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diff --git a/old/10655-8.txt b/old/10655-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b2b94f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10655-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16170 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy +by George Biddell Airy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy + +Author: George Biddell Airy + +Release Date: January 9, 2004 [EBook #10655] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIR GEORGE AIRY *** + + + + +Produced by Joseph Myers and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + AUTOBIOGRAPHY + + OF + + SIR GEORGE BIDDELL AIRY, K.C.B., + + M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., + + HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, + ASTRONOMER ROYAL FROM 1836 TO 1881. + + + EDITED BY + + WILFRID AIRY, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. + + + 1896 + + + + +PREFACE. + +The life of Airy was essentially that of a hard-working, business man, +and differed from that of other hard-working people only in the +quality and variety of his work. It was not an exciting life, but it +was full of interest, and his work brought him into close relations +with many scientific men, and with many men high in the State. His +real business life commenced after he became Astronomer Royal, and +from that time forward, during the 46 years that he remained in +office, he was so entirely wrapped up in the duties of his post that +the history of the Observatory is the history of his life. For writing +his business life there is abundant material, for he preserved all his +correspondence, and the chief sources of information are as follows: + + (1) His Autobiography. + (2) His Annual Reports to the Board of Visitors. + (3) His printed Papers entitled "Papers by G.B. Airy." + (4) His miscellaneous private correspondence. + (5) His letters to his wife. + (6) His business correspondence. + +(1) His Autobiography, after the time that he became Astronomer Royal, +is, as might be expected, mainly a record of the scientific work +carried on at the Greenwich Observatory: but by no means exclusively +so. About the time when he took charge of the Observatory there was an +immense development of astronomical enterprise: observatories were +springing up in all directions, and the Astronomer Royal was expected +to advise upon all of the British and Colonial Observatories. It was +necessary also for him to keep in touch with the Continental +Observatories and their work, and this he did very diligently and +successfully, both by correspondence and personal intercourse with the +foreign astronomers. There was also much work on important subjects +more or less connected with his official duties--such as geodetical +survey work, the establishment of time-balls at different places, +longitude determinations, observation of eclipses, and the +determination of the density of the Earth. Lastly, there was a great +deal of time and work given to questions not very immediately +connected with his office, but on which the Government asked his +assistance in the capacity of general scientific adviser: such were +the Correction of the Compass in iron ships, the Railway Gauge +Commission, the Commission for the Restoration of the Standards of +Length and Weight, the Maine Boundary, Lighthouses, the Westminster +Clock, the London University, and many other questions. + +Besides those above-mentioned there were a great many subjects which +he took up out of sheer interest in the investigations. For it may +fairly be said that every subject of a distinctly practical nature, +which could be advanced by mathematical knowledge, had an interest for +him: and his incessant industry enabled him to find time for many of +them. Amongst such subjects were Tides and Tidal Observations, +Clockwork, and the Strains in Beams and Bridges. A certain portion of +his time was also given to Lectures, generally on current astronomical +questions, for he held it as his duty to popularize the science as far +as lay in his power. And he attended the meetings of the Royal +Astronomical Society with great regularity, and took a very active +part in the discussions and business of the Society. He also did much +work for the Royal Society, and (up to a certain date) for the British +Association. + +All of the foregoing matters are recorded pretty fully in his +Autobiography up to the year 1861. After that date the Autobiography +is given in a much more abbreviated form, and might rather be regarded +as a collection of notes for his Biography. His private history is +given very fully for the first part of his life, but is very lightly +touched upon during his residence at Greenwich. A great part of the +Autobiography is in a somewhat disjointed state, and appears to have +been formed by extracts from a number of different sources, such as +Official Journals, Official Correspondence, and Reports. In editing +the Autobiography it has been thought advisable to omit a large number +of short notes relating to the routine work of the Observatory, to +technical and scientific correspondence, to Papers communicated to +various Societies and official business connected with them, and to +miscellaneous matters of minor importance. These in the aggregate +occupied a great deal of time and attention. But, from their detached +nature, they would have but little general interest. At various places +will be found short Memoirs and other matter by the Editor. + +(2) All of his Annual Reports to the Board of Visitors are attached to +his Autobiography and were evidently intended to be read with it and +to form part of it. These Reports are so carefully compiled and are so +copious that they form a very complete history of the Greenwich +Observatory and of the work carried on there during the time that he +was Astronomer Royal. The first Report contained only four pages, but +with the constantly increasing amount and range of work the Reports +constantly increased in volume till the later Reports contained 21 +pages. Extracts from these Reports relating to matters of novelty and +importance, and illustrating the principles which guided him in his +conduct of the Observatory, have been incorporated with the +Autobiography. + +(3) The printed "Papers by G.B. Airy" are bound in 14 large quarto +volumes. There are 518 of these Papers, on a great variety of +subjects: a list of them is appended to this history, as also is a +list of the books that he wrote, and one or two of the Papers which +were separately printed. They form a very important part of his +life's work, and are frequently referred to in the present +history. They are almost all to be found in the Transactions of +Societies or in newspapers, and extend over a period of 63 years (1822 +to 1885). The progress made in certain branches of science during this +long period can very fairly be traced by these Papers. + +(4) His private correspondence was large, and like his other papers it +was carefully arranged. No business letters of any kind are included +under this head. In this correspondence letters are occasionally found +either dealing with matters of importance or in some way +characteristic, and these have been inserted in this biography. As +already stated the Autobiography left by Airy is confined almost +entirely to science and business, and touches very lightly on private +matters or correspondence. + +(5) The letters to his wife are very numerous. They were written +during his occasional absences from home on business or for +relaxation. On these occasions he rarely let a day pass without +writing to his wife, and sometimes he wrote twice on the same +day. They are full of energy and interest and many extracts from them +are inserted in this history. A great deal of the personal history is +taken from them. + +(6) All correspondence in any way connected with business during the +time that he was Astronomer Royal is to be found at the Royal +Observatory. It is all bound and arranged in the most perfect order, +and any letter throughout this time can be found with the greatest +ease. It is very bulky, and much of it is, in a historical sense, +very interesting. It was no doubt mainly from this correspondence that +the Autobiography, which so far as related to the Greenwich part of it +was almost entirely a business history, was compiled. + +The history of the early part of his life was written in great detail +and contained a large quantity of family matter which was evidently +not intended for publication. This part of the Autobiography has been +compressed. The history of the latter part of his life was not written +by himself at all, and has been compiled from his Journal and other +sources. In both these cases, and occasionally in short paragraphs +throughout the narrative, it has been found convenient to write the +history in the third person. + + 2, THE CIRCUS, + GREENWICH. + + + NOTE. + +The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press desire to express their +thanks to Messrs Macmillan & Co. for their courteous permission to use +in this work the steel engraving of Sir George Biddell Airy published +in _Nature_ on October 31, 1878. + + + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + CHAPTER I. + +Personal Sketch of George Biddell Airy + + CHAPTER II. + +From his birth to his taking his B.A. Degree at Cambridge + + CHAPTER III. + +At Trinity College, Cambridge, from his taking his B.A. Degree to his +taking charge of the Cambridge Observatory as Plumian Professor + + CHAPTER IV. + +At Cambridge Observatory, from his taking charge of the Cambridge +Observatory to his residence at Greenwich Observatory as Astronomer +Royal + + CHAPTER V. + +At Greenwich Observatory, 1836-1846 + + CHAPTER VI. + +At Greenwich Observatory, 1846-1856 + + CHAPTER VII. + +At Greenwich Observatory, 1856-1866 + + CHAPTER VIII. + +At Greenwich Observatory, 1866-1876 + + CHAPTER IX. + +At Greenwich Observatory, from January 1st, 1876, to his resignation +of office on August 15th, 1881 + + CHAPTER X. + +At the White House, Greenwich, from his resignation of office on +August 15th, 1881, to his death on January 2nd, 1892 + + APPENDIX. + +List of Printed Papers by G.B. Airy, and List of Books written by +G.B. Airy + +INDEX. + + + + + CHAPTER I. + + PERSONAL SKETCH OF GEORGE BIDDELL AIRY. + + +The history of Airy's life, and especially the history of his life's +work, is given in the chapters that follow. But it is felt that the +present Memoir would be incomplete without a reference to those +personal characteristics upon which the work of his life hinged and +which can only be very faintly gathered from his Autobiography. + +He was of medium stature and not powerfully built: as he advanced in +years he stooped a good deal. His hands were large-boned and +well-formed. His constitution was remarkably sound. At no period in +his life does he seem to have taken the least interest in athletic +sports or competitions, but he was a very active pedestrian and could +endure a great deal of fatigue. He was by no means wanting in physical +courage, and on various occasions, especially in boating expeditions, +he ran considerable risks. In debate and controversy he had great +self-reliance, and was absolutely fearless. His eye-sight was +peculiar, and required correction by spectacles the lenses of which +were ground to peculiar curves according to formulae which he himself +investigated: with these spectacles he saw extremely well, and he +commonly carried three pairs, adapted to different distances: he took +great interest in the changes that took place in his eye-sight, and +wrote several Papers on the subject. In his later years he became +somewhat deaf, but not to the extent of serious personal +inconvenience. + +The ruling feature of his character was undoubtedly Order. From the +time that he went up to Cambridge to the end of his life his system of +order was strictly maintained. He wrote his autobiography up to date +soon after he had taken his degree, and made his first will as soon as +he had any money to leave. His accounts were perfectly kept by double +entry throughout his life, and he valued extremely the order of +book-keeping: this facility of keeping accounts was very useful to +him. He seems not to have destroyed a document of any kind whatever: +counterfoils of old cheque-books, notes for tradesmen, circulars, +bills, and correspondence of all sorts were carefully preserved in the +most complete order from the time that he went to Cambridge; and a +huge mass they formed. To a high appreciation of order he attributed +in a great degree his command of mathematics, and sometimes spoke of +mathematics as nothing more than a system of order carried to a +considerable extent. In everything he was methodical and orderly, and +he had the greatest dread of disorder creeping into the routine work +of the Observatory, even in the smallest matters. As an example, he +spent a whole afternoon in writing the word "Empty" on large cards, to +be nailed upon a great number of empty packing boxes, because he +noticed a little confusion arising from their getting mixed with other +boxes containing different articles; and an assistant could not be +spared for this work without withdrawing him from his appointed +duties. His arrangement of the Observatory correspondence was +excellent and elaborate: probably no papers are more easy of reference +than those arranged on his system. His strict habits of order made him +insist very much upon detail in his business with others, and the +rigid discipline arising out of his system of order made his rule +irksome to such of his subordinates as did not conform readily to it: +but the efficiency of the Observatory unquestionably depended mainly +upon it. As his powers failed with age the ruling passion for order +assumed a greater prominence; and in his last days he seemed to be +more anxious to put letters which he received into their proper place +for reference than even to master their contents. + +His nature was eminently practical, and any subject which had a +distinctly practical object, and could be advanced by mathematical +investigation, possessed interest for him. And his dislike of mere +theoretical problems and investigations was proportionately great. He +was continually at war with some of the resident Cambridge +mathematicians on this subject. Year after year he criticised the +Senate House Papers and the Smith's Prize Papers question by question +very severely: and conducted an interesting and acrimonious private +correspondence with Professor Cayley on the same subject. His great +mathematical powers and his command of mathematics are sufficiently +evidenced by the numerous mathematical treatises of the highest order +which he published, a list of which is appended to this biography. But +a very important feature of his investigations was the thoroughness of +them. He was never satisfied with leaving a result as a barren +mathematical expression. He would reduce it, if possible, to a +practical and numerical form, at any cost of labour: and would use any +approximations which would conduce to this result, rather than leave +the result in an unfruitful condition. He never shirked arithmetical +work: the longest and most laborious reductions had no terrors for +him, and he was remarkably skilful with the various mathematical +expedients for shortening and facilitating arithmetical work of a +complex character. This power of handling arithmetic was of great +value to him in the Observatory reductions and in the Observatory work +generally. He regarded it as a duty to finish off his work, whatever +it was, and the writer well remembers his comment on the mathematics +of one of his old friends, to the effect that "he was too fond of +leaving a result in the form of three complex equations with three +unknown quantities." To one who had known, in some degree, of the +enormous quantity of arithmetical work which he had turned out, and +the unsparing manner in which he had devoted himself to it, there was +something very pathetic in his discovery, towards the close of his +long life, "that the figures would not add up." + +His energy and business capacity were remarkable. He was made for work +and could not long be happy without it. Whatever subject he was +engaged upon, he kept his object clearly in view, and made straight +for it, aiming far more at clearness and directness than at elegance +of periods or symmetry of arrangement. He wrote his letters with great +ease and rapidity: and having written them he very rarely had occasion +to re-write them, though he often added insertions and +interlineations, even in the most important official letters. Without +this it would have been impossible for him to have turned out the +enormous quantity of correspondence that he did. He never dictated +letters, and only availed himself of clerical assistance in matters of +the most ordinary routine. In his excursions, as in his work, he was +always energetic, and could not endure inaction. Whatever there was of +interest in the places that he visited he examined thoroughly and +without delay, and then passed on. And he thus accomplished a great +deal in a short vacation. His letters written to his wife, while he +was on his excursions, are very numerous and characteristic, and +afford ample proofs of his incessant energy and activity both of body +and mind. They are not brilliantly written, for it was not in his +nature to write for effect, and he would never give himself the +trouble to study the composition of his letters, but they are +straight-forward, clear, and concise, and he was never at a loss for +suitable language to express his ideas. He had a wonderful capacity +for enjoyment: the subjects that chiefly interested him were scenery, +architecture, and antiquities, but everything novel or curious had an +interest for him. He made several journeys to the Continent, but by +far the greater number of his excursions were made in England and +Scotland, and there were few parts of the country which he had not +visited. He was very fond of the Lake District of Cumberland, and +visited it very frequently, and each time that he went there the same +set of views had an eternal freshness for him, and he wrote long +descriptions of the scenery and effects with the same raptures as if +he had seen it for the first time. Many of his letters were written +from Playford, a village in a beautiful part of Suffolk, a few miles +from Ipswich. Here he had a small property, and generally stayed there +for a short time once or twice a year. He was extremely fond of this +country, and was never tired of repeating his walks by the well-known +lanes and footpaths. And, as in Cumberland, the Suffolk country had +an eternal freshness and novelty for him. Wherever he went he was +indefatigable in keeping up his acquaintance with his numerous friends +and his letters abound in social reminiscences. + +His memory was singularly retentive. It was much remarked at school in +his early days, and in the course of his life he had stored up in his +memory an incredible quantity of poetry, ballads, and miscellaneous +facts and information of all sorts, which was all constantly ready and +at his service. It is almost needless to add that his memory was +equally accurate and extensive in matters connected with science or +business. + +His independence of character was no doubt due to and inseparable from +his great powers. The value of his scientific work greatly depended +upon his self-reliance and independence of thought. And in the heavy +work of remodelling the Observatory it was a very valuable +quality. This same self-reliance made him in his latter years apt to +draw conclusions too confidently and hastily on subjects which he had +taken up more as a pastime than as work. But whatever he touched he +dealt with ably and in the most fearless truthseeking manner, and left +original and vigorous opinions. + +He had a remarkably well-balanced mind, and a simplicity of nature +that appeared invulnerable. No amount of hero-worship seemed to have +the least effect upon him. And from a very early time he was exposed +to a great deal of it. His mind was incessantly engaged on +investigations of Nature, and this seems to have been with him, as has +been the case with others, a preserving influence. This simplicity of +character he retained throughout his life. At the same time he was +sensible and shrewd in his money matters and attentive to his personal +interests. And his practical good sense in the general affairs of +life, combined with his calm and steady consideration of points +submitted to him, made his advice very valuable. This was especially +recognized by his own and his wife's relations, who consulted him on +many occasions and placed the fullest confidence in his absolute sense +of justice as well as in his wise counsel. He was extremely liberal +in proportion to his means, and gave away money to a large extent to +all who had any claim upon him. But he was not in any sense reckless, +and kept a most cautious eye on his expenses. He was not indifferent +to the honours which he received in the scientific world, but he does +not appear to have sought them in any way, and he certainly did not +trouble himself about them. + +His courtesy was unfailing: no amount of trouble could shake +it. Whether it was the Secretary of the Admiralty, or a servant girl +wanting her fortune told: whether a begging-letter for money, or +miscellaneous invitations: all had their answer in the most clear and +courteous language. But he would not grant personal interviews when he +could avoid it: they took up too much of his time. His head was so +clear that he never seemed to want for the clearest and most direct +language in expressing his meaning, and his letters are models of +terseness. + +In all his views and opinions he was strongly liberal. At Cambridge at +an early date he was one of the 83 members of the Senate who supported +the application to permit the granting of medical degrees without +requiring an expression of assent to the religious doctrines of the +Church of England. And in 1868 he declined to sign a petition against +the abolition of religious declarations required of persons admitted +to Fellowships or proceeding to the degree of M.A. And he was opposed +to every kind of narrowness and exclusiveness. When he was appointed +to the post of Astronomer Royal, he stipulated that he should not be +asked to vote in any political election. But all his views were in the +liberal direction. He was a great reader of theology and church +history, and as regarded forms of worship and the interpretation of +the Scriptures, he treated them with great respect, but from the point +of view of a freethinking layman. In the Preface to his "Notes on the +Earlier Hebrew Scriptures" he says, "In regard to the general tone of +these notes, I will first remark that I have nothing to say on the +subject of verbal inspiration. With those who entertain that doctrine, +I can have nothing in common. Nor do I recognize, in the professedly +historical accounts, any other inspiration which can exempt them from +the severest criticism that would be applicable to so-called profane +accounts, written under the same general circumstances, and in the +same countries." And his treatment of the subject in the "Notes" shews +how entirely he took a rationalistic view of the whole question. He +also strongly sided with Bishop Colenso in his fearless criticism of +the Pentateuch, though he dissented from some of his conclusions. But +he was deeply imbued with the spirit of religion and reflected much +upon it. His whole correspondence conveys the impression of the most +sterling integrity and high-mindedness, without a trace of +affectation. In no letter does there appear a shadow of wavering on +matters of principle, whether in public or private matters, and he was +very clear and positive in his convictions. + +The great secret of his long and successful official career was that +he was a good servant and thoroughly understood his position. He never +set himself in opposition to his masters, the Admiralty. He never +hesitated to ask the Admiralty for what he thought right, whether in +the way of money grants for various objects, or for occasional +permission to give his services to scientific matters not immediately +connected with the Observatory. Sometimes the Admiralty refused his +requests, and he felt this very keenly, but he was far too busy and +energetic to trouble himself about such little slights, and cheerfully +accepted the situation. What was refused by one Administration was +frequently granted by another; and in the meantime he was always ready +to give his most zealous assistance in any matter that was officially +brought before him. This cheerful readiness to help, combined with his +great ability and punctuality in business matters, made him a very +valuable servant, and speaking generally he had the confidence of the +Admiralty in a remarkable degree. In many of his Reports to the Board +of Visitors he speaks gratefully of the liberality of the Admiralty in +forwarding scientific progress and research. In matters too which are +perhaps of minor importance from the high stand-point of science, but +which are invaluable in the conduct of an important business office, +such for example as estimates and official correspondence, he was +orderly and punctual in the highest degree. And, what is by no means +unimportant, he possessed an excellent official style in +correspondence, combined with great clearness of expression. His +entire honesty of purpose, and the high respect in which he was held +both at home and abroad, gave great weight to his recommendations. + +With regard to his habits while he resided at the Observatory, his +custom was to work in his official room from 9 to about 2.30, though +in summer he was frequently at work before breakfast. He then took a +brisk walk, and dined at about 3.30. This early hour had been +prescribed and insisted upon by his physician, Dr Haviland of +Cambridge, in whom he had great confidence. He ate heartily, though +simply and moderately, and slept for about an hour after dinner. He +then had tea, and from about 7 to 10 he worked in the same room with +his family. He would never retire to a private room, and regarded the +society of his family as highly beneficial in "taking the edge off his +work." His powers of abstraction were remarkable: nothing seemed to +disturb him; neither music, singing, nor miscellaneous conversation. +He would then play a game or two at cards, read a few pages of a +classical or historical book, and retire at 11. On Sundays he attended +morning service at church, and in the evening read a few prayers very +carefully and impressively to his whole household. He was very +hospitable, and delighted to receive his friends in a simple and +natural way at his house. In this he was most admirably aided by his +wife, whose grace and skill made everything pleasant to their +guests. But he avoided dinner-parties as much as possible--they +interfered too much with his work--and with the exception of +scientific and official dinners he seldom dined away from home. His +tastes were entirely domestic, and he was very happy in his +family. With his natural love of work, and with the incessant calls +upon him, he would soon have broken down, had it not been for his +system of regular relaxation. Two or three times a year he took a +holiday: generally a short run of a week or ten days in the spring, a +trip of a month or thereabouts in the early autumn, and about three +weeks at Playford in the winter. These trips were always conducted in +the most active manner, either in constant motion from place to place, +or in daily active excursions. This system he maintained with great +regularity, and from the exceeding interest and enjoyment that he took +in these trips his mind was so much refreshed and steadied that he +always kept himself equal to his work. + +Airy seems to have had a strong bent in the direction of astronomy +from his youth, and it is curious to note how well furnished he was, +by the time that he became Astronomer Royal, both with astronomy in +all its branches, and with the kindred sciences so necessary for the +practical working and improvement of it. At the time that he went to +Cambridge Physical Astronomy was greatly studied there and formed a +most important part of the University course. He eagerly availed +himself of this, and mastered the Physical Astronomy in the most +thorough manner, as was evidenced by his Papers collected in his +"Mathematical Tracts," his investigation of the Long Inequality of the +Earth and Venus, and many other works. As Plumian Professor he had +charge of the small Observatory at Cambridge, where he did a great +deal of the observing and reduction work himself, and became +thoroughly versed in the practical working of an Observatory. The +result of this was immediately seen in the improved methods which he +introduced at Greenwich, and which were speedily imitated at other +Observatories. Optics and the Undulatory Theory of Light had been very +favourite subjects with him, and he had written and lectured +frequently upon them. In the construction of the new and powerful +telescopes and other optical instruments required from time to time +this knowledge was very essential, for in its instrumental equipment +the Greenwich Observatory was entirely remodelled during his tenure of +office. And in many of the matters referred to him, as for instance +that of the Lighthouses, a thorough knowledge of Optics was most +valuable. He had made a great study of the theory and construction of +clocks, and this knowledge was invaluable to him at Greenwich in the +establishment of new and more accurate astronomical clocks, and +especially in the improvement of chronometers. He had carefully +studied the theory of pendulums, and had learned how to use them in +his experiments in the Cornish mines. This knowledge he afterwards +utilized very effectively at the Harton Pit in comparing the density +of the Earth's crust with its mean density; and it was very useful to +him in connection with geodetic surveys and experiments on which he +was consulted. And his mechanical knowledge was useful in almost +everything. + +The subjects (outside those required for his professional work) in +which he took most interest were Poetry, History, Theology, +Antiquities, Architecture, and Engineering. He was well acquainted +with standard English poetry, and had committed large quantities to +memory, which he frequently referred to as a most valuable acquisition +and an ever-present relief and comfort to his mind. History and +theology he had studied as opportunity offered, and without being +widely read in them he was much at home with them, and his powerful +memory made the most of what he did read. Antiquities and architecture +were very favourite subjects with him. He had visited most of the +camps and castles in the United Kingdom and was never tired of tracing +their connection with ancient military events: and he wrote several +papers on this subject, especially those relating to the Roman +invasions of Britain. Ecclesiastical architecture he was very fond of: +he had visited nearly all the cathedrals and principal churches in +England, and many on the Continent, and was most enthusiastic on their +different styles and merits: his letters abound in critical remarks on +them. He was extremely well versed in mechanics, and in the principles +and theory of construction, and took the greatest interest in large +engineering works. This led to much communication with Stephenson, +Brunel, and other engineers, who consulted him freely on the subject +of great works on which they were engaged: in particular he rendered +much assistance in connection with the construction of the Britannia +Bridge over the Menai Straits. There were various other subjects which +he read with much interest (Geology in particular), but he made no +study of Natural History, and knew very little about it beyond +detached facts. His industry was untiring, and in going over his books +one by one it was very noticeable how large a number of them were +feathered with his paper "marks," shewing how carefully he had read +them and referred to them. His nature was essentially cheerful, and +literature of a witty and humourous character had a great charm for +him. He was very fond of music and knew a great number of songs; and +he was well acquainted with the theory of music: but he was no +performer. He did not sketch freehand but made excellent drawings with +his Camera Lucida. + +At the time when he took his degree (1823) and for many years +afterwards there was very great activity of scientific investigation +and astronomical enterprise in England. And, as in the times of +Flamsteed and Halley, the earnest zeal