In order that they [the Gauls] may do so with greater spirit, +he would marshal all their forces before the camp, and intimidate the +enemy. The cavalry unanimously shout out, "That they ought to bind +themselves by a most sacred oath, that he should not be received under a +roof, nor have access to his children, parents, or wife, who shall not +twice have ridden through the enemy's army." + +LXVII.--This proposal receiving general approbation, and all being +forced to take the oath, on the next day the cavalry were divided into +three parts, and two of these divisions made a demonstration on our two +flanks; while one in front began to obstruct our march. On this +circumstance being announced, Caesar orders his cavalry also to form +three divisions and charge the enemy. Then the action commences +simultaneously in every part: the main body halts; the baggage is +received within the ranks of the legions. If our men seemed to be +distressed, or hard pressed in any quarter, Caesar usually ordered the +troops to advance, and the army to wheel round in that quarter; which +conduct retarded the enemy in the pursuit, and encouraged our men by the +hope of support. At length the Germans, on the right wing, having gained +the top of the hill, dislodge the enemy from their position and pursue +them even as far as the river at which Vercingetorix with the infantry +was stationed, and slay several of them. The rest, on observing this +action, fearing lest they should be surrounded, betake themselves to +flight. A slaughter ensues in every direction, and three of the noblest +of the Audi are taken and brought to Caesar: Cotus, the commander of the +cavalry, who had been engaged in the contest with Convictolitanis the +last election, Cavarillus, who had held the command of the infantry +after the revolt of Litavicus, and Eporedorix, under whose command the +Aedui had engaged in war against the Sequani, before the arrival of +Caesar. + +LXVIII.--All his cavalry being routed, Vercingetorix led back his troops +in the same order as he had arranged them before the camp, and +immediately began to march to Alesia, which is a town of the Mandubii; +and ordered the baggage to be speedily brought forth from the camp, and +follow him closely. Caesar, having conveyed his baggage to the nearest +hill, and having left two legions to guard it, pursued as far as the +time of day would permit, and after slaying about three thousand of the +rear of the enemy, encamped at Alesia on the next day. On reconnoitring +the situation of the city, finding that the enemy were panic-stricken, +because the cavalry in which they placed their chief reliance were +beaten, he encouraged his men to endure the toil, and began to draw a +line of circumvallation round Alesia. + +LXIX.--The town itself was situated on the top of a hill, in a very +lofty position, so that it did not appear likely to be taken, except by +a regular siege. Two rivers, on two different sides, washed the foot of +the hill. Before the town lay a plain of about three miles in length; on +every other side hills at a moderate distance, and of an equal degree of +height, surrounded the town. The army of the Gauls had filled all the +space under the wall, comprising the part of the hill which looked to +the rising sun, and had drawn in front a trench and a stone wall six +feet high. The circuit of that fortification, which was commenced by the +Romans, comprised eleven miles. The camp was pitched in a strong +position, and twenty-three redoubts were raised in it, in which +sentinels were placed by day, lest any sally should be made suddenly; +and by night the same were occupied by watches and strong guards. + +LXX.-The work having been begun, a cavalry action ensues in that plain, +which we have already described as broken by hills, and extending three +miles in length. The contest is maintained on both sides with the utmost +vigour; Caesar sends the Germans to aid our troops when distressed, and +draws up the legions in front of the camp, lest any sally should be +suddenly made by the enemy's infantry. The courage of our men is +increased by the additional support of the legions; the enemy being put +to flight, hinder one another by their numbers, and as only the narrower +gates were left open, are crowded together in them; then the Germans +pursue them with vigour even to the fortifications. A great slaughter +ensues; some leave their horses, and endeavour to cross the ditch and +climb the wall. Caesar orders the legions which he had drawn up in front +of the rampart to advance a little. The Gauls, who were within the +fortifications, were no less panic-stricken, thinking that the enemy +were coming that moment against them, and unanimously shout "to arms;" +some in their alarm rush into the town; Vercingetorix orders the gates +to be shut, lest the camp should be left undefended. The Germans +retreat, after slaying many and taking several horses. + +LXXI.--Vercingetorix adopts the design of sending away all his cavalry +by night, before the fortifications should be completed by the Romans. +He charges them when departing "that each of them should go to his +respective state, and press for the war all who were old enough to bear +arms; he states his own Merits, and conjures them to consider his +safety, and not surrender him, who had deserved so well of the general +freedom, to the enemy for torture; he points out to them that, if they +should be remiss, eighty thousand chosen men would perish with him; +that, upon making a calculation, he had barely corn for thirty days, but +could hold out a little longer by economy." After giving these +instructions he silently dismisses the cavalry in the second watch, [on +that side] where our works were not completed; he orders all the corn to +be brought to himself; he ordains capital punishment to such as should +not obey; he distributes among them, man by man, the cattle, great +quantities of which had been driven there by the Mandubii; he began to +measure out the corn sparingly, and by little and little; he receives +into the town all the forces which he had posted in front of it. In this +manner he prepares to await the succours from Gaul, and carry on the +war. + +LXXII.--Caesar, on learning these proceedings from the deserters and +captives, adopted the following system of fortification; he dug a trench +twenty feet deep, with perpendicular sides, in such a manner that the +base of this trench should extend so far as the edges were apart at the +top. He raised all his other works at a distance of four hundred feet +from that ditch; [he did] that with this intention, lest (since he +necessarily embraced so extensive an area, and the whole works could not +be easily surrounded by a line of soldiers) a large number of the enemy +should suddenly, or by night, sally against the fortifications; or lest +they should by day cast weapons against our men while occupied with the +works. Having left this interval, he drew two trenches fifteen feet +broad, and of the same depth; the innermost of them, being in low and +level ground, he filled with water conveyed from the river. Behind these +he raised a rampart and wall twelve feet high: to this he added a +parapet and battlements, with large stakes cut like stags' horns, +projecting from the junction of the parapet and battlements, to prevent +the enemy from scaling it, and surrounded the entire work with turrets, +which were eighty feet distant from one another. + +LXXIII.--It was necessary, at one and the same time, to procure timber +[for the rampart], lay in supplies of corn, and raise also extensive +fortifications, and the available troops were in consequence of this +reduced in number, since they used to advance to some distance from the +camp, and sometimes the Gauls endeavoured to attack our works, and to +make a sally from the town by several gates and in great force. On which +Caesar thought that further additions should be made to these works, in +order that the fortifications might be defensible by a small number of +soldiers. Having, therefore, cut down the trunks of trees or very thick +branches, and having stripped their tops of the bark, and sharpened them +into a point, he drew a continued trench everywhere five feet deep. +These stakes being sunk into this trench, and fastened firmly at the +bottom, to prevent the possibility of their being torn up, had their +branches only projecting from the ground. There were five rows in +connection with, and intersecting each other; and whoever entered within +them were likely to impale themselves on very sharp stakes. The soldiers +called these "cippi." Before these, which were arranged in oblique rows +in the form of a quincunx, pits three feet deep were dug, which +gradually diminished in depth to the bottom. In these pits tapering +stakes, of the thickness of a man's thigh, sharpened at the top and +hardened in the fire, were sunk in such a manner as to project from the +ground not more than four inches; at the same time for the purpose of +giving them strength and stability, they were each filled with trampled +clay to the height of one foot from the bottom: the rest of the pit was +covered over with osiers and twigs, to conceal the deceit. Eight rows of +this kind were dug, and were three feet distant from each other. They +called this a lily from its resemblance to that flower. Stakes a foot +long, with iron hooks attached to them, were entirely sunk in the ground +before these, and were planted in every place at small intervals; these +they called spurs. + +LXXIV.--After completing these works, having selected as level ground as +he could, considering the nature of the country, and having enclosed an +area of fourteen miles, he constructed, against an external enemy, +fortifications of the same kind in every respect, and separate from +these, so that the guards of the fortifications could not be surrounded +even by immense numbers, if such a circumstance should take place owing +to the departure of the enemy's cavalry; and in order that the Roman +soldiers might not be compelled to go out of the camp with great risk, +he orders all to provide forage and corn for thirty days. + +LXXV.--Whilst those things are carried on at Alesia, the Gauls, having +convened a council of their chief nobility, determine that all who could +bear arms should not be called out, which was the opinion of +Vercingetorix, but that a fixed number should be levied from each state; +lest, when so great a multitude assembled together, they could neither +govern nor distinguish their men, nor have the means of supplying them +with corn. They demand thirty-five thousand men from the Aedui and their +dependents, the Segusiani, Ambivareti, and Aulerci Brannovices; an equal +number from the Arverni in conjunction with the Eleuteti Cadurci, +Gabali, and Velauni, who were accustomed to be under the command of the +Arverni; twelve thousand each from the Senones, Sequani, Bituriges, +Santones, Ruteni, and Carnutes; ten thousand from the Bellovaci; the +same number from the Lemovici; eight thousand each from the Pictones, +and Turoni, and Parisii, and Helvii; five thousand each from the +Suessiones, Ambiani, Mediomatrici, Petrocorii, Nervii, Morini, and +Nitiobriges; the same number from the Aulerci Cenomani; four thousand +from the Atrebates; three thousand each from the Bellocassi, Lexovii, +and Aulerci Eburovices; thirty thousand from the Rauraci, and Boii; six +thousand, from all the states together which border on the Atlantic, and +which in their dialect are called Armoricae (in which number are +comprehended the Curisolites, Rhedones, Ambibari, Caltes, Osismii, +Lemovices, Veneti, and Unelli). Of these the Bellovaci did not +contribute their number, as they said that they would wage war against +the Romans on their own account, and at their own discretion, and would +not obey the order of any one: however, at the request of Commius, they +sent two thousand, in consideration of a tie of hospitality which +subsisted between him and them. + +LXXVI.--Caesar had, as we have previously narrated, availed himself of +the faithful and valuable services of this Commius, in Britain, in +former years: in consideration of which merits he had exempted from +taxes his [Commius's] state, and had conferred on Commius himself the +country of the Morini. Yet such was the unanimity of the Gauls in +asserting their freedom, and recovering their ancient renown in war, +that they were influenced neither by favours, nor by the recollection of +private friendship; and all earnestly directed their energies and +resources to that war, and collected eight thousand cavalry, and about +two hundred and forty thousand infantry. These were reviewed in the +country of the Aedui, and a calculation was made of their numbers: +commanders were appointed: the supreme command is entrusted to Commius +the Atrebatian, Viridomarus and Eporedorix the Aeduans, and +Vergasillaunus the Arvernian, the cousin-german of Vercingetorix. To +them are assigned men selected from each state, by whose advice the war +should be conducted. All march to Alesia, sanguine and full of +confidence: nor was there a single individual who imagined that the +Romans could withstand the sight of such an immense host: especially in +an action carried on both in front and rear, when [on the inside] the +besieged would sally from the town and attack the enemy, and on the +outside so great forces of cavalry and infantry would be seen. + +LXXVII.--But those who were blockaded at Alesia, the day being past on +which they had expected auxiliaries from their countrymen, and all their +corn being consumed, ignorant of what was going on among the Aedui, +convened an assembly and deliberated on the exigency of their situation. +After various opinions had been expressed among them, some of which +proposed a surrender, others a sally, whilst their strength would +support it, the speech of Critognatus ought not to be omitted for its +singular and detestable cruelty. He sprung from the noblest family among +the Arverni, and possessing great influence, says, "I shall pay no +attention to the opinion of those who call a most disgraceful surrender +by the name of a capitulation; nor do I think that they ought to be +considered as citizens, or summoned to the council. My business is with +those who approve of a sally: in whose advice the memory of our ancient +prowess seems to dwell in the opinion of you all. To be unable to bear +privation for a short time is disgraceful cowardice, not true valour. +Those who voluntarily offer themselves to death are more easily found +than those who would calmly endure distress. And I would approve of this +opinion (for honour is a powerful motive with me), could I foresee no +other loss, save that of life: but let us, in adopting our design, look +back on all Gaul, which we have stirred up to our aid. What courage do +you think would our relatives and friends have, if eighty thousand men +were butchered in one spot, supposing that they should be forced to come +to an action almost over our corpses? Do not utterly deprive them of +your aid, for they have spurned all thoughts of personal danger on +account of your safety; nor by your folly, rashness, and cowardice, +crush all Gaul and doom it to an eternal slavery. Do you doubt their +fidelity and firmness because they have not come at the appointed day? +What then? Do you suppose that the Romans are employed every day in the +outer fortifications for mere amusement? If you cannot be assured by +their despatches, since every avenue is blocked up, take the Romans as +evidence that their approach is drawing near; since they, intimidated by +alarm at this, labour night and day at their works. What, therefore, is +my design? To do as our ancestors did in the war against the Cimbri and +Teutones, which was by no means equally momentous; who, when driven into +their towns, and oppressed by similar privations, supported life by the +corpses of those who appeared useless for war on account of their age, +and did not surrender to the enemy: and even if we had not a precedent +for such cruel conduct, still I should consider it most glorious that +one should be established, and delivered to posterity. For in what was +that war like this? The Cimbri, after laying Gaul waste, and inflicting +great calamities, at length departed from our country, and sought other +lands; they left us our rights, laws, lands, and liberty. But what other +motive or wish have the Romans, than, induced by envy, to settle in the +lands and states of those whom they have learned by fame to be noble and +powerful in war, and impose on them perpetual slavery? For they never +have carried on wars on any other terms. But if you know not these +things which are going on in distant countries, look to the neighbouring +Gaul, which being reduced to the form of a province, stripped of its +rights and laws, and subjected to Roman despotism, is oppressed by +perpetual slavery." + +LXXVIII.--When different opinions were expressed, they determined that +those who, owing to age or ill health, were unserviceable for war, +should depart from the town, and that themselves should try every +expedient before they had recourse to the advice of Critognatus: +however, that they would rather adopt that design, if circumstances +should compel them and their allies should delay, than accept any terms +of a surrender or peace. The Mandubii, who had admitted them into the +town, are compelled to go forth with their wives and children. When +these came to the Roman fortifications, weeping, they begged of the +soldiers by every entreaty to receive them as slaves and relieve them +with food. But Caesar, placing guards on the rampart, forbade them to be +admitted. + +LXXIX.--In the meantime, Commius and the rest of the leaders, to whom +the supreme command had been intrusted, came with all their forces to +Alesia, and having occupied the entire hill, encamp not more than a mile +from our fortifications. The following day, having led forth their +cavalry from the camp, they fill all that plain, which, we have related, +extended three miles in length, and draw out their infantry a little +from that place, and post them on the higher ground. The town Alesia +commanded a view of the whole plain. The besieged run together when +these auxiliaries were seen; mutual congratulations ensue, and the minds +of all are elated with joy. Accordingly, drawing out their troops, they +encamp before the town, and cover the nearest trench with hurdles and +fill it up with earth, and make ready for a sally and every casualty. + +LXXX.--Caesar, having stationed his army on both sides of the +fortifications, in order that, if occasion should arise, each should +hold and know his own post, orders the cavalry to issue forth from the +camp and commence action. There was a commanding view from the entire +camp, which occupied a ridge of hills; and the minds of all the soldiers +anxiously awaited the issue of the battle. The Gauls had scattered +archers and light-armed infantry here and there, among their cavalry, to +give relief to their retreating troops, and sustain the impetuosity of +our cavalry. Several of our soldiers were unexpectedly wounded by these, +and left the battle. When the Gauls were confident that their countrymen +were the conquerors in the action, and beheld our men hard pressed by +numbers, both those who were hemmed in by the line of circumvallation +and those who had come to aid them, supported the spirits of their men +by shouts and yells from every quarter. As the action was carried on in +sight of all, neither a brave nor cowardly act could be concealed; both +the desire of praise and the fear of ignominy, urged on each party to +valour. After fighting from noon almost to sunset, without victory +inclining in favour of either, the Germans, on one side, made a charge +against the enemy in a compact body, and drove them back; and, when they +were put to flight, the archers were surrounded and cut to pieces. In +other parts, likewise, our men pursued to the camp the retreating enemy, +and did not give them an opportunity of rallying. But those who had come +forth from Alesia returned into the town dejected and almost despairing +of success. + +LXXXI.--The Gauls, after the interval of a day, and after making, during +that time, an immense number of hurdles, scaling ladders, and iron +hooks, silently went forth from the camp at midnight and approached the +fortifications in the plain. Raising a shout suddenly, that by this +intimation those who were besieged in the town might learn their +arrival, they began to cast down hurdles and dislodge our men from the +rampart by slings, arrows, and stones, and executed the other movements +which are requisite in storming. At the same time, Vercingetorix having +heard the shout, gives the signal to his troops by a trumpet, and leads +them forth from the town. Our troops, as each man's post had been +assigned him some days before, man the fortifications; they intimidate +the Gauls by slings, large stones, stakes which they had placed along +the works, and bullets. All view being prevented by the darkness, many +wounds are received on both sides; several missiles are thrown from the +engines. But Marcus Antonius, and Caius Trebonius, the lieutenants, to +whom the defence of these parts had been allotted, draughted troops from +the redoubts which were more remote, and sent them to aid our troops, in +whatever direction they understood that they were hard pressed. + +LXXXII.--Whilst the Gauls were at a distance from the fortification, +they did more execution, owing to the immense number of their weapons: +after they came nearer, they either unawares empaled themselves on the +spurs, or were pierced by the mural darts from the ramparts and towers, +and thus perished. After receiving many wounds on all sides, and having +forced no part of the works, when day drew nigh, fearing lest they +should be surrounded by a sally made from the higher camp on the exposed +flank, they retreated to their countrymen. But those within, whilst they +bring forward those things which had been prepared by Vercingetorix for +a sally, fill up the nearest trenches; having delayed a long time in +executing these movements, they learned the retreat of their countrymen +before they drew nigh to the fortifications. Thus they returned to the +town without accomplishing their object. + +LXXXIII.--The Gauls, having been twice repulsed with great loss, consult +what they should do: they avail themselves of the information of those +who were well acquainted with the country; from them they ascertain the +position and fortification of the upper camp. There was, on the north +side, a hill, which our men could not include in their works, on account +of the extent of the circuit, and had necessarily made their camp in +ground almost disadvantageous, and pretty steep. Caius Antistius +Reginus, and Caius Caninius Rebilus, two of the lieutenants, with two +legions, were in possession of this camp. The leaders of the enemy, +having reconnoitred the country by their scouts, select from the entire +army sixty thousand men; belonging to those states which bear the +highest character for courage: they privately arrange among themselves +what they wished to be done, and in what manner; they decide that the +attack should take place when it should seem to be noon. They appoint +over their forces Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, one of the four +generals, and a near relative of Vercingetorix. He, having issued from +the camp at the first watch, and having almost completed his march a +little before the dawn, hid himself behind the mountain, and ordered his +soldiers to refresh themselves after their labour during the night. When +noon now seemed to draw nigh, he marched hastily against that camp which +we have mentioned before; and, at the same time, the cavalry began to +approach the fortifications in the plain, and the rest of the forces to +make a demonstration in front of the camp. + +LXXXIV.--Vercingetorix, having beheld his countrymen from the citadel of +Alesia, issues forth from the town; he brings forth from the camp long +hooks, movable pent-houses, mural hooks, and other things, which he had +prepared for the purpose of making a sally. They engage on all sides at +once, and every expedient is adopted. They flocked to whatever part of +the works seemed weakest. The army of the Romans is distributed along +their extensive lines, and with difficulty meets the enemy in every +quarter. The shouts which were raised by the combatants in their rear, +had a great tendency to intimidate our men, because they perceived that +their danger rested on the valour of others: for generally all evils +which are distant most powerfully alarm men's minds. + +LXXXV.--Caesar, having selected a commanding situation, sees distinctly +whatever is going on in every quarter, and sends assistance to his +troops when hard pressed. The idea uppermost in the minds of both +parties is, that the present is the time in which they would have the +fairest opportunity of making a struggle; the Gauls despairing of all +safety, unless they should succeed in forcing the lines: the Romans +expecting an end to all their labours if they should gain the day. The +principal struggle is at the upper lines, to which, we have said, +Vergasillaunus was sent. The least elevation of ground, added to a +declivity, exercises a momentous influence. Some are casting missiles, +others, forming a testudo, advance to the attack; fresh men by turns +relieve the wearied. The earth, heaped up by all against the +fortifications, gives the means of ascent to the Gauls, and covers those +works which the Romans had concealed in the ground. Our men have no +longer arms or strength. + +LXXXVI.--Caesar, on observing these movements, sends Labienus with six +cohorts to relieve his distressed soldiers: he orders him, if he should +be unable to withstand them, to draw off the cohorts and make a sally; +but not to do this except through necessity. He himself goes to the +rest, and exhorts them not to succumb to the toil; he shows them that +the fruits of all former engagements depend on that day and hour. The +Gauls within, despairing of forcing the fortifications in the plains on +account of the greatness of the works, attempt the places precipitous in +ascent: hither they bring the engines which they had prepared; by the +immense number of their missiles they dislodge the defenders from the +turrets: they fill the ditches with clay and hurdles, then clear the +way; they tear down the rampart and breast-work with hooks. + +LXXXVII.--Caesar sends at first young Brutus, with six cohorts, and +afterwards Caius Fabius, his lieutenant, with seven others: finally, as +they fought more obstinately, he leads up fresh men to the assistance of +his soldiers. After renewing the action, and repulsing the enemy, he +marches in the direction in which he had sent Labienus, drafts four +cohorts from the nearest redoubt, and orders part of the cavalry to +follow him, and part to make the circuit of the external fortifications +and attack the enemy in the rear. Labienus, when neither the ramparts or +ditches could check the onset of the enemy, informs Caesar by messengers +of what he intended to do. Caesar hastens to share in the action. + +LXXXVIII.--His arrival being known from the colour of his robe, and the +troops of cavalry, and the cohorts which he had ordered to follow him +being seen, as these low and sloping grounds were plainly visible from +the eminences, the enemy join battle. A shout being raised by both +sides, it was succeeded by a general shout along the ramparts and whole +line of fortifications. Our troops, laying aside their javelins, carry +on the engagement with their swords. The cavalry is suddenly seen in the +rear of the Gauls: the other cohorts advance rapidly; the enemy turn +their backs; the cavalry intercept them in their flight, and a great +slaughter ensues. Sedulius the general and chief of the Lemovices is +slain; Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, is taken alive in the flight, +seventy-four military standards are brought to Caesar, and few out of so +great a number return safe to their camp. The besieged, beholding from +the town the slaughter and flight of their countrymen, despairing of +safety, lead back their troops from the fortifications. A flight of the +Gauls from their camp immediately ensues on hearing of this disaster, +and had not the soldiers been wearied by sending frequent +reinforcements, and the labour of the entire day, all the enemy's forces +could have been destroyed. Immediately after midnight, the cavalry are +sent out and overtake the rear, a great number are taken or cut to +pieces, the rest by flight escape in different directions to their +respective states. Vercingetorix, having convened a council the +following day, declares, "That he had undertaken that war, not on +account of his own exigencies, but on account of the general freedom; +and since he must yield to fortune, he offered himself to them for +either purpose, whether they should wish to atone to the Romans by his +death, or surrender him alive." Ambassadors are sent to Caesar on this +subject. He orders their arms to be surrendered, and their chieftains +delivered up. He seated himself at the head of the lines in front of the +camp, the Gallic chieftains are brought before him. They surrender +Vercingetorix, and lay down their arms. Reserving the Aedui and Arverni, +[to try] if he could gain over, through their influence, their +respective states, he distributes one of the remaining captives to each +soldier, throughout the entire army, as plunder. + +XC.--After making these arrangements, he marches into the [country of +the] Aedui, and recovers that state. To this place ambassadors are sent +by the Arverni, who promise that they will execute his commands. He +demands a great number of hostages. He sends the legions to winter +quarters; he restores about twenty thousand captives to the Aedui and +Arverni; he orders Titus Labienus to march into the [country of the] +Sequani with two legions and the cavalry, and to him he attaches Marcus +Sempronius Rutilus; he places Caius Fabius, and Lucius Minucius Basilus, +with two legions in the country of the Remi, lest they should sustain +any loss from the Bellovaci in their neighbourhood. He sends Caius +Antistius Reginus into the [country of the] Ambivareti, Titus Sextius +into the territories of the Bituriges, and Caius Caninius Rebilus into +those of the Ruteni, with one legion each. He stations Quintus Tullius +Cicero, and Publius Sulpicius among the Aedui at Cabillo and Matisco on +the Saone, to procure supplies of corn. He himself determines to winter +at Bibracte. A supplication of twenty days is decreed by the senate at +Rome, on learning these successes from Caesar's despatches. + + + +BOOK VIII + +CONTINUATION OF CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR ASCRIBED TO AULUS HIRTIUS + +PREFACE + +Prevailed on by your continued solicitations, Balbus, I have engaged in +a most difficult task, as my daily refusals appear to plead not my +inability, but indolence, as an excuse. I have compiled a continuation +of the Commentaries of our Caesar's Wars in Gaul, not indeed to be +compared to his writings, which either precede or follow them; and +recently, I have completed what he left imperfect after the transactions +in Alexandria, to the end, not indeed of the civil broils, to which we +see no issue, but of Caesar's life. I wish that those who may read them +could know how unwillingly I undertook to write them, as then I might +the more readily escape the imputation of folly and arrogance, in +presuming to intrude among Caesar's writings. For it is agreed on all +hands, that no composition was ever executed with so great care, that it +is not exceeded in elegance by these Commentaries, which were published +for the use of historians, that they might not want memoirs of such +achievements; and they stand so high in the esteem of all men, that +historians seem rather deprived of than furnished with materials. At +which we have more reason to be surprised than other men; for they can +only appreciate the elegance and correctness with which he finished +them, while we know with what ease and expedition. Caesar possessed not +only an uncommon flow of language and elegance of style, but also a +thorough knowledge of the method of conveying his ideas. But I had not +even the good fortune to share in the Alexandrian or African war; and +though these were partly communicated to me by Caesar himself, in +conversation, yet we listen with a different degree of attention to +those things which strike us with admiration by their novelty, and those +which we design to attest to posterity. But, in truth, whilst I urge +every apology, that I may not be compared to Caesar, I incur the charge +of vanity, by thinking it possible that I can in the judgment of any one +be put in competition with him. Farewell. + +I.--Gaul being entirely reduced, when Caesar having waged war +incessantly during the former summer, wished to recruit his soldiers +after so much fatigue, by repose in winter quarters, news was brought +him that several states were simultaneously renewing their hostile +intentions, and forming combinations. For which a probable reason was +assigned: namely, that the Gauls were convinced that they were not able +to resist the Romans with any force they could collect in one place; and +hoped that if several states made war in different places at the same +time, the Roman army would neither have aid, nor time, nor forces, to +prosecute them all: nor ought any single state to decline any +inconveniences that might befall them, provided that by such delay the +rest should be enabled to assert their liberty. + +II.--That this notion might not be confirmed among the Gauls, Caesar +left Marcus Antonius, his quaestor, in charge of his quarters, and set +out himself with a guard of horse, the day before the kalends of +January, from the town Bibracte, to the thirteenth legion, which he had +stationed in the country of the Bituriges, not far from the territories +of the Aedui, and joined to it the eleventh legion which was next it. +Leaving two cohorts to guard the baggage, he leads the rest of his army +into the most plentiful part of the country of the Bituriges; who, +possessing an extensive territory and several towns, were not to be +deterred, by a single legion quartered among them, from making warlike +preparation, and forming combinations. + +III.-By Caesar's sudden arrival, it happened, as it necessarily must, to +an unprovided and dispersed people, that they were surprised by our +horse, whilst cultivating the fields without any apprehensions, before +they had time to fly to their towns. For the usual sign of an enemy's +invasion, which is generally intimated by the burning of their towns, +was forbidden by Caesar's orders: lest if he advanced far, forage and +corn should become scarce, or the enemy be warned by the fires to make +their escape. Many thousands being taken, as many of the Bituriges as +were able to escape the first coming of the Romans, fled to the +neighbouring states, relying either on private friendship, or public +alliance. In vain; for Caesar, by hasty marches, anticipated them in +every place, nor did he allow any state leisure to consider the safety +of others, in preference to their own. By this activity, he both +retained his friends in their loyalty, and by fear, obliged the wavering +to accept offers of peace. Such offers being made to the Bituriges, when +they perceived that through Caesar's clemency, an avenue was open to his +friendship, and that the neighbouring states had given hostages, without +incurring any punishment, and had been received under his protection, +they did the same. + +IV.-Caesar promises his soldiers, as a reward for their labour and +patience, in cheerfully submitting to hardships from the severity of the +winter, the difficulty of the roads, and the intolerable cold, two +hundred sestertii each, and to every centurian two thousand, to be given +instead of plunder; and sending his legions back to quarters, he himself +returned on the fortieth day to Bibracte. Whilst he was dispensing +justice there, the Bituriges send ambassadors to him, to entreat his aid +against the Carnutes, who they complained had made war against them. +Upon this intelligence, though he had not remained more than eighteen +days in winter quarters, he draws the fourteenth and sixth legion out of +quarters on the Saone, where he had posted them as mentioned in a former +Commentary to procure supplies of corn. With these two legions he +marches in pursuit of the Carnutes. + +V.--When the news of the approach of our army reached the enemy, the +Carnutes, terrified by the sufferings of other states, deserted their +villages and towns (which were small buildings, raised in a hurry, to +meet the immediate necessity, in which they lived to shelter themselves +against the winter, for, being lately conquered, they had lost several +towns), and dispersed and fled. Caesar, unwilling to expose his soldiers +to the violent storms that break out, especially at that season, took up +his quarters at Genabum, a town of the Carnutes; and lodged his men in +houses, partly belonging to the Gauls, and partly built to shelter the +tents, and hastily covered with thatch. But the horse and auxiliaries he +sends to all parts to which he was told the enemy had marched; and not +without effect, as our men generally returned loaded with booty. The +Carnutes, overpowered by the severity of the winter, and the fear of +danger, and not daring to continue long in any place, as they were +driven from their houses, and not finding sufficient protection in the +woods, from the violence of the storms, after losing a considerable +number of their men, disperse, and take refuge among the neighbouring +states. + +VI.--Caesar, being contented, at so severe a season, to disperse the +gathering foes, and prevent any new war from breaking out, and being +convinced, as far as reason could foresee, that no war of consequence +could be set on foot in the summer campaign, stationed Caius Trebonius, +with the two legions which he had with him, in quarters at Genabum: and +being informed by frequent embassies from the Remi, that the Bellovaci +(who exceed all the Gauls and Belgae in military prowess), and the +neighbouring states, headed by Correus, one of the Bellovaci, and +Comius, the Atrebatian, were raising an army, and assembling at a +general rendezvous, designing with their united forces to invade the +territories of the Suessiones, who were put under the patronage of the +Remi: and moreover, considering that not only his honour, but his +interest was concerned, that such of his allies, as deserved well of the +republic, should suffer no calamity; he again draws the eleventh legion +out of quarters and writes besides to Caius Fabius, to march with his +two legions to the country of the Suessiones; and he sends to Trebonius +for one of his two legions. Thus, as far as the convenience of the +quarters, and the management of the war admitted, he laid the burden of +the expedition on the legions by turns, without any intermission to his +own toils. + +VII.--As soon as his troops were collected, he marched against the +Bellovaci: and pitching his camp in their territories, detached troops +of horse all round the country, to take prisoners, from whom he might +learn the enemy's plan. The horse, having executed his orders, bring him +back word that but few were found in the houses: and that even these had +not stayed at home to cultivate their lands (for the emigration was +general from all parts), but had been sent back to watch our motions. +Upon Caesar's inquiring from them, where the main body of the Bellovaci +were posted, and what was their design: they made answer, "that all the +Bellovaci, fit for carrying arms, had assembled in one place, and along +with them the Ambiani, Aulerci, Caletes, Velocasses, and Atrebates, and +that they had chosen for their camp an elevated position, surrounded by +a dangerous morass: that they had conveyed all their baggage into the +most remote woods: that several noblemen were united in the management +of the war; but that the people were most inclined to be governed by +Correus, because they knew that he had the strongest aversion to the +name of the Roman people: that a few days before Comius had left the +camp to engage the Germans to their aid whose nation bordered on theirs, +and whose numbers were countless: that the Bellovaci had come to a +resolution, with the consent of all the generals and the earnest desire +of the people, if Caesar should come with only three legions, as was +reported, to give him battle, that they might not be obliged to +encounter his whole army on a future occasion, when they should be in a +more wretched and distressed condition; but if he brought a stronger +force, they intended to remain in the position they had chosen, and by +ambuscade to prevent the Romans from getting forage (which at that +season was both scarce and much scattered), corn, and other +necessaries." + +VIII.--When Caesar was convinced of the truth of this account from the +concurring testimony of several persons, and perceived that the plans +which were proposed were full of prudence, and very unlike the rash +resolves of a barbarous people, he considered it incumbent on him to use +every exertion, in order that the enemy might despise his small force +and come to an action. For he had three veteran legions of distinguished +valour, the seventh, eighth, and ninth. The eleventh consisted of chosen +youth of great hopes, who had served eight campaigns, but who, compared +with the others, had not yet acquired any great reputation for +experience and valour. Calling therefore a council, and laying before it +the intelligence which he had received, he encouraged his soldiers. In +order if possible to entice the enemy to an engagement by the appearance +of only three legions, he ranged his army in the following manner: that +the seventh, eighth, and ninth legions should march before all the +baggage; that then the eleventh should bring up the rear of the whole +train of baggage (which however was but small, as is usual on such +expeditions), so that the enemy could not get a sight of a greater +number than they themselves were willing to encounter. By this +disposition he formed his army almost into a square, and brought them +within sight of the enemy sooner than was anticipated. + +IX.--When the Gauls, whose bold resolutions had been reported to Caesar, +saw the legions advance with a regular motion, drawn up in battle array; +either from the danger of an engagement, or our sudden approach, or with +the design of watching our movements, they drew up their forces before +the camp, and did not quit the rising ground. Though Caesar wished to +bring them to battle, yet being surprised to see so vast a host of the +enemy, he encamped opposite to them, with a valley between them, deep +rather than extensive. He ordered his camp to be fortified with a +rampart twelve feet high, with breast-works built on it proportioned to +its height; and two trenches, each fifteen feet broad, with +perpendicular sides to be sunk: likewise several turrets, three stories +high, to be raised, with a communication to each other by galleries laid +across and covered over; which should be guarded in front by small +parapets of osiers; that the enemy might be repulsed by two rows of +soldiers. The one of whom, being more secure from danger by their +height, might throw their darts with more daring and to a greater +distance; the other, which was nearer the enemy, being stationed on the +rampart, would be protected by their galleries from darts falling on +their heads. At the entrance he erected gates and turrets of a +considerable height. + +X.-Caesar had a double design in this fortification; for he both hoped +that the strength of his works, and his [apparent] fears would raise +confidence in the barbarians; and when there should be occasion to make +a distant excursion to get forage or corn, he saw that his camp would be +secured by the works with a very small force. In the meantime there were +frequent skirmishes across the marsh, a few on both sides sallying out +between the two camps. Sometimes, however, our Gallic or German +auxiliaries crossed the marsh, and furiously pursued the enemy; or on +the other hand the enemy passed it and beat back our men. Moreover there +happened in the course of our daily foraging, what must of necessity +happen, when corn is to be collected by a few scattered men out of +private houses, that our foragers dispersing in an intricate country +were surrounded by the enemy; by which, though we suffered but an +inconsiderable loss of cattle and servants, yet it raised foolish hopes +in the barbarians; but more especially, because Comius, who I said had +gone to get aid from the Germans, returned with some cavalry, and though +the Germans were only 500, yet the barbarians were elated by their +arrival. + +XI.-Caesar, observing that the enemy kept for several days within their +camp, which was well secured by a morass and its natural situation, and +that it could not be assaulted without a dangerous engagement, nor the +place enclosed with lines without an addition to his army, wrote to +Trebonius to send with all despatch for the thirteenth legion which was +in winter-quarters among the Bituriges under Titus Sextius, one of his +lieutenants; and then to come to him by forced marches with the three +legions. He himself sent the cavalry of the Remi, and Lingones, and +other states, from whom he had required a vast number, to guard his +foraging parties, and to support them in case of any sudden attack of +the enemy. + +XII.--As this continued for several days, and their vigilance was +relaxed by custom (an effect which is generally produced by time), the +Bellovaci, having made themselves acquainted with the daily stations of +our horse, lie in ambush with a select body of foot in a place covered +with woods; to it they sent their horse the next day, who were first to +decoy our men into the ambuscade, and then when they were surrounded, to +attack them. It was the lot of the Remi to fall into this snare, to whom +that day had been allotted to perform this duty; for, having suddenly +got sight of the enemy's cavalry, and despising their weakness, in +consequence of their superior numbers, they pursued them too eagerly, +and were surrounded on every side by the foot. Being by this means +thrown into disorder they returned with more precipitation than is usual +in cavalry actions, with the loss of Vertiscus, the governor of their +state, and the general of their horse, who, though scarcely able to sit +on horseback through years, neither, in accordance with the custom of +the Gauls, pleaded his age in excuse for not accepting the command, nor +would he suffer them to fight without him. The spirits of the barbarians +were puffed up and inflated at the success of this battle, in killing +the prince and general of the Remi; and our men were taught by this +loss, to examine the country, and post their guards with more caution, +and to be more moderate in pursuing a retreating enemy. + +XIII.--In the meantime daily skirmishes take place continually in view +of both camps; these were fought at the ford and pass of the morass. In +one of these contests the Germans, whom Caesar had brought over the +Rhine, to fight intermixed with the horse, having resolutely crossed the +marsh, and slain the few who made resistance, and boldly pursued the +rest, so terrified them, that not only those who were attacked hand to +hand, or wounded at a distance, but even those who were stationed at a +greater distance to support them, fled disgracefully; and being often +beaten from the rising grounds, did not stop till they had retired into +their camp, or some, impelled by fear, had fled farther. Their danger +drew their whole army into such confusion, that it was difficult to +judge whether they were more insolent after a slight advantage, or more +dejected by a trifling calamity. + +XIV.--After spending several days in the same camp, the guards of the +Bellovaci, learning that Caius Trebonius was advancing nearer with his +legions, and fearing a siege like that of Alesia, send off by night all +who were disabled by age or infirmity, or unarmed, and along with them +their whole baggage. Whilst they are preparing their disorderly and +confused troop for march (for the Gauls are always attended by a vast +multitude of waggons, even when they have very light baggage), being +overtaken by daylight, they drew their forces out before their camp, to +prevent the Romans attempting a pursuit before the line of their baggage +had advanced to a considerable distance. But Caesar did not think it +prudent to attack them when standing on their defence, with such a steep +hill in their favour, nor keep his legions at such a distance that they +could quit their post without danger: but, perceiving that his camp was +divided from the enemy's by a deep morass, so difficult to cross that he +could not pursue with expedition, and that the hill beyond the morass, +which extended almost to the enemy's camp, was separated from it only by +a small valley, he laid a bridge over the morass and led his army +across, and soon reached the plain on the top of the hill, which was +fortified on either side by a steep ascent. Having there drawn up his +army in order of battle, he marched to the furthest hill, from which he +could, with his engines, shower darts upon the thickest of the enemy. + +XV.--The Gauls, confiding in the natural strength of their position, +though they would not decline an engagement if the Romans attempted to +ascend the hill, yet dared not divide their forces into small parties, +lest they should be thrown into disorder by being dispersed, and +therefore remained in order of battle. Caesar, perceiving that they +persisted in their resolution, kept twenty cohorts in battle array, and, +measuring out ground there for a camp, ordered it to be fortified. +Having completed his works, he drew up his legions before the rampart +and stationed the cavalry in certain positions, with their horses +bridled. When the Bellovaci saw the Romans prepared to pursue them, and +that they could not wait the whole night, or continue longer in the same +place without provisions, they formed the following plan to secure a +retreat. They handed to one another the bundles of straw and sticks on +which they sat (for it is the custom of the Gauls to sit when drawn up +in order of battle, as has been asserted in former commentaries), of +which they had great plenty in their camp, and piled them in the front +of their line; and at the close of the day, on a certain signal, set +them all on fire at one and the same time. The continued blaze soon +screened all their forces from the sight of the Romans, which no sooner +happened than the barbarians fled with the greatest precipitation. + +XVI.--Though Caesar could not perceive the retreat of the enemy for the +intervention of the fire, yet, suspecting that they had adopted that +method to favour their escape, he made his legions advance, and sent a +party of horse to pursue them; but, apprehensive of an ambuscade, and +that the enemy might remain in the same place and endeavour to draw our +men into a disadvantageous situation, he advances himself but slowly. +The horse, being afraid to venture into the smoke and dense line of +flame, and those who were bold enough to attempt it being scarcely able +to see their horses' heads, gave the enemy free liberty to retreat, +through fear of an ambuscade. Thus, by a flight, full at once of +cowardice and address, they advanced without any loss about ten miles, +and encamped in a very strong position. From which, laying numerous +ambuscades, both of horse and foot, they did considerable damage to the +Roman foragers. + +XVII.--After this had happened several times, Caesar discovered, from a +certain prisoner, that Correus, the general of the Bellovaci, had +selected six thousand of his bravest foot and a thousand horse, with +which he designed to lie in ambush in a place to which he suspected the +Romans would send to look for forage, on account of the abundance of +corn and grass. Upon receiving information of their design Caesar drew +out more legions than he usually did, and sent forward his cavalry as +usual, to protect the foragers. With these he intermixed a guard of +light infantry, and himself advanced with the legions as fast as he +could. + +XVIII.--The Gauls, placed in ambush, had chosen for the seat of action a +level piece of bound, not more than a mile in extent, enclosed on every +side by a thick wood or a very deep river, as by a toil, and this they +surrounded. Our men, apprised of the enemy's design, marched in good +order to the ground, ready both in heart and hand to give battle, and +willing to hazard any engagement when the legions were at their back. On +their approach, as Correus supposed that he had got an opportunity of +effecting his purpose, he at first shows himself with a small party and +attacks the foremost troops. Our men resolutely stood the charge, and +did not crowd together in one place, as commonly happens from surprise +in engagements between the horse, whose numbers prove injurious to +themselves. + +XIX.--When by the judicious arrangement of our forces only a few of our +men fought by turns, and did not suffer themselves to be surrounded, the +rest of the enemy broke out from the woods whilst Correus was engaged. +The battle was maintained in different parts with great vigour, and +continued for a long time undecided, till at length a body of foot +gradually advanced from the woods in order of battle and forced our +horse to give ground: the light infantry, which were sent before the +legions to the assistance of the cavalry, soon came up, and, mixing with +the horse, fought with great courage. The battle was for some time +doubtful, but, as usually happens, our men, who stood the enemy's first +charge, became superior from this very circumstance that, though +suddenly attacked from an ambuscade, they had sustained no loss. In the +meantime the legions were approaching, and several messengers arrived +with notice to our men and the enemy that the [Roman] general was near +at hand, with his forces in battle array. Upon this intelligence, our +men, confiding in the support of the cohorts, fought most resolutely, +fearing, lest if they should be slow in their operations they should let +the legions participate in the glory of the conquest. The enemy lose +courage and attempt to escape by different ways. In vain; for they were +themselves entangled in that labyrinth in which they thought to entrap +the Romans. Being defeated and put to the rout, and having lost the +greater part of their men, they fled in consternation whither-soever +chance carried them; some sought the woods, others the river, but were +vigorously pursued by our men and put to the sword. Yet, in the +meantime, Correus, unconquered by calamity, could not be prevailed on to +quit the field and take refuge in the woods, or accept our offers of +quarter, but, fighting courageously and wounding several, provoked our +men, elated with victory, to discharge their weapons against him. + +XX.--After this transaction, Caesar, having come up immediately after +the battle, and imagining that the enemy, upon receiving the news of so +great a defeat, would be so depressed that they would abandon their +camp, which was not above eight miles distant from the scene of action, +though he saw his passage obstructed by the river, yet he marched his +army over and advanced. But the Bellovaci and the other states, being +informed of the loss they had sustained by a few wounded men who having +escaped by the shelter of the woods, had returned to them after the +defeat, and learning that everything had turned out unfavourable, that +Correus was slain, and the horse and most valiant of their foot cut off, +imagined that the Romans were marching against them, and calling a +council in haste by sound of trumpet, unanimously cry out to send +ambassadors and hostages to Caesar. + +XXI.--This proposal having met with general approbation, Comius the +Atrebatian fled to those Germans from whom he had borrowed auxiliaries +for that war. The rest instantly send ambassadors to Caesar; and +requested that he would be contented with that punishment of his enemy, +which if he had possessed the power to inflict on them before the +engagement, when they were yet uninjured, they were persuaded from his +usual clemency and mercy, he never would have inflicted; that the power +of the Bellovaci was crushed by the cavalry action; that many thousands +of their choicest foot had fallen, that scarce a man had escaped to +bring the fatal news. That, however, the Bellovaci had derived from the +battle one advantage, of some importance, considering their loss; that +Correus, the author of the rebellion, and agitator of the people, was +slain: for that whilst he lived, the senate had never equal influence in +the state with the giddy populace. + +XXII.--Caesar reminded the ambassadors who made these supplications, +that the Bellovaci had at the same season the year before, in +conjunction with other states of Gaul, undertaken a war, and that they +had persevered the most obstinately of all in their purpose, and were +not brought to a proper way of thinking by the submission of the rest; +that he knew and was aware that the guilt of a crime was easily +transferred to the dead; but that no one person could have such +influence, as to be able by the feeble support of the multitude to raise +a war and carry it on without the consent of the nobles, in opposition +to the senate, and in despite of every virtuous man; however he was +satisfied with the punishment which they had drawn upon themselves. + +XXIII.--The night following the ambassadors bring back his answer to +their countrymen, and prepare the hostages. Ambassadors flock in from +the other states, which were waiting for the issue of the [war with the] +Bellovaci: they give hostages, and receive his orders; all except +Comius, whose fears restrained him from entrusting his safety to any +person's honour. For the year before, while Caesar was holding the +assizes in Hither Gaul, Titus Labienus, having discovered that Comius +was tampering with the states, and raising a conspiracy against Caesar, +thought he might punish his infidelity without perfidy; but judging that +he would not come to his camp at his invitation, and unwilling to put +him on his guard by the attempt, he sent Caius Volusenus Quadratus, with +orders to have him put to death under pretence of a conference. To +effect his purpose, he sent with him some chosen centurions. When they +came to the conference, and Volusenus, as had been agreed on, had taken +hold of Comius by the hand, and one of the centurions, as if surprised +at so uncommon an incident, attempted to kill him, he was prevented by +the friends of Comius, but wounded him severely in the head by the first +blow. Swords were drawn on both sides, not so much with a design to +fight as to effect an escape, our men believing that Comius had received +a mortal stroke; and the Gauls, from the treachery which they had seen, +dreading that a deeper design lay concealed. Upon this transaction, it +was said that Comius made a resolution never to come within sight of any +Roman. + +XXIV.--When Caesar, having completely conquered the most warlike +nations, perceived that there was now no state which could make +preparations for war to oppose him, but that some were removing and +fleeing from their country to avoid present subjection, he resolved to +detach his army into different parts of the country. He kept with +himself Marcus Antonius the quaestor, with the eleventh legion; Caius +Fabius was detached with twenty-five cohorts into the remotest part of +Gaul, because it was rumoured that some states had risen in arms, and he +did not think that Caius Caninius Rebilus, who had the charge of that +country, was strong enough to protect it with two legions. He ordered +Titus Labienus to attend himself, and sent the twelfth legion which had +been under him in winter quarters, to Hither Gaul, to protect the Roman +colonies, and prevent any loss by the inroads of barbarians, similar to +that which had happened the year before to the Tergestines, who were cut +off by a sudden depredation and attack. He himself marched to depopulate +the country of Ambiorix, whom he had terrified and forced to fly, but +despaired of being able to reduce under his power; but he thought it +most consistent with his honour to waste his country both of +inhabitants, cattle, and buildings, so that from the abhorrence of his +countrymen, if fortune suffered any to survive, he might be excluded +from a return to his state for the calamities which he had brought on +it. + +XXV.--After he had sent either his legions or auxiliaries through every +part of Ambiorix's dominions, and wasted the whole country by sword, +fire, and rapine, and had killed or taken prodigious numbers, he sent +Labienus with two legions against the Treviri, whose state, from its +vicinity to Germany, being engaged in constant war, differed but little +from the Germans, in civilization and savage barbarity; and never +continued in its allegiance, except when awed by the presence of his +army. + +XXVI.