of men of science occasionally +led to much controversy and bitterness amongst them. Airy was by no +means exempt from such controversies. He was a man of keen +sensitiveness, though it was combined with great steadiness of temper, +and he never hesitated to attack theories and methods that he +considered to be scientifically wrong. This led to differences with +Ivory, Challis, South, Cayley, Archibald Smith, and others; but +however much he might differ from them he was always personally +courteous, and the disputes generally went no farther than as regarded +the special matter in question. Almost all these controversial +discussions were carried on openly, and were published in the +Athenaeum, the Philosophical Magazine, or elsewhere; for he printed +nearly everything that he wrote, and was very careful in the selection +of the most suitable channels for publication. He regarded it as a +duty to popularize as much as possible the work done at the +Observatory, and to take the public into his confidence. And this he +effected by articles communicated to newspapers, lectures, numerous +Papers written for scientific societies, reports, debates, and +critiques. + +His strong constitution and his regular habits, both of work and +exercise, are sufficient explanation of the good health which in +general he enjoyed. Not but what he had sharp touches of illness from +time to time. At one period he suffered a good deal from an attack of +eczema, and at another from a varicose vein in his leg, and he was +occasionally troubled with severe colds. But he bore these ailments +with great patience and threw them off in course of time. He was happy +in his marriage and in his family, and such troubles and distresses as +were inevitable he accepted calmly and quietly. In his death, as in +his life, he was fortunate: he had no long or painful illness, and he +was spared the calamity of aberration of intellect, the saddest of all +visitations. + + + + CHAPTER II. + + FROM HIS BIRTH TO HIS TAKING HIS B.A. DEGREE AT CAMBRIDGE. + + FROM JULY 27TH 1801 TO JANUARY 18TH 1823. + + +George Biddell Airy was born at Alnwick in Northumberland on July 27th +1801. His father was William Airy of Luddington in Lincolnshire, the +descendant of a long line of Airys who have been traced back with a +very high degree of probability to a family of that name which was +settled at Kentmere in Westmorland in the 14th century. A branch of +this family migrated to Pontefract in Yorkshire, where they seem to +have prospered for many years, but they were involved in the +consequences of the Civil Wars, and one member of the family retired +to Ousefleet in Yorkshire. His grandson removed to Luddington in +Lincolnshire, where his descendants for several generations pursued +the calling of small farmers. George Biddell Airy's mother, Ann Airy, +was the daughter of George Biddell, a well-to-do farmer in Suffolk. + +William Airy, the father of George Biddell Airy, was a man of great +activity and strength, and of prudent and steady character. When a +young man he became foreman on a farm in the neighbourhood of +Luddington, and laid by his earnings in summer in order to educate +himself in winter. For a person in his rank, his education was +unusually good, in matters of science and in English literature. But +at the age of 24 he grew tired of country labour, and obtained a post +in the Excise. After serving in various Collections he was appointed +Collector of the Northumberland Collection on the 15th August 1800, +and during his service there his eldest son George Biddell Airy was +born. The time over which his service as Officer and Supervisor +extended was that in which smuggling rose to a very high pitch, and in +which the position of Excise Officer was sometimes dangerous. He was +remarkable for his activity and boldness in contests with smugglers, +and made many seizures. Ann Airy, the mother of George Biddell Airy, +was a woman of great natural abilities both speculative and practical, +kind as a neighbour and as head of a family, and was deeply loved and +respected. The family consisted of George Biddell, Elizabeth, William, +and Arthur who died young. + +William Airy was appointed to Hereford Collection on 22nd October +1802, and removed thither shortly after. He stayed at Hereford till he +was appointed to Essex Collection on 28th February 1810, and during +this time George Biddell was educated at elementary schools in +writing, arithmetic, and a little Latin. He records of himself that he +was not a favourite with the schoolboys, for he had very little animal +vivacity and seldom joined in active play with his schoolfellows. But +in the proceedings of the school he was successful, and was a +favourite with his master. + +On the appointment of William Airy to Essex Collection, the family +removed to Colchester on April 5th 1810. Here George Biddell was first +sent to a large school in Sir Isaac's Walk, then kept by Mr Byatt +Walker, and was soon noted for his correctness in orthography, +geography, and arithmetic. He evidently made rapid progress, for on +one occasion Mr Walker said openly in the schoolroom how remarkable it +was that a boy 10 years old should be the first in the school. At this +school he stayed till the end of 1813 and thoroughly learned +arithmetic (from Walkingame's book), book-keeping by double entry (on +which knowledge throughout his life he set a special value), the use +of the sliding rule (which knowledge also was specially useful to him +in after life), mensuration and algebra (from Bonnycastle's books). He +also studied grammar in all its branches, and geography, and acquired +some knowledge of English literature, beginning with that admirable +book The Speaker, but it does not appear that Latin and Greek were +attended to at this school. He records that at this time he learned an +infinity of snatches of songs, small romances, &c., which his powerful +memory retained most accurately throughout his life. He was no hand at +active play: but was notorious for his skill in constructing guns for +shooting peas and arrows, and other mechanical contrivances. At home +he relates that he picked up a wonderful quantity of learning from his +father's books. He read and remembered much poetry from such standard +authors as Milton, Pope, Gay, Gray, Swift, &c., which was destined to +prove in after life an invaluable relaxation for his mind. But he also +studied deeply an excellent Cyclopaedia called a Dictionary of Arts +and Sciences in three volumes folio, and learned from it much about +ship-building, navigation, fortification, and many other subjects. + +During this period his valuable friendship with his uncle Arthur +Biddell commenced. Arthur Biddell was a prosperous farmer and valuer +at Playford near Ipswich. He was a well-informed and able man, of +powerful and original mind, extremely kind and good-natured, and +greatly respected throughout the county. In the Autobiography of +George Biddell Airy he states as follows: + +"I do not remember precisely when it was that I first visited my uncle +Arthur Biddell. I think it was in a winter: certainly as early as the +winter of 1812--13. Here I found a friend whose society I could enjoy, +and I entirely appreciated and enjoyed the practical, mechanical, and +at the same time speculative and enquiring talents of Arthur +Biddell. He had a library which, for a person in middle life, may be +called excellent, and his historical and antiquarian knowledge was not +small. After spending one winter holiday with him, it easily came to +pass that I spent the next summer holiday with him: and at the next +winter holiday, finding that there was no precise arrangement for my +movements, I secretly wrote him a letter begging him to come with a +gig to fetch me home with him: he complied with my request, giving no +hint to my father or mother of my letter: and from that time, +one-third of every year was regularly spent with him till I went to +College. How great was the influence of this on my character and +education I cannot tell. It was with him that I became acquainted with +the Messrs Ransome, W. Cubitt the civil engineer (afterwards Sir +W. Cubitt), Bernard Barton, Thomas Clarkson (the slave-trade +abolitionist), and other persons whose acquaintance I have valued +highly. It was also with him that I became acquainted with the works +of the best modern poets, Scott, Byron, Campbell, Hogg, and others: as +also with the Waverley Novels and other works of merit." + +In 1813 William Airy lost his appointment of Collector of Excise and +was in consequence very much straitened in his circumstances. But +there was no relaxation in the education of his children, and at the +beginning of 1814 George Biddell was sent to the endowed Grammar +School at Colchester, then kept by the Rev. E. Crosse, and remained +there till the summer of 1819, when he went to College. The +Autobiography proceeds as follows: + +"I became here a respectable scholar in Latin and Greek, to the extent +of accurate translation, and composition of prose Latin: in regard to +Latin verses I was I think more defective than most scholars who take +the same pains, but I am not much ashamed of this, for I entirely +despise the system of instruction in verse composition. + +"My father on some occasion had to go to London and brought back for +me a pair of 12-inch globes. They were invaluable to me. The first +stars which I learnt from the celestial globe were alpha Lyrae, alpha +Aquilae, alpha Cygni: and to this time I involuntarily regard these +stars as the birth-stars of my astronomical knowledge. Having +somewhere seen a description of a Gunter's quadrant, I perceived that +I could construct one by means of the globe: my father procured for me +a board of the proper shape with paper pasted on it, and on this I +traced the lines of the quadrant. + +"My command of geometry was tolerably complete, and one way in which I +frequently amused myself was by making paper models (most carefully +drawn in outline) which were buttoned together without any cement or +sewing. Thus I made models, not only of regular solids, regularly +irregular solids, cones cut in all directions so as to shew the conic +sections, and the like, but also of six-gun batteries, intrenchments +and fortresses of various kinds &c. + +"From various books I had learnt the construction of the steam-engine: +the older forms from the Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; newer forms +from modern books. The newest form however (with the sliding steam +valve) I learnt from a 6-horse engine at Bawtrey's brewery (in which +Mr Keeling the father of my schoolfellow had acquired a +partnership). I frequently went to look at this engine, and on one +occasion had the extreme felicity of examining some of its parts when +it was opened for repair. + +"In the mean time my education was advancing at Playford. The first +record, I believe, which I have of my attention to mechanics there is +the plan of a threshing-machine which I drew. But I was acquiring +valuable information of all kinds from the Encyclopaedia Londinensis, +a work which without being high in any respect is one of the most +generally useful that I have seen. But I well remember one of the most +important steps that I ever made. I had tried experiments with the +object-glass of an opera-glass and was greatly astonished at the +appearance of the images of objects seen through the glass under +different conditions. By these things my thoughts were turned to +accurate optics, and I read with care Rutherford's Lectures, which my +uncle possessed. The acquisition of an accurate knowledge of the +effect of optical constructions was one of the most charming +attainments that I ever reached. Long before I went to College I +understood the action of the lenses of a telescope better than most +opticians. I also read with great zeal Nicholson's Dictionary of +Chemistry, and occasionally made chemical experiments of an +inexpensive kind: indeed I grew so fond of this subject that there was +some thought of apprenticing me to a chemist. I also attended to +surveying and made a tolerable survey and map of my uncle's farm. + +"At school I was going on successfully, and distinguished myself +particularly by my memory. It was the custom for each boy once a week +to repeat a number of lines of Latin or Greek poetry, the number +depending very much on his own choice. I determined on repeating 100 +every week, and I never once fell below that number and was sometimes +much above it. It was no distress to me, and great enjoyment. At +Michaelmas 1816 I repeated 2394 lines, probably without missing a +word. I do not think that I was a favourite with Mr Crosse, but he +certainly had a high opinion of my powers and expressed this to my +father. My father entertained the idea of sending me to College, which +Mr Crosse recommended: but he heard from some college man that the +expense would be _£200_ a year, and he laid aside all thoughts of it. + +"The farm of Playford Hall was in 1813 or 1814 hired by Thomas +Clarkson, the slave-trade abolitionist. My uncle transacted much +business for him (as a neighbour and friend) in the management of the +farm &c. for a time, and they became very intimate. My uncle begged +him to examine me in Classical knowledge, and he did so, I think, +twice. He also gave some better information about the probable +expenses &c. at College. The result was a strong recommendation by my +uncle or through my uncle that I should be sent to Cambridge, and this +was adopted by my father. I think it likely that this was in 1816. + +"In December 1816, Dealtry's Fluxions was bought for me, and I read it +and understood it well. I borrowed Hutton's Course of Mathematics of +old Mr Ransome, who had come to reside at Greenstead near Colchester, +and read a good deal of it. + +"About Ladyday 1817 I began to read mathematics with Mr Rogers +(formerly, I think, a Fellow of Sidney College, and an indifferent +mathematician of the Cambridge school), who had succeeded a Mr Tweed +as assistant to Mr Crosse in the school. I went to his house twice a +week, on holiday afternoons. I do not remember how long I received +lessons from him, but I think to June, 1818. This course was extremely +valuable to me, not on account of Mr Rogers's abilities (for I +understood many things better than he did) but for its training me +both in Cambridge subjects and in the Cambridge accurate methods of +treating them. I went through Euclid (as far as usually read), Wood's +Algebra, Wood's Mechanics, Vince's Hydrostatics, Wood's Optics, +Trigonometry (in a geometrical treatise and also in Woodhouse's +algebraical form), Fluxions to a good extent, Newton's Principia to +the end of the 9th section. This was a large quantity, but I read it +accurately and understood it perfectly, and could write out any one of +the propositions which I had read in the most exact form. My connexion +with Mr Rogers was terminated by _his_ giving me notice that he could +not undertake to receive me any longer: in fact I was too much for +him. I generally read these books in a garret in our house in George +Lane, which was indefinitely appropriated to my brother and myself. I +find that I copied out Vince's Conic Sections in February, 1819. The +first book that I copied was the small geometrical treatise on +Trigonometry, in May, 1817: to this I was urged by old Mr Ransome, +upon my complaining that I could not purchase the book: and it was no +bad lesson of independence to me." + +During the same period 1817-1819 he was occupied at school on +translations into blank verse from the Aeneid and Iliad, and read +through the whole of Sophocles very carefully. + +The classical knowledge which he thus gained at school and +subsequently at Cambridge was sound, and he took great pleasure in it: +throughout his life he made a practice of keeping one or other of the +Classical Authors at hand for occasional relaxation. He terminated his +schooling in June 1819. Shortly afterwards his father left Colchester +and went to reside at Bury St Edmund's. The Autobiography proceeds as +follows: + +"Mr Clarkson was at one time inclined to recommend me to go to St +Peter's College (which had been much enriched by a bequest from a Mr +Gisborne). But on giving some account of me to his friend Mr James +D. Hustler, tutor of Trinity College, Mr Hustler urged upon him that I +was exactly the proper sort of person to go to Trinity College. And +thus it was settled (mainly by Mr Clarkson) that I should be entered +at Trinity College. I think that I was sent for purposely from +Colchester to Playford, and on March 6th, 1819, I rode in company with +Mr Clarkson from Playford to Sproughton near Ipswich to be examined by +the Rev. Mr Rogers, incumbent of Sproughton, an old M.A. of Trinity +College; and was examined, and my certificate duly sent to Mr Hustler; +and I was entered on Mr Hustler's side as Sizar of Trinity College. + +"In the summer of 1819 I spent some time at Playford. On July 27th, +1819 (my birthday, 18 years old), Mr Clarkson invited me to dinner, to +meet Mr Charles Musgrave, Fellow of Trinity College, who was residing +for a short time at Grundisburgh, taking the church duty there for Dr +Ramsden, the Rector. It was arranged that I should go to Grundisburgh +the next day (I think) to be examined in mathematics by Mr Musgrave. I +went accordingly, and Mr Musgrave set before me a paper of questions +in geometry, algebra, mechanics, optics, &c. ending with the first +proposition of the Principia. I knew nothing more about my answers at +the time; but I found long after that they excited so much admiration +that they were transmitted to Cambridge (I forget whether to Mr +Musgrave's brother, a Fellow of Trinity College and afterwards +Archbishop of York, or to Mr Peacock, afterwards Dean of Ely) and were +long preserved. + +"The list of the Classical subjects for the first year in Trinity +College was transmitted to me, as usual, by Mr Hustler. They were--The +Hippolytus of Euripides, the 3rd Book of Thucydides, and the 2nd +Philippic of Cicero. These I read carefully and noted before going +up. Mr Hustler's family lived in Bury; and I called on him and saw him +in October, introduced by Mr Clarkson. On the morning of October 18th, +1819, I went on the top of the coach to Cambridge, knowing nobody +there but Mr Hustler, but having letters of introduction from Mr +Charles Musgrave to Professor Sedgwick, Mr Thomas Musgrave, and Mr +George Peacock, all Fellows of Trinity College. + +"I was set down at the Hoop, saw Trinity College for the first time, +found Mr Hustler, was conducted by his servant to the robe-maker's, +where I was invested in the cap and blue gown, and after some further +waiting was installed into lodgings in Bridge Street. At 4 o'clock I +went to the College Hall and was introduced by Mr Hustler to several +undergraduates, generally clever men, and in the evening I attended +Chapel in my surplice (it being St Luke's day) and witnessed that +splendid service of which the occasional exhibition well befits the +place. + +"As soon as possible, I called on Mr Peacock, Mr Musgrave, and +Professor Sedgwick. By all I was received with great kindness: my +examination papers had been sent to them, and a considerable +reputation preceded me. Mr Peacock at once desired that I would not +consider Mr C. Musgrave's letter as an ordinary introduction, but that +I would refer to him on all occasions. And I did so for several years, +and always received from him the greatest assistance that he could +give. I think that I did not become acquainted with Mr Whewell till +the next term, when I met him at a breakfast party at Mr Peacock's. Mr +Peacock at once warned me to arrange for taking regular exercise, and +prescribed a walk of two hours every day before dinner: a rule to +which I attended regularly, and to which I ascribe the continuance of +good general health. + +"I shewed Mr Peacock a manuscript book which contained a number of +original Propositions which I had investigated. These much increased +my reputation (I really had sense enough to set no particular value on +it) and I was soon known by sight to almost everybody in the +University. A ridiculous little circumstance aided in this. The former +rule of the University (strictly enforced) had been that all students +should wear drab knee-breeches: and I, at Mr Clarkson's +recommendation, was so fitted up. The struggle between the old dress +and the trowsers customary in society was still going on but almost +terminated, and I was one of the very few freshmen who retained the +old habiliments. This made me in some measure distinguishable: +however at the end of my first three terms I laid these aside. + +"The College Lectures began on Oct. 22: Mr Evans at 9 on the +Hippolytus, and Mr Peacock at 10 on Euclid (these being the Assistant +Tutors on Mr Hustler's side): and then I felt myself established. + +"I wrote in a day or two to my uncle Arthur Biddell, and I received +from him a letter of the utmost kindness. He entered gravely on the +consideration of my prospects, my wants, &c.: and offered at all times +to furnish me with money, which he thought my father's parsimonious +habits might make him unwilling to do. I never had occasion to avail +myself of this offer: but it was made in a way which in no small +degree strengthened the kindly feelings that had long existed between +us. + +"I carefully attended the lectures, taking notes as appeared +necessary. In Mathematics there were geometrical problems, algebra, +trigonometry (which latter subjects the lectures did not reach till +the terms of 1820). Mr Peacock gave me a copy of Lacroix's +Differential Calculus as translated by himself and Herschel and +Babbage, and also a copy of their Examples. At this time, the use of +Differential Calculus was just prevailing over that of Fluxions (which +I had learnt). I betook myself to it with great industry. I also made +myself master of the theories of rectangular coordinates and some of +the differential processes applying to them, which only a few of the +best of the university mathematicians then wholly possessed. In +Classical subjects I read the Latin (Seneca's) and English Hippolytus, +Racine's Phèdre (which my sister translated for me), and all other +books to which I was referred, Aristotle, Longinus, Horace, Bentley, +Dawes &c., made verse translations of the Greek Hippolytus, and was +constantly on the watch to read what might be advantageous. + +"Early in December Mr Hustler sent for me to say that one of the +Company of Fishmongers, Mr R. Sharp, had given to Mr John H. Smyth, +M.P. for Norwich, the presentation to a small exhibition of _£20_ a +year, which Mr Smyth had placed in Mr Hustler's hands, and which Mr +Hustler immediately conferred on me. This was my first step towards +pecuniary independence. I retained this exhibition till I became a +Fellow of the College. + +"I stayed at Cambridge during part of the winter vacation, and to +avoid expense I quitted my lodgings and went for a time into +somebody's rooms in the Bishop's Hostel. (It is customary for the +tutors to place students in rooms when their right owners are absent.) +I took with me Thucydides and all relating to it, and read the book, +upon which the next term's lectures were to be founded, very +carefully. The latter part of the vacation I spent at Bury, where I +began with the assistance of my sister to pick up a little French: as +I perceived that it was absolutely necessary for enabling me to read +modern mathematics. + +"During a part of the time I employed myself in writing out a paper on +the geometrical interpretation of the algebraical expression +sqrt(-1). I think that the original suggestion of perpendicular line +came from some book (I do not remember clearly), and I worked it out +in several instances pretty well, especially in De Moivre's Theorem. I +had spoken of it in the preceding term to Mr Peacock and he encouraged +me to work it out. The date at the end is 1820, January 21. When some +time afterwards I spoke of it to Mr Hustler, he disapproved of my +employing my time on such speculations. About the last day of January +I returned to Cambridge, taking up my abode in my former lodgings. I +shewed my paper on sqrt(-1) to Mr Peacock, who was much pleased with +it and shewed it to Mr Whewell and others. + +"On February 1 I commenced two excellent customs. The first was that +I always had upon my table a quire of large-sized scribbling-paper +sewn together: and upon this paper everything was entered: +translations into Latin and out of Greek, mathematical problems, +memoranda of every kind (the latter transferred when necessary to the +subsequent pages), and generally with the date of the day. This is a +most valuable custom. The other was this: as I perceived that to write +Latin prose well would be useful to me, I wrote a translation of +English into Latin every day. However much pressed I might be with +other business, I endeavoured to write at least three or four words, +but if possible I wrote a good many sentences. + +"I may fix upon this as the time when my daily habits were settled in +the form in which they continued for several years. I rose in time for +the chapel service at 7. It was the College regulation that every +student should attend Chapel four mornings and four evenings (Sunday +being one of each) in every week: and in this I never failed. After +chapel service I came to my lodgings and breakfasted. At 9 I went to +College lectures, which lasted to 11. Most of my contemporaries, being +intended for the Church, attended also divinity lectures: but I never +did. I then returned, put my lecture notes in order, wrote my piece of +Latin prose, and then employed myself on the subject which I was +reading for the time: usually taking mathematics at this hour. At 2 or +a little sooner I went out for a long walk, usually 4 or 5 miles into +the country: sometimes if I found companions I rowed on the Cam (a +practice acquired rather later). A little before 4 I returned, and at +4 went to College Hall. After dinner I lounged till evening chapel +time, 1/2 past 5, and returning about 6 I then had tea. Then I read +quietly, usually a classical subject, till 11; and I never, even in +the times when I might seem most severely pressed, sat up later. + +"From this time to the close of the annual examination (beginning of +June) I remained at Cambridge, stopping there through the Easter +Vacation. The subjects of the mathematical lectures were ordinary +algebra and trigonometry: but Mr Peacock always had some private +problems of a higher class for me, and saw me I believe every day. The +subjects of the Classical lectures were, the termination of +Hippolytus, the book of Thucydides and the oration of Cicero. In +mathematics I read Whewell's Mechanics, then just published (the first +innovation made in the Cambridge system of Physical Sciences for many +years): and I find in my scribbling-paper notes, integrals, central +forces, Finite Differences, steam-engine constructions and powers, +plans of bridges, spherical trigonometry, optical calculations +relating to the achromatism of eye-pieces and achromatic +object-glasses with lenses separated, mechanical problems, Transit of +Venus, various problems in geometrical astronomy (I think it was at +this time that Mr Peacock had given me a copy of Woodhouse's Astronomy +1st Edition), the rainbow, plans for anemometer and for a wind-pumping +machine, clearing lunars, &c., with a great number of geometrical +problems. I remark that my ideas on the Differential Calculus had not +acquired on some important points the severe accuracy which they +acquired in a few months. In Classics I read the Persae of Aeschylus, +Greek and Roman history very much (Mitford, Hooke, Ferguson) and the +books of Thucydides introductory to that of the lecture subject (the +3rd): and attended to Chronology. On the scribbling-paper are +verse-translations from Euripides, careful prose-translations from +Thucydides, maps, notes on points of grammar &c. I have also little +MS. books with abundant notes on all these subjects: I usually made a +little book when I pursued any subject in a regular way. + +"On May 1st Mr Dobree, the head lecturer, sent for me to say that he +appointed me head-lecturer's Sizar for the next year. The stipend of +this office was _£10_, a sum upon which I set considerable value in my +anxiety for pecuniary independence: but it was also gratifying to me +as shewing the way in which I was regarded by the College authorities. + +"On Wednesday, May 24th, 1820, the examination began. I was anxious +about the result of the examination, but only in such a degree as to +make my conduct perfectly steady and calm, and to prevent me from +attempting any extraordinary exertion. + +"When the Classes were published the first Class of the Freshman's +Year (alphabetically arranged, as is the custom) stood thus: Airy, +Boileau, Childers, Drinkwater, Field, Iliff, Malkin, Myers, Romilly, +Strutt, Tate, Winning. It was soon known however that I was first of +the Class. It was generally expected (and certainly by me) that, +considering how great a preponderance the Classics were understood, in +the known system of the College, to have in determining the order of +merit, Field would be first. However the number of marks which Field +obtained was about 1700, and that which I obtained about 1900. No +other competitor, I believe, was near us."--In a letter to Airy from +his College Tutor, Mr J. D. Hustler, there is the following passage: +"It is a matter of extreme satisfaction to me that in the late +examination you stood not only in the First Class but first of the +first. I trust that your future exertions and success will be +commensurate with this honourable beginning." + +"Of the men whom I have named, Drinkwater (Bethune) was afterwards +Legal Member of the Supreme Court of India, Field was afterwards +Rector of Reepham, Romilly (afterwards Lord Romilly) became +Solicitor-General, Strutt (afterwards Lord Belper) became M.P. for +Derby and First Commissioner of Railways, Tate was afterwards master +of Richmond Endowed School, Childers was the father of Childers who +was subsequently First Lord of the Admiralty. + +"I returned to Bury immediately. While there, some students (some of +them men about to take their B.A. degree at the next January) applied +to me to take them as pupils, but I declined. This year of my life +enabled me to understand how I stood among men. I returned to +Cambridge about July 11th. As a general rule, undergraduates are not +allowed to reside in the University during the Long Vacation. I +believe that before I left, after the examination, I had made out that +I should be permitted to reside: or I wrote to Mr Hustler. I applied +to Mr Hustler to be lodged in rooms in College: and was put, first +into rooms in Bishop's Hostel, and subsequently into rooms in the +Great Court. + +"The first affair that I had in College was one of disappointment by +no means deserving the importance which it assumed in my thoughts. I +had been entered a Sizar, but as the list of Foundation Sizars was +full, my dinners in Hall were paid for. Some vacancies had arisen: and +as these were to be filled up in order of merit, I expected one: and +in my desire for pecuniary independence I wished for it very +earnestly. However, as in theory all of the first class were equal, +and as there were some Sizars in it senior in entrance to me, they +obtained places first: and I was not actually appointed till after the +next scholarship examination (Easter 1821). However a special +arrangement was made, allowing me (I forget whether others) to sit at +the Foundation-Sizars' table whenever any of the number was absent: +and in consequence I received practically nearly the full benefits. + +"Mr Peacock, who was going out for the vacation, allowed me access to +his books. I had also (by the assistance of various Fellows, who all +treated me with great kindness, almost to a degree of respect) command +of the University Library and Trinity Library: and spent this Long +Vacation, like several others, very happily indeed. + +"The only non-mathematical subjects of the next examination were The +Gospel of St Luke, Paley's Evidences, and Paley's Moral and Political +Philosophy. Thus my time was left more free to mathematics and to +general classics than last year. I now began a custom which I +maintained for some years. Generally I read mathematics in the +morning, and classics for lectures in the afternoon: but invariably I +began at 10 o'clock in the evening to read with the utmost severity +some standard classics (unconnected with the lectures) and at 11 +precisely I left off and went to bed. I continued my daily +translations into Latin prose as before. + +"On August 24th, 1820, Rosser, a man of my own year, engaged me as +private tutor, paying at the usual rate (_£14_ for a part of the +Vacation, and _£14_ for a term): and immediately afterwards his friend +Bedingfield did the same. This occupied two hours every day, and I +felt that I was now completely earning my own living. I never received +a penny from my friends after this time. + +"I find on my scribbling-paper various words which shew that in +reading Poisson I was struggling with French words. There are also +Finite Differences and their Calculus, Figure of the Earth (force to +the center), various Attractions (some evidently referring to +Maclaurin's), Integrals, Conic Sections, Kepler's Problem, Analytical +Geometry, D'Alembert's Theorem, Spherical Aberration, Rotations round +three axes (apparently I had been reading Euler), Floating bodies, +Evolute of Ellipse, Newton's treatment of the Moon's Variation. I +attempted to extract something from Vince's Astronomy on the physical +explanation of Precession: but in despair of understanding it, and +having made out an explanation for myself by the motion round three +axes, I put together a little treatise (Sept. 10, 1820) which with +some corrections and additions was afterwards printed in my +Mathematical Tracts. On Sept. 14th I bought Woodhouse's Physical +Astronomy, and this was quite an epoch in my mathematical +knowledge. First, I was compelled by the process of "changing the +independent variable" to examine severely the logic of the +Differential Calculus. Secondly, I was now able to enter on the Theory +of Perturbations, which for several years had been the desired land to +me. + +"At the Fellowship Election of Oct. 1st, Sydney Walker (among other +persons) was elected Fellow. He then quitted the rooms in which he had +lived (almost the worst in the College), and I immediately took +them. They suited me well and I lived very happily in them till I was +elected Scholar. They are small rooms above the middle staircase on +the south side of Neville's Court. (Mr Peacock's rooms were on the +same staircase.) I had access to the leads on the roof of the building +from one of my windows. This was before the New Court was built: my +best window looked upon the garden of the College butler. + +"I had brought to Cambridge the telescope which I had made at +Colchester, and about this time I had a stand made by a carpenter at +Cambridge: and I find repeated observations of Jupiter and Saturn made +in this October term. + +"Other mathematical subjects on my scribbling-paper are: Geometrical +Astronomy, Barometers (for elevations), Maclaurin's Figure of the +Earth, Lagrange's Theorem, Integrals, Differential Equations of the +second order, Particular Solutions. In general mathematics I had much +discussion with Atkinson (who was Senior Wrangler, January 1821), and +in Physics with Rosser, who was a friend of Sir Richard Phillips, a +vain objector to gravitation. In Classics I read Aeschylus and +Herodotus. + +"On October 5th I received notice from the Head Lecturer to declaim in +English with Winning. (This exercise consists in preparing a +controversial essay, learning it by heart, and speaking it in Chapel +after the Thursday evening's service.) On October 6th we agreed on +the subject, "Is natural difference to be ascribed to moral or to +physical causes?" I taking the latter side. I spoke the declamation +(reciting it without missing a word) on October 25th. On October 26th +I received notice of Latin declamation with Myers: subject agreed on, +"Utrum civitati plus utilitatis an incommodi afferant leges quae ad +vitas privatorum hominum ordinandas pertinent"; I took the former. The +declamation was recited on November 11, when a curious circumstance +occurred. My declamation was rather long: it was the first Saturday of +the term on which a declamation had been spoken: and it was the day on +which arrived the news of the withdrawal of the Bill of Pains and +Penalties against Queen Caroline. (This trial had been going on +through the summer, but I knew little about it.) In consequence the +impatience of the undergraduates was very great, and there was such an +uproar of coughing &c. in the Chapel as probably was never known. The +Master (Dr Wordsworth, appointed in the beginning of the summer on the +death of Dr Mansell, and to whom I had been indirectly introduced by +Mrs Clarkson) and Tutors and Deans tried in vain to stop the +hubbub. However I went on steadily to the end, not at all +frightened. On the Monday the Master sent for me to make a sort of +apology in the name of the authorities, and letters to the Tutors were +read at the Lectures, and on the whole the transaction was nowise +disagreeable to me. + +"On the Commemoration Day, December 15th, I received my Prize +(Mitford's Greece) as First-Class man, after dinner in the College +Hall. After a short vacation spent at Bury and Playford I returned to +Cambridge, walking from Bury on Jan. 22nd, 1821. During the next term +I find in Mathematics Partial Differential Equations, Tides, Sound, +Calculus of Variations, Composition of rotary motions, Motion in +resisting medium, Lhuillier's theorem, Brightness of an object as seen +through a medium with any possible law of refraction (a good +investigation), star-reductions, numerical calculations connected with +them, equilibrium of chain under centripetal force (geometrically +treated, as an improvement upon Whewell's algebraical method), +investigation of the magnitude of attractive forces of glass, &c., +required to produce refraction. I forget about Mathematical Lectures; +but I have an impression that I regularly attended Mr Peacock's +lectures, and that he always set me some private problems. + +"I attended Mr Evans's lectures on St Luke: and I find many notes +about the history of the Jews, Cerinthus and various heresies, Paley's +Moral Philosophy, Paley's Evidences, and Biblical Maps: also +speculations about ancient pronunciations. + +"For a week or more before the annual examination I was perfectly +lazy. The Classes of my year (Junior Sophs) were not published till +June 11. It was soon known that I was first with 2000 marks, the next +being Drinkwater with 1200 marks. After a short holiday at Bury and +Playford I returned to Cambridge on July 18th, 1821. My daily life +went on as usual. I find that in writing Latin I began Cicero De +Senectute (retranslating Melmoth's translation, and comparing). Some +time in the Long Vacation the names of the Prizemen for Declamations +were published: I was disappointed that not one, English or Latin, was +assigned to me: but it was foolish, for my declamations were rather +trumpery. + +"My former pupil, Rosser, came again on August 14th. On August 29th +Dr Blomfield (afterwards Bishop of London) called, to engage me as +Tutor to his brother George Beecher Blomfield, and he commenced +attendance on Sept. 1st. With these two pupils I finished at the end +of the Long Vacation: for the next three terms I had one pupil, +Gibson, a Newcastle man, recommended by Mr Peacock, I believe, as a +personal friend (Mr Peacock being of Durham). + +"The only classical subject appointed for the next examination was the +5th, 6th and 7th Books of the Odyssey: the mathematical subjects all +the Applied Mathematics and Newton. There was to be however the +Scholarship Examination (Sizars being allowed to sit for Scholarships +only in their 3rd year: and the Scholarship being a kind of little +Fellowship necessary to qualify for being a candidate for the real +Fellowship). + +"When the October term began Mr Hustler, who usually gave lectures in +mathematics to his third-year pupils, said to me that it was not worth +my while to attend his lectures, and he or Mr Peacock suggested that +Drinkwater, Myers, and I should attend the Questionists' +examinations. The Questionists are those who are to take the degree of +B.A. in the next January: and it was customary, not to give them +lectures, but three times a week to examine them by setting +mathematical questions, as the best method of preparing for the +B.A. examination. Accordingly it was arranged that we should attend +the said examinations: but when we went the Questionists of that year +refused to attend. They were reported to be a weak year, and we to be +a strong one: and they were disposed to take offence at us on any +occasion. From some of the scholars of our year who sat at table with +scholars of that year I heard that they distinguished us as 'the +impudent year,' 'the annus mirabilis' &c. On this occasion they +pretended to believe that the plan of our attendance at the +Questionists' examinations had been suggested by an undergraduate, and +no explanation was of the least use. So the Tutors agreed not to press +the matter on them: and instead of it, Drinkwater, Myers, and I went +three times a week to Mr Peacock's rooms, and he set us questions. I +think that this system was also continued during the next two terms +(ending in June 1822) or part of them, but I am not certain. + +"In August 1821 I copied out a M.S. on Optics, I think from Mr +Whewell: on August 24th one on the Figure of the Earth and Tides; and +at some other time one on the motion of a body round two centers of +force; both from Mr Whewell. On my scribbling paper I find--A problem +on the vibrations of a gig as depending on the horse's step (like that +of a pendulum whose support is disturbed), Maclaurin's Attractions, +Effect of separating the lenses of an achromatic object-glass +(suggested by my old telescope), Barlow's theory of numbers, and +division of the circle into 17 parts, partial differentials, theory of +eye-pieces, epicycloids, Figure of the Earth, Time of body in arc of +parabola, Problem of Sound, Tides, Refraction of Lens, including +thickness, &c., Ivory's paper on Equations, Achromatism of microscope, +Capillary Attraction, Motions of Fluids, Euler's principal axes, +Spherical pendulum, Equation b²(d²y/dx²)=(d²y/dt²), barometer, Lunar +Theory well worked out, ordinary differential equations, Calculus of +Variations, Interpolations like Laplace's for Comets, Kepler's +theorem. In September I had my old telescope mounted on a short tripod +stand, and made experiments on its adjustments. I was possessed of +White's Ephemeris, and I find observations of Jupiter and Saturn in +October. I planned an engine for describing ellipses by the polar +equation A/(1 + e cos theta) and tried to make a micrometer with silk +threads converging to a point. Mr Cubitt called on Oct. 4 and Nov. 1; +he was engaged in erecting a treadmill at Cambridge Gaol, and had some +thoughts of sending plans for the Cambridge Observatory, the erection +of which was then proposed. On Nov. 19 I find that I had received from +Cubitt a Nautical Almanac, the first that I had. On Dec. 11 I made +some experiments with Drinkwater: I think it was whirling a glass +containing oil on water. In Classics I was chiefly engaged upon +Thucydides and Homer. On October 6th I had a letter from Charles +Musgrave, introducing Challis, who succeeded me in the Cambridge +Observatory in 1836. + +"At this time my poor afflicted father was suffering much from a +severe form of rheumatism or pain in the legs which sometimes +prevented him from going to bed for weeks together. + +"On the Commemoration Day, Dec. 18th, I received my prize as +first-class man in Hall again. The next day I walked to Bury, and +passed the winter vacation there and at Playford. + +"I returned to Cambridge on Jan. 24th, 1822. On Feb. 12th I kept my +first Act, with great compliments from the Moderator, and with a most +unusually large attendance of auditors. These disputations on +mathematics, in Latin, are now discontinued. On March 20th I kept a +first Opponency against Sandys. About this time I received Buckle, a +Trinity man of my own year, who was generally supposed to come next +after Drinkwater, as pupil. On my sheets I find integrals and +differential equations of every kind, astronomical corrections (of +which I prepared a book), chances, Englefield's comets, investigation +of the brightness within a rainbow, proof of Clairaut's theorem in one +case, metacentres, change of independent variable applied to a +complicated case, generating functions, principal axes. On Apr. 8th I +intended to write an account of my eye: I was then tormented with a +double image, I suppose from some disease of the stomach: and on May +28th I find by a drawing of the appearance of a lamp that the disease +of my eye continued. + +"On Feb. 11th I gave Mr Peacock a paper on the alteration of the focal +length of a telescope as directed with or against the Earth's orbital +motion (on the theory of emissions) which was written out for reading +to the Cambridge Philosophical Society on Feb. 24th and 25th. [This +Society I think was then about a year old.] On Feb. 1 my MS. on +Precession, Solar Inequality, and Nutation, was made complete. + +"The important examination for Scholarships was now approaching. As I +have said, this one opportunity only was given to Sizars (Pensioners +having always two opportunities and sometimes three), and it is +necessary to be a Scholar in order to be competent to be a candidate +for a Fellowship. On Apr. 10th I addressed my formal Latin letter to +the Seniors. There were 13 vacancies and 37 candidates. The election +took place on Apr. 18th, 1822. I was by much the first (which I hardly +expected) and was complimented by the Master and others. Wrote the +formal letter of thanks as usual. I was now entitled to claim better +rooms, and I took the rooms on the ground floor on the East side of +the Queen's Gate of the Great Court. Even now I think of my quiet +residence in the little rooms above the staircase in Neville's Court +with great pleasure. I took possession of my new rooms on May 27th. + +"The Annual Examination began on May 30th. The Classes were published +on June 5th, when my name was separated from the rest by two lines. It +was understood that the second man was Drinkwater, and that my number +of marks was very nearly double of his. Having at this time been +disappointed of a proposed walking excursion into Derbyshire with a +college friend, who failed me at the last moment, I walked to Bury and +spent a short holiday there and at Playford. + +"I returned to Cambridge on July 12th, 1822. I was steadily busy +during this Long Vacation, but by no means oppressively so: indeed my +time passed very happily. The Scholars' Table is the only one in +College at which the regular possessors of the table are sure never to +see a stranger, and thus a sort of family intimacy grows up among the +Scholars. Moreover the Scholars feel themselves to be a privileged +class 'on the foundation,' and this feeling gives them a sort of +conceited happiness. It was the duty of Scholars by turns to read +Grace after the Fellows' dinner and supper, and at this time (1848) I +know it by heart. They also read the Lessons in Chapel on week days: +but as there was no daily chapel-service during the summer vacation, I +had not much of this. In the intimacy of which I speak I became much +acquainted with Drinkwater, Buckle, Rothman, and Sutcliffe: and we +formed a knot at the table (first the Undergraduate Scholars' table, +and afterwards the Bachelor Scholars' table) for several years. During +this Vacation I had for pupils Buckle and Gibson. + +"I wrote my daily Latin as usual, beginning with the retranslation of +Cicero's Epistles, but I interrupted it from Sept. 27th to Feb. 8th. I +believe it was in this Vacation, or in the October term, that I began +every evening to read Thucydides very carefully, as my notes are +marked 1822 and 1823. On August 27 I find that I was reading Ovid's +Fasti. + +"In Mathematics I find the equation x + y = a, x^q + y^q = b, +Caustics, Calculus of Variations, Partial Differentials, Aberration of +Light, Motions of Comets, various Optical constructions computed with +spherical aberrations, Particular Solutions, Mechanics of Solid +Bodies, Attractions of Shells, Chances, Ivory's attraction-theorem, +Lunar Theory (algebraical), Degrees across meridian, theoretical +refraction, Newton's 3rd Book, Investigation of the tides in a shallow +equatoreal canal, from which I found that there would be low-water +under the moon, metacentres, rotation of a solid body round three +axes, Attractions of Spheroids of variable density, finite +differences, and complete Figure of the Earth. There is also a good +deal of investigation of a mathematical nature not connected with +College studies, as musical chords, organ-pipes, sketch for a +computing machine (suggested by the publications relating to +Babbage's), sketch of machine for solving equations. In August there +is a plan of a MS. on the Differential Calculus, which it appears I +wrote then: one on the Figure of the Earth written about August 15th; +one on Tides, Sept. 25th; one on Newton's Principia with algebraical +additions, Nov. 1st. On Sept. 6th and 10th there are Lunar Distances +observed with Rothman's Sextant and completely worked out; for these I +prepared a printed skeleton form, I believe my first. On December 13th +there are references to books on Geology (Conybeare and Phillips, and +Parkinson) which I was beginning to study. On July 27th, being the day +on which I completed my 21st year, I carefully did nothing. + +"Another subject partly occupied my thoughts, which, though not (with +reference to practical science) very wise, yet gave me some Cambridge +celebrity. In July 1819 I had (as before mentioned) sketched a plan +for constructing reflecting telescopes with silvered glass, and had +shewn it afterwards to Mr Peacock. I now completed the theory of this +construction by correcting the aberrations, spherical as well as +chromatic. On July 13th, 1822, I drew up a paper about it for Mr +Peacock. He approved it much, and in some way communicated it to Mr +(afterwards Sir John) Herschel. I was soon after introduced to +Herschel at a breakfast with Mr Peacock: and he approved of the scheme +generally. On August 5th I drew up a complete mathematical paper for +the Cambridge Philosophical Society, which I entrusted to Mr +Peacock. The aberrations, both spherical and chromatic, are here +worked out very well. On Nov. 25th it was read at the meeting of the +Philosophical Society, and was afterwards printed in their +Transactions: this was my first printed Memoir. Before this time +however I had arranged to try the scheme practically. Mr Peacock had +engaged to bear the expense, but I had no occasion to ask him. Partly +(I think) through Drinkwater, I communicated with an optician named +Bancks, in the Strand, who constructed the optical part. I +subsequently tried my telescope, but it would not do. The fault, as I +had not and have not the smallest doubt, depends in some way on the +crystallization of the mercury silvering. It must have been about this +time that I was introduced to Mr (afterwards Sir James) South, at a +party at Mr Peacock's rooms. He advised me to write to Tulley, a +well-known practical optician, who made me some new reflectors, +&c. (so that I had two specimens, one Gregorian, the other +Cassegrainian). However the thing failed practically, and I was too +busy ever after to try it again. + +"During the October term I had no pupils. I kept my second Act on +Nov. 6 (opponents Hamilton, Rusby, Field), and an Opponency against +Jeffries on Nov. 7. I attended the Questionists' Examinations. I seem +to have lived a very comfortable idle life. The Commemoration Day was +Dec. 18th, when I received a Prize, and the next day I walked to +Bury. On Jan. 4th, 1823, I returned to Cambridge, and until the +B.A. Examination I read novels and played cards more than at any other +time in College. + +"On Thursday, Jan. 9th, 1823, the preliminary classes, for arrangement +of details of the B.A. Examination, were published. The first class, +Airy, Drinkwater, Jeffries, Mason. As far as I remember, the rule was +then, that on certain days the classes were grouped (in regard to +identity of questions given to each group) thus: 1st, {2nd/3rd}, +{4th/5th} &c., and on certain other days thus: {1st/2nd}, {3rd/4th}, +&c. On Saturday, Jan. 11th, I paid fees. On Monday, Jan. 13th, the +proceedings of examination began by a breakfast in the Combination +Room. After this, Gibson gave me breakfast every day, and Buckle gave +me and some others a glass of wine after dinner. The hours were sharp, +the season a cold one, and no fire was allowed in the Senate House +where the Examination was carried on (my place was in the East +gallery), and altogether it was a severe time. + +"The course of Examination was as follows: + +"Monday, Jan. 13th. 8 to 9, printed paper of questions by Mr Hind +(moderator); half-past 9 to 11, questions given orally; 1 to 3, ditto; +6 to 9, paper of problems at Mr Higman's rooms. + +"Tuesday, Jan. 14th. 8 to 9, Higman's paper; half-past 9 to 11, +questions given orally; 1 to 3, ditto; 6 to 9, paper of problems in +Sidney College Hall. + +"Wednesday, Jan. 15th. Questions given orally 8 to 9 and 1 to 3, with +paper of questions on Paley and Locke (one question only in each was +answered). + +"Thursday, Jan. 16th. We went in at 9 and 1, but there seems to have +been little serious examination. + +"Friday, Jan. 17. On this day the brackets or classes as resulting +from the examination were published, 1st bracket Airy, 2nd bracket +Jeffries, 3rd bracket Drinkwater, Fisher, Foley, Mason, Myers. + +"On Saturday, Jan. 18th, the degrees were conferred in the usual +way. It had been arranged that my brother and sister should come to +see me take my degree of B.A., and I had asked Gibson to conduct them +to the Senate House Gallery: but Mr Hawkes (a Trinity Fellow) found +them and stationed them at the upper end of the Senate House. After +the preliminary arrangements of papers at the Vice-Chancellor's table, +I, as Senior Wrangler, was led up first to receive the degree, and +rarely has the Senate House rung with such applause as then filled +it. For many minutes, after I was brought in front of the +Vice-Chancellor, it was impossible to proceed with the ceremony on +account of the uproar. I gave notice to the Smith's Prize Electors of +my intention to 'sit' for that prize, and dined at Rothman's rooms +with Drinkwater, Buckle, and others. On Monday, Jan. 20th, I was +examined by Professor Woodhouse, for Smith's Prize, from 10 to 1. I +think that the only competitor was Jeffries. On Tuesday I was examined +by Prof. Turton, 10 to 1, and on Wednesday by Prof. Lax, 10 to 1. On +Thursday, Jan. 23rd, I went to Bury by coach, on one of the coldest +evenings that I ever felt. + +"Mr Peacock had once recommended me to sit for the Chancellor's medal +(Classical Prize). But he now seemed to be cool in his advice, and I +laid aside all thought of it." + + * * * * * + +It seems not out of place to insert here a copy of some "Cambridge +Reminiscences" written by Airy, which will serve to explain the Acts +and Opponencies referred to in the previous narrative, and other +matters. + + + THE ACTS. + +The examination for B.A. degrees was preceded, in my time, by keeping +two Acts, in the Schools under the University Library: the second of +them in the October term immediately before the examination; the first +(I think) in the October term of the preceding year. + +These Acts were reliques of the Disputations of the Middle Ages, which +probably held a very important place in the discipline of the +University. (There seems to be something like them in some of the +Continental Universities.) The presiding authority was one of the +Moderators. I apprehend that the word "Moderator" signified +"President," in which sense it is still used in the Kirk of Scotland; +and that it was peculiarly applied to the Presidency of the +Disputations, the most important educational arrangement in the +University. The Moderator sent a summons to the "Respondent" to submit +three subjects for argument, and to prepare to defend them on a given +day: he also named three Opponents. This and all the following +proceedings were conducted in Latin. For my Act of 1822, Nov. 6, I +submitted the following subjects: + +"Recte statuit Newtonus in Principiis suis Mathematicis, libro primo, +sectione undecimâ." + +"Recte statuit Woodius de Iride." + +"Recte statuit Paleius de Obligationibus." + +The Opponents named to attack these assertions were Hamilton of St +John's, Rusby of St Catharine's, Field of Trinity. It was customary +for the Opponents to meet at tea at the rooms of the Senior Opponent, +in order to discuss and arrange their arguments; the Respondent was +also invited, but he was warned that he must depart as soon as tea +would be finished: then the three Opponents proceeded with their +occupation. As I have acted in both capacities, I am able to say that +the matter was transacted in an earnest and business-like way. Indeed +in the time preceding my own (I know not whether in my own time) the +assistance of a private tutor was frequently engaged, and I remember +hearing a senior M.A. remark that my College Tutor (James D. Hustler) +was the best crammer for an Act in the University. + +At the appointed time, the parties met in the Schools: the Respondent +first read a Latin Thesis on any subject (I think I took some +metaphysical subject), but nobody paid any attention to it: then the +Respondent read his first Dogma, and the first Opponent produced an +argument against it, in Latin. After this there were repeated replies +and rejoinders, all in vivâ voce Latin, the Moderator sometimes +interposing a remark in Latin. When he considered that one argument +was disposed of, he called for another by the words "Probes aliter." +The arguments were sometimes shaped with considerable ingenuity, and +required a clear head in the Respondent. When all was finished, the +Moderator made a complimentary remark to the Respondent and one to the +first Opponent (I forget whether to the second and third). In my +Respondency of 1822, November 6, the compliment was, "Quaestiones tuas +summo ingenio et acumine defendisti, et in rebus mathematicis +scientiam planè mirabilem ostendisti." In an Opponency (I forget +when) the compliment was, "Magno ingenio argumenta tua et construxisti +et defendisti." + +The Acts of the high men excited much interest among the students. At +my Acts the room was crowded with undergraduates. + +I imagine that, at a time somewhat distant, the maintenance of the +Acts was the only regulation by which the University acted on the +studies of the place. When the Acts had been properly kept, license +was given to the Father of the College to present the undergraduate to +the Vice-Chancellor, who then solemnly admitted him "ad respondendum +Quaestioni." There is no appearance of collective examination before +this presentation: what the "Quaestio" might be, I do not know. Still +the undergraduate was not B.A. The Quaestio however was finished and +approved before the day of a certain Congregation, and then the +undergraduate was declared to be "actualiter in artibus Baccalaureum." + +Probably these regulations were found to be insufficient for the +control of education, and the January examination was instituted. I +conjecture this to have been at or shortly before the date of the +earliest Triposes recorded in the Cambridge Calendar, 1748. + +The increasing importance of the January examination naturally +diminished the value of the Acts in the eyes of the undergraduates; +and, a few years after my M.A. degree, it was found that the Opponents +met, not for the purpose of concealing their arguments from the +Respondent, but for the purpose of revealing them to him. This led to +the entire suppression of the system. The most active man in this +suppression was Mr Whewell: its date must have been near to 1830. + +The shape in which the arguments were delivered by an Opponent, +reading from a written paper, was, "Si (quoting something from the +Respondent's challenge), &c., &c. Cadit Quaestio; Sed (citing +something else bearing on the subject of discussion), Valet +Consequentia; Ergo (combining these to prove some inaccuracy in the +Respondent's challenge), Valent Consequentia et Argumentum." Nobody +pretended to understand these mystical terminations. + +Apparently the original idea was that several Acts should be kept by +each undergraduate; for, to keep up the number (as it seemed), each +student had to gabble through a ridiculous form "Si quaestiones tuae +falsae sint, Cadit Quaestio:--sed quaestiones tuae falsae sunt, Ergo +valent Consequentia et Argumentum." I have forgotten time and place +when this was uttered. + + + THE SENATE-HOUSE EXAMINATION. + +The Questionists, as the undergraduates preparing for B.A. were called +in the October term, were considered as a separate body; collected at +a separate table in Hall, attending no lectures, but invited to attend +a system of trial examinations conducted by one of the Tutors or +Assistant-Tutors. + +From the Acts, from the annual College examinations, and (I suppose) +from enquiries in the separate Colleges, the Moderators acquired a +general idea of the relative merits of the candidates for +honours. Guided by this, the candidates were divided into six +classes. The Moderators and Assistant Examiners were provided each +with a set of questions in manuscript (no printed papers were used for +Honours in the Senate House; in regard to the [Greek: hoi polloi] I +cannot say). On the Monday on which the examination began, the Father +of the College received all the Questionists (I believe), at any rate +all the candidates for honours, at breakfast in the Combination Room +at 8 o'clock, and marched them to the Senate House. My place with +other honour-men was in the East Gallery. There one Examiner took +charge of the 1st and 2nd classes united, another Examiner took the +3rd and 4th classes united, and a third took the 5th and 6th +united. On Tuesday, one Examiner took the 1st class alone, a second +took the 2nd and 3rd classes united, a third took the 4th and 5th +classes united, and a fourth took the 6th class alone. On Wednesday, +Thursday, and Friday the changes were similar. And, in all, the +questioning was thus conducted. The Examiner read from his manuscript +the first question. Those who could answer it proceeded to write out +their answers, and as soon as one had finished he gave the word +"Done"; then the Examiner read out his second question, repeating it +when necessary for the understanding by those who took it up more +lately. And so on. I think that the same process was repeated in the +afternoon; but I do not remember precisely. In this manner the +Examination was conducted through five days (Monday to Friday) with no +interruption except on Friday afternoon. It was principally, perhaps +entirely, bookwork. + +But on two _evenings_ there were printed papers of problems: and the +examination in these was conducted just as in the printed papers of +the present day: but in the private College Rooms of the +Moderators. And there, wine and other refreshments were offered to the +Examinees. How this singular custom began, I know not. + +The order of merit was worked out on Friday afternoon and evening, and +was in some measure known through the University late in the +evening. I remember Mr Peacock coming to a party of Examinees and +giving information on several places. I do not remember his mentioning +mine (though undoubtedly he did) but I distinctly remember his giving +the Wooden Spoon. On the Saturday morning at 8 o'clock the manuscript +list was nailed to the door of the Senate-House. The form of further +proceedings in the presentation for degree (ad respondendum +quaestioni) I imagine has not been much altered. The kneeling before +the Vice-Chancellor and placing hands in the Vice-Chancellor's hands +were those of the old form of doing homage. + +The form of examination which I have described was complicated and +perhaps troublesome, but I believe that it was very efficient, +possibly more so than the modern form (established I suppose at the +same time as the abolition of the Acts). The proportion of questions +now answered to the whole number set is ridiculously small, and no +accurate idea of relative merit can be formed from them. + + + THE COLLEGE HALL. + +When I went up in 1819, and for several years later, the dinner was at +1/4 past 3. There was no supplementary dinner for special +demands. Boat-clubs I think were not invented, even in a plain social +way, till about 1824 or 1825; and not in connection with the College +till some years later. Some of the senior Fellows spoke of the time +when dinner was at 2, and regretted the change. + +There was supper in Hall at 9 o'clock: I have known it to be attended +by a few undergraduates when tired by examinations or by evening +walks; and there were always some seniors at the upper table: I have +occasionally joined them, and have had some very interesting +conversations. The supper was cold, but hot additions were made when +required. + +One little arrangement amused me, as shewing the ecclesiastical +character of the College. The Fasts of