--In the meantime Caius Caninius, a lieutenant, having received +information by letters and messages from Duracius, who had always +continued in friendship to the Roman people, though a part of his state +had revolted, that a great multitude of the enemy were in arms in the +country of the Pictones, marched to the town Limonum. When he was +approaching it, he was informed by some prisoners, that Duracius was +shut up by several thousand men, under the command of Dumnacus, general +of the Andes, and that Limonum was besieged, but not daring to face the +enemy with his weak legions, he encamped in a strong position: Dumnacus, +having notice of Caninius's approach, turned his whole force against the +legions, and prepared to assault the Roman camp. But after spending +several days in the attempt, and losing a considerable number of men, +without being able to make a breach in any part of the works, he +returned again to the siege of Limonum. + +XXVII.--At the same time, Caius Fabius, a lieutenant, brings back many +states to their allegiance, and confirms their submission by taking +hostages; he was then informed by letters from Caninius, of the +proceedings among the Pictones. Upon which he set off to bring +assistance to Duracius. But Dumnacus hearing of the approach of Fabius, +and despairing of safety, if at the same time he should be forced to +withstand the Roman army without, and observe, and be under apprehension +from the town's people, made a precipitate retreat from that place with +all his forces. Nor did he think that he should be sufficiently secure +from danger, unless he led his army across the Loire, which was too deep +a river to pass except by a bridge. Though Fabius had not yet come +within sight of the enemy, nor joined Caninius; yet being informed of +the nature of the country, by persons acquainted with it, he judged it +most likely that the enemy would take that way, which he found they did +take. He therefore marched to that bridge with his army, and ordered his +cavalry to advance no further before the legions, than that they could +return to the same camp at night, without fatiguing their horses. Our +horse pursued according to orders, and fell upon Dumnacus's rear, and +attacking them on their march, while fleeing, dismayed, and laden with +baggage, they slew a great number, and took a rich booty. Having +executed the affair so successfully, they retired to the camp. + +XXVIII.--The night following, Fabius sent his horse before him, with +orders to engage the enemy, and delay their march till he himself should +come up. That his orders might be faithfully performed, Quintus Atius +Varus, general of the horse, a man of uncommon spirit and skill, +encouraged his men, and pursuing the enemy, disposed some of his troops +in convenient places, and with the rest gave battle to the enemy. The +enemy's cavalry made a bold stand, the foot relieving each other, and +making a general halt, to assist their horse against ours. The battle +was warmly contested. For our men, despising the enemy whom they had +conquered the day before, and knowing that the legions were following +them, animated both by the disgrace of retreating, and a desire of +concluding the battle expeditiously by their own courage, fought most +valiantly against the foot: and the enemy, imagining that no more forces +would come against them, as they had experienced the day before, thought +they had got a favourable opportunity of destroying our whole cavalry. + +XXIX.-After the conflict had continued for some time with great +violence, Dumnacus drew out his army in such a manner, that the foot +should by turns assist the horse. Then the legions, marching in close +order, came suddenly in sight of the enemy. At this sight, the barbarian +horse were so astonished, and the foot so terrified, that breaking +through the line of baggage, they betook themselves to flight with a +loud shout, and in great disorder. But our horse, who a little before +had vigorously engaged them, whilst they made resistance, being elated +with joy at their victory, raising a shout on every side, poured round +them as they ran, and as long as their horses had strength to pursue, or +their arms to give a blow, so long did they continue the slaughter of +the enemy in that battle, and having killed above twelve thousand men in +arms, or such as threw away their arms through fear, they took their +whole train of baggage. + +XXX.--After this defeat, when it was ascertained that Drapes, a Senonian +(who in the beginning of the revolt of Gaul, had collected from all +quarters men of desperate fortunes, invited the slaves to liberty, +called in the exiles of the whole kingdom, given an asylum to robbers, +and intercepted the Roman baggage and provisions), was marching to the +province with five thousand men, being all he could collect after the +defeat, and that Luterius a Cadurcian who, as it has been observed in a +former commentary, had designed to make an attack on the Province in the +first revolt of Gaul, had formed a junction with him, Caius Caninius +went in pursuit of them with two legions, lest great disgrace might be +incurred from the fears or injuries done to the Province by the +depredations of a band of desperate men. + +XXXI.--Caius Fabius set off with the rest of the army to the Carnutes +and those other states, whose forces he was informed had served as +auxiliaries in that battle, which he fought against Dumnacus. For he had +no doubt that they would be more submissive after their recent +sufferings, but if respite and time were given them, they might be +easily excited by the earnest solicitations of the same Dumnacus. On +this occasion Fabius was extremely fortunate and expeditious in +recovering the states. For the Carnutes, who, though often harassed had +never mentioned peace, submitted and gave hostages: and the other +states, which lie in the remotest parts of Gaul, adjoining the ocean, +and which are called Armoricae, influenced by the example of the +Carnutes, as soon as Fabius arrived with his legions, without delay +comply with his command. Dumnacus, expelled from his own territories, +wandering and skulking about, was forced to seek refuge by himself in +the most remote parts of Gaul. + +XXXII.--But Crapes in conjunction with Literius, knowing that Caninius +was at hand with the legions, and that they themselves could not without +certain destruction enter the boundaries of the province, whilst an army +was in pursuit of them, and being no longer at liberty to roam up and +down and pillage, halt in the country of the Cadurci, as Luterius had +once in his prosperity possessed a powerful influence over the +inhabitants, who were his countrymen, and being always the author of new +projects, had considerable authority among the barbarians; with his own +and Drapes' troops he seized Uxellodunum, a town formerly in vassalage +to him and strongly fortified by its natural situation; and prevailed on +the inhabitants to join him. + +XXXIII.--After Caninius had rapidly marched to this place, and perceived +that all parts of the town were secured by very craggy rocks, which it +would be difficult for men in arms to climb even if they met with no +resistance; and, moreover, observing that the town's people were +possessed of effects, to a considerable amount, and that if they +attempted to convey them away in a clandestine manner, they could not +escape our horse, nor even our legions; he divided his forces into three +parts, and pitched three camps on very high ground, with the intention +of drawing lines round the town by degrees, as his forces could bear the +fatigue. + +XXXIV.--When the townsmen perceived his design, being terrified by the +recollection of the distress at Alesia, they began to dread similar +consequences from a siege; and above all Luterius, who had experienced +that fatal event, cautioned them to make provision of corn; they +therefore resolve by general consent to leave part of their troops +behind, and set out with their light troops to bring in corn. The scheme +having met with approbation, the following night Drapes and Luterius, +leaving two thousand men in the garrison, marched out of the town with +the rest. After a few days' stay in the country of the Cadurci (some of +whom were disposed to assist them with corn, and others were unable to +prevent their taking it) they collected a great store. Sometimes also +attacks were made on our little forts by sallies at night. For this +reason Caninius deferred drawing his works round the whole town, lest he +should be unable to protect them when completed, or by disposing his +garrisons in several places, should make them too weak. + +XXXV.--Drapes and Luterius, having laid in a large supply of corn, +occupy a position at about ten miles distance from the town, intending +from it to convey the corn into the town by degrees. They chose each his +respective department. Drapes stayed behind in the camp with part of the +army to protect it; Luterius conveys the train with provisions into the +town. Accordingly, having disposed guards here and there along the road, +about the tenth hour of the night, he set out by narrow paths through +the woods, to fetch the corn into the town. But their noise being heard +by the sentinels of our camp, and the scouts which we had sent out, +having brought an account of what was going on, Caninius instantly with +the ready-armed cohorts from the nearest turrets made an attack on the +convoy at the break of day. They, alarmed at so unexpected an evil, fled +by different ways to their guard: which as soon as our men perceived, +they fell with great fury on the escort, and did not allow a single man +to be taken alive. Luterius escaped thence with a few followers, but did +not return to the camp. + +XXXVI.--After this success, Caninius learnt from some prisoners, that a +part of the forces was encamped with Drapes, not more than ten miles +off; which being confirmed by several, supposing that after the defeat +of one general, the rest would be terrified, and might be easily +conquered, he thought it a most fortunate event that none of the enemy +had fled back from the slaughter to the camp, to give Drapes notice of +the calamity which had befallen him. And as he could see no danger in +making the attempt, he sent forward all his cavalry and the German foot, +men of great activity, to the enemy's camp. He divides one legion among +the three camps, and takes the other without baggage along with him. +When he had advanced near the enemy, he was informed by scouts, which he +had sent before him, that the enemy's camp, as is the custom of +barbarians, was pitched low, near the banks of a river, and that the +higher grounds were unoccupied: but that the German horse had made a +sudden attack on them, and had begun the battle. Upon this intelligence, +he marched up with his legion, armed and in order of battle. Then, on a +signal being suddenly given on every side, our men took possession of +the higher grounds. Upon this, the German horse observing the Roman +colours, fought with great vigour. Immediately all the cohorts attack +them on every side; and having either killed or made prisoners of them +all, gained great booty. In that battle, Drapes himself was taken +prisoner. + +XXXVII.--Caninius, having accomplished the business so successfully, +without having scarcely a man wounded, returned to besiege the town; +and, having destroyed the enemy without, for fear of whom he had been +prevented from strengthening his redoubts, and surrounding the enemy +with his lines, he orders the work to be completed on every side. The +next day, Caius Fabius came to join him with his forces, and took upon +him the siege of one side. + +XXXVIII.--In the meantime, Caesar left Caius Antonius in the country of +the Bellovaci, with fifteen cohorts, that the Belgae might have no +opportunity of forming new plans in future. He himself visits the other +states, demands a great number of hostages, and by his encouraging +language allays the apprehensions of all. When he came to the Carnutes, +in whose state he has in a former commentary mentioned that the war +first broke out; observing, that from a consciousness of their guilt, +they seemed to be in the greatest terror: to relieve the state the +sooner from its fear, he demanded that Guturvatus, the promoter of that +treason, and the instigator of that rebellion, should be delivered up to +punishment. And though the latter did not dare to trust his life even to +his own countrymen, yet such diligent search was made by them all, that +he was soon brought to our camp. Caesar was forced to punish him, by the +clamours of the soldiers, contrary to his natural humanity, for they +alleged that all the dangers and losses incurred in that war, ought to +be imputed to Guturvatus. Accordingly, he was whipped to death, and his +head cut off. + +XXXIX.--Here Caesar was informed by numerous letters from Caninius of +what had happened to Drapes and Luterius, and in what conduct the town's +people persisted: and though he despised the smallness of their numbers, +yet he thought their obstinacy deserving a severe punishment, lest Gaul +in general should adopt an idea that she did not want strength but +perseverance to oppose the Romans; and lest the other states, relying on +the advantage of situation, should follow their example and assert their +liberty; especially as he knew that all the Gauls understood that his +command was to continue but one summer longer, and if they could hold +out for that time, that they would have no further danger to apprehend. +He therefore left Quintus Calenus, one of his lieutenants behind him, +with two legions, and instructions to follow him by regular marches. He +hastened as much as he could with all the cavalry to Caninius. + +XL.--Having arrived at Uxellodunum, contrary to the general expectation, +and perceiving that the town was surrounded by the works, and that the +enemy had no possible means of retiring from the assault, and being +likewise informed by the deserters that the townsmen had abundance of +corn; he endeavoured to prevent their getting water. A river divided the +valley below, which almost surrounded the steep craggy mountain on which +Uxellodunum was built. The nature of the ground prevented his turning +the current; for it ran so low down at the foot of the mountain, that no +drains could be sunk deep enough to draw it off in any direction. But +the descent to it was so difficult, that if we made opposition, the +besieged could neither come to the river, nor retire up the precipice +without hazard of their lives. Caesar, perceiving the difficulty, +disposed archers and slingers, and in some places, opposite to the +easiest descents, placed engines, and attempted to hinder the townsmen +from getting water at the river, which obliged them afterwards to go all +to one place to procure water. + +XLI.--Close under the walls of the town, a copious spring gushed out on +that part, which for the space of nearly three hundred feet, was not +surrounded by the river. Whilst every other person wished that the +besieged could be debarred from this spring, Caesar alone saw that it +could be effected, though not without great danger. Opposite to it he +began to advance the vineae towards the mountain, and to throw up a +mound, with great labour and continual skirmishing. For the townsmen ran +down from the high ground, and fought without any risk, and wounded +several of our men, yet they obstinately pushed on and were not deterred +from moving forward the vineae, and from surmounting by their assiduity +the difficulties of situation. At the same time they work mines, and +move the crates and vineae to the source of the fountain. This was the +only work which they could do without danger or suspicion. A mound sixty +feet high was raised; on it was erected a turret of ten stories, not +with the intention that it should be on a level with the wall (for that +could not be effected by any works), but to rise above the top of the +spring. When our engines began to play from it upon the paths that led +to the fountain, and the townsmen could not go for water without danger, +not only the cattle designed for food and the working cattle, but a +great number of men also died of thirst. + +XLII.--Alarmed at this calamity, the townsmen fill barrels with tallow, +pitch, and dried wood; these they set on fire, and roll down on our +works. At the same time, they fight most furiously, to deter the Romans, +by the engagement and danger, from extinguishing the flames. Instantly a +great blaze arose in the works. For whatever they threw down the +precipice, striking against the vine and agger, communicated the fire to +whatever was in the way. Our soldiers on the other hand, though they +were engaged in a perilous sort of encounter, and labouring under the +disadvantages of position, yet supported all with very great presence of +mind. For the action happened in an elevated situation, and in sight of +our army; and a great shout was raised on both sides; therefore every +man faced the weapons of the enemy and the flames in as conspicuous a +manner as he could, that his valour might be the better known and +attested. + +XLIII.--Caesar, observing that several of his men were wounded, ordered +the cohorts to ascend the mountain on all sides, and, under pretence of +assailing the walls, to raise a shout: at which the besieged being +frightened, and not knowing what was going on in other places, call off +their armed troops from attacking our works, and dispose them on the +walls. Thus our men, without hazarding a battle, gained time partly to +extinguish the works which had caught fire, and partly to cut off the +communication. As the townsmen still continued to make an obstinate +resistance, and even, after losing the greatest part of their forces by +drought, persevered in their resolution: At last the veins of the spring +were cut across by our mines, and turned from their course. By this +their constant spring was suddenly dried up, which reduced them to such +despair that they imagined that it was not done by the art of man, but +the will of the gods; forced, therefore, by necessity, they at length +submitted. + +XLIV.--Caesar, being convinced that his lenity was known to all men, and +being under no fears of being thought to act severely from a natural +cruelty, and perceiving that there would be no end to his troubles if +several states should attempt to rebel in like manner and in different +places, resolved to deter others by inflicting an exemplary punishment +on these. Accordingly he cut off the hands of those who had borne arms +against him. Their lives he spared, that the punishment of their +rebellion might be the more conspicuous. Drapes, who I have said was +taken by Caninius, either through indignation and grief arising from his +captivity, or through fear of severer punishments, abstained from food +for several days, and thus perished. At the same time, Luterius, who, I +have related, had escaped from the battle, having fallen into the hands +of Epasnactus, an Arvernian (for he frequently changed his quarters, and +threw himself on the honour of several persons, as he saw that he dare +not remain long in one place, and was conscious how great an enemy he +deserved to have in Caesar), was by this Epasnactus, the Arvernian, a +sincere friend of the Roman people, delivered without any hesitation, a +prisoner to Caesar. + +XLV.--In the meantime, Labienus engages in a successful cavalry action +among the Treviri; and, having killed several of them and of the +Germans, who never refused their aid to any person against the Romans, +he got their chiefs alive into his power, and, amongst them, Surus, an +Aeduan, who was highly renowned both for his valour and birth, and was +the only Aeduan that had continued in arms till that time. Caesar, being +informed of this, and perceiving that he had met with good success in +all parts of Gaul, and reflecting that, in former campaigns, [Celtic] +Gaul had been conquered and subdued; but that he had never gone in +person to Aquitania, but had made a conquest of it, in some degree, by +Marcus Crassus, set out for it with two legions, designing to spend the +latter part of the summer there. This affair he executed with his usual +despatch and good fortune. For all the states of Aquitania sent +ambassadors to him and delivered hostages. These affairs being +concluded, he marched with a guard of cavalry towards Narbo, and drew +off his army into winter quarters by his lieutenants. He posted four +legions in the country of the Belgae, under Marcus Antonius, Caius +Trebonius, Publius Vatinius, and Quintus Tullius, his lieutenants. Two +he detached to the Aedui, knowing them to have a very powerful influence +throughout all Gaul. Two he placed among the Turoni, near the confines +of the Carnutes, to keep in awe the entire tract of country bordering on +the ocean; the other two he placed in the territories of the Lemovices, +at a small distance from the Arverni, that no part of Gaul might be +without an army. Having spent a few days in the province, he quickly ran +through all the business of the assizes, settled all public disputes, +and distributed rewards to the most deserving; for he had a good +opportunity of learning how every person was disposed towards the +republic during the general revolt of Gaul, which he had withstood by +the fidelity and assistance of the Province. + +XLVII.--Having finished these affairs, he returned to his legions among +the Belgae and wintered at Nemetocenna: there he got intelligence that +Comius, the Atrebatian had had an engagement with his cavalry. For when +Antonius had gone into winter quarters, and the state of the Atrebates +continued in their allegiance, Comius, who, after that wound which I +before mentioned, was always ready to join his countrymen upon every +commotion, that they might not want a person to advise and head them in +the management of the war, when his state submitted to the Romans, +supported himself and his adherents on plunder by means of his cavalry, +infested the roads, and intercepted several convoys which were bringing +provisions to the Roman quarters. + +XLVIII.--Caius Volusenus Quadratus was appointed commander of the horse +under Antonius, to winter with him: Antonius sent him in pursuit of the +enemy's cavalry; now Volusenus added to that valour which was pre-eminent +in him, a great aversion to Comius, on which account he executed +the more willingly the orders which he received. Having, therefore, laid +ambuscades, he had several encounters with his cavalry and came off +successful. At last, when a violent contest ensued, and Volusenus, +through eagerness to intercept Comius, had obstinately pursued him with +a small party; and Comius had, by the rapidity of his flight, drawn +Volusenus to a considerable distance from his troops, he, on a sudden, +appealed to the honour of all about him for assistance not to suffer the +wound, which he had perfidiously received, to go without vengeance; and, +wheeling his horse about, rode unguardedly before the rest up to the +commander. All his horse following his example, made a few of our men +turn their backs and pursued them. Comius, clapping spurs to his horse, +rode up to Volusenus, and, pointing his lance, pierced him in the thigh +with great force. When their commander was wounded, our men no longer +hesitated to make resistance, and, facing about, beat back the enemy. +When this occurred, several of the enemy, repulsed by the great +impetuosity of our men, were wounded, and some were trampled to death in +striving to escape, and some were made prisoners. Their general escaped +this misfortune by the swiftness of his horse. Our commander, being +severely wounded, so much so that he appeared to run the risk of losing +his life, was carried back to the camp. But Comius, having either +gratified his resentment, or, because he had lost the greatest part of +his followers, sent ambassadors to Antonius, and assured him that he +would give hostages as a security that he would go wherever Antonius +should prescribe, and would comply with his orders, and only entreated +that this concession should be made to his fears, that he should not be +obliged to go into the presence of any Roman. As Antonius judged that +his request originated in a just apprehension, he indulged him in it and +accepted his hostages. + + * * * * * + +Caesar, I know, has made a separate commentary of each year's +transactions, which I have not thought it necessary for me to do, +because the following year, in which Lucius Paulus and Caius Marcellus +were consuls, produced no remarkable occurrences in Gaul. But that no +person may be left in ignorance of the place where Caesar and his army +were at that time, I have thought proper to write a few words in +addition to this commentary. + + * * * * * + +XLIX.--Caesar, whilst in winter quarters in the country of the Belgae, +made it his only business to keep the states in amity with him, and to +give none either hopes of, or pretext for, a revolt. For nothing was +further from his wishes than to be under the necessity of engaging in +another war at his departure; lest, when he was drawing his army out of +the country, any war should be left unfinished, which the Gauls would +cheerfully undertake, when there was no immediate danger. Therefore, by +treating the states with respect, making rich presents to the leading +men, imposing no new burdens, and making the terms of their subjection +lighter, he easily kept Gaul (already exhausted by so many unsuccessful +battles) in obedience. + +L.--When the winter quarters were broken up, he himself, contrary to his +usual practice, proceeded to Italy, by the longest possible stages, in +order to visit the free towns and colonies, that he might recommend to +them the petition of Marcus Antonius, his treasurer, for the priesthood. +For he exerted his interest both cheerfully in favour of a man strongly +attached to him, whom he had sent home before him to attend the +election, and zealously to oppose the faction and power of a few men, +who, by rejecting Marcus Antonius, wished to undermine Caesar's +influence when going out of office. Though Caesar heard on the road, +before he reached Italy, that he was created augur, yet he thought +himself in honour bound to visit the free town and colonies, to return +them thanks for rendering such service to Antonius by their presence in +such great numbers [at the election], and at the same time to recommend +to them himself, and his honour in his suit for the consulate the +ensuing year. For his adversaries arrogantly boasted that Lucius +Lentulus and Caius Marcellus had been appointed consuls, who would strip +Caesar of all honour and dignity: and that the consulate had been +injuriously taken from Sergius Galba, though he had been much superior +in votes and interest, because he was united to Caesar, both by +friendship, and by serving as lieutenant under him. + +LI.--Caesar, on his arrival, was received by the principal towns and +colonies with incredible respect and affection; for this was the first +time he came since the war against united Gaul. Nothing was omitted +which could be thought of for the ornament of the gates, roads, and +every place through which Caesar was to pass. All the people with their +children went out to meet him. Sacrifices were offered up in every +quarter. The market places and temples were laid out with +entertainments, as if anticipating the joy of a most splendid triumph. +So great was the magnificence of the richer and zeal of the poorer ranks +of the people. + +LII.--When Caesar had gone through all the states of Cisalpine Gaul, he +returned with the greatest haste to the army at Nemetocenna; and having +ordered all his legions to march from winter quarters to the territories +of the Treviri, he went thither and reviewed them. He made Titus +Labienus governor of Cisalpine Gaul, that he might be the more inclined +to support him in his suit for the consulate. He himself made such +journeys, as he thought would conduce to the health of his men by change +of air; and though he was frequently told that Labienus was solicited by +his enemies, and was assured that a scheme was in agitation by the +contrivance of a few, that the senate should interpose their authority +to deprive him of a part of his army; yet he neither gave credit to any +story concerning Labienus, nor could be prevailed upon to do anything in +opposition to the authority of the senate; for he thought that his cause +would be easily gained by the free voice of the senators. For Caius +Curio, one of the tribunes of the people, having undertaken to defend +Caesar's cause and dignity, had often proposed to the senate, "that if +the dread of Caesar's arms rendered any apprehensive, as Pompey's +authority and arms were no less formidable to the forum, both should +resign their command, and disband their armies. That then the city would +be free, and enjoy its due rights." And he not only proposed this, but +of himself called upon the senate to divide on the question. But the +consuls and Pompey's friends interposed to prevent it; and regulating +matters as they desired, they broke up the meeting. + +LIII.--This testimony of the unanimous voice of the senate was very +great, and consistent with their former conduct; for the preceding year, +when Marcellus attacked Caesar's dignity, he proposed to the senate, +contrary to the law of Pompey and Crassus, to dispose of Caesar's +province, before the expiration of his command, and when the votes were +called for, and Marcellus, who endeavoured to advance his own dignity, +by raising envy against Caesar, wanted a division, the full senate went +over to the opposite side. The spirit of Caesar's foes was not broken by +this, but it taught them, that they ought to strengthen their interest +by enlarging their connections, so as to force the senate to comply with +whatever they resolved on. + +LIV.--After this a decree was passed by the senate, that one legion +should be sent by Pompey, and another by Caesar, to the Parthian war. +But these two legions were evidently drawn from Caesar alone. For the +first legion which Pompey sent to Caesar, he gave Caesar, as if it +belonged to himself, though it was levied in Caesar's province. Caesar, +however, though no one could doubt the design of his enemies, sent the +legion back to Cneius Pompey, and in compliance with the decree of the +senate, ordered the fifteenth, belonging to himself, and which was +quartered in Cisalpine Gaul, to be delivered up. In its room he sent the +thirteenth into Italy, to protect the garrisons from which he had +drafted the fifteenth. He disposed his army in winter quarters, placed +Caius Trebonius, with four legions among the Belgae, and detached Caius +Fabius, with four more, to the Aedui; for he thought that Gaul would be +most secure if the Belgae, a people of the greatest valour, and the +Aedui, who possessed the most powerful influence, were kept in awe by +his armies. + +LV.--He himself set out for Italy; where he was informed on his arrival, +that the two legions sent home by him, and which by the senate's decree, +should have been sent to the Parthian war, had been delivered over to +Pompey, by Caius Marcellus the consul, and were retained in Italy. +Although from this transaction it was evident to every one that war was +designed against Caesar, yet he resolved to submit to any thing, as long +as there were hopes left of deciding the dispute in an equitable manner, +rather than have recourse to arms. + + + * * * * * + + +THE CIVIL WAR + +BOOK I + +I.--When Caesar's letter was delivered to the consuls, they were with +great difficulty, and a hard struggle of the tribunes, prevailed on to +suffer it to be read in the senate; but the tribunes could not prevail, +that any question should be put to the senate on the subject of the +letter. The consuls put the question on the regulation of the state. +Lucius Lentulus the consul promises that he will not fail the senate and +republic, "if they declared their sentiments boldly and resolutely, but +if they turned their regard to Caesar, and courted his favour, as they +did on former occasions, he would adopt a plan for himself, and not +submit to the authority of the senate: that he too had a means of +regaining Caesar's favour and friendship." Scipio spoke to the same +purport, "that it was Pompey's intention not to abandon the republic, if +the senate would support him; but if they should hesitate and act +without energy, they would in vain implore his aid, if they should +require it hereafter." + +II.--This speech of Scipio's, as the senate was convened in the city, +and Pompey was near at hand, seemed to have fallen from the lips of +Pompey himself. Some delivered their sentiments with more moderation, as +Marcellus first, who in the beginning of his speech, said, "that the +question ought not to be put to the senate on this matter, till levies +were made throughout all Italy, and armies raised under whose protection +the senate might freely and safely pass such resolutions as they thought +proper": as Marcus Calidius afterwards, who was of opinion, "that Pompey +should set out for his province, that there might be no cause for arms: +that Caesar was naturally apprehensive as two legions were forced from +him, that Pompey was retaining those troops, and keeping them near the +city to do him injury": as Marcus Rufus, who followed Calidius almost +word for word. They were all harshly rebuked by Lentulus, who +peremptorily refused to propose Calidius's motion. Marcellus, overawed +by his reproofs, retracted his opinion. Thus most of the senate, +intimidated by the expressions of the consul, by the fears of a present +army, and the threats of Pompey's friends, unwillingly and reluctantly +adopted Scipio's opinion, that Caesar should disband his army by a +certain day, and should he not do so, he should be considered as acting +against the state. Marcus Antonius, and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the +people, interposed. The question was immediately put on their +interposition. Violent opinions were expressed: whoever spoke with the +greatest acrimony and cruelty, was most highly commended by Caesar's +enemies. + +III.--The senate having broken up in the evening, all who belonged to +that order were summoned by Pompey. He applauded the forward, and +secured their votes for the next day; the more moderate he reproved and +excited against Caesar. Many veterans, from all parts, who had served in +Pompey's armies, were invited to his standard by the hopes of rewards +and promotions. Several officers belonging to the two legions, which had +been delivered up by Caesar, were sent for. The city and the Comitium +were crowded with tribunes, centurions, and veterans. All the consuls' +friends, all Pompey's connections, all those who bore any ancient enmity +to Caesar, were forced into the senate house. By their concourse and +declarations the timid were awed, the irresolute confirmed, and the +greater part deprived of the power of speaking their sentiments with +freedom. Lucius Piso, the censor, offered to go to Caesar: as did +likewise Lucius Roscius, the praetor, to inform him of these affairs, +and require only six days' time to finish the business. Opinions were +expressed by some to the effect that commissioners should be sent to +Caesar to acquaint him with the senate's pleasure. + +IV.--All these proposals were rejected, and opposition made to them all, +in the speeches of the consul, Scipio, and Cato. An old grudge against +Caesar and chagrin at a defeat actuated Cato. Lentulus was wrought upon +by the magnitude of his debts, and the hopes of having the government of +an army and provinces, and by the presents which he expected from such +princes as should receive the title of friends of the Roman people, and +boasted amongst his friends, that he would be a second Sylla, to whom +the supreme authority should return. Similar hopes of a province and +armies, which he expected to share with Pompey on account of his +connection with him, urged on Scipio; and moreover, [he was influenced +by] the fear of being called to trial, and the adulation and an +ostentatious display of himself and his friends in power, who at that +time had great influence in the republic, and courts of judicature. +Pompey himself, incited by Caesar's enemies, because he was unwilling +that any person should bear an equal degree of dignity, had wholly +alienated himself from Caesar's friendship, and procured a +reconciliation with their common enemies; the greatest part of whom he +had himself brought upon Caesar during his affinity with him. At the +same time, chagrined at the disgrace which he had incurred by converting +the two legions from their expedition through Asia and Syria, to +[augment] his own power and authority, he was anxious to bring matters +to a war. + +V.--For these reasons everything was done in a hasty and disorderly +manner, and neither was time given to Caesar's relations to inform him +[of the state of affairs] nor liberty to the tribunes of the people to +deprecate their own danger, nor even to retain the last privilege, which +Sylla had left them, the interposing their authority; but on the seventh +day they were obliged to think of their own safety, which the most +turbulent tribunes of the people were not accustomed to attend to, nor +to fear being called to an account for their actions, till the eighth +month. Recourse is had to that extreme and final decree of the senate +(which was never resorted to even by daring proposers except when the +city was in danger of being set on fire, or when the public safety was +despaired of). "That the consuls, praetors, tribunes of the people, and +proconsuls in the city should take care that the state received no +injury." These decrees are dated the eighth day before the ides of +January; therefore, in the first five days, on which the senate could +meet, from the day on which Lentulus entered into his consulate, the two +days of election excepted, the severest and most virulent decrees were +passed against Caesar's government, and against those most illustrious +characters, the tribunes of the people. The latter immediately made +their escape from the city, and withdrew to Caesar, who was then at +Ravenna, awaiting an answer to his moderate demands; [to see] if matters +could be brought to a peaceful termination by any equitable act on the +part of the enemies. + +VI.--During the succeeding days the senate is convened outside the city. +Pompey repeated the same things which he had declared through Scipio. He +applauded the courage and firmness of the senate, acquainted them with +his force, and told them that he had ten legions ready; that he was +moreover informed and assured that Caesar's soldiers were disaffected, +and that he could not persuade them to defend or even follow him. +Motions were made in the senate concerning other matters; that levies +should be made through all Italy; that Faustus Sylla should be sent as +propraetor into Mauritania; that money should be granted to Pompey from +the public treasury. It was also put to the vote that king Juba should +be [honoured with the title of] friend and ally. But Marcellus said that +he would not allow this motion for the present. Philip, one of the +tribunes, stopped [the appointment of] Sylla; the resolutions respecting +the other matters passed. The provinces, two of which were consular, the +remainder praetorian, were decreed to private persons; Scipio got Syria, +Lucius Domitius Gaul: Philip and Marcellus were omitted, from a private +motive, and their lots were not even admitted. To the other provinces +praetors were sent, nor was time granted as in former years, to refer to +the people on their appointment, nor to make them take the usual oath, +and march out of the city in a public manner, robed in the military +habit, after offering their vows; a circumstance which had never before +happened. Both the consuls leave the city, and private men had lictors +in the city and capital, contrary to all precedents of former times. +Levies were made throughout Italy, arms demanded, and money exacted from +the municipal towns, and violently taken from the temples. All +distinctions between things human and divine are confounded. + +VII.--These things being made known to Caesar, he harangued his +soldiers; he reminded them "of the wrongs done to him at all times by +his enemies, and complained that Pompey had been alienated from him and +led astray by them through envy and a malicious opposition to his glory, +though he had always favoured and promoted Pompey's honour and dignity. +He complained that an innovation had been introduced into the republic, +that the intercession of the tribunes, which had been restored a few +years before by Sylla, was branded as a crime, and suppressed by force +of arms; that Sylla, who had stripped the tribunes of every other power, +had, nevertheless, left the privilege of intercession unrestrained; that +Pompey, who pretended to restore what they had lost, had taken away the +privileges which they formerly had; that whenever the senate decreed, +"that the magistrates should take care that the republic sustained no +injury" (by which words and decree the Roman people were obliged to +repair to arms), it was only when pernicious laws were proposed; when +the tribunes attempted violent measures; when the people seceded, and +possessed themselves of the temples and eminences of the city; (and +these instances of former times, he showed them were expiated by the +fate of Saturninus and the Gracchi): that nothing of this kind was +attempted now, nor even thought of: that no law was promulgated, no +intrigue with the people going forward, no secession made; he exhorted +them to defend from the malice of his enemies, the reputation and honour +of that general, under whose command they had for nine years most +successfully supported the state; fought many successful battles, and +subdued all Gaul and Germany." The soldiers of the thirteenth legion, +which was present (for in the beginning of the disturbances he had +called it out, his other legions not having yet arrived), all cry out +that they are ready to defend their general, and the tribunes of the +commons, from all injuries. + +VIII.--Having made himself acquainted with the disposition of his +soldiers, Caesar set off with that legion to Ariminum, and there met the +tribunes, who had fled to him for protection; he called his other +legions from winter quarters, and ordered them to follow him. Thither +came Lucius Caesar, a young man, whose father was a lieutenant general +under Caesar. He, after concluding the rest of his speech, and stating +for what purpose he had come, told Caesar that he had commands of a +private nature for him from Pompey; that Pompey wished to clear himself +to Caesar, lest he should impute those actions which he did for the +republic, to a design of affronting him; that he had ever preferred the +interest of the state to his own private connections; that Caesar, too, +for his own honour, ought to sacrifice his desires and resentment to the +public good, and not vent his anger so violently against his enemies, +lest in his hopes of injuring them, he should injure the republic. He +spoke a few words to the same purport from himself, in addition to +Pompey's apology. Roscius, the praetor, conferred with Caesar almost in +the same words, and on the same subject, and declared that Pompey had +empowered him to do so. + +IX.--Though these things seemed to have no tendency towards redressing +his injuries, yet having got proper persons by whom he could communicate +his wishes to Pompey; he required of them both, that as they had +conveyed Pompey's demands to him, they should not refuse to convey his +demands to Pompey; if by so little trouble they could terminate a great +dispute, and liberate all Italy from her fears. + +"That the honour of the republic had ever been his first object, and +dearer to him than life; that he was chagrined, that the favour of the +Roman people was wrested from him by the injurious reports of his +enemies; that he was deprived of a half-year's command, and dragged back +to the city, though the people had ordered that regard should be paid to +his suit for the consulate at the next election, though he was not +present; that, however, he had patiently submitted to this loss of +honour for the sake of the republic; that when he wrote letters to the +senate, requiring that all persons should resign the command of their +armies, he did not obtain even that request; that levies were made +throughout Italy; that the two legions which had been taken from him, +under the pretence of the Parthian war, were kept at home, and that the +state was in arms. To what did all these things tend, unless to his +ruin? But, nevertheless, he was ready to condescend to any terms, and to +endure everything for the sake of the republic. Let Pompey go to his own +province; let them both disband their armies; let all persons in Italy +lay down their arms; let all fears be removed from the city; let free +elections, and the whole republic be resigned to the direction of the +senate and Roman people. That these things might be the more easily +performed, and conditions secured and confirmed by oath, either let +Pompey come to Caesar, or allow Caesar to go to him; it might be that +all their disputes would be settled by an interview." + +X.--Roscius and Lucius Caesar, having received this message, went to +Capua, where they met the consuls and Pompey, and declared to them +Caesar's terms. Having deliberated on the matter, they replied, and sent +written proposals to him by the same persons, the purport of which was, +that Caesar should return into Gaul, leave Ariminum, and disband his +army: if he complied with this, that Pompey would go to Spain. In the +meantime, until security was given that Caesar would perform his +promises, that the consuls and Pompey would not give over their levies. + +XI.--It was not an equitable proposal, to require that Caesar should +quit Ariminum and return to his province; but that he [Pompey] should +himself retain his province and the legions that belonged to another, +and desire that Caesar's army should be disbanded, whilst he himself was +making new levies: and that he should merely promise to go to his +province, without naming the day on which he would set out; so that if +he should not set out till after Caesar's consulate expired, yet he +would not appear bound by any religious scruples about asserting a +falsehood. But his not granting time for a conference, nor promising to +set out to meet him, made the expectation of peace appear very hopeless. +Caesar, therefore, sent Marcus Antonius, with five cohorts from Ariminum +to Arretium; he himself stayed at Ariminum with two legions, with the +intention of raising levies there. He secured Pisaurus, Fanum, and +Ancona, with a cohort each. + +XII.--In the meantime, being informed that Thermus the praetor was in +possession of Iguvium, with five cohorts, and was fortifying the town, +but that the affections of all the inhabitants were very well inclined +towards himself; he detached Curio with three cohorts, which he had at +Ariminum and Pisaurus. Upon notice of his approach, Thermus, distrusting +the affections of the townsmen, drew his cohorts out of it, and made his +escape; his soldiers deserted him on the road, and returned home. Curio +recovered Iguvium, with the cheerful concurrence of all the inhabitants. +Caesar, having received an account of this, and relying on the +affections of the municipal towns, drafted all the cohorts of the +thirteenth legion from the garrisons, and set out for Auximum, a town +into which Attius had brought his cohorts, and of which he had taken +possession, and from which he had sent senators round about the country +of Picenum, to raise new levies. + +XIII.--Upon news of Caesar's approach, the senate of Auximum went in a +body to Attius Varus; and told him that it was not a subject for them to +determine upon: yet neither they, nor the rest of the freemen would +suffer Caius Caesar, a general, who had merited so well of the republic, +after performing such great achievements, to be excluded from their town +and walls; wherefore he ought to pay some regard to the opinion of +posterity, and his own danger. Alarmed at this declaration, Attius Varus +drew out of the town the garrison which he had introduced, and fled. A +few of Caesar's front rank having pursued him, obliged him to halt, and +when the battle began, Varus is deserted by his troops: some of them +disperse to their homes, the rest come over to Caesar; and along with +them, Lucius Pupius, the chief centurion, is taken prisoner and brought +to Caesar. He had held the same rank before in Cneius Pompey's army. But +Caesar applauded the soldiers of Attius, set Pupius at liberty, returned +thanks to the people of Auximum, and promised to be grateful for their +conduct. + +XIV.--Intelligence of this being brought to Rome, so great a panic +spread on a sudden that when Lentulus, the consul, came to open the +treasury, to deliver money to Pompey by the senate's decree, immediately +on opening the hallowed door he fled from the city. For it was falsely +rumoured that Caesar was approaching, and that his cavalry were already +at the gates. Marcellus, his colleague, followed him, and so did most of +the magistrates. Cneius Pompey had left the city the day before, and was +on his march to those legions which he had received from Caesar, and had +disposed in winter quarters in Apulia. The levies were stopped within +the city. No place on this side of Capua was thought secure. At Capua +they first began to take courage and to rally, and determined to raise +levies in the colonies, which had been sent thither by the Julian law: +and Lentulus brought into the public market-place the gladiators which +Caesar maintained there for the entertainment of the people, and +confirmed them in their liberty, and gave them horses and ordered them +to attend him; but afterwards, being warned by his friends that this +action was censured by the judgment of all, he distributed them among +the slaves of the districts of Campania, to keep guard there. + +XV.--Caesar, having moved forward from Auximum, traversed the whole +country of Picenum. All the governors in these countries most cheerfully +received him, and aided his army with every necessary. Ambassadors came +to him even from Cingulum, a town which Labienus had laid out and built +at his own expense, and offered most earnestly to comply with his +orders. He demanded soldiers: they sent them. In the meantime, the +twelfth legion came to join Caesar; with these two he marched to +Asculum, the chief town of Picenum. Lentulus Spinther occupied that town +with ten cohorts; but, on being informed of Caesar's approach, he fled +from the town, and, in attempting to bring off his cohorts with him, was +deserted by a great part of his men. Being left on the road with a small +number, he fell in with Vibullius Rufus, who was sent by Pompey into +Picenum to confirm the people [in their allegiance]. Vibullius, being +informed by him of the transactions in Picenum, takes his soldiers from +him and dismisses him. He collects, likewise, from the neighbouring +countries, as many cohorts as he can from Pompey's new levies. Amongst +them he meets with Ulcilles Hirrus fleeing from Camerinum, with six +cohorts, which he had in the garrison there; by a junction with which he +made up thirteen cohorts. With them he marched by hasty journeys to +Corfinium, to Domitius Aenobarbus, and informed him that Caesar was +advancing with two legions. Domitius had collected about twenty cohorts +from Alba, and the Marsians, Pelignians, and neighbouring states. + +XVI.--Caesar, having recovered Asculum and driven out Lentulus, ordered +the soldiers that had deserted from him to be sought out and a muster to +be made; and, having delayed for one day there to provide corn, he +marched to Corfinium. On his approach, five cohorts, sent by Domitius +from the town, were breaking down a bridge which was over the river, at +three miles' distance from it. An engagement taking place there with +Caesar's advanced-guard, Domitius's men were quickly beaten off from the +bridge and retreated precipitately into the town. Caesar, having marched +his legions over, halted before the town and encamped close by the +walls. + +XVII.--Domitius, upon observing this, sent messengers well acquainted +with the country, encouraged by a promise of being amply rewarded, with +despatches to Pompey to Apulia, to beg and entreat him to come to his +assistance. That Caesar could be easily enclosed by the two armies, +through the narrowness of the country, and prevented from obtaining +supplies: unless he did so, that he and upwards of thirty cohorts, and a +great number of senators and Roman knights, would be in extreme danger. +In the meantime he encouraged his troops, disposed engines on the walls, +and assigned to each man a particular part of the city to defend. In a +speech to the soldiers he promised them lands out of his own estate; to +every private soldier four acres, and a corresponding share to the +centurions and veterans. + +XVIII.--In the meantime, word was brought to Caesar that the people of +Sulmo, a town about seven miles distant from Corfinium, were ready to +obey his orders, but were prevented by Quintus Lucretius, a senator, and +Attius, a Pelignian, who were in possession of the town with a garrison +of seven cohorts. He sent Marcus Antonius thither, with five cohorts of +the eighth legion. The inhabitants, as soon as they saw our standards, +threw open their gates, and all the people, both citizens and soldiers, +went out to meet and welcome Antonius. Lucretius and Attius leaped off +the walls. Attius, being brought before Antonius, begged that he might +be sent to Caesar. Antonius returned the same day on which he had set +out with the cohorts and Attius. Caesar added these cohorts to his own +army, and sent Attius away in safety. The three first days Caesar +employed in fortifying his camp with strong works, in bringing in corn +from the neighbouring free towns, and waiting for the rest of his +forces. Within the three days the eighth legion came to him, and +twenty-two cohorts of the new levies in Gaul, and about three hundred +horse from the king of Noricum. On their arrival he made a second camp +on another part of the town, and gave the command of it to Curio. He +determined to surround the town with a rampart and turrets during the +remainder of the time. Nearly at the time when the greatest part of the +work was completed, all the messengers sent to Pompey returned. + +XIX.--Having read Pompey's letter, Domitius, concealing the truth, gave +out in council that Pompey would speedily come to their assistance; and +encouraged them not to despond, but to provide everything necessary for +the defence of the town. He held private conferences with a few of his +most intimate friends, and determined on the design of fleeing. As +Domitius's countenance did not agree with his words, and he did +everything with more confusion and fear than he had shown on the +preceding days, and as he had several private meetings with his friends, +contrary to his usual practice, in order to take their advice, and as he +avoided all public councils and assemblies of the people, the truth +could be no longer hid nor dissembled; for Pompey had written back in +answer, "That he would not put matters to the last hazard; that Domitius +had retreated into the town of Corfinium, without either his advice or +consent. Therefore, if any opportunity should offer, he [Domitius] +should come to him with the whole force." But the blockade and works +round the town prevented his escape. + +XX.--Domitius's design being noised abroad, the soldiers in Confinium +[**error in original: should be CORFINIUM] early in the evening began to +mutiny, and held a conference with each other by their tribunes and +centurions, and the most respectable amongst themselves: "that they were +besieged by Caesar; that his works and fortifications were almost +finished; that their general, Domitius, on whose hopes and expectations +they had confided, had thrown them off, and was meditating his own +escape; that they ought to provide for their own safety." At first the +Marsians differed in opinion, and possessed themselves of that part of +the town which they thought the strongest. And so violent a dispute +arose between them, that they attempted to fight and decide it by arms. +However, in a little time, by messengers sent from one side to the +other, they were informed of Domitius's meditated flight, of which they +were previously ignorant. Therefore they all with one consent brought +Domitius into public view, gathered round him, and guarded him; and sent +deputies out of their number to Caesar, to say that they were ready to +throw open their gates, to do whatever he should order, and to deliver +up Domitius alive into his hands. + +XXI.--Upon intelligence of these matters, though Caesar thought it of +great consequence to become master of the town as soon as possible, and +to transfer the cohorts to his own camp, lest any change should be +wrought on their inclinations by bribes, encouragement, or fictitious +messages, because in war great events are often brought about by +trifling circumstances; yet, dreading lest the town should be plundered +by the soldiers entering into it, and taking advantage of the darkness +of the night, he commended the persons who came to him, and sent them +back to the town, and ordered the gates and walls to be secured. He +disposed his soldiers on the works, which he had begun, not at certain +intervals, as was his practice before, but in one continued range of +sentinels and stations, so that they touched each other, and formed a +circle round the whole fortification; he ordered the tribunes and +general officers to ride round; and exhorted them not only to be on +their guard against sallies from the town, but also to watch that no +single person should get out privately. Nor was any man so negligent or +drowsy as to sleep that night. To so great height was their expectation +raised, that they were carried away, heart and soul, each to different +objects, what would become of the Corfinians, what of Domitius, what of +Lentulus, what of the rest; what event would be the consequence of +another. + +XXII.--About the fourth watch, Lentulus Spinther said to our sentinels +and guards from the walls, that he desired to have an interview with +Caesar, if permission were given him. Having obtained it, he was +escorted out of town; nor did the soldiers of Domitius leave him till +they brought him into Caesar's presence. He pleaded with Caesar for his +life, and entreated him to spare him, and reminded him of their former +friendship; and acknowledged that Caesar's favours to him were very +great; in that through his interest he had been admitted into the +college of priests; in that after his praetorship he had been appointed +to the government of Spain; in that he had been assisted by him in his +suit for the consulate. Caesar interrupted him in his speech, and told +him, "that he had not left his province to do mischief [to any man], but +to protect himself from the injuries of his enemies; to restore to their +dignity the tribunes of the people who had been driven out of the city +on his account, and to assert his own liberty, and that of the Roman +people, who were oppressed by a few factious men." Encouraged by this +address, Lentulus begged leave to return to the town, that the security +which he had obtained for himself might be an encouragement to the rest +to hope for theirs; saying that some were so terrified that they were +induced to make desperate attempts on their own lives. Leave being +granted him, he departed. + +XXIII.--When day appeared Caesar ordered all the senators and their +children, the tribunes of the soldiers, and the Roman knights, to be +brought before him. Among the persons of senatorial rank were Lucius +Domitius, Publius Lentulus Spinther, Lucius Vibullius Rufus, Sextus +Quintilius Varus, the quaestor, and Lucius Rubrius, besides the son of +Domitius, and several other young men, and a great number of Roman +knights and burgesses, whom Domitius had summoned from the municipal +towns. When they were brought before him he protected them from the +insolence and taunts of the soldiers; told them in few words that they +had not made him a grateful return, on their part, for his very +extraordinary kindness to them, and dismissed them all in safety. Sixty +sestertia, which Domitius had brought with him and lodged in the public +treasury, being brought to Caesar by the magistrates of Corfinium, he +gave them back to Domitius, that he might not appear more moderate with +respect to the life of men than in money matters, though he knew that it +was public money, and had been given by Pompey to pay his army. He +ordered Domitius's soldiers to take the oath to himself, and that day +decamped and performed the regular march. He stayed only seven days +before Corfinium, and marched into Apulia through the country of the +Marrucinians, Frentanians, and Larinates. + +XXIV.--Pompey, being informed of what had passed at Corfinium, marches +from Luceria to Canusium, and thence to Brundusium. He orders all the +forces raised everywhere by the new levies to repair to him. He gives +arms to the slaves that attended the flocks, and appoints horses for +them. Of these he made up about three hundred horse. Lucius, the +praetor, fled from Alba, with six cohorts: Rutilus Lupus, the praetor, +from Tarracina, with three. These having descried Caesar's cavalry at a +distance, which were commanded by Bivius Curius, and having deserted the +praetor, carried their colours to Curius and went over to him. In like +manner during the rest of his march, several cohorts fell in with the +main body of Caesar's army, others with his horse. Cneius Magius, from +Cremona, engineer-general to Pompey, was taken prisoner on the road and +brought to Caesar, but sent back by him to Pompey with this message: "As +hitherto he had not been allowed an interview, and was now on his march +to him at Brundusium, that it deeply concerned the commonwealth and +general safety that he should have an interview with Pompey; and that +the same advantage could not be gained at a great distance when the +proposals were conveyed to them by others, as if terms were argued by +them both in person." + +XXV.