the Church were to be strictly +kept, and there was to be no dinner in Hall. It was thus arranged. The +evening chapel service, which was usually at 5-1/2 (I think), was held +at 3; and at 4 the ordinary full meal was served in Hall, but as it +followed the chapel attendance it was held to be supper; and there was +no subsequent meal. + +There were no chairs whatever in Hall, except the single chair of the +vice-master at the head of the table on the dais and that of the +senior dean at the table next the East wall. All others sat on +benches. And I have heard allusions to a ludicrous difficulty which +occurred when some princesses (of the Royal Family) dined in the Hall, +and it was a great puzzle how to get them to the right side of the +benches. + +The Sizars dined after all the rest; their dinner usually began soon +after 4. For the non-foundationists a separate dinner was provided, as +for pensioners. But for the foundationists, the remains of the +Fellows' dinner were brought down; and I think that this provision was +generally preferred to the other. + +The dishes at all the tables of undergraduates were of pewter, till a +certain day when they were changed for porcelain. I cannot remember +whether this was at the time when they became Questionists (in the +October Term), or at the time when they were declared "actualiter esse +in artibus Baccalaureos" (in the Lent Term). + +Up to the Questionist time the undergraduate Scholars had no mixture +whatever; they were the only pure table in the Hall: and I looked on +this as a matter very valuable for the ultimate state of the College +society. But in the October term, those who were to proceed to +B.A. were drafted into the mixed body of Questionists: and they +greatly disliked the change. They continued so till the Lent Term, +when they were formally invited by the Bachelor Scholars to join the +upper table. + + + MATHEMATICAL SUBJECTS OF STUDY AND EXAMINATION. + +In the October Term 1819, the only books on Pure Mathematics +were:--Euclid generally, Algebra by Dr Wood (formerly Tutor, but in +1819 Master, of St John's College), Vince's Fluxions and Dealtry's +Fluxions, Woodhouse's and other Trigonometries. Not a whisper passed +through the University generally on the subject of Differential +Calculus; although some papers (subsequently much valued) on that +subject had been written by Mr Woodhouse, fellow of Caius College; but +their style was repulsive, and they never took hold of the +University. Whewell's Mechanics (1819) contains a few and easy +applications of the Differential Calculus. The books on applied +Mathematics were Wood's Mechanics, Whewell's Mechanics, Wood's Optics, +Vince's Hydrostatics, Vince's Astronomy, Woodhouse's Plane Astronomy +(perhaps rather later), The First Book of Newton's Principia: I do not +remember any others. These works were undoubtedly able; and for the +great proportion of University students going into active life, I do +not conceal my opinion that books constructed on the principles of +those which I have cited were more useful than those exclusively +founded on the more modern system. For those students who aimed at the +mastery of results more difficult and (in the intellectual sense) more +important, the older books were quite insufficient. More aspiring +students read, and generally with much care, several parts of Newton's +Principia, Book I., and also Book III. (perhaps the noblest example +of geometrical form of cosmical theory that the world has seen). I +remember some questions from Book III. proposed in the Senate-House +Examination 1823. + +In the October term 1819, I went up to the University. The works of +Wood and Vince, which I have mentioned, still occupied the +lecture-rooms. But a great change was in preparation for the +University Course of Mathematics. During the great Continental war, +the intercourse between men of science in England and in France had +been most insignificant. But in the autumn of 1819, three members of +the Senate (John Herschel, George Peacock, and Charles Babbage) had +entered into the mathematical society of Paris, and brought away some +of the works on Pure Mathematics (especially those of Lacroix) and on +Mechanics (principally Poisson's). In 1820 they made a translation of +Lacroix's Differential Calculus; and they prepared a volume of +Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus. These were +extensively studied: but the form of the College Examinations or the +University Examinations was not, I think, influenced by them in the +winter 1820-1821 or the two following terms. But in the winter +1821-1822 Peacock was one of the Moderators; and in the Senate-House +Examination, January 1822, he boldly proposed a Paper of important +questions entirely in the Differential Calculus. This was considered +as establishing the new system in the University. In January 1823, I +think the two systems were mingled. Though I was myself subject to +that examination, I grieve to say that I have forgotten much of the +details, except that I well remember that some of the questions +referred to Newton, Book III. on the Lunar Theory. To these I have +already alluded. + +No other work occurs to me as worthy of mention, except Woodhouse's +Lunar Theory, entirely founded on the Differential Calculus. The style +of this book was not attractive, and it was very little read. + + + + CHAPTER III. + + AT TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, FROM HIS TAKING + HIS B.A. DEGREE TO HIS TAKING CHARGE OF THE + CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY AS PLUMIAN PROFESSOR. + + FROM JANUARY 18TH, 1823, TO MARCH 15TH, 1828. + + +"On Jan. 30th, 1823, I returned to Cambridge. I had already heard that +I had gained the 1st Smith's Prize, and one of the first notifications +to me on my return was that the Walker's good-conduct prize of _£10_ +was awarded to me. + +"I remember that my return was not very pleasant, for our table in +hall was half occupied by a set of irregular men who had lost terms +and were obliged to reside somewhat longer in order to receive the +B.A. degree. But at the time of my completing the B.A. degree (which +is not till some weeks after the examination and admission) I with the +other complete bachelors was duly invited to the table of the B.A. +scholars, and that annoyance ended. + +"The liberation from undergraduate study left me at liberty generally +to pursue my own course (except so far as it was influenced by the +preparation for fellowship examination), and also left me at liberty +to earn more money, in the way usual with the graduates, by taking +undergraduate pupils. Mr Peacock recommended me to take only four, +which occupied me four hours every day, and for each of them I +received 20 guineas each term. My first pupils, for the Lent and +Easter terms, were Williamson (afterwards Head Master of Westminster +School), James Parker (afterwards Q.C. and Vice-Chancellor), Bissett, +and Clinton of Caius. To all these I had been engaged before taking my +B.A. degree. + +"I kept up classical subjects. I have a set of notes on the [Greek: +Ploutos] and [Greek: Nephelai] of Aristophanes, finished on Mar. 15th, +1823, and I began my daily writing of Latin as usual on Feb. 8th. In +mathematics I worked very hard at Lunar and Planetary Theories. I have +two MS. books of Lunar Theory to the 5th order of small quantities, +which however answered no purpose except that of making me perfectly +familiar with that subject. I worked well, upon my quires, the figure +of Saturn supposed homogeneous as affected by the attraction of his +ring, and the figure of the Earth as heterogeneous, and the Calculus +of Variations. I think it was now that I wrote a MS. on constrained +motion. + +"On Mar. 17th, 1823, I was elected Fellow of the Cambridge +Philosophical Society. On May 9th a cast of my head was taken for Dr +Elliotson, an active phrenologist, by Deville, a tradesman in the +Strand. + +"I had long thought that I should like to visit Scotland, and on my +once saying so to my mother, she (who had a most kindly recollection +of Alnwick) said in a few words that she thought I could not do +better. I had therefore for some time past fully determined that as +soon as I had sufficient spare time and money enough I would go to +Scotland. The interval between the end of Easter Term and the usual +beginning with pupils in the Long Vacation offered sufficient time, +and I had now earned a little money, and I therefore determined to go, +and invited my sister to accompany me. I had no private +introductions, except one from James Parker to Mr Reach, a writer of +Inverness: some which Drinkwater sent being too late. On May 20th we +went by coach to Stamford; thence by Pontefract and Oulton to York, +where I saw the Cathedral, which _then_ disappointed me, but I suppose +that we were tired with the night journey. Then by Newcastle to +Alnwick, where we stopped for the day to see my birthplace. On May +24th to Edinburgh. On this journey I remember well the stone walls +between the fields, the place (in Yorkshire) where for the first time +in my life I saw rock, the Hambleton, Kyloe, Cheviot and Pentland +Hills, Arthur's Seat, but still more strikingly the revolving Inch +Keith Light. At Edinburgh I hired a horse and gig for our journey in +Scotland, and we drove by Queensferry to Kinross (where for the first +time in my life I saw clouds on the hills, viz. on the Lomond Hills), +and so to Perth. Thence by Dunkeld and Killicrankie to Blair Athol +(the dreariness of the Drumochter Pass made a strong impression on +me), and by Aviemore (where I saw snow on the mountains) to +Inverness. Here we received much kindness and attention from Mr Reach, +and after visiting the Falls of Foyers and other sights we went to +Fort Augustus and Fort William. We ascended Ben Nevis, on which there +was a great deal of snow, and visited the vitrified fort in Glen +Nevis. Then by Inverary to Tarbet, and ascended Ben Lomond, from +whence we had a magnificent view. We then passed by Loch Achray to +Glasgow, where we found James Parker's brother (his father, of the +house of Macinroy and Parker, being a wealthy merchant of Glasgow). On +June 15th to Mr Parker's house at Blochairn, near Glasgow (on this day +I heard Dr Chalmers preach), and on the 17th went with the family by +steamer (the first that I had seen) to Fairly, near Largs. I returned +the gig to Edinburgh, visited Arran and Bute, and we then went by +coach to Carlisle, and by Penrith to Keswick (by the old road: never +shall I forget the beauty of the approach to Keswick). After visiting +Ambleside and Kendal we returned to Cambridge by way of Leeds, and +posted to Bury on the 28th June. The expense of this expedition was +about _£81_. It opened a completely new world to me. + +"I had little time to rest at Bury. In the preceding term Drinkwater, +Buckle, and myself, had engaged to go somewhere into the country with +pupils during the Long Vacation (as was customary with Cambridge +men). Buckle however changed his mind. Drinkwater went to look for a +place, fixed on Swansea, and engaged a house (called the Cambrian +Hotel, kept by a Captain Jenkins). On the morning of July 2nd I left +Bury for London and by mail coach to Bristol. On the morning of July +3rd by steamer to Swansea, and arrived late at night. I had then five +pupils: Parker, Harman Lewis (afterwards Professor in King's College, +London), Pierce Morton, Gibson, and Guest of Caius (afterwards Master +of the College). Drinkwater had four, viz. two Malkins (from Bury), +Elphinstone (afterwards M.P.), and Farish (son of Professor +Farish). We lived a hard-working strange life. My pupils began with me +at six in the morning: I was myself reading busily. We lived +completely _en famille_, with two men-servants besides the house +establishment. One of our first acts was to order a four-oared boat to +be built, fitted with a lug-sail: she was called the Granta of +Swansea. In the meantime we made sea excursions with boats borrowed +from ships in the port. On July 23rd, with a borrowed boat, we went +out when the sea was high, but soon found our boat unmanageable, and +at last got into a place where the sea was breaking heavily over a +shoal, and the two of the crew who were nearest to me (A. Malkin and +Lewis), one on each side, were carried out: they were good swimmers +and we recovered them, though with some trouble: the breaker had +passed quite over my head: we gained the shore and the boat was taken +home by land. When our own boat was finished, we had some most +picturesque adventures at the Mumbles, Aberavon, Caswell Bay, +Ilfracombe, and Tenby. From all this I learnt navigation pretty +well. The mixture of hard study and open-air exertion seemed to affect +the health of several of us (I was one): we were covered with painful +boils. + +"My Latin-writing began again on July 25th: I have notes on +Demosthenes, Lucretius, and Greek History. In mathematics I find +Chances, Figure of the Earth with variable density, Differential +Equations, Partial Differentials, sketch for an instrument for shewing +refraction, and Optical instruments with effects of chromatic +aberration. In August there occurred an absurd quarrel between the +Fellows of Trinity and the undergraduates, on the occasion of +commencing the building of King's Court, when the undergraduates were +not invited to wine, and absented themselves from the hall. + +"There were vacant this year (1823) five fellowships in Trinity +College. In general, the B.A.'s of the first year are not allowed to +sit for fellowships: but this year it was thought so probable that +permission would be given, that on Sept. 2nd Mr Higman, then appointed +as Tutor to a third 'side' of the College, wrote to me to engage me as +Assistant Mathematical Tutor in the event of my being elected a Fellow +on Oct. 1st, and I provisionally engaged myself. About the same time +I had written to Mr Peacock, who recommended me to sit, and to Mr +Whewell, who after consultation with the Master (Dr Wordsworth), +discouraged it. As there was no absolute prohibition, I left Swansea +on Sept. 11th (before my engagement to my pupils was quite finished) +and returned to Cambridge by Gloucester, Oxford, and London. I gave in +my name at the butteries as candidate for fellowship, but was informed +in a day or two that I should not be allowed to sit. On Sept. 19th I +walked to Bury. + +"I walked back to Cambridge on Oct. 17th, 1823. During this October +term I had four pupils: Neate, Cankrein, Turner (afterwards 2nd +wrangler and Treasurer of Guy's Hospital), and William Hervey (son of +the Marquis of Bristol). In the Lent term I had four (Neate, Cankrein, +Turner, Clinton). In the Easter term I had three (Neate, Cankrein, +Turner). + +"My daily writing of Latin commenced on Oct. 27th. In November I began +re-reading Sophocles with my usual care. In mathematics I find +investigations of Motion in a resisting medium, Form of Saturn, Draft +of a Paper about an instrument for exhibiting the fundamental law of +refraction (read at the Philosophical Society by Mr Peacock on +Nov. 10th, 1823), Optics, Solid Geometry, Figure of the Earth with +variable density, and much about attractions. I also in this term +wrote a MS. on the Calculus of Variations, and one on Wood's Algebra, +2nd and 4th parts. I have also notes of the temperature of mines in +Cornwall, something on the light of oil-gas, and reminiscences of +Swansea in a view of Oswick Bay. In November I attended Professor +Sedgwick's geological lectures. + +"At some time in this term I had a letter from Mr South (to whom I +suppose I had written) regarding the difficulty of my telescope: he +was intimately acquainted with Tulley, and I suppose that thus the +matter had become more fully known to him. He then enquired if I could +visit him in the winter vacation. I accordingly went from Bury, and +was received by him at his house in Blackman Street for a week or more +with great kindness. He introduced me to Sir Humphrey Davy and many +other London savans, and shewed me many London sights and the +Greenwich Observatory. I also had a little practice with his own +instruments. He was then on intimate terms with Mr Herschel +(afterwards Sir John Herschel), then living in London, who came +occasionally to observe double stars. This was the first time that I +saw practical astronomy. It seems that I borrowed his mountain +barometer. In the Lent term I wrote to him regarding the deduction of +the parallax of Mars, from a comparison of the relative positions of +Mars and 46 Leonis, as observed by him and by Rumker at Paramatta. My +working is on loose papers. I see that I have worked out perfectly the +interpolations, the effects of uncertainty of longitude, &c., but I do +not see whether I have a final result. + +"In Jan. 1824, at Playford, I was working on the effects of separating +the two lenses of an object-glass, and on the kind of eye-piece which +would be necessary: also on spherical aberrations and Saturn's +figure. On my quires at Cambridge I was working on the effects of +separating the object-glass lenses, with the view of correcting the +secondary spectrum: and on Jan. 31st I received some numbers (indices +of refraction) from Mr Herschel, and reference to Fraunhofer's +numbers. + +"About this time it was contemplated to add to the Royal Observatory +of Greenwich two assistants of superior education. Whether this +scheme was entertained by the Admiralty, the Board of Longitude, or +the Royal Society, I do not know. Somehow (I think through Mr +Peacock) a message from Mr Herschel was conveyed to me, acquainting me +of this, and suggesting that I should be an excellent person for the +principal place. To procure information, I went to London on Saturday, +Feb. 7th, sleeping at Mr South's, to be present at one of Sir Humphrey +Davy's Saturday evening soirées (they were then held every Saturday), +and to enquire of Sir H. Davy and Dr Young. When I found that +succession to the post of Astronomer Royal was not considered as +distinctly a consequence of it, I took it coolly, and returned the +next night. The whole proposal came to nothing. + +"At this time I was engaged upon differential equations, mountain +barometer problem and determination of the height of the Gogmagogs and +several other points, investigations connected with Laplace's +calculus, spherical aberration in different planes, geology +(especially regarding Derbyshire, which I proposed to visit), and much +of optics. I wrote a draft of my Paper on the figure of Saturn, and on +Mar. 15th, 1824, it was read at the Philosophical Society under the +title of 'On the figure assumed by a fluid homogeneous mass, whose +particles are acted on by their mutual attraction, and by small +extraneous forces,' and is printed in their Memoirs. I also wrote a +draft of my Paper on Achromatic Eye-pieces, and on May 17th, 1824, it +was read at the Philosophical Society under the title of 'On the +Principles and Construction of the Achromatic Eye-pieces of +Telescopes, and on the Achromatism of Microscopes,' including also the +effects of separating the lenses of the object-glass. It is printed in +their Memoirs. + +"Amongst miscellaneous matters I find that on Mar. 22nd of this year I +began regularly making extracts from the books of the Book Society, a +practice which I continued to March 1826. On Mar. 27th, a very rainy +day, I walked to Bury to attend the funeral of my uncle William +Biddell, near Diss, and on Mar. 30th I walked back in rain and +snow. On Feb. 24th I dined with Cubitt in Cambridge. On May 21st I +gave a certificate to Rogers (the assistant in Crosse's school, and my +instructor in mathematics), which my mother amplified much, and which +I believe procured his election as master of Walsall School. On June +23rd I went to Bury. The speeches at Bury School, which I wished to +attend, took place next day." + +At this point of his Autobiography the writer continues, "Now came one +of the most important occurrences in my life." The important event in +question was his acquaintance with Richarda Smith, the lady who +afterwards became his wife. The courtship was a long one, and in the +Autobiography there are various passages relating to it, all written +in the most natural and unaffected manner, but of somewhat too private +a nature for publication. It will therefore be convenient to digress +from the straight path of the narrative in order to insert a short +memoir of the lady who was destined to influence his life and +happiness in a most important degree. + +Richarda Smith was the eldest daughter of the Rev. Richard Smith, who +had been a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, but was at this time +Private Chaplain to the Duke of Devonshire, and held the small living +of Edensor, near Chatsworth, in Derbyshire. He had a family of two +sons and seven daughters, whom he had brought up and educated very +carefully. Several of his daughters were remarkable both for their +beauty and accomplishments. Richarda Smith was now in her 20th year, +and the writer of the Autobiography records that "at Matlock we +received great attention from Mr Chenery: in speaking of Mr Smith I +remember his saying that Mr Smith had a daughter whom the Duke of +Devonshire declared to be the most beautiful girl he ever saw." This +was before he had made the acquaintance of the family. Airy was at +this time on a walking tour in Derbyshire with his brother William, +and they were received at Edensor by Mr Smith, to whom he had letters +of introduction. He seems to have fallen in love with Miss Smith "at +first sight," and within two days of first seeing her he made her an +offer of marriage. Neither his means nor his prospects at that time +permitted the least idea of an immediate marriage, and Mr Smith would +not hear of any engagement. But he never had the least doubt as to +the wisdom of the choice that he had made: he worked steadily on, +winning fame and position, and recommending his suit from time to time +to Miss Smith as opportunity offered, and finally married her, nearly +six years after his first proposal. His constancy had its reward, for +he gained a most charming and affectionate wife. As he records at the +time of his marriage, "My wife was aged between 25 and 26, but she +scarcely appeared more than 18 or 20. Her beauty and accomplishments, +her skill and fidelity in sketching, and above all her exquisite +singing of ballads, made a great sensation in Cambridge." + +Their married life lasted 45 years, but the last six years were +saddened by the partial paralysis and serious illness of Lady +Airy. The entire correspondence between them was most carefully +preserved, and is a record of a most happy union. The letters were +written during his numerous journeys and excursions on business or +pleasure, and it is evident that his thoughts were with her from the +moment of their parting. Every opportunity of writing was seized with +an energy and avidity that shewed how much his heart was in the +correspondence. Nothing was too trivial or too important to +communicate to his wife, whether relating to family or business +matters. The letters on both sides are always full of affection and +sympathy, and are written in that spirit of confidence which arises +from a deep sense of the value and necessity of mutual support in the +troubles of life. And with his active and varied employments and his +numerous family there was no lack of troubles. They were both of them +simple-minded, sensible, and practical people, and were very grateful +for such comforts and advantages as they were able to command, but for +nothing in comparison with their deep respect and affection for one +another. + +Both by natural ability and education she was well qualified to enter +into the pursuits of her husband, and in many cases to assist him. She +always welcomed her husband's friends, and by her skill and attractive +courtesy kept them well together. She was an admirable letter-writer, +and in the midst of her numerous domestic distractions always found +time for the duties of correspondence. In conversation she was very +attractive, not so much from the wit or brilliancy of her remarks as +from the brightness and interest with which she entered into the +topics under discussion, and from the unfailing grace and courtesy +with which she attended to the views of others. This was especially +recognized by the foreign astronomers and men of science who from time +to time stayed as guests at the Observatory and to whom she acted as +hostess. Although she was not an accomplished linguist yet she was +well able to express herself in French and German, and her natural +good sense and kindliness placed her guests at their ease, and made +them feel themselves (as indeed they were) welcomed and at home. + +Her father, the Rev. Richard Smith, was a man of most cultivated mind, +and of the highest principles, with a keen enjoyment of good society, +which the confidence and friendship of his patron the Duke of +Devonshire amply secured to him, both at Chatsworth and in London. He +had a deep attachment to his Alma Mater of Cambridge, and though not +himself a mathematician he had a great respect for the science of +mathematics and for eminent mathematicians. During the long courtship +already related Mr Smith conceived the highest respect for Airy's +character, as well as for his great repute and attainments, and +expressed his lively satisfaction at his daughter's marriage. Thus on +January 20th, 1830, he wrote to his intended son-in-law as follows: "I +have little else to say to you than that I continue with heartfelt +satisfaction to reflect on the important change about to take place in +my dear daughter's situation. A father must not allow himself to +dilate on such a subject: of course I feel confident that you will +have no reason to repent the irrevocable step you have taken, but from +the manner in which Richarda has been brought up, you will find such a +helpmate in her as a man of sense and affection would wish to have, +and that she is well prepared to meet the duties and trials (for such +must be met with) of domestic life with a firm and cultivated mind, +and the warm feelings of a kind heart. Her habits are such as by no +means to lead her to expensive wishes, nor will you I trust ever find +it necessary to neglect those studies and pursuits upon which your +reputation and subsistence are chiefly founded, to seek for idle +amusements for your companion. I must indulge no further in speaking +of her, and have only at present to add that I commit in full +confidence into your hands the guardianship of my daughter's +happiness." And on April 5th, 1830, shortly after their marriage, he +wrote to his daughter thus: "If thinking of you could supply your +place amongst us you would have been with us unceasingly, for we have +all of us made you the principal object of our thoughts and our talk +since you left us, and I travelled with you all your journey to your +present delightful home. We had all but one feeling of the purest +pleasure in the prospect of the true domestic comfort to which we +fully believe you to be now gone, and we rejoice that all your +endearing qualities will now be employed to promote the happiness of +one whom we think so worthy of them as your dear husband, who has left +us in the best opinion of his good heart, as well as his enlightened +and sound understanding. His late stay with us has endeared him to us +all. Never did man enter into the married state from more honourable +motives, or from a heart more truly seeking the genuine happiness of +that state than Mr Airy, and he will, I trust, find his reward in you +from all that a good wife can render to the best of husbands, and his +happiness be reflected on yourself." It would be difficult to find +letters of more genuine feeling and satisfaction, or more eloquently +expressed, than these. + +The narrative of the Autobiography will now be resumed. + +"I had been disappointed two years before of an expedition to +Derbyshire. I had wished still to make it, and my brother wished to +go: and we determined to make it this year (1824). We were prepared +with walking dresses and knapsacks. I had well considered every detail +of our route, and was well provided with letters of introduction, +including one to the Rev. R. Smith of Edensor. On June 29th we started +by coach to Newmarket and walked through the Fens by Ramsay to +Peterborough. Then by Stamford and Ketton quarries to Leicester and +Derby. Here we were recognized by a Mr Calvert, who had seen me take +my degree, and he invited us to breakfast, and employed himself in +shewing us several manufactories, &c. to which we had been denied +access when presenting ourselves unsupported. We then went to Belper +with an introduction from Mr Calvert to Jedediah Strutt: saw the great +cotton mills, and in the evening walked to Matlock. Up to this time +the country of greatest interest was the region of the fens about +Ramsay (a most remarkable district), but now began beauty of scenery. +On July 9th we walked by Rowsley and Haddon Hall over the hills to +Edensor, where we stayed till the 12th with Mr Smith. We next visited +Hathersage, Castleton, and Marple (where I wished to see the canal +aqueduct), and went by coach to Manchester, and afterwards to +Liverpool. Here Dr Traill recommended us to see the Pontycyssylte +Aqueduct, and we went by Chester and Wrexham to Rhuabon, saw the +magnificent work, and proceeded to Llangollen. Thence by Chester and +Northwich (where we descended a salt-mine) to Macclesfield. Then to +the Ecton mine (of which we saw but little) through Dovedale to +Ashbourn, and by coach to Derby. On July 24th to Birmingham, where we +found Mr Guest, lodged in his house, and were joined by my pupil +Guest. Here we were fully employed in visiting the manufactures, and +then went into the iron country, where I descended a pit in the +Staffordshire Main. Thence by coach to Cambridge, where I stopped to +prepare for the Fellowship Examination. + +"I had two pupils in this portion of the Long Vacation, Turner and +Dobbs. On August 2nd my writing of Latin began regularly as before. My +principal mathematics on the quires are Optics. On August 25th I made +experiments on my left eye, with good measures, and on Aug. 26th +ordered a cylindrical lens of Peters, a silversmith in the town, which +I believe was never made. Subsequently, while at Playford, I ordered +cylindrical lenses of an artist named Fuller, living at Ipswich, and +these were completed in November, 1824. + +"My letter to the Examiners, announcing my intention of sitting for +Fellowship (which like all other such documents is preserved on my +quires) was delivered on Sept 21st. The Examination took place on +Sept. 22nd and the two following days. On Oct. 1st, 1824, at the usual +hour of the morning, I was elected Fellow. There were elected at the +same time T.B. Macaulay (afterwards Lord Macaulay), who was a year +senior to me in College, and I think Field of my own year. I drew up +my letter of acknowledgment to the Electors. On Oct. 2nd at 9 in the +morning I was admitted Fellow with the usual ceremonies, and at 10 I +called on the Electors with my letter of acknowledgment. I immediately +journeyed to Derbyshire, paid a visit at Edensor, and returned by +Sheffield. + +"On Oct. 11th (it having been understood with Mr Higman that my +engagement as Assistant Mathematical Tutor stood) the Master sent for +me to appoint me and to say what was expected as duty of the +office. He held out to me the prospect of ultimately succeeding to the +Tutorship, and I told him that I hoped to be out of College before +that time. + +"About this time the 'Athenaeum,' a club of a scientific character, +was established in London, and I was nominated on it, but I declined" +(Oct. 14th). In this year (1824) I commenced account with a banker by +placing _£110_ in the hands of Messrs Mortlock and Co. On Oct. 16th I +walked to Bury, and after a single day's stay there returned to +Cambridge. + +"On Oct. 23rd, 1824,1 began my lectures as Mathematical Assistant +Tutor. I lectured the Senior Sophs and Junior Sophs on Higman's +side. The number of Senior Sophs was 21. Besides this I took part in +the 'Examinations of the Questionists,' a series of exercises for +those who were to take the Bachelor's degree in the next January. I +examined in Mechanics, Newton, and Optics. I had also as private +pupils Turner, Dobbs, and Cooper. I now ceased from the exercise which +I had followed with such regularity for five years, namely that of +daily writing Latin. In its stead I engaged a French Master (Goussel) +with whom I studied French with reasonable assiduity for the three +terms to June, 1825. + +"Among mathematical investigations I find: Theory of the Moon's +brightness, Motion of a body in an ellipse round two centres of force, +Various differential equations, Numerical computation of sin pi from +series, Numerical computation of sines of various arcs to 18 decimals, +Curvature of surfaces in various directions, Generating functions, +Problem of sound. I began in the winter a Latin Essay as competing +for the Middle Bachelors' Prize, but did not proceed with it. I +afterwards wished that I had followed it up: but my time was fully +occupied. + +"On Jan. 28th, 1825, I started for Edensor, where I paid a visit, and +returned on Feb. 2nd. On Feb. 4th I wrote to Mr Clarkson, asking his +advice about a profession or mode of life (the cares of life were now +beginning to press me heavily, and continued to do so for several +years). He replied very kindly, but his answer amounted to nothing. +About the same time I had some conversation of the same kind with Mr +Peacock, which was equally fruitless. + +"On Feb. 4th I have investigations of the density of light near a +caustic (on the theory of emissions). On Feb. 5th I finished a Paper +about the defect in my eye, which was communicated to the Cambridge +Philosophical Society on Feb. 21st. Mr Peacock or Mr Whewell had some +time previously applied to me to write a Paper on Trigonometry for the +Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, and I had been collecting some materials +(especially in regard to its history) at every visit to London, where +I read sometimes at the British Museum: also in the Cambridge +libraries. I began this Paper (roughly) on Feb. 8th, and finished it +on Mar. 3rd. The history of which I speak, by some odd management of +the Editors of the Encyclopaedia, was never published. The MS. is now +amongst the MSS. of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Other subjects +on my quires are: Theory of musical concords, many things relating to +trigonometry and trigonometrical tables, achromatic eye-pieces, +equation to the surface bounding the rays that enter my left eye, +experiments on percussion. Also notes on Cumberland and Wales (I had +already proposed to myself to take a party of pupils in the Long +Vacation to Keswick), and notes on history and geology. + +"I had been in correspondence with Dr Malkin (master of Bury School), +who on Feb. 8th sent a certificate for my brother William, whom I +entered at Trinity on Peacock's side. On Mar. 25th I changed my rooms, +quitting those on the ground-floor east side of Queen Mary's Gate for +first-floor rooms in Neville's Court, south side, the easternmost +rooms. In this term my lectures lasted from Apr. 18th to May +14th. Apparently I had only the Senior Sophs, 19 in number, and the +same four pupils (Turner, Dobbs, Cooper, Hovenden) as in the preceding +term. The only scientific subjects on which I find notes are, a Paper +on the forms of the Teeth of Wheels, communicated to the Philosophical +Society on May 2nd; some notes about Musical Concords, and some +examination of a strange piece of Iceland Spar. On Apr. 29th I was +elected to the Northern Institution (of Inverness); the first +compliment that I received from an extraneous body. + +"On May 14th I have a most careful examination of my money accounts, +to see whether I can make an expedition with my sister into Wales. My +sister came to Cambridge, and on Monday, May 23rd, 1825, we started +for Wales, equipped in the lightest way for a walking expedition. We +went by Birmingham to Shrewsbury: then to the Pontycyssylte Aqueduct +and by various places to Bala, and thence by Llanrwst to Conway. Here +the suspension bridge was under construction: the mole was made and +the piers, but nothing else. Then on to Bangor, where nine chains of +the suspension bridge were in place, and so to Holyhead. Then by +Carnarvon to Bethgelert, ascending Snowdon by the way, and in +succession by Festiniog, Dolgelly, and Aberystwyth to Hereford (the +first time that I had visited it since my father left it). From thence +we went by coach to London, and I went on to Cambridge on the 23rd of +June. + +"I had arranged to take a party of pupils to Keswick, and to take my +brother there. Mr Clarkson had provided me with introductions to Mr +Southey and Mr Wordsworth. On Wednesday, June 29th, 1825, we started, +and went by Leicester, Sheffield, Leeds, and Kendal, to Keswick, +calling at Edensor on the way. My pupils were Cleasby, Marshman, +Clinton, Wigram, Tottenham, and M. Smith. At Keswick I passed three +months very happily. I saw Mr Southey's family frequently, and Mr +Wordsworth's occasionally. By continual excursions in the +neighbourhood, and by a few excursions to places as distant as +Bowness, Calder Bridge, &c. (always climbing the intermediate +mountains), I became well acquainted with almost the whole of that +beautiful country, excepting some of the S. W. dales. A geological +hammer and a mountain barometer were very interesting companions. I +had plenty of work with my pupils: I worked a little Lunar Theory, a +little of Laplace's Equations, something of the Figure of the Earth, +and I wrote out very carefully my Trigonometry for the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana. I read a little of Machiavelli, and various books +which I borrowed of Mr Southey. On Friday, Sept. 30th, my brother and +I left for Kendal, and after a stay of a few days at Edensor, arrived +at Cambridge on Oct. 11th. + +"On Oct. 21st my Lectures to the Junior Sophs began, 39 names, lasting +to Dec. 13th. Those to the Senior Sophs, 16 names, Oct 29th to +Dec. 10th. I also examined Questionists as last year. I have notes +about a Paper on the connection of impact and pressure, read at the +Philosophical Society on Nov. 14th, but not printed, dipping-needle +problems, curve described round three centres of force, barometer +observations, theory of the Figure of the Earth with variable density, +and effect on the Moon, correction to the Madras pendulum, wedge with +friction, spots seen in my eyes, density of rays near a caustic. In +this term I accomplished the preparation of a volume of Mathematical +Tracts on subjects which, either from their absolute deficiency in the +University or from the unreadable form in which they had been +presented, appeared to be wanted. The subjects of my Tracts were, +Lunar Theory (begun Oct. 26th, finished Nov. 1st), Figure of the Earth +(1st part finished Nov. 18th), Precession and Nutation (my old MS. put +in order), and the Calculus of Variations. I applied, as is frequently +done, to the Syndicate of the University Press for assistance in +publishing the work; and they agreed to give me paper and printing for +500 copies. This notice was received from Professor Turton on +Nov. 29th, 1825. It was probably also in this year that I drew up an +imperfect 'Review' of Coddington's Optics, a work which deserved +severe censure: my review was never finished. + +"In the Long Vacation at Keswick I had six pupils at _£42_ each. In +the October term I had Marshman and Ogilby at _£105_ for three terms, +and Dobbs at _£75_ for three terms. I had, at Mr Peacock's suggestion, +raised my rate from 60 to 100 guineas for three terms: this prevented +some from applying to me, and induced some to withdraw who had been +connected with me: but it did me no real hurt, for engrossment by +pupils is the worst of all things that can happen to a man who hopes +to distinguish himself. On Dec. 17th I went to Bury, and returned to +Cambridge on Jan. 30th, 1826. + +"I have the attendance-bills of my Lectures to Senior Sophs (16) from +Feb. 3rd to Feb. 23rd, and to Freshmen (40) from Feb. 27th to +Mar. 15. It would appear that I gave but one college-lecture per day +(my belief was that I always had two). The tutor's stipend per term +was _£50_. On my quires I find, Investigations for the ellipticity of +a heterogeneous spheroid when the density is expressed by sin +_qc_/_qc_ (the remarkable properties of which I believe I discovered +entirely myself, although they had been discovered by other persons), +Theoretical Numbers for precession, nutation, &c., some investigations +using Laplace's Y, hard work on the Figure of the Earth to the 2nd +order,'Woodhouse's remaining apparatus,' Notes about Lambton's and +Kater's errors, Depolarization, Notes of Papers on depolarization in +the Phil. Trans., Magnetic Investigations for Lieut. Foster, +Isochronous Oscillations in a resisting medium, Observations on a +strange piece of Iceland Spar. On Mar. 7th forwarded Preface and Title +Page for my Mathematical Tracts. + +"Some time in this term I began to think of the possibility of +observing the diminution of gravity in a deep mine, and communicated +with Whewell, who was disposed to join in experiments. My first notion +was simply to try the rate of a clock, and the Ecton mine was first +thought of. I made enquiries about the Ecton mine through Mr Smith (of +Edensor), and visited the mine, but in the meantime Whewell had made +enquiries in London and found (principally from Dr Paris) that the +mine of Dolcoath near Camborne in Cornwall would be a better place for +the experiment. Dr Paris wrote to me repeatedly, and ultimately we +resolved on trying it there. In my papers on Mar. 21st are various +investigations about attractions in both mines. On Apr. 3rd I went to +London, principally to arrange about Dolcoath, and during April and +May I was engaged in correspondence with Sir H. Davy (President of +the Royal Society), Mr Herschel, and Dr Young (Secretary of the Board +of Longitude) about the loan of instruments and pendulums. On +Apr. 23rd I was practising pendulum-observations (by coincidence); and +about this time repeatedly practised transits with a small instrument +lent by Mr Sheepshanks (with whom my acquaintance must have begun no +long time before) which was erected under a tent in the Fellows' +Walks. On my quires I find various schemes for graduating thermometers +for pendulum experiments. + +"I find also Notes of examination of my brother William, who had come +to College last October; and a great deal of correspondence with my +mother and sister and Mr Case, a lawyer, about a troublesome business +with Mr Cropley, an old friend of G. Biddell, to whom my father had +lent _£500_ and whose affairs were in Chancery. + +"My lectures in this term were to the Junior Sophs from Apr. 10th to +May 13th: they were six in number and not very regular. On Apr. 28th I +sent to Mawman the copy of my Trigonometry for the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana, for which I received _£42_. I received notice from the +Press Syndicate that the price of my Mathematical Tracts was fixed at +_6s. 6d._: I sold the edition to Deighton for _£70_, and it was +immediately published. About this time I have letters from Mr Herschel +and Sir H. Davy about a Paper to be presented to the Royal Society--I +suppose about the Figure of the Earth to the 2nd order of ellipticity, +which was read to the Royal Society on June 15th. + +"On Saturday, May 13th, 1826, I went to London on the way to Dolcoath, +and received four chronometers from the Royal Observatory, +Greenwich. I travelled by Devonport and Falmouth to Camborne, where I +arrived on May 20th and dined at the count-house dinner at the mine. I +was accompanied by Ibbotson, who was engaged as a pupil, and intended +for an engineer. On May 24th Whewell arrived, and we took a pendulum +and clock down, and on the 30th commenced the observation of +coincidences in earnest. This work, with the changing of the +pendulums, and sundry short expeditions, occupied nearly three +weeks. We had continued the computation of our observations at every +possible interval. It is to be understood that we had one detached +pendulum swinging in front of a clock pendulum above, and another +similarly mounted below; and that the clocks were compared by +chronometers compared above, carried down and compared, compared +before leaving, and brought up and compared. The upper and lower +pendulums had been interchanged. It was found now that the reliance +on the steadiness of the chronometers was too great; and a new method +was devised, in which for each series the chronometers should make +four journeys and have four comparisons above and two below. This +arrangement commenced on the 19th June and continued till the 20th. On +the 26th we packed the lower instruments, intending to compare the +pendulum directly with the upper one, and sent them up the shaft: when +an inexplicable occurrence stopped all proceedings. The basket +containing all the important instruments was brought up to the surface +(in my presence) on fire; some of the instruments had fallen out with +their cases burning. Whether a superstitious miner had intentionally +fired it, or whether the snuff of a candle had been thrown into it, is +not known. Our labour was now rendered useless. On the 28th I packed +up what remained of instruments, left for Truro, and arrived at Bury +on July 1st. During our stay in Cornwall I had attended a 'ticketing' +or sale of ore at Camborne, and we had made expeditions to the +N.W. Coast, to Portreath and Illogan, to Marazion and St Michael's +Mount, and to Penzance and the Land's End. On July 3rd I saw Mr +Cropley in Bury gaol, and went to Cambridge. On the 4th I was admitted +A.M., and on the 5th was admitted Major Fellow. + +"I had engaged with four pupils to go to Orléans in this Long +Vacation: my brother William was also to go. One of my pupils, Dobbs, +did not join: the other three were Tinkler, Ogilby, and Ibbotson. We +left London on July 9th, and travelled by Brighton, Dieppe, Rouen, and +Paris to Orléans. At Paris I saw Bouvard, Pouillet, Laplace and +Arago. I had introductions from Mr Peacock, Mr South, Mr Herschel, Dr +Young; and from Professor Sedgwick to an English resident, Mr +Underwood. On the 19th I was established in the house of M. Lagarde, +Protestant Minister. Here I received my pupils. On the 28th I +commenced Italian with an Italian master: perhaps I might have done +more prudently in adhering to French, for I made no great progress. On +Aug. 2nd I saw a murderer guillotined in the Place Martroi. The +principal investigations on my quires are--Investigations about +pendulums, Calculus of Variations, Notes for the Figure of the Earth +(Encyc. Metrop.) and commencement of the article, steam-engine +machinery, &c. I picked up various French ballads, read various books, +got copies of the Marseillaise (this I was obliged to obtain rather +secretly, as the legitimist power under Charles X. was then at its +height) and other music, and particulars of farm wages for Whewell and +R. Jones. The summer was intensely hot, and I believe that the heat +and the work in Dolcoath had weakened me a good deal. The family was +the old clergyman, his wife, his daughter, and finally his son. We +lived together very amicably. My brother lodged in a Café in the Place +Martroi; the others in different families. I left Orléans on +Sept. 30th for Paris. Here I attended the Institut, and was present at +one of Ampère's Lectures. I arrived at Cambridge on Oct. 14th. + +"On Oct. 16th Whewell mentioned to me that the Lucasian Professorship +would be immediately vacated by Turton, and encouraged me to compete +for it. Shortly afterwards Mr Higman mentioned the Professorship, and +Joshua King (of Queens') spoke on the restriction which prevented +College tutors or Assistant tutors from holding the office. About +this time Mr Peacock rendered me a very important service. As the +emolument of the Lucasian Professorship was only _£99_, and that of +the Assistant Tutorship _£150_, I had determined to withdraw from the +candidature. But Mr Peacock represented to me the advantage of +position which would be gained by obtaining the Professorship (which I +then instantly saw), and I continued to be a candidate. I wrote +letters to the Heads of Colleges (the electors) and canvassed them +personally. Only Dr Davy, the Master of Caius College, at once +promised me his vote. Dr French, Master of Jesus College, was a +candidate; and several of the Heads had promised him their votes. Mr +Babbage, the third candidate, threatened legal proceedings, and Dr +French withdrew. The course was now open for Mr Babbage and me. + +"In the meetings of the Philosophical Society a new mode of proceeding +was introduced this term. To enliven the meetings, private members +were requested to give oral lectures. Mine was the second, I think, +and I took for subject The Machinery of the Steam Engines in the +Cornish mines, and especially of the Pumping Engines and Pumps. It +made an excellent lecture: the subjects were at that time undescribed +in books, and unknown to engineers in general out of Cornwall. + +"My College lectures seem to have been, Oct. 21st to Dec. 14th to 31 +Junior Sophs, Dec. 4th to 12th to 12 Senior Sophs. I assisted at the +examinations of the Questionists. I had no private pupils. On +Nov. 26th I communicated to the Cambridge Philosophical Society a +Paper on the Theory of Pendulums, Balances, and Escapements: and I +find applications of Babbage's symbolism to an escapement which I +proposed. I have various investigations about the Earth, supposed to +project at middle latitudes above the elliptical form. In November an +account of the Dolcoath failure (by Whewell) was given to the Royal +Society. + +"At length on Dec. 7th, 1826, the election to the Lucasian +Professorship took place: I was elected (I think unanimously) and +admitted. I believe that this gave great satisfaction to the +University in general. My uncle, Arthur Biddell, was in Cambridge on +that evening, and was the first of my friends who heard of it. On the +same page of my quires on which this is mentioned, there is a great +list of apparatus to be constructed for Lucasian Lectures, notes of +experiments with Atwood's Machine, &c. In December, correspondence +with Dollond about prisms. I immediately issued a printed notice that +I would give professorial lectures in the next Term. + +"On Dec. 13th I have a letter from Mr Smith informing me of the +dangerous illness (fever) which had attacked nearly every member of +his family, Richarda worst of all. On Dec. 23rd I went to Bury. The +affairs with Cropley had been settled by the sale of his property +under execution, and my father did not lose much of his debt. But he +had declined much in body and mind, and now had strange +hallucinations. + +"The commencement of 1827 found me in a better position (not in money +but in prospects) than I had before stood in: yet it was far from +satisfactory. I had resigned my Assistant Tutorship of _£150_ per +annum together with the prospect of succeeding to a Tutorship, and +gained only the Lucasian Professorship of _£99_ per annum. I had a +great aversion to entering the Church: and my lay fellowship would +expire in 7 years. My prospects in the law or other professions might +have been good if I could have waited: but then I must have been in a +state of starvation probably for many years, and marriage would have +been out of the question: I much preferred a moderate income in no +long time, and I am sure that in this I judged rightly for my +happiness. I had now in some measure taken science as my line (though +not irrevocably), and I thought it best to work it well, for a time at +least, and wait for accidents. + +"The acceptance of the Lucasian Professorship prevented me from being +pressed by Sedgwick (who was Proctor this year) to take the office of +moderator: which was a great relief to me. As Lucasian Professor I was +ipso facto Member of the Board of Longitude. A stipend of _£100_ a +year was attached to this, on condition of attending four meetings: +but I had good reason (from intimations by South and other persons in +London) for believing that this would not last long. The fortnightly +notices of the meetings of the Board were given on Jan. 18th, +Mar. 22nd, May 24th and Oct. 18th. + +"On Jan. 2nd, 1827, I came from London to Bury. I found my father in a +very declining state (the painful rheumatism of some years had changed +to ulcerations of the legs, and he was otherwise helpless and had +distressing hallucinations). On Jan. 8th I walked to Cambridge. At +both places I was occupied in preparations for the Smith's Prize +Examination and for lectures (for the latter I obtained at Bury gaol +some numerical results about tread-mills). + +"Of the Smith's Prize I was officially an Examiner: and I determined +to begin with---what had never been done before--making the +examination public, by printing the papers of questions. The Prize is +the highest Mathematical honour in the University: the competitors are +incepting Bachelors of Arts after the examination for that Degree. My +day of examination (apparently) was Jan. 21st. The candidates were +Turner, Cankrein, Cleasby, and Mr Gordon. The first three had been my +private pupils: Mr Gordon was a Fellow-commoner of St Peter's College, +and had just passed the B.A. examination as Senior Wrangler, Turner +being second. My situation as Examiner was rather a delicate one, and +the more so as, when I came to examine the papers of answers, Turner +appeared distinctly the first. Late at night I carried the papers to +Whewell's rooms, and he on inspection agreed with me. The other +examiners (Professors Lax and Woodhouse, Lowndean and Plumian +Professors) generally supported me: and Turner had the honour of First +Smith's Prize. + +"On Jan. 30th my mother wrote, asking if I could see Cropley in +London, where he was imprisoned for contempt of Chancery. I attended +the meeting of the Board of Longitude on Feb. 1st, and afterwards +visited Cropley in the Fleet Prison. He died there, some time +later. It was by the sale of his effects under execution that my +father's debt was paid. + +"On Feb. 15th I communicated to the Royal Society a Paper on the +correction of the Solar Tables from South's observations. I believe +that I had alluded to this at the February meeting of the Board of +Longitude, and that in consequence Mr Pond, the Astronomer Royal, had +been requested to prepare the errors of the Sun's place from the +Greenwich observations: which were supplied some months later. With +the exception of South's Solar Errors, and some investigations about +dipping-needles, I do not find anything going on but matters connected +with my approaching lectures. There are bridges, trusses, and other +mechanical matters, theoretical and practical, without end. Several +tradesmen in Cambridge and London were well employed. On Feb. 13th I +have a letter from Cubitt about groins: I remember studying those of +the Custom-house and other places. On Feb. 20th my Syllabus of +Lectures was finished: this in subsequent years was greatly +improved. I applied to the Royal Society for the loan of Huyghens's +object-glass, but they declined to lend it. About this time I find +observations of the spectrum of Sirius. + +"There had been no lectures on Experimental Philosophy (Mechanics, +Hydrostatics, Optics) for many years. The University in general, I +believe, looked with great satisfaction to my vigorous beginning: +still there was considerable difficulty about it. There was no +understood term for the Lectures: no understood hour of the day: no +understood lecture room. I began this year in the Lent Term, but in +all subsequent years I took the Easter Term, mainly for the chance of +sunlight for the optical experiments, which I soon made important. I +could get no room but a private or retiring room (not a regular +lecture room) in the buildings at the old Botanic Garden: in following +years I had the room under the University Library. The Lectures +commenced on some day in February 1827: I think that the number who +attended them was about 64. I remember very well that the matter which +I had prepared as an Introductory Lecture did not last above half the +time that I had expected, but I managed very well to fill up the +hour. On another occasion I was so ill-prepared that I had +contemplated giving notice that I was unable to complete the hour's +lecture, but I saw in the front row some strangers, introduced by some +of my regular attendants, very busy in taking notes, and as it was +evident that a break-down now would not do, I silently exerted myself +to think of something, and made a very good lecture. + +"On Mar. 1st, as official examiner, I received notices from 14 +candidates for Bell's Scholarships, and prepared my Paper of +questions. I do not remember my day of examination; but I had all the +answers to all the examiners' questions in my hands, when on Mar. 27th +I received notice that my father had died the preceding evening. This +stopped my Lectures: they were concluded in the next term. I think +that I had only Mechanics and imperfect Optics this term, no +Hydrostatics; and that the resumed Lectures were principally +Optical. They terminated about May 14th. + +"With my brother I at once went to Bury to attend my father's +funeral. He was buried on Mar. 31st, 1827, in the churchyard of Little +Whelnetham, on the north side of the church. Shortly afterwards I went +to London, and on Apr. 5th I attended a meeting of the Board of +Longitude, at which Herschel produced a Paper regarding improvements +of the Nautical Almanac. Herschel and I were in fact the leaders of +the reforming party in the Board of Longitude: Dr Young the Secretary +resisted change as much as possible. After the meeting I went to +Cambridge. I find then calculations of achromatic eye-pieces for a +very nice model with silk threads of various colours which I made with +my own hands for my optical lectures. + +"On Apr. 7th Herschel wrote to me that the Professorship held by Dr +Brinkley (then appointed Bishop of Cloyne) at Dublin would be vacant, +and recommended it to my notice, and sent me some introductions. I +reached Dublin on Apr. 15th, where I was received with great kindness +by Dr Brinkley and Dr MacDonnell (afterwards Provost). I there met the +then Provost Dr Bartholomew Lloyd, Dr Lardner, Mr Hamilton (afterwards +Sir W. R. Hamilton) and others. In a few days I found that they +greatly desired to appoint Hamilton if possible (they did in fact +overcome some difficulties and appoint him in a few months), and that +they would not make such an augmentation as would induce me to offer +myself as a candidate, and I withdrew. I have always remembered with +gratitude Dr MacDonnell's conduct, in carefully putting me on a fair +footing in this matter. I returned by Holyhead, and arrived at +Birmingham on Apr. 23rd. While waiting there and looking over some +papers relating to the spherical aberration of eye-pieces, in which I +had been stopped some time by a geometrical difficulty, I did in the +coffee-room of a hotel overcome the difficulty; and this was the +foundation of a capital paper on the Spherical Aberration of +Eye-pieces. This paper was afterwards presented to the Cambridge +Philosophical Society. + +"About this time a circumstance occurred of a disagreeable nature, +which however did not much disconcert me. Mr Ivory, who had a good +many years before made himself favourably known as a mathematician, +especially by his acquaintance with Laplace's peculiar analysis, had +adopted (as not unfrequently happens) some singular hydrostatical +theories. In my last Paper on the Figure of the Earth, I had said that +I could not receive one of his equations. In the Philosophical +Magazine of May he attacked me for this with great heat. On May 8th I +wrote an answer, and I think it soon became known that I was not to be +attacked with impunity. + +"Long before this time there had been some proposal about an excursion +to the Lake District with my sister, and I now arranged to carry it +out. On May 23rd I went to Bury and on to Playford: while there I +sketched the Cumberland excursion. On June 5th I went to London, I +believe to the Visitation of the Greenwich Observatory to which I was +invited. I also attended the meeting of the Board of Longitude. I +think it was here that Pond's Errors of the Sun's place in the +Nautical Almanac from Greenwich Observations were produced. On June +7th I went by coach to Rugby, where I met my sister, and we travelled +to Edensor. We made a number of excursions in Derbyshire, and then +passed on by Penrith to Keswick, where we arrived on June 22nd. From +Keswick we made many excursions in the Lake District, visited Mr +Southey and Mr Wordsworth, descended a coal mine at Whitehaven, and +returned to Edensor by the way of Ambleside, Kendal, and Manchester. +With sundry excursions in Derbyshire our trip ended, and we returned +to Cambridge on the 21st July. + +"During this Long Vacation I had one private pupil, Crawford, the only +pupil this year, and the last that I ever had. At this time there is +on my papers an infinity of optical investigations: also a plan of an +eye-piece with a concave lens to destroy certain aberrations. On +Aug. 20th I went to Woodford to see Messrs Gilbert's optical +works. From Aug. 13th I had been preparing for the discussion of the +Greenwich Solar Errors, and I had a man at work in my rooms, engaged +on the calculation of the Errors. I wrote to Bouvard at Paris for +observations of the sun, but he recommended me to wait for the Tables +which Bessel was preparing. I was busy too about my Lectures: on +Sept. 29th I have a set of plans of printing presses from Hansard the +printer (who in a visit to Cambridge had found me making enquiries +about them), and I corresponded with Messrs Gilbert about optical +constructions, and with W. and S. Jones, Eastons, and others about +pumps, hydraulic rams, &c. On Sept. 25th occurred a very magnificent +Aurora Borealis. + +"I do not find when the investigation of Corrections of Solar Elements +was finished, or when my Extracts from Burckhardt, Connaissance des +Temps 1816, were made. But these led me to suspect an unknown +inequality in the Sun's motion. On Sept. 27th and 28th I find the +first suspicions of an inequality depending on 8 × mean longitude of +Venus--13 × mean longitude of Earth. The thing appeared so promising +that I commenced the investigation of the perturbation related to this +term, and continued it (a very laborious work) as fast as I was able, +though with various interruptions, which in fact were necessary to +keep up my spirits. On Oct. 30th I went to London for the Board of +Longitude meeting. Here I exhibited the results of my Sun +investigations, and urged the correction of the elements used in the +Nautical Almanac. Dr Young objected, and proposed that Bouvard should +be consulted. Professor Woodhouse, the Plumian Professor, was present, +and behaved so captiously that some members met afterwards to consider +how order could be maintained. I believe it was during this visit to +London that I took measures of Hammersmith Suspension Bridge for an +intended Lecture-model. Frequently, but not always, when in London, I +resided at the house of Mr Sheepshanks and his sister Miss +Sheepshanks, 30 Woburn Place. My quires, at this time, abound with +suggestions for lectures and examinations. + +"On some day about the end of November or beginning of December 1827, +when I was walking with Mr Peacock near the outside gate of the +Trinity Walks, on some mention of Woodhouse, the Plumian Professor, Mr +Peacock said that he was never likely to rise into activity again (or +using some expression importing mortal illness). Instantly there had +passed through my mind the certainty of my succeeding him, the good +position in which I stood towards the University, the probability of +that position being improved by improved lectures, &c., &c., and by +increased reputation from the matters in which I was now engaged, the +power of thus commanding an increase of income. I should then have, +independent of my Fellowship, some competent income, and a house over +my head. I was quite aware that some time might elapse, but now for +the first time I saw my way clearly. The care of the Observatory had +been for two or three years attached to the Plumian Professorship. A +Grace was immediately prepared, entrusting the temporary care of the +Observatory to Dr French, to me, Mr Catton, Mr Sheepshanks, and Mr +King (afterwards Master of Queens' College). On Dec. 6th I have a note +from Mr King about going to the Observatory. + +"On Dec. 6th my Paper on corrections of the elements of the Solar +Tables was presented to the Royal Society. On Dec. 9th, at 1 h. 4 +m. a.m. (Sunday morning), I arrived at the result of my calculations +of the new inequality. I had gone through some fluctuations of +feeling. Usually the important part of an inequality of this kind +depends entirely on the eccentricities of the orbits, but it so +happened that from the positions of the axes of the orbits, &c., these +terms very nearly destroyed each other. After this came the +consideration of inclinations of orbits; and here were sensible terms +which were not destroyed. Finally I arrived at the result that the +inequality would be about 3"; just such a magnitude as was required. I +slipped this into Whewell's door. This is, to the time of writing +(1853), the last improvement of any