--Having delivered this message he marched to Brundusium with six +legions, four of them veterans: the rest those which he had raised in +the late levy and completed on his march, for he had sent all Domitius's +cohorts immediately from Corfinium to Sicily. He discovered that the +consuls were gone to Dyrrachium with a considerable part of the army, +and that Pompey remained at Brundusium with twenty cohorts; but could +not find out, for a certainty, whether Pompey stayed behind to keep +possession of Brundusium, that he might the more easily command the +whole Adriatic sea, with the extremities of Italy and the coast of +Greece, and be able to conduct the war on either side of it, or whether +he remained there for want of shipping; and, being afraid that Pompey +would come to the conclusion that he ought not to relinquish Italy, he +determined to deprive him of the means of communication afforded by the +harbour of Brundusium. The plan of his work was as follows:--Where the +mouth of the port was narrowest he threw up a mole of earth on either +side, because in these places the sea was shallow. Having gone out so +far that the mole could not be continued in the deep water, he fixed +double floats, thirty feet on either side, before the mole. These he +fastened with four anchors at the four corners, that they might not be +carried away by the waves. Having completed and secured them, he then +joined to them other floats of equal size. These he covered over with +earth and mould, that he might not be prevented from access to them to +defend them, and in the front and on both sides he protected them with a +parapet of wicker work; and on every fourth one raised a turret, two +stories high, to secure them the better from being attacked by the +shipping and set on fire. + +XXVI.--To counteract this, Pompey fitted out large merchant ships, which +he found in the harbour of Brundusium: on them he erected turrets three +stories high, and, having furnished them with several engines and all +sorts of weapons, drove them amongst Caesar's works, to break through +the floats and interrupt the works; thus there happened skirmishes every +day at a distance with slings, arrows, and other weapons. Caesar +conducted matters as if he thought that the hopes of peace were not yet +to be given up. And though he was very much surprised that Magius, whom +he had sent to Pompey with a message, was not sent back to him; and +though his attempting a reconciliation often retarded the vigorous +prosecution of his plans, yet he thought that he ought by all means to +persevere in the same line of conduct. He therefore sent Caninius +Rebilus to have an interview with Scribonius Libo, his intimate friend +and relation. He charges him to exhort Libo to effect a peace, but, +above all things, requires that he should be admitted to an interview +with Pompey. He declared that he had great hopes, if that were allowed +him, that the consequence would be that both parties would lay down +their arms on equal terms; that a great share of the glory and +reputation of that event would redound to Libo, if, through his advice +and agency, hostilities should be ended. Libo, having parted from the +conference with Caninius, went to Pompey, and, shortly after, returns +with answer that, as the consuls were absent, no treaty of compositions +could be engaged in without them. Caesar therefore thought it time at +length to give over the attempt which he had often made in vain, and act +with energy in the war. + +XXVII.--When Caesar's works were nearly half finished, and after nine +days were spent in them, the ships which had conveyed the first division +of the army to Dyrrachium being sent back by the consuls, returned to +Brundusium. Pompey, either frightened at Caesar's works or determined +from the beginning to quit Italy, began to prepare for his departure on +the arrival of the ships; and the more effectually to retard Caesar's +attack, lest his soldiers should force their way into the town at the +moment of his departure, he stopped up the gates, built walls across the +streets and avenues, sunk trenches across the ways, and in them fixed +palisadoes and sharp stakes, which he made level with the ground by +means of hurdles and clay. But he barricaded with large beams fastened +in the ground and sharpened at the ends two passages and roads without +the walls, which led to the port. After making these arrangements, he +ordered his soldiers to go on board without noise, and disposed here and +there, on the wall and turrets, some light-armed veterans, archers and +slingers. These he designed to call off by a certain signal, when all +the soldiers were embarked, and left row-galleys for them in a secure +place. + +XXVIII.--The people of Brundusium, irritated by the insolence of +Pompey's soldiers, and the insults received from Pompey himself, were in +favour of Caesar's party. Therefore, as soon as they were aware of +Pompey's departure, whilst his men were running up and down, and busied +about their voyage, they made signs from the tops of the houses: Caesar, +being apprized of the design by them, ordered scaling ladders to be got +ready, and his men to take arms, that he might not lose any opportunity +of coming to an action. Pompey weighed anchor at nightfall. The soldiers +who had been posted on the wall to guard it, were called off by the +signal which had been agreed on, and knowing the roads, ran down to the +ships. Caesar's soldiers fixed their ladders and scaled the walls: but +being cautioned by the people to beware of the hidden stakes and covered +trenches, they halted, and being conducted by the inhabitants by a long +circuit, they reached the port, and captured with their long boats and +small craft two of Pompey's ships, full of soldiers, which had struck +against Caesar's moles. + +XXIX.-Though Caesar highly approved of collecting a fleet, and crossing +the sea, and pursuing Pompey before he could strengthen himself with his +transmarine auxiliaries, with the hope of bringing the war to a +conclusion, yet he dreaded the delay and length of time necessary to +effect it: because Pompey, by collecting all his ships, had deprived him +of the means of pursuing him at present. The only resource left to +Caesar, was to wait for a fleet from the distant regions of Gaul, +Picenum, and the straits of Gibraltar. But this, on account of the +season of the year, appeared tedious and troublesome. He was unwilling +that, in the meantime, the veteran army, and the two Spains, one of +which was bound to Pompey by the strongest obligations, should be +confirmed in his interest; that auxiliaries and cavalry should be +provided and Gaul and Italy reduced in his absence. + +XXX.--Therefore, for the present, he relinquished all intention of +pursuing Pompey, and resolved to march to Spain, and commanded the +magistrates of the free towns to procure him ships, and to have them +conveyed to Brundusium. He detached Valerius, his lieutenant, with one +legion to Sardinia; Curio, the proprietor, to Sicily with three legions; +and ordered him, when he had recovered Sicily, to immediately transport +his army to Africa. Marcus Cotta was at this time governor of Sardinia: +Marcus Cato, of Sicily: and Tubero, by the lots, should have had the +government of Africa. The Caralitani, as soon as they heard that +Valerius was sent against them, even before he left Italy, of their own +accord drove Cotta out of the town; who, terrified because he understood +that the whole province was combined [against him], fled from Sardinia +to Africa. Cato was in Sicily, repairing the old ships of war, and +demanding new ones from the states, and these things he performed with +great zeal. He was raising levies of Roman citizens, among the Lucani +and Brutii, by his lieutenants, and exacting a certain quota of horse +and foot from the states of Sicily. When these things were nearly +completed, being informed of Curio's approach, he made a complaint that +he was abandoned and betrayed by Pompey, who had undertaken an +unnecessary war, without making any preparation, and when questioned by +him and other members in the senate, had assured them that every thing +was ready and provided for the war. After having made these complaints +in a public assembly, he fled from his province. + +XXXI.--Valerius found Sardinia, and Curio, Sicily, deserted by their +governors when they arrived there with their armies. When Tubero arrived +in Africa, he found Attius Varus in the government of the province, who, +having lost his cohorts, as already related, at Auximum, had straightway +fled to Africa, and finding it without a governor, had seized it of his +own accord, and making levies, had raised two legions. From his +acquaintance with the people and country, and his knowledge of that +province, he found the means of effecting this; because a few years +before, at the expiration of his praetorship, he had obtained that +province. He, when Tubero came to Utica with his fleet, prevented his +entering the port or town, and did not suffer his son, though labouring +under sickness, to set foot on shore; but obliged him to weigh anchor +and quit the place. + +XXXIL.--When these affairs were despatched, Caesar, that there might be +an intermission from labour for the rest of the season, drew off his +soldiers to the nearest municipal towns, and set off in person for Rome. +Having assembled the senate, he reminded them of the injustice of his +enemies; and told them, "That he aimed at no extraordinary honour, but +had waited for the time appointed by law, for standing candidate for the +consulate, being contented with what was allowed to every citizen. That +a bill had been carried by the ten tribunes of the people +(notwithstanding the resistance of his enemies, and a very violent +opposition from Cato, who in his usual manner, consumed the day by a +tedious harangue) that he should be allowed to stand candidate, though +absent, even in the consulship of Pompey; and if the latter disapproved +of the bill, why did he allow it to pass? if he approved of it, why +should he debar him [Caesar] from the people's favour? He made mention +of his own patience, in that he had freely proposed that all armies +should be disbanded, by which he himself would suffer the loss both of +dignity and honour. He urged the virulence of his enemies, who refused +to comply with what they required from others, and had rather that all +things should be thrown into confusion, than that they should lose their +power and their armies. He expatiated on their injustice, in taking away +his legions: their cruelty and insolence in abridging the privileges of +the tribunes; the proposals he had made, and his entreaties of an +interview, which had been refused him: For which reasons, he begged and +desired that they would undertake the management of the republic, and +unite with him in the administration of it. But if through fear they +declined it, he would not be a burden to them, but take the management +of it on himself. That deputies ought to be sent to Pompey, to propose a +reconciliation; as he did not regard what Pompey had lately asserted in +the senate, that authority was acknowledged to be vested in those +persons to whom ambassadors were sent, and fear implied in those that +sent them. That these were the sentiments of low, weak minds: that for +his part, as he had made it his study to surpass others in glory, so he +was desirous of excelling them in justice and equity." + +XXXIII.--The senate approved of sending deputies, but none could be +found fit to execute the commission: for every person, from his own +private fears, declined the office. For Pompey, on leaving the city, had +declared in the open senate, that he would hold in the same degree of +estimation, those who stayed in Rome and those in Caesar's camp. Thus +three days were wasted in disputes and excuses. Besides, Lucius +Metellus, one of the tribunes, was suborned by Caesar's enemies, to +prevent this, and to embarrass everything else which Caesar should +propose. Caesar having discovered his intention, after spending several +days to no purpose, left the city, in order that he might not lose any +more time, and went to Transalpine Gaul, without effecting what he had +intended. + +XXXIV.--On his arrival there, he was informed that, Vibullius Rufus, +whom he had taken a few days before at Corfinium, and set at liberty, +was sent by Pompey into Spain; and that Domitius also was gone to seize +Massilia with seven row-galleys, which were fitted up by some private +persons at Igilium and Cosa, and which he had manned with his own +slaves, freedmen, and colonists: and that some young noblemen of +Massilia had been sent before him; whom Pompey, when leaving Rome had +exhorted, that the late services of Caesar should not erase from their +minds the memory of his former favours. On receiving this message, the +Massilians had shut their gates against Caesar, and invited over to them +the Albici, who had formerly been in alliance with them, and who +inhabited the mountains that overhung Massilia: they had likewise +conveyed the corn from the surrounding country, and from all the forts +into the city; had opened armouries in the city: and were repairing the +walls, the fleet, and the gates. + +XXXV.--Caesar sent for fifteen of the principal persons of Massilia to +attend him. To prevent the war commencing among them, he remonstrates +[in the following language]; "that they ought to follow the precedent +set by all Italy, rather than submit to the will of any one man." He +made use of such arguments as he thought would tend to bring them to +reason. The deputies reported his speech to their countrymen, and by the +authority of the state bring him back this answer: "That they understood +that the Roman people was divided into two factions: that they had +neither judgment nor abilities to decide which had the juster cause; but +that the heads of these factions were Cneius Pompey and Caius Caesar, +the two patrons of the state: the former of whom had granted to their +state the lands of the Volcae Arecomici, and Helvii; the latter had +assigned them a part of his conquests in Gaul, and had augmented their +revenue. Wherefore, having received equal favours from both, they ought +to show equal affection to both, and assist neither against the other, +nor admit either into their city or harbours." + +XXXVI.--Whilst this treaty was going forward, Domitius arrived at +Massilia with his fleet, and was received into the city, and made +governor of it. The chief management of the war was entrusted to him. At +his command they send the fleet to all parts; they seize all the +merchantmen they could meet with, and carry them into the harbour; they +apply the nails, timber, and rigging, with which they were furnished to +rig and refit their other vessels. They lay up in the public stores, all +the corn that was found in the ships, and reserve the rest of their +lading and convoy for the siege of the town, should such an event take +place. Provoked at such ill treatment, Caesar led three legions against +Massilia, and resolved to provide turrets, and vinae to assault the +town, and to build twelve ships at Arelas, which being completed and +rigged in thirty days (from the time the timber was cut down), and being +brought to Massilia, he put under the command of Decimus Brutus; and +left Caius Trebonius his lieutenant, to invest the city. + +XXXVII.--Whilst he was preparing and getting these things in readiness, +he sent Caius Fabius one of his lieutenants into Spain with three +legions, which he had disposed in winter quarters in Narbo, and the +neighbouring country; and ordered him immediately to seize the passes of +the Pyrenees, which were at that time occupied by detachments from +Lucius Afranius, one of Pompey's lieutenants. He desired the other +legions, which were passing the winter at a great distance, to follow +close after him. Fabius, according to his orders, by using expedition, +dislodged the party from the hills, and by hasty marches came up with +the army of Afranius. + +XXXVIII.--On the arrival of Vibullius Rufus, whom, we have already +mentioned, Pompey had sent into Spain, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, +his lieutenants (one of whom had the command of Hither Spain, with three +legions; the second of the country from the forest of Castulo to the +river Guadiana with two legions; the third from the river Guadiana to +the country of the Vettones and Lusitania, with the like number of +legions), divided amongst themselves their respective departments. +Petreius was to march from Lusitania through the Vettones, and join +Afranius with all his forces; Varro was to guard all Further Spain with +what legions he had. These matters being settled, reinforcements of +horse and foot were demanded from Lusitania, by Petreius; from the +Celtiberi, Cantabri, and all the barbarous nations which border on the +ocean, by Afranius. When they were raised, Petreius immediately marched +through the Vettones to Afranius. They resolved by joint consent to +carry on the war in the vicinity of Ilerda, on account of the advantages +of its situation. + +XXXIX.--Afranius, as above mentioned, had three legions, Petreius two. +There were besides about eighty cohorts raised in Hither and Further +Spain (of which, the troops belonging to the former province had +shields, those of the latter targets), and about five thousand horse +raised in both provinces. Caesar had sent his legions into Spain, with +about six thousand auxiliary foot, and three thousand horse, which had +served under him in all his former wars, and the same number from Gaul, +which he himself had provided, having expressly called out all the most +noble and valiant men of each state. The bravest of these were from the +Aquitani and the mountaineers, who border on the Province in Gaul. He +had been informed that Pompey was marching through Mauritania with his +legions to Spain, and would shortly arrive. He at the same time borrowed +money from the tribunes and centurions, which he distributed amongst his +soldiers. By this proceeding he gained two points; he secured the +interest of the centurions by this pledge in his hands, and by his +liberality he purchased the affections of his army. + +XL.--Fabius sounded the inclinations of the neighbouring states by +letters and messengers. He had made two bridges over the river Segre, at +the distance of four miles from each other. He sent foraging parties +over these bridges, because he had already consumed all the forage that +was on his side of the river. The generals of Pompey's army did almost +the same thing, and for the same reason: and the horse had frequent +skirmishes with each other. When two of Fabius's legions had, as was +their constant practice, gone forth as the usual protection to the +foragers, and had crossed the river, and the baggage, and all the horse +were following them, on a sudden, from the weight of the cattle, and the +mass of water, the bridge fell, and all the horse were cut off from the +main army, which being known to Petreius and Afranius, from the timber +and hurdles that were carried down the river, Afranius immediately +crossed his own bridge, which communicated between his camp and the +town, with four legions and all the cavalry, and marched against +Fabius's two legions. When his approach was announced, Lucius Plancus, +who had the command of those legions, compelled by the emergency, took +post on a rising ground; and drew up his army with two fronts, that it +might not be surrounded by the cavalry. Thus, though engaged with +superior numbers, he sustained the furious charge of the legions and the +horse. When the battle was begun by the horse, there were observed at a +distance by both sides the colours of two legions, which Caius Fabius +had sent round by the further bridge to reinforce our men, suspecting, +as the event verified, that the enemy's generals would take advantage of +the opportunity which fortune had put in their way, to attack our men. +Their approach put an end to the battle, and each general led back his +legions to their respective camps. + +XLI.--In two days after Caesar came to the camp with nine hundred horse, +which he had retained for a bodyguard. The bridge which had been broken +down by the storm was almost repaired, and he ordered it to be finished +in the night. Being acquainted with the nature of the country, he left +behind him six cohorts to guard the bridge, the camp, and all his +baggage, and the next day set off in person for Ilerda, with all his +forces drawn up in three lines, and halted just before the camp of +Afranius, and having remained there a short time under arms, he offered +him battle on equal terms. When this offer was made, Afranius drew out +his forces, and posted them on the middle of a hill, near his camp. When +Caesar perceived that Afranius declined coming to an engagement, he +resolved to encamp at somewhat less than half a mile's distance from the +very foot of the mountain; and that his soldiers whilst engaged in their +works, might not be terrified by any sudden attack of the enemy, or +disturbed in their work, he ordered them not to fortify it with a wall, +which must rise high, and be seen at a distance, but draw, on the front +opposite the enemy, a trench fifteen feet broad. The first and second +lines continued under arms as was from the first appointed. Behind them +the third line was carrying on the work without being seen; so that the +whole was completed before Afranius discovered that the camp was being +fortified. + +XLII.--In the evening Caesar drew his legions within this trench, and +rested them under arms the next night. The day following he kept his +whole army within it, and as it was necessary to bring materials from a +considerable distance, he for the present pursued the same plan in his +work; and to each legion, one after the other, he assigned one side of +the camp to fortify, and ordered trenches of the same magnitude to be +cut: he kept the rest of the legions under arms without baggage to +oppose the enemy. Afranius and Petreius, to frighten us and obstruct the +work, drew out their forces at the very foot of the mountain, and +challenged us to battle. Caesar, however, did not interrupt his work, +relying on the protection of the three legions, and the strength of the +fosse. After staying for a short time, and advancing no great distance +from the bottom of the hill, they led back their forces to their camp. +The third day Caesar fortified his camp with a rampart, and ordered the +other cohorts which he had left in the upper camp, and his baggage to be +removed to it. + +XLIIL-Between the town of Ilerda and the next hill, on which Afranius +and Petreius were encamped, there was a plain about three hundred paces +broad, and near the middle of it an eminence somewhat raised above the +level: Caesar hoped that if he could get possession of this and fortify +it, he should be able to cut off the enemy from the town, the bridge, +and all the stores which they had laid up in the town. In expectation of +this he led three legions out of the camp, and, drawing up his army in +an advantageous position, he ordered the advanced men of one legion to +hasten forward and seize the eminence. Upon intelligence of this the +cohorts which were on guard before Afranius's camp were instantly sent a +nearer way to occupy the same post. The two parties engage, and as +Afranius's men had reached the eminence first, our men were repulsed, +and, on a reinforcement being sent, they were obliged to turn their +backs and retreat to the standards of legions. + +XLIV.--The manner of fighting of those soldiers was to run forward with +great impetuosity and boldly take a post, and not to keep their ranks +strictly, but to fight in small scattered parties: if hard pressed they +thought it no disgrace to retire and give up the post, being accustomed +to this manner of fighting among the Lusitanians and other barbarous +nations; for it commonly happens that soldiers are strongly influenced +by the customs of those countries in which they have spent much time. +This method, however, alarmed our men, who were not used to such a +description of warfare. For they imagined that they were about to be +surrounded on their exposed flank by the single men who ran forward from +their ranks; and they thought it their duty to keep their ranks, and not +to quit their colours, nor, without good reason, to give up the post +which they had taken. Accordingly, when the advanced guard gave way, the +legion which was stationed on that wing did not keep its ground, but +retreated to the next hill. + +XLV.--Almost the whole army being daunted at this, because it had +occurred contrary to their expectations and custom, Caesar encouraged +his men and led the ninth legion to their relief, and checked the +insolent and eager pursuit of the enemy, and obliged them, in their +turn, to show their backs and retreat to Ilerda, and take post under the +walls. But the soldiers of the ninth legion, being over zealous to +repair the dishonour which had been sustained, having rashly pursued the +fleeing enemy, advanced into disadvantageous ground and went up to the +foot of the mountain on which the town Ilerda was built. And when they +wished to retire they were again attacked by the enemy from the rising +ground. The place was craggy in the front and steep on either side, and +was so narrow that even three cohorts, drawn up in order of battle, +would fill it; but no relief could be sent on the flanks, and the horse +could be of no service to them when hard pressed. From the town, indeed, +the precipice inclined with a gentle slope for near four hundred paces. +Our men had to retreat this way, as they had, through their eagerness, +advanced too inconsiderately. The greatest contest was in this place, +which was much to the disadvantage of our troops, both on account of its +narrowness, and because they were posted at the foot of the mountain, so +that no weapon was thrown at them without effect: yet they exerted their +valour and patience, and bore every wound. The enemy's forces were +increasing, and cohorts were frequently sent to their aid from the camp +through the town, that fresh men might relieve the weary. Caesar was +obliged to do the same, and relieve the fatigued by sending cohorts to +that post. + +XLVI.--After the battle had in this manner continued incessantly for +five hours, and our men had suffered much from superior numbers, having +spent all their javelins, they drew their swords and charged the enemy +up the hill, and, having killed a few, obliged the rest to fly. The +cohorts being beaten back to the wall, and some being driven by their +fears into the town, an easy retreat was afforded to our men. Our +cavalry also, on either flank, though stationed on sloping or low +ground, yet bravely struggled up to the top of the hill, and, riding +between the two armies, made our retreat more easy and secure. Such were +the various turns of fortune in the battle. In the first encounter about +seventy of our men fell: amongst them Quintus Fulgenius, first centurion +of the second line of the fourteenth legion, who, for his extraordinary +valour, had been promoted from the lower ranks to that post. About six +hundred were wounded. Of Afranius's party there were killed Titus +Caecilius, principal centurion, and four other centurions, and above two +hundred men. + +XLVII.--But this opinion is spread abroad concerning this day, that each +party thought that they came off conquerors. Afranius's soldiers, +because, though they were esteemed inferior in the opinion of all, yet +they had stood our attack and sustained our charge, and, at first, had +kept the post and the hill which had been the occasion of the dispute; +and, in the first encounter, had obliged our men to fly: but ours, +because, notwithstanding the disadvantage of the ground and the +disparity of numbers, they had maintained the battle for five hours, had +advanced up the hill sword in hand, and had forced the enemy to fly from +the higher ground and driven them into the town. The enemy fortified the +hill, about which the contest had been, with strong works, and posted a +garrison on it. + +XLVIII.--In two days after this transaction, there happened an +unexpected misfortune. For so great a storm arose, that it was agreed +that there were never seen higher floods in those countries; it swept +down the snow from all the mountains, and broke over the banks of the +river, and in one day carried away both the bridges which Fabius had +built,--a circumstance which caused great difficulties to Caesar's army. +For as our camp, as already mentioned, was pitched between two rivers, +the Segre and Cinca, and as neither of these could be forded for the +space of thirty miles, they were all of necessity confined within these +narrow limits. Neither could the states, which had espoused Caesar's +cause, furnish him with corn, nor the troops, which had gone far to +forage, return, as they were stopped by the waters: nor could the +convoys, coming from Italy and Gaul, make their way to the camp. +Besides, it was the most distressing season of the year, when there was +no corn in the blade, and it was nearly ripe: and the states were +exhausted, because Afranius had conveyed almost all the corn, before +Caesar's arrival, into Ilerda, and whatever he had left, had been +already consumed by Caesar. The cattle, which might have served as a +secondary resource against want, had been removed by the states to a +great distance on account of the war. They who had gone out to get +forage or corn, were chased by the light troops of the Lusitanians, and +the targeteers of Hither Spain, who were well acquainted with the +country, and could readily swim across the river, because it is the +custom of all those people not to join their armies without bladders. + +XLIX.--But Afranius's army had abundance of everything; a great stock of +corn had been provided and laid in long before, a large quantity was +coming in from the whole province: they had a good store of forage. The +bridge of Ilerda afforded an opportunity of getting all these without +any danger, and the places beyond the bridge, to which Caesar had no +access, were as yet untouched. + +L.--Those floods continued several days. Caesar endeavoured to repair +the bridges, but the height of the water did not allow him: and the +cohorts disposed along the banks did not suffer them to be completed; +and it was easy for them to prevent it, both from the nature of the +river and the height of the water, but especially because their darts +were thrown from the whole course of the bank on one confined spot; and +it was no easy matter at one and the same time to execute a work in a +very rapid flood, and to avoid the darts. + +LI.--Intelligence was brought to Afranius that the great convoys, which +were on their march to Caesar, had halted at the river. Archers from the +Rutheni, and horse from the Gauls, with a long train of baggage, +according to the Gallic custom of travelling, had arrived there; there +were besides about six thousand people of all descriptions, with slaves +and freed men. But there was no order, or regular discipline, as every +one followed his own humour, and all travelled without apprehension, +taking the same liberty as on former marches. There were several young +noblemen, sons of senators, and of equestrian rank; there were +ambassadors from several states; there were lieutenants of Caesar's. The +river stopped them all. To attack them by surprise, Afranius set out in +the beginning of the night, with all his cavalry and three legions, and +sent the horse on before, to fall on them unawares; but the Gallic horse +soon got themselves in readiness, and attacked them. Though but few, +they withstood the vast number of the enemy, as long as they fought on +equal terms: but when the legions began to approach, having lost a few +men, they retreated to the next mountains. The delay occasioned by this +battle was of great importance to the security of our men; for having +gained time, they retired to the higher grounds. There were missing that +day about two hundred bow-men, a few horse, and an inconsiderable number +of servants and baggage. + +LII.--However, by all these things, the price of provisions was raised, +which is commonly a disaster attendant, not only on a time of present +scarcity, but on the apprehension of future want. Provisions had now +reached fifty denarii each bushel; and the want of corn had diminished +the strength of the soldiers; and the inconveniences were increasing +every day: and so great an alteration was wrought in a few days, and +fortune had so changed sides, that our men had to struggle with the want +of every necessary; while the enemy had an abundant supply of all +things, and were considered to have the advantage. Caesar demanded from +those states which had acceded to his alliance, a supply of cattle, as +they had but little corn. He sent away the camp followers to the more +distant states, and endeavoured to remedy the present scarcity by every +resource in his power. + +LIII.--Afranius and Petreius, and their friends, sent fuller and more +circumstantial accounts of these things to Rome, to their acquaintances. +Report exaggerated them so that the war appeared to be almost at an end. +When these letters and despatches were received at Rome, a great +concourse of people resorted to the house of Afranius, and +congratulations ran high: several went out of Italy to Cneius Pompey; +some of them, to be the first to bring him the intelligence; others, +that they might not be thought to have waited the issue of the war, and +to have come last of all. + +LIV.--When Caesar's affairs were in this unfavourable position, and all +the passes were guarded by the soldiers and horse of Afranius, and the +bridges could not be prepared, Caesar ordered his soldiers to make ships +of the kind that his knowledge of Britain a few years before had taught +him. First, the keels and ribs were made of light timber, then, the rest +of the hulk of the ships was wrought with wicker-work, and covered over +with hides. When these were finished, he drew them down to the river in +waggons in one night, a distance of twenty-two miles from his camp, and +transported in them some soldiers across the river, and on a sudden took +possession of a hill adjoining the bank. This he immediately fortified, +before he was perceived by the enemy. To this he afterwards transported +a legion: and having begun a bridge on both sides, he finished it in two +days. By this means, he brought safe to his camp the convoys, and those +who had gone out to forage; and began to prepare a conveyance for the +provisions. + +LV.--The same day he made a great part of his horse pass the river, who, +falling on the foragers by surprise as they were dispersed without any +suspicions, intercepted an incredible number of cattle and people; and +when some Spanish light-armed cohorts were sent to reinforce the enemy, +our men judiciously divided themselves into two parts, the one to +protect the spoil, the other to resist the advancing foe, and to beat +them back, and they cut off from the rest and surrounded one cohort, +which had rashly ventured out of the line before the others, and after +putting it to the sword, returned safe with considerable booty to the +camp over the same bridge. + +LVI.--Whilst these affairs are going forward at Ilerda, the Massilians, +adopting the advice of Domitius, prepared seventeen ships of war, of +which eleven were decked. To these they add several smaller vessels, +that our fleet might be terrified by numbers: they man them with a great +number of archers and of the Albici, of whom mention has been already +made, and these they incited by rewards and promises. Domitius required +certain ships for his own use, which he manned with colonists and +shepherds, whom he had brought along with him. A fleet being thus +furnished with every necessary, he advanced with great confidence +against our ships, commanded by Decimus Brutus. It was stationed at an +island opposite to Massilia. + +LVII.--Brutus was much inferior in number of ships; but Caesar had +appointed to that fleet the bravest men selected from all his legions, +antesignani and centurions, who had requested to be employed in that +service. They had provided iron hooks and harpoons, and had furnished +themselves with a vast number of javelins, darts, and missiles. Thus +prepared, and being apprised of the enemy's approach, they put out from +the harbour, and engaged the Massilians. Both sides fought with great +courage and resolution; nor did the Albici, a hardy people, bred on the +highlands and inured to arms, fall much short of our men in valour: and +being lately come from the Massilians, they retained in their minds +their recent promises: and the wild shepherds, encouraged by the hope of +liberty, were eager to prove their zeal in the presence of their +masters. + +LVIII.--The Massilians themselves, confiding in the quickness of their +ships, and the skill of their pilots, eluded ours, and evaded the shock, +and as long as they were permitted by clear space, lengthening their +line they endeavoured to surround us, or to attack single ships with +several of theirs, or to run across our ships, and carry away our oars, +if possible; but when necessity obliged them to come nearer, they had +recourse, from the skill and art of the pilots, to the valour of the +mountaineers. But our men, not having such expert seamen, or skilful +pilots, for they had been hastily drafted from the merchant ships, and +were not yet acquainted even with the names of the rigging, were +moreover impeded by the heaviness and slowness of our vessels, which +having been built in a hurry and of green timber, were not so easily +manoeuvred. Therefore, when Caesar's men had an opportunity of a close +engagement, they cheerfully opposed two of the enemy's ships with one of +theirs. And throwing in the grappling irons, and holding both ships +fast, they fought on both sides of the deck, and boarded the enemy's; +and having killed numbers of the Albici and shepherds, they sank some of +their ships, took others with the men on board, and drove the rest into +the harbour. That day the Massilians lost nine ships, including those +that were taken. + +LIX.--When news of this battle was brought to Caesar at Ilerda, the +bridge being completed at the same time, fortune soon took a turn. The +enemy, daunted by the courage of our horse, did not scour the country as +freely or as boldly as before: but sometimes advancing a small distance +from the camp, that they might have a ready retreat, they foraged within +narrower bounds: at other times, they took a longer circuit to avoid our +outposts and parties of horse; or having sustained some loss, or +descried our horse at a distance, they fled in the midst of their +expedition, leaving their baggage behind them; at length they resolved +to leave off foraging for several days, and, contrary to the practice of +all nations, to go out at night. + +LX.--In the meantime the Oscenses and the Calagurritani, who were under +the government of the Oscenses, send ambassadors to Caesar, and offer to +submit to his orders. They are followed by the Tarraconenses, Jacetani, +and Ausetani, and in a few days more by the Illurgavonenses, who dwell +near the river Ebro. He requires of them all to assist him with corn, to +which they agreed, and having collected all the cattle in the country, +they convey them into his camp. One entire cohort of the +Illurgavonenses, knowing the design of their state, came over to Caesar, +from the place where they were stationed, and carried their colours with +them. A great change is shortly made in the face of affairs. The bridge +being finished, five powerful states being joined to Caesar, a way +opened for the receiving of corn, and the rumours of the assistance of +legions which were said to be on their march, with Pompey at their head, +through Mauritania, having died away, several of the more distant states +revolt from Afranius, and enter into league with Caesar. + +LXI.--Whilst the spirits of the enemy were dismayed at these things, +Caesar, that he might not be always obliged to send his horse a long +circuit round by the bridge, having found a convenient place, began to +sink several drains, thirty feet deep, by which he might draw off a part +of the river Segre, and make a ford over it. When these were almost +finished, Afranius and Petreius began to be greatly alarmed, lest they +should be altogether cut off from corn and forage, because Caesar was +very strong in cavalry. They therefore resolved to quit their posts, and +to transfer the war to Celtiberia. There was, moreover, a circumstance +that confirmed them in this resolution: for of the two adverse parties, +that which had stood by Sertorius in the late war, being conquered by +Pompey, still trembled at his name and sway, though absent: the other +which had remained firm in Pompey's interest, loved him for the favours +which they had received: but Caesar's name was not known to the +barbarians. From these they expected considerable aid, both of horse and +foot, and hoped to protract the war till winter, in a friendly country. +Having come to this resolution, they gave orders to collect all the +ships in the river Ebro, and to bring them to Octogesa, a town situated +on the river Ebro, about twenty miles distant from their camp. At this +part of the river, they ordered a bridge to be made of boats fastened +together, and transported two legions over the river Segre, and +fortified their camp with a rampart, twelve feet high. + +LXII.--Notice of this being given by the scouts, Caesar continued his +work day and night, with very great fatigue to the soldiers, to drain +the river, and so far effected his purpose, that the horse were both +able and bold enough, though with some difficulty and danger, to pass +the river; but the foot had only their shoulders and upper part of their +breast above the water, so that their fording it was retarded, not only +by the depth of the water, but also by the rapidity of the current. +However, almost at the same instant, news was received of the bridge +being nearly completed over the Ebro, and a ford was found in the Segre. + +LXIII.--Now indeed the enemy began to think that they ought to hasten +their march. Accordingly, leaving two auxiliary cohorts in the garrison +at Ilerda, they crossed the Segre with their whole force, and formed one +camp with the two legions which they had led across a few days before. +Caesar had no resource, but to annoy and cut down their rear; since with +his cavalry to go by the bridge, required him to take a long circuit; so +that they would arrive at the Ebro by a much shorter route. The horse, +which he had detached, crossed the ford, and when Afranius and Petreius +had broken up their camp about the third watch, they suddenly appeared +on their rear, and spreading round them in great numbers, began to +retard and impede their march. + +LXIV.--At break of day, it was perceived from the rising grounds which +joined Caesar's camp, that their rear was vigorously pressed by our +horse; that the last line sometimes halted and was broken; at other +times, that they joined battle and that our men were beaten back by a +general charge of their cohorts, and, in their turn, pursued them when +they wheeled about: but through the whole camp the soldiers gathered in +parties, and declared their chagrin that the enemy had been suffered to +escape from their hands and that the war had been unnecessarily +protracted. They applied to their tribunes and centurions, and entreated +them to inform Caesar that he need not spare their labour or consider +their danger; that they were ready and able, and would venture to ford +the river where the horse had crossed. Caesar, encouraged by their zeal +and importunity, though he felt reluctant to expose his army to a river +so exceedingly large, yet judged it prudent to attempt it and make a +trial. Accordingly, he ordered all the weaker soldiers, whose spirit or +strength seemed unequal to the fatigue, to be selected from each +century, and left them, with one legion besides, to guard the camp: the +rest of the legions he drew out without any baggage, and, having +disposed a great number of horses in the river, above and below the +ford, he led his army over. A few of his soldiers being carried away by +the force of the current, were stopped by the horse and taken up, and +not a man perished. His army being safe on the opposite bank, he drew +out his forces and resolved to lead them forward in three battalions: +and so great was the ardour of the soldiers that, notwithstanding the +addition of a circuit of six miles and a considerable delay in fording +the river, before the ninth hour of the day they came up with those who +had set out at the third watch. + +LXV.--When Afranius, who was in company with Petreius, saw them at a +distance, being affrighted at so unexpected a sight, he halted on a +rising ground and drew up his army. Caesar refreshed his army on the +plain that he might not expose them to battle whilst fatigued; and when +the enemy attempted to renew their march, he pursued and stopped them. +They were obliged to pitch their camp sooner than they had intended, for +there were mountains at a small distance; and difficult and narrow roads +awaited them about five miles off. They retired behind these mountains +that they might avoid Caesar's cavalry, and, placing parties in the +narrow roads, stop the progress of his army and lead their own forces +across the Ebro without danger or apprehension. This it was their +interest to attempt and to effect by any means possible; but, fatigued +by the skirmishes all day, and by the labour of their march, they +deferred it till the following day: Caesar likewise encamped on the next +hill. + +LXVI.--About midnight a few of their men who had gone some distance from +the camp to fetch water, being taken by our horse, Caesar is informed by +them that the generals of the enemy were drawing their troops out of the +camp without noise. Upon this information Caesar ordered the signal to +be given and the military shout to be raised for packing up the baggage. +When they heard the shout, being afraid lest they should be stopped in +the night and obliged to engage under their baggage, or lest they should +be confined in the narrow roads by Caesar's horse, they put a stop to +their march and kept their forces in their camp. The next day Petreius +went out privately with a few horse to reconnoitre the country. A +similar movement was made from Caesar's camp. Lucius Decidius Saxa was +detached with a small party to explore the nature of the country. Each +returned with the same account to his camp, that there was a level road +for the next five miles, that there then succeeded a rough and +mountainous country. Whichever should first obtain possession of the +defiles would have no trouble in preventing the other's progress. + +LXVII.--There was a debate in the council between Afranius and Petreius, +and the time of marching was the subject. The majority were of opinion +that they should begin their march at night, "for they might reach the +defiles before they should be discovered." Others, because a shout had +been raised the night before in Caesar's camp, used this as an argument +that they could not leave the camp unnoticed: "that Caesar's cavalry +were patrolling the whole night, and that all the ways and roads were +beset; that battles at night ought to be avoided, because in civil +dissension, a soldier once daunted is more apt to consult his fears than +his oath; that the daylight raised a strong sense of shame in the eyes +of all, and that the presence of the tribunes and centurions had the +same effect: by these things the soldiers would be re strained and awed +to their duty. Wherefore they should, by all means, attempt to force +their way by day; for, though a trifling loss might be sustained, yet +the post which they desired might be secured with safety to the main +body of the army." This opinion prevailed in the council, and the next +day, at the dawn, they resolved to set forward. + +LXVIII.--Caesar, having taken a view of the country, the moment the sky +began to grow white, led his forces from the camp and marched at the +head of his army by a long circuit, keeping to no regular road; for the +road which led to the Ebro and Octogesa was occupied by the enemy's +camp, which lay in Caesar's way. His soldiers were obliged to cross +extensive and difficult valleys. Craggy cliffs, in several places, +interrupted their march, insomuch that their arms had to be handed to +one another, and the soldiers were forced to perform a great part of +their march unarmed, and were lifted up the rocks by each other. But not +a man murmured at the fatigue, because they imagined that there would be +a period to all their toils if they could cut off the enemy from the +Ebro and intercept their convoys. + +LXIX.--At first, Afranius's soldiers ran in high spirits from their camp +to look at us, and in contumelious language upbraided us, "that we were +forced, for want of necessary subsistence, to run away, and return to +Ilerda." For our route was different from what we proposed, and we +appeared to be going a contrary way. But their generals applauded their +own prudence in keeping within their camp, and it was a strong +confirmation of their opinion, that they saw we marched without waggons +or baggage, which made them confident that we could not long endure +want. But when they saw our army gradually wheel to the right, and +observed our van was already passing the line of their camp, there was +nobody so stupid, or averse to fatigue, as not to think it necessary to +march from the camp immediately, and oppose us. The cry to arms was +raised, and all the army, except a few which were left to guard the +camp, set out and marched the direct road to the Ebro. + +LXX.--The contest depended entirely on despatch, which should first get +possession of the defile and the mountain. The difficulty of the roads +delayed Caesar's army, but his cavalry pursuing Afranius's forces, +retarded their march. However, the affair was necessarily reduced to +this point, with respect to Afranius's men, that if they first gained +the mountains, which they desired, they would themselves avoid all +danger, but could not save the baggage of their whole army, nor the +cohorts which they had left behind in the camps, to which, being +intercepted by Caesar's army, by no means could assistance be given. +Caesar first accomplished the march, and having found a plain behind +large rocks, drew up his army there in order of battle and facing the +enemy. Afranius, perceiving that his rear was galled by our cavalry, and +seeing the enemy before him, having come to a hill, made a halt on it. +Thence he detached four cohorts of Spanish light infantry to the highest +mountain which was in view: to this he ordered them to hasten with all +expedition, and to take possession of it, with the intention of going to +the same place with all his forces, then altering his route, and +crossing the hills to Octogesa. As the Spaniards were making towards it +in an oblique direction, Caesar's horse espied them and attacked them, +nor were they able to withstand the charge of the cavalry even for a +moment, but were all surrounded and cut to pieces in the sight of the +two armies. + +LXXI.--There was now an opportunity for managing affairs successfully, +nor did it escape Caesar, that an army daunted at suffering such a loss +before their eyes, could not stand, especially as they were surrounded +by our horse, and the engagement would take place on even and open +ground. To this he was importuned on all sides. The lieutenants, +centurions, and tribunes, gathered round him, and begged "that he would +not hesitate to begin the battle: that the hearts of all the soldiers +were very anxious for it: that Afranius's men had by several +circumstances betrayed signs of fear; in that they had not assisted +their party; in that they had not quitted the hill; in that they did not +sustain the charge of our cavalry, but crowding their standards into one +place, did not observe either rank or order. But if he had any +apprehensions from the disadvantage of the ground, that an opportunity +would be given him of coming to battle in some other place: for that +Afranius must certainly come down, and would not be able to remain there +for want of water." + +LXXII.--Caesar had conceived hopes of ending the affair without an +engagement, or without striking a blow, because he had cut off the +enemy's supplies. Why should he hazard the loss of any of his men, even +in a successful battle? Why should he expose soldiers to be wounded; who +had deserved so well of him? Why, in short, should he tempt fortune? +especially when it was as much a general's duty to conquer by tactics, +as by the sword. Besides, he was moved with compassion for those +citizens, who, he foresaw, must fall: and he had rather gain his object +without any loss or injury to them. This resolution of Caesar was not +generally approved of; but the soldiers openly declared to each other, +that since such an opportunity of victory was let pass, they would not +come to an engagement, even when Caesar should wish it. He persevered +however in his resolution, and retired a little from that place to abate +the enemy's fears. Petreius and Afranius, having got this opportunity, +retired to their camp. Caesar, having disposed parties on the mountains, +and cut off all access to the Ebro, fortified his camp as close to the +enemy as he could. + +LXXIII.--The day following, the generals of his opponents, being alarmed +that they had lost all prospect of supplies, and of access to the Ebro, +consulted as to what other course they should take. There were two +roads, one to Ilerda, if they chose to return, the other to Tarraco, if +they should march to it. Whilst they were deliberating on these matters, +intelligence was brought them that their watering parties were attacked +by our horse: upon which information, they dispose several parties of +horse and auxiliary foot along the road, and intermix some legionary +cohorts, and begin to throw up a rampart from the camp to the water, +that they might be able to procure water within their lines, both +without fear, and without a guard. Petreius and Afranius divided this +task between themselves, and went in person to some distance from their +camp for the purpose of seeing it accomplished. + +LXXIV.--The soldiers having obtained by their absence a free opportunity +of conversing with each other, came out in great numbers, and inquired +each for whatever acquaintance or fellow citizen he had in our camp, and +invited him to him. First they returned them general thanks for sparing +them the day before, when they were greatly terrified, and acknowledged +that they were alive through their kindness; then they inquired about +the honour of our general, and whether they could with safety entrust +themselves to him; and declared their sorrow that they had not done so +in the beginning, and that they had taken up arms against their +relations and kinsmen. Encouraged by these conferences, they desired the +general's parole for the lives of Petreius and Afranius, that they might +not appear guilty of a crime, in having betrayed their generals. When +they were assured of obtaining their demands, they promised that they +would immediately remove their standards, and sent centurions of the +first rank as deputies to treat with Caesar about a peace. In the +meantime some of them invite their acquaintances, and bring them to +their camp, others are brought away by their friends, so that the two +camps seemed to be united into one, and several of the tribunes and +centurions came to Caesar, and paid their respects to him. The same was +done by some of the nobility of Spain, whom they summoned to their +assistance, and kept in their camp as hostages. They inquired after +their acquaintance and friends, by whom each might have the means of +being recommended to Caesar. Even Afranius's son, a young man, +endeavoured by means of Sulpitius the lieutenant, to make terms for his +own and his father's life. Every place was filled with mirth and +congratulations; in the one army, because they thought they had escaped +so impending danger; in the other, because they thought they had +completed so important a matter without blows; and Caesar, in every +man's judgment, reaped the advantage of his former lenity, and his +conduct was applauded by all. + +LXXV.--When these circumstances were announced to Afranius, he left the +work which he had begun, and returned to his camp determined, as it +appeared, whatever should be the event to bear it with an even and +steady mind. Petreius did not neglect himself; he armed his domestics; +with them and the praetorian cohort of Spaniards, and a few foreign +horse, his dependants, whom he commonly kept near him to guard his +person, he suddenly flew to the rampart, interrupted the conferences of +the soldiers, drove our men from the camp, and put to death as many as +he caught. The rest formed into a body, and, being alarmed by the +unexpected danger, wrapped their left arms in their cloaks, and drew +their swords, and in this manner, depending on the nearness of their +camp, defended themselves against the Spaniards, and the horse, and made +good their retreat to the camp, where they were protected by the +cohorts, which were on guard. + +LXXVI.--Petreius, after accomplishing this, went round every maniple, +calling the soldiers by their names and entreating with tears, that they +would not give up him and their absent general Pompey, as a sacrifice to +the vengeance of their enemies. Immediately they ran in crowds to the +general's pavilion, when he required them all to take an oath that they +would not desert nor betray the army nor the generals, nor form any +design distinct from the general interest. He himself swore first to the +tenor of those words, and obliged Afranius to take the same oath. The +tribunes and centurions followed their example; the soldiers were +brought out by centuries, and took the same oath. They gave orders, that +whoever had any of Caesar's soldiers should produce them; as soon as +they were produced, they put them to death publicly in the praetorium, +but most of them concealed those that they had entertained, and let them +out at night over the rampart. Thus the terror raised by the generals, +the cruelty of the punishments, the new obligation of an oath, removed +all hopes of surrender for the present, changed the soldiers' minds, and +reduced matters to the former state of war. + +LXXVII.--Caesar ordered the enemy's soldiers, who had come into his camp +to hold a conference, to be searched for with the strictest diligence, +and sent back. But of the tribunes and centurions, several voluntarily +remained with him, and he afterwards treated them with great respect. +The centurions he promoted to higher ranks, and conferred on the Roman +knights the honour of tribunes. + +LXXVIII.--Afranius's men were distressed in foraging, and procured water +with difficulty. The legionary soldiers had a tolerable supply of corn, +because they had been ordered to bring from Ilerda sufficient to last +twenty-two days; the Spanish and auxiliary forces had none, for they had +but few opportunities of procuring any, and their bodies were not +accustomed to bear burdens; and therefore a great number of them came +over to Caesar every day. Their affairs were under these difficulties; +but of the two schemes proposed, the most expedient seemed to be to +return to Ilerda, because they had left some corn there; and there they +hoped to decide on a plan for their future conduct. Tarraco lay at a +greater distance; and in such a space they knew affairs might admit of +many changes. Their design having met with approbation, they set out +from their camp. Caesar having sent forward his cavalry, to annoy and +retard their rear, followed close after with his legions. Not a moment +passed in which their rear was not engaged with our horse. + +LXXIX.--Their manner of fighting was this: the light cohorts closed +their rear, and frequently made a stand on the level grounds. If they +had a mountain to ascend, the very nature of the place readily secured +them from any danger; for the advanced guards, from the rising grounds, +protected the rest in their ascent. When they approached a valley or +declivity, and the advanced men could not impart assistance to the +tardy, our horse threw their darts at them from the rising grounds with +advantage; then their affairs were in a perilous situation; the only +plan left was, that whenever they came near such places, they should +give orders to the legions to halt, and by a violent effort repulse our +horse; and these being forced to give way, they should suddenly, with +the utmost speed, run all together down to the valley, and having passed +it, should face about again on the next hill. For so far were they from +deriving any assistance from their horse (of which they had a large +number), that they were obliged to receive them into the centre of their +army, and themselves protect them, as they were daunted by former +battles. And on their march no one could quit the line without being +taken by Caesar's horse. + +LXXX.