importance in the Solar +Theory. Some little remaining work went on to Dec. 14th, and then, +being thoroughly tired, I laid by the work for revision at some future +time. I however added a Postscript to my Royal Society Paper on Solar +Errors, notifying this result. + +"On Dec. 19th I went to Bury. While there I heard from Whewell that +Woodhouse was dead. I returned to Cambridge and immediately made known +that I was a candidate for the now vacant Plumian Professorship. Of +miscellaneous scientific business, I find that on Oct. 13th Professor +Barlow of Woolwich prepared a memorial to the Board of Longitude +concerning his fluid telescope (which I had seen at Woodford), which +was considered on Nov. 1st, and I had some correspondence with him in +December. In June and August my Trigonometry was printing. + +"On Jan. 5th, 1828, I came from London. It seems that I had been +speculating truly 'without book' on perturbations of planetary +elements, for on Jan. 17th and 18th I wrote a Paper on a supposed +error of Laplace, and just at the end I discovered that he was quite +right: I folded up the Paper and marked it 'A Lesson.' I set two +papers of questions for Smith's Prizes (there being a deficiency of +one Examiner, viz. the Plumian Professor). + +"Before the beginning of 1828 Whewell and I had determined on +repeating the Dolcoath experiments. On Jan. 8th I have a letter from +Davies Gilbert (then President of the Royal Society) congratulating me +upon the Solar Theory, and alluding to our intended summer's visit to +Cornwall. We had somehow applied to the Board of Longitude for +pendulums, but Dr Young wished to delay them, having with Capt. Basil +Hall concocted a scheme for making Lieut. Foster do all the work: +Whewell and I were indignant at this, and no more was said about +it. On Jan. 24th Dr Young, in giving notice of the Board of Longitude +meeting, informs me that the clocks and pendulums are ready. + +"I had made known that I was a candidate for the Plumian +Professorship, and nobody thought it worth while to oppose me. One +person at least (Earnshaw) had intended to compete, but he called on +me to make certain that I was a candidate, and immediately withdrew. I +went on in quality of Syndic for the care of the Observatory, +ingrafting myself into it. But meantime I told everybody that the +salary (about _£300_) was not sufficient for me; and on Jan. 20th I +drafted a manifesto or application to the University for an increase +of salary. The day of election to the Professorship was Feb. 6th. As I +was officially (as Lucasian Professor) an elector, I was present, and +I explained to the electors that I could not undertake the +responsibility of the Observatory without augmentation of income, and +that I requested their express sanction to my application to the +University for that purpose. They agreed to this generally, and I was +elected. I went to London immediately to attend a meeting of the +Board of Longitude and returned on Feb. 8th. On Feb. 15th I began my +Lectures (which, this year, included Mechanics, Optics, Pneumatics, +and Hydrostatics) in the room below the University Library. The number +of names was 26. The Lectures terminated on Mar. 22nd. + +"On Feb. 25th I received from Mr Pond information on the emoluments at +Greenwich Observatory. I drew up a second manifesto, and on Feb. 26th +I wrote and signed a formal copy for the Plumian electors. On +Feb. 27th I met them at Caius Lodge (the Master, Dr Davy, being +Vice-Chancellor). I read my Paper, which was approved, and their +sanction was given in the form of a request to the Vice-Chancellor to +permit the paper to be printed and circulated. My paper, with this +request at the head, was immediately printed, and a copy was sent to +every resident M.A. (more than 200 went out in one day). The statement +and composition of the paper were generally approved, but the +University had never before been taken by storm in such a manner, and +there was some commotion about it. I believe that very few persons +would have taken the same step. Mr Sheepshanks wrote to me on +Mar. 7th, intimating that it was desperate. I had no doubt of +success. Whewell told me that some people accused me of bad faith, in +omitting allusion to the _£100_ a year received as Member of the Board +of Longitude, and to the profits of Lectures. I wrote him a note, +telling him that I had most certain information of the intention to +dissolve the Board of Longitude (which was done in less than six +months), and that by two years' Lectures I had gained _£45_ (the +expenses being _£200_, receipts _£245_). This letter was sent to the +complaining people, and no more was said. By the activity of +Sheepshanks and the kindness of Dr Davy the business gradually grew +into shape, and on Mar. 21st a Grace passed the Senate for appointing +a Syndicate to consider of augmentation. Sheepshanks was one of the +Syndicate, and was understood to represent, in some measure, my +interests. The progress of the Syndicate however was by no means a +straightforward one. Members of the Senate soon began to remark that +before giving anything they ought to know the amount of the University +revenue, and another Syndicate was then appointed to enquire and +report upon it. It was more than a year before my Syndicate could +make their recommendation: however, in fact, I lost nothing by that +delay, as I was rising in the estimation of the University. The +Observatory house was furnished, partly from Woodhouse's sale, and +partly from new furniture. My mother and sister came to live with me +there. On Mar. 15th 1828 I began the Observatory Journal; on Mar. 27th +I slept at the Observatory for the first time, and on Apr. 15th I came +to reside there permanently, and gave up my college rooms." + + + + CHAPTER IV. + + AT CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY. FROM HIS TAKING + CHARGE OF THE CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY TO HIS + RESIDENCE AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY AS ASTRONOMER + ROYAL. + + FROM MARCH 15TH 1828 TO JAN. 1ST 1836. + + + 1828 + +"I attended a meeting of the Board of Longitude on Apr. 3rd. And +again on June 4th; this was the last meeting: Sheepshanks had +previously given me private information of the certainty of its +dissolution.--On Apr. 4th I visited Mr Herschel at Slough, where one +evening I saw Saturn with his 20-foot telescope, the best view of it +that I have ever had.--In June I attended the Greenwich Observatory +Visitation.--Before my election (as Plumian Professor) there are +various schemes on my quires for computation of transit corrections, +&c. After Apr. 15th there are corrections for deficient wires, +inequality of pivots, &c. And I began a book of proposed regulations +for observations. In this are plans for groups of stars for R.A. (the +Transit Instrument being the only one finished): order of preference +of classes of observations: no reductions to be made after dinner, or +on Sunday: no loose papers: observations to be stopped if reductions +are two months in arrear: stars selected for parallax.--The reduction +of transits begins on Apr. 15th. On May 15th Mr Pond sent me some +moon-transits to aid in determining my longitude.--Dr Young, in a +letter to me of May 7th, enquires whether I will accept a free +admission to the Royal Society, which I declined. On May 9th I was +elected to the Astronomical Society.--Towards the end of the year I +observed Encke's Comet: and determined the latitude of the Observatory +with Sheepshanks's repeating circle.--On my papers I find a sketch of +an Article on the Figure of the Earth for the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana. + +"As early as Feb. 23rd I had been in correspondence with T. Jones, the +instrument-maker, about pendulums for a repetition of the Dolcoath +Experiments. Invitations had been received, and everything was +arranged with Whewell. Sheepshanks, my brother, and Mr Jackson of +Ipswich (Caius Coll.) were to go, and we were subsequently joined by +Sedgwick, and Lodge (Magdalene Coll.). On July 3rd Sheepshanks and I +started by Salisbury, taking Sherborne on our way to look at the +church, which had alarmed the people by signs of a crack, and arrived +at Camborne on July 8th. On the 14th we set up the pendulums, and at +once commenced observations, our plan being, to have no intermission +in the pendulum observations, so that as soon as the arc became too +small a fresh series was started. On July 29th we raised the +instruments, and Sheepshanks, who managed much of the upper +operations, both astronomical and of pendulums, mounted the pendulums +together in his observatory. We went on with our calculations, and on +August 8th, on returning from a visit to John Williams at Barncoose, +we heard that there was a 'run' in Dolcoath, that is a sinking of the +whole mass of rock where it had been set free by the mine excavations: +probably only a few inches, but enough to break the rock much and to +stop the pumps. On Aug. 10th the calculations of our observations +shewed that there was something wrong, and on the 13th I perceived an +anomaly in the form of the knife edge of one pendulum, and of its +agate planes, and suggested cautions for repeating the observations. +We determined at once to repeat them: and as the water was rising in +the mine there was no time to be lost. We again sent the instruments +down, and made observations on the 16th, 17th and 18th. On the 19th I +sent the instruments up, for the water was near our station, and +Sedgwick, Whewell, and I went on a geological expedition to the +Lizard. On our return we met Sheepshanks and the others, and found the +results of the last observations unsatisfactory. The results of +comparing the pendulums were discordant, and the knife edge of the +faulty pendulum had very sensibly altered. We now gave up +observations, with the feeling that our time had been totally lost, +mainly through the fault of the maker of the pendulum (T. Jones). On +the 28th we made an expedition to Penzance and other places, and +arrived at Cambridge on the 17th of September. + +"In the course of the work at Dolcoath we made various expeditions as +opportunity offered. Thus we walked to Carn Brea and witnessed the +wrestling, the common game of the country. On another occasion +Sedgwick, Whewell, and I had a capital geological expedition to +Trewavas Head to examine granite veins. We visited at Pendarves and +Trevince, and made the expedition to the Lizard already referred to, +and saw many of the sights in the neighbourhood. After visiting +Penzance on the conclusion of our work we saw Cape Cornwall (where +Whewell overturned me in a gig), and returned homewards by way of +Truro, Plymouth (where we saw the watering-place and breakwater: also +the Dockyard, and descended in one of the working diving-bells), +Exeter, Salisbury, and Portsmouth. In returning from Camborne in 1826 +I lost the principal of our papers. It was an odd thing that, in going +through Exeter on our way to Camborne in 1828, I found them complete +at Exeter, identified to the custodian by the dropping out of a letter +with my address. + +"On my return to Cambridge I was immediately immersed in the work of +the Observatory. The only instrument then mounted at the Observatory +was the Transit. I had no Assistant whatever.--A Mr Galbraith of +Edinburgh had questioned something in one of my Papers about the +Figure of the Earth. I drew up a rather formal answer to it: Whewell +saw my draft and drew up a much more pithy one, which I adopted and +sent to the Philosophical Magazine.--For comparing our clocks at the +upper and lower stations of Dolcoath we had borrowed from the Royal +Observatory, Greenwich, six good pocket chronometers: they were still +in the care of Mr Sheepshanks. I arranged with him that they should be +sent backwards and forwards a few times for determining the longitude +of Cambridge Observatory. This was done on Oct. 21st, 22nd, 23rd: the +result was 23°54, and this has been used to the present time +(1853). It evinced an error in the Trigonometrical Survey, the origin +of which was found, I think, afterwards (Dr Pearson in a letter of +Dec. 17th spoke of the mistake of a may-pole for a signal-staff). I +drew up a Paper on this, and gave it to the Cambridge Philosophical +Society on Nov. 24th. (My only academical Paper this year.)--I had +several letters from Dr Young, partly supplying me with calculations +that I wanted, partly on reform or extension of the Nautical Almanac +(which Dr Young resisted as much as possible). He considered me very +unfairly treated in the dissolution of the Board of Longitude: +Professor Lax wished me to join in some effort for its restoration, +but I declined. + +"As my reduction of observations was kept quite close, I now began to +think of printing. In regard to the form I determined to adopt a plan +totally different from that of any other observations which I had +seen. The results were to be the important things: I was desirous of +suppressing the separate wires of transits. But upon consulting +Herschel and other persons they would not agree to it, and I assented +to keeping them. I applied to the Press Syndicate to print the work, +and on Nov. 10th at the request of T. Musgrave (afterwards Archbishop +of York) I sent a specimen of my MS.: on Nov. 11th they granted 250 +copies, and the printing soon commenced." + + + 1829 + +"During a winter holiday at Playford I wrote out some investigations +about the orbits of comets, and on Jan. 23rd 1829 I returned to +Cambridge. The Smith's Prize Examination soon followed, in which I set +a Paper of questions as usual. On Feb. 18th I made notes on +Liesganig's geodetic work at the British Museum. + +"I was naturally anxious now about the settlement of my salary and of +the Observatory establishment. I do not know when the Syndicate made +their Report, but it must have been in the last term of 1828. It +recommended that the salary should be annually made up (by Grace) to +_£500_: that an Assistant should be appointed with the assent of the +Vice-Chancellor and dismissable by the Plumian Professor: and that a +Visiting Syndicate should be appointed, partly official and partly of +persons to be named every year by Grace. The Grace for adopting this +Report was to be offered to the Senate on Feb. 27th. The passing of +the Grace was exposed to two considerable perils. First, I found out +(just in time) that a Senior Fellow of Trinity (G.A. Browne) was +determined to oppose the whole, on account of the insignificant clause +regarding dismissal of Assistants, which he regarded as tyrannical. I +at once undertook that that clause should be rejected. Secondly, by +the absurd constitution of the 'Caput' at Cambridge, a single M.A. had +the power of stopping any business whatever, and an M.A. actually +came to the Senate House with the intention of throwing out all the +Graces on various business that day presented to the Senate. Luckily +he mistook the hour, and came at 11 instead of 10, and found that all +were dispatched. The important parts of the Grace passed without any +opposition: but I mustered some friends who negatived that part which +had alarmed G.A. Browne, and it was corrected to his satisfaction by a +new Grace on Mar. 18th. I was now almost set at rest on one of the +great objects of my life: but not quite. I did not regard, and I +determined not to regard, the addition to my salary as absolutely +certain until a payment had been actually made to me: and I carefully +abstained, for the present, from taking any steps based upon it. I +found for Assistant at the Observatory an old Lieutenant of the Royal +Navy, Mr Baldrey, who came on Mar. 16. + +"On May 4th I began lectures: there were 32 names. The Lectures were +improving, especially in the optical part. I do not find note of the +day of termination.--I do not know the actual day of publication of my +first small volume of Cambridge Observations, 1828, and of +circulation. The date of the preface is Apr. 27th 1829. I have letters +of approval of it from Davies Gilbert, Rigaud, and Lax. The system +which I endeavoured to introduce into printed astronomical +observations was partially introduced into this volume, and was +steadily improved in subsequent volumes. I think that I am justified, +by letters and other remarks, in believing that this introduction of +an orderly system of exhibition, not merely of observations but of the +steps for bringing them to a practical result--quite a novelty in +astronomical publications--had a markedly good effect on European +astronomy in general.--In Feb. and March I have letters from Young +about the Nautical Almanac: he was unwilling to make any great change, +but glad to receive any small assistance. South, who had been keeping +up a series of attacks on Young, wrote to me to enquire how I stood in +engagements of assistance to Young: I replied that I should assist +Young whenever he asked me, and that I disapproved of South's +course.--The date of the first visitation of the (Cambridge) +Observatory must have been near May 11th: I invited South and Baily to +my house; South and I were very near quarrelling about the treatment +of Young.--In a few days after Dr Young died: I applied to Lord +Melville for the superintendence of the Nautical Almanac: Mr Croker +replied that it devolved legally upon the Astronomer Royal, and on May +30th Pond wrote to ask my assistance when I could give any. On June +6th I was invited to the Greenwich Visitation, to which I believe I +went on the 10th. + +"I had long desired to see Switzerland, and I wished now to see some +of the Continental Observatories. I was therefore glad to arrange with +Mr Lodge, of Magdalene College (perhaps 10 years senior to myself), to +make a little tour. Capt. W.H. Smyth and others gave me +introductions. I met Lodge in London, and we started for Calais on +July 27th 1829. We visited a number of towns in Belgium (at Brussels I +saw the beginning of the Observatory with Quetelet), and passed by +Cologne, Frankfort, Fribourg, and Basle to Zurich. Thus far we had +travelled by diligence or posting: we now procured a guide, and +travelled generally on foot. From the 13th to the 31st August we +travelled diligently through the well-known mountainous parts of +Switzerland and arrived at Geneva on the 31st August. Here I saw +M. Gautier, M. Gambard, and the beginning of the Observatory. Mr +Lodge was now compelled to return to Cambridge, and I proceeded alone +by Chambéry to Turin, where I made the acquaintance of M. Plana and +saw the Observatory. I then made a tour through north Italy, looking +over the Observatories at Milan, Padua, Bologna, and Florence. At +Leghorn I took a passage for Marseille in a xebeque, but after sailing +for three days the weather proved very unfavourable, and I landed at +Spezia and proceeded by Genoa and the Cornici Road to Marseille. At +Marseille I saw M. Gambart and the Observatory, and passed by Avignon, +Lyons, and Nevers to Orléans, where I visited my old host +M. Legarde. Thence by Paris, Beauvais, and Calais to London and +Cambridge, where I arrived on the 30th October. I had started with +more than _£140_ and returned with _2s. 6d_. The expedition was in +many ways invaluable to me. + +"On my return I found various letters from scientific men: some +approving of my method for the mass of the Moon: some approving highly +of my printed observations, especially D. Gilbert, who informed me +that they had produced good effect (I believe at Greenwich), and +Herschel.--On Nov. 13th I gave the Royal Astronomical Society a Paper +about deducing the mass of the Moon from observations of Venus: on +Nov. 16th a Paper to the Cambridge Philosophical Society on a +correction to the length of a ball-pendulum: and on Dec. 14th a Paper +on certain conditions under which perpetual motion is possible.--The +engravings for my Figure of the Earth in the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana were dispatched at the end of the year. Some of the +Paper (perhaps much) was written after my return from the +Continent.--I began, but never finished, a Paper on the form of the +Earth supposed to be projecting at middle latitudes. In this I refer +to the printed Paper which Nicollet gave me at Paris. I believe that +the investigations for my Paper in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana led +me to think the supposition unnecessary.--On Nov. 6th I was elected +member of the Geological Society. + +"On Nov. 16th 1829 notice was given of a Grace to authorize payment to +me of _£157. 9s. 1d._, in conformity with the regulations adopted on +Feb. 27th, and on Nov. 18th the Grace passed the Senate. On Nov. 19th +the Vice-Chancellor wrote me a note enclosing the cheque. On Nov. 23rd +(practically the first day on which I could go) I went to London and +travelled to Edensor, where I arrived on the 26th. Here I found +Richarda Smith, proposed to her, and was accepted. I stayed there a +few days, and returned to Cambridge." + + + 1830 + +"On Jan. 25th 1830 the Smith's Prize Paper was prepared. I was (with +my Assistant, Mr Baldrey) vigorously working the Transit Instrument +and its reductions, and gradually forming a course of proceeding which +has had a good effect on European Astronomy. And I was preparing for +my marriage. + +"On Mar. 11th I started with my sister to London, and arrived at +Edensor on the afternoon of the 14th. On the 17th I started alone for +Manchester and Liverpool. Through Mr Mason, a cotton-spinner at +Calver, near Edensor, I had become acquainted with Mr John Kennedy of +Manchester, and I had since 1824 been acquainted with Dr Traill of +Liverpool. Amongst other things, I saw the works of the Manchester and +Liverpool Railway, then advancing and exciting great interest, and saw +George Stephenson and his son. On Mar. 24th I was married to Richarda +Smith by her father in Edensor. We stopped at Edensor till Apr. 1st, +and then started in chaises by way of Newark and Kettering (where we +were in danger of being stopped by the snow), and arrived at Cambridge +on Apr. 3rd. + +"I was now busy in preparing for lectures, especially the part of the +optical lectures which related to the theory of interferences and +polarization. I think it was now that my wife drew some of my lecture +pictures, exhibiting interference phenomena. My lectures began on +Apr. 26th and finished on May 24th. The number of names was 50. They +were considered an excellent course of lectures. + +"May 9th is the date of my Preface to the 1829 Observations: all was +then printed. Apparently I did not go to the Visitation of the +Greenwich Observatory this year.--I was at this time pressing Tulley, +the optician, about an object-glass for the Mural Circle.--A new +edition of my 'Tracts' was wanted, and I prepared to add a Tract on +the Undulatory Theory of Light in its utmost extent. The Syndicate of +the University Press intimated through Dr Turton that they could not +assist me (regarding the book as a second edition). On July 10th I +have some negociation about it with Deighton the bookseller.--On May +18th I have a note from Whewell about a number of crystals of +plagiedral quartz, in which he was to observe the crystalline +indication, and I the optical phenomena.--The Report of the Syndicate +for visiting the Observatory is dated June 18th: it is highly +laudatory.--The Proctor (Barnard of King's College) requested me to +name the Moderator for the next B.A. Examination: I named Mr Challis. + +"On June 14th my wife and I went, in company with Professor and Mrs +Henslow, to London and Oxford; at Oxford we were received in +Christchurch College by Dr and Mrs Buckland. My wife and I then went +to Bedford to visit Capt. and Mrs Smyth, and returned to Cambridge on +the 23rd. On July 5th we went on a visit to my mother and uncle at +Playford. While there I took a drive with my uncle into some parts +near the valley of the Gipping, in which I thought that the extent of +the chalk was inadequately exhibited on Greenough's map, and +communicated my remarks to Buckland. + +"I find letters from Dr Robinson and Col. Colby about determining +longitudes of certain observatories by fire signals: I proposed +chronometers as preferable. Also from Herschel, approving of my second +volume of observations: and from F. Baily, disclaiming the origination +of the attack on the old Nautical Almanac (with which I suppose I had +reproached him). On July 30th I received a summons from South to a +committee for improving the Nautical Almanac; and subsequently a +letter from Baily about Schumacher's taking offence at a passage of +mine in the Cambridge Observations, on the comparative merits of +Ephemerides, which I afterwards explained to his satisfaction. + +"On Aug. 24th my wife and I started for Edensor, and after a short +stay there proceeded by Manchester to Cumberland, where we made many +excursions. We returned by Edensor, and reached Cambridge on Oct. 6th, +bringing my wife's sister Susanna on a visit. My mother had +determined, as soon as my intention of marriage was known to her, to +quit the house, although always (even to her death) entertaining the +most friendly feelings and fondness for my wife. It was also judged +best by us all that my sister should not reside with us as a settled +inhabitant of the house. They fixed themselves therefore at Playford +in the farm-house of the Luck's Farm, then in the occupation of my +uncle Arthur Biddell. On Oct. 21st I have a letter from my sister +saying that they were comfortably settled there. + +"In this month of October (principally, I believe) I made some capital +Experiments on Quartz, which were treated mathematically in a Paper +communicated in the next year to the Cambridge Philosophical +Society. In some of these my wife assisted me, and also drew +pictures.--On Nov. 15th the Grace for paying me _£198. 13s. 8d._ to +make my income up to _£500_ passed the Senate.--I made three journeys +to London to attend committees, one a committee on the Nautical +Almanac, and one a Royal Society Committee about two southern +observatories.--On Dec. 31st I have a letter from Maclear (medical +practitioner and astronomer at Biggleswade) about occultations.--In +this December I had a quartz object-glass by Cauchaix mounted by +Dollond, and presented it to the Observatory.--In this December +occurred the alarm from agrarian fires. There was a very large fire at +Coton, about a mile from the Observatory. This created the most +extraordinary panic that I ever saw. I do not think it is possible, +without having witnessed it, to conceive the state of men's minds. The +gownsmen were all armed with bludgeons, and put under a rude +discipline for a few days." + + + 1831 + +"On Jan. 4th I went with my wife, first to Miss Sheepshanks in London, +at 30, Woburn Place, and next to the house of my wife's old friend, +the Rev. John Courtney, at Sanderstead, near Croydon. I came to London +on one day to attend a meeting of the new Board of Visitors of the +Greenwich Observatory. Formerly the Board of Visitors consisted of the +Council of the Royal Society with persons invited by them (in which +capacity I had often attended). But a reforming party, of which +South, Babbage, Baily and Beaufort were prominent members, had induced +the Admiralty to constitute a new Board, of which the Plumian +Professor was a member. Mr Pond, the Astronomer Royal, was in a rather +feeble state, and South seemed determined to bear him down: +Sheepshanks and I did our best to support him. (I have various letters +from Sheepshanks to this purpose.)--On Jan. 22nd we returned to +Cambridge, and I set an Examination Paper for Smith's Prizes as +usual.--On Jan. 30th I have a letter from Herschel about improving +the arrangement of Pond's Observations. I believe that much of this +zeal arose from the example of the Cambridge Observations. + +"On Feb. 21st my Paper 'On the nature of the light in the two rays of +Quartz' was communicated to the Philosophical Society: a capital piece +of deductive optics. On Mar. 2nd I went to London, I suppose to +attend the Board of Visitors (which met frequently, for the proposed +reform of Pond's Observations, &c.). As I returned on the outside of +the coach there occurred to me a very remarkable deduction from my +ideas about the rays of Quartz, which I soon tried with success, and +it is printed as an Appendix to the Paper above mentioned. On Mar. 6th +my son George Richard was born." + +Miscellaneous matters in the first half of this year are as follows: + +"Faraday sends me a piece of glass for Amici (he had sent me a piece +before).--On Apr. 9th I dispatched the Preface of my 1830 +Observations: this implies that all was printed.--On Apr. 18th I began +my Lectures and finished on May 24th. There were 49 names. A very good +series of lectures.--I think it was immediately after this, at the +Visitation of the Cambridge Observatory, that F. Baily and Lieut. +Stratford were present, and that Sheepshanks went to Tharfield on the +Royston Downs to fire powder signals to be seen at Biggleswade (by +Maclear) and at Bedford (by Capt. Smyth) as well as by us at +Cambridge.--On May 14th I received _£100_ for my article on the Figure +of the Earth from Baldwin the publisher of the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana.--I attended the Greenwich Visitation on June 3rd.--On +June 30th the Observatory Syndicate made their report: satisfactory. + +"On July 6th 1831 I started with my wife and infant son for Edensor, +and went on alone to Liverpool. I left for Dublin on the day on which +the loss of the 'Rothsay Castle' was telegraphed, and had a bad +voyage, which made me ill during my whole absence. After a little stay +in Dublin I went to Armagh to visit Dr Robinson, and thence to +Coleraine and the Giant's Causeway, returning by Belfast and Dublin to +Edensor. We returned to Cambridge on Sept. 9th. + +"Up to this time the Observatory was furnished with only one large +instrument, namely the 10-foot Transit. On Feb. 24th of this year I +had received from Thomas Jones (62, Charing Cross) a sketch of the +stone pier for mounting the Equatoreal which he was commissioned to +make: and the pier was prepared in the spring or summer. On Sept. 20th +part of the instrument was sent to the Observatory; other parts +followed, and Jones himself came to mount it. On Sept. 16th I received +Simms's assurance that he was hastening the Mural Circle.--In this +autumn I seriously took up the recalculation of my Long Inequality of +Venus and the Earth, and worked through it independently; thus +correcting two errors. On Nov. 10th I went to Slough, to put my Paper +in the hands of Mr Herschel for communication to the Royal +Society. The Paper was read on Nov. 24th.--This was the year of the +first Meeting of the British Association at York. The next year's +meeting was to be at Oxford, and on Oct. 17th I received from the +Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt an invitation to supply a Report on Astronomy, +which I undertook: it employed me much of the winter, and the +succeeding spring and summer.--The second edition of my Tracts was +ready in October. It contained, besides what was in the first edition, +the Planetary Theory, and the Undulatory Theory of Light. The Profit +was _£80_.--On Nov. 14th I presented to the Cambridge Philosophical +Society a Paper 'On a remarkable modification of Newton's Rings': a +pretty good Paper.--In November the Copley Medal was awarded to me by +the Royal Society for my advances in Optics.--Amongst miscellaneous +matters I was engaged in correspondence with Col. Colby and +Capt. Portlock about the Irish Triangulation and its calculation. Also +with the Admiralty on the form of publication of the Greenwich and +Cape Observations." + + + 1832 + +"In January my Examination Paper for Smith's Prizes was prepared as +usual.--Two matters (in addition to the daily routine of Observatory +work) occupied me at the beginning of this year. One was the +translation of Encke's Paper in successive numbers of the +Astronomische Nachrichten concerning Encke's Comet; the University +Press printed this gratuitously, and I distributed copies, partly by +the aid of Capt. Beaufort.--The other was the Report on Astronomy for +the British Association, which required much labour. My reading for +it was principally in the University Library (possibly some in +London), but I borrowed some books from F. Baily, and I wrote to +Capt. Beaufort about the possible repetition of Lacaille's Meridian +Arc at the Cape of Good Hope. The Report appears to have been finished +on May 2nd.--At this time the Reform Bill was under discussion, and +one letter written by me (probably at Sheepshanks's request) addressed +I think to Mr Drummond, Lord Althorp's secretary, was read in the +House of Commons. + +"Optics were not neglected. I have some correspondence with Brewster +and Faraday. On Mar. 5th I gave the Cambridge Philosophical Society a +Paper 'On a new Analyzer,' and on Mar. 19th one 'On Newton's Rings +between two substances of different refractive powers,' both Papers +satisfactory to myself.--On the death of Mr F. Fallows, astronomer at +the Cape of Good Hope Observatory, the Admiralty appointed Mr +Henderson, an Edinburgh lawyer, who had done some little things in +astronomical calculation. On Jan. 10th I discussed with him +observations to be made, and drew up his Official Instructions which +were sent on Jan. 10th.--On Feb. 16th Sir James South writes that +Encke's Comet is seen: also that with his 12-inch achromatic, +purchased at Paris, and which he was preparing to mount equatoreally, +he had seen the disk of Aldebaran apparently bisected by the Moon's +limb.--Capt. Beaufort and D. Gilbert write in March about instructions +to Dunlop, the astronomer at Paramatta. I sent a draft to +Capt. Beaufort on Apr. 27th. + +"The Preface to my 1831 Observations is dated Mar. 20th. The +distribution of the book would be a few weeks later.--On May 7th I +began my Lectures: 51 names: I finished on May 29th.--The mounting of +the Equatoreal was finished some time before the Syndicate Visitation +at the end of May, but Jones's charge appeared to be exorbitant: I +believe it was paid at last, but it was considered unfair.--On June +2nd I went to London: I presume to the Greenwich Visitation.--I went +to Oxford to the meeting of the British Association (lodging I think +with Prof. Rigaud at the Observatory) on June 16th, and read part of +my Report on Astronomy in the Theatre. + +"On June 26th I started with my wife for the Highlands of +Scotland. After a short stay at Edensor, we went by Carlisle to +Glasgow, and through the Lake District to Inverness. Thence by +Auchnanault to Balmacarra, where we were received by Mr +Lillingstone. After an expedition in Skye, we returned to Balmacarra, +and passed on to Invermoriston, where we were received by Grant of +Glenmoriston. We then went to Fort William and Oban, and crossed over +to Mull, where we were received by Maclean of Loch Buy. We returned to +Oban and on to Edinburgh, where we made a short stay. Then to Melrose, +where we were received by Sir D. Brewster, and by Edensor to +Cambridge, where we arrived on Sept. 17th. + +"I received (at Edinburgh I believe) a letter from Arago, writing for +the plans of our observing-room shutters.--Mr Vernon Harcourt wrote +deprecating the tone of my Report on Astronomy as related to English +Astronomers, but I refused to alter a word.--Sheepshanks wrote in +September in great anxiety about the Cambridge Circle, for which he +thought the pier ought to be raised: I would have no such thing, and +arranged it much more conveniently by means of a pit. On Oct. 9th +Simms says that he will come with the circle immediately, and Jones on +Sept. 29th says that he will make some alteration in the equatoreal: +thus there was at last a prospect of furnishing the Observatory +properly.--On Oct. 9th, I have Encke's thanks for the translation of +the Comet Paper.--One of the desiderata which I had pointed out in my +Report on Astronomy was the determination of the mass of Jupiter by +elongations of the 4th satellite: and as the Equatoreal of the +Cambridge Observatory was on the point of coming into use, I +determined to employ it for this purpose. It was necessary for the +reduction of the observations that I should prepare Tables of the +motion of Jupiter's 4th Satellite in a form applicable to computations +of differences of right-ascension. The date of my Tables is Oct. 3rd, +1832.--In October the Observatory Syndicate made their Report: quite +satisfactory. + +"On Oct. 20th Sheepshanks wrote asking my assistance in the Penny +Cyclopaedia: I did afterwards write 'Gravitation' and 'Greenwich.' +--Capt. Beaufort wrote in November to ask my opinion on the +Preface to an edition of Groombridge's Catalogue which had been +prepared by H. Taylor: Sheepshanks also wrote; he had objected to +it. This was the beginning of an affair which afterwards gave me great +labour.--Vernon Harcourt writes, much offended at some terms which I +had used in reference to an office in the British Association. + +"The Equatoreal mounting which Troughton and Simms had been preparing +for Sir James South's large telescope had not entirely succeeded. I +have various letters at this time from Sheepshanks and Simms, relating +to the disposition which Sir James South shewed to resist every claim +till compelled by law to pay it.--A general election of Members of +Parliament was now coming on: Mr Lubbock was candidate for the +University. On Nov. 27th I had a letter from Sedgwick requesting me to +write a letter in the newspapers in favour of Lubbock; which I did. On +Dec. 7th I have notice of the County voting at Newmarket on Dec. 18th +and 19th: I walked there to vote for Townley; he lost the election by +two or three votes in several thousands. + +"The Mural Circle was now nearly ready in all respects, and it was +known that another Assistant would be required. Mr Richardson (one of +the Assistants of Greenwich Observatory) and Mr Simms recommended to +me Mr Glaisher, who was soon after appointed, and subsequently became +an Assistant at Greenwich.--On Dec. 24th I have a letter from Bessel +(the first I believe). I think that I had written to him about a +general reduction of the Greenwich Planetary Observations, using his +Tabulae Regiomontanae as basis, and that this was his reply approving +of it." + + + 1833 + +"On Jan. 4th 1833 my daughter Elizabeth was born.--I prepared an +examination paper for Smith's Prizes as usual.--On Jan. 5th I received +notice from Simms that he had received payment (_£1050_) for the Mural +Circle from the Vice-Chancellor. About this time the Circle was +completely made serviceable, and I (with Mr Glaisher as Assistant) +immediately began its use. A puzzling apparent defect in the circle +(exhibiting itself by the discordance of zenith points obtained by +reflection observations on opposite sides of the zenith) shewed itself +very early. On Feb. 4th I have letters about it from Sheepshanks and +Simms.--On Jan. 17th I received notice from F. Baily that the +Astronomical Society had awarded me their Medal for my long inequality +of Venus and the Earth: on Feb. 7th I went to London, I suppose to +receive the Medal.--I also inspected Sir J. South's telescope, then +becoming a matter of litigation, and visited Mr Herschel at Slough: on +Feb. 12th I wrote to Sir J. South about the support of the +instrument, hoping to remove one of the difficulties in the +litigation; but it produced no effect.--Herschel wrote to me, from +Poisson, that Pontécoulant had verified my Long Inequality. + +"Mar. 12th is the date of the Preface to my 1832 volume of +Observations: it was of course distributed a few weeks later.--In my +Report on Astronomy I had indicated the Mass of Jupiter as a subject +requiring fresh investigation. During the last winter I had well +employed the Equatoreal in observing elongations in R.A. of the 4th +Satellite. To make these available it was necessary to work up the +theory carefully, in which I discovered some remarkable errors of +Laplace. Some of these, for verification, I submitted to Mr Lubbock, +who entirely agreed with me. The date of my first calculations of the +Mass of Jupiter is Mar. 1st: and shortly after that I gave an oral +account of them to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The date of my +Paper for the Astronomical Society is April 12th. The result of my +investigations (which was subsequently confirmed by Bessel) entirely +removed the difficulty among Astronomers; and the mass which I +obtained has ever since been received as the true one. + +"On Apr. 9th my wife's two sisters, Elizabeth and Georgiana Smith, +came to stay with me.--On Apr. 22nd I began lectures, and finished on +May 21st: there were 54 names. During the course of the lectures I +communicated a Paper to the Philosophical Society 'On the calculation +of Newton's experiments on Diffraction.'--I went to London on the +Visitation of the Greenwich Observatory: the dinner had been much +restricted, but was now made more open.--It had been arranged that the +meeting of the British Association was to be held this year at +Cambridge. I invited Sir David Brewster and Mr Herschel to lodge at +the Observatory. The meeting lasted from June 24th to 30th. We gave +one dinner, but had a breakfast party every day. I did not enter much +into the scientific business of the meeting, except that I brought +before the Committee the expediency of reducing the Greenwich +Planetary Observations from 1750. They agreed to represent it to the +Government, and a deputation was appointed (I among them) who were +received by Lord Althorp on July 25th. On Aug. 3rd Herschel announced +to me that _£500_ was granted. + +"On Aug. 7th I started with my wife for Edensor. At Leicester we met +Sedgwick and Whewell: my wife went on to Edensor, and I joined +Sedgwick and Whewell in a geological expedition to Mount Sorrel and +various parts of Charnwood Forest. We were received by Mr Allsop of +Woodlands, who proved an estimable acquaintance. This lasted four or +five days, and we then went on to Edensor.--On Aug. 15th Herschel +wrote to me, communicating an offer of the Duke of Northumberland to +present to the Cambridge Observatory an object-glass of about 12 +inches aperture by Cauchaix. I wrote therefore to the Duke, accepting +generally. The Duke wrote to me from Buxton on Aug. 23rd (his letter, +such was the wretched arrangement of postage, reaching Bakewell and +Edensor on the 25th) and on the 26th I drove before breakfast to +Buxton and had an interview with him. On Sept. 1st the Duke wrote, +authorizing me to mount the telescope entirely, and he subsequently +approved of Cauchaix's terms: there was much correspondence, but on +Dec. 28th I instructed Cauchaix how to send the telescope.--On our +return we paid a visit to Dr Davy, Master of Caius College, at +Heacham, and reached Cambridge on Oct. 8th. + +"Groombridge's Catalogue, of which the editing was formally entrusted +to Mr Henry Taylor (son of Taylor the first-assistant of the Greenwich +Observatory), had been in some measure referred to Sheepshanks: and +he, in investigating the work, found reason for thinking the whole +discreditable. About May he first wrote to me on his rising quarrel +with H. Taylor, but on Sept. 7th he found things coming to a crisis, +and denounced the whole. Capt. Beaufort the Hydrographer (in whose +office this matter rested) begged me with Baily to decide upon it. We +did not at first quite agree upon the terms of investigation &c., but +after a time all was settled, and on Oct. 4th the Admiralty formally +applied, and I formally accepted. Little or nothing had been done by +Mr Baily and myself, when my work was interrupted by illness. + +"Sheepshanks had thought that something might be done to advance the +interests of myself or the Observatory by the favour of Lord Brougham +(then Lord Chancellor), and had urged me to write an article in the +Penny Cyclopaedia, in which Lord Brougham took great interest. I chose +the subject 'Gravitation,' and as I think wrote a good deal of it in +this Autumn: when it was interrupted by my illness. + +"On Dec. 9th 1833, having at first intended to attend the meeting of +the Philosophical Society and then having changed my mind, I was +engaged in the evening on the formulae for effects of small errors on +the computation of the Solar Eclipse of 1833. A dizziness in my head +came on. I left off work, became worse, and went to bed, and in the +night was in high fever with a fierce attack of scarlet fever. My wife +was also attacked but very slightly. The first day of quitting my +bedroom was Dec. 31st. Somewhere about the time of my illness my +wife's sister, Susanna Smith, who was much reduced in the summer, died +of consumption. + +"Miscellaneous notes in 1833 are as follows: Henderson (at the Cape) +could not endure it much longer, and on Oct. 14th Stratford writes +that Maclear had just sailed to take his place: Henderson is candidate +for the Edinburgh Observatory.--Stratford writes on Dec. 2nd that the +Madras observations have come to England, the first whose arrangement +imitates mine.--On Nov. 3rd Herschel, just going to the Cape, +entrusted to me the revisal of some proof sheets, if necessary: +however it was never needed.--In November I sat for my portrait to a +painter named Purdon (I think): he came to the house and made a good +likeness. A pencil portrait was taken for a print-seller (Mason) in +Cambridge: it was begun before my illness and finished after it.--I +applied through Sheepshanks for a copy of Maskelyne's Observations, to +be used in the Reduction of the Planetary Observations: and on +Dec. 24th (from my bedroom) I applied through Prof. Rigaud to the +Delegates of the Clarendon Press for a copy of Bradley's Observations +for the same. The latter request was refused. In October I applied to +the Syndics of the University Press for printed forms for these +Reductions: the Syndics agreed to grant me 12,000 copies." + + + 1834 + +"On Jan. 11th 1834 I went with my wife to London for the recruiting of +my strength. We stayed at the house of our friend Miss Sheepshanks, +and returned on Feb. 13th.--I drew up a Paper of Questions for Smith's +Prizes, but left the whole trouble of examination and adjudication to +Professor Miller, who at my request acted for me.--While I was in +London I began to look at the papers relating to Groombridge's +Catalogue: and I believe that it was while in London that I agreed +with Mr Baily on a Report condemnatory of H. Taylor's edition, and +sent the Report to the Admiralty. The Admiralty asked for further +advice, and on Feb. 28th I replied, undertaking to put the Catalogue +in order. On Mar. 17th Capt. Beaufort sent me all the papers. Some +time however elapsed before I could proceed with it. + +"There was in this spring a furious discussion about the admission of +Dissenters into the University: I took the Liberal side. On Apr. 30th +there was a letter of mine in the Cambridge newspaper.--On Apr. 14th I +began lectures, and finished on May 20th: there were 87 names.--My +'Gravitation' was either finished or so nearly finished that on Jan. +24th I had some conversation with Knight the publisher about printing +it. It was printed in the spring, and on Apr. 27th Sheepshanks sent a +copy of it to Lord Brougham. I received from Knight _£83. 17s. 1d._ +for this Paper.--On May 10th I went to London, I believe to attend one +of the Soirées which the Duke of Sussex gave as President of the Royal +Society. The Duke invited me to breakfast privately with him the next +morning. He then spoke to me, on the part of the Government, about my +taking the office of Astronomer Royal. On May 19th I wrote him a +semi-official letter, to which reference was made in subsequent +correspondence on that subject. + +"On May 12th my son Arthur was born.--In June the Observatory +Syndicate made a satisfied Report.--On June 7th I went to the +Greenwich Visitation, and again on June 14th I went to London, I +believe for the purpose of trying the mounting of South's telescope, +as it had been strengthened by Mr Simms by Sheepshanks's +suggestions. I was subsequently in correspondence with Sheepshanks on +the subject of the Arbitration on South's telescope, and my giving +evidence on it. On July 29th, as I was shortly going away, I wrote him +a Report on the Telescope, to be used in case of my absence. The +award, which was given in December, was entirely in favour of +Simms.--On July 23rd I went out, I think to my brother's marriage at +Ixworth in Suffolk.--On Aug. 1st I started for Edensor and Cumberland, +with my wife, sister, and three children: Georgiana Smith joined us at +Edensor. We went by Otley, Harrogate, Ripon, and Stanmoor to Keswick, +from whence we made many excursions. On Aug. 11th I went with Whewell +to the clouds on Skiddaw, to try hygrometers. Mr Baily called on his +way to the British Association at Edinburgh. On Sept. 10th we +transferred our quarters to Ambleside, and after various excursions we +returned to Edensor by Skipton and Bolton. On Sept. 19th I went to +Doncaster and Finningley Park to see Mr Beaumont's Observatory. On +Sept. 25th we posted in one day from Edensor to Cambridge. + +"On Aug. 25th Mr Spring Rice (Lord Monteagle) wrote to me to enquire +whether I would accept the office of Astronomer Royal if it were +vacant. I replied (from Keswick) on Aug. 30th, expressing my general +willingness, stipulating for my freedom of vote, &c., and referring to +my letter to the Duke of Sussex. On Oct. 8th Lord Auckland, First Lord +of the Admiralty, wrote: and on Oct. 10th I provisionally accepted the +office. On Oct. 30th I wrote to ask for leave to give a course of +lectures at Cambridge in case that my successor at Cambridge should +find difficulty in doing it in the first year: and to this Lord +Auckland assented on Oct. 31st. All this arrangement was for a time +upset by the change of Ministry which shortly followed. + +"Amongst miscellaneous matters, in March I had some correspondence +with the Duke of Northumberland about the Cauchaix Telescope. In +August I had to announce to him that the flint-lens had been a little +shattered in Cauchaix's shop and required regrinding: finally on +Dec. 17th I announced its arrival at Cambridge.--In the Planetary +Reductions, I find that I employed one computer (Glaisher) for 34 +weeks.--In November the Lalande Medal was awarded to me by the French +Institut, and Mr Pentland conveyed it to me in December.--On March +14th I gave the Cambridge Philosophical Society a Paper, 'Continuation +of researches into the value of Jupiter's Mass.' On Apr. 14th, 'On the +Latitude of Cambridge Observatory.' On June 13th, 'On the position of +the Ecliptic,' and 'On the Solar Eclipse of 1833,' to the Royal +Astronomical Society. On Nov. 24th, 'On Computing the Diffraction of +an Object Glass,' to the Cambridge Society. And on Dec. 3rd, 'On the +Calculation of Perturbations,' to the Nautical Almanac: this Paper was +written at Keswick between Aug. 22nd and 29th.--I also furnished Mr +Sheepshanks with investigations regarding the form of the pivots of +the Cape Circle." + + + 1835 + +"On Jan. 9th 1835 I was elected correspondent of the French Academy; +and on Jan. 26th Mr Pentland sent me _£12. 6s._, the balance of the +proceeds of the Lalande Medal Fund.--I prepared my Paper for Smith's +Prizes, and joined in the Examination as usual. + +"There had been a very sudden change of Administration, and Sir +R. Peel was now Prime Minister as First Lord of the Treasury, and Lord +Lyndhurst was Lord Chancellor. On Jan. 19th I wrote to Lord +Lyndhurst, asking him for a Suffolk living for my brother William, +which he declined to give, though he remembered my application some +years later. Whether my application led to the favour which I shortly +received from the Government, I do not know. But, in dining with the +Duke of Sussex in the last year, I had been introduced to Sir R. Peel, +and he had conversed with me a long time, and appeared to have heard +favourably of me. On Feb. 17th he wrote to me an autograph letter +offering a pension of _£300_ per annum, with no terms of any kind, and +allowing it to be settled if I should think fit on my wife. I wrote +on Feb. 18th accepting it for my wife. In a few days the matter went +through the formal steps, and Mr Whewell and Mr Sheepshanks were +nominated trustees for my wife. The subject came before Parliament, by +the Whig Party vindicating their own propriety in having offered me +the office of Astronomer Royal in the preceding year; and Spring +Rice's letter then written to me was published in the Times, &c." + + * * * * * + +The correspondence relating to the pension above-mentioned is given +below, and appears to be of interest, both as conveying in very +felicitous terms the opinion of a very eminent statesman on the +general subject of such pensions, and as a most convincing proof of +the lofty position in Science which the subject of this Memoir had +then attained. + + + WHITEHALL GARDENS, + _Feb. 17 1835_. + +SIR, + +You probably are aware that in a Resolution voted by the House of +Commons in the last Session of Parliament, an opinion was expressed, +that Pensions on the Civil List, ought not thereafter to be granted by +the Crown excepting for the satisfaction of certain public claims, +among which those resting on Scientific or Literary Eminence were +especially mentioned. + +I trust that no such Resolution would have been necessary to induce me +as Minister of the Crown fully to recognize the justice of such +claims, but I refer to the Resolution, as removing every impediment to +a Communication of the nature of that which I am about to make to you. + +In acting upon the Principle of the Resolution in so far as the Claims +of Science are concerned, my _first_ address is made to you, and made +directly, and without previous communication with any other person, +because it is dictated exclusively by public considerations, and +because there can be no advantage in or any motive for indirect +communication. + +I consider you to have the first claim on the Royal Favour which +Eminence in those high Pursuits to which your life is devoted, can +give, and I fear that the Emoluments attached to your appointment in +the University of Cambridge are hardly sufficient to relieve you from +anxiety as to the Future on account of those in whose welfare you are +deeply interested. + +The state of the Civil List would enable me to advise the King to +grant a pension of three hundred pounds per annum, and if the offer be +acceptable to you the Pension shall be granted either to Mrs Airy or +yourself as you may prefer. + +I beg you distinctly to understand that your acquiescence in this +Proposal, will impose upon you no obligation personal or political in +the slightest degree. I make it solely upon public grounds, and I ask +you, by the acceptance of it, to permit the King to give some slight +encouragement to Science, by proving to those who may be disposed to +follow your bright Example, that Devotion to the highest Branches of +Mathematical and Astronomical Knowledge shall not necessarily involve +them in constant solicitude as to the future condition of those, for +whom the application of the same Talents to more lucrative Pursuits +would have ensured an ample Provision. + + I have the honor to be, Sir, + With true Respect and Esteem, + Your faithful Servant, + ROBERT PEEL. + + +_Mr Professor Airy, + &c., &c., + Cambridge_. + + + OBSERVATORY, CAMBRIDGE, + _1835, Feb. 18_. + +SIR, + +I have the honor to acknowledge your letter of the 17th acquainting me +with your intention of advising the King to grant a pension of _£300_ +per annum from the Civil List to me or Mrs Airy. + +I trust you will believe that I am sensible of the flattering terms in +which this offer is made, and deeply grateful for the considerate +manner in which the principal arrangement is left to my choice, as +well as for the freedom from engagement in which your offer leaves +me. I beg to state that I most willingly accept the offer. I should +prefer that the pension be settled on Mrs Airy (by which I understand +that in case of her surviving me the pension would be continued to her +during her life, or in the contrary event would cease with her life). + +I wish that I may have the good fortune to prove to the world that I +do not accept this offer without an implied engagement on my part. I +beg leave again to thank you for your attention, and to assure you +that the form in which it is conveyed makes it doubly acceptable. + + With sincere respect I have the honor to be, Sir, + Your very faithful Servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart., + First Lord of the Treasury, &c., &c._ + + + WHITEHALL, + _Feb. 19th 1835_. + +SIR, + +I will give immediate directions for the preparation of the Warrant +settling the Pension on Mrs Airy--the effect of which will be, as you +suppose, to grant the Pension to her for her life. I assure you I +never gave an official order, which was accompanied with more +satisfaction to myself than this. + + I have the honor to be, Sir. + Your faithful Servant, + ROBERT PEEL. + +_Mr Professor Airy, + &c., &c., + Cambridge_. + + * * * * * + +"On March 18th 1835 I started (meeting Sheepshanks at Kingstown) for +Ireland. We visited Dublin Observatory, and then went direct to +Markree near Sligo, to see Mr Cooper's telescope (our principal +object). We passed on our return by Enniskillen and Ballyjamesduff, +where my former pupil P. Morton was living, and returned on +Apr. 3rd.--On Apr. 20th I was elected to the Royal Society, +Edinburgh.--Apr. 22nd my wife wrote me from Edensor that her sister +Florence was very ill: she died shortly after.--On May 4th I began +lectures and finished on May 29th: there were 58 names.--My former +pupil Guest asks my interest for the Recordership of Birmingham.--In +June was circulated the Syndicate Report on the Observatory.--The date +of the Preface to the 1834 Observations is June 16th. + +"The Ministry had been again changed in the spring, and the Whigs were +again in power. On June 11th Lord Auckland, who was again First Lord +of the Admiralty (as last year), again wrote to me to offer me the +office of Astronomer Royal, or to request my suggestions on the +filling up of the office. On June 15th I wrote my first reply, and on +June 17th wrote to accept it. On June 18th Lord Auckland acknowledges, +and on June 22nd the King approved. Lord Auckland appointed to see me +on Friday, June 23rd, but I was unwell. I had various correspondence +with Lord Auckland, principally about buildings, and had an +appointment with him for August 13th. As Lord Auckland was just +quitting office, to go to India, I was introduced to Mr Charles Wood, +the Secretary of the Admiralty, with whom principally the subsequent +business was transacted. At this meeting Lord Auckland and Mr Wood +expressed their feeling, that the Observatory had fallen into such a +state of disrepute that the whole establishment ought to be cleared +out. I represented that I could make it efficient with a good First +Assistant; and the other Assistants were kept. But the establishment +was in a queer state. The Royal Warrant under the Sign Manual was sent +on August 11th. It was understood that my occupation of office would +commence on October 1st, but repairs and alterations of buildings +would make it impossible for me to reside at Greenwich before the end +of the year. On Oct. 1st I went to the Observatory, and entered +formally upon the office (though not residing for some time). Oct 7th +is the date of my Official Instructions. + +"I had made it a condition of accepting the office that the then First +Assistant should be removed, and accordingly I had the charge of +seeking another. I determined to have a man who had taken a +respectable Cambridge degree. I made enquiry first of Mr Bowstead +(brother to the bishop) and Mr Steventon: at length, consulting Mr +Hopkins (a well-known private tutor at Cambridge), he recommended to +me Mr Robert Main, of Queens' College, with whom I corresponded in the +month (principally) of August, and whom on August 30th I nominated to +the Admiralty. On Oct. 21st F.W. Simms, one of the Assistants (who +apparently had hoped for the office of First Assistant, for which he +was quite incompetent) resigned; and on Dec. 4th I appointed in his +place Mr James Glaisher, who had been at Cambridge from the beginning +of 1833, and on Dec. 10th the Admiralty approved. + +"During this quarter of a year I was residing at Cambridge +Observatory, visiting Greenwich once a week (at least for some time), +the immediate superintendence of the Observatory being placed with Mr +Main. I was however engaged in reforming the system of the Greenwich +Observatory, and prepared and printed 30 skeleton forms for reductions +of observations and other business. On Dec. 14th I resigned my +Professorship to the Vice-Chancellor. But I continued the reduction of +the observations, so that not a single figure was left to my +successor: the last observations were those of Halley's Comet. The +Preface to my 1835 Cambridge Observations is dated Aug. 22nd, 1836. + +"In regard to the Northumberland Telescope, I had for some time been +speculating on plans of mounting and enclosing the instrument, and had +corresponded with Simms, A. Biddell, Cubitt, and others on the +subject. On Apr. 24th Tulley the younger was endeavouring to adjust +the object-glass. On May 31st I plainly asked the Duke of +Northumberland whether he would defray the expense of the mounting and +building. On June 4th he assented, and money was placed at a banker's +to my order. I then proceeded in earnest: in the autumn the building +was erected, and the dome was covered before the depth of winter. I +continued in 1836 to superintend the mounting of the instrument. + +"In regard to the Planetary Reductions: to July 11th J. Glaisher had +been employed 27 weeks, and from July 11th to Jan. 16th, 1836, 25 +weeks. Mr Spring Rice, when Chancellor of the Exchequer, had promised +money, but no official minute had been made, and no money had been +granted. On Aug. 21st I applied to Mr Baring (Secretary of the +Treasury). After another letter he answered on Oct. 15th that he +found no official minute. After writing to Vernon Harcourt and to +Spring Rice, the matter was arranged: my outlay was refunded, and +another sum granted.--In regard to Groombridge's Observations, I find +that on Dec. 16th certain trial reductions had been made under my +direction by J. Glaisher.--I had attempted some optical experiments in +the summer, especially on the polarization of sky-light; but had been +too busy with the Observatory to continue them. + +"In August my wife was in a critical state of health.--In December I +received information regarding merchant ships' chronometers, for which +I had applied to Mr Charles Parker of Liverpool.--On Dec. 8th Mr +Spring Rice and Lord John Russell offered me knighthood, but I +declined it.--On July 23rd I went into Suffolk with my wife's sisters +Elizabeth and Georgiana, and returned on August 3rd: this was all the +holiday that I got in this year.--On the 14th of August I saw Mr +Taylor, the Admiralty Civil Architect in London, and the extension of +buildings at Greenwich Observatory was arranged.--I made various +journeys to Greenwich, and on Dec. 17th, having sent off our +furniture, we all quitted the Cambridge Observatory, and stayed for +some days at the house of Miss Sheepshanks. + +"Thus ended a busy and anxious year." + + * * * * * + +With reference to the offer of knighthood above-mentioned, Airy's +reply is characteristic, and the short correspondence relating to it +is therefore inserted.--The offer itself is an additional proof of the +high estimation in which he stood at this time. + + DOWNING STREET, + _Dec. 8th 1835_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I have been in communication with my colleague Lord John Russell which +has made me feel rather anxious to have the pleasure of seeing you, +but on second thoughts it has occurred to me that the subject of my +communication would render it more satisfactory to you to receive a +letter than to pay a visit. + +In testimony of the respect which is felt for your character and +acquirements, there would be every disposition to recommend you to His +Majesty to receive the distinction of Knighthood. I am quite aware +that to you individually this may be a matter of small concern, but to +the scientific world in general it will not be indifferent, and to +foreign countries it will mark the consideration felt for you +personally as well as for the position which you occupy among your +learned contemporaries. + +From a knowledge of the respect and esteem which I feel for you Lord +John Russell has wished that the communication should be made through +me rather than through any person who had not the pleasure of your +acquaintance. + +Pray let me hear from you and believe me my dear Sir, with compliments +to Mrs Airy, + + Very truly yours, + T. SPRING RICE. + +P.S.