--Whilst skirmishes were fought in this manner, they advanced but +slowly and gradually, and frequently halted to help their rear, as then +happened. For having advanced four miles, and being very much harassed +by our horse, they took post on a high mountain, and there entrenched +themselves on the front only, facing the enemy; and did not take their +baggage off their cattle. When they perceived that Caesar's camp was +pitched, and the tents fixed up, and his horse sent out to forage, they +suddenly rushed out about twelve o'clock the same day, and, having hopes +that we should be delayed by the absence of our horse, they began to +march, which Caesar perceiving, followed them with the legions that +remained. He left a few cohorts to guard his baggage, and ordered the +foragers to be called home at the tenth hour, and the horse to follow +him. The horse shortly returned to their daily duty on march, and +charged the rear so vigorously, that they almost forced them to fly; and +several privates and some centurions were killed. The main body of +Caesar's army was at hand, and universal ruin threatened them. + +LXXXI.--Then indeed, not having opportunity either to choose a +convenient position for their camp, or to march forward, they were +obliged to halt, and to encamp at a distance from water, and on ground +naturally unfavourable. But for the reasons already given, Caesar did +not attack them, nor suffer a tent to be pitched that day, that his men +might be the readier to pursue them whether they attempted to run off by +night or by day. Observing the defect in their position, they spent the +whole night in extending their works, and turn their camp to ours. The +next day, at dawn, they do the same, and spend the whole day in that +manner, but in proportion as they advanced their works, and extended +their camp, they were farther distant from the water; and one evil was +remedied by another. The first night, no one went out for water. The +next day, they left a guard in the camp, and led out all their forces to +water: but not a person was sent to look for forage. Caesar was more +desirous that they should be humbled by these means, and forced to come +to terms, than decide the contest by battle. Yet he endeavoured to +surround them with a wall and trench, that he might be able to check +their most sudden sally, to which he imagined that they must have +recourse. Hereupon, urged by want of fodder, that they might be the +readier for a march, they killed all their baggage cattle. + +LXXXII.--In this work, and the deliberations on it, two days were spent. +By the third day a considerable part of Caesar's works was finished. To +interrupt his progress, they drew out their legions about the eighth +hour, by a certain signal, and placed them in order of battle before +their camp. Caesar calling his legions off from their work, and ordering +the horse to hold themselves in readiness, marshalled his army: for to +appear to decline an engagement contrary to the opinion of the soldiers +and the general voice, would have been attended with great disadvantage. +But for the reasons already known, he was dissuaded from wishing to +engage, and the more especially, because the short space between the +camps, even if the enemy were put to flight, would not contribute much +to a decisive victory; for the two camps were not distant from each +other above two thousand feet. Two parts of this were occupied by the +armies, and one third left for the soldiers to charge and make their +attack. If a battle should be begun, the nearness of the camps would +afford a ready retreat to the conquered party in the flight. For this +reason Caesar had resolved to make resistance, if they attacked him, but +not to be the first to provoke the battle. + +LXXXIII.--Afranius's five legions were drawn up in two lines, the +auxiliary cohorts formed the third line, and acted as reserves. Caesar +had three lines, four cohorts out of each of the five legions formed the +first line. Three more from each legion followed them, as reserves: and +three others were behind these. The slingers and archers were stationed +in the centre of the line; the cavalry closed the flanks. The hostile +armies being arranged in this manner, each seemed determined to adhere +to his first intention: Caesar not to hazard a battle, unless forced to +it; Afranius to interrupt Caesar's works. However, the matter was +deferred, and both armies kept under arms till sunset; when they both +returned to their camp. The next day Caesar prepared to finish the works +which he had begun. The enemy attempted to pass the river Segre by a +ford. Caesar, having perceived this, sent some light-armed Germans and a +party of horse across the river, and disposed several parties along the +banks to guard them. + +LXXXIV.--At length, beset on all sides, their cattle having been four +days without fodder, and having no water, wood, or corn, they beg a +conference; and that, if possible, in a place remote from the soldiers. +When this was refused by Caesar, but a public interview offered if they +chose it, Afranius's son was given as a hostage to Caesar. They met in +the place appointed by Caesar. In the hearing of both armies, Afranius +spoke thus: "That Caesar ought not to be displeased either with him or +his soldiers, for wishing to preserve their attachment to their general, +Cneius Pompey. That they had now sufficiently discharged their duty to +him, and had suffered punishment enough, in having endured the want of +every necessary: but now, pent up almost like wild beasts, they were +prevented from procuring water, and prevented from walking abroad; and +were not able to bear the bodily pain or the mental disgrace: but +confessed themselves vanquished: and begged and entreated, if there was +any room left for mercy, that they should not be necessitated to suffer +the most severe penalties." These sentiments were delivered in the most +submissive and humble language. + +LXXXV.--Caesar replied, "That either to complain or sue for mercy became +no man less than him: for that every other person had done their duty: +himself, in having declined to engage on favourable terms, in an +advantageous situation and time, that all things tending to a peace +might be totally unembarrassed: his army, in having preserved and +protected the men whom they had in their power, notwithstanding the +injuries which they had received, and the murder of their comrades; and +even Afranius's soldiers, who of themselves treated about concluding a +peace, by which they thought that they would secure the lives of all. +Thus, that the parties on both sides inclined to mercy: that the +generals only were averse to peace: that they paid no regard to the laws +either of conference or truce; and had most inhumanly put to death +ignorant persons, who were deceived by a conference: that therefore, +they had met that fate which usually befalls men from excessive +obstinacy and arrogance; and were obliged to have recourse, and most +earnestly desire that which they had shortly before disdained. That for +his part, he would not avail himself of their present humiliation, or +his present advantage, to require terms by which his power might be +increased, but only that those armies, which they had maintained for so +many years to oppose him, should be disbanded: for six legions had been +sent into Spain, and a seventh raised there, and many and powerful +fleets provided, and generals of great military experience sent to +command them, for no other purpose than to oppose him; that none of +these measures were adopted to keep the Spains in peace, or for the use +of the province, which, from the length of the peace, stood in need of +no such aid; that all these things were long since designed against him: +that against him a new sort of government was established, that the same +person should be at the gates of Rome, to direct the affairs of the +city; and though absent, have the government of two most warlike +provinces for so many years: that against him the laws of the +magistrates had been altered; that the late praetors and consuls should +not be sent to govern the provinces as had been the constant custom, but +persons approved of and chosen by a faction. That against him the excuse +of age was not admitted: but persons of tried experience in former wars +were called up to take the command of the armies, that with respect to +him only, the routine was not observed which had been allowed to all +generals, that, after a successful war, they should return home and +disband their armies, if not with some mark of honour, at least without +disgrace: that he had submitted to all these things patiently, and would +still submit to them: nor did he now desire to take their army from them +and keep it to himself (which, however, would not be a difficult +matter), but only that they should not have it to employ against him: +and therefore, as he said before, let them quit the provinces, and +disband their army. If this was complied with, he would injure no +person; that these were the last and only conditions of peace." + +LXXXVI.--It was very acceptable and agreeable to Afranius's soldiers, as +might be easily known from their signs of joy, that they who expected +some injury after this defeat, should obtain without solicitation the +reward of a dismissal. For when a debate was introduced about the place +and time of their dismissal, they all began to express, both by words +and signs, from the rampart where they stood, that they should be +discharged immediately: for although every security might be given that +they would be disbanded, still the matter would be uncertain, if it was +deferred to a future day. After a short debate on either side, it was +brought to this issue: that those who had any settlement or possession +in Spain, should be immediately discharged: the rest at the river Var. +Caesar gave security that they should receive no damage, and that no +person should be obliged against his inclination to take the military +oath under him. + +LXXXVII.--Caesar promised to supply them with corn from the present +time, till they arrived at the river Var. He further adds, that whatever +any of them lost in the war, which was in the possession of his +soldiers, should be restored to those that lost them. To his soldiers he +made a recompense in money for those things, a just valuation being +made. Whatever disputes Afranius's soldiers had afterwards amongst +themselves, they voluntarily submitted to Caesar's decision. Afranius +and Petreius, when pay was demanded by the legions, a sedition almost +breaking out, asserted that the time had not yet come, and required that +Caesar should take cognizance of it: and both parties were content with +his decision. About a third part of their army being dismissed in two +days, Caesar ordered two of his legions to go before, the rest to follow +the vanquished enemy: that they should encamp at a small distance from +each other. The execution of this business he gave in charge to Quintus +Fufius Kalenus, one of his lieutenants. According to his directions, +they marched from Spain to the river Var, and there the rest of the army +was disbanded. + + + +BOOK II + +I.--Whilst these things were going forward in Spain, Caius Trebonius, +Caesar's lieutenant, who had been left to conduct the assault of +Massilia, began to raise a mound, vineae, and turrets against the town, +on two sides: one of which was next the harbour and docks, the other on +that part where there is a passage from Gaul and Spain to that sea which +forces itself up the mouth of the Rhone. For Massilia is washed almost +on three sides by the sea, the remaining fourth part is the only side +which has access by land. A part even of this space, which reaches to +the fortress, being fortified by the nature of the country, and a very +deep valley, required a long and difficult siege. To accomplish these +works, Caius Trebonius sends for a great quantity of carriages and men +from the whole Province, and orders hurdles and materials to be +furnished. These things being provided, he raised a mound eighty feet in +height. + +II.--But so great a store of everything necessary for a war had been a +long time before laid up in the town, and so great a number of engines, +that no vineae made of hurdles could withstand their force. For poles +twelve feet in length, pointed with iron, and these too shot from very +large engines, sank into the ground through four rows of hurdles. +Therefore the arches of the vineae were covered over with beams a foot +thick, fastened together, and under this the materials of the agger were +handed from one to another. Before this was carried a testudo sixty feet +long, for levelling the ground, made also of very strong timber, and +covered over with every thing that was capable of protecting it against +the fire and stones thrown by the enemy. But the greatness of the works, +the height of the wall and towers, and the multitude of engines retarded +the progress of our works. Besides, frequent sallies were made from the +town by the Albici, and fire was thrown on our mound and turrets. These +our men easily repulsed, and, doing considerable damage to those who +sallied, beat them back into the town. + +III.--In the meantime, Lucius Nasidius, being sent by Cneius Pompey with +a fleet of sixteen sail, a few of which had beaks of brass, to the +assistance of Lucius Domitius and the Massilians, passed the straits of +Sicily without the knowledge or expectation of Curio, and, putting with +his fleet into Messana, and making the nobles and senate take flight +with the sudden terror, carried off one of their ships out of dock. +Having joined this to his other ships, he made good his voyage to +Massilia, and, having sent in a galley privately, acquaints Domitius and +the Massilians of his arrival, and earnestly encourages them to hazard +another battle with Brutus's fleet with the addition of his aid. + +IV.--The Massilians, since their former loss, had brought the same +number of old ships from the docks, and had repaired and fitted them out +with great industry: they had a large supply of seamen and pilots. They +had got several fishing-smacks, and covered them over, that the seamen +might be secure against darts: these they filled with archers and +engines. With a fleet thus appointed, encouraged by the entreaties and +tears of all the old men, matrons, and virgins to succour the state in +this hour of distress, they went on board with no less spirit and +confidence than they had fought before. For it happens, from a common +infirmity of human nature, that we are more flushed with confidence, or +more vehemently alarmed at things unseen, concealed, and unknown, as was +the case then. For the arrival of Lucius Nasidius had filled the state +with the most sanguine hopes and wishes. Having got a fair wind, they +sailed out of port and went to Nasidius to Taurois, which is a fort +belonging to the Massilians, and there ranged their fleet and again +encouraged each other to engage, and communicated their plan of +operation. The command of the right division was given to the +Massilians, that of the left to Nasidius. + +V.--Brutus sailed to the same place with an augmented fleet: for to +those made by Caesar at Arelas were added six ships taken from the +Massilians, which he had refitted since the last battle and had +furnished with every necessary. Accordingly, having encouraged his men +to despise a vanquished people whom they had conquered when yet +unbroken, he advanced against them full of confidence and spirit. From +Trebonius's camp and all the higher grounds it was easy to see into the +town--how all the youth which remained in it, and all persons of more +advanced years, with their wives and children, and the public guards, +were either extending their hands from the wall to the heavens, or were +repairing to the temples of the immortal gods, and, prostrating +themselves before their images, were entreating them to grant them +victory. Nor was there a single person who did not imagine that his +future fortune depended on the issue of that day; for the choice of +their youth and the most respectable of every age, being expressly +invited and solicited, had gone on board the fleet, that if any adverse +fate should befall them they might see that nothing was left for them to +attempt, and, if they proved victorious, they might have hopes of +preserving the city, either by their internal resources or by foreign +assistance. + +VI-.-When the battle was begun, no effort of valour was wanting to the +Massilians, but, mindful of the instructions which they had a little +before received from their friends, they fought with such spirit as if +they supposed that they would never have another opportunity to attempt +a defence, and as if they believed that those whose lives should be +endangered in the battle would not long precede the fate of the rest of +the citizens, who, if the city was taken, must undergo the same fortune +of war. Our ships being at some distance from each other, room was +allowed both for the skill of their pilots and the manoeuvring of their +ships; and if at any time ours, gaining an advantage by casting the iron +hooks on board their ships, grappled with them, from all parts they +assisted those who were distressed. Nor, after being joined by the +Albici, did they decline coming to close engagement, nor were they much +inferior to our men in valour. At the same time, showers of darts, +thrown from a distance from the lesser ships, suddenly inflicted several +wounds on our men when off their guard and otherwise engaged; and two of +their three-decked galleys, having descried the ship of Decimus Brutus, +which could be easily distinguished by its flag, rowed up against him +with great violence from opposite sides: but Brutus, seeing into their +designs, by the swiftness of his ship extricated himself with such +address as to get clear, though only by a moment. From the velocity of +their motion they struck against each other with such violence that they +were both excessively injured by the shock; the beak, indeed, of one of +them being broken off, the whole ship was ready to founder, which +circumstance being observed, the ships of Brutus's fleet, which were +nearest that station, attack them when in this disorder and sink them +both. + +VII.--But Nasidius's ships were of no use, and soon left the fight; for +the sight of their country, or the entreaties of their relations, did +not urge them to run a desperate risk of their lives. Therefore, of the +number of the ships not one was lost: of the fleet of the Massilians +five were sunk, four taken, and one ran off with Nasidius: all that +escaped made the best of their way to Hither Spain, but one of the rest +was sent forward to Massilia for the purpose of bearing this +intelligence, and when it came near the city, the whole people crowded +out to hear the tidings, and on being informed of the event, were so +oppressed with grief, that one would have imagined that the city had +been taken by an enemy at the same moment. The Massilians, however, +began to make the necessary preparations for the defence of their city +with unwearied energy. + +VIII.--The legionary soldiers who had the management of the works on the +right side observed, from the frequent sallies of the enemy, that it +might prove a great protection to them to build a turret of brick under +the wall for a fort and place of refuge, which they at first built low +and small, [to guard them] against sudden attacks. To it they retreated, +and from it they made defence if any superior force attacked them; and +from it they sallied out either to repel or pursue the enemy. It +extended thirty feet on every side, and the thickness of the walls was +five feet. But afterwards, as experience is the best master in +everything on which the wit of man is employed, it was found that it +might be of considerable service if it was raised to the usual height of +turrets, which was effected in the following manner. + +IX.-When the turret was raised to the height for flooring, they laid it +on the walls in such a manner that the ends of the joists were covered +by the outer face of the wall, that nothing should project to which the +enemy's fire might adhere. They, moreover, built over the joists with +small bricks as high as the protection of the plutei and vineae +permitted them; and on that place they laid two beams across, angle-ways, +at a small distance from the outer walls, to support the rafters +which were to cover the turret, and on the beams they laid joists across +in a direct line, and on these they fastened down planks. These joists +they made somewhat longer, to project beyond the outside of the wall, +that they might serve to hang a curtain on them to defend and repel all +blows whilst they were building the walls between that and the next +floor, and the floor of this story they faced with bricks and mortar, +that the enemy's fire might do them no damage; and on this they spread +mattresses, lest the weapons thrown from engines should break through +the flooring, or stones from catapults should batter the brickwork. +They, moreover, made three mats of cable ropes, each of them the length +of the turret walls, and four feet broad, and, hanging them round the +turret on the three sides which faced the enemy, fastened them to the +projecting joists. For this was the only sort of defence which, they had +learned by experience in other places, could not be pierced by darts or +engines. But when that part of the turret which was completed was +protected and secured against every attempt of the enemy, they removed +the plutei to other works. They began to suspend gradually, and raise by +screws from the first-floor, the entire roof of the turret, and then +they elevated it as high as the length of the mats allowed. Hid and +secured within these coverings, they built up the walls with bricks, and +again, by another turn of the screw, cleared a place for themselves to +proceed with the building; and, when they thought it time to lay another +floor, they laid the ends of the beams, covered in by the outer bricks +in like manner as in the first story, and from that story they again +raised the uppermost floor and the mat-work. In this manner, securely +and without a blow or danger, they raised it six stories high, and in +laying the materials left loop-holes in such places as they thought +proper for working their engines. + +X.--When they were confident that they could protect the works which lay +around from this turret, they resolved to build a musculus, sixty feet +long, of timber, two feet square, and to extend it from the brick tower +to the enemy's tower and wall. This was the form of it: two beams of +equal length were laid on the ground, at the distance of four feet from +each other; and in them were fastened small pillars, five feet high, +which were joined together by braces, with a gentle slope, on which the +timber which they must place to support the roof of the musculus should +be laid: upon this were laid beams, two feet square, bound with iron +plates and nails. To the upper covering of the musculus and the upper +beams, they fastened laths, four fingers square, to support the tiles +which were to cover the musculus. The roof being thus sloped and laid +over in rows in the same manner as the joists were laid on the braces, +the musculus was covered with tiles and mortar, to secure it against +fire, which might be thrown from the wall. Over the tiles hides are +spread, to prevent the water let in on them by spouts from dissolving +the cement of the bricks. Again, the hides were covered over with +mattresses, that they might not be destroyed by fire or stones. The +soldiers under the protection of the vineae, finish this whole work to +the very tower, and suddenly, before the enemy were aware of it, moved +it forward by naval machinery, by putting rollers under it, close up to +the enemy's turret, so that it even touched the building. + +XI.--The townsmen, affrighted at this unexpected stroke, bring forward +with levers the largest stones they can procure; and pitching them from +the wall, roll them down on the musculus. The strength of the timber +withstood the shock; and whatever fell on it slid off, on account of the +sloping roof. When they perceived this, they altered their plan and set +fire to barrels, filled with resin and tar, and rolled them down from +the wall on the musculus. As soon as they fell on it, they slid off +again, and were removed from its side by long poles and forks. In the +meantime, the soldiers, under cover of the musculus, were looting out +with crowbars the lowest stones of the enemy's turret, with which the +foundation was laid. The musculus was defended by darts, thrown from +engines by our men from the brick tower, and the enemy were beaten off +from the wall and turrets; nor was a fair opportunity of defending the +walls given them. At length several stones being picked away from the +foundation of that turret next the musculus, part of it fell down +suddenly, and the rest, as if following it, leaned forward. + +XII.--Hereupon, the enemy, distressed at the sudden fall of the turret, +surprised at the unforeseen calamity, awed by the wrath of the gods, and +dreading the pillage of their city, rush all together out of the gate +unarmed, with their temples bound with fillets, and suppliantly stretch +out their hands to the officers and the army. At this uncommon +occurrence, the whole progress of the war was stopped, and the soldiers, +turning away from the battle, ran eagerly to hear and listen to them. +When the enemy came up to the commanders and the army, they all fell +down at their feet, and besought them "to wait till Caesar's arrival; +they saw that their city was taken, our works completed, and their tower +undermined, therefore they desisted from a defence; that no obstacle +could arise, to prevent their being instantly plundered at a beck, as +soon as he arrived, if they refused to submit to his orders." They +inform them that, "if the turret had entirely fallen down, the soldiers +could not be withheld from forcing into the town and sacking it, in +hopes of getting spoil." These and several other arguments to the same +effect were delivered, as they were a people of great learning, with +great pathos and lamentations. + +XIII.--The lieutenants, moved with compassion, draw off the soldiers +from the work, desist from the assault, and leave sentinels on the +works. A sort of a truce having been made through compassion for the +besieged, the arrival of Caesar is anxiously awaited; not a dart was +thrown from the walls or by our men, but all remit their care and +diligence, as if the business was at an end. For Caesar had given +Trebonius strict charge not to suffer the town to be taken by storm, +lest the soldiers, too much irritated both by abhorrence of their +revolt, by the contempt shown to them, and by their long labour, should +put to the sword all the grown-up inhabitants, as they threatened to do. +And it was with difficulty that they were then restrained from breaking +into the town, and they were much displeased, because they imagined that +they were prevented by Trebonius from taking possession of it. + +XIV.--But the enemy, destitute of all honour, only waited a time and +opportunity for fraud and treachery. And after an interval of some days, +when our men were careless and negligent, on a sudden, at noon, when +some were dispersed, and others indulging themselves in rest on the very +works, after the fatigue of the day, and their arms were all laid by and +covered up, they sallied out from the gates, and, the wind being high +and favourable to them, they set fire to our works; and the wind spread +it in such a manner that, in the same instant, the agger, plutei, +testudo, tower, and engines all caught the flames and were consumed +before we could conceive how it had occurred. Our men, alarmed at such +an unexpected turn of fortune, lay hold on such arms as they could find. +Some rush from the camp; an attack is made on the enemy: but they were +prevented, by arrows and engines from the walls, from pursuing them when +they fled. They retired to their walls, and there, without fear, set the +musculus and brick tower on fire. Thus, by the perfidy of the enemy and +the violence of the storm, the labour of many months was destroyed in a +moment. The Massilians made the same attempt the next day, having got +such another storm. They sallied out against the other tower and agger, +and fought with more confidence. But as our men had on the former +occasion given up all thoughts of a contest, so, warned by the event of +the preceding day, they had made every preparation for a defence. +Accordingly, they slew several, and forced the rest to retreat into the +town without effecting their design. + +XV.--Trebonius began to provide and repair what had been destroyed, with +much greater zeal on the part of the soldiers; for when they saw that +their extraordinary pains and preparations had an unfortunate issue, +they were fired with indignation that, in consequence of the impious +violation of the truce, their valour should be held in derision. There +was no place left them from which the materials for their mound could be +fetched, in consequence of all the timber, far and wide, in the +territories of the Massilians, having been cut down and carried away; +they began therefore to make an agger of a new construction, never heard +of before, of two walls of brick, each six feet thick, and to lay floors +over them of almost the same breadth with the agger, made of timber. But +wherever the space between the walls, or the weakness of the timber, +seemed to require it, pillars were placed underneath and traversed beams +laid on to strengthen the work, and the space which was floored was +covered over with hurdles, and the hurdles plastered over with mortar. +The soldiers, covered overhead by the floor, on the right and left by +the wall, and in the front by the mantlets, carried whatever materials +were necessary for the building without danger: the business was soon +finished--the loss of their laborious work was soon repaired by the +dexterity and fortitude of the soldiers. Gates for making sallies were +left in the wall in such places as they thought proper. + +XVI.--But when the enemy perceived that those works, which they had +hoped could not be replaced without a great length of time, were put +into so thorough repair by a few days' labour and diligence, that there +was no room for perfidy or sallies, and that no means were left them by +which they could either hurt the men by resistance or the works by fire, +and when they found by former examples that their town could be +surrounded with a wall and turrets on every part by which it was +accessible by land, in such a manner that they could not have room to +stand on their own fortifications, because our works were built almost +on the top of their walls by our army, and darts could be thrown from +our hands, and when they perceived that all advantage arising from their +engines, on which they had built great hopes, was totally lost, and that +though they had an opportunity of fighting with us on equal terms from +walls and turrets, they could perceive that they were not equal to our +men in bravery, they had recourse to the same proposals of surrender as +before. + +XVII.--In Further Spain, Marcus Varro, in the beginning of the +disturbances, when he heard of the circumstances which took place in +Italy, being diffident of Pompey's success, used to speak in a very +friendly manner of Caesar. That though, being pre-engaged to Cneius +Pompey in quality of lieutenant, he was bound in honour to him, that, +nevertheless, there existed a very intimate tie between him and Caesar; +that he was not ignorant of what was the duty of a lieutenant, who bore +an office of trust; nor of his own strength, nor of the disposition of +the whole province to Caesar. These sentiments he constantly expressed +in his ordinary conversation, and did not attach himself to either +party. But afterwards, when he found that Caesar was detained before +Massilia, that the forces of Petreius had effected a junction with the +army of Afranius, that considerable reinforcements had come to their +assistance, that there were great hopes and expectations, and heard that +the whole Hither province had entered into a confederacy, and of the +difficulties to which Caesar was reduced afterwards at Ilerda for want +of provisions, and Afranius wrote to him a fuller and more exaggerated +account of these matters, he began to regulate his movements by those of +fortune. + +XVIII.--He made levies throughout the province; and, having completed +his two legions, he added to them about thirty auxiliary cohorts: he +collected a large quantity of corn to send partly to the Massilians, +partly to Afranius and Petreius. He commanded the inhabitants of Gades +to build ten ships of war; besides, he took care that several others +should be built in Spain. He removed all the money and ornaments from +the temple of Hercules to the town of Gades, and sent six cohorts +thither from the province to guard them, and gave the command of the +town of Gades to Caius Gallonius, a Roman knight, and friend of +Domitius, who had come thither sent by Domitius to recover an estate for +him; and he deposited all the arms, both public and private, in +Gallonius's house. He himself [Varro] made severe harangues against +Caesar. He often pronounced from his tribunal that Caesar had fought +several unsuccessful battles, and that a great number of his men had +deserted to Afranius. That he had these accounts from undoubted +messengers, and authority on which he could rely. By these means he +terrified the Roman citizens of that province, and obliged them to +promise him for the service of the state one hundred and ninety thousand +sesterces, twenty thousand pounds weight of silver, and a hundred and +twenty thousand bushels of wheat. He laid heavier burdens on those +states which he thought were friendly disposed to Caesar, and billeted +troops on them; he passed judgment against some private persons, and +condemned to confiscation the properties of those who had spoken or made +orations against the republic, and forced the whole province to take an +oath of allegiance to him and Pompey. Being informed of all that +happened in Hither Spain, he prepared for war. This was his plan of +operations. He was to retire with his two legions to Gades, and to lay +up all the shipping and provisions there. For he had been informed that +the whole province was inclined to favour Caesar's party. He thought +that the war might be easily protracted in an island, if he was provided +with corn and shipping. Caesar, although called back to Italy by many +and important matters, yet had determined to leave no dregs of war +behind him in Spain, because he knew that Pompey had many dependants and +clients in the Hither province. + +XIX.--Having therefore sent two legions into Further Spain under the +command of Quintus Cassius, tribune of the people; he himself advances +with six hundred horse by forced marches, and issues a proclamation, +appointing a day on which the magistrates and nobility of all the states +should attend him at Corduba. This proclamation being published through +the whole province, there was not a state that did not send a part of +their senate to Corduba, at the appointed time; and not a Roman citizen +of any note but appeared that day. At the same time the senate at +Corduba shut the gates of their own accord against Varro, and posted +guards and sentinels on the wall and in the turrets, and detained two +cohorts (called Colonicae, which had come there accidentally), for the +defence of the town. About the same time the people of Carmona, which is +by far the strongest state in the whole province, of themselves drove +out of the town the cohorts, and shut the gates against them, although +three cohorts had been detached by Varro to garrison the citadel. + +XX.--But Varro was in greater haste on this account to reach Gades with +his legion as soon as possible, lest he should be stopped either on his +march or on crossing over to the island. The affection of the province +to Caesar proved so great and so favourable, that he received a letter +from Gades, before he was far advanced on his march: that as soon as the +nobility of Gades heard of Caesar's proclamation, they had combined with +the tribune of the cohorts, which were in garrison there, to drive +Gallonius out of the town, and to secure the city and island for Caesar. +That having agreed on the design they had sent notice to Gallonius, to +quit Gades of his own accord whilst he could do it with safety; if he +did not, they would take measures for themselves; that for fear of this +Gallonius had been induced to quit the town. When this was known, one of +Varro's two legions, which was called Vernacula, carried off the colours +from Varro's camp, he himself standing by and looking on, and retired to +Hispalis, and took post in the market and public places without doing +any injury, and the Roman citizens residing there approved so highly of +this act, that every one most earnestly offered to entertain them in +their houses. When Varro, terrified at these things, having altered his +route, proposed going to Italica, he was informed by his friends that +the gates were shut against him. Then indeed, when intercepted from +every road, he sends word to Caesar that he was ready to deliver up the +legion which he commanded. He sends to him Sextus Caesar, and orders him +to deliver it up to him. Varro, having delivered up the legion, went to +Caesar to Corduba, and having laid before him the public accounts, +handed over to him most faithfully whatever money he had, and told him +what quantity of corn and shipping he had, and where. + +XXI.--Caesar made a public oration at Corduba, in which he returned +thanks to all severally: to the Roman citizens, because they had been +zealous to keep the town in their own power; to the Spaniards, for +having driven out the garrison; to the Gaditani, for having defeated the +attempts of his enemies, and asserted their own liberty; to the Tribunes +and Centurions who had gone there as a guard, for having by their valour +confirmed them in their purpose. He remitted the tax which the Roman +citizens had promised to Varro for the public use: he restored their +goods to those who he was informed had incurred that penalty by speaking +too freely, having given public and private rewards to some: he filled +the rest with flattering hopes of his future intentions; and having +stayed two days at Corduba, he set out for Gades: he ordered the money +and ornaments which had been carried away from the temple of Hercules, +and lodged in the houses of private persons, to be replaced in the +temple. He made Quintus Cassius governor of the province, and assigned +him four legions. He himself, with those ships which Marcus Varro had +built, and others which the Gaditani had built by Varro's orders, +arrived in a few days at Tarraco, where ambassadors from the greatest +part of the nearer province waited his arrival. Having in the same +manner conferred marks of honour both publicly and privately on some +states, he left Tarraco, and went thence by land to Narbo, and thence to +Massilia. There he was informed that a law was passed for creating a +dictator, and that he had been nominated dictator by Marcus Lepidus the +praetor. + +XXII.--The Massilians, wearied out by misfortunes of every sort, reduced +to the lowest ebb for want of corn, conquered in two engagements at sea, +defeated in their frequent sallies, and struggling moreover with a fatal +pestilence, from their long confinement and change of victuals (for they +all subsisted on old millet and damaged barley, which they had formerly +provided and laid up in the public stores against an emergency of this +kind), their turret being demolished, a great part of their wall having +given way, and despairing of any aid, either from the provinces or their +armies, for these they had heard had fallen into Caesar's power, +resolved to surrender now without dissimulation. But a few days before, +Lucius Domitius, having discovered the intention of the Massilians, and +having procured three ships, two of which he gave up to his friends, +went on board the third himself, having got a brisk wind, put out to +sea. Some ships, which by Brutus's orders were constantly cruising near +the port, having espied him, weighed anchor, and pursued him. But of +these, the ship on board of which he was, persevered itself, and +continuing its flight, and by the aid of the wind got out of sight: the +other two, affrighted by the approach of our galleys, put back again +into the harbour. The Massilians conveyed their arms and engines out of +the town, as they were ordered: brought their ships out of the port and +docks, and delivered up the money in their treasury. When these affairs +were despatched, Caesar, sparing the town more out of regard to their +renown and antiquity than to any claim they could lay to his favour, +left two legions in garrison there, sent the rest to Italy, and set out +himself for Rome. + +XXIII.--About the same time Caius Curio, having sailed from Sicily to +Africa, and from the first despising the forces of Publius Attius Varus, +transported only two of the four legions which he had received from +Caesar, and five hundred horse, and having spent two days and three +nights on the voyage, arrived at a place called Aquilaria, which is +about twenty-two miles distant from Clupea, and in the summer season has +a convenient harbour, and is enclosed by two projecting promontories. +Lucius Caesar, the son, who was waiting his arrival near Clupea with ten +ships which had been taken near Utica in a war with the pirates, and +which Publius Attius had had repaired for this war, frightened at the +number of our ships, fled the sea, and running his three-decked covered +galley on the nearest shore, left her there and made his escape by land +to Adrumetum. Caius Considius Longus, with a garrison of one legion, +guarded this town. The rest of Caesar's fleet, after his flight, retired +to Adrumetum. Marcus Rufus, the quaestor, pursued him with twelve ships, +which Curio had brought from Sicily as convoy to the merchantmen, and +seeing a ship left on the shore, he brought her off by a towing rope, +and returned with his fleet to Curio. + +XXIV.--Curio detached Marcus before with the fleet to Utica, and marched +thither with his army. Having advanced two days, he came to the river +Bagrada, and there left Caius Caninius Rebilus, the lieutenant, with the +legions; and went forward himself with the horse to view the Cornelian +camp, because that was reckoned a very eligible position for encamping. +It is a straight ridge, projecting into the sea, steep and rough on both +sides, but the ascent is more gentle on that part which lies opposite +Utica. It is not more than a mile distant from Utica in a direct line. +But on this road there is a spring, to which the sea comes up, and +overflows; an extensive morass is thereby formed; and if a person would +avoid it, he must make a circuit of six miles to reach the town. + +XXV.--Having examined this place, Curio got a view of Varus's camp, +joining the wall and town, at the gate called Bellica, well fortified by +its natural situation, on one side by the town itself, on the other by a +theatre which is before the town, the approaches to the town being +rendered difficult and narrow by the very extensive out-buildings of +that structure. At the same time he observed the roads very full of +carriages and cattle which they were conveying from the country into the +town on the sudden alarm. He sent his cavalry after them to plunder them +and get the spoil. And at the same time Varus had detached as a guard +for them six hundred Numidian horse, and four hundred foot, which king +Juba had sent to Utica as auxiliaries a few days before. There was a +friendship subsisting between his [Juba's] father and Pompey, and a feud +between him and Curio, because he, when a tribune of the people, had +proposed a law, in which he endeavoured to make public property of the +kingdom of Juba. The horse engaged; but the Numidians were not able to +stand our first charge; but a hundred and twenty being killed, the rest +retreated into their camp near the town. In the meantime, on the arrival +of his men-of-war, Curio ordered proclamation to be made to the merchant +ships, which lay at anchor before Utica, in number about two hundred, +that he would treat as enemies all that did not set sail immediately for +the Cornelian camp. As soon as the proclamation was made, in an instant +they all weighed anchor and left Utica, and repaired to the place +commanded them. This circumstance furnished the army with plenty of +everything. + +XXVI.--After these transactions, Curio returned to his camp at Bagrada; +and by a general shout of the whole army was saluted imperator. The next +day he led his army to Utica, and encamped near the town. Before the +works of the camp were finished, the horse upon guard brought him word +that a large supply of horse and foot sent by king Juba were on their +march to Utica, and at the same time a cloud of dust was observed, and +in a moment the front of the line was in sight. Curio, surprised at the +suddenness of the affair, sent on the horse to receive their first +charge, and detain them. He immediately called off his legions from the +work, and put them in battle array. The horse began the battle: and +before the legions could be completely marshalled and take their ground, +the king's entire forces being thrown into disorder and confusion, +because they had marched without any order, and were under no +apprehensions, betake themselves to flight: almost all the enemy's horse +being safe, because they made a speedy retreat into the town along the +shore, Caesar's soldiers slay a great number of their infantry. + +XXVII.--The next night two Marsian centurions, with twenty-two men +belonging to the companies, deserted from Curio's camp to Attius Varus. +They, whether they uttered the sentiments which they really entertained, +or wished to gratify Varus (for what we wish we readily give credit to, +and what we think ourselves, we hope is the opinion of other men), +assured him, that the minds of the whole army were disaffected to Curio, +that it was very expedient that the armies should be brought in view of +each other, and an opportunity of a conference be given. Induced by +their opinion, Varus the next day led his troops out of the camp: Curio +did so in like manner, and with only one small valley between them, each +drew up his forces. + +XXVIII.--In Varus's army there was one Sextus Quintilius Varus who, as +we have mentioned before, was at Corfinium. When Caesar gave him his +liberty, he went over to Africa; now, Curio had transported to Africa +those legions which Caesar had received under his command a short time +before at Corfinium: so that the officers and companies were still the +same, excepting the change of a few centurions. Quintilius, making this +a pretext for addressing them, began to go round Curio's lines, and to +entreat the soldiers "not to lose all recollection of the oath which +they took first to Domitius and to him their quaestor, nor bear arms +against those who had shared the same fortune, and endured the same +hardships in a siege, nor fight for those by whom they had been +opprobriously called deserters." To this he added a few words by way of +encouragement, what they might expect from his own liberality, if they +should follow him and Attius. On the delivery of this speech, no +intimation of their future conduct is given by Curio's army, and thus +both generals led back their troops to their camp. + +XXIX.--However, a great and general fear spread through Curio's camp, +for it is soon increased by the various discourses of men. For every one +formed an opinion of his own; and to what he had heard from others, +added his own apprehensions. When this had spread from a single author +to several persons, and was handed from one another, there appeared to +be many authors for such sentiments as these: ["That it was a civil war; +that they were men; and therefore that it was lawful for them to act +freely, and follow which party they pleased." These were the legions +which a short time before had belonged to the enemy; for the custom of +offering free towns to those who joined the opposite party had changed +Caesar's kindness. For the harshest expressions of the soldiers in +general did not proceed from the Marsi and Peligni, as those which +passed in the tents the night before; and some of their fellow soldiers +heard them with displeasure. Some additions were also made to them by +those who wished to be thought more zealous in their duty.] + +XXX.--For these reasons, having called a council, Curio began to +deliberate on the general welfare. There were some opinions, which +advised by all means an attempt to be made, and an attack on Varus's +camp; for when such sentiments prevailed among the soldiers, they +thought idleness was improper. In short, they said, "that it was better +bravely to try the hazard of war in a battle, than to be deserted and +surrounded by their own troops, and forced to submit to the greatest +cruelties." There were some who gave their opinion, that they ought to +withdraw at the third watch to the Cornelian camp; that by a longer +interval of time the soldiers might be brought to a proper way of +thinking; and also, that if any misfortune should befall them, they +might have a safer and readier retreat to Sicily, from the great number +of their ships. + +XXXI.--Curio, censuring both measures, said, "that the one was as +deficient in spirit, as the other exceeded in it: that the latter +advised a shameful flight, and the former recommended us to engage at a +great disadvantage. For on what, says he, can we rely that we can storm +a camp, fortified both by nature and art? Or, indeed, what advantage do +we gain if we give over the assault, after having suffered considerable +loss; as if success did not acquire for a general the affection of his +army, and misfortune their hatred? But what does a change of camp imply +but a shameful flight, and universal despair, and the alienation of the +army? For neither ought the obedient to suspect that they are +distrusted, nor the insolent to know that we fear them; because our +fears augment the licentiousness of the latter, and diminish the zeal of +the former. But if, says he, we were convinced of the truth of the +reports of the disaffection of the army (which I indeed am confident are +either altogether groundless, or at least less than they are supposed to +be), how much better to conceal and hide our suspicions of it, than by +our conduct confirm it? Ought not the defects of an army to be as +carefully concealed as the wounds in our bodies, lest we should increase +the enemy's hopes? but they moreover advise us to set out at midnight, +in order, I suppose, that those who attempt to do wrong may have a +fairer opportunity; for conduct of this kind is restrained either by +shame or fear, to the display of which the night is most adverse. +Wherefore, I am neither so rash as to give my opinion that we ought to +attack their camp without hopes of succeeding; nor so influenced by fear +as to despond: and I imagine that every expedient ought first to be +tried; and I am in a great degree confident that I shall form the same +opinion as yourselves on this matter." + +XXXII.--Having broken up the council he called the soldiers together, +and reminded them "what advantage Caesar had derived from their zeal at +Corfinium; how by their good offices and influence he had brought over a +great part of Italy to his interest. For, says he, all the municipal +towns afterwards imitated you and your conduct; nor was it without +reason that Caesar judged so favourably, and the enemy so harshly of +you. For Pompey, though beaten in no engagement, yet was obliged to +shift his ground, and leave Italy, from the precedent established by +your conduct. Caesar committed me, whom he considered his dearest +friend, and the provinces of Sicily and Africa, without which he was not +able to protect Rome or Italy, to your protection. There are some here +present who encourage you to revolt from us; for what can they wish for +more, than at once to ruin us, and to involve you in a heinous crime? or +what baser opinions could they in their resentment entertain of you, +than that you would betray those who acknowledged themselves indebted to +you for everything, and put yourselves in the power of those who think +they have been ruined by you? Have you not heard of Caesar's exploits in +Spain? that he routed two armies, conquered two generals, recovered two +provinces, and effected all this within forty days after he came in +sight of the enemy? Can those who were not able to stand against him +whilst they were uninjured resist him when they are ruined? Will you, +who took part with Caesar whilst victory was uncertain, take part with +the conquered enemy when the fortune of the war is decided, and when you +ought to reap the reward of your services? For they say that they have +been deserted and betrayed by you, and remind you of a former oath. But +did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Lucius Domitius desert you? Did +he not, when you were ready to submit to the greatest difficulties, cast +you off? Did he not, without your privacy, endeavour to effect his own +escape? When you were betrayed by him, were you not preserved by +Caesar's generosity? And how could he think you bound by your oath to +him, when, after having thrown up the ensigns of power, and abdicated +his government, he became a private person, and a captive in another's +power? A new obligation is left upon you, that you should disregard the +oath, by which you are at present bound; and have respect only to that +which was invalidated by the surrender of your general, and his +diminution of rank. But I suppose, although you are pleased with Caesar, +you are offended with me; however I shall not boast of my services to +you, which still are inferior to my own wishes or your expectations. +But, however, soldiers have ever looked for the rewards of labour at the +conclusion of a war; and what the issue of it is likely to be, not even +you can doubt. But why should I omit to mention my own diligence and +good fortune, and to what a happy crisis affairs are now arrived? Are +you sorry that I transported the army safe and entire, without the loss +of a single ship? That on my arrival, in the very first attack, I routed +the enemy's fleet? That twice in two days I defeated the enemy's horse? +That I carried out of the very harbour and bay, two hundred of the +enemy's victuallers, and reduced them to that situation that they can +receive no supplies either by land or sea? Will you divorce yourselves +from this fortune and these generals; and prefer the disgrace of +Corfinium, the defeat of Italy, the surrender of both Spains, and the +prestige of the African war? I, for my part, wished to be called a +soldier of Caesar's; you honoured me with the title of Imperator. If you +repent your bounty, I give it back to you; restore to me my former name +that you may not appear to have conferred the honour on me as a +reproach." + +XXXIII.--The soldiers, being affected by this oration, frequently +attempted to interrupt him whilst he was speaking, so that they appeared +to bear with excessive anguish the suspicion of treachery, and when he +was leaving the assembly they unanimously besought him to be of good +spirits, and not hesitate to engage the enemy and put their fidelity and +courage to a trial. As the wishes and opinions of all were changed by +this act, Curio, with the general consent, determined, whenever +opportunity offered, to hazard a battle. The next day he led out his +forces and ranged them in order of battle on the same ground where they +had been posted the preceding day; nor did Attius Varus hesitate to draw +out his men, that, if any occasion should offer, either to tamper with +our men or to engage on equal terms, he might not miss the opportunity. + +XXXIV.-There lay between the two armies a valley, as already mentioned, +not very deep, but of a difficult and steep ascent. Each was waiting +till the enemy's forces should attempt to pass it, that they might +engage with the advantage of the ground. At the same time, on the left +wing, the entire cavalry of Publius Attius, and several light-armed +infantry intermixed with them, were perceived descending into the +valley. Against them Curio detached his cavalry and two cohorts of the +Marrucini, whose first charge the enemy's horse were unable to stand, +but, setting spurs to their horses, fled back to their friends: the +light-infantry being deserted by those who had come out along with them, +were surrounded and cut to pieces by our men. Varus's whole army, facing +that way, saw their men flee and cut down. Upon which Rebilus, one of +Caesar's lieutenants, whom Curio had brought with him from Sicily +knowing that he had great experience in military matters, cried out, +"You see the enemy are daunted, Curio! why do you hesitate to take +advantage of the opportunity?" Curio, having merely "expressed this, +that the soldiers should keep in mind the professions which they had +made to him the day before," then ordered them to follow him, and ran +far before them all. The valley was so difficult of ascent that the +foremost men could not struggle up it unless assisted by those behind. +But the minds of Attius's soldiers being prepossessed with fear and the +flight and slaughter of their men, never thought of opposing us; and +they all imagined that they were already surrounded by our horse, and, +therefore, before a dart could be thrown or our men come near them, +Varus's whole army turned their backs and retreated to their camp. + +XXXV.-In this flight one Fabius, a Pelignian and common soldier in +Curio's army, pursuing the enemy's rear, with a loud voice shouted to +Varus by his name, and often called him, so that he seemed to be one of +his soldiers, who wished to speak to him and give him advice. When +Varus, after being repeatedly called, stopped and looked at him, and +inquired who he was and what he wanted, he made a blow with his sword at +his naked shoulder and was very near killing Varus, but he escaped the +danger by raising his shield to ward off the blow. Fabius was surrounded +by the soldiers near him and cut to pieces; and by the multitude and +crowds of those that fled, the gates of the camps were thronged and the +passage stopped, and a greater number perished in that place without a +stroke than in the battle and flight. Nor were we far from driving them +from this camp; and some of them ran straightway to the town without +halting. But both the nature of the ground and the strength of the +fortifications prevented our access to the camp; for Curio's soldiers, +marching out to battle, were without those things which were requisite +for storming a camp. Curio, therefore, led his army back to the camp, +with all his troops safe except Fabius. Of the enemy about six hundred +were killed and a thousand wounded, all of whom, after Curio's return, +and several more under pretext of their wounds, but in fact through +fear, withdrew from the camp into the town, which Varus perceiving and +knowing the terror of his army, leaving a trumpeter in his camp and a +few tents for show, at the third watch led back his army quietly into +the town. + +XXXVI.--The next day Curio resolved to besiege Utica, and to draw lines +about it. In the town there was a multitude of people, ignorant of war, +owing to the length of the peace; some of them Uticans, very well +inclined to Caesar, for his favours to them; the Roman population was +composed of persons differing widely in their sentiments. The terror +occasioned by former battles was very great; and therefore they openly +talked of surrendering, and argued with Attius that he should not suffer +the fortune of them all to be ruined by his obstinacy. Whilst these +things were in agitation, couriers, who had been sent forward, arrived +from king Juba, with the intelligence that he was on his march, with +considerable forces, and encouraged them to protect and defend their +city, a circumstance which greatly comforted their desponding hearts. + +XXXVII.--The same intelligence was brought to Curio; but for some time +he could not give credit to it, because he had so great confidence in +his own good fortune. And at this time Caesar's success in Spain was +announced in Africa by messages and letters. Being elated by all these +things, he imagined that the king would not dare to attempt anything +against him. But when he found out, from undoubted authority, that his +forces were less than twenty miles distant from Utica, abandoning his +works, he retired to the Cornelian camp. Here he began to lay in corn +and wood, and to fortify his camp, and immediately despatched orders to +Sicily, that his two legions and the remainder of his cavalry should be +sent to him. His camp was well adapted for protracting a war, from the +nature and strength of the situation, from its proximity to the sea, and +the abundance of water and salt, of which a great quantity had been +stored up from the neighbouring salt-pits. Timber could not fail him +from the number of trees, nor corn, with which the lands abounded. +Wherefore, with the general consent, Curio determined to wait for the +rest of his forces, and protract the war. + +XXXVIII.--This plan being settled, and his conduct approved of, he is +informed by some deserters from the town that Juba had stayed behind in +his own kingdom, being called home by a neighbouring war, and a dispute +with the people of Leptis; and that Sabura, his commander-in-chief, who +had been sent with a small force, was drawing near to Utica. Curio +rashly believing this information, altered his design, and resolved to +hazard a battle. His youth, his spirits, his former good fortune and +confidence of success, contributed much to confirm this resolution. +Induced by these motives, early in the night he sent all his cavalry to +the enemy's camp near the river Bagrada, of which Sabura, of whom we +have already spoken, was the commander. But the king was coming after +them with all his forces, and was posted at a distance of six miles +behind Sabura. The horse that were sent perform their march that night, +and attack the enemy unawares and unexpectedly; for the Numidians, after +the usual barbarous custom, encamped here and there without any +regularity. The cavalry having attacked them, when sunk in sleep and +dispersed, killed a great number of them; many were frightened and ran +away. After which the horse returned to Curio, and brought some +prisoners with them. + +XXXIX.--Curio had set out at the fourth watch with all his forces, +except five cohorts which he left to guard the camp. Having advanced six +miles, he met the horse, heard what had happened, and inquired from the +captives who commanded the camp at Bagrada. They replied Sabura. Through +eagerness to perform his journey, he neglected to make further +inquiries, but looking back to the company next him, "Don't you see, +soldiers," says he, "that the answer of the prisoners corresponds with +the account of the deserters, that the king is not with him, and that he +sent only a small force which was not able to withstand a few horse? +Hasten then to spoil, to glory; that we may now begin to think of +rewarding you, and returning you thanks." The achievements of the horse +were great in themselves, especially if their small number be compared +with the vast host of Numidians. However, the account was enlarged by +themselves, as men are naturally inclined to boast of their own merit. +Besides, many spoils were produced; the men and horses that were taken +were brought into their sight, that they might imagine that every moment +of time which intervened was a delay to their conquest. By this means +the hopes of Curio were seconded by the ardour of the soldiers. He +ordered the horse to follow him, and hastened his march, that he might +attack them as soon as possible, while in consternation after their +flight. But the horse, fatigued by the expedition of the preceding +night, were not able to keep up with him, but fell behind in different +places. Even this did not abate Curio's hopes. + +XL.--Juba, being informed by Sabura of the battle in the night, sent to +his relief two thousand Spanish and Gallic horse, which he was +accustomed to keep near him to guard his person, and that part of his +infantry on which he had the greatest dependence, and he himself +followed slowly after with the rest of his forces and forty elephants, +suspecting that as Curio had sent his horse before, he himself would +follow them. Sabura drew up his army, both horse and foot, and commanded +them to give way gradually and retreat through the pretence of fear; +that when it was necessary he would give them the signal for battle, and +such orders as he found circumstances required. Curio, as his idea of +their present behaviour was calculated to confirm his former hopes, +imagined that the enemy were running away, and led his army from the +rising grounds down to the plain. + +XLI.--And when he had advanced from this place about sixteen miles, his +army being exhausted with the fatigue, he halted. Sabura gave his men +the signal, marshalled his army, and began to go around his ranks and +encourage them. But he made use of the foot only for show; and sent the +horse to the charge: Curio was not deficient in skill, and encouraged +his men to rest all their hopes in their valour. Neither were the +soldiers, though wearied, nor the horse, though few and exhausted with +fatigue, deficient in ardour to engage, and courage: but the latter were +in number but two hundred: the rest had dropped behind on the march. +Wherever they charged they forced the enemy to give ground, but they +were not able to pursue them far when they fled, or to press their +horses too severely. Besides, the enemy's cavalry began to surround us +on both wings and to trample down our rear. When any cohorts ran forward +out of the line, the Numidians, being fresh, by their speed avoided our +charge, and surrounded ours when they attempted to return to their post, +and cut them off from the main body. So that it did not appear safe +either to keep their ground and maintain their ranks, or to issue from +the line, and run the risk. The enemy's troops were frequently +reinforced by assistance sent from Juba; strength began to fail our men +through fatigue; and those who had been wounded could neither quit the +field nor retire to a place of safety, because the whole field was +surrounded by the enemy's cavalry. Therefore, despairing of their own +safety, as men usually do in the last moment of their lives, they either +lamented their unhappy deaths, or recommended their parents to the +survivors, if fortune should save any from the impending danger. All +were full of fear and grief. + +XLII.--When Curio perceived that in the general consternation neither +his exhortations nor entreaties were attended to, imagining that the +only hope of escaping in their deplorable situation was to gain the +nearest hills, he ordered the colours to be borne that way. But a party +of horse, that had been sent by Sabura, had already got possession of +them. Now indeed our men were reduced to extreme despair: and some of +them were killed by the cavalry in attempting to escape: some fell to +the ground unhurt. Cneius Domitius, commander of the cavalry, standing +round Curio with a small party of horse, urged Curio to endeavour to +escape by flight, and to hasten to his camp; and assured him that he +would not forsake him. But Curio declared that he would never more +appear in Caesar's sight, after losing the army which had been committed +by Caesar to his charge, and accordingly fought till he was killed. Very +few of the horse escaped from that battle, but those who had stayed +behind to refresh their horses having perceived at a distance the defeat +of the whole army, retired in safety to their camp. + +XLIII.--The soldiers were all killed to a man. Marcus Rufus, the +quaestor, who was left behind in the camp by Curio, having got +intelligence of these things, encouraged his men not to be disheartened. +They beg and entreat to be transported to Sicily. He consented, and +ordered the masters of the ships to have all the boats brought close to +the shore early in the evening. But so great was the terror in general +that some said that Juba's forces were marching up, others that Varus +was hastening with his legions, and that they already saw the dust +raised by their coming; of which not one circumstance had happened: +others suspected that the enemy's fleet would immediately be upon them. +Therefore, in the general consternation, every man consulted his own +safety. Those who were on board of the fleet, were in a hurry to set +sail, and their flight hastened the masters of the ships of burden. A +few small fishing boats attended their duty and his orders. But as the +shores were crowded, so great was the struggle to determine who of such +a vast number should first get on board, that some of the vessels sank +with the weight of the multitude, and the fears of the rest delayed them +from coming to the shore. + +XLIV.--From which circumstances it happened that a few foot and aged +men, that could prevail either through interest or pity, or who were +able to swim to the ships, were taken on board, and landed safe in +Sicily. The rest of the troops sent their centurions as deputies to +Varus at night, and surrendered themselves to him. But Juba, the next +day having spied their cohorts before the town, claimed them as his +booty, and ordered a great part of them to be put to the sword; a few he +selected and sent home to his own realm. Although Varus complained that +his honour was insulted by Juba, yet he dare not oppose him: Juba rode +on horseback into the town, attended by several senators, amongst whom +were Servius Sulpicius and Licinius Damasippus, and in a few days +arranged and ordered what he would have done in Utica, and in a few days +more returned to his own kingdom, with all his forces. + + + +BOOK III + +I.--Julius Caesar, holding the election as dictator, was himself +appointed consul with Publius Servilius; for this was the year in which +it was permitted by the laws that he should be chosen consul. This +business being ended, as credit was beginning to fail in Italy, and the +debts could not be paid, he determined that arbitrators should be +appointed: and that they should make an estimate of the possessions and +properties [of the debtors], how much they were worth before the war, +and that they should be handed over in payment to the creditors. This he +thought the most likely method to remove and abate the apprehension of +an abolition of debt, the usual consequence of civil wars and +dissensions, and to support the credit of the debtors. He likewise +restored to their former condition (the praetors and tribunes first +submitting the question to the people) some persons condemned for +bribery at the elections, by virtue of Pompey's law, at the time when +Pompey kept his legions quartered in the city (these trials were +finished in a single day, one judge hearing the merits, and another +pronouncing the sentences), because they had offered their service to +him in the beginning of the civil war, if he chose to accept them; +setting the same value on them as if he had accepted them, because they +had put themselves in his power. For he had determined that they ought +to be restored, rather by the judgment of the people, than appear +admitted to it by his bounty: that he might neither appear ungrateful in +repaying an obligation, nor arrogant in depriving the people of their +prerogative of exercising this bounty. + +II.--In accomplishing these things, and celebrating the Latin festival, +and holding all the elections, he spent eleven days; and having resigned +the dictatorship, set out from the city, and went to Brundisium, where +he had ordered twelve legions and all his cavalry to meet him. But he +scarcely found as many ships as would be sufficient to transport fifteen +thousand legionary soldiers and five hundred horse. This [the scarcity +of shipping] was the only thing that prevented Caesar from putting a +speedy conclusion to the war. And even these troops embarked very short +of their number, because several had fallen in so many wars in Gaul, and +the long march from Spain had lessened their number very much, and a +severe autumn in Apulia and the district about Brundisium, after the +very wholesome countries of Spain and Gaul, had impaired the health of +the whole army. + +III.--Pompey having got a year's respite to provide forces, during which +he was not engaged in war, nor employed by an enemy, had collected a +numerous fleet from Asia, and the Cyclades, from Corcyra, Athens, +Pontus, Bithynia, Syria, Cilicia, Phoenicia, and Egypt, and had given +directions that a great number should be built in every other place. He +had exacted a large sum of money from Asia, Syria, and all the kings, +dynasts, tetrarchs, and free states of Achaia; and had obliged the +corporations of those provinces, of which he himself had the government, +to count down to him a large sum. + +IV.--He had made up nine legions of Roman citizens; five from Italy, +which he had brought with him; one veteran legion from Sicily, which +being composed of two, he called the Gemella; one from Crete and +Macedonia, of veterans who had been discharged by their former generals, +and had settled in those provinces; two from Asia, which had been levied +by the activity of Lentulus. Besides he had distributed among his +legions a considerable number, by way of recruits, from Thessaly, +Boeotia, Achaia, and Epirus: with his legions he also intermixed the +soldiers taken from Caius Antonius. Besides these, he expected two +legions from Syria, with Scipio; from Crete, Lacedaemon, Pontus, Syria, +and other states, he got about three thousand archers, six cohorts of +slingers, two thousand mercenary soldiers, and seven thousand horse; six +hundred of which, Deiotarus had brought from Gaul; Ariobarzanes, five +hundred from Cappadocia. Cotus had given him about the same number from +Thrace, and had sent his son Sadalis with them. From Macedonia there +were two hundred, of extraordinary valour, commanded by Rascipolis; five +hundred Gauls and Germans; Gabinius's troops from Alexandria, whom Aulus +Gabinius had left with king Ptolemy, to guard his person. Pompey, the +son, had brought in his fleet eight hundred, whom he had raised among +his own and his shepherds' slaves. Tarcundarius, Castor and Donilaus had +given three hundred from Gallograecia: one of these came himself, the +other sent his son. Two hundred were sent from Syria by Comagenus +Antiochus, whom Pompey rewarded amply. The most of them were archers. To +these were added Dardanians, and Bessians, some of them mercenaries; +others procured by power and influence: also, Macedonians, Thessalians, +and troops from other nations and states, which completed the number +which we mentioned before. + +V.--He had laid in vast quantities of corn from Thessaly, Asia, Egypt, +Crete, Cyrene, and other countries. He had resolved to fix his winter +quarters at Dyrrachium, Apollonia, and the other sea-ports, to hinder +Caesar from passing the sea: and for this purpose had stationed his +fleet along the sea-coast. The Egyptian fleet was commanded by Pompey, +the son: the Asiatic, by Decimus Laelius, and Caius Triarius: the +Syrian, by Caius Cassius: the Rhodian, by Caius Marcellus, in +conjunction with Caius Coponius; and the Liburnian, and Achaian, by +Scribonius Libo, and Marcus Octavius. But Marcus Bibulus was appointed +commander-in-chief of the whole maritime department, and regulated every +matter. The chief direction rested upon him. + +VI.--When Caesar came to Brundisium, he made a speech to the soldiers: +"That since they were now almost arrived at the termination of their +toils and dangers, they should patiently submit to leave their slaves +and baggage in Italy, and to embark without luggage, that a greater +number of men might be put on board: that they might expect everything +from victory and his liberality." They cried out with one voice, "he +might give what orders he pleased, that they would cheerfully fulfil +them." He accordingly set sail the fourth day of January, with seven +legions on board, as already remarked. The next day he reached land, +between the Ceraunian rocks and other dangerous places; meeting with a +safe road for his shipping to ride in, and dreading all other ports +which he imagined were in possession of the enemy, he landed his men at +a place called Pharsalus, without the loss of a single vessel. + +VII.--Lucretius Vespillo and Minutius Rufus were at Oricum, with +eighteen Asiatic ships, which were given into their charge by the orders +of Decimus Laelius: Marcus Bibulus at Corcyra, with a hundred and ten +ships. But they had not the confidence to dare to move out of the +harbour; though Caesar had brought only twelve ships as a convoy, only +four of which had decks; nor did Bibulus, his fleet being disordered and +his seamen dispersed, come up in time: for Caesar was seen at the +continent before any account whatsoever of his approach had reached +those regions. + +VIII.--Caesar, having landed his soldiers, sent back his ships the same +night to Brundisium, to transport the rest of his legions and cavalry. +The charge of this business was committed to lieutenant Fufius Kalenus, +with orders to be expeditious in transporting the legions. But the ships +having put to sea too late, and not having taken advantage of the night +breeze, fell a sacrifice on their return. For Bibulus, at Corcyra, being +informed of Caesar's approach, hoped to fall in with some part of our +ships, with their cargoes, but found them empty; and having taken about +thirty, vented on them his rage at his own remissness, and set them all +on fire: and, with the same flames, he destroyed the mariners and +masters of the vessels, hoping by the severity of the punishment to +deter the rest. Having accomplished this affair, he filled all the +harbours and shores from Salona to Oricum with his fleets. Having +disposed his guard with great care, he lay on board himself in the depth +of winter, declining no fatigue or duty, and not waiting for +reinforcements, in hopes that he might come within Caesar's reach. + +IX.--But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet, Marcus Octavius +sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona; and having +spirited up the Dalmatians, and other barbarous nations, he drew Issa +off from its connection with Caesar; but not being able to prevail with +the council of Salona, either by promises or menaces, he resolved to +storm the town. But it was well fortified by its natural situation, and +a hill. The Roman citizens built wooden towers, the better to secure it; +but when they were unable to resist, on account of the smallness of +their numbers, being weakened by several wounds, they stooped to the +last resource, and set at liberty all the slaves old enough to bear +arms; and cutting the hair off the women's heads, made ropes for their +engines. Octavius, being informed of their determination, surrounded the +town with five encampments, and began to press them at once with a siege +and storm. They were determined to endure every hardship, and their +greatest distress was the want of corn. They, therefore, sent deputies +to Caesar, and begged a supply from him; all other inconveniences they +bore by their own resources, as well as they could: and after a long +interval, when the length of the siege had made Octavius's troops more +remiss than usual, having got an opportunity at noon, when the enemy +were dispersed, they disposed their wives and children on the walls, to +keep up the appearance of their usual attention; and forming themselves +into one body, with the slaves whom they had lately enfranchised, they +made an attack on Octavius's nearest camp, and having forced that, +attacked the second with the same fury; and then the third and the +fourth, and then the other, and beat them from them all: and having +killed a great number, obliged the rest and Octavius himself to fly for +refuge to their ships. This put an end to the blockade. Winter was now +approaching, and Octavius, despairing of capturing the town, after +sustaining such considerable losses, withdrew to Pompey, to Dyrrachium. + +X.--We have mentioned that Vibullius Rufus, an officer of Pompey's, had +fallen twice into Caesar's power; first at Corfinium, and afterwards in +Spain. Caesar thought him a proper person, on account of his favours +conferred on him, to send with proposals to Pompey: and he knew that he +had an influence over Pompey. This was the substance of his proposals: +"That it was the duty of both, to put an end to their obstinacy, and +forbear hostilities, and not tempt fortune any further; that sufficient +loss had been suffered on both sides, to serve as a lesson and +instruction to them, to render them apprehensive of future calamities, +by Pompey, in having been driven out of Italy, and having lost Sicily, +Sardinia, and the two Spains, and one hundred and thirty cohorts of +Roman citizens, in Italy and Spain: by himself, in the death of Curio, +and the loss of so great an army in Africa, and the surrender of his +soldiers in Corcyra. Wherefore, they should have pity on themselves, and +the republic: for, from their own misfortunes, they had sufficient +experience of what fortune can effect in war. That this was the only +time to treat of peace; when each had confidence in his own strength, +and both seemed on an equal footing. Since, if fortune showed ever so +little favour to either, he who thought himself superior, would not +submit to terms of accommodation; nor would he be content with an equal +division, when he might expect to obtain the whole. That, as they could +not agree before, the terms of peace ought to be submitted to the senate +and people in Rome. That in the meantime, it ought to content the +republic and themselves, if they both immediately took oath in a public +assembly, that they would disband their forces within the three +following days. That having divested themselves of the arms and +auxiliaries, on which they placed their present confidence, they must +both of necessity acquiesce in the decision of the people and senate. To +give Pompey the fuller assurance of his intentions, he would dismiss all +his forces on land, even his garrisons. + +XI.--Vibullius, having received this commission from Caesar, thought it +no less necessary to give Pompey notice of Caesar's sudden approach, +that he might adopt such plans as the circumstance required, than to +inform him of Caesar's message; and therefore continuing his journey by +night as well as by day, and taking fresh horses for despatch, he posted +away to Pompey, to inform him that Caesar was marching towards him with +all his forces. Pompey was at this time in Candavia, and was on his +march from Macedonia to his winter quarters in Apollonia and Dyrrachium; +but surprised at the unexpected news, he determined to go to Apollonia +by speedy marches, to prevent Caesar from becoming master of all the +maritime states. But as soon as Caesar had landed his troops, he set off +the same day for Oricum: when he arrived there, Lucius Torquatus, who +was governor of the town by Pompey's appointment, and had a garrison of +Parthinians in it, endeavoured to shut the gates and defend the town, +and ordered the Greeks to man the walls, and to take arms. But as they +refused to fight against the power of the Roman people, and as the +citizens made a spontaneous attempt to admit Caesar, despairing of any +assistance, he threw open the gates, and surrendered himself and the +town to Caesar, and was preserved safe from injury by him. + +XII.--Having taken Oricum, Caesar marched without making any delay to +Apollonia. Staberius the governor, hearing of his approach, began to +bring water into the citadel, and to fortify it, and to demand hostages +of the town's people. But they refuse to give any, or to shut their +gates against the consul, or to take upon them to judge contrary to what +all Italy and the Roman people had judged. As soon as he knew their +inclinations, he made his escape privately. The inhabitants of Apollonia +sent ambassadors to Caesar, and gave him admission into their town. +Their example was followed by the inhabitants of Bullis, Amantia, and +the other neighbouring states, and all Epirus: and they sent ambassadors +to Caesar, and promised to obey his commands. + +XIII.--But Pompey having received information of the transactions at +Oricum and Apollonia, began to be alarmed for Dyrrachium, and +endeavoured to reach it, marching day and night. As soon as it was said +that Caesar was approaching, such a panic fell upon Pompey's army, +because in his haste he had made no distinction between night and day, +and had marched without intermission, that they almost every man +deserted their colours in Epirus and the neighbouring countries; several +threw down their arms, and their march had the appearance of a flight. +But when Pompey had halted near Dyrrachium, and had given orders for +measuring out the ground for his camp, his army even yet continuing in +their fright, Labienus first stepped forward and swore that he would +never desert him, and would share whatever fate fortune should assign to +him. The other lieutenants took the same oath, and the tribunes and +centurions followed their example: and the whole army swore in like +manner. Caesar, finding the road to Dyrrachium already in the possession +of Pompey, was in no great haste, but encamped by the river Apsus, in +the territory of Apollonia, that the states which had deserved his +support might be certain of protection from his out-guards and forts; +and there he resolved to wait the arrival of his other legions from +Italy, and to winter in tents. Pompey did the same; and pitching his +camp on the other side of the river Apsus, collected there all his +troops and auxiliaries. + +XIV.--Kalenus, having put the legions and cavalry on board at +Brundisium, as Caesar had directed him, as far as the number of his +ships allowed, weighed anchor: and having sailed a little distance from +port, received a letter from Caesar, in which he was informed, that all +the ports and the whole shore was occupied by the enemy's fleet: on +receiving this information he returned into the harbour, and recalled +all the vessels. One of them, which continued the voyage and did not +obey Kalenus's command, because it carried no troops, but was private +property, bore away for Oricum, and was taken by Bibulus, who spared +neither slaves nor free men, nor even children; but put all to the +sword. Thus the safety of the whole army depended on a very short space +of time and a great casualty. + +XV.--Bibulus, as has been observed before, lay with his fleet near +Oricum, and as he debarred Caesar of the liberty of the sea and +harbours, so he was deprived of all intercourse with the country by +land; for the whole shore was occupied by parties disposed in different +places by Caesar. And he was not allowed to get either wood or water, or +even anchor near the land. He was reduced to great difficulties, and +distressed with extreme scarcity of every necessary; insomuch that he +was obliged to bring, in transports from Corcyra, not only provisions, +but even wood and water; and it once happened that, meeting with violent +storms, they were forced to catch the dew by night which fell on the +hides that covered their decks; yet all these difficulties they bore +patiently and without repining, and thought they ought not to leave the +shores and harbours free from blockade. But when they were suffering +under the distress which I have mentioned, and Libo had joined Bibulus, +they both called from on ship-board to Marcus Acilius and Statius +Marcus, the lieutenants, one of whom commanded the town, the other the +guards on the coast, that they wished to speak to Caesar on affairs of +importance, if permission should be granted them. They add something +further to strengthen the impression that they intended to treat about +an accommodation. In the meantime they requested a truce, and obtained +it from them; for what they proposed seemed to be of importance, and it +was well known that Caesar desired it above all things, and it was +imagined that some advantage would be derived from Bibulus's proposals. + +XVI.--Caesar having set out with one legion to gain possession of the +more remote states, and to provide corn, of which he had but a small +quantity, was at this time at Buthrotum, opposite to Corcyra. There +receiving Acilius and Marcus's letters, informing him of Libo's and +Bibulus's demands, he left his legion behind him, and returned himself +to Oricum. When he arrived, they were invited to a conference. Libo came +and made an apology for Bibulus, "that he was a man of strong passion, +and had a private quarrel against Caesar, contracted when he was aedile +and praetor; that for this reason he had avoided the conference, lest +affairs of the utmost importance and advantage might be impeded by the +warmth of his temper. That it now was and ever had been Pompey's most +earnest wish, that they should be reconciled, and lay down their arms; +but they were not authorized to treat on that subject, because they +resigned the whole management of the war, and all other matters, to +Pompey, by order of the council. But when they were acquainted with +Caesar's demands, they would transmit them to Pompey, who would conclude +all of himself by their persuasions. In the meantime, let the truce be +continued till the messengers could return from him; and let no injury +be done on either side." To this he added a few words of the cause for +which they fought, and of his own forces and resources. + +XVII.--To this, Caesar did not then think proper to make any reply, nor +do we now think it worth recording. But Caesar required "that he should +be allowed to send commissioners to Pompey, who should suffer no +personal injury; and that either they should grant it, or should take +his commissioners in charge, and convey them to Pompey. That as to the +truce, the war in its present state was so divided, that they by their +fleet deprived him of his shipping and auxiliaries; while he prevented +them from the use of the land and fresh water; and if they wished that +this restraint should be removed from them, they should relinquish their +blockade of the seas, but if they retained the one, he in like manner +would retain the other; that nevertheless, the treaty of accommodation +might still be carried on, though these points were not conceded, and +that they need not be an impediment to it." They would neither receive +Caesar's commissioners, nor guarantee their safety, but referred the +whole to Pompey. They urged and struggled eagerly to gain the one point +respecting a truce. But when Caesar perceived that they had proposed the +conference merely to avoid present danger and distress, but that they +offered no hopes or terms of peace, he applied his thoughts to the +prosecution of the war. + +XVIII.--Bibulus, being prevented from landing for several days, and +being seized with a violent distemper from the cold and fatigue, as he +could neither be cured on board, nor was willing to desert the charge +which he had taken upon him, was unable to bear up against the violence +of the disease. On his death, the sole command devolved on no single +individual, but each admiral managed his own division separately, and at +his own discretion. Vibullius, as soon as the alarm, which Caesar's +unexpected arrival had raised, was over, began again to deliver Caesar's +message in the presence of Libo, Lucius Lucceius, and Theophanes, to +whom Pompey used to communicate his most confidential secrets. He had +scarcely entered on the subject when Pompey interrupted him, and forbade +him to proceed. "What need," says he, "have I of life or Rome, if the +world shall think I enjoy them by the bounty of Caesar; an opinion which +can never be removed whilst it shall be thought that I have been brought +back by him to Italy, from which I set out." After the conclusion of the +war, Caesar was informed of these expressions by some persons who were +present at the conversation. He attempted, however, by other means to +bring about a negotiation of peace. + +XIX.--Between Pompey's and Caesar's camp there was only the river Apsus, +and the soldiers frequently conversed with each other; and by a private +arrangement among themselves, no weapons were thrown during their +conferences. Caesar sent Publius Vatinius, one of his lieutenants, to +the bank of the river, to make such proposals as should appear most +conducive to peace; and to cry out frequently with a loud voice +[asking], "Are citizens permitted to send deputies to citizens to treat +of peace? a concession which had been made even to fugitives on the +Pyrenean mountains, and to robbers, especially when by so doing they +would prevent citizens from fighting against citizens." Having spoken +much in humble language, as became a man pleading for his own and the +general safety, and being listened to with silence by the soldiers of +both armies, he received an answer from the enemy's party that Aulus +Varro proposed coming the next day to a conference, and that deputies +from both sides might come without danger, and explain their wishes, and +accordingly a fixed time was appointed for the interview. When the +deputies met the next day, a great multitude from both sides assembled, +and the expectations of every person concerning this subject were raised +very high, and their minds seemed to be eagerly disposed for peace. +Titus Labienus walked forward from the crowd, and in submissive terms +began to speak of peace, and to argue with Vatinius. But their +conversation was suddenly interrupted by darts thrown from all sides, +from which Vatinius escaped by being protected by the arms of the +soldiers. However, several were wounded; and among them Cornelius +Balbus, Marcus Plotius, and Lucius Tiburtius, centurions, and some +privates; hereupon Labienus exclaimed, "Forbear, then, to speak any more +about an accommodation, for we can have no peace unless we carry +Caesar's head back with us." + +XX.--At the same time in Rome, Marcus Caelius Rufus, one of the +praetors, having undertaken the cause of the debtors, on entering into +his office, fixed his tribunal near the bench of Caius Trebonius, the +city praetor, and promised if any person appealed to him in regard to +the valuation and payment of debts made by arbitration, as appointed by +Caesar when in Rome, that he would relieve them. But it happened, from +the justice of Trebonius's decrees and his humanity (for he thought that +in such dangerous times justice should be administered with moderation +and compassion), that not one could be found who would offer himself the +first to lodge an appeal. For to plead poverty, to complain of his own +private calamities, or the general distresses of the times, or to assert +the difficulty of setting the goods to sale, is the behaviour of a man +even of a moderate temper; but to retain their possessions entire, and +at the same time acknowledge themselves in debt, what sort of spirit, +and what impudence would it not have argued! Therefore nobody was found +so unreasonable as to make such demands. But Caelius proved more severe +to those very persons for whose advantage it had been designed; and +starting from this beginning, in order that he might not appear to have +engaged in so dishonourable an affair without effecting something, he +promulgated a law, that all debts should be discharged in six equal +payments, of six months each, without interest. + +XXI.--When Servilius, the consul, and the other magistrates opposed him, +and he himself effected less than he expected, in order to raise the +passions of the people, he dropped it, and promulgated two others; one, +by which he remitted the annual rents of the houses to the tenants, the +other, an act of insolvency: upon which the mob made an assault on Caius +Trebonius, and having wounded several persons, drove him from his +tribunal. The consul Servilius informed the senate of his proceedings, +who passed a decree that Caelius should be removed from the management +of the republic. Upon this decree, the consul forbade him the senate; +and when he was attempting to harangue the people, turned him out of the +rostrum. Stung with the ignominy and with resentment, he pretended in +public that he would go to Caesar, but privately sent messengers to +Milo, who had murdered Clodius, and had been condemned for it; and +having invited him into Italy, because he had engaged the remains of the +gladiators to his interest, by making them supple presents, he joined +him, and sent him to Thurinum to tamper with the shepherds. When he +himself was on his road to Casilinum, at the same time that his military +standards and arms were seized at Capua, his slaves seen at Naples, and +the design of betraying the town discovered: his plots being revealed, +and Capua shut against him, being apprehensive of danger, because the +Roman citizens residing there had armed themselves, and thought he ought +to be treated as an enemy to the state, he abandoned his first design, +and changed his route. + +XXII.--Milo in the meantime despatched letters to the free towns, +purporting that he acted as he did by the orders and commands of Pompey, +conveyed to him by Bibulus: and he endeavoured to engage in his interest +all persons whom he imagined were under difficulties by reason of their +debts. But not being able to prevail with them, he set at liberty some +slaves from the work-houses, and began to assault Cosa in the district +of Thurinum. There having received a blow of a stone thrown from the +wall of the town which was commanded by Quintus Pedius with one legion, +he died of it; and Caelius having set out, as he pretended for Caesar, +went to Thurii, where he was put to death as he was tampering with some +of the freemen of the town, and was offering money to Caesar's Gallic +and Spanish horse, which he had sent there to strengthen the garrison. +And thus these mighty beginnings, which had embroiled Italy, and kept +the magistrates employed, found a speedy and happy issue. + +XXIII.--Libo having sailed from Oricum, with a fleet of fifty ships, +which he commanded, came to Brundisium, and seized an island, which lies +opposite to the harbour; judging it better to guard that place, which +was our only pass to sea, than to keep all the shores and ports blocked +up by a fleet. By his sudden arrival, he fell in with some of our +transports, and set them on fire, and carried off one laden with corn; +he struck great terror into our men, and having in the night landed a +party of soldiers and archers, he beat our guard of horse from their +station, and gained so much by the advantage of situation, that he +despatched letters to Pompey, that if he pleased he might order the rest +of the ships to be hauled upon shore and repaired; for that with his own +fleet he could prevent Caesar from receiving his auxiliaries. + +XXIV.--Antonius was at this time at Brundisium, and relying on the +valour of his troops, covered about sixty of the long-boats belonging to +the men-of-war with penthouses and bulwarks of hurdles, and put on board +them select soldiers; and disposed them separately along the shore: and +under the pretext of keeping the seamen in exercise, he ordered two +three-banked galleys, which he had built at Brundisium, to row to the +mouth of the port. When Libo saw them advancing boldly towards him, he +sent five four-banked galleys against them, in hopes of intercepting +them. When these came near our ships, our veteran soldiers retreated +within the harbour. The enemy, urged by their eagerness to capture them, +pursued them unguardedly; for instantly the boats of Antonius, on a +certain signal, rowed with great violence from all parts against the +enemy; and at the first charge took one of the four-banked galleys, with +the seamen and marines, and forced the rest to flee disgracefully. In +addition to this loss, they were prevented from getting water by the +horse which Antonius had disposed along the sea-coast. Libo, vexed at +the distress and disgrace, departed from Brundisium, and abandoned the +blockade. + +XXV.--Several months had now elapsed, and winter was almost gone, and +Caesar's legions and shipping were not coming to him from Brundisium, +and he imagined that some opportunities had been neglected, for the +winds had at least been often favourable, and he thought that he must +trust to them at last. And the longer it was deferred, the more eager +were those who commanded Pompey's fleet to guard the coast, and were +more confident of preventing our getting assistance: they receive +frequent reproofs from Pompey by letter, that as they had not prevented +Caesar's arrival at the first, they should at least stop the remainder +of his army: and they were expecting that the season for transporting +troops would become more unfavourable every day, as the winds grew +calmer. Caesar, feeling some trouble on this account, wrote in severe +terms to his officers at Brundisium, [and gave them orders] that as soon +as they found the wind to answer, they should not let the opportunity of +setting sail pass by, if they were even to steer their course to the +shore of Apollonia: because there they might run their ships on ground. +That these parts principally were left unguarded by the enemy's fleet, +because they dare not venture too far from the harbour. + +XXVI.--They [his officers], exerting boldness and courage, aided by the +instructions of Marcus Antonius, and Fufius Kalenus, and animated by the +soldiers strongly encouraging them, and declining no danger for Caesar's +safety, having got a southerly wind, weighed anchor, and the next day +were carried past Apollonia and Dyrrachium, and being seen from the +continent, Quintus Coponius, who commanded the Rhodian fleet at +Dyrrachium, put out of the port with his ships; and when they had almost +come up with us, in consequence of the breeze dying away, the south wind +sprang up afresh, and rescued us. However, he did not desist from his +attempt, but hoped by the labour and perseverance of his seamen to be +able to bear up against the violence of the storm; and although we were +carried beyond Dyrrachium, by the violence of the wind, he nevertheless +continued to chase us. Our men, taking advantage of fortune's kindness, +for they were still afraid of being attacked by the enemy's fleet, if +the wind abated, having come near a port, called Nymphaeum, about three +miles beyond Lissus, put into it (this port is protected from a +south-west wind, but is not secure against a south wind); and thought less +danger was to be apprehended from the storm than from the enemy. But as +soon as they were within the port, the south wind, which had blown for +two days, by extraordinary good luck veered round to the south-west. + +XXVII.--Here one might observe the sudden turns of fortune. We who, a +moment before, were alarmed for ourselves, were safely lodged in a very +secure harbour: and they who had threatened ruin to our fleet, were +forced to be uneasy on their own account: and thus, by a change of +circumstances, the storm protected our ships, and damaged the Rhodian +fleet to such a degree, that all their decked ships, sixteen in number, +foundered, without exception, and were wrecked: and of the prodigious +number of seamen and soldiers, some lost their lives by being dashed +against the rocks, others were taken by our men: but Caesar sent them +all safe home. + +XXVIII.--Two of our ships, that had not kept up with the rest, being +overtaken by the night, and not knowing what port the rest had made to, +came to an anchor opposite Lissus. Otacilius Crassus, who commanded +Pompey's fleet, detached after them several barges and small craft, and +attempted to take them. At the same time, he treated with them about +capitulating, and promised them their lives if they would surrender. One +of them carried two hundred and twenty recruits, the other was manned +with somewhat less than two hundred veterans. Here it might be seen what +security men derive from a resolute spirit. For the recruits, frightened +at the number of vessels, and fatigued with the rolling of the sea; and +with sea-sickness, surrendered to Otacilius, after having first received +his oath, that the enemy would not injure them; but as soon as they were +brought before him, contrary to the obligation of his oath, they were +inhumanly put to death in his presence. But the soldiers of the veteran +legion, who had also struggled, not only with the inclemency of the +weather, but by labouring at the pump, thought it their duty to remit +nothing of their former valour: and having protracted the beginning of +the night in settling the terms, under pretence of surrendering, they +obliged the pilot to run the ship aground: and having got a convenient +place on the shore, they spent the rest of the night there, and at +daybreak, when Otacilius had sent against them a party of the horse, who +guarded that part of the coast, to the number of four hundred, besides +some armed men, who had followed them from the garrison, they made a +brave defence, and having killed some of them, retreated in safety to +our army. + +XXIX.--After this action, the Roman citizens, who resided at Lissus, a +town which Caesar had before assigned them, and had carefully fortified, +received Antony into their town, and gave him every assistance. +Otacilius, apprehensive for his own safety, escaped out of the town, and +went to Pompey. All his forces, whose number amounted to three veteran +legions, and one of recruits, and about eight hundred horse, being +landed, Antony sent most of his ships back to Italy, to transport the +remainder of the soldiers and horse. The pontons, which are a sort of +Gallic ships, he left at Lissus with this object, that if Pompey, +imagining Italy defenceless, should transport his army thither (and this +notion was spread among the common people), Caesar might have some means +of pursuing him; and he sent messengers to him with great despatch, to +inform him in what part of the country he had landed his army, and what +number of troops he had brought over with him. + +XXX.--Caesar and Pompey received this intelligence almost at the same +time; for they had seen the ships sail past Apollonia and Dyrrachium. +They directed their march after them by land; but at first they were +ignorant to what part they had been carried; but when they were informed +of it, they each adopted a different plan; Caesar, to form a junction +with Antonius as soon as possible, Pompey, to oppose Antonius's forces +on their march to Caesar, and, if possible, to fall upon them +unexpectedly from ambush. And the same day they both led out their +armies from their winter encampment along the river Apsus; Pompey, +privately by night; Caesar, openly by day. But Caesar had to march a +longer circuit up the river to find a ford. Pompey's route being easy, +because he was not obliged to cross the river, he advanced rapidly and +by forced marches against Antonius, and being informed of his approach, +chose a convenient situation, where he posted his forces; and kept his +men close within camp, and forbade fires to be kindled, that his arrival +might be the more secret. An account of this was immediately carried to +Antonius by the Greeks. He despatched messengers to Caesar, and confined +himself in his camp for one day. The next day Caesar came up with him. +On learning his arrival, Pompey, to prevent his being hemmed in between +two armies, quitted his position, and went with all his forces to +Asparagium, in the territory of Dyrrachium, and there encamped in a +convenient situation. + +XXXI.--During these times, Scipio, though he had sustained some losses +near mount Amanus, had assumed to himself the title of imperator, after +which he demanded large sums of money from the states and princes. He +had also exacted from the tax-gatherers two years' rents that they owed; +and enjoined them to lend him the amount of the next year, and demanded +a supply of horse from the whole province. When they were collected, +leaving behind him his neighbouring enemies, the Parthians (who shortly +before had killed Marcus Crassus, the imperator, and had kept Marcus +Bibulus besieged), he drew his legions and cavalry out of Syria; and +when he came into the province, which was under great anxiety and fear +of the Parthian war, and heard some declarations of the soldiers, "That +they would march against an enemy, if he would lead them on; but would +never bear arms against a countryman and consul"; he drew off his +legions to winter quarters to Pergamus, and the most wealthy cities, and +made them rich presents: and in order to attach them more firmly to his +interest, permitted them to plunder the cities. + +XXXII.--In the meantime, the money which had been demanded from the +province at large, was most rigorously exacted. Besides, many new +imposts of different kinds were devised to gratify his avarice. A tax of +so much a head was laid on every slave and child. Columns, doors, corn, +soldiers, sailors, arms, engines, and carriages, were made subject to a +duty. Wherever a name could be found for anything, it was deemed a +sufficient reason for levying money on it. Officers were appointed to +collect it, not only in the cities, but in almost every village and +fort: and whosoever of them acted with the greatest rigour and +inhumanity, was esteemed the best man, and best citizen. The province +was overrun with bailiffs and officers, and crowded with overseers and +tax-gatherers; who, besides the duties imposed, exacted a gratuity for +themselves; for they asserted, that being expelled from their own homes +and countries, they stood in need of every necessary; endeavouring by a +plausible pretence to colour the most infamous conduct. To this was +added the most exorbitant interest, as usually happens in times of war; +the whole sums being called in, on which occasion they alleged that the +delay of a single day was a donation. Therefore, in those two years, the +debt of the province was doubled: but notwithstanding, taxes were +exacted, not only from the Roman citizens, but from every corporation +and every state. And they said that these were loans, exacted by the +senate's decree. The taxes of the ensuing year were demanded beforehand +as a loan from the collectors, as on their first appointment. + +XXXIII.--Moreover, Scipio ordered the money formerly lodged in the +temple of Diana at Ephesus, to be taken out with the statues of that +goddess which remained there. When Scipio came to the temple, letters +were delivered to him from Pompey, in the presence of several senators, +whom he had called upon to attend him; [informing him] that Caesar had +crossed the sea with his legions; that Scipio should hasten to him with +his army, and postpone all other business. As soon as he received the +letter, he dismissed his attendants, and began to prepare for his +journey to Macedonia; and a few days after set out. This circumstance +saved the money at Ephesus. + +XXXIV.--Caesar, having effected a junction with Antonius's army, and +having drawn his legion out of Oricum, which he had left there to guard +the coast, thought he ought to sound the inclination of the provinces, +and march farther into the country; and when ambassadors came to him +from Thessaly and Aetolia, to engage that the states in those countries +would obey his orders, if he sent a garrison to protect them, he +despatched Lucius Cassius Longinus, with the twenty-seventh, a legion +composed of young soldiers, and two hundred horse, to Thessaly: and +Caius Calvisius Sabinus, with five cohorts, and a small party of horse, +into Aetolia. He recommended them to be especially careful to provide +corn, because those regions were nearest to him. He ordered Cneius +Domitius Calvinus to march into Macedonia with two legions, the eleventh +and twelfth, and five hundred horse; from which province, Menedemus, the +principal man of those regions, on that side which is called the Free, +having come as ambassador, assured him of the most devoted affection of +all his subjects. + +XXXV.--Of these Calvisius, on his first arrival in Aetolia, being very +kindly received, dislodged the enemy's garrisons in Calydon and +Naupactus, and made himself master of the whole country. Cassius went to +Thessaly with his legion. As there were two factions there, he found the +citizens divided in their inclinations. Hegasaretus, a man of +established power, favoured Pompey's interest. Petreius, a young man of +a most noble family, warmly supported Caesar with his own and his +friends' influence. + +XXXVI.--At the same time, Domitius arrived in Macedonia: and when +numerous embassies had begun to wait on him from many of the states, +news was brought that Scipio was approaching with his legions, which +occasioned various opinions and reports; for in strange events, rumour +generally goes before. Without making any delay in any part of +Macedonia, he marched with great haste against Domitius; and when he was +come within about twenty miles of him, wheeled on a sudden towards +Cassius Longinus in Thessaly. He effected this with such celerity, that +news of his march and arrival came together; for to render his march +expeditious, he left the baggage of his legions behind him at the river +Haliacmon, which divides Macedonia from Thessaly, under the care of +Marcus Favonius, with a guard of eight cohorts, and ordered him to build +a strong fort there. At the same time, Cotus's cavalry, which used to +infest the neighbourhood of Macedonia, flew to attack Cassius's camp, at +which Cassius being alarmed, and having received information of Scipio's +approach, and seen the horse, which he imagined to be Scipio's, he +betook himself to the mountains that environ Thessaly, and thence began +to make his route towards Ambracia. But when Scipio was hastening to +pursue him, despatches overtook him from Favonius, that Domitius was +marching against him with his legions, and that he could not maintain +the garrison over which he was appointed, without Scipio's assistance. +On receipt of these despatches, Scipio changed his designs and his +route, desisted from his pursuit of Cassius, and hastened to relieve +Favonius. Accordingly, continuing his march day and night, he came to +him so opportunely, that the dust raised by Domitius's army, and +Scipio's advanced guard, were observed at the same instant. Thus, the +vigilance of Domitius saved Cassius, and the expedition of Scipio, +Favonius. + +XXXVII--Scipio, having stayed for two days in his camp, along the river +Haliacmon, which ran between him and Domitius's camp, on the third day, +at dawn, led his army across a ford, and having made a regular +encampment the day following, drew up his forces in front of his camp. +Domitius thought he ought not to show any reluctance, but should draw +out his forces and hazard a battle. But as there was a plain six miles +in breadth between the two camps, he posted his army before Scipio's +camp; while the latter persevered in not quitting his entrenchment. +However, Domitius with difficulty restrained his men, and prevented +their beginning a battle; the more so as a rivulet with steep banks, +joining Scipio's camp, retarded the progress of our men. When Scipio +perceived the eagerness and alacrity of our troops to engage, suspecting +that he should be obliged the next day, either to fight, against his +inclination, or to incur great disgrace by keeping within his camp, +though he had come with high expectation, yet by advancing rashly, made +a shameful end; and at night crossed the river, without even giving the +signal for breaking up the camp, and returned to the ground from which +he came, and there encamped near the river, on an elevated situation. +After a few days, he placed a party of horse in ambush in the night, +where our men had usually gone to forage for several days before. And +when Quintus Varus, commander of Domitius's horse, came there as usual, +they suddenly rushed from their ambush. But our men bravely supported +their charge, and returned quickly every man to his own rank, and in +their turn, made a general charge on the enemy: and having killed about +eighty of them, and put the rest to flight, retreated to their camp with +the loss of only two men. + +XXXVIII.--After these transactions, Domitius, hoping to allure Scipio to +a battle, pretended to be obliged to change his position through want of +corn, and having given the signal for decamping, advanced about three +miles, and posted his army and cavalry in a convenient place, concealed +from the enemy's view. Scipio being in readiness to pursue him, detached +his cavalry and a considerable number of light infantry to explore +Domitius's route. When they had marched a short way, and their foremost +troops were within reach of our ambush, their suspicions being raised by +the neighing of the horses, they began to retreat: and the rest who +followed them, observing with what speed they retreated, made a halt. +Our men, perceiving that the enemy had discovered their plot, and +thinking it in vain to wait for any more, having got two troops in their +power, intercepted them. Among them was Marcus Opimius, general of the +horse, but he made his escape: they either killed or took prisoners all +the rest of these two troops, and brought them to Domitius. + +XXXIX.--Caesar, having drawn his garrisons out of the sea-ports, as +before mentioned, left three cohorts at Oricum to protect the town, and +committed to them the charge of his ships of war, which he had +transported from Italy. Acilius, as lieutenant-general, had the charge +of this duty and the command of the town; he drew the ships into the +inner part of the harbour, behind the town, and fastened them to the +shore, and sank a merchant-ship in the mouth of the harbour to block it +up; and near it he fixed another at anchor, on which he raised a turret, +and faced it to the entrance of the port, and filled it with soldiers, +and ordered them to keep guard against any sudden attack. + +XL.--Cneius, Pompey's son, who commanded the Egyptian fleet, having got +intelligence of these things, came to Oricum, and weighed up the ship, +that had been sunk, with a windlass, and by straining at it with several +ropes, and attacked the other which had been placed by Acilius to watch +the port with several ships, on which he had raised very high turrets, +so that fighting as it were from an eminence, and sending fresh men +constantly to relieve the fatigued, and at the same time attempting the +town on all sides by land, with ladders and his fleet, in order to +divide the force of his enemies, he overpowered our men by fatigue, and +the immense number of darts, and took the ship, having beat off the men +who were put on board to defend it, who, however, made their escape in +small boats; and at the same time he seized a natural mole on the +opposite side, which almost formed an island over against the town. He +carried over land, into the inner part of the harbour, four galleys, by +putting rollers under them, and driving them on with levers. Then +attacking on both sides the ships of war which were moored to the shore, +and were not manned, he carried off four of them, and set the rest on +fire. After despatching this business, he left Decimus Laelius, whom he +had taken away from the command of the Asiatic fleet, to hinder +provisions from being brought into the town from Biblis and Amantia, and +went himself to Lissus, where he attacked thirty merchantmen, left +within the port by Antonius, and set them on fire. He attempted to storm +Lissus, but being delayed three days by the vigorous defence of the +Roman citizens who belonged to that district, and of the soldiers which +Caesar had sent to keep garrison there, and having lost a few men in the +assault, he returned without effecting his object. + +XLI.--As soon as Caesar heard that Pompey was at Asparagium, he set out +for that place with his army, and having taken the capital of the +Parthinians on his march, where there was a garrison of Pompey's, he +reached Pompey in Macedonia, on the third day, and encamped beside him; +and the day following, having drawn out all his forces before his camp, +he offered Pompey battle. But perceiving that he kept within his +trenches, he led his army back to his camp, and thought of pursuing some +other plan. Accordingly, the day following, he set out with all his +forces by a long circuit, through a difficult and narrow road to +Dyrrachium; hoping, either that Pompey would be compelled to follow him +to Dyrrachium, or that his communication with it might be cut off, +because he had deposited there all his provisions and mat['e]riel of +war. And so it happened; for Pompey, at first not knowing his design, +because he imagined he had taken a route in a different direction from +that country, thought that the scarcity of provisions had obliged him to +shift his quarters; but having afterwards got true intelligence from his +scouts, he decamped the day following, hoping to prevent him by taking a +shorter road; which Caesar suspecting might happen, encouraged his +troops to submit cheerfully to the fatigue, and having halted a very +small part of the night, he arrived early in the morning at Dyrrachium, +when the van of Pompey's army was visible at a distance, and there he +encamped. + +XLII.--Pompey, being cut off from Dyrrachium, as he was unable to effect +his purpose, took a new resolution, and entrenched himself strongly on a +rising ground, which is called Petra, where ships of a small size can +come in, and be sheltered from some winds. Here he ordered a part of his +men-of-war to attend him, and corn and provisions to be brought from +Asia, and from all the countries of which he kept possession. Caesar, +imagining that the war would be protracted to too great a length, and +despairing of his convoys from Italy, because all the coasts were +guarded with great diligence by Pompey's adherents; and because his own +fleets, which he had built during the winter, in Sicily, Gaul, and +Italy, were detained; sent Lucius Canuleius into Epirus to procure corn; +and because these countries were too remote, he fixed granaries in +certain places, and regulated the carriage of the corn for the +neighbouring states. He likewise gave directions that search should be +made for whatever corn was in Lissus, the country of the Parthini, and +all the places of strength. The quantity was very small, both from the +nature of the land (for the country is rough and mountainous, and the +people commonly import what grain they use); and because Pompey had +foreseen what would happen, and some days before had plundered the +Parthini, and having ravaged and dug up their houses, carried off all +the corn, which he collected by means of his horse. + +XLIII.--Caesar, on being informed of these transactions, pursued +measures suggested by the nature of the country. For round Pompey's +camps there were several high and rough hills. These he first of all +occupied with guards, and raised strong forts on them. Then drawing a +fortification from one fort to another, as the nature of each position +allowed, he began to draw a line of circumvallation round Pompey; with +these views; as he had but a small quantity of corn, and Pompey was +strong in cavalry, that he might furnish his army with corn and other +necessaries from all sides with less danger: secondly, to prevent Pompey +from foraging, and thereby render his horse ineffectual in the +operations of the war; and thirdly, to lessen his reputation, on which +he saw he depended greatly, among foreign nations, when a report should +have spread throughout the world that he was blockaded by Caesar, and +dare not hazard a battle. + +XLIV.--Neither was Pompey willing to leave the sea and Dyrrachium, +because he had lodged his mat['e]riel there, his weapons, arms, and +engines; and supplied his army with corn from it by his ships: nor was +he able to put a stop to Caesar's works without hazarding a battle, +which at that time he had determined not to do. Nothing was left but to +adopt the last resource, namely, to possess himself of as many hills as +he could, and cover as great an extent of country as possible with his +troops, and divide Caesar's forces as much as possible; and so it +happened: for having raised twenty-four forts, and taken in a compass of +fifteen miles, he got forage in this space, and within this circuit +there were several fields lately sown, in which the cattle might feed in +the meantime. And as our men, who had completed their works by drawing +lines of communication from one fort to another, were afraid that +Pompey's men would sally out from some part, and attack us in the rear; +so the enemy were making a continued fortification in a circuit within +ours to prevent us from breaking in on any side, or surrounding them on +the rear. But they completed their works first; both because they had a +greater number of men, and because they had a smaller compass to +enclose. When Caesar attempted to gain any place, though Pompey had +resolved not to oppose him with his whole force or to come to a general +engagement; yet he detached to particular places slingers and archers, +with which his army abounded, and several of our men were wounded, and +filled with great dread of the arrows; and almost all the soldiers made +coats or coverings for themselves of hair cloths, tarpaulins, or raw +hides to defend them against the weapons. + +XLV.--In seizing the posts, each exerted his utmost power: Caesar, to +confine Pompey within as narrow a compass as possible; Pompey, to occupy +as many hills as he could in as large a circuit as possible, and several +skirmishes were fought in consequence of it. In one of these, when +Caesar's ninth legion had gained a certain post, and had begun to +fortify it; Pompey possessed himself of a hill near to and opposite the +same place, and endeavoured to annoy the men while at work; and as the +approach on one side was almost level, he first surrounded it with +archers and slingers, and afterwards by detaching a strong party of +light infantry, and using his engines, he stopped our works: and it was +no easy matter for our men at once to defend themselves, and to proceed +with their fortifications. When Caesar perceived that his troops were +wounded from all sides, he determined to retreat and give up the post; +his retreat was down a precipice, on which account they pushed on with +more spirit, and would not allow us to retire, because they imagined +that we resigned the place through fear. It is reported that Pompey said +that day in triumph to his friends about him, "That he would consent to +be accounted a general of no experience, if Caesar's legions effected a +retreat without considerable loss from that ground into which they had +rashly advanced." + +XLVI.--Caesar, being uneasy about the retreat of his soldiers, ordered +hurdles to be carried to the further side of the hill, and to be placed +opposite to the enemy, and behind them a trench of a moderate breadth to +be sunk by his soldiers under shelter of the hurdles: and the ground to +be made as difficult as possible. He himself disposed slingers in +convenient places to cover our men in their retreat. These things being +completed, he ordered his legions to file off. Pompey's men insultingly +and boldly pursued and chased us, levelling the hurdles that were thrown +up in the front of our works, in order to pass over the trench. Which as +soon as Caesar perceived, being afraid that his men would appear not to +retreat, but to be repulsed, and that greater loss might be sustained, +when his men were almost half way down the hill, he encouraged them by +Antonius, who commanded that legion, ordered the signal of battle to be +sounded, and a charge to be made on the enemy. The soldiers of the ninth +legion suddenly closing their files threw their javelins, and advancing +impetuously from the low ground up the steep, drove Pompey's men +precipitately before them, and obliged them to turn their backs; but +their retreat was greatly impeded by the hurdles that lay in a long line +before them, and the pallisadoes which were in their way, and the +trenches that were sunk. But our men being contented to retreat without +injury, having killed several of the enemy, and lost but five of their +own, very quietly retired, and having seized some other hills somewhat +on this side of that place, completed their fortifications. + +XLVII.--This method of conducting a war was new and unusual, as well on +account of the number of forts, the extent and greatness of the works, +and the manner of attack and defence, as on account of other +circumstances. For all who have attempted to besiege any person, have +attacked the enemy when they were frightened or weak, or after a defeat; +or have been kept in fear of some attack, when they themselves have had +a superior force both of foot and horse. Besides, the usual design of a +siege is to cut off the enemy's supplies. On the contrary, Caesar, with +an inferior force, was enclosing troops sound and unhurt, and who had +abundance of all things. For there arrived every day a prodigious number +of ships, which brought them provisions: nor could the wind blow from +any point that would not be favourable to some of them. Whereas, Caesar, +having consumed all the corn far and near, was in very great distress, +but his soldiers bore all with uncommon patience. For they remembered +that they lay under the same difficulties last year in Spain, and yet by +labour and patience had concluded a dangerous war. They recollected too +that they had suffered an alarming scarcity at Alesia, and a much +greater at Avaricum, and yet had returned victorious over mighty +nations. They refused neither barley nor pulse when offered them, and +they held in great esteem cattle, of which they got great quantities +from Epirus. + +XLVIII.--There was a sort of root, called chara, discovered by the +troops which served under Valerius. This they mixed up with milk, and it +greatly contributed to relieve their want. They made it into a sort of +bread. They had great plenty of it: loaves made of this, when Pompey's +men upbraided ours with want, they frequently threw among them to damp +their hopes. + +XLIX.--The corn was now beginning to ripen, and their hope supported +their want, as they were confident of having abundance in a short time. +And there were frequently heard declarations of the soldiers on guard, +in discourse with each other, that they would rather live on the bark of +the trees, than let Pompey escape from their hands. For they were often +told by deserters, that they could scarcely maintain their horses, and +that their other cattle was dead: that they themselves were not in good +health from their confinement within so narrow a compass, from the +noisome smell, the number of carcasses, and the constant fatigue to +them, being men unaccustomed to work, and labouring under a great want +of water. For Caesar had either turned the course of all the rivers and +streams which ran to the sea, or had dammed them up with strong works. +And as the country was mountainous, and the valleys narrow at the +bottom, he enclosed them with piles sunk in the ground, and heaped up +mould against them to keep in the water. They were therefore obliged to +search for low and marshy grounds, and to sink wells, and they had this +labour in addition to their daily works. And even these springs were at +a considerable distance from some of their posts, and soon dried up with +the heat. But Caesar's army enjoyed perfect health and abundance of +water, and had plenty of all sorts of provisions except corn; and they +had a prospect of better times approaching, and saw greater hopes laid +before them by the ripening of the grain. + +L.--In this new kind of war, new methods of managing it were invented by +both generals. Pompey's men, perceiving by our fires at night, at what +part of the works our cohorts were on guard, coming silently upon them +discharged their arrows at random among the whole multitude, and +instantly retired to their camp: as a remedy against which our men were +taught by experience to light their fires in one place, and keep guard +in another. + + * * * * * + +LI.--In the meantime, Publius Sylla, whom Caesar at his departure had +left governor of his camp, came up with two legions to assist the +cohort; upon whose arrival Pompey's forces were easily repulsed. Nor did +they stand the sight and charge of our men, and the foremost falling, +the rest turned their backs and quitted the field. But Sylla called our +men in from the pursuit, lest their ardour should carry them too far, +but most people imagine, that if he had consented to a vigorous pursuit, +the war might have been ended that day. His conduct however does not +appear to deserve censure; for the duties of a lieutenant-general and of +a commander-in-chief are very different; the one is bound to act +entirely according to his instructions, the other to regulate his +conduct without control, as occasion requires. Sylla, being deputed by +Caesar to take care of the camp, and having rescued his men, was +satisfied with that, and did not desire to hazard a battle (although +this circumstance might probably have had a successful issue), that he +might not be thought to have assumed the part of the general. One +circumstance laid the Pompeians under great difficulty in making good a +retreat: for they had advanced from disadvantageous ground, and were +posted on the top of a hill. If they attempted to retire down the steep, +they dreaded the pursuit of our men from the rising ground, and there +was but a short time till sunset: for in hopes of completing the +business, they had protracted the battle almost till night. Taking +therefore measures suited to their exigency, and to the shortness of the +time, Pompey possessed himself of an eminence, at such a distance from +our fort, that no weapon discharged from an engine could reach him. Here +he took up a position, and fortified it, and kept all his forces there. + +LII.--At the same time, there were engagements in two other places; for +Pompey had attacked several forts at once, in order to divide our +forces; that no relief might be sent from the neighbouring posts. In one +place, Volcatius Tullus sustained the charge of a legion with three +cohorts, and beat them off the field. In another, the Germans, having +sallied over our fortifications, slew several of the enemy, and +retreated safe to our camp. + +LIII.--Thus six engagements having happened in one day, three at +Dyrrachium, and three at the fortifications, when a computation was made +of the number of slain, we found that about two thousand fell on +Pompey's side, several of them volunteer veterans and centurions. Among +them was Valerius, the son of Lucius Flaccus, who as praetor had +formerly had the government of Asia, and six military standards were +taken. Of our men, not more than twenty were missing in all the action. +But in the fort, not a single soldier escaped without a wound; and in +one cohort, four centurions lost their eyes. And being desirous to +produce testimony of the fatigue they underwent, and the danger they +sustained, they counted to Caesar about thirty thousand arrows which had +been thrown into the fort; and in the shield of the centurion Scaeva, +which was brought to him, were found two hundred and thirty holes. In +reward for this man's services both to himself and the republic, Caesar +presented to him two hundred thousand pieces of copper money, and +declared him promoted from the eighth to the first centurion. For it +appeared that the fort had been in a great measure saved by his +exertions; and he afterwards very amply rewarded the cohorts with double +pay, corn, clothing, and other military honours. + +LIV.--Pompey, having made great additions to his works in the night, the +following days built turrets, and having carried his works fifteen feet +high, faced that part of his camp with mantlets; and after an interval +of five days, taking advantage of a second cloudy night, he barricaded +all the gates of his camp to hinder a pursuit, and about midnight +quietly marched off his army, and retreated to his old fortifications. + +LV.--Aetolia, Acarnania, and Amphilochis, being reduced, as we have +related, by Cassius Longinus, and Calvisius Sabinus, Caesar thought he +ought to attempt the conquest of Achaia, and to advance farther into the +country. Accordingly, he detached Fufius thither, and ordered Quintus +Sabinus and Cassius to join him with their cohorts. Upon notice of their +approach, Rutilius Lupus, who commanded in Achaia, under Pompey, began +to fortify the Isthmus, to prevent Fufius from coming into Achaia. +Kalenus recovered Delphi, Thebes, and Orchomenus, by a voluntary +submission of those states. Some he subdued by force, the rest he +endeavoured to win over to Caesar's interest, by sending deputies round +to them. In these things, principally, Fufius was employed. + +LVI.--Every day afterwards, Caesar drew up his army on a level ground, +and offered Pompey battle, and led his legions almost close to Pompey's +camp; and his front line was at no greater distance from the rampart +than that no weapons from their engines could reach it. But Pompey, to +save his credit and reputation with the world, drew out his legions, but +so close to his camp that his rear lines might touch the rampart, and +that his whole army, when drawn up, might be protected by the darts +discharged from it. + +LVII.--Whilst these things were going forward in Achaia and at +Dyrrachium, and when it was certainly known that Scipio was arrived in +Macedonia, Caesar, never losing sight of his first intention, sends +Clodius to him, an intimate friend to both, whom Caesar, on the +introduction and recommendation of Pompey, had admitted into the number +of his acquaintance. To this man he gave letters and instructions to +Pompey, the substance of which was as follows: "That he had made every +effort towards peace, and imputed the ill success of those efforts to +the fault of those whom he had employed to conduct those negotiations: +because they were afraid to carry his proposals to Pompey at an improper +time. That Scipio had such authority, that he could not only freely +explain what conduct met his approbation, but even in some degree +enforce his advice, and govern him [Pompey] if he persisted in error; +that he commanded an army independent of Pompey, so that besides his +authority, he had strength to compel; and if he did so, all men would be +indebted to him for the quiet of Italy, the peace of the provinces, and +the preservation of the empire." These proposals Clodius made to him, +and for some days at the first appeared to have met with a favourable +reception, but afterwards was not admitted to an audience; for Scipio +being reprimanded by Favonius, as we found afterwards when the war was +ended, and the negotiation having miscarried, Clodius returned to +Caesar. + +LVIII.--Caesar, that he might the more easily keep Pompey's horse +enclosed within Dyrrachium, and prevent them from foraging, fortified +the two narrow passes already mentioned with strong works, and erected +forts at them. Pompey perceiving that he derived no advantage from his +cavalry, after a few days had them conveyed back to his camp by sea. +Fodder was so exceedingly scarce that he was obliged to feed his horses +upon leaves stripped off the trees, or the tender roots of reeds +pounded. For the corn which had been sown within the lines was already +consumed, and they would be obliged to supply themselves with fodder +from Corcyra and Acarnania, over a long tract of sea; and as the +quantity of that fell short, to increase it by mixing barley with it, +and by these methods support their cavalry. But when not only the barley +and fodder in these parts were consumed, and the herbs cut away, when +the leaves too were not to be found on the trees, the horses being +almost starved, Pompey thought he ought to make some attempt by a sally. + +LIX.--In the number of Caesar's cavalry were two Allobrogians, brothers, +named Roscillus and Aegus, the sons of Abducillus, who for several years +possessed the chief power in his own state; men of singular valour, +whose gallant services Caesar had found very useful in all his wars in +Gaul. To them, for these reasons, he had committed the offices of +greatest honour in their own country, and took care to have them chosen +into the senate at an unusual age, and had bestowed on them lands taken +from the enemy, and large pecuniary rewards, and from being needy had +made them affluent. Their valour had not only procured them Caesar's +esteem, but they were beloved by the whole army. But presuming on +Caesar's friendship, and elated with the arrogance natural to a foolish +and barbarous people, they despised their countrymen, defrauded their +cavalry of their pay, and applied all the plunder to their own use. +Displeased at this conduct, their soldiers went in a body to Caesar, and +openly complained of their ill usage; and to their other charges added, +that false musters were given in to Caesar, and the surcharged pay +applied to their own use. + +LX.--Caesar, not thinking it a proper time to call them to account, and +willing to pardon many faults, on account of their valour, deferred the +whole matter, and gave them a private rebuke, for having made a traffic +of their troops, and advised them to expect everything from his +friendship, and by his past favours to measure their future hopes. This, +however, gave them great offence, and made them contemptible in the eyes +of the whole army. Of this they became sensible, as well from the +reproaches of others, as from the judgment of their own minds, and a +consciousness of guilt. Prompted then by shame, and perhaps imagining +that they were not liberated from trial, but reserved to a future day, +they resolved to break off from us, to put their fortune to a new +hazard, and to make trial of new connections. And having conferred with +a few of their clients, to whom they could venture to entrust so base an +action, they first attempted to assassinate Caius Volusenus, general of +the horse (as was discovered at the end of the war), that they might +appear to have fled to Pompey after conferring an important service on +him. But when that appeared too difficult to put in execution, and no +opportunity offered to accomplish it, they borrowed all the money they +could, as if they designed to make satisfaction and restitution for what +they had defrauded: and having purchased a great number of horses, they +deserted to Pompey along with those whom they had engaged in their plot. + +LXI.--As they were persons nobly descended and of liberal education, and +had come with a great retinue, and several cattle, and were reckoned men +of courage, and had been in great esteem with Caesar, and as it was a +new and uncommon event, Pompey carried them round all his works, and +made an ostentatious show of them, for till that day, not a soldier, +either horse or foot, had deserted from Caesar to Pompey, though there +were desertions almost every day from Pompey to Caesar: but more +commonly among the soldiers levied in Epirus and Aetolia, and in those +countries which were in Caesar's possession. But the brothers, having +been acquainted with all things, either what was incomplete in our +works, or what appeared to the best judges of military matters to be +deficient, the particular times, the distance of places, and the various +attention of the guards, according to the different temper and character +of the officer who commanded the different posts, gave an exact account +of all to Pompey. + +LXII.--Upon receiving this intelligence, Pompey, who had already formed +the design of attempting a sally, as before mentioned, ordered the +soldiers to make ozier coverings for their helmets, and to provide +fascines. These things being prepared, he embarked on board small boats +and row galleys by night, a considerable number of light infantry and +archers, with all their fascines, and immediately after midnight, he +marched sixty cohorts drafted from the greater camp and the outposts, to +that part of our works which extended towards the sea, and were at the +farthest distance from Caesar's greater camp. To the same place he sent +the ships, which he had freighted with the fascines and light-armed +troops; and all the ships of war that lay at Dyrrachium; and to each he +gave particular instructions: at this part of the lines Caesar had +posted Lentulus Marcellinus, the quaestor, with the ninth legion, and as +he was not in a good state of health, Fulvius Costhumus was sent to +assist him in the command. + +LXIII.--At this place, fronting the enemy, there was a ditch fifteen +feet wide, and a rampart ten feet high, and the top of the rampart was +ten feet in breadth. At an interval of six hundred feet from that there +was another rampart turned the contrary way, with the works lower. For +some days before, Caesar, apprehending that our men might be surrounded +by sea, had made a double rampart there, that if he should be attacked +on both sides, he might have the means in defending himself. But the +extent of the lines, and the incessant labour for so many days, because +he had enclosed a circuit of seventeen miles with his works, did not +allow time to finish them. Therefore the transverse rampart which should +make a communication between the other two, was not yet completed. This +circumstance was known to Pompey, being told to him by the Allobrogian +deserters, and proved of great disadvantage to us. For when our cohorts +of the ninth legion were on guard by the sea-side, Pompey's army arrived +suddenly by break of day, and their approach was a surprise to our men, +and at the same time, the soldiers that came by sea cast their darts on +the front rampart; and the ditches were filled with fascines: and the +legionary soldiers terrified those that defended the inner rampart, by +applying the scaling ladders, and by engines and weapons of all sorts, +and a vast multitude of archers poured round upon them from every side. +Besides, the coverings of oziers, which they had laid over their +helmets, were a great security to them against the blows of stones which +were the only weapons that our soldiers had. And therefore, when our men +were oppressed in every manner, and were scarcely able to make +resistance, the defect in our works was observed, and Pompey's soldiers, +landing between the two ramparts, where the work was unfinished, +attacked our men in the rear, and having beat them from both sides of +the fortification, obliged them to flee. + +LXIV.--Marcellinus, being informed of this disorder, detached some +cohorts to the relief of our men, who seeing them flee from the camp, +were neither able to persuade them to rally at their approach, nor +themselves to sustain the enemy's charge. And in like manner, whatever +additional assistance was sent, was infected by the fears of the +defeated, and increased the terror and danger. For retreat was prevented +by the multitude of the fugitives. In that battle, when the eagle-bearer +was dangerously wounded, and began to grow weak, having got sight of our +horse, he said to them, "This eagle have I defended with the greatest +care for many years, at the hazard of my life, and now in my last +moments restore it to Caesar with the same fidelity. Do not, I conjure +you, suffer a dishonour to be sustained in the field, which never before +happened to Caesar's army, but deliver it safe into his hands." By this +accident the eagle was preserved, but all the centurions of the first +cohorts were killed, except the principal. + +LXV.--And now the Pompeians, after great havoc of our troops, were +approaching Marcellinus's camp, and had struck no small terror into the +rest of the cohorts, when Marcus Antonius, who commanded the nearest +fort, being informed of what had happened, was observed descending from +the rising ground with twelve cohorts. His arrival checked the +Pompeians, and encouraged our men to recover from their extreme +affright. And shortly after, Caesar having got notice by the smoke from +all the forts, which was the usual signal on such occasions, drafted off +some cohorts from the outposts, and went to the scene of action. And +having there learnt the loss he had sustained, and perceiving that +Pompey had forced our works, and had encamped along the coast, so that +he was at liberty to forage, and had a communication with his shipping, +he altered his plan for conducting the war, as his design had not +succeeded, and ordered a strong encampment to be made near Pompey. + +LXVI.--When this work was finished, Caesar's scouts observed that some +cohorts, which to them appeared like a legion, were retired behind the +wood, and were on their march to the old camp. The situation of the two +camps was as follows: a few days before, when Caesar's ninth legion had +opposed a party of Pompey's troops, and were endeavouring to enclose +them, Caesar's troops formed a camp in that place. This camp joined a +certain wood, and was not above four hundred paces distant from the sea. +Afterwards, changing his design for certain reasons, Caesar removed his +camp to a small distance beyond that place; and after a few days, Pompey +took possession of it, and added more extensive works, leaving the inner +rampart standing, as he intended to keep several legions there. By this +means, the lesser camp included within the greater, answered the purpose +of a fort and citadel. He had also carried an entrenchment from the left +angle of the camp to the river, about four hundred paces, that his +soldiers might have more liberty and less danger in fetching water. But +he too, changing his design for reasons not necessary to be mentioned, +abandoned the place. In this condition the camp remained for several +days, the works being all entire. + +LXVII.--Caesar's scouts brought him word that the standard of a legion +was carried to this place. That the same thing was seen he was assured +by those in the higher forts. This place was half a mile distant from +Pompey's new camp. Caesar, hoping to surprise this legion, and anxious +to repair the loss sustained that day, left two cohorts employed in the +works to make an appearance of entrenching himself, and by a different +route, as privately as he could, with his other cohorts amounting to +thirty-three, among which was the ninth legion, which had lost so many +centurions, and whose privates were greatly reduced in number, he +marched in two lines against Pompey's legion and his lesser camp. Nor +did this first opinion deceive him. For he reached the place before +Pompey could have notice of it; and though the works were strong, yet +having made the attack with the left wing, which he commanded in person, +he obliged the Pompeians to quit the rampart in disorder. A barricade +had been raised before the gates, at which a short contest was +maintained, our men endeavouring to force their way in, and the enemy to +defend the camp; Titus Pulcio, by whose means we have related that Caius +Antonius's army was betrayed, defending them with singular courage. But +the valour of our men prevailed, and having cut down the barricade, they +first forced the greater camp, and after that the fort which was +enclosed within it: and as the legion on its repulse had retired to +this, they slew several defending themselves there. + +LXVIII.--But Fortune, who exerts a powerful influence as well in other +matters, as especially in war, effects great changes from trifling +causes, as happened at this time. For the cohorts on Caesar's right +wing, through ignorance of the place, followed the direction of that +rampart, which ran along from the camp to the river, whilst they were in +search of a gate, and imagined that it belonged to the camp. But when +they found that it led to the river, and that nobody opposed them, they +immediately climbed over the rampart, and were followed by all our +cavalry. + +LXIX.--In the meantime Pompey, by the great delay which this occasioned, +being informed of what had happened, marched with the fifth legion, +which he called away from their work to support his party; and at the +same time his cavalry were advancing up to ours, and an army in order of +battle was seen at a distance by our men who had taken possession of the +camp, and the face of affairs was suddenly changed. For Pompey's legion, +encouraged by the hope of speedy support, attempted to make a stand at +the Decuman gate, and made a bold charge on our men. Caesar's cavalry, +who had mounted the rampart by a narrow breach, being apprehensive of +their retreat, were the first to flee. The right wing, which had been +separated from the left, observing the terror of the cavalry, to prevent +their being overpowered within the lines, were endeavouring to retreat +by the same way as they burst in; and most of them, lest they should be +engaged in the narrow passes, threw themselves down a rampart ten feet +high into the trenches; and the first being trodden to death, the rest +procured their safety and escaped over their bodies. The soldiers of the +left wing, perceiving from the rampart that Pompey was advancing, and +their own friends fleeing, being afraid that they should be enclosed +between the two ramparts, as they had an enemy both within and without, +strove to secure their retreat the same way they came. All was disorder, +consternation, and flight; insomuch that, when Caesar laid hold of the +colours of those who were running away, and desired them to stand, some +left their horses behind, and continued to run in the same manner; +others through fear even threw away their colours, nor did a single man +face about. + +LXX.--In this calamity, the following favourable circumstance occurred +to prevent the ruin of our whole army, viz., that Pompey suspecting an +ambuscade (because, as I suppose, the success had far exceeded his +hopes, as he had seen his men a moment before fleeing from the camp), +durst not for some time approach the fortification; and that his horse +were retarded from pursuing, because the passes and gates were in +possession of Caesar's soldiers. Thus a trifling circumstance proved of +great importance to each party; for the rampart drawn from the camp to +the river, interrupted the progress and certainty of Caesar's victory, +after he had forced Pompey's camp. The same thing, by retarding the +rapidity of the enemy's pursuit, preserved our army. + +LXXI.--In the two actions of this day, Caesar lost nine hundred and +sixty rank and file, several Roman knights of distinction, Felginas +Tuticanus Gallus, a senator's son; Caius Felginas from Placentia; Aulus +Gravius from Puteoli; Marcus Sacrativir from Capua; and thirty-two +military tribunes and centurions. But the greatest part of all these +perished without a wound, being trodden to death in the trenches, on the +ramparts and banks of the river by reason of the terror and flight of +their own men. Pompey, after this battle, was saluted Imperator; this +title he retained, and allowed himself to be addressed by it afterwards. +But neither in his letters to the senate, nor in the fasces, did he use +the laurel as a mark of honour. But Labienus, having obtained his +consent that the prisoners should be delivered up to him, had them all +brought out, as it appeared, to make a show of them, and that Pompey +might place a greater confidence in him who was a deserter; and calling +them fellow soldiers, and asking them in the most insulting manner +whether it was usual with veterans to flee, ordered them to be put to +death in the sight of the whole army. + +LXXII.-Pompey's party were so elated with confidence and spirit at this +success, that they thought no more of the method of conducting the war, +but thought that they were already conquerors. They did not consider +that the smallness of our numbers, and the disadvantage of the place and +the confined nature of the ground occasioned by their having first +possessed themselves of the camp, and the double danger both from within +and without the fortifications, and the separation of the army into two +parts, so that the one could not give relief to the other, were the +cause of our defeat. They did not consider, in addition, that the +contest was not decided by a vigorous attack, nor a regular battle; and +that our men had suffered greater loss from their numbers and want of +room, than they had sustained from the enemy. In fine, they did not +reflect on the common casualties of war; how trifling causes, either +from groundless suspicions, sudden affright, or religious scruples, have +oftentimes been productive of considerable losses; how often an army has +been unsuccessful either by the misconduct of the general, or the +oversight of a tribune; but as if they had proved victorious by their +valour, and as if no change could ever take place, they published the +success of the day throughout the world by reports and letters. + +LXXIII.--Caesar, disappointed in his first intentions, resolved to +change the whole plan of his operations. Accordingly, he at once called +in all out-posts, gave over the siege, and collecting his army into one +place, addressed his soldiers and encouraged them "not to be troubled at +what had happened, nor to be dismayed at it, but to weigh their many +successful engagements against one disappointment, and that, too, a +trifling one. That they ought to be grateful to Fortune, through whose +favour they had recovered Italy without the effusion of blood; through +whose favour they had subdued the two Spains, though protected by a most +warlike people under the command of the most skilful and experienced +generals: through whose favour they had reduced to submission the +neighbouring states that abounded with corn: in fine, that they ought to +remember with what success they had been all transported safe through +blockading fleets of the enemy, which possessed not only the ports, but +even the coasts: that if all their attempts were not crowned with +success, the defects of Fortune must be supplied by industry; and +whatever loss had been sustained, ought to be attributed rather to her +caprices than to any faults in him: that he had chosen a safe ground for +the engagement, that he had possessed himself of the enemy's camp; that +he had beaten them out, and overcome them when they offered resistance; +but whether their own terror or some mistake, or whether Fortune herself +had interrupted a victory almost secured and certain, they ought all now +to use their utmost efforts to repair by their valour the loss which had +been incurred; if they did so, their misfortunes would turn to their +advantage, as it happened at Gergovia, and those who feared to face the +enemy would be the first to offer themselves to battle. + +LXXIV.--Having concluded his speech, he disgraced some standard-bearers, +and reduced them to the ranks; for the whole army was seized with such +grief at their loss, and with such an ardent desire of repairing their +disgrace, that not a man required the command of his tribune or +centurion, but they imposed each on himself severer labours than usual +as a punishment, and at the same time were so inflamed with eagerness to +meet the enemy, that the officers of the first rank, sensibly affected +at their entreaties, were of opinion that they ought to continue in +their present posts, and commit their fate to the hazard of a battle. +But, on the other hand, Caesar could not place sufficient confidence in +men so lately thrown into consternation, and thought he ought to allow +them time to recover their dejected spirits; and having abandoned his +works, he was apprehensive of being distressed for want of corn. + +LXXV.--Accordingly, suffering no time to intervene but what was +necessary for a proper attention to be paid to the sick and wounded, he +sent on all his baggage privately in the beginning of the night from his +camp to Apollonia, and ordered them not to halt till they had performed +their journey; and he detached one legion with them as a convoy. This +affair being concluded, having retained only two legions in his camp; he +marched the rest of his army out at three o'clock in the morning by +several gates, and sent them forward by the same route; and in a short +space after, that the military practice might be preserved, and his +march known as late as possible, he ordered the signal for decamping to +be given; and setting out immediately, and following the rear of his own +army, he was soon out of sight of the camp. Nor did Pompey, as soon as +he had notice of his design, make any delay to pursue him; but with a +view to surprise them whilst encumbered with baggage on their march, and +not yet recovered from their fright, he led his army out of his camp, +and sent his cavalry on to retard our rear; but was not able to come up +with them, because Caesar had got far before him, and marched without +baggage. But when we reached the river Genusus, the banks being steep, +their horse overtook our rear, and detained them by bringing them to +action. To oppose whom, Caesar sent his horse, and intermixed with them +about four hundred of his advanced light troops, who attacked their +horse with such success, that having routed them all, and killed +several, they returned without any loss to the main body. + +LXXVI.--Having performed the exact march which he had proposed that day, +and having led his army over the river Genusus, Caesar posted himself in +his old camp opposite Asparagium; and kept his soldiers close within the +entrenchments; and ordered the horse, who had been sent out under +pretence of foraging, to retire immediately into the camp, through the +Decuman gate. Pompey, in like manner, having completed the same day's +march, took post in his old camp at Asparagium; and his soldiers, as +they had no work (the fortifications being entire), made long +excursions, some to collect wood and forage; others, invited by the +nearness of the former camp, laid up their arms in their tents, and +quitted the entrenchments in order to bring what they had left behind +them, because the design of marching being adopted in a hurry, they had +left a considerable part of their waggons and luggage behind. Being thus +incapable of pursuing, as Caesar had foreseen, about noon he gave the +signal for marching, led out his army, and doubling that day's march, he +advanced eight miles beyond Pompey's camp; who could not pursue him, +because his troops were dispersed. + +LXXVII.--The next day Caesar sent his baggage forward early in the +night, and marched off himself immediately after the fourth watch: that +if he should be under the necessity of risking an engagement, he might +meet a sudden attack with an army free from incumbrance. He did so for +several days successively, by which means he was enabled to effect his +march over the deepest rivers, and through the most intricate roads +without any loss. For Pompey, after the first day's delay, and the +fatigue which he endured for some days in vain, though he exerted +himself by forced marches, and was anxious to overtake us, who had got +the start of him, on the fourth day desisted from the pursuit, and +determined to follow other measures. + +LXXVIII.--Caesar was obliged to go to Apollonia, to lodge his wounded, +pay his army, confirm his friends, and leave garrisons in the towns. But +for these matters, he allowed no more time than was necessary for a +person in haste. And being apprehensive for Domitius, lest he should be +surprised by Pompey's arrival, he hastened with all speed and +earnestness to join him; for he planned the operations of the whole +campaign on these principles: that if Pompey should march after him, he +would be drawn off from the sea, and from those forces which he had +provided in Dyrrachium, and separated from his corn and magazines, and +be obliged to carry on the war on equal terms; but if he crossed over +into Italy, Caesar, having effected a junction with Domitius, would +march through Illyricum to the relief of Italy; but if he endeavoured to +storm Apollonia and Oricum, and exclude him from the whole coast, he +hoped, by besieging Scipio, to oblige him, of necessity, to come to his +assistance. Accordingly, Caesar despatching couriers, writes to +Domitius, and acquaints him with his wishes on the subject: and having +stationed a garrison of four cohorts at Apollonia, one at Lissus, and +three at Oricum, besides those who were sick of their wounds, he set +forward on his march through Epirus and Acarnania. Pompey, also, +guessing at Caesar's design, determined to hasten to Scipio, that if +Caesar should march in that direction, he might be ready to relieve him; +but that if Caesar should be unwilling to quit the sea-coast and +Corcyra, because he expected legions and cavalry from Italy, he himself +might fall on Domitius with all his forces. + +LXXIX.--For these reasons, each of them studied despatch, that he might +succour his friends, and not miss an opportunity of surprising his +enemies. But Caesar's engagements at Apolloma had carried him aside from +the direct road. Pompey had taken the short road to Macedonia, through +Candavia. To this was added another unexpected disadvantage, that +Domitius, who for several days had been encamped opposite Scipio, had +quitted that post for the sake of provisions, and had marched to +Heraclea Sentica, a city subject to Candavia; so that fortune herself +seemed to throw him in Pompey's way. Of this, Caesar was ignorant up to +this time. Letters likewise being sent by Pompey through all the +provinces and states, with an account of the action at Dyrrachium, very +much enlarged and exaggerated beyond the real facts, a rumour had been +circulated, that Caesar had been defeated and forced to flee, and had +lost almost all his forces. These reports had made the roads dangerous, +and drawn off some states from his alliance: whence it happened, that +the messengers despatched by Caesar, by several different roads to +Domitius, and by Domitius to Caesar, were not able by any means to +accomplish their journey. But the Allobroges, who were in the retinue of +Aegus and Roscillus, and who had deserted to Pompey, having met on the +road a scouting party of Domitius; either from old acquaintance, because +they had served together in Gaul, or elated with vain glory, gave them +an account of all that had happened, and informed them of Caesar's +departure, and Pompey's arrival. Domitius, who was scarce four hours' +march distant, having got intelligence from these, by the courtesy of +the enemy, avoided the danger, and met Caesar coming to join him at +Aeginium, a town on the confines of and opposite to Thessaly. + +LXXX.--The two armies being united, Caesar marched to Gomphi, which is +the first town of Thessaly on the road from Epirus. Now, the +Thessalians, a few months before, had of themselves sent ambassadors to +Caesar, offering him the free use of everything in their power, and +requesting a garrison for their protection. But the report, already +spoken of, of the battle at Dyrrachium, which it had exaggerated in many +particulars, had arrived before him. In consequence of which, +Androsthenes, the praetor of Thessaly, as he preferred to be the +companion of Pompey's victory, rather than Caesar's associate in his +misfortunes, collected all the people, both slaves and freemen, from the +country into the town and shut the gates, and despatched messengers to +Scipio and Pompey "to come to his relief, that he could depend on the +strength of the town, if succour was speedily sent; but that it could +not withstand a long siege." Scipio, as soon as he received advice of +the departure of the armies from Dyrrachium, had marched with his +legions to Larissa: Pompey was not yet arrived near Thessaly. Caesar +having fortified his camp, ordered scaling ladders and pent-houses to be +made for a sudden assault, and hurdles to be provided. As soon as they +were ready, he exhorted his soldiers, and told them of what advantage it +would be to assist them with all sorts of necessaries if they made +themselves masters of a rich and plentiful town: and, at the same time, +to strike terror into other states by the example of this, and to effect +this with speed, before auxiliaries could arrive. Accordingly, taking +advantage of the unusual ardour of the soldiers, he began his assault on +the town at a little after three o'clock on the very day on which he +arrived, and took it, though defended with very high walls, before +sunset, and gave it up to his army to plunder, and immediately decamped +from before it, and marched to Metropolis, with such rapidity as to +outstrip any messenger or rumour of the taking of Gomphi. + +LXXXI.--The inhabitants of Metropolis, at first influenced by the same +rumours, followed the same measures, shut the gates and manned their +walls. But when they were made acquainted with the fate of the city of +Gomphi by some prisoners, whom Caesar had ordered to be brought up to +the walls, they threw open their gates. As he preserved them with the +greatest care, there was not a state in Thessaly (except Larissa, which +was awed by a strong army of Scipio's), but on comparing the fate of the +inhabitants of Metropolis with the severe treatment of Gomphi, gave +admission to Caesar, and obeyed his orders. Having chosen a position +convenient for procuring corn, which was now almost ripe on the ground, +he determined there to wait Pompey's arrival, and to make it the centre +of all his warlike operations. + +LXXXII.--Pompey arrived in Thessaly a few days after, and having +harangued the combined army, returned thanks to his own men, and +exhorted Scipio's soldiers, that as the victory was now secured, they +should endeavour to merit a part of the rewards and booty. And receiving +all the legions into one camp, he shared his honours with Scipio, +ordered the trumpet to be sounded at his tent, and a pavilion to be +erected for him. The forces of Pompey being thus augmented, and two such +powerful armies united, their former expectations were confirmed, and +their hopes of victory so much increased, that whatever time intervened +was considered as so much delay to their return into Italy: and whenever +Pompey acted with slowness and caution, they used to exclaim, that it +was the business only of a single day, but that he had a passion for +power, and was delighted in having persons of consular and praetorian +rank in the number of his slaves. And they now began to dispute openly +about rewards and priesthoods, and disposed of the consulate for several +years to come. Others put in their claims for the houses and properties +of all who were in Caesar's camp, and in that council there was a warm +debate, whether Lucius Hirrus, who had been sent by Pompey against the +Parthians, should be admitted a candidate for the praetorship in his +absence at the next election; his friends imploring Pompey's honour to +fulfil the engagements which he had made to him at his departure, that +he might not seem deceived through his authority: whilst others, +embarked in equal labour and danger, pleaded that no individual ought to +have a preference before all the rest. + +LXXXIII.--Already Domitius, Scipio, and Lentulus Spinthur, in their +daily quarrels about Caesar's priesthood, openly abused each other in +the most scurrilous language. Lentulus urging the respect due to his +age, Domitius boasting his interest in the city and his dignity, and +Scipio presuming on his alliance with Pompey. Attius Rufus charged +Lucius Afranius before Pompey with betraying the army in the action that +happened in Spain, and Lucius Domitius declared in the council that it +was his wish that, when the war should be ended, three billets should be +given to all the senators who had taken part with them in the war, and +that they should pass sentence on every single person who had stayed +behind at Rome, or who had been within Pompey's garrisons and had not +contributed their assistance in the military operations; that by the +first billet they should-have power to acquit, by the second to pass +sentence of death, and by the third to impose a pecuniary fine. In +short, Pompey's whole army talked of nothing but the honours or sums of +money which were to be their rewards, or of vengeance on their enemies; +and never considered how they were to defeat their enemies, but in what +manner they should use their victory. + +LXXXIV.--Corn being provided, and his soldiers refreshed, and a +sufficient time having elapsed since the engagement at Dyrrachium, when +Caesar thought he had sufficiently sounded the disposition of his +troops, he thought that he ought to try whether Pompey had any intention +or inclination to come to a battle. Accordingly he led his troops out of +the camp, and ranged them in order of battle, at first on their own +ground, and at a small distance from Pompey's camp: but afterwards for +several days in succession he advanced from his own camp, and led them +up to the hills on which Pompey's troops were posted, which conduct +inspired his army every day with fresh courage. However he adhered to +his former purpose respecting his cavalry, for as he was by many degrees +inferior in number, he selected the youngest and most active of the +advanced guard, and desired them to fight intermixed with the horse, and +they by constant practice acquired experience in this kind of battle. By +these means it was brought to pass that a thousand of his horse would +dare, even on open ground, to stand against seven thousand of Pompey's, +if occasion required, and would not be much terrified by their number. +For even on one of those days he was successful in a cavalry action, and +killed one of the two Allobrogians who had deserted to Pompey, as we +before observed, and several others. + +LXXXV.--Pompey, because he was encamped on a hill, drew up his army at +the very foot of it, ever in expectation, as may be conjectured, that +Caesar would expose himself to this disadvantageous situation. Caesar, +seeing no likelihood of being able to bring Pompey to an action, judged +it the most expedient method of conducting the war, to decamp from that +post, and to be always in motion: with this hope, that by shifting his +camp and removing from place to place, he might be more conveniently +supplied with corn, and also, that by being in motion he might get some +opportunity of forcing them to battle, and might by constant marches +harass Pompey's army, which was not accustomed to fatigue. These matters +being settled, when the signal for marching was given, and the tents +struck, it was observed that shortly before, contrary to his daily +practice, Pompey's army had advanced farther than usual from his +entrenchments, so that it appeared possible to come to an action on +equal ground. Then Caesar addressed himself to his soldiers, when they +were at the gates of the camp, ready to march out. "We must defer," says +he, "our march at present, and set our thoughts on battle, which has +been our constant wish; let us then meet the foe with resolute souls. We +shall not hereafter easily find such an opportunity." He immediately +marched out at the head of his troops. + +LXXXVI.--Pompey also, as was afterward known, at the unanimous +solicitation of his friends, had determined to try the fate of a battle. +For he had even declared in council a few days before that, before the +battalions came to battle, Caesar's army would be put to the rout. When +most people expressed their surprise at it, "I know," says he, "that I +promise a thing almost incredible; but hear the plan on which I proceed, +that you may march to battle with more confidence and resolution. I have +persuaded our cavalry, and they have engaged to execute it, as soon as +the two armies have met, to attack Caesar's right wing on the flank, and +enclosing their army on the rear, throw them into disorder, and put them +to the rout, before we shall throw a weapon against the enemy. By this +means we shall put an end to the war, without endangering the legions, +and almost without a blow. Nor is this a difficult matter, as we far +outnumber them in cavalry." At the same time he gave them notice to be +ready for battle on the day following, and since the opportunity which +they had so often wished for was now arrived, not to disappoint the +opinion generally entertained of their experience and valour. + +LXXXVII.--After him Labienus spoke, as well to express his contempt of +Caesar's forces, as to extol Pompey's scheme with the highest encomiums. +"Think not, Pompey," says he, "that this is the army which conquered +Gaul and Germany; I was present at all those battles and do not speak at +random on a subject to which I am a stranger: a very small part of that +army now remains, great numbers lost their lives, as must necessarily +happen in so many battles, many fell victims to the autumnal pestilence +in Italy, many returned home, and many were left behind on the +continent. Have you not heard that the cohorts at Brundisium are +composed of invalids? The forces which you now behold, have been +recruited by levies lately made in Hither Spain, and the greater part +from the colonies beyond the Po; moreover, the flower of the forces +perished in the two engagements at Dyrrachium." Having so said, he took +an oath, never to return to his camp unless victorious; and he +encouraged the rest to do the like. Pompey applauded his proposal, and +took the same oath; nor did any person present hesitate to take it. +After this had passed in the council they broke up full of hopes and +joy, and in imagination anticipated victory; because they thought that +in a matter of such importance, no groundless assertion could be made by +a general of such experience. + +LXXXVIII.--When Caesar had approached near Pompey's camp, he observed +that his army was drawn up in the following manner:--On the left wing +were the two legions delivered over by Caesar at the beginning of the +disputes in compliance with the senate's decree, one of which was called +the first, the other the third. Here Pompey commanded in person. Scipio +with the Syrian legions commanded the centre. The Cilician legion in +conjunction with the Spanish cohorts, which we said were brought over by +Afranius, were disposed on the right wing. These Pompey considered his +steadiest troops. The rest he had interspersed between the centre and +the wing, and he had a hundred and ten complete cohorts; these amounted +to forty-five thousand men. He had besides two cohorts of volunteers, +who having received favours from him in former wars, flocked to his +standard: these were dispersed through his whole army. The seven +remaining cohorts he had disposed to protect his camp, and the +neighbouring forts. His right wing was secured by a river with steep +banks; for which reason he placed all his cavalry, archers, and +slingers, on his left wing. + +LXXXIX.--Caesar, observing his former custom, had placed the tenth +legion on the right, the ninth on the left, although it was very much +weakened by the battles at Dyrrachium. He placed the eighth legion so +close to the ninth, as to almost make one of the two, and ordered them +to support one another. He drew up on the field eighty cohorts, making a +total of twenty-two thousand men. He left two cohorts to guard the camp. +He gave the command of the left wing to Antonius, of the right to P. +Sulla, and of the centre to Cn. Domitius: he himself took his post +opposite Pompey. At the same time, fearing, from the disposition of the +enemy which we have previously mentioned, lest his right wing might be +surrounded by their numerous cavalry, he rapidly drafted a single cohort +from each of the legions composing the third line, formed of them a +fourth line, and opposed them to Pompey's cavalry, and, acquainting them +with his wishes, admonished them that the success of that day depended +on their courage. At the same time he ordered the third line, and the +entire army not to charge without his command: that he would give the +signal whenever he wished them to do so. + +XC.--When he was exhorting his army to battle, according to the military +custom, and spoke to them of the favours that they had constantly +received from him, he took especial care to remind them "that he could +call his soldiers to witness the earnestness with which he had sought +peace, the efforts that he had made by Vatinius to gain a conference +[with Labienus], and likewise by Claudius to treat with Scipio, in what +manner he had exerted himself at Oricum, to gain permission from Libo to +send ambassadors; that he had been always reluctant to shed the blood of +his soldiers, and did not wish to deprive the republic of one or other +of her armies." After delivering this speech, he gave by a trumpet the +signal to his soldiers, who were eagerly demanding it, and were very +impatient for the onset. + +XCI.--There was in Caesar's army a volunteer of the name of Crastinus, +who the year before had been first centurion of the tenth legion, a man +of pre-eminent bravery. He, when the signal was given, says, "Follow me, +my old comrades, and display such exertions in behalf of your general as +you have determined to do: this is our last battle, and when it shall be +won, he will recover his dignity, and we our liberty." At the same time +he looked back to Caesar, and said, "General, I will act in such a +manner to-day, that you will feel grateful to me living or dead." After +uttering these words he charged first on the right wing, and about one +hundred and twenty chosen volunteers of the same century followed. + +XCII.--There was so much space left between the two lines, as sufficed +for the onset of the hostile armies: but Pompey had ordered his soldiers +to await Caesar's attack, and not to advance from their position, or +suffer their line to be put into disorder. And he is said to have done +this by the advice of Caius Triarius, that the impetuosity of the charge +of Caesar's soldiers might be checked, and their line broken, and that +Pompey's troops remaining in their ranks, might attack them while in +disorder; and he thought that the javelins would fall with less force if +the soldiers were kept in their ground, than if they met them in their +course; at the same time he trusted that Caesar's soldiers, after +running over double the usual ground, would become weary and exhausted +by the fatigue. But to me Pompey seems to have acted without sufficient +reason: for there is a certain impetuosity of spirit and an alacrity +implanted by nature in the hearts of all men, which is inflamed by a +desire to meet the foe. This a general should endeavour not to repress, +but to increase; nor was it a vain institution of our ancestors, that +the trumpets should sound on all sides, and a general shout be raised; +by which they imagined that the enemy were struck with terror, and their +own army inspired with courage. + +XCIII.--But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with +their javelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men +did not run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom, +and being practised in former battles, they of their own accord +repressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might not +come up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after a +short respite they again renewed their course, and threw their javelins, +and instantly drew their swords, as Caesar had ordered them. Nor did +Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received our javelins, stood +our charge, and maintained their ranks: and having launched their +javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the same time Pompey's horse, +according to their orders, rushed out at once from his left wing, and +his whole host of archers poured after them. Our cavalry did not +withstand their charge: but gave ground a little, upon which Pompey's +horse pressed them more vigorously, and began to file off in troops, and +flank our army. When Caesar perceived this, he gave the signal to his +fourth line, which he had formed of the six cohorts. They instantly +rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse with such fury, that not a man +of them stood; but all wheeling about, not only quitted their post, but +galloped forward to seek a refuge in the highest mountains. By their +retreat the archers and slingers, being left destitute and defenceless, +were all cut to pieces. The cohorts, pursuing their success, wheeled +about upon Pompey's left wing, whilst his infantry still continued to +make battle, and attacked them in the rear. + +XCIV.--At the same time Caesar ordered his third line to advance, which +till then had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new and +fresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and others +having made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able to +maintain their ground, but all fled, nor was Caesar deceived in his +opinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to his +soldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts which he had +placed as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalry +were routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; by +them the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to be +the first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and that part +of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown into +confusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreated +straightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions, +whom he had placed to guard the praetorian gate, with a loud voice, that +the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp," says he, "defend it with +diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit the other +gates, and encourage the guards of the camp." Having thus said, he +retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting the issue. + +XCV.--Caesar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their +entrenchment, and thinking that he ought not to allow them any respite +to recover from their fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of +fortune's kindness, and to attack the camp. Though they were fatigued by +the intense heat, for the battle had continued till mid-day, yet, being +prepared to undergo any labour, they cheerfully obeyed his command. The +camp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guard +it, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreign auxiliaries. +For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from the field of battle, +affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrown away their arms and +military standards, had their thoughts more engaged on their further +escape than on the defence of the camp. Nor could the troops who were +posted on the battlements long withstand the immense number of our +darts, but fainting under their wounds, quitted the place, and under the +conduct of their centurions and tribunes, fled, without stopping, to the +high mountains which joined the camp. + +XCVI.--In Pompey's camp you might see arbours in which tables were laid, +a large quantity of plate set out, the floors of the tents covered with +fresh sods, the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy, and +many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and a +confidence of victory, so that it might readily be inferred that they +had no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulged +themselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxury +Caesar's army, distressed and suffering troops, who had always been in +want of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced the +trenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit, +went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with all +speed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same despatch +collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nor +night, he arrived at the sea-side, attended by only thirty horse, and +went on board a victualling barque, often complaining, as we have been +told, that he had been so deceived in his expectation, that he was +almost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he had +expected victory, as they began the flight. + +XCVII.--Caesar having possessed himself of Pompey's camp, urged his +soldiers not to be too intent on plunder, and lose the opportunity of +completing their conquest. Having obtained their consent, he began to +draw lines round the mountain. The Pompeians distrusting the position, +as there was no water on the mountain, abandoned it, and all began to +retreat towards Larissa; which Caesar perceiving, divided his troops, +and ordering part of his legions to remain in Pompey's camp, sent back a +part to his own camp, and taking four legions with him, went by a +shorter road to intercept the enemy: and having marched six miles, drew +up his army. But the Pompeians observing this, took post on a mountain +whose foot was washed by a river. Caesar having encouraged his troops, +though they were greatly exhausted by incessant labour the whole day, +and night was now approaching, by throwing up works cut off the +communication between the river and the mountain, that the enemy might +not get water in the night. As soon as the work was finished, they sent +ambassadors to treat about a capitulation. A few senators who had +espoused that party, made their escape by night. + +XCVIII.--At break of day, Caesar ordered all those who had taken post on +the mountain, to come down from the higher grounds into the plain, and +pile their arms. When they did this without refusal, and with +outstretched arms, prostrating themselves on the ground, with tears, +implored his mercy: he comforted them and bade them rise, and having +spoken a few words of his own clemency to alleviate their fears, he +pardoned them all, and gave orders to his soldiers that no injury should +be done to them, and nothing taken from them. Having used this +diligence, he ordered the legions in his camp to come and meet him, and +those which were, with him to take their turn of rest, and go back to +the camp; and the same day went to Larissa. + +XCIX.--In that battle, no more than two hundred privates were missing, +but Caesar lost about thirty centurions, valiant officers. Crastinus, +also, of whom mention was made before, fighting most courageously, lost +his life by the wound of a sword in the mouth; nor was that false which +he declared when marching to battle: for Caesar entertained the highest +opinion of his behaviour in that battle, and thought him highly +deserving of his approbation. Of Pompey's army, there fell about fifteen +thousand; but upwards of twenty-four thousand were made prisoners: for +even the cohorts which were stationed in the forts, surrendered to +Sylla. Several others took shelter in the neighbouring states. One +hundred and eighty stands of colours, and nine eagles, were brought to +Caesar. Lucius Domitius, fleeing from the camp to the mountains, his +strength being exhausted by fatigue, was killed by the horse. + +C.--About this time, Decimus Laelius arrived with his fleet at +Brundisium and in the same manner as Libo had done before, possessed +himself of an island opposite the harbour of Brundisium. In like manner, +Valimus, who was then governor of Brundisium, with a few decked barques, +endeavoured to entice Laelius's fleet, and took one five-benched galley +and two smaller vessels that had ventured farther than the rest into a +narrow part of the harbour: and likewise disposing the horse along the +shore, strove to prevent the enemy from procuring fresh water. But +Laelius having chosen a more convenient season of the year for his +expedition, supplied himself with water brought in transports from +Corcyra and Dyrrachium, and was not deterred from his purpose; and till +he had received advice of the battle in Thessaly, he could not be forced +either by the disgrace of losing his ships, or by the want of +necessaries, to quit the port and islands. + +CI.--Much about the same time, Cassius arrived in Sicily with a fleet of +Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cilicians: and as Caesar's fleet was divided +into two parts, Publius Sulpicius the praetor commanding one division at +Vibo near the straits, Pomponius the other at Messana, Cassius got into +Messana with his fleet before Pomponius had notice of his arrival, and +having found him in disorder, without guards or discipline, and the wind +being high and favourable, he filled several transports with fir, pitch, +and tow, and other combustibles, and sent them against Pomponius's +fleet, and set fire to all his ships, thirty-five in number, twenty of +which were armed with beaks: and this action struck such terror, that +though there was a legion in garrison at Messana, the town with +difficulty held out, and had not the news of Caesar's victory been +brought at that instant by the horse stationed along the coast, it was +generally imagined that it would have been lost, but the town was +maintained till the news arrived very opportunely; and Cassius set sail +from thence to attack Sulpicius's fleet at Vibo, and our ships being +moored to the land, to strike the same terror, he acted in the same +manner as before. The wind being favourable, he sent into the port about +forty ships provided with combustibles, and the flame catching on both +sides, five ships were burnt to ashes. And when the fire began to spread +wider by the violence of the wind, the soldiers of the veteran legions, +who had been left to guard the fleet, being considered as invalids, +could not endure the disgrace, but of themselves went on board the ships +and weighed anchor, and having attacked Cassius's fleet, captured two +five-banked galleys, in one of which was Cassius himself; but he made +his escape by taking to a boat. Two three-banked galleys were taken +besides. Intelligence was shortly after received of the action in +Thessaly, so well authenticated, that the Pompeians themselves gave +credit to it; for they had hitherto believed it a fiction of Caesar's +lieutenants and friends. Upon which intelligence Cassius departed with +his fleet from that coast. + +CII.--Caesar thought he ought to postpone all business and pursue +Pompey, whithersoever he should retreat; that he might not be able to +provide fresh forces, and renew the war; he therefore marched on every +day, as far as his cavalry were able to advance, and ordered one legion +to follow him by shorter journeys. A proclamation was issued by Pompey +at Amphipolis, that all the young men of that province, Grecians and +Roman citizens, should take the military oath; but whether he issued it +with an intention of preventing suspicion, and to conceal as long as +possible his design of fleeing farther, or to endeavour to keep +possession of Macedonia by new levies, if nobody pursued him, it is +impossible to judge. He lay at anchor one night, and calling together +his friends in Amphipolis, and collecting a sum of money for his +necessary expenses, upon advice of Caesar's approach, set sail from that +place, and arrived in a few days at Mitylene. Here he was detained two +days, and having added a few galleys to his fleet he went to Cilicia, +and thence to Cyprus. There he is informed that, by the consent of all +the inhabitants of Antioch and Roman citizens who traded there, the +castle had been seized to shut him out of the town; and that messengers +had been despatched to all those who were reported to have taken refuge +in the neighbouring states, that they should not come to Antioch; that +if they did that, it would be attended with imminent danger to their +lives. The same thing had happened to Lucius Lentulus, who had been +consul the year before, and to Publius Lentulus a consular senator, and +to several others at Rhodes, who having followed Pompey in his flight, +and arrived at the island, were not admitted into the town or port; and +having received a message to leave that neighbourhood, set sail much +against their will; for the rumour of Caesar's approach had now reached +those states. + +CIII.--Pompey, being informed of these proceedings, laid aside his +design of going to Syria, and having taken the public money from the +farmers of the revenue, and borrowed more from some private friends, and +having put on board his ships a large quantity of brass for military +purposes, and two thousand armed men, whom he partly selected from the +slaves of the tax farmers, and partly collected from the merchants, and +such persons as each of his friends thought fit on this occasion, he +sailed for Pelusium. It happened that king Ptolemy, a minor, was there +with a considerable army, engaged in war with his sister Cleopatra, whom +a few months before, by the assistance of his relations and friends, he +had expelled from the kingdom; and her camp lay at a small distance from +his. To him Pompey applied to be permitted to take refuge in Alexandria, +and to be protected in his calamity by his powerful assistance, in +consideration of the friendship and amity which had subsisted between +his father and him. But Pompey's deputies having executed their +commission, began to converse with less restraint with the king's +troops, and to advise them to act with friendship to Pompey, and not to +think meanly of his bad fortune. In Ptolemy's army were several of +Pompey's soldiers, of whom Gabinius had received the command in Syria, +and had brought them over to Alexandria, and at the conclusion of the +war had left with Ptolemy the father of the young king. + +CIV.--The king's friends, who were regents of the kingdom during the +minority, being informed of these things, either induced by fear, as +they afterwards declared, lest Pompey should corrupt the king's army, +and seize on Alexandria and Egypt; or despising his bad fortune, as in +adversity friends commonly change to enemies, in public gave a +favourable answer to his deputies, and desired him to come to the king; +but secretly laid a plot against him, and despatched Achillas, captain +of the king's guards, a man of singular boldness, and Lucius Septimius a +military tribune to assassinate him. Being kindly addressed by them, and +deluded by an acquaintance with Septimius, because in the war with the +pirates the latter had commanded a company under him, he embarked in a +small boat with a few attendants, and was there murdered by Achillas and +Septimius. In like manner, Lucius Lentulus was seized by the king's +order, and put to death in prison. + +CV.--When Caesar arrived in Asia, he found that Titus Ampius had +attempted to remove the money from the temple of Diana at Ephesus; and +for this purpose had convened all the senators in the province that he +might have them to attest the sum, but was interrupted by Caesar's +arrival, and had made his escape. Thus, on two occasions, Caesar saved +the money of Ephesus. It was also remarked at Elis, in the temple of +Minerva, upon calculating and enumerating the days, that on the very day +on which Caesar had gained his battle, the image of Victory which was +placed before Minerva, and faced her statue, turned about towards the +portal and entrance of the temple; and the same day, at Antioch in +Syria, such a shout of an army and sound of trumpets was twice heard, +that the citizens ran in arms to the walls. The same thing happened at +Ptolemais; a sound of drums too was heard at Pergamus, in the private +and retired parts of the temple, into which none but the priests are +allowed admission, and which the Greeks call Adyta (the inaccessible), +and likewise at Tralles, in the temple of Victory, in which there stood +a statue consecrated to Caesar; a palm-tree at that time was shown that +had sprouted up from the pavement, through the joints of the stones, and +shot up above the roof. + +CVI.--After a few days' delay in Asia, Caesar, having heard that Pompey +had been seen in Cyprus, and conjecturing that he had directed his +course into Egypt, on account of his connection with that kingdom, set +out for Alexandria with two legions (one of which he ordered to follow +him from Thessaly, the other he called in from Achaia, from Fufius, the +lieutenant-general) and with eight hundred horse, ten ships of war from +Rhodes, and a few from Asia. These legions amounted but to three +thousand two hundred men; the rest, disabled by wounds received in +various battles, by fatigue and the length of their march, could not +follow him. But Caesar, relying on the fame of his exploits; did not +hesitate to set forward with a feeble force, and thought that he would +be secure in any place. At Alexandria he was informed of the death of +Pompey: and at his landing there, heard a cry among the soldiers whom +the king had left to garrison the town, and saw a crowd gathering +towards him, because the fasces were carried before him; for this the +whole multitude thought an infringement of the king's dignity. Though +this tumult was appeased, frequent disturbances were raised for several +days successively, by crowds of the populace, and a great many of his +soldiers were killed in all parts of the city. + +CVIL--Having observed this, he ordered other legions to be brought to +him from Asia, which he had made up out of Pompey's soldiers; for he was +himself detained against his will, by the etesian winds, which are +totally unfavourable to persons on a voyage from Alexandria. In the +meantime, considering that the disputes of the princes belonged to the +jurisdiction of the Roman people, and of him as consul, and that it was +a duty more incumbent on him, as in his former consulate a league had +been made with Ptolemy the late king, under sanction both of a law, and +a decree of the senate, he signified that it was his pleasure, that king +Ptolemy, and his sister Cleopatra, should disband their armies, and +decide their disputes in his presence by justice, rather than by the +sword. + +CVIII.--A eunuch named Pothinus, the boy's tutor, was regent of the +kingdom on account of his youthfulness. He at first began to complain +amongst his friends, and to express his indignation, that the king +should be summoned to plead his cause: but afterwards, having prevailed +on some of those whom he had made acquainted with his views to join him, +he secretly called the army away from Pelusium to Alexandria, and +appointed Achillas, already spoken of, commander-in-chief of the forces. +Him he encouraged and animated by promises both in his own and the +king's name, and instructed him both by letters and messages how he +should act. By the will of Ptolemy the father, the elder of his two sons +and the more advanced in years of his two daughters were declared his +heirs, and for the more effectual performance of his intention, in the +same will he conjured the Roman people by all the gods, and by the +league which he had entered into at Rome, to see his will executed. One +of the copies of his will was conveyed to Rome by his ambassadors to be +deposited in the treasury, but the public troubles preventing it, it was +lodged with Pompey: another was left sealed up, and kept at Alexandria. + +CIX.--Whilst these things were debated before Caesar, and he was very +anxious to settle the royal disputes as a common friend and arbitrator; +news was brought on a sudden that the king's army and all his cavalry +were on their march to Alexandria. Caesar's forces were by no means so +strong that he could trust to them, if he had occasion to hazard a +battle without the town. His only resource was to keep within the town +in the most convenient places, and get information of Achillas's +designs. However he ordered his soldiers to repair to their arms; and +advised the king to send some of his friends, who had the greatest +influence, as deputies to Achillas and to signify his royal pleasure. +Dioscorides and Serapion, the persons sent by him, who had both been +ambassadors at Rome, and had been in great esteem with Ptolemy the +father, went to Achillas. But as soon as they appeared in his presence, +without hearing them, or learning the occasion of their coming, he +ordered them to be seized and put to death. One of them, after receiving +a wound, was taken up and carried off by his attendants as dead: the +other was killed on the spot. Upon this, Caesar took care to secure the +king's person, both supposing that the king's name would have great +influence with his subjects, and to give the war the appearance of the +scheme of a few desperate men, rather than of having been begun by the +king's consent. + +CX.--The forces under Achillas did not seem despicable, either for +number, spirit, or military experience; for he had twenty thousand men +under arms. They consisted partly of Gabinius's soldiers, who were now +become habituated to the licentious mode of living at Alexandria, and +had forgotten the name and discipline of the Roman people, and had +married wives there, by whom the greatest part of them had children. To +these was added a collection of highwaymen and free-booters, from Syria, +and the province of Cilicia, and the adjacent countries. Besides several +convicts and transports had been collected: for at Alexandria all our +runaway slaves were sure of finding protection for their persons on the +condition that they should give in their names, and enlist as soldiers: +and if any of them was apprehended by his master, he was rescued by a +crowd of his fellow soldiers, who being involved in the same guilt, +repelled, at the hazard of their lives, every violence offered to any of +their body. These by a prescriptive privilege of the Alexandrian army, +used to demand the king's favourites to be put to death, pillage the +properties of the rich to increase their pay, invest the king's palace, +banish some from the kingdom, and recall others from exile. Besides +these, there were two thousand horse, who had acquired the skill of +veterans by being in several wars in Alexandria. These had restored +Ptolemy the father to his kingdom, had killed Bibulus's two sons; and +had been engaged in war with the Egyptians; such was their experience in +military affairs. + +CXI.--Full of confidence in his troops, and despising the small number +of Caesar's soldiers, Achillas seized Alexandria, except that part of +the town which Caesar occupied with his troops. At first he attempted to +force the palace; but Caesar had disposed his cohorts through the +streets, and repelled his attack. At the same time there was an action +at the port: where the contest was maintained with the greatest +obstinacy. For the forces were divided, and the fight maintained in +several streets at once, and the enemy endeavoured to seize with a +strong party the ships of war; of which fifty had been sent to Pompey's +assistance, but after the battle in Thessaly had returned home. They +were all of either three or five banks of oars, well equipped and +appointed with every necessary for a voyage. Besides these, there were +twenty-two vessels with decks, which were usually kept at Alexandria, to +guard the port. If they made themselves masters of these, Caesar being +deprived of his fleet, they would have the command of the port and whole +sea, and could prevent him from procuring provisions and auxiliaries. +Accordingly that spirit was displayed, which ought to be displayed when +the one party saw that a speedy victory depended on the issue, and the +other their safety. But Caesar gained the day, and set fire to all those +ships, and to others which were in the docks, because he could not guard +so many places with so small a force; and immediately he conveyed some +troops to the Pharos by his ships. + +CXIL--The Pharos is a tower on an island, of prodigious height, built +with amazing works, and takes its name from the island. This island +lying over against Alexandria forms a harbour; but on the upper side it +is connected with the town by a narrow way eight hundred paces in +length, made by piles sunk in the sea, and by a bridge. In this island +some of the Egyptians have houses, and a village as large as a town; and +whatever ships from any quarter, either through mistaking the channel, +or by the storm, have been driven from their course upon the coast, they +constantly plunder like pirates. And without the consent of those who +are masters of the Pharos, no vessels can enter the harbour, on account +of its narrowness. Caesar being greatly alarmed on this account, whilst +the enemy were engaged in battle, landed his soldiers, seized the +Pharos, and placed a garrison in it. By this means he gained this point, +that he could be supplied without danger with corn and auxiliaries: for +he sent to all the neighbouring countries, to demand supplies. In other +parts of the town, they fought so obstinately, that they quitted the +field with equal advantage, and neither were beaten (in consequence of +the narrowness of the passes); and a few being killed on both sides, +Caesar secured the most necessary posts, and fortified them in the +night. In this quarter of the town was a wing of the king's palace, in +which Caesar was lodged on his first arrival, and a theatre adjoining +the house which served as for citadel, and commanded an avenue to the +port and other docks. These fortifications he increased during the +succeeding days, that he might have them before him as a rampart, and +not be obliged to fight against his will. In the meantime Ptolemy's +younger daughter, hoping the throne would become vacant, made her escape +from the palace to Achillas, and assisted him in prosecuting the war. +But they soon quarrelled about the command, which circumstance enlarged +the presents to the soldiers, for each endeavoured by great sacrifices +to secure their affection. Whilst the enemy was thus employed, Pothinus, +tutor to the young king, and regent of the kingdom, who was in Caesar's +part of the town, sent messengers to Achillas, and encouraged him not to +desist from his enterprise, nor to despair of success; but his +messengers being discovered and apprehended, he was put to death by +Caesar. Such was the commencement of the Alexandrian war. + + + + * * * * * + + +INDEX + +N.B. The numerals refer to the book, the figures to the chapter. G. +stands for the Gallic War, C. for the Civil. + +Acarn[=a]n[)i]a, a region of Greece, _Carnia_ + +Acco, prince of the Sen[)o]nes, his conduct on Caesar's approach, G. vi. +4; condemned in a council of the Gauls, vi. 44 + +Achaia, sometimes taken for all Greece, but most commonly for a part of +it only; in Peloponnesus, _Romania alta_ + +Achillas, captain of Ptolemy's guards, sent to kill Pompey, C. iii. 104; +appointed by Pothinus commander of all the Egyptian forces, _ibid_. 108; +heads an army of twenty thousand veteran troops, _ibid_. 110 + +Acilla, or Achilla, or Acholla. There were two cities in Africa of this +name, one inland, the other on the coast. The modern name of the latter +is _Elalia_ + +Acilius, Caesar's lieutenant, C. iii. 15 + +Act[)i]um, a promontory of Epirus, now called the _Cape of Tigalo_, +famous for a naval victory gained near it, by Augustus, over M. Antony + +Act[)i]us, a Pelignian, one of Pompey's followers, taken by Caesar, and +dismissed in safety, C. i. 18 + +Act[)i]us Rufus accuses L. Apanius of treachery, C. iii. 83 + +Act[)i]us Varus prevents Tubero from landing in Africa, C. i. 31; his +forces, C. ii. 23; his camp, _ibid_. 25; engages Curio, _ibid_. 34; his +danger, defeat, and stratagem, _ibid_. 35 + +Adcant[)u]annus sallies upon Crassus at the head of a chosen body of +troops, G. iii. 22 + +Add[)u]a, the _Adda_, a river that rises in the Alps, and, separating +the duchy of Milan from the state of Venice, falls into the Po above +Cremona + +Adriatic Sea, the _Gulf of Venice_, at the extremity of which that city +is situated + +Adrum[=e]tum, a town in Africa, _Mahometta_; held by Considius Longus +with a garrison of one legion, C. ii. 23 + +Aduat[)u]uci (in some editions Atuatici), descendants of the Teutones +and Cimbri, G. ii. 29; they furnish twenty-nine thousand men to the +general confederacy of Gaul, _ibid_. 4; Caesar obliges them to submit, +_ibid_. 29 + +Aed[)u]i, the _Autunois_, a people of Gaul, near _Autun_, in the country +now called _Lower Burgundy_; they complain to Caesar of the ravages +committed in their territories by the Helvetii, G. i. 11; join in a +petition against Ariovistus, _ibid_. 33; at the head of one of the two +leading factions of Gaul, G. vi. 12; Caesar quiets an intestine +commotion among them, C. vii. 33; they revolt from the Romans, G. vii. +54; their law concerning magistrates, _ibid_. 33; their clients, i. 31; +vii. 75 + +Aeg[=e]an Sea, the _Archipelago_, a part of the Mediterranean which lies +between Greece, Asia Minor, and the Isle of Crete + +Aeg[=i]n[)i]um, a town of Thessaly; Domitius joins Caesar near that +place, C. iii. 79 + +Aegus and Roscillus, their perfidious behaviour towards Caesar, C. iii. +59, 60 + +Aegyptus, _Egypt,_ an extensive country of Africa, bounded on the west +by part of Marmarica and the deserts of Lybia, on the north by the +Mediterranean, on the east by the Sinus Arabicus, and a line drawn from +Arsino[)e] to Rhinocolura, and on the south by Aethiopia. Egypt, +properly so called, may be described as consisting of the long and +narrow valley which follows the course of the Nile from Syene +(_Assooan_) to _Cairo,_ near the site of the ancient Memphis. The name +by which this country is known to Europeans comes from the Greeks, some +of whose writers inform us that it received this appellation from +Aegyptus, son of Belus, it having been previously called Aeria. In the +Hebrew scriptures it is called Mitsraim, and also Matsor and Harets +Cham; of these names, however, the first is the one most commonly +employed + +Aemilia Via, a Roman road in Italy, from Rimini to Aquileia, and from +Pisa to Dertona + +Aet[=o]lia, a country of Greece, _Despotato;_ recovered from Pompey by +the partisans of Caesar, C. iii. 35 + +Afr[=a]nius, Pompey's lieutenant, his exploits in conjunction with +Petreius, C. i. 38; resolves to carry the war into Celtiberia, _ibid_. +61; surrenders to Caesar, _ibid_. 84 + +Afr[)i]ca, one of the four great continents into which the earth is +divided; the name seems to have been originally applied by the Romans to +the country around Carthage, the first part of the continent with which +they became acquainted, and is said to have been derived from a small +Carthaginian district on the northern coast, called _Frigi._ Hence, even +when the name had become applied to the whole continent, there still +remained in Roman geography the district of Africa Proper, on the +Mediterranean coast, corresponding to the modem kingdom of _Tunis,_ with +part of that of _Tripoli_ + +Agend[)i]cum, a city of the Senones, _Sens_; Caesar quarters four +legions there, G. vi. 44; Labienus leaves his baggage in it under a +guard of new levies, and sets out for Lutetia, G. vii. 57 + +Alba, a town of Latium, in Italy, _Albano_; Domitius levies troops in +that neighbourhood, C. i. 15 + +Alb[=i]ci, a people of Gaul, unknown; some make them the same with the +_Vivarois_; taken into the service of the Marseillians, C. i. 34 + +Albis, the _Elbe,_ a large and noble river in Germany, which has its +source in the Giant's Mountains in Silesia, on the confines of Bohemia, +and passing through Bohemia, Upper and Lower Saxony, falls into the +North Sea at Ritzbuttel, about sixty miles below Hamburg + +Alces, a species of animals somewhat resembling an elk, to be found in +the Hercynian forests, C. vi. 27 + +Alemanni, or Alamanni, a name assumed by a confederacy of German tribes, +situated between the Neckar and the Upper Rhine, who united to resist +the encroachments of the Roman power. According to Mannert, they derived +their origin from the shattered remains of the army of Ariovistus +retired, after the defeat and death of their leader, to the mountainous +country of the Upper Rhine. After their overthrow by Clovis, king of the +Salian Franks, they ceased to exist as one nation, and were dispersed +over Gaul, Switzerland, and Nether Italy. From them L'Allemagne, the +French name for Germany, is derived + +Alemannia, the country inhabited by the Alemanni + +Alesia, or Alexia, a town of the Mandubians, _Alise_; Caesar shuts up +Vercingetorix there, C. vii. 68; surrounds it with lines of +circumvallation and contravallation, _ibid_. 69, 72; obliges it to +surrender, _ibid_. 89 + +Alexandr[=i]a, a city of Egypt, _Scanderia_. It was built by Alexander +the Great, 330 years before Christ; Caesar pursues Pompey thither, C. +iii. 106 + +Aliso, by some supposed to be the town now called _Iselburg_; or, +according to Junius, _Wesel_, in the duchy of Cleves, but more probably +_Elsen_ + +Allier (El[=a]ver), Caesar eludes the vigilance of Vercingetorix, and by +an artifice passes that river, G. vii. 35 + +All[)o]br[)o]ges, an ancient people of Gallia Transalp[=i]na, who +inhabited the country which is now called _Dauphiny, Savoy,_ and +_Piedmont_. The name, Allobroges, means highlanders, and is derived from +Al, "high," and Broga, "land." They are supposed to be disaffected to +the Romans, G. i. 6; complain to Caesar of the ravages of the +Helvetians, _ibid_. 11 + +Alps, a ridge of high mountains, which separates France and Germany from +Italy. That part of them which separates Dauphiny from Piedmont was +called the Cottian Alps. Their name is derived from their height, Alp +being an old Celtic appellation for "a lofty mountain"; Caesar crosses +them with five legions, G. i. 10; sends Galba to open a free passage +over them to the Roman merchants, G. iii. 1 + +Alsati[)a], a province of Germany, in the upper circle of the Rhine, +_Alsace_ + +Amagetobr[)i]a, a city of Gaul, unknown; famous for a defeat of the +Gauls there by Ariovistus, G. i. 31 + +Amant[)i]a, a town in Macedonia, _Porto Raguseo_; it submits to Caesar, +and sends ambassadors to know his pleasure, C. iii. 12 + +Am[=a]nus, a mountain of Syria, _Alma Daghy,_ near which Scipio sustains +some losses, C. iii. 31 + +Am[=a]ni Pylae, or Am[=a]nicae Portae, _Straits of Scanderona_ + +Ambarri, a people of Gaul, uncertain; they complain to Caesar of the +ravages committed in their territories by the Helvetii, G. i. 11 + +Ambialites, a people of Gaul, of _Lamballe in Bretagne_. Others take the +word to be only a different name for the Ambiani; they join in a +confederacy with the Veneti against Caesar, G. iii. 9 + +Ambi[=a]ni, or Ambianenses, the people of _Amiens;_ they furnish ten +thousand men to the general confederacy of the Belgians against Caesar, +G. ii. 4; sue for peace, and submit themselves to Caesar's pleasure, G. +ii. 15 + +Ambi[=a]num, a city of Belgium, _Amiens_ + +Amb[)i]b[)a]ri, a people of Gaul, inhabiting _Ambie_, in Normandy +Amb[)i][)o]rix, his artful speech to Sabinus and Cotta, G. v. 27; Caesar +marches against him, G. vi. 249. Ravages and lays waste his territories, +_ibid_. 34; endeavours in vain to get him into his hands, _ibid_. 43 + +Ambivar[)e]ti, a people of Gaul, the _Vivarais_. They are ordered to +furnish their contingent for raising the siege of Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Ambivar[=i]ti, an ancient people of _Brabant_, between the Rhine and the +Maese; the German cavalry sent to forage among them, G. iv. 9 + +Ambr[)a]c[)i]a, a city of Epirus, _Arta_; Cassius directs his march +thither, C. iii. 36 + +Ambrones, an ancient people, who lived in the country which is now +called the _Canton of Bern_, in Switzerland + +Amph[)i]l[)o]chia, a region of Epirus, _Anfilocha_. Its inhabitants +reduced by Cassius Longinus, C. iii. 55 + +Amph[)i]p[)o]lis, a city of Macedonia, _Cristopoli_, or _Emboli_. An +edict in Pompey's name published there, C. iii. 102 + +Anartes, a people of Germany, _Walachians_, _Servians_, or _Bulgarians_, +bordering upon the Hercynian Forest, G. vi. 25 + +Anas, a river of Spain, the _Guadiana_, or _Rio Roydera_, bounding that +part of Spain under the government of Petreius, C. i. 38 + +Anc[)a]l[=i]tes, a people of Britain, of the hundred of _Henley_, in +Oxfordshire; they send ambassadors to Caesar with an offer of +submission, G. v. 21 + +Anch[)i][)a]los, a city of Thrace, near the Euxine Sea, now called +_Kenkis_ + +Ancibarii, or Ansivarii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, of and +about the town of _Ansestaet_, or _Amslim_ + +Anc[=o]na, _Ancona_, a city of Italy, on the coast of Pisenum. It is +supposed to derive its name from the Greek word [Greek: agkon], an angle +or elbow, on account of the angular form of the promontory on which it +is built. The foundation of Ancona is ascribed by Strabo to some +Syracusans, who were fleeing from the tyranny of Dionysius. Livy speaks +of it as a naval station of great importance in the wars of Rome with +the Illyrians. We find it occupied by Caesar (C. i. 2) shortly after +crossing the Rubicon; Caesar takes possession of it with a garrison of +one cohort, C. i. 11 + +Andes, _Angers_, in France, the capital of the duchy of Anjou + +Andes, a people of Gaul, the ancient inhabitants of the duchy of Anjou; +Caesar puts his troops into winter quarters among them, G. ii. 35 + +Andomad[=u]num Ling[)o]num, a large and ancient city of Champagne, at +the source of the river Marne, _Langres_ + +Anglesey (Mona), an island situated between Britain and Ireland, where +the night, during the winter, is said to be a month long, G. v. 13 + +Angrivarii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, who dwelt between the +Ems and the Weser, below the Lippe + +Ansivarii, see _Ancibarii_ + +Antioch[=i]a, _Antachia_, an ancient and famous city, once the capital +of Syria, or rather of the East. It is situate on two rivers, the +Orontes and the Phaspar, not far from the Mediterranean; refuses to +admit the fugitives after the battle of Pharsalia, C. iii. 102 + +Ant[=o]nius (Mark Antony), Caesar's lieutenant, G. vii. i i; quaestor, +G. viii. 2; governor of Brundusium, C. iii. 24; his standing for that +priesthood, G. vii. 50; obliges Libo to raise the siege of Brundusium, +C. iii. 24; and in conjunction with Kalenus transports Caesar's troops +to Greece, _ibid_. 26 + +Apam[=e]a, _Apami_, a city of Bithynia, built by Nicomedes, the son of +Prusias + +Apennine Mountains, a large chain of mountains, branching off from the +Maritime Alps, in the neighbourhood of Genoa, running diagonally from +the Ligurian Gulf to the Adriatic, in the vicinity of Ancona; from which +it continues nearly parallel with the latter gulf, as far as the +promontory of Garg[=a]nus, and again inclines to Mare Inf[)e]rum, till +it finally terminates in the promontory of Leucopetra, near Rhegium. The +etymology of the name given to these mountains must be traced to the +Celtic, and appears to combine two terms of that language nearly +synonymous, Alp, or Ap, "a high mountain," and Penn, "a summit" + +Apoll[=o]n[)i]a, a city of Macedonia, _Piergo_. Pompey resolves to +winter there, C. iii. 5; Caesar makes himself master of it, _ibid_. iii. +12 + +Appia Via, the Appian road which led from Rome to Campania, and from the +sea to Brundusium. It was made, as Livy informs us, by the censor, +Appius Caecus, A.U.C. 442, and was, in the first instance, only laid +down as far as Capua, a distance of about 125 miles. It was subsequently +carried on to Beneventum, and finally to Brundusium. According to +Eustace (_Classical Tour_, vol. iii.), such parts of the Appian Way as +have escaped destruction, as at _Fondi_ and _Mola_, show few traces of +wear and decay after a duration of two thousand years + +Apsus, a river of Macedonia, the _Aspro_. Caesar and Pompey encamp over +against each other on the banks of that river, C. iii. 13 + +Apulia, a region of Italy, _la Puglia_. Pompey quarters there the +legions sent by Caesar, C. i. 14 + +Aquil[=a]ria, a town of Africa, near Clupea. Pompey quarters there the +legions sent by Caesar, C. i. 14; Curio arrives there with the troops +designed against Africa. C. ii. 23 + +Aquileia, formerly a famous and considerable city of Italy, not far from +the Adriatic, now little more than a heap of ruins, _Aquilegia_. Caesar +draws together the troops quartered there, G. i. 10 + +Aquitania, a third part of ancient Gaul, now containing _Guienne_, +_Gascony_, etc. + +Aquit[=a]ni, the Aquitanians reduced under the power of the Romans by +Crassus, G. iii. 20-22; very expert in the art of mining, _ibid_. 21 + +Arar, or Araris, a river of Gaul, the Sa[^o]ne; the Helvetians receive a +considerable check in passing this river, G. i. 12 + +Arduenna Silva, the forest of _Ardenne_, in France, reaching from the +Rhine to the city of Tournay, in the low countries; Indutiom[)a]rus +conceals in it the infirm and aged, G. v. 3; Caesar crosses it in quest +of Ambiorix, G. vi. 29 + +Arecomici Volcae, Caesar plants garrisons among them, G. vii. 7 + +Arel[=a]te, or Arel[=a]tum, or Arelas, a city of Gaul, _Arles_. Caesar +orders twelve galleys to be built there, C. i. 36 + +Ar[)i]m[)i]num, a city of Italy, _Rimini_; Caesar having sounded the +disposition of his troops, marches thither, C. i. 8 + +Ar[)i][)o]vistus, king of the Germans, his tyrannical conduct towards +the Gauls, G. i. 31; Caesar sends ambassadors to him demanding an +interview, _ibid_. 34; he is defeated and driven entirely out of Gaul, +_ibid_. 52 + +Arles, see _Arelate_ + +Arm[)e]n[)i]a, a country of Asia, divided into the greater or lesser, +and now called _Turcomania_ + +Armorici, the ancient people of Armorica, a part of Gallia Celtica, now +_Bretagne_; they assemble in great numbers to attack L. Roscius in his +winter quarters, G. v. 53 + +Arr[=e]t[)i]um, a city of Etruria, in Italy, _Arezzo_; Antony sent +thither with five cohorts, C. i. 10 + +Arverni, an ancient people of France, on the Loire, whose chief city was +Arvernum, now _Clermont_, the capital of _Auvergne_; suddenly invaded, +and their territories ravaged by Caesar, G. vii. 8 + +Asculum, a town of Italy, _Ascoli_; Caesar takes possession of it, C. i. +16 + +Asparagium, a town in Macedonia, unknown; Pompey encamps near it with +all his forces, C. iii. 30 + +Astigi, or Astingi, a people of Andalusia, in Spain + +Athens, one of the most ancient and noble cities of Greece, the capital +of Attica. It produced some of the most distinguished statesmen, +orators, and poets that the world ever saw, and its sculptors and +painters have been rarely rivalled, never surpassed. No city on the +earth has ever exercised an equal influence on the educated men of all +ages. It contributes to fit out a fleet for Pompey, C. iii. 3 + +Atreb[)a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, who lived in that part of the +Netherlands which is now called _Artois_; they furnish fifteen thousand +men to the general confederacy of Gaul, G. ii. 4 + +Attica, a country of Greece, between Achaia and Macedonia, famous on +account of its capital, Athens + +Attuarii, a people of ancient Germany, who inhabited between the Maese +and the Rhine, whose country is now a part of the duchy of _Gueldes_ + +Atuatuca, a strong castle, where Caesar deposited all his baggage, on +setting out in pursuit of Ambiorix, G. vi. 32; the Germans unexpectedly +attack it, _ibid_. 35 + +Augustod[=u]num, _Autun_, a very ancient city of Burgundy, on the river +Arroux + +Aulerci Eburovices, a people of Gaul, in the country of _Evreux_, in +Normandy + +Aulerci Brannovices, a people of Gaul, _Morienne_ + +Aulerci Cenomanni, a people of Gaul, the country of _Maine_ + +Aulerci Diablintes, a people of Gaul, _le Perche_ + +Aulerci reduced by P. Crassus, G, ii. 34; massacre their senate, and +join Viridovix, G. iii. 17; Aulerci Brannovices ordered to furnish their +contingent to the relief of Alesia, G. vii. 7; Aulerci Cenomanni furnish +five thousand, _ibid_.; Aulerci Eburovices three thousand, _ibid_. + +Ausci, a people of Gaul, those of _Auchs_ or _Aux_, in Gascony; they +submit to Crassus and send hostages, G. iii. 27 + +Auset[=a]ni, a people of Spain, under the Pyrenean mountains; they send +ambassadors to Caesar, with an offer of submission, C. i. 60 + +Aux[)i]mum, a town in Italy, _Osimo_, or _Osmo_; Caesar makes himself +master of it, C. i. 15 + +Av[=a]r[)i]cum, a city of Aquitaine, the capital of the Biturigians, +_Bourges_; besieged by Caesar, G. vii. 13; and at last taken by storm, +_ibid_. 31 + +Ax[)o]na, the river _Aisne_, Caesar crosses it in his march against the +Belgians, G. ii. 5, 6 + +Bac[=e]nis, a forest of ancient Germany, which parted the Suevi from the +Cherusci; by some supposed to be the Forests of _Thuringia_, by others +the _Black Forest_; the Suevians encamp at the entrance of that wood, +resolving there to await the approach of the Romans, G vi. 10 + +Bac[)u]lus, P. Sextius, his remarkable bravery, G. vi. 38 + +Baet[)i]ca, in the ancient geography, about a third part of Spain, +containing _Andalusia_, and a part of _Granada_ + +Bagr[)a]das, a river of Africa, near Ut[)i]ca, the _Begrada_; Curio +arrives with his army at that river, C. ii. 38 + +Bale[=a]res Ins[)u]lae, several islands in the Mediterranean Sea, +formerly so called, of which _Majorca_ and _Minorca_ are the chief; the +inhabitants famous for their dexterity in the use of the sling, G. ii. 7 + +Bat[)a]vi, the ancient inhabitants of the island of Batavia + +Batavia, or Batavorum Insula, _Holland_, a part of which still retains +the name of _Betuwe_; formed by the Meuse and the Wal, G. iv. 10 + +Belgae, the inhabitants of Gallia Belgica. The original Belgae were +supposed to be of German extraction; but passing the Rhine, settled +themselves in Gaul. The name Belgae belongs to the Cymric language, in +which, under the form _Belgiaid_, the radical of which is _Belg_, it +signifies warlike; they are the most warlike people of Gaul, G. i. 1; +withstand the invasion of the Teutones and Cimbri, G. ii. 4; originally +of German extraction, _ibid_.; Caesar obliges them to decamp and return +to their several habitations, _ibid_. 11 + +Belgia, Belgium, or Gallia Belgica, the _Low Countries_, or +_Netherlands_ + +Bellocassi, or Velocasses, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Bayeux_, in Normandy; they furnish three thousand men to the relief of +Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Bell[)o]v[)a]ci, an ancient renowned people among the Belgae, inhabiting +the country now called _Beauvais_ in France; they furnish a hundred +thousand men to the general confederacy of Belgium, G. ii. 4; join in +the general defection under Vercingetorix, G. vii. 59; again take up +arms against Caesar, viii. 7; but are compelled to submit and sue for +pardon + +Bergea, a city of Macedonia, now called _Veria_ + +Berones, see _Retones_ + +Bessi, a people of Thrace, _Bessarabia_; they make part of Pompey's +army, C. iii. 4 + +Bethuria, a region of Hispania Lusitanica, _Estremadura_ + +Bibracte, a town of Burgundy, now called _Autun_, the capital of the +Aedui; Caesar, distressed for want of corn, marches thither to obtain a +supply, G. i. 23 + +Bibrax, a town of Rheims, _Braine_, or _Bresne_; attacked with great +fury by the confederate Belgians, G. ii. 6 + +Bibr[)o]ci, a people of Britain; according to Camden, _the hundred of +Bray_, in Berkshire; they send ambassadors to Caesar to sue for peace, +G. v. 21 + +Bib[)u]lus burns thirty of Caesar's ships, C. iii. 8; his hatred of +Caesar, _ibid_. 8, 16; his cruelty towards the prisoners that fell into +his hands, _ibid_. 14; his death, _ibid_. 18; death of his two sons, +_ibid_. 110 + +Bigerriones, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now called +_Bigorre,_ in Gascony; they surrender and give hostages to Crassus, G. +iii. 27 + +Bithynia, a country of Asia Minor, adjoining to Troas, over against +Thrace, _Becsangial_ + +Bit[:u]r[)i]ges, a people of Guienne, in France, of the country of +_Berry;_ they join with the Arverni in the general defection under +Vercingetorix, G. vii. 5 + +Boeotia, a country in Greece; separated from Attica by Mount Citheron. +It had formerly several other names and was famous for its capital, +Thebes; it is now called _Stramulipa_ + +Boii, an ancient people of Germany who, passing the Rhine, settled in +Gaul, the _Bourbonnois;_ they join with the Helvetians in their +expedition against Gaul, G. i. 5; attack the Romans in flank, _ibid_. +25; Caesar allows them to settle among the Aeduans, _ibid_. 28 + +Bor[=a]ni, an ancient people of Germany, supposed by some to be the same +as the Burii + +Bosphor[=a]ni, a people bordering upon the Euxine Sea, _the Tartars_ + +Bosph[)o]rus, two straits of the sea so called, one Bosphorus Thracius, +now the _Straits of Constantinople;_ the other Bosphorus Climerius, now +the _Straits of Caffa_ + +Brannov[=i]ces, the people of _Morienne,_ in France + +Brannovii furnished their contingent to the relief of Alesia, C. vii. 75 + +Bratuspant[)i]um, a city of Gaul, belonging to the Bellov[)a]ci, +_Beauvais;_ it submits, and obtains pardon from Caesar, G. ii. 13 + +Bridge built by Caesar over the Rhine described, G. iv. 7 + +Br[)i]tannia, Caesar's expedition thither, G. iv. 20; description of the +coast, 23; the Romans land in spite of the vigorous opposition of the +islanders, 26; the Britons send ambassadors to Caesar to desire a peace, +which they obtain on delivery of hostages, 27; they break the peace on +hearing that Caesar's fleet was destroyed by a storm, and set upon the +Roman foragers, 30; their manner of fighting in chariots; they fall upon +the Roman camp, but are repulsed, and petition again for peace, which +Caesar grants them, 33-35; Caesar passes over into their island a second +time, v. 8; drives them from the woods where they had taken refuge, 9; +describes their manners and way of living, 12; defeats them in several +encounters, 15-21; grants them a peace, on their giving hostages, and +agreeing to pay a yearly tribute, 22 + +Brundusium, a city of Italy, _Brindisi._ By the Greeks it was called +[Greek: Brentesion], which in the Messapian language signified a stag's +head, from the resemblance which its different harbours and creeks bore +to that object; Pompey retires thither with his forces, C. i. 24; Caesar +lays siege to it, 26; Pompey escapes from it by sea, upon which it +immediately surrenders to Caesar, 28; Libo blocks up the port with a +fleet, C. iii. 24; but by the valour of Antony is obliged to retire, +_ibid_. + +Brutii, a people of Italy, _the Calabrians._ They were said to be +runaway slaves and shepherds of the Lucanians, who, after concealing +themselves for a time, became at last numerous enough to attack their +masters, and succeeded at length in gaining their independence. Their +very name is said to indicate that they were revolted slaves: [Greek: +Brettious gar kalousi apostatas], says Strabo, speaking of the Lucanians + +Br[=u]tus, appointed to command the fleet in the war against the people +of Vannes, G. iii. 11; engages and defeats at sea the Venetians, 14; and +also the people of Marseilles, C. i. 58; engages them a second time with +the same good fortune, ii. 3 + +Bullis, a town in Macedonia, unknown; it sends ambassadors to Caesar +with an offer of submission, C. iii. 12 + +Buthr[=o]tum, a city of Epirus, _Butrinto,_ or _Botronto_ + +Byzantium, an ancient city of Thrace, called at different times Ligos, +Nova Roma, and now _Constantinople_ + +Cabill[=o]num, a city of ancient Gaul, _Chalons sur Sa[^o]ne_ + +Cad[=e]tes, a people of Gaul, unknown + +Cadurci, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of _Quercy_ + +Caeraesi, a people of Belgic Gaul, inhabiting the country round Namur; +they join in the general confederacy of Belgium against Caesar, G. i. 4 + +Caesar, hastens towards Gaul, C. i. 7; refuses the Helvetians a passage +through the Roman province, _ibid_.; his answer to their ambassadors, +14; defeats and sends them back into their own country, 25-27; sends +ambassadors to Ariovistus, 34; calls a council of war: his speech, 40; +begins his march, 41; his speech to Ariovistus, 43; totally routs the +Germans, and obliges them to repass the Rhine, 53; his war with the +Belgians, ii. 2; reduces the Suessi[)o]nes and Bellov[)a]ci, 12, 13; his +prodigious slaughter of the Nervians, 20-27; obliges the Atuatici to +submit, 32; prepares for the war against the Venetians, iii. 9; defeats +them in a naval engagement, and totally subdues them, 14, 15; is obliged +to put his army into winter quarters, before he can complete the +reduction of the Menapians and Morini, 29; marches to find out the +Germans; his answer to their ambassadors, iv. 8; attacks them in their +camp and routs them, 14, 15; crosses the Rhine, and returns to Gaul, 17 +--19; his expedition into Britain described, 22; refits his navy, 31; +comes to the assistance of his foragers whom the Britons had attacked, +34; returns to Gaul, 36; gives orders for building a navy, v. 1; his +preparations for a second expedition into Britain, 2; marches into the +country of Treves to prevent a rebellion, 3; marches to Port Itius, and +invites all the princes of Gaul to meet him there, 5; sets sail for +Britain, 8; describes the country and customs of the inhabitants, 12; +fords the river Thames, and puts Cassivellaunus, the leader of the +Britons, to flight, 18; imposes a tribute upon the Britons and returns +into Gaul, 23; routs the Nervians, and relieves Cicero, 51; resolves to +winter in Gaul, 53; his second expedition into Germany, vi. 9; his +description of the manners of the Gauls and Germans, 13; his return into +Gaul, and vigorous prosecution of the war against Ambiorix, 27; crosses +the mountains of the Cevennes in the midst of winter, and arrives at +Auvergne, which submits, vii. 8; takes and sacks Genabum, 11; takes +Noviodunum, and marches from thence to Avaricum, 12; his works before +Alesia, 69; withstands all the attacks of the Gauls, and obliges the +place to surrender, 89; marches into the country of the Biturigians, and +compels them to submit, viii. 2; demands Guturvatus, who is delivered up +and put to death, 38; marches to besiege Uxellodunum, 39; cuts off the +hands of the besieged at Uxellodunum, 44; marches to Corfinium, and +besieges it, C. i. 16, which in a short time surrenders, 22; he marches +through Abruzzo, and great part of the kingdom of Naples, 23; his +arrival at Brundusium, and blockade of the haven, 24; commits the siege +of Marseilles to the case of Brutus and Trebonius, 36; his expedition to +Spain, 37; his speech to Afranius, 85; comes to Marseilles, which +surrenders. C. ii. 22; takes Oricum, iii. 8; marches to Dyrrhachium to +cut off Pompey's communication with that place, 41; sends Canuleius into +Epirus for corn, 42; besieges Pompey in his camp, his reasons for it, +43; encloses Pompey's works within his fortifications: a skirmish +between them, 45; his army reduced to great straits for want of +provisions, 47; offers Pompey battle, which he declines, 56; sends +Clodius to Scipio, to treat about a peace, whose endeavours prove +ineffectual, 57; joins Domitius, storms and takes the town of Gomphis in +Thessaly, in four hours' time, 80; gains a complete victory over Pompey +in the battle of Pharsalia, 93; summons Ptolemy and Cleopatra to attend +him, 107; burns the Alexandrian fleet, 111 + +Caesar[=e]a, the chief city of Cappadocia + +Caesia Sylva, the _Caesian_ Forest, supposed to be a part of the +Hercynian Forest, about the duchy of Cleves and Westphalia + +Calagurritani, a people of Hispania Tarraconensis, inhabiting the +province of _Calahorra;_ send ambassadors to Caesar with an offer of +submission, C. i. 60 + +Cal[)e]tes, an ancient people of Belgic Gaul, inhabiting the country +called _Le Pais de Caulx,_ in Normandy, betwixt the Seine and the sea; +they furnish ten thousand men in the general revolt of Belgium, G. ii. 4 + +Cal[)y]don, a city of Aetolia, _Ayton,_ C. iii. 35 + +C[)a]m[)e]r[=i]num, a city of Umbria, in Italy, _Camarino_ + +Camp[=a]n[)i]a, the most pleasant part of Italy, in the kingdom of +Naples, now called _Terra di Lavoro_ + +Campi Can[=i]ni, a place in the Milanese, in Italy, not far from +Belizona + +Campi Catalaunici, supposed to be the large plain which begins about two +miles from Chalons sur Marne + +Cam[=u]l[)o]g[=e]nus appointed commander-in-chief by the Parisians, G. +vii. 57; obliges Labienus to decamp from before Paris, _ibid.;_ is +slain, 62 + +Cadav[)i]a, a country of Macedonia, _Canovia_ + +Caninefates, an ancient people of the lower part of Germany, near +Batavia, occupying the country in which Gorckum, on the Maese, in South +Holland, now is + +Can[=i]nius sets Duracius at liberty, who had been shut up in Limonum by +Dumnacus, G. viii. 26; pursues Drapes, 30; lays siege to Uxellodunum, 33 + +Cant[)a]bri, the Cantabrians, an ancient warlike people of Spain, +properly of the provinces of _Guipuscoa_ and _Biscay_; they are obliged +by Afranius to furnish a supply of troops, C. i. 38 + +Cantium, a part of England, _the county of Kent_ + +C[)a]nus[=i]um, a city of Apulia, in Italy, _Canosa_. The splendid +remains of antiquity discovered among the ruins of Canosa, together with +its coins, establish the Grecian origin of the place + +Cappadocia, a large country in Asia Minor, upon the Euxine Sea + +Capr[)e]a, _Capri_, an island on the coast of Campania + +Cap[)u]a, _Capha_, a city in the kingdom of Naples, in the Provincia di +Lavoro + +C[)a]r[)a]les, a city of Sardinia, _Cagliari_ + +C[)a]r[)a]l[)i]t[=a]ni, the people of _Cagliari_, in Sardinia; they +declare against Pompey, and expel Cotta with his garrison, C. i. 30 + +Carc[)a]so, a city of Gaul, _Carcassone_ + +Carm[=o]na, a town of Hispania Baetica, _Carmone_; declares for Caesar, +and expels the enemy's garrison, C. ii. 19 + +Carni, an ancient people, inhabiting a part of Noricum, whose country is +still called _Carniola_ + +Carn[=u]tes, an ancient people of France, inhabiting the territory now +called _Chartres_; Caesar quarters some troops among them, G. ii. 35; +they openly assassinate Tasgetins, G. v. 25; send ambassadors to Caesar +and submit, vi. 4; offer to be the first in taking up alms against the +Romans, vii. 2; attack the Biturigians, but are dispersed and put to +flight by Caesar. viii. 5 + +Carpi, an ancient people near the Danube + +Cassandr[)e]a, a city of Macedonia, _Cassandria_ + +Cassi, a people of ancient Britain, _the hundred of Caishow_, in +_Hertfordshire_; they send ambassadors and submit to Caesar, G. v. 21 + +Caesil[=i]num, a town in Italy, _Castelluzzo_ + +Cassivellaunus, chosen commander-in-chief of the confederate Britons, G. +v. 11; endeavours in vain to stop the course of Caesar's conquests, 18; +is obliged to submit, and accept Caesar's terms, 22 + +Cassius, Pompey's lieutenant, burns Caesar's fleet in Sicily, C. iii. +101 + +Castellum Menapiorum, _Kessel_, a town in Brabant, on the river Neerse, +not far from the Maese + +Cast[)i]cus, the son of Catam['a]ntaledes, solicited by Orgetorix to +invade the liberty of his country, G. i. 3 + +Castra Posthumiana, a town in Hispania Baetica, _Castro el Rio_ + +Castra Vetera, an ancient city in Lower Germany, in the duchy of Cleves; +some say where _Santon_, others where _Byrthon_ now is + +Castulonensis Saltus, a city of Hispania Tarraconensis, _Castona la +Vieja_ + +Cativulcus takes up arms against the Romans at the instigation of +Indutiomarus, G. v. 24; poisons himself, vi. 31 + +Cato of Utica, the source of his hatred to Caesar, C. i. 4; made praetor +of Sicily, prepares for war, and abdicates his province, 30 + +Catur[)i]ges, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Embrun_, or _Ambrun_, or _Chagres_; oppose Caesar's passage over the +Alps, G. i. 10 + +Cavalry, their institution and manner of fighting among the Germans, G. +i. 48, iv. 2 + +Cavarillus taken and brought before Caesar, G. vii. 62 + +Cavarinus, the Senones attempt to assassinate him, G. v. 54; Caesar +orders him to attend him with the cavalry of the Senones, vi. 5 + +Cebenna Mons, the mountains of the _Cevennes_, in Gaul, separating the +Helvians from Auvergne + +Celeja, a city of Noricum Mediterraneum, now _Cilley_ + +Celtae, a people of Thrace, about the mountains of Rhodope and Haemus + +Celtae, an ancient people of Gaul, in that part called Gallia Comata, +between the Garumna (_Garonne_) and Sequana (_Seine_), from whom that +country was likewise called Gallia Celtica. They were the most powerful +of the three great nations that inhabited Gaul, and are supposed to be +the original inhabitants of that extensive country. It is generally +supposed that they called themselves _Gail_, or _Gael_, out of which +name the Greeks formed their [Greek: Keltai], and the Romans Galli. +Some, however, deduce the name from the Gaelic "_Ceilt,_" an inhabitant +of the forest + +Celt[)i]b[=e]ri, an ancient people of Spain, descended from the Celtae, +who settled about the River Iberus, or _Ebro_, from whom the country was +called Celtiberia, now _Arragon_; Afranius obliges them to furnish a +supply of troops, C. i. 38 + +Celtillus, the father of Vercingetorix, assassinated by the Arverni, G. +vii. 4 + +Cenimagni, or Iceni, an ancient people of Britain, inhabiting the +counties of _Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire_, and _Huntingdonshire_ + +Cenis Mons, that part of the Alps which separates Savoy from Piedmont + +Cenni, an ancient people of Celtic extraction + +Cenom[=a]ni, a people of Gallia Celtica, in the country now called _Le +Manseau_, adjoining to that of the Insubres + +Centr[=o]nes, an ancient people of Flanders, about the city of +_Courtray_, dependent on the Nervians + +Centr[=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +Tarantaise + +Cerauni Montes, Mountains of Epirus, _Monti di Chimera_ + +Cerc[=i]na, an island on the coast of Africa, _Chercara, Cercare_ + +Cevennes, mountains of, Caesar passes them in the midst of winter, +though covered with snow six feet deep, G. vii. 8 + +Chara, a root which served to support Caesar's army in extreme +necessity, C. iii. 48; manner of preparing it, _ibid_. + +Chariots, manner of fighting with them among the Britons, G. iv. 33; +dexterity of the British charioteers, _ibid_. + +Cherron[=e]sus, a peninsula of Africa, near Alexandria + +Cherson[=e]sus Cimbr[=i]ca, a peninsula on the Baltic, now _Jutland_, +part of _Holstein, Ditmarsh_, and _Sleswic_ + +Cherusci, a great and warlike people of ancient Germany, between the +Elbe and the Weser, about the country now called _Mansfield_, part of +the duchy of _Brunswick_, and the dioceses of _Hildesheim_ and +_Halberstadt_. The Cherusci, under the command of Arminius (Hermann), +lured the unfortunate Varus into the wilds of the Saltus Teutoburgiensis +(Tutinger Wold), where they massacred him and his whole army. They were +afterwards defeated by Germanicus, who, on his march through the forest +so fatal to his countrymen, found the bones of the legions where they +had been left to blanch by their barbarian conqueror.--See Tacitus's +account of the March of the Roman Legions through the German forests, +_Annals,_ b. i. c. 71 + +Cicero, Quintus, attacked in his winter quarters by Ambi[)o]rix, G. v. +39; informs Caesar of his distress, who marches to relieve him, 46; +attacked unexpectedly by the Sigambri, who are nevertheless obliged to +retire, vi. 36 + +Cimbri, _the Jutlanders,_ a very ancient northern people, who inhabited +Chersonesus Cimbrica + +Cing[)e]t[)o]rix, the leader of one of the factions among the Treviri, +and firmly attached to Caesar, G. v. 3; declared a public enemy, and his +goods confiscated by Indutiom[)a]rus, 56 + +Cing[)u]lum, a town of Pic[=e]num, in Italy, _Cingoli_ + +Cleopatra, engaged in a war with her brother Ptolemy, C. iii. 103 + +Clod[)i]us sent by Caesar to Scipio, to treat about a peace, but without +effect, C. iii. 90 + +Cocas[=a]tes, a people of Gaul, according to some the _Bazadois_ + +Caelius Rufus raises a sedition in Rome, C. iii. 20; is expelled that +city, then joins with Milo, 21; he is killed, 22 + +C[)o]imbra, an ancient city of Portugal, once destroyed, but now +rebuilt, on the river _Mendego_ + +Colchis, a country in Asia, near Pontus, including the present +_Mingrelia_ and _Georgia_ + +Com[=a]na Pont[)i]ca, a city of Asia Minor, _Com,_ or, _Tabachzan_ + +Com[=a]na of Cappadocia, _Arminacha_ + +Comius sent by Caesar into Britain to dispose the British states to +submit, G. iv. 21; persuades the Bellov[)a]ci to furnish their +contingent to the relief of Alesia, vii. 76; his distrust of the Romans, +occasioned by an attempt to assassinate him, viii. 23; harasses the +Romans greatly, and intercepts their convoys, 47; attacks Volusenus +Quadratus, and runs him through the thigh, 48; submits to Antony, on +condition of not appearing in the presence of any Roman, _ibid_. + +Compsa, a city of Italy, _Conza,_ or _Consa_ + +Concordia, an ancient city of the province of _Triuli,_ in Italy, now in +ruins + +Condr[=u]si, or Condr[=u]s[=o]nes, an ancient people of Belgium, +dependent on the Treviri, whose country is now called _Condrotz_, +between Liege and Namur + +Conetod[=u]nus heads the Carnutes in their revolt from the Romans, and +the massacre at Genabum, G. vii. 3 + +Confluens Mosae et Rheni, the confluence of the Meuse and Rhine, or the +point where the Meuse joins the Vahalis, or Waal, which little river +branches out from the Rhine + +Convictolit[=a]nis, a division on his account among the Aeduans, C. vii. +32; Caesar confirms his election to the supreme magistracy, 33; he +persuades Litavicus and his brothers to rebel, 37 + +Corc[=y]ra, an island of Epirus, _Corfu_ + +Cord[)u]ba, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Cordova;_ Caesar summons the +leading men of the several states of Spain to attend him there, C. ii. +19; transactions of that assembly, 21 + +Corf[=i]n[)i]um, a town belonging to the Peligni, in Italy, _St. +Pelino,_ al. _Penlina;_ Caesar lays siege to it, C. i. 16; and obliges +it to surrender, 24 + +Corinth, a famous and rich city of Achaia, in Greece, in the middle of +the Isthmus going into Peloponnesus + +Corneli[=a]na Castra, a city of Africa, between Carthage and Utica + +Correus, general of the Bellov[)a]ci, with six thousand foot, and a +thousand horse, lies in ambush for the Roman foragers, and attacks the +Roman cavalry with a small party, but is routed and killed, G. viii. 19 + +Cors[)i]ca, a considerable island in the Mediterranean Sea, near +Sardinia, which still retains its name + +Cosanum, a city of Calabria, in Italy, _Cassano_ + +Cotta, L. Aurunculeius, dissents from Sabinus in relation to the advice +given them by Ambiorix, G. v. 28; his behaviour when attacked by the +Gauls, 33; is slain, with the great part of his men, after a brave +resistance, 37 + +Cotuatus and Conetodunus massacre all the Roman merchants at Genabum, G. +vii. 3 + +Cotus, a division on his account among the Aeduans, G. vii. 32; obliged +to desist from his pretensions to the supreme magistracy, 33 + +Crassus, P., his expedition into Aquitaine, G. iii. 20; reduces the +Sotiates, 22; and other states, obliging them to give hostages, 27 + +Crast[)i]nus, his character, and courage at the battle of Pharsalia, C. +iii. 91; where he is killed, 99 + +Cr[)e]m[=o]na, an ancient city of Gallia Cisalpina, which retains its +name to this day, and is the metropolis of the _Cremonese_, in Italy + +Crete, one of the noblest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, now called +_Candia_ + +Critognatus, his extraordinary speech and proposal to the garrison of +Alesia, G. vii. 77 + +Curio obliges Cato to abandon the defence of Cicily, C. i. 30; sails for +Africa, and successfully attacks Varus, ii. 25; his speech to revive the +courage of his men, 32; defeats Varus, 34; giving too easy credit to a +piece of false intelligence, is cut off with his whole army, 42 + +Curiosol[=i]tae, a people of Gaul, inhabiting _Cornoualle,_ in Bretagne + +Cycl[)a]des, islands in the Aegean Sea, _L'Isole dell' Archipelago_ + +Cyprus, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, between Syria and Cilicia, +_Cipro_ + +Cyr[=e]ne, an ancient and once a fine city of Africa, situate over +against Matapan, the most southern cape of Morea, _Cairoan_ + +Cyz[=i]cus, Atraki, formerly one of the largest cities of Asia Minor, in +an island of the same name, in the Black Sea + +Dacia, an ancient country of Scythia, beyond the Danube, containing part +of _Hungary, Transylvania, Walachia,_ and _Moldavia_ + +Dalm[=a]tia, a part of Illyricum, now called _Sclavonia_, lying between +Croatia, Bosnia, Servia, and the Adriatic Gulf + +D[=a]n[)u]b[)i]us, the largest river in Europe, which rises in the Black +Forest, and after flowing through that country, Bavaria, Austria, +Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, receiving in its +course a great number of noted rivers, some say sixty, and 120 minor +streams, falls into the Black or Euxine Sea, in two arms + +Dard[=a]nia, the ancient name of a country in Upper Moesia, which became +afterwards a part of Dacia; _Rascia_, and part of _Servia_ + +Dec[=e]tia, a town in Gaul,_Decise_, on the Loire + +Delphi, a city of Achaia, _Delpho_, al. _Salona_ + +Delta, a very considerable province of Egypt, at the mouth of the Nile, +_Errif_ + +Diablintes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country called _Le +Perche_; al. _Diableres_, in Bretagne; al. _Lintes_ of Brabant; al. +_Lendoul_, over against Britain + +Divit[)i][)a]cus, the Aeduan, his attachment to the Romans and Caesar, +G. i. 19; Caesar, for his sake, pardons his brother Dumnorix, _ibid_.; +he complains to Caesar, in behalf of the rest of the Gauls, of the +cruelty of Ariovistus, 31; marches against the Bellov[)a]ci create a +diversion in favour of Caesar, ii. 10; intercedes for the Bellov[)a]ci, +and obtains their pardon from Caesar, 14; goes to Rome to implore aid of +the senate, but without effect, vi. 12 + +Domitius Ahenobarbus, besieged by Caesar in Corfinium, writes to Pompey +for assistance, C. i. 15; seized by his own troops, who offer to deliver +him up to Caesar, 20; Caesar's generous behaviour towards him, 23; he +enters Marseilles, and is entrusted with the supreme command, 36; is +defeated in a sea fight by Decimus Brutus, 58; escapes with great +difficulty a little before the surrender of Marseilles, ii. 22 + +Domitius Calvinus, sent by Caesar into Macedonia, comes very opportunely +to the relief of Cassius Longinus, C. iii. 34; gains several advantages +over Scipio, 32 + +Drapes, in conjunction with Luterius, seizes Uxellodunum, G. viii. 30; +his camp stormed, and himself made prisoner, 29; he starves himself, 44 + +Druids, priests so called, greatly esteemed in Gaul, and possessed of +many valuable privileges, G. vi. 13 + +D[=u]bis, a river of Burgundy, _Le Doux_ + +Dumn[)a]cus besieges Duracius in Limonum, G. viii. 26; is defeated by +Fabius, 27 + +Dumn[)o]rix, the brother of Divitiacus, his character, G. i. 15; +persuades the noblemen of Gaul not to go with Caesar into Britain, v. 5; +deserts, and is killed for his obstinacy, 6 + +Duracius besieged in Limonum by Dumnacus, general of the Andes, G. viii. +26 + +Durocort[=o]rum, a city of Gaul, _Rheims_ + +D[)y]rrh[)a]ch[)i]um, a city of Macedonia, _Durazzo, Drazzi_; Caesar +endeavours to enclose Pompey within his lines near that place, C. iii. +41 + +Ebur[=o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, inhabiting part of the +country, now the bishopric of _Liege_, and the county of _Namur_. Caesar +takes severe vengeance on them for their perfidy, G. vi. 34, 35 + +Eb[=u]r[)o]v[=i]ces, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Evreux_, in Normandy; they massacre their senate, and join with +Viridovix, G. iii. 17 + +Egypt, see _Aegypt_ + +El[=a]ver, a river of Gaul, the _Allier_ + +Eleut[=e]ti Cadurci, a branch of the Cadurci, in Aquitania. They are +called in many editions Eleutheri Cadurci, but incorrectly, since +Eleutheri is a term of Greek origin, and besides could hardly be applied +to a Gallic tribe like the Eleuteti, who, in place of being free [Greek: +eleutheroi], seem to have been clients of the Arverni; they furnish +troops to the relief of Alesia, G. vii. 75 + +Elis, a city of Peloponnesus, _Belvidere_ + +Elus[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Euse_, in Gascony + +Eph[)e]sus, an ancient and celebrated city of Asia Minor, _Efeso_; the +temple of Diana there in danger of being stripped, G. iii. 32 + +Epidaurus, a maritime city of Dalmatia, _Ragusa_ + +Ep[=i]rus, a country in Greece, between Macedonia, Achaia, and the +Ionian Sea, by some now called _Albania inferior_ + +Eporedorix, treacherously revolts from Caesar, G. vii. 54 + +Essui, a people of Gaul; the word seems to be a corruption from Aedui, +C. v. 24 + +Etesian winds detain Caesar at Alexandria, which involves him in a new +war, C. iii. 107 + +Eusubii, corrupted from _Unelli_, or _Lexovii_, properly the people of +_Lisieux_, in Normandy + +Fabius, C., one of Caesar's lieutenants, sent into Spain, with three +legions, C. i. 37; builds two bridges over the Segre for the convenience +of foraging, 40 + +Fanum, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Fano_, C. i. 11 + +Fortune, her wonderful power and influence on matters of war, G. vi. 30 + +Faesulae, _Fiesoli_, an ancient city of Italy, in the duchy of Florence, +anciently one of the twelve considerable cities of Etruria. + +Flavum, anciently reckoned the eastern mouth of the Rhine, now called +the _Ulie_, and is a passage out of the Zuyder Sea into the North Sea + +Gab[)a]li, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country of +_Givaudan_. Their chief city was Anduitum, now _Mende_, G. vii. 64; they +join the general confederacy of Vercingetorix, and give hostages to +Luterius, G. vii. 7 + +Gadit[=a]ni, the people of Gades, C. ii. 18 + +Gal[=a]tia, a country in Asia Minor, lying between Cappadocia, Pontus, +and Paphlagonia, now called _Chiangare_ + +Galba Sergius, sent against the Nantuates, Veragrians, and Seduni, G. +iii. 1; the barbarians attack his camp unexpectedly, but are repulsed +with great loss, iii. 6 + +Galli, the Gauls, the people of ancient Gaul, now _France_; their +country preferable to that of the Germans, G. i. 31; their manner of +attacking towns, ii.6; of greater stature than the Romans, 30; quick and +hasty in their resolves, iii.8; forward in undertaking wars, but soon +fainting under misfortunes, 19; their manners, chiefs, druids, +discipline, cavalry, religion, origin, marriages, and funerals, vi.13; +their country geographically described, i.1 + +Gall[=i]a, the ancient and renowned country of Gaul, now _France_. It +was divided by the Romans into-- + +Gallia Cisalpina, Tonsa, or Togata, now _Lombardy_, between the Alps and +the river Rubicon: and-- + +Gallia Transalpina, or Com[=a]ta, comprehending _France, Holland, the +Netherlands_: and farther subdivided into-- + +Gallia Belg[)i]ca, now a part of _Lower Germany_, and the _Netherlands_, +with _Picardy_; divided by Augustus into Belgica and Germania__ and the +latter into Prima and Secunda + +Gallia Celt[)i]ca, now _France_ properly so called, divided by Augustus +into Lugdun[=e]nsis, and Rothomagensis + +Gallia Aquitan[)i]ca, now _Gascony_; divided by Augustus into Prima, +Secunda, and Tertia: and-- + +Gallia Narbonensis, or Bracc[=a]ta, now _Languedoc, Dauphiny_, and +_Provence_ + +Gallograecia, a country of Asia Minor, the same as _Galatia_ + +Gar[=i]tes, a people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now called _Gavre, +Gavaraan_ + +Garoceli, or Graioc[)e]li, an ancient people of Gaul, about _Mount +Genis_, or _Mount Genevre_ others place them in the _Val de Gorienne_; +they oppose Caesar's passage over the Alps, G. i. 10 + +Garumna, the _Garonne_, one of the largest rivers of France, which, +rising in the Pyrenees, flows through Guienne, forms the vast Bay of +Garonne, and falls, by two mouths, into the British Seas. The Garonne is +navigable as far as _Toulouse_, and communicates with the Mediterranean +by means of the great canal, G. i. 1 + +Garumni, an ancient people of Gaul, in the neighbourhood of the +_Garonne_, G. iii. 27 + +Geld[=u]ra, a fortress of the Ubii, on the Rhine, not improbably the +present village of _Gelb_, on that river eleven German miles from +N[=e]us + +Gen[)a]bum, _Orleans_, an ancient town in Gaul, famous for the massacre +of the Roman citizens committed there by the Carn[=u]tes + +Gen[=e]va, a city of Savoy, now a free republic, upon the borders of +Helvetia, where the Rhone issues from the Lake Lemanus, anciently a city +of the Allobr[)o]ges + +Gen[=u]sus, a river of Macedonia, uncertain + +Gerg[=o]via, the name of two cities in ancient Gaul, the one belonging +to the Boii, the other to the Arverni. The latter was the only Gallic +city which baffled the attacks of Caesar + +Gerg[=o]via of the Averni, Vercingetorix expelled thence by Gobanitio, +G. vii. 4; the Romans attacking it eagerly, are repulsed with great +slaughter, 50 + +Gerg[=o]via of the Boii, besieged in vain by Vercingetorix, G. vii. 9 + +Germania, _Germany_, one of the largest countries of Europe, and the +mother of those nations which, on the fall of the Roman empire, +conquered all the rest. The name appears to be derived from _wer_, war, +and _man_, a man, and signifies the country of warlike men + +Germans, habituated from their infancy to arms, G. i. 36; their manner +of training their cavalry, 48; their superstition 50; defeated by +Caesar, 53; their manners, religion, vi. 23; their huge stature and +strength, G. i. 39 + +G[=e]tae, an ancient people of Scythia, who inhabited betwixt Moesia and +Dacia, on each side of the Danube. Some think their country the same +with the present _Walachia_, or _Moldavia_ + +Getulia, a province in the kingdom of Morocco, in Barbary + +Gomphi, a town in Thessaly, _Gonfi_, refusing to open its gates to +Caesar, is stormed and taken, C. iii. 80 + +Gord[=u]ni, a people of Belgium, the ancient inhabitants of _Ghent_, +according to others of _Courtray_; they join with Ambiorix in his attack +of Cicero's camp, G. v. 39 + +Got[=i]ni, an ancient people of Germany, who were driven out of their +country by Maroboduus Graecia, _Greece,_ a large part of Europe, called +by the Turks _Rom[=e]lia,_ containing many countries, provinces, and +islands, once the nursery of arts, learning, and sciences + +Graioc[)e]li, see _Garoceli_ + +Grudii, the inhabitants about _Louvaine,_ or, according to some, about +_Bruges;_ they join with Ambiorix in his attack of Cicero's camp, G. v. +39 + +Gugerni, a people of ancient Germany, who dwelt on the right banks of +the Rhine, between the Ubii and the Batavi + +Gutt[=o]nes, or Gyth[=o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, inhabiting +about the Vistula + +Haemus, a mountain dividing Moesia and Thrace, _Argentaro_ + +Haliacmon, a river of Macedonia, uncertain; Scipio leaves Favonius with +orders to build a fort on that river, C. iii. 36 + +Har[=u]des, or Har[=u]di, a people of Gallia Celtica, supposed to have +been originally Germans: and by some to have inhabited the country about +_Constance_ Helv[=e]tia, _Switzerland,_ now divided into thirteen +cantons + +Helv[=e]tii, _the Helvetians, or Switzers,_ ancient inhabitants of the +country of _Switzerland;_ the most warlike people of Gaul, G. i. 1; +their design of abandoning their own country, 2; attacked with +considerable loss near the river Sa[^o]ne, 12; vanquished and obliged to +return home by Caesar, 26 + +Helvii, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now possessed +by the _Vivarois;_ Caesar marches into their territories, G. vii. 7 + +Heracl[=e]a, a city of Thrace, on the Euxine Sea, _Pantiro_ + +Heracl[=e]a Sent[)i]ca, a town in Macedonia, _Chesia_ + +Hercynia Silva, _the Hercinian Forest,_ the largest forest of ancient +Germany, being reckoned by Caesar to have been sixty days' journey in +length, and nine in breadth. Many parts of it have been since cut down, +and many are yet remaining; of which, among others, is that called the +_Black Forest;_ its prodigious extent, G. vi. 4 + +Hermand[=u]ri, an ancient people of Germany, particularly in the country +now called _Misnia,_ in Upper Saxony; though they possessed a much +larger tract of land, according to some, all _Bohemia_ + +Hermin[)i]us Mons, a mountain of _Lusitania, Monte Arm[)i]no;_ according +to others, _Monte della Strella_ + +Her[)u]li, an ancient northern people, who came first out of Scandavia, +but afterwards inhabited the country now called _Mecklenburg_ in Lower +Saxony, towards the Baltic + +Hibernia, _Ireland,_ a considerable island to the west of Great Britain, +G. v. 13 + +Hisp[=a]n[)i]a, Spain, one of the most considerable kingdoms of Europe, +divided by the ancients into Tarraconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania. This +name appears to be derived from the Phoenician _Saphan,_ a rabbit, vast +numbers of these animals being found there by the Phoenician colonists + +Ib[=e]rus, a river of Hispania Tarraconensis, the _Ebro,_ C. i. 60 + +Iccius, or Itius Portus, a seaport town of ancient Gaul; _Boulogne,_ or, +according to others, _Calais_ + +Ig[)i]l[)i]um, an island in the Tuscan Sea, _il Giglio, l'Isle du Lys_ + +Ig[)u]v[)i]um, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Gubio;_ it forsakes Pompey, +and submits to Caesar, C. i. 12 + +Illurgavonenses, a people of Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus; +they submit to Caesar, and supply him with corn, C. i. 60 + +Illurgis, a town of Hispania Baetica, _Illera_ + +Induti[)o]m[)a]rus, at the head of a considerable faction among the +Treviri, G. v. 3; endeavouring to make himself master of Labienus's +camp, is repulsed and slain, 53 + +Is[)a]ra, the _Is[`e]re,_ a river of France, which rises in Savoy, and +falls into the Rhone above Valance + +Isauria, a province anciently of Asia Minor, now a part of _Caramania,_ +and subject to the Turks + +Issa (an island of the Adriatic Sea, _Lissa_), revolts from Caesar at +the instigation of Octavius, C. iii. 9 + +Ister, that part of the Danube which passed by Illyricum + +Istr[)i]a, a country now in Italy, under the Venetians, bordering on +Illyricum, so called from the river Ister + +Istr[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Lower Moesia, near the south entrance of the +Danube, _Prostraviza_ + +It[)a]l[)i]a, _Italy,_ one of the most famous countries in Europe, once +the seat of the Roman empire, now under several princes, and free +commonwealths + +It[)a]l[)i]ca, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Servila la Veja;_ according +to others, _Alcala del Rio;_ shuts its gates against Varro, C. ii. 20 + +Itius Portus, Caesar embarks there for Britain, G. v. 5 + +It[=u]raea, a country of Palestine, _Sacar_ + +Jacet[=a]ni, or Lacet[=a]ni, a people of Spain, near the Pyrenean +Mountains; revolt from Afranius and submit to Caesar, C. i. 60 + +Jadert[=i]ni, a people so called from their capital Jadera, a city of +Illyricum, _Zara_ + +Juba, king of Numidia, strongly attached to Pompey, C. ii. 25; advances +with a large army to the relief of Utica, 36; detaches a part of his +troops to sustain Sabura, 40; defeats Cario, ii. 42; his cruelty, ii. 44 + +J[=u]ra, a mountain in Gallia Belgica, which separated the Sequani from +the Helvetians, most of which is now called _Mount St. Claude._ The name +appears to be derived from the Celtic, _jou-rag,_ which signifies the +"domain of God;" the boundary of the Helvetians towards the Sequani, G. +i. 2 + +Labi[=e]nus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, is attacked in his camp, G. v. +58, vi. 6; his stratagem, G. vii. 60; battle with the Gauls, G. vii. 59; +is solicited by Caesar's enemies to join their party, G. viii. 52; built +the town of Cingulum, C. i. 15; swears to follow Pompey, C. iii. 13; his +dispute with Valerius about a peace, C. iii. 19; his cruelty towards +Caesar's followers, C. iii. 71; flatters Pompey, C. iii. 87 + +Lacus B[)e]n[=a]cus, _Lago di Guardo,_ situated in the north of Italy, +between Verona, Brescia, and Trent + +Lacus Lem[)a]nus, the lake upon which Geneva stands, formed by the River +Rhone, between _Switzerland_ to the north, and Savoy to the south, +commonly called the _Lake of Geneva_, G. i. 2, 8 + +Larin[=a]tes, the people of Larinum, a city of Italy, _Larino_; C. i. 23 + +Larissa, the principal city of Thessaly, a province of Macedonia, on the +river Peneo + +L[)a]t[=i]ni, the inhabitants of Latium, an ancient part of Italy, +whence the Latin tongue is so called + +Lat[=o]br[)i]gi, a people of Gallia Belgica, between the Allobroges and +Helvetii, in the country called _Lausanne_; abandon their country, G. i. +5; return, G. i. 28; their number, G. i. 29 + +Lemnos, an island in the Aegean Sea, now called _Stalimane_ + +Lemov[=i]ces, an ancient people of Gaul, _le Limosin_, G. vii. 4 + +Lemov[=i]ces Armorici, the people of _St. Paul de Leon_ + +Lenium, a town in Lusitania, unknown + +Lent[)u]lus Marcellinus, the quaestor, one of Caesar's followers, C. +iii. 62 + +Lentulus and Marcellus, the consuls, Caesar's enemies, G. viii. 50; +leave Rome through fear of Caesar, C. i. 14 + +Lenunc[)u]li, fishing-boats, C. ii. 43 + +Lepontii, a people of the Alps, near the valley of _Leventini_, G. iv. +10 + +Leuci, a people of Gallia Belgica, where now Lorrain is, well skilled in +darting. Their chief city is now called _Toul_, G. i. 40 + +Lev[)a]ci, a people of Brabant, not far from Louvain, whose chief town +is now called _Leew_; dependants on the Nervii, G. v. 39 + +Lex, law of the Aedui respecting the election of magistrates, G. vii. 33 + +Lex, Julian law, C. ii. 14 + +Lex, the Pompeian law respecting bribery, C. iii. 1 + +Lex, two Caelian laws, C. iii. 20, 21 + +Lexovii, an ancient people of Gaul, _Lisieux_ in Normandy, G. iii. 11, +17 + +Liberty of the Gauls, G. iii. 8; the desire of, G. v. 27; the sweetness +of, G. iii. 10; the incitement to, G. vii. 76; C. i. 47 + +Libo, praefect of Pompey's fleet, C. iii. 5; converses with Caesar at +Oricum, C. iii. 16; takes possession of the Island at Brundisium, C. +iii. 23; threatens the partisans of Caesar, C. iii. 24; withdraws from +Brundisium, _ibid_. + +Liburni, an ancient people of Illyricum, inhabiting part of the present +_Croatia_ + +Liger, or Ligeris, the _Loire_; one of the greatest and most celebrated +rivers of France, said to receive one hundred and twelve rivers in its +course; it rises in Velay, and falls into the Bay of Aquitain, below +Nantz, G. iii. 5 + +Lig[)u]ria, a part of ancient Italy, extending from the Apennines to the +Tuscan Sea, containing _Ferrara_, and the territories of _Genoa_ + +Limo, or Lim[=o]num, a city of ancient Gaul, _Poitiers_ + +Ling[)o]nes, a people of Gallia Belgica, inhabiting in and about +_Langres_, in Champagne, G. i. 26, 40 + +Liscus, one of the Aedui, accuses Dumnorix to Caesar, G. i. 16, 17 + +Lissus, an ancient city of Macedonia, _Alessio_ + +Litavicus, one of the Aedui, G. vii. 37; his treachery and flight, G. +vii. 38 + +Lucani, an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the country now called +_Basilicate_ + +Luceria, an ancient city of Italy, _Lucera_ + +Lucretius Vespillo, one of Pompey's followers, C. iii. 7 + +Lucterius or Laterius, one of the Cadurci, vii. 5, 7 + +Lusit[=a]nia, _Portugal_, a kingdom on the west of Spain, formerly a +part of it + +Lusitanians, light-armed troops, C. i. 48 + +Lutetia, _Paris_, an ancient and famous city, now the capital of all +France, on the river _Seine_ + +Lygii, an ancient people of Upper Germany, who inhabited the country now +called _Silesia_, and on the borders of _Poland_ + +M[)a]c[)e]d[=o]nia, a large country, of great antiquity and fame, +containing several provinces, now under the Turks + +Macedonian cavalry among Pompey's troops, C. iii. 4 + +Mae[=o]tis Palus, a vast lake in the north part of Scythia, now called +_Marbianco_, or _Mare della Tana_. It is about six hundred miles in +compass, and the river Tanais disembogues itself into it + +Maget[)o]br[)i]a, or Amagetobria, a city of Gaul, near which Ariovistus +defeated the combined forces of the Gauls. It is supposed to correspond +to the modern _Moigte de Broie_, near the village of _Pontailler_ + +Mandub[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, _l'Anxois_, in Burgundy; their +famine and misery, G. vii. 78 + +Mandubratius, a Briton, G. v. 20 + +Marcellus, Caesar's enemy, G. viii 53 + +Marcius Crispus, is sent for a protection to the inhabitants of Thabena + +Marcomanni, a nation of the Suevi, whom Cluverius places between the +Rhine, the Danube and the Neckar; who settled, however, under +Maroboduus, in _Bohemia_ and _Moravia_. The name Marcomanni signifies +border-men. Germans, G. i. 51 + +Marruc[=i]ni, an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the country now +called _Abruzzo_, C. i. 23; ii. 34 + +Mars, G. vi. 17 + +Marsi, an ancient people of Italy inhabiting the country now called +_Ducato de Marsi_, C. ii. 27 + +Massilia, _Marseilles_, a large and flourishing city of Provence, in +France, on the Mediterranean, said to be very ancient, and, according to +some, built by the Phoenicians, but as Justin will have it, by the +Phocaeans, in the time of Tarquinius, king of Rome + +Massilienses, the inhabitants of Marseilles, C. i. 34-36 + +Matisco, an ancient city of Gaul, _Mascon_, G. vii. 90 + +Matr[)o]na, a river in Gaul, the _Marne_, G. i. 1 + +Mauritania, _Barbary_, an extensive region of Africa, divided into M. +Caesariensis, Tingitana, and Sitofensis + +Mediomatr[=i]ces, a people of Lorrain, on the Moselle, about the city of +_Mentz_, G. iv. 10 + +Mediterranean Sea, the first discovered sea in the world, still very +famous, and much frequented, which breaks in from the Atlantic Ocean, +between Spain and Africa, by the straits of Gibraltar, or Hercules' +Pillar, the _ne plus ultra_ of the ancients + +Meldae, according to some the people of _Meaux_; but more probably +corrupted from _Belgae_ + +Melodunum, an ancient city of Gaul, upon the Seine, above Paris, +_Melun_, G. vii. 58, 60 + +Menapii, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, who inhabited on both +sides of the Rhine. Some take them for the inhabitants of _Cleves_, and +others of _Antwerp, Ghent_, etc., G. ii. 4; iii. 9 + +Menedemus, C. iii. 34 + +Mercurius, G. v. 17 + +Mes[)o]p[)o]t[=a]mia, a large country in the middle of Asia, between the +Tigris and the Euphrates, _Diarbeck_ + +Mess[=a]na, an ancient and celebrated city of Sicily, still known by the +name of _Messina_, C. iii. 101 + +M[)e]taurus, a river of Umbria, now called _Metoro_, in the duchy of +Urbino + +Metios[=e]dum, an ancient city of Gaul, on the Seine, below Paris, +_Corbeil_, G. vii. 61 + +Metr[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Thessaly, between Pharsalus and Gomphi, C. +iii. 11 + +Milo, C. iii. 21 + +Minerva, G. vi. 12 + +Minutius Rufus, C. iii. 7 + +Mitylene, a city of Lesbos, _Metelin_ + +Moesia, a country of Europe, and a province of the ancient Illyricum, +bordering on Pannonia, divided into the Upper, containing _Bosnia_ and +_Servia_, and the Lower, called _Bulgaria_ + +Mona, in Caesar, the Isle of _Man_; in Ptolemy, _Anglesey_, G. v. 13 + +Mor[)i]ni, an ancient people of the Low Countries, who probably +inhabited on the present coast of _Bologne_, on the confines of +_Picardy_ and _Artois_, because Caesar observes that from their country +was the nearest passage to Britain, G. ii. 4 + +Moritasgus, G. v. 54 + +Mosa, the _Maess_, or _Meuse_, a large river of Gallia Belgica, which +falls into the German Ocean below the Briel, G. iv. 10 + +Mosella, the _Moselle_, a river which, running through Lorrain, passes +by Triers and falls unto the Rhine at Coblentz, famous for the vines +growing in the neighbourhood of it + +Mysia, a country of Asia Minor, not far from the Hellespont, divided +Into Major and Minor + +Nabathaei, an ancient people of Arabia, uncertain + +Nann[=e]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country about +_Nantes_, G. iii. 9 + +Nantu[=a]tes, an ancient people of the north part of Savoy, whose +country is now called _Le Chablais_, G. iii. 1 + +Narbo, _Narbonne_, an ancient Roman city in Languedoc, in France, said +to be built a hundred and thirty-eight years before the birth of Christ, +G. iii. 20 + +Narisci, the ancient people of the country now called _Nortgow_, in +Germany, the capital of which is the famous city of Nuremburg + +Nasua, the brother of Cimberius, and commander of the hundred cantons of +the Suevi, who encamped on the banks of the Rhine with the intention of +crossing that river, G. i. 37 + +Naupactus, an ancient and considerable city of Aetolia, now called +_Lepanto_, C. iii. 35 + +Nem[=e]tes, a people of ancient Germany, about the city of Spire, on the +Rhine, G. i. 51 + +Nemetocenna, a town of Belgium, not known for certain; according to +some, _Arras_, G. viii, 47 + +Neocaesarea, the capital of Ponts, on the river Licus, now called +_Tocat_ + +Nervii, an ancient people of _Gallia Belgica_, thought to have dwelt in +the now diocese of _Cambray_. They attacked Caesar on his march, and +fought until they were almost annihilated, G. ii. 17 + +Nessus, or Nestus, a river is Thrace, _Nesto_ Nicaea, a city of +Bithynia, now called _Isnick_, famous for the first general council, +anno 324, against Arianism + +Nit[=o]br[)i]ges, an ancient people of Gaul, whose territory lay on +either side of the Garonne, and corresponded to the modern Agennois, in +the department of Lot-et-Garonne. Their capital was Agrimum, now +_Agen_, G. vii. 7, 31, 46, 75 + +Noreia, a city on the borders of Illyricum, in the province of Styria, +near the modern village of Newmarket, about nine German miles from +Aquileia, G. i. 5 + +N[=o]r[)i]cae Alpes, that part of the Alps which were in, or bordering +upon, Noricum + +N[=o]r[)i]cum, anciently a large country, and now comprehending a great +part of _Austria, Styria, Carinthia_, part of _Tyrol, Bavaria_, etc., +and divided into Noricum Mediterraneum and Ripense. It was first +conquered by the Romans under Tiberius, in the reign of Augustus, and +was celebrated for its mineral treasures, especially iron + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Belgarum, an ancient city of Belgic Gaul, now +called _Noyon_ + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Bitur[)i]gum, _Neuvy_, or _Neufvy_, G. vii. 12 + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Aeduorum, _Nevers_, G. vii. 55 + +N[)o]v[)i][)o]d[=u]num Suessionum, _Soissons, al. Noyon_, G. ii. 12 + +N[)o]v[)i]om[=a]gum, _Spire_, an ancient city of Germany, in the now +upper circle of the Rhine, and on that river + +Numantia, a celebrated city of ancient Spain, famous for a gallant +resistance against the Romans, in a siege of fourteen years; _Almasan_ + +Numeius, G. i. 7 + +Num[)i]dae, the inhabitants of, G. ii. 7 + +Numid[)i]a, an ancient and celebrated kingdom of Africa, bordering on +Mauritania; _Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli_, etc. + +N[=y]mphaeum, a promontory of Illyricum, exposed to the south wind, and +distant about three miles from Lissus, _Alessio_, C. iii. 26 + +Oc[)e]lum, a town situated among the Cottian Alps, Usseau in Piedmont, +G. i. 10 + +Octavius, C. iii. 9 + +Octod[=u]rus, a town belonging to the Veragrians, among the Pennine +Alps, now _Martigny_ in the Valois, G. iii. 1 Octog[=e]sa, a city of +Hispania Tarraconensis, _Mequinenza_, C. i. 61 + +Ollovico, G. vii. 31 + +Orch[)o]m[)e]nus, a town in Boeotia, _Orcomeno_, C. iii. 5 5 + +Orcynia, the name given by Greek writers to the Hercynian forest + +Orget[=o]rix, G. i. 2, 3 + +Or[)i]cum, a town in Epirus, _Orco, or Orcha_, C. iii. 11, 12 + +Osc[=e]nses, the people of Osca, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis, now +_Huescar_, C. i. 60 + +Os[=i]sm[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, one of the Gentes Armoricae. +Their country occupied part of Neodron Brittany; capital Vorganium, +afterwards Osismii, and now _Korbez_. In this territory also stood +Brivatas Portus, now _Brest_, G. i. 34 + +Otacilii, C. iii. 28 + +Padua, the _Po_, the largest river in Italy, which rises in Piedmont, +and dividing Lombardy into two parts, falls into the Adriatic Sea, by +many mouths; south of Venice + +Paem[=a]ni, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica; according to some, +those of _Luxemburg_; according to others, the people of _Pemont_, near +the Black Forest, in part of the modern _Lugen_, G. ii. 4 + +P[)a]laeste, a town in Epirus, near Oricurn + +Pann[=o]n[)i]a, a very large country in the ancient division of Europe, +divided into the Upper and Lower, and comprehended betwixt Illyricum, +the Danube, and the mountains Cethi + +P[)a]ris[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country now +called the _Isle of France_. Their capital was Lutetia, afterwards +Parisii, now _Paris_, G. vi. 3 + +P[=a]rth[)i]a, a country in Asia, lying between Media, Caramania, and +the Hyreanian Sea + +Parthians at war with Rome, C. iii. 31 + +P[=a]rth[=i]ni, a people of Macedonia; their chief city taken by storm, +C. iii. 41 + +P[=e]l[=i]gni, a people of Italy in Abruzzo, C. i. 15 + +P[)e]l[)o]ponn[=e]sus, the _Morea_, a famous, large, and fruitful +peninsula of Greece, now belonging to the Venetians + +P[=e]l[=u]s[)i]um, an ancient and celebrated city of Egypt, _Belbais_; +Pompey goes to it, C. iii. 103; taken by Mithridates + +P[=e]rg[)a]mus, an ancient and famous city of Mysia, _Pergamo_ + +Per[)i]nthus, a city of Thrace, about a day's journey west of +Constantinople, now in a decaying condition, and called _Heraclea_ + +P[=e]rs[)i]a, one of the largest, most ancient and celebrated kingdoms +of Asia + +P[=e]tra, an ancient city of Macedonia, uncertain + +Petreius, one of Pompey's lieutenants, C. i. 38 + +P[=e]tr[)o]g[)o]r[)i]i, a country in Gaul, east of the mouth of the +Garumna; their chief city was Vesuna, afterwards Petrocorii, now +_Perigueux_, the capital of Perigord + +Pe[=u]c[=i]ni, the inhabitants of the islands of Peuce, in one of the +mouths of the Danube + +Ph[=a]rs[=a]l[)i]a, a part of Thessaly, famous for the battle between +Caesar and Pompey, which decided the fate of the Roman commonwealth + +Pharus, an isle facing the port of Alexandria in ancient Egypt; _Farion_ + +Phasis, a large river in Colchis, now called _Fasso_, which flows into +the Euxine Sea + +Ph[)i]lippi, a city of Macedonia, on the confines of Thrace, _Filippo_ + +Ph[)i]l[=i]pp[)o]p[)o]lis, a city of Thrace, near the river Hebrus, +_Filippopoli_ + +Phr[)y]g[)i]a, two countries in Asia Minor, one called Major, the other +Minor + +P[=i]c[=e]num, an ancient district of Italy, lying eastward of Umbria; +_the March of Ancona_; according to others, _Piscara_ + +P[=i]cti, _Picts_, an ancient barbarous northern people, who by +inter-marriages became, in course of time, one nation with the Scots; but +are originally supposed to have come out of Denmark or Scythia, to the +Isles of Orkney, and from thence into Scotland + +P[=i]ct[)o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, along the southern bank of +the Liger, or Loire. Their capital was Limonum, afterwards Pictones, now +_Paitross_, in the department _de la Vienne_, G. iii. 11 + +Pir[=u]stae, an ancient people of Dalmatia, Illyricum, on the confines +of Pannonia. They are the same as the Pyraci of Pliny (H. N. iii. 22), +G. v. i + +P[)i]saurum, a city of Umbria in Italy, _Pisaro_ + +Piso, an Aquitanian, slain, G. iv. 12 + +Placentia, an ancient city of Gallia Cisalpina, near the Po, now the +metropolis of the duchy of _Piacenza_, which name it also bears + +Pleum[)o]si, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, subject to the +Nervians, and inhabiting near _Tournay_ + +Pompey, at first friendly to Caesar, G. vi. 1; subsequently estranged, +G. viii. 53; could not bear an equal his authority, power, and +influence, C. i. 61; sends ambassadors to Caesar, C. i. 8, 10; always +received great respect from Caesar, C. i. 8; Caesar desires to bring him +to an engagement, C. iii. 66; his unfortunate flight, C. iii. 15, 94, +102; his death, C. iii. 6, 7. + +Pomponius, C. iii. 101 + +Pontus Eux[=i]nus, the _Euxine,_ or _Black Sea_, from the Aegean along +the Hellespont, to the Maeotic Lake, between Europe and Asia + +Posth[)u]m[)i][=a]na Castra, an ancient town in Hispania Baetica, now +called _Castro el Rio_ + +Pothinus, king Ptolemy's tutor, C. iii. 108; his death, C. iii. 112 + +Praeciani, an ancient people of Gaul, _Precius_; they surrendered to the +Romans, G. iii. 27 + +Provincia Rom[=a]na, or Romanorum, one of the southern provinces of +France, the first the Romans conquered and brought into the form of a +province, whence it obtained its name; which it still in some degree +retains, being called at this day _Provence_. It extended from the +Pyrenees to the Alps, along the coast. _Provence_ is only part of the +ancient Provincia, which in its full extent included the departments of +Pyr['e]n['e]es-Orientales, l'Arri[`e]ge, Aude[**Note: misprint "Ande" in +the original], Haute Garonne, Tarn, Herault, Gard, Vaucluse, Bouches-du- +Rh[^o]ne, Var, Basses-Alpes, Hautes-Alpes, La Dr[^o]me, l'Is[`e]re, +l'Ain + +Prusa, or Prusas, _Bursa_, a city of Bithynia, at the foot of Olympus, +built by Hannibal + +Ptolemaeius, Caesar interferes between him and Cleopatra, C. iii. 107; +his father's will, C. iii. 108; Caesar takes the royal youth into his +power, C. iii. 109 + +Pt[)o]l[)e]m[=a]is, an ancient city of Africa, _St. Jean d'Acre_ + +Publius Attius Varus, one of Pompey's generals, C. ii. 23 Pyrenaei +Montes, the _Pyrenees_, or _Pyrenean mountains_, one of the largest +chains of mountains in Europe, which divide Spain from France, running +from east to west eighty-five leagues in length. The name is derived +from the _Celtic Pyren_ or _Pyrn_, a high mountain, hence also Brenner, +in the Tyrol + +Ravenna, a very ancient city of Italy, near the coast of the Adriatic +Gulf, which still retains its ancient name. In the decline of the Roman +empire, it was sometimes the seat of the emperors of the West; as it was +likewise of the Visi-Gothic kingdom, C. i. 5 + +Raur[=a]ci, a people of ancient Germany, near the Helvetii, who +inhabited near where _Basle_ in Switzerland now is; they unite with the +Helvetii, and leave home, G. i. 5, 29 + +Rebilus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, a man of great military +experience, C. ii. 34 + +Remi, the people of _Rheims_, a very ancient, fine, and populous city of +France, in the province of Champagne, on the river Vesle; surrender to +Caesar, G. ii. 3; their influence and power with Caesar, G. v. 54; vi. +64; they fall into an ambuscade of the Bellovaci, G. viii. 12 + +Rh[-e][)d]ones, an ancient people of Gaul inhabiting about _Rennes,_ in +Bretagne; they surrender to the Romans, G. ii. 34 + +Rhaetia, the country of the _Grisons,_ on the Alps, near the Hercynian +Forest + +Rhenus, the _Rhine,_ a large and famous river in Germany, which it +formerly divided from Gaul. It springs out of the Rhaetian Alps, in the +western borders of Switzerland, and the northern of the Grisons, from +two springs which unite near Coire, and falls into the Meuse and the +German Ocean, by two mouths, whence Virgil calls it Rhenus bicornis. It +passes through Lacus Brigantinus, or the Lake of Constance, and Lacus +Acronius or the Lake of Zell, and then continues its westerly direction +to Basle (Basiliae). It then bends northward, and separates Germany from +France, and further down Germany from Belgium. At Schenk the Rhine sends +off its left-hand branch, the Vahalis (Waal), by a western course to +join the Mosa or Meuse. The Rhine then flows on a few miles, and again +separates into two branches--the one to the right called the Flevo, or +Felvus, or Flevum--now the Yssel, and the other called the Helium, now +the _Leek_. The latter joins the Mosa above Rotterdam. The Yssel was +first connected with the Rhine by the canal of Drusus. It passed through +the small lake of Flevo before reaching the sea which became expanded +into what is now called the Zuyder Zee by increase of water through the +Yssel from the Rhine. The whole course of the Rhine is nine hundred +miles, of which six hundred and thirty are navigable from Basle to the +sea.--G. iv. 10, 16, 17; vi. 9, etc.; description of it, G. iv. 10 + +Rh[)o]d[)a]nus, the _Rhone_, one of the most celebrated rivers of +France, which rises from a double spring in Mont de la Fourche, a part +of the Alps, on the borders of Switzerland, near the springs of the +Rhine. It passes through the Lacus Lemanus, Lake of Geneva, and flows +with a swift and rapid current in a southern direction into the Sinus +Gallicus, or Gulf of Lyons. Its whole course is about four hundred miles + +Rhod[)o]pe, a famous mountain of Thrace, now called _Valiza_ + +Rh[)o]dus, Rhodes, a celebrated island in the Mediterranean, upon the +coast of Asia Minor, over against Caria + +Rhynd[)a]gus, a river of Mysia in Asia, which falls into the Propontis + +R[)o]ma, _Rome_, once the seat of the Roman empire, and the capital of +the then known world, now the immediate capital of Camagna di Roma only, +on the river Tiber, and the papal seat; generally supposed to have been +built by Romulus, in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, B.C. 753 + +Roscillus and Aegus, brothers belonging to the Allobroges, revolt from +Caesar to Pompey, C. iii. 59 + +Roxol[-a]ni, a people of Scythia Europaea, bordering upon the Alani; +their country, anciently called Roxolonia, is now _Red Russia_ + +R[)u]t[-e]ni, an ancient people of Gaul, to the north-west of the Volcae +Arecomici, occupying the district now called Le Rauergne. Their capital +was Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now Rhodes, G. i. 45; vii. 7, etc. + +S[=a]bis, _the Sambre_, a river of the Low Countries, which rises in +Picardy, and falls into the Meuse at Namur, G. ii. 16, 18; vi. 33 + +Sabura, general of king Juba, C. ii. 38; his stratagem against Curio, C. +ii. 40; his death, C. ii. 95 + +Sadales, the son of king Cotys, brings forces to Pompey, C. iii. 4 + +Salassii, an ancient city of Piedmont, whose chief town was where now +_Aosta_ is situate + +Salluvii, _Sallyes_, a people of Gallia Narbonensis, about where _Aix_ +now is + +Sal[=o]na, an ancient city of Dalmatia, and a Roman colony; the place +where Dioclesian was born, and whither he retreated, after he had +resigned the imperial dignity + +S[=a]lsus, a river of Hispania Baetica, _Rio Salado_, or _Guadajos_ + +S[)a]m[)a]r[:o]br[=i]va, _Amiens_, an ancient city of Gallia Belgica, +enlarged and beautified by the emperor Antoninus Pius, now Amicus, the +chief city of Picardy, on the river Somme; assembly of the, Gauls held +there, G. v. 24 + +S[=a]nt[)o]nes, the ancient inhabitants of _Guienne_, or _Xantoigne_, G. +i. 10 + +S[=a]rd[)i]n[)i]a, a large island in the Mediterranean, which in the +time of the Romans had forty-two cities, it now belongs to the Duke of +Savoy, with the title of king + +S[=a]rm[=a]t[)i]a, a very large northern country, divided into Sarmatia +Asiatica, containing _Tartary, Petigora, Circassia_, and the country of +the _Morduitae_; and Sarmatia Europaea, containing _Russia_, part of +_Poland, Prussia_, and _Lithuania_ + +Savus, the _Save_, a large river which rises in Upper Carniola, and +falls into the Danube at Belgrade + +Scaeva, one of Caesar's centurions, displays remarkable valour, C. iii. +5 3; his shield is pierced in two hundred and thirty places + +Sc[=a]ldis, the _Scheld_, a noted river in the Low Countries, which +rises in Picardy, and washing several of the principal cities of +Flanders and Brabant in its course, falls into the German Ocean by two +mouths, one retaining its own name, and the other called the _Honte_. +Its whole course does not exceed a hundred and twenty miles. G. vi. 33 + +Scandinav[)i]a, anciently a vast northern peninsula, containing what is +yet called _Schonen_, anciently Scania, belonging to _Denmark_; and part +of _Sweden_, _Norway_, and _Lapland_ + +Scipio, his opinion of Pompey and Caesar, C. i. 1, 21; his flight, C. +iii. 37 + +S[)e]d[=u]l[)i]us, general of the Lemovices; his death, G. vii. 38 + +S[=e]d[=u]ni, a people of Gaul, to the south-east of the Lake of Geneva, +occupying the upper part of the Valais. Their chief town was Civitus +Sedunorum, now _Sion_, G. iii. i + +S[=e]d[=u]s[)i]i, an ancient people of Germany, on the borders of +Suabia, G. i. 51 + +S[=e]gni, an ancient German nation, neighbours of the Condrusi, +_Zulpich_ + +S[=e]g[=o]nt[)i][=a]ci, a people of ancient Britain, inhabiting about +Holshot, in Hampshire, G. v. 21 + +Segovia, a city of Hispania Baetica, _Sagovia la Menos_ + +S[)e]g[=u]s[)i][=a]ni, a people of Gallia Celtica, about where _Lionois +Forest_ is now situate + +Sen[)o]nes, an ancient nation of the Celtae, inhabiting the country +about the _Senonois_, in Gaul + +Sequ[)a]na, the _Seine_, one of the principal rivers of France, which +rising in the duchy of Burgundy, not far from a town of the same name, +and running through Paris, and by Rouen, forms at Candebec a great arm +of the sea + +Sequ[)a]ni, an ancient people of Gallia Belgica, inhabiting the country +now called the _Franche Comt['e]_, or the _Upper Burgundy_; they bring +the Germans into Gaul, G. vi. 12; lose the chief power, _ibid_. + +Servilius the consul, C. iii. 21 + +S[=e]s[=u]v[)i]i, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Seez_; +they surrender to the Romans, G. ii. 34 + +Sextus Bibaculus, sick in the camp, G. vi. 38; fights bravely against +the enemy, _ibid_. + +Sextus Caesar, C. ii. 20 + +Sextus, Quintilius Varus, qaestor, C. i. 23; C. ii. 28 + +Sib[=u]z[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting the country +around the _Adour_; they surrender to the Romans, G. iii. 27 + +Sicil[)i]a, _Sicily_, a large island in the Tyrrhene Sea, at the +south-west point of Italy, formerly called the storehouse of the Roman +empire, it was the first province the Romans possessed out of Italy, +C. i. 30 + +S[)i]c[)o]ris, a river in Catalonia, the _Segre_ + +S[)i]g[)a]mbri, or S[)i]c[)a]mbri, an ancient people of Lower Germany, +between the Maese and the Rhine, where _Cuelderland_ is; though by some +placed on the banks of the Maine, G. iv. 18 + +Silicensis, a river of Hispania Baetica, _Rio de las Algamidas_. Others +think it a corruption from _Singuli_ + +Sinuessa, a city of Campania, not far from the Save, an ancient Roman +colony, now in a ruinous condition; _Rocca di Mondragon['e]_ + +Soldurii, G. iii. 22 + +S[)o]t[)i][=a]tes, or Sontiates, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting +the country about _Aire_; conquered by Caesar Aquillus, G. iii. 20, 21 + +Sp[=a]rta, a city of Peloponnesus, now called _Mucithra_, said to be as +ancient as the days of the patriarch Jacob + +Spolet[)i]um, _Spoleto_, a city of great antiquity, of Umbria, in Italy, +the capital of a duchy of the same name, on the river Tesino, where are +yet some stately ruins of ancient Roman and Gothic edifices + +Statius Marcus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. iii. i 5 + +S[)u][=e]ss[)i][=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, _les Soissanois_; a +kindred tribe with the Remi, G. ii. 3; surrender to Caesar, G. iii. 13 + +Su[=e]vi, an ancient, great, and warlike people of Germany, who +possessed the greatest part of it, from the Rhine to the Elbe, but +afterwards removed from the northern parts, and settled about the +Danube; and some marched into Spain, where they established a kingdom, +the greatest nation in Germany, G. i. 37, 51, 54; hold a levy against +the Romans, G. iv. 19; the Germans say that not even the gods are a +match for them, G. iii. 7; the Ubii pay them tribute, G. iv. 4 + +S[=u]lmo, an ancient city of Italy, _Sulmona_; its inhabitants declare +in favour of Caesar, C. i. 18 + +Sulpicius, one of Caesar's lieutenants, stationed among the Aedui, C. i. +74 + +Supplications decreed in favour of Caesar on several occasions, G. ii. +15; _ibid_. 35; iv. 38 + +Suras, one of the Aeduan nobles, taken prisoner, G. viii. 45 + +Sylla, though a most merciless tyrant, left to the tribunes the right of +giving protection, C. i. 5, 73 + +Syrac[=u]sae, _Saragusa_, once one of the noblest cities of Sicily, said +to have been built by Archias, a Corinthian, about seven hundred years +before Christ. The Romans besieged and took it during the second Punic +war, on which occasion the great Archimedes was killed + +S[=y]rtes, _the Deserts of Barbary_; also two dangerous sandy gulfs in +the Mediterranean, upon the coast of Barbary, in Africa, called the one +Syrtis Magna, now the _Gulf of Sidra_; the other Syrtis Parva, now the +_Gulf of Capes_ + +T[)a]m[)e]sis, the _Thames_, a celebrated and well-known river of Great +Britain; Caesar crosses it, G. v. 18 + +Tan[)a]is, the _Don_, a very large river in Scythia, dividing Asia from +Europe. It rises in the province of Resan, in Russia, and flowing +through Crim-Tartary, runs into the Maeotic Lake, near a city of the +same name, now in ruins + +T[=a]rb[=e]lli, a people of ancient Gaul, near the Pyrenees, inhabiting +about _Ays_ and _Bayonne_, in the country of _Labourd_; they surrender +to Crassus, G. iii. 27 + +Tarcundarius Castor, assists Pompey with three hundred cavalry, C. iii. +4 + +Tarr[)a]c[=i]na, an ancient city of Italy, which still retains the same +name + +T[=a]rr[)a]co, _Tarragona_, a city of Spain, which in ancient time gave +name to that part of it called Hispania Tarraconensis; by some said to +be built by the Scipios, though others say before the Roman conquest, +and that they only enlarged it. It stands on the mouth of the river +Tulcis, now _el Fracoli_, with a small haven on the Mediterranean; its +inhabitants desert to Caesar, C. i. 21, 60 + +Tar[=u]s[=a]tes, an ancient people of Gaul, uncertain; according to +some, _le Teursan_; they surrender to the Romans, G. iii. 13, 23, 27 + +Tasg[=e]t[)i]us, chief of the Carnutes, slain by his countrymen, G. v. +25 + +Taur[=o]is, a fortress of the inhabitants of Massilia + +Taurus, an island in the Adriatic Sea, unknown + +Taurus Mons, the largest mountain in all Asia, extending from the Indian +to the Aegean Seas, called by different names in different countries, +viz., Imaus, Caucasus, Caspius, Cerausius, and in Scripture, Ar[)a]rat. +Herbert says it is fifty English miles over, and 1500 long + +Taximagulus, one of the four kings or princes that reigned over Kent, G. +v. 22 + +Tect[)o]s[)a]ges, a branch of the Volcae, G. vi. 24 + +Tegea, a city of Africa, unknown + +Tenchth[)e]ri, a people of ancient Germany, bordering on the Rhine, near +_Overyssel_; they and the Usip[)e]tes arrive at the banks of the Rhine, +iv. 4; cross that river by a stratagem, _ibid_.; are defeated with great +slaughter, _ibid_. 15 + +Tergeste, a Roman colony, its inhabitants in the north of Italy cut off +by an incursion, G. viii. 24 + +Terni, an ancient Roman colony, on the river Nare, twelve miles from +Spol[=e]tum + +Teutomatus, king of the Nitobriges, G. vii. 31 + +Teut[)o]nes, or Teutoni, an ancient people bordering on the Cimbri, the +common ancient name for all the Germans, whence they yet call themselves +_Teutsche_, and their country _Teutschland_; they are repelled from the +territories of the Belgae, G. ii. 4 + +Thebae, Thebes, a city of Boeotia, in Greece, said to have been built by +Cadmus, destroyed by Alexander the Great, but rebuilt, and now known by +the name of _Stives_; occupied by Kalenus, C. iii. 55 + +Therm[)o]pylae, a famous pass on the great mountain Oeta, leading into +Phocis, in Achaia, now called _Bocca di Lupa_ + +Thessaly, a country of Greece, formerly a great part of Macedonia, now +called _Janna_; in conjunction with Aetolia, sends ambassadors to +Caesar, C. iii. 34; reduced by Caesar, _ibid_. 81 + +Thessalon[=i]ca, a chief city of Macedonia, now called _Salonichi_ + +Thracia, a large country of Europe, eastward from Macedonia, commonly +called _Romania_, bounded by the Euxine and Aegean Seas + +Th[=u]r[=i]i, or T[=u]r[=i]i, an ancient people of Italy, _Torre +Brodogneto_ + +Tigur[=i]nus Pagus, one of the four districts into which the Helvetii +were divided according to Caesar, the ancient inhabitants of the canton +of _Zurich_ in Switzerland, cut to pieces by Caesar, G. i. 12 + +Titus Ampius attempts sacrilege, but is prevented, C. iii. 105 + +Tol[=o]sa, _Thoulouse_, a city of Aquitaine, of great antiquity, the +capital of Languedoc, on the Garonne + +Toxandri, an ancient people of the Low Countries, about _Breda_, and +_Gertruydenburgh_; but according to some, of the diocese of _Liege_ + +Tralles, an ancient city of Lydia in, Asia Minor, _Chara_, C. iii. 105 + +Trebonius, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. i. 36; torn down from the +tribunal, C. iii. 21; shows remarkable industry in repairing the works, +C. ii. 14; and humanity, C. iii. 20 + +Trev[)i]ri, the people of _Treves_, or _Triers_, a very ancient city of +Lower Germany, on the Moselle, said to have been built by Trebetas, the +brother of Ninus. It was made a Roman colony in the time of Augustus, +and became afterwards the most famous city of Gallia Belgica. It was for +some time the seat of the western empire, but it is now only the seat of +the ecclesiastical elector named from it, G. i. 37; surpass the rest of +the Gauls in cavalry, G. ii. 24; solicit the Germans to assist them +against the Romans, G. v. 2, 55; their bravery, G. viii. 25; their +defeat, G. vi. 8, vii. 63 + +Tr[)i]b[)o]ci, or Tr[)i]b[)o]ces, a people of ancient Germany, +inhabiting the country of _Alsace_, G. i. 51 + +Tribunes of the soldiers and centurions desert to Caesar, C. i. 5 + +Tribunes (of the people) flee to Caesar, C. i. 5 + +Trin[)o]bantes, a people of ancient Britain, inhabitants of the counties +of _Middlesex_ and _Hertfordshire_, G. v. 20 + +Troja, _Troy_, a city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, near Mount _Ida_, +destroyed by the Greeks, after a ten years' siege + +Tubero is prevented by Attius Varus from landing on the African coast, +G. i. 31 + +Tulingi, an ancient people of Germany, who inhabited about where now +_Stulingen_ in Switzerland is; border on the Helvetii, G. i. 5 + +Tungri, an ancient people inhabiting about where Tongres, in Liege, now +is + +Tur[=o]nes, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Tours_ + +Tusc[)i], or Hetrusci, the inhabitants of _Tuscany_, a very large and +considerable region of Italy, anciently called Tyrrh[=e]nia, and Etruria + +Ubii, an ancient people of Lower Germany, who inhabited about where +_Cologne_ and the duchy of _Juliers_ now are. They seek protection from +the Romans against the Suevi, G. iv. 3; tributary to the Suevi, _ibid_.; +declare in favour of Caesar, G. iv. 9, 14 + +Ulcilles Hirrus, one of Pompey's officers, C. i. 15 + +Ulla, or Ulia, a town in Hispania Baetica, in regard to whose situation +geographers are not agreed; some making it _Monte Major_, others +_Vaena_, others _Vilia_ + +Umbria, a large country of Italy, on both sides of the Apennines + +Unelli, an ancient people of Gaul, uncertain, G. ii. 34 + +Urbigenus, one of the cantons of the Helvetii, G. i. 27 + +Usip[)e]tes, an ancient people of Germany, who frequently changed their +habitation + +Usita, a town unknown + +Uxellod[=u]num, a town in Gaul, whose situation is not known; according +to some, _Ussoldun_ besieged and stormed, G. viii. 32 + +Vah[)a]lis, the _Waal_, the middle branch of the Rhine, which, passing +by Nim[)e]guen, falls into the Meuse, above Gorcum, G. iv. 10 + +Valerius Flaccus, one of Caesar's lieutenants, C. i. 30; his death, C. +iii. 5 3 + +Val[=e]t[)i][)a]cus, the brother of Cotus, G. vii. 32 + +Vangi[)o]nes, an ancient people of Germany, about the city of _Worms_, +G. i. 51 + +V[=a]r[=e]nus, a centurion, his bravery, G. v. 44 + +Varro, one of Pompey's lieutenants, C. i. 38; his feelings towards +Caesar, C. ii. 17; his cohorts driven out by the inhabitants of Carmona, +C. ii. 19; his surrender, C. ii. 20 + +V[=a]rus, the _Var_, a river of Italy, that flows into the Mediterranean +Sea, C. i. 87 + +Varus, one of Pompey's lieutenants, is afraid to oppose Juba. C. ii. 44; +his flight, C. ii. 34 + +Vatinius, one of Caesar's followers, C. iii. 100 + +V[)e]launi, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Velai_ + +Vellaunod[=u]num, a town in Gaul, about which geographers are much +divided; some making it _Auxerre_, others _Chasteau Landon_, others +_Villeneuve_ in Lorraine, others _Veron_. It surrenders, G. vii. 11 + +Velocasses, an ancient people of Normandy, about _Rouen_, G. ii. 4 + +V[)e]n[)e]ti, this name was anciently given as well to the _Venetians_ +as to the people of _Vannes_, in Bretagne, in Gaul, for which last it +stands in Caesar. They were powerful by sea, G. iii. 1; their senate is +put to death by Caesar, G. iii. 16; they are completely defeated, +_ibid_. 15; and surrender, _ibid_. 16 + +Veragri, a people of Gallia Lugdunensls, whose chief town was Aguanum, +now _St. Maurice_, G. iii. 1 + +Verb[)i]g[)e]nus, or Urb[)i]g[)e]nus Pagus, a nation or canton of the +Helvetians, inhabiting the country in the neighbourhood of _Orbe_ + +Vercelli Campi, the _Plains of Vercellae_, famous for a victory the +Romans obtained there over the Cimbri. The city of that name is in +Piedmont on the river Sesia, on the borders of the duchy of Milan + +Vercingetorix, the son of Celtillus, receives the title of king from his +followers, G. vii. 4; his plans, G. vii. 8; is accused of treachery, G. +vii. 20; his acts, G. vii. 8; surrenders to Caesar, G. vii. 82 + +Vergasillaunus, the Arvernian, one of the Gallic leaders, G. vii. 76; +taken prisoner, G. vii. 88 + +Vergobr[)e]tus, the name given to the chief magistrate among the Aedui, +G. i. 16 + +V[)e]r[)u]doct[)i]us, one of the Helvetian embassy who request +permission from Caesar to pass through the province, G. i. 7 + +Veromand[)u]i, a people of Gallia Belgica, whose country, now a part of +Picardy, is still called _Vermandois_ + +Ver[=o]na, a city of Lombardy, the capital of a province of the same +name, on the river Adige, said to have been built by the Gauls two +hundred and eighty-two years before Christ. It has yet several remains +of antiquity + +Vertico, one of the Nervii. He was in Cicero's camp when it was attacked +by the Eburones, and prevailed on a slave to carry a letter to Caesar +communicating that information, G. v. 49 + +Vertiscus, general of the Remi, G. viii. 12 + +Vesontio, _Besan[,c]on_, the capital of the Sequani, now the chief city +of Burgundy, G. i. 38 + +Vett[=o]nes, a people of Spain, inhabiting the province of +_Estremadura_, C. i. 38 + +Vibo, a town in Italy, not far from the Sicilian Straits, _Bibona_ + +Vibullius Rufus, one of Pompey's followers, C. i. 15 + +Vienna, a city of Narbonese Gaul, _Vienne in Dauphiny_, G. vii. 9 + +Vindel[)i]ci, an ancient people of Germany, inhabitants of the country +of Vindelicia, otherwise called Raetia secunda + +Viridomarus, a nobleman among the Aedui, G. vii. 38 + +Viridorix, king of the Unelli, G. iii. 17 + +Vist[)u]la, the _Weichsel_, a famous river of Poland, which rises in the +Carpathian mountains, in Upper Silesia, and falls into the Baltic, not +far from Dantzic, by three mouths + +Visurgis, the _Weser_, a river of Lower Germany, which rises in +Franconia, and, among other places of note, passing by Bremen, falls +into the German Ocean, not far from the mouth of the Elbe, between that +and the Ems + +V[)o]c[=a]tes, a people of Gaul, on the confines of the Lapurdenses, G. +iii. 23 + +Vocis, the king of the Norici, G. i. 58 + +V[)o]contii, an ancient people of Gaul, inhabiting about _Die_, in +Dauphiny, and _Vaison_ in the county of Venisse + +Vog[)e]sus Mons, the mountain of _Vauge_ in Lorrain, or, according to +others, _de Faucilles_, G. iv. 10 + +Volcae Arecom[)i]ci, and Tectosages, an ancient people of Gaul, +inhabiting the _Upper_ and _Lower Languedoc_ + +Volcae, a powerful Gallic tribe, divided into two branches, the +Tectosages and Arecomici, G. vii. 7 + +Volcatius Tullus, one of Caesar's partisans, C. iii. 52 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of "De Bello Gallico" and Other +Commentaries, by Caius Julius Caesar + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DE BELLO GALLICO *** + +***** This file should be named 10657.txt or 10657.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/6/5/10657/ + +Produced by Stan Goodman, Ted Garvin, Carol David and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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