--It may be right to add that when a title of honor is conferred +on grounds like those which apply to your case, no fees or charges of +any kind would be payable. + + + OBSERVATORY, CAMBRIDGE, + _1835, Dec. 10th_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I beg to acknowledge your letter of the 8th, which I have received at +this place, conveying to me an intimation of the wish of His Majesty's +Ministers to recommend me to the King for the honor of Knighthood. + +I beg to assure you that I am most sensible to the liberality which I +have experienced from the Government in other as well as in pecuniary +matters, and that I am very highly gratified by the consideration +(undeserved by me, I fear) which they have displayed in the present +instance. And if I now request permission to decline the honor offered +to me, I trust I may make it fully understood that it is not because I +value it lightly or because I am not anxious to receive honors from +such a source. + +The unalterable custom of this country has attached a certain degree +of light consideration to titles of honor which are not supported by +considerable fortune; or at least, it calls for the display of such an +establishment as may not be conveniently supported by even a +comfortable income. The provision attached to my official situation, +and the liberality of the King towards one of the members of my +family, have placed me in a position of great comfort. These +circumstances however have bound me to consider myself as the devoted +servant of the country, and to debar myself from efforts to increase +my fortune which might otherwise have been open to me. I do not look +forward therefore to any material increase of income, and that which I +enjoy at present is hardly sufficient, in my opinion, to support +respectably the honor which you and Lord John Russell have proposed to +confer upon me. For this reason only I beg leave most respectfully to +decline the honor of Knighthood at the present time. + +I have only to add that my services will always be at the command of +the Government in any scientific subject in which I can be of the +smallest use. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Your very faithful Servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Right Honorable T. Spring Rice_. + + * * * * * + +"In brief revision of the years from 1827 to 1835 I may confine myself +to the two principal subjects--my Professorial Lectures, and my +Conduct of the Cambridge Observatory. + +"The Lectures as begun in 1827 included ordinary Mechanics, ordinary +Hydrostatics and Pneumatics (I think that I did not touch, or touched +very lightly, on the subjects connected with the Hydraulic Ram), and +ordinary Optics (with a very few words on Polarization and +Depolarization). In 1828 the two first were generally improved, and +for the third (Optics) I introduced a few words on Circular +Polarization. I believe that it was in 1829 that I made an addition +to the Syllabus with a small engraving, shewing the interference of +light in the best practical experiment (that of the flat prism); and I +went thoroughly into the main points of the Undulatory Theory, +interference, diffraction, &c. In 1830 I believe I went (in addition +to what is mentioned above) into Polarization and Depolarization of +all kinds. My best lecture diagrams were drawn and painted by my +wife. The Lectures were universally pronounced to be valuable. The +subjects underwent no material change in 1831, 2, 3, 4, 5; and I +believe it was a matter of sincere regret to many persons that my +removal to Greenwich terminated the series. Each lecture nominally +occupied an hour. But I always encouraged students to stop and talk +with me; and this supplement was usually considered a valuable part of +the lecture. Practically the lecture, on most days, occupied two +hours. I enjoyed the Lectures much: yet I felt that the labour (in +addition to other work) made an impression on my strength, and I +became at length desirous of terminating them. + +"The Observatory, when I took charge of it, had only one +instrument--the Transit-Instrument The principles however which I laid +down for my own direction were adapted to the expected complete +equipment, Planets (totally neglected at Greenwich) were to be +observed. Observations were to be reduced completely, and the +reductions were to be exhibited in an orderly way: this was a novelty +in Astronomy. I considered it so important that I actually proposed +to omit in my publication the original observations, but was dissuaded +by Herschel and others. I sometimes suspended, observations for a +short time, in order to obtain leisure for; the reductions. I had at +first no intention of correcting the places of the fundamental stars +as settled at Greenwich. But I found myself compelled to do so, +because they were not sufficiently accurate; and then I took the +course of observing and reducing as an independent observer, without +reference to any other observatory. I introduced the principle of not +correcting instrumental errors, but measuring them and applying +numerical corrections. I determined my longitude by chronometers, and +my latitude by a repeating circle borrowed from Mr Sheepshanks, which +I used so well that the result; was only half a second in error. The +form of my reductions in the published volume for 1828 is rather +irregular, but the matter is good: it soon attracted attention. In +1829 the process was much the same: I had an assistant, Mr Baldrey. +In 1830 still the same, with the additions:--that I formally gave the +corrections of relative right-ascension of fundamental stars (without +alteration of equinox, which I had not the means of obtaining) to be +used in the year 1831; and that I reduced completely the observed +occultations (with a small error, subsequently corrected). In 1831 the +system of correction of broken transits was improved: the errors of +assumed R.A. of Fundamental Stars were exhibited: Mean Solar Time was +obtained from Sidereal Time by time of Transit of [Symbol: Aries] +(computed by myself): the method of computing occultations was +improved. In 1832 the small Equatoreal was erected, and was soon +employed in observations of the elongation of the 4th Satellite of +Jupiter for determining the mass of Jupiter. The Mural Circle was +erected at the end of the year, but not used. The calculation of +R.A. of Fundamental Stars was made homogeneously with the others: +separate results of all were included in ledgers: a star-catalogue was +formed: all as to the present time (1871). With the Equatoreal the +difference of N.P.D. of Mars and stars was observed. + +"With the beginning of 1833 the Mural Circle was established at work, +a second assistant (Mr Glaisher) was appointed, and the Observatory +might be considered complete. I made experiments on the graduations of +the Circle. I detected and was annoyed by the R--D. I determined the +latitude. I exhibited the separate results for N.P.D. of stars in +ledger, and their means in Catalogue. I investigated from my +observations the place of equinox and the obliquity of the ecliptic. +I made another series of observations of Jupiter's 4th Satellite, for +the mass of Jupiter. I observed the solar eclipse with the Equatoreal, +by a method then first introduced, which I have since used several +times at Cambridge and Greenwich with excellent effect. The Moon and +the Planets were usually observed till near two in the morning. +Correction for defective illumination applied when necessary. +The volume is very complete, the only deficiency being in +the observation of Moon and Planets through the severe morning +hours. In 1834 the only novelties are--examination of the graduations +of the declination circle of the Equatoreal (excessively bad): +observations of a spot on Jupiter for rotation, and of Mars and +stars. In 1835 (including January 1836) there is a more complete +examination of the Equatoreal graduations: parallax and refraction for +Equatoreal observations: a spot on Jupiter: a series of observations +on Jupiter's 4th Satellite for the mass of Jupiter: Mars and stars: +Halley's Comet (the best series of observations which could be made in +the season): and a short series of meteorological observations, on a +plan suggested by Sir John Herschel then at the Cape of Good Hope. + +"I cannot tell precisely in which year I introduced the following +useful custom. Towards the end of each year I procured a pocket-book +for the following year with a space for every day, and carefully +examining all the sources of elements of observations, and determining +the observations to be made every day, I inserted them in the +pocket-book. This system gave wonderful steadiness to the plan of +observations for the next year. The system has been maintained in +great perfection at the Observatory of Greenwich. (The first of these +pocket-books which Prof. Adams has found is that for 1833.) Printed +skeleton forms were introduced for all calculations from 1828. In the +Greenwich Observatory Library there is a collection, I believe +complete, of printed papers commencing with my manifesto, and +containing all Syndicate Reports except for 1833 (when perhaps there +was none). It seems from these that my first written Report on +Observations, &c., was on May 30th, 1834. The first Syndicate Report +is on May 25th, 1829." + + * * * * * + +A few remarks on Airy's private life and friends during his residence +at Cambridge Observatory may be here appropriately inserted. + +Amid the laborious occupations recorded in the foregoing pages, his +social life and surroundings appear to have been most pleasant and +congenial. At that period there were in residence in Cambridge, and +particularly at Trinity, a large number of very brilliant men. Airy +was essentially a Cambridge man. He had come up poor and friendless: +he had gained friends and fame at the University, and his whole work +had been done there. From the frequent references in after times both +by him and his wife to their life at Cambridge, it is clear that they +had a very pleasant recollection of it, and that the social gatherings +there were remarkably attractive. He has himself recorded that with +Whewell and Sedgwick, and his accomplished sisters-in-law, who were +frequently on long visits at the Observatory, they formed pretty +nearly one family. + +His friendship with Whewell was very close. Although Whewell was at +times hasty, and rough-mannered, and even extremely rude, yet he was +generous and large-minded, and thoroughly upright. [Footnote: The +following passage occurs in a letter from Airy to his wife, dated +1845, Sept. 17th: "I am sorry that ---- speaks in such terms of the +'Grand Master,' as she used to be so proud of him: it is only those +who have _well_ gone through the ordeal of quarrels with him and +almost insults from him, like Sheepshanks and me, that thoroughly +appreciate the good that is in him: I am sure he will never want a +good word from me."] In power of mind, in pursuits, and interests, +Airy had more in common with Whewell than with any other of his +friends. It was with Whewell that he undertook the experiments at +Dolcoath: it was to Whewell that he first communicated the result of +his remarkable investigation of the Long Inequality of Venus and the +Earth; and some of his Optical researches were conducted jointly with +Whewell. Whewell took his degree in 1816, seven years before Airy, and +his reputation, both for mathematical and all-round knowledge, was +extremely and deservedly great, but he was always most generous in his +recognition of Airy's powers. Thus in a letter of Mar. 16th, 1823 +(Life of William Whewell by Mrs Stair Douglas), he says, "Airy is +certainly a most extraordinary man, and deserves everything that can +be said of him"; and again in the autumn of 1826 he writes to his +aunt, "You mentioned a difficulty which had occurred to you in one of +your late letters; how Airy should be made Professor while I was here, +who, being your nephew, must of course, on that account, deserve it +better than he could. Now it is a thing which you will think odd, but +it is nevertheless true, that Airy is a better mathematician than your +nephew, and has moreover been much more employed of late in such +studies.... Seriously speaking, Airy is by very much the best person +they could have chosen for the situation, and few things have given me +so much pleasure as his election." How much Whewell depended upon his +friends at the Observatory may be gathered from a letter which he +wrote to his sister on Dec. 21st, 1833. "We have lately been in alarm +here on the subject of illness. Two very near friends of mine, +Prof. and Mrs Airy, have had the scarlet fever at the same time; she +more slightly, he very severely. They are now, I am thankful to say, +doing well and recovering rapidly. You will recollect that I was +staying with them at her father's in Derbyshire in the summer. They +are, I think, two of the most admirable and delightful persons that +the world contains." And again on Dec. 20th, 1835, he wrote to his +sister Ann, "My friends--I may almost say my dearest friends +--Professor Airy and his family have left Cambridge, he being +appointed Astronomer Royal at Greenwich--to me an irreparable loss; +but I shall probably go and see how they look in their new abode." +Their close intercourse was naturally interrupted by Airy's removal to +Greenwich, but their friendly feelings and mutual respect continued +without material break till Whewell's death. There was frequent +correspondence between them, especially on matters connected with the +conduct and teaching of the University, in which they both took a keen +interest, and a warm welcome at Trinity Lodge always awaited Mr and +Mrs Airy when they visited Cambridge. In a letter written to Mrs Stair +Douglas on Feb. 11th, 1882, enclosing some of Whewell's letters, there +occurs the following passage: "After the decease of Mrs Whewell, +Whewell wrote to my wife a mournful letter, telling her of his +melancholy state, and asking her to visit him at the Lodge for a few +days. And she did go, and did the honours of the house for several +days. You will gather from this the relation in which the families +stood." Whewell died on Mar. 6th, 1866, from the effects of a fall +from his horse, and the following extract is from a letter written by +Airy to Whewell's niece, Mrs Sumner Gibson, on hearing of the death of +his old friend: + +"The Master was, I believe, my oldest surviving friend (beyond my own +family), and, after an acquaintance of 46 years, I must have been one +of his oldest friends. We have during that time been connected +privately and officially: we travelled together and experimented +together: and as opportunity served (but I need not say in very +different degrees) we both laboured for our College and University. A +terrible blank is left on my mind." + +Sedgwick was probably 15 years older than Airy: he took his degree in +1808. But the astonishing buoyancy of spirits and bonhomie of Sedgwick +fitted him for all ages alike. He was undoubtedly the most popular man +in Cambridge in modern times. His ability, his brightness and wit, his +fearless honesty and uprightness, his plain-speaking and good humour, +rendered him a universal favourite. His close alliance with Airy was +much more social than scientific. It is true that they made some +geological excursions together, but, at any rate with Airy, it was far +more by way of recreation than of serious study, and Sedgwick's +science was entirely geological. Their friendship continued till +Sedgwick's death, though it was once or twice imperilled by Sedgwick's +impulsive and hasty nature. + +Peacock took his degree in 1813 (Herschel's year), and was therefore +probably 10 years older than Airy. He was the earliest and staunchest +friend of Airy in his undergraduate years, encouraged him in every +possible way, lent him books, assisted him in his studies, helped him +with wise advice on many occasions, and took the greatest interest in +his success. He was a good and advanced mathematician, and with a +great deal of shrewdness and common-sense he united a singular +kindness and gentleness of manner. It is therefore not to be wondered +at that he was regarded by Airy with the greatest esteem and +affection, and though they were afterwards separated, by Peacock +becoming Dean of Ely and Airy Astronomer Royal, yet their warm +friendship was never broken. The following letter, written by Airy to +Mrs Peacock on receiving the news of the death of the Dean, well +expresses his feelings towards his old friend: + + + TRINITY LODGE, CAMBRIDGE, + _1858, Dec. 4_. + +MY DEAR MADAM, + +I have desired for some time to express to you my sympathies on +occasion of the sad bereavement which has come upon me perhaps as +strongly as upon any one not connected by family ties with my late +friend. But I can scarcely give you an idea how every disposable +moment of my time has been occupied. I am now called to Cambridge on +business, and I seize the first free time to write to you. + +My late friend was the first person whom I knew in College (I had an +introduction to him when I went up as freshman). From the first, he +desired me to consider the introduction not as entitling me to a mere +formal recognition from him, but as authorizing me at all times to +call on him for any assistance which I might require. And this was +fully carried out: I referred to him in every difficulty: I had the +entire command of his rooms and library (a very important aid in +following the new course of mathematics which he had been so +instrumental in introducing into the University) in his occasional +absences: and in all respects I looked to him as to a parent. All my +debts to other friends in the University added together are not +comparable to what I owe to the late Dean. + +Latterly I need not say that I owed much to him and that I owe much to +you for your kind notice of my two sons, even since the sad event +which has put it out of his power to do more. + +In the past summer, looking to my custom of making a visit to +Cambridge in some part of the October Term, I had determined that a +visit to Ely this year should not depend on the chance of being free +to leave Cambridge, but that, if it should be found convenient to +yourself and the Dean, the first journey should be made to Ely. I +wish that I had formed the same resolution one or two years ago. + +With many thanks for your kindness, and with deep sympathy on this +occasion, + + I am, + My dear Madam, + Yours very faithfully, + G.B. AIRY. + +Sheepshanks was a Fellow of Trinity, in orders: he was probably seven +years older than Airy (he took his degree in 1816). He was not one of +Airy's earliest friends, but he had a great taste and liking for +astronomy, and the friendship between them when once established +became very close. He was a very staunch and fearless friend, an able +and incisive writer, and remarkably energetic and diligent in +astronomical investigations. He, or his sister, Miss Sheepshanks, had +a house in London, and Sheepshanks was very much in London, and busied +himself extremely with the work of the Royal Observatory, that of the +Board of Longitude, and miscellaneous astronomical matters. He was +most hospitable to his friends, and while Airy resided at Cambridge +his house was always open to receive him on his frequent visits to +town. In the various polemical discussions on scientific matters in +which Airy was engaged, Sheepshanks was an invaluable ally, and after +Airy's removal to Greenwich had more or less separated him from his +Cambridge friends, Sheepshanks was still associated with him and took +a keen interest in his Greenwich work. And this continued till +Sheepshanks's death. The warmest friendship always subsisted between +the family at the Observatory and Mr and Miss Sheepshanks. + +There were many other friends, able and talented men, but these four +were the chief, and it is curious to note that they were all much +older than Airy. It would seem as if Airy's knowledge had matured in +so remarkable a manner, and the original work that he produced was so +brilliant and copious, that by common consent he ranked with men who +were much his seniors: and the natural gravity and decorum of his +manners when quite a young man well supported the idea of an age +considerably greater than was actually the case. + + + + CHAPTER V. + + AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY--1836 TO 1846. + + + 1836 + +"Through the last quarter of 1835 I had kept everything going on at +the Greenwich Observatory in the same manner in which Mr Pond had +carried it on. With the beginning of 1836 my new system began. I had +already prepared 30 printed skeleton forms (a system totally unknown +to Mr Pond) which were now brought into use. And, having seen the +utility of the Copying Press in merchants' offices, I procured +one. From this time my correspondence, public and private, is +exceedingly perfect. + +"At this time the dwelling house was still unconnected with the +Observatory. It had no staircase to the Octagon Room. Four new rooms +had been built for me on the western side of the dwelling house, but +they were not yet habitable. The North-east Dome ground floor was +still a passage room. The North Terrace was the official passage to +the North-west Dome, where there was a miserable Equatoreal, and to +the 25-foot Zenith Tube (in a square tower like a steeple, which +connected the N.W. Dome with Flamsteed's house). The southern boundary +of the garden ran down a hollow which divides the peninsula from the +site of the present Magnetic Observatory, in such a manner that the +principal part of the garden was fully exposed to the public. The +Computing Room was a most pitiful little room. There was so little +room for me that I transported the principal table to a room in my +house, where I conducted much of my own official business. A large +useless reflecting telescope (Ramage's), on the plan and nearly of the +size of Sir W. Herschel's principal telescope, encumbered the centre +of the Front Court. + +"On Jan. 11th I addressed Mr Buck, agent of the Princess Sophia of +Gloucester, Ranger of Greenwich Park, for leave to enclose a portion +of the ground overlooking my garden. This was soon granted, and I was +partially delivered from the inconvenience of the public gaze. The +liberation was not complete till the Magnetic ground was enclosed in +1837. + +"In the inferior departments of the Admiralty, especially in the +Hydrographic Office (then represented by Captain Beaufort) with which +I was principally connected, the Observatory was considered rather as +a place for managing Government chronometers than as a place of +science. The preceding First Assistant (Taylor) had kept a book of +letter references, and I found that out of 840 letters, 820 related to +Government chronometers only. On Jan. 17th I mentally sketched my +regulations for my own share in chronometer business. I had some +correspondence with Captain Beaufort, but we could not agree, and the +matter was referred to the Admiralty. Finally arrangements were made +which put the chronometer business in proper subordination to the +scientific charge of the Observatory. + +"In my first negociations with the Admiralty referring to acceptance +of the office of Astronomer Royal, in 1834, Lord Auckland being then +First Lord of the Admiralty, I had stipulated that, as my successor at +Cambridge would be unprepared to carry on my Lectures, I should have +permission to give a final course of Lectures there. At the end of +1835 Lord Auckland was succeeded by Lord Minto: I claimed the +permission from him and he refused it. When this was known in +Cambridge a petition was presented by many Cambridge residents, and +Lord Minto yielded. On April 18th I went to Cambridge with my wife, +residing at the Bull Inn, and began Lectures on April 21st: they +continued (apparently) to May 27th. My lecture-room was crowded (the +number of names was 110) and the lectures gave great satisfaction. I +offered to the Admiralty to put all the profits in their hands, and +transmitted a cheque to the Accountant General of the Navy: but the +Admiralty declined to receive them. + +"On June 4th the Annual Visitation of the Observatory was held, Mr +F. Baily in the Chair. I presented a written Report on the Observatory +(a custom which I had introduced at Cambridge) in which I did not +suppress the expression of my feelings about chronometer business. The +Hydrographer, Captain Beaufort, who was one of the Official Visitors, +was irritated: and by his influence the Report was not printed. I +kept it and succeeding Reports safe for three years, and then the +Board of Visitors agreed to print them; and four Reports were printed +together, and bound with the Greenwich Observations of 1838. + +"In the course of this year I completed the volume of Observations +made at Cambridge Observatory in 1835 and on Nov. 10th the printed +copies were distributed. About the end of 1835 the Dome for the +Northumberland Telescope was erected: but apparently the polar frame +was not erected." + +The following account of an accident which occurred during the +construction of the dome is extracted from a letter by Airy to his +wife dated 1836 Jan. 31st. "The workmen's account of the dome blowing +off is very curious: it must have been a strange gust. It started +suddenly when the men were all inside and Beaumont was looking up at +it: the cannon balls were thrown in with great violence (one of them +going between the spokes of Ransomes' large casting), and instantly +after the dome had started, the boards of the outside scaffolding +which had been tossed up by the same gust dropped down into the gap +which the dome had left. It is a wonder that none of the men were hurt +and that the iron was not broken. The dome is quite covered and I +think does not look so well as when the hooping was visible." + +"Previous to 1836 I had begun to contemplate the attachment of +Magnetic Observations to the Observatory, and had corresponded with +Prof. Christie, Prof. Lloyd, Prof. J. D. Forbes, and Mr Gauss on the +subject. On Jan. 12th 1836 I addressed a formal letter to the +Admiralty, and on Jan. 18th received their answer that they had +referred it to the Board of Visitors. On March 25th I received +authority for the expenditure of _£30_, and I believe that I then +ordered Merz's 2-foot magnet. The Visitors met on Feb. 26th and after +some discussion the site was chosen and the extent of ground generally +defined, and on Dec. 22nd Mr Spring Rice (Lord Monteagle) as +Chancellor of the Exchequer virtually effected the transfer of the +ground. But no further steps were taken in 1836. A letter on a +systematic course of magnetic observations in various parts of the +world was addressed by Baron Alexander Humboldt to the Duke of Sussex, +President of the Royal Society; and was referred to Prof. Christie and +me. We reported on it on June 9th 1836, strongly recommending the +adoption of the scheme. + +"A plan had been proposed by the Promoters of the London and Gravesend +Railway (Col. Landman, Engineer) for carrying a railway at high level +across the bottom of the Park. On Jan. 9th I received orders from the +Admiralty to examine into its possible effect in producing vibrations +in the Observatory. After much correspondence, examination of ground, +&c., I fixed upon a part of the Greenwich Railway (not yet opened for +traffic) near the place where the Croydon trunk line now joins it, as +the place for trains to run upon, while I made observations with a +telescope viewing a collimator by reflection in mercury at the +distance of 500 feet. The experiments were made on Jan. 25th, and I +reported on Feb. 4th. It was shewn that there would be some danger to +the Observatory. On Nov. 2nd Mr James Walker, Engineer, brought a +model of a railway to pass by tunnel under the lower part of the Park: +apparently this scheme was not pressed. + +"In addition to the routine work of the Observatory, a special set of +observations were made to determine the mass of Jupiter.--Also the +Solar Eclipse of May 15th was observed at Greenwich in the manner +which I had introduced at Cambridge.--The Ordnance Zenith Sector, and +the instruments for the St Helena Observatory were brought for +examination.--Much attention was given to chronometers, and various +steps were taken for their improvement.--I had some important +correspondence with Mr (Sir John) Lubbock, upon the Lunar Theory +generally and his proposed empirical lunar tables. This was the first +germ of the great reduction of Lunar Observations which I subsequently +carried out.--In October I was nominated on the Council of the Royal +Society, having been admitted a Fellow on Feb. 18th 1836. I was +President of the Astronomical Society during this and the preceding +year (1836 and 1835). + +"My connection with Groombridge's Catalogue of Stars began in 1832, +and the examination, in concert with Mr Baily, of the edition printed +by Mr Henry Taylor, resulted in its condemnation. In 1834 I +volunteered to the Admiralty to prepare a new edition, and received +their thanks and their authority for proceeding. It required a great +deal of examination of details, and much time was spent on it in 1836: +but it was not brought to the state of readiness for press. + +"My predecessor, Mr Pond, died on Sept. 7th 1836, and was interred in +Halley's tomb in Lee churchyard." + + * * * * * + +The following letter was written by Airy in support of the application +for a pension to Mrs Pond, who had been left in great distress: + + + To HENRY WARBURTON, ESQ. + +"The points upon which in my opinion Mr Pond's claims to the gratitude +of Astronomers are founded, are principally the following. _First_ +and chief, the accuracy which he introduced into all the principal +observations. This is a thing which from its nature it is extremely +difficult to estimate now, so long after the change has been made, and +I can only say that so far as I can ascertain from books the change is +one of very great extent: for certainty and accuracy, Astronomy is +quite a different thing from what it was, and this is mainly due to Mr +Pond. The most striking exemplification of this is in his laborious +working out of every conceivable cause or indication of error in the +Circle and the two Circles: but very great praise is also due for the +new system which he introduced in working the Transit. In comparing Mr +Pond's systems of observation with Dr Maskelyne's, no one can avoid +being impressed with the inferiority of Dr Maskelyne's. It is very +important to notice that the continental observatories which have +since attracted so much attention did not at that time exist or did +not exist in vigour. _Secondly_, the attention bestowed by Mr Pond on +those points (chiefly of sidereal astronomy) which he regarded as +fundamental: to which such masses of observations were directed as +entirely to remove the doubts from probable error of individual +observations or chance circumstances which have injured many other +determinations. _Thirdly_, the regularity of observation. The effect +of all these has been that, since the commencement of Mr Pond's +residence at Greenwich, Astronomy considered as an accurate +representation of the state of the heavens in the most material points +has acquired a certainty and an extent which it never had +before. There is no period in the history of the science so clean. On +some matters (in regard to the choice of observations) I might say +that my own judgment would have differed in some degree from Mr +Pond's, but one thing could have been gained only by giving up +another, and upon the general accuracy no improvement could have been +made. Mr Pond understood nothing of physical astronomy; but neither +did anybody else, in England. + +"The supposed decrease of general efficiency in the last few years is +to be ascribed to the following causes: + +1. Mr Pond's ill health. + +2. The inefficiency of his first assistant. + +3. The oppression of business connected with chronometers. + +"The last of these, as I have reason to think, operated very far. +Business of this nature which (necessarily) is _daily_ and +_peremptory_ will always prevail over that which is _general_ and +_confidential_. I will not trouble you with an account of the various +ways in which the chronometer business teazed the Astronomer Royal +(several alterations having been made at my representation), but shall +merely remark that much of the business had no connection whatever +with astronomy. + +"I beg to submit these remarks to your perusal, requesting you to +point out to me _what part_ of them should be laid before any of the +King's Ministers, _at what time, in what shape_, and to whom +addressed. I am quite sure that Mrs Pond's claims require nothing to +ensure favourable consideration but the impression of such a feeling +of Mr Pond's astronomical merits as must be entertained by any +reasonable astronomer; and I am most anxious to assist in conveying +this impression. + +"Of private history: I went to Suffolk for a week on Mar. 25th. On +Sept. 19th my son Wilfrid (my fourth child) was born. In October I +made an excursion for a week round the coast of Kent. In November I +went to my brother's house at Keysoe in Bedfordshire: I was much +exposed to cold on the return-journey, which probably aggravated the +illness that soon followed. From Nov. 27th I was ill; made the last +journal entry of the year on Dec. 6th; the next was on Jan. 14th, +1837. I find that in this year I had introduced Arthur Biddell to the +Tithe Commutation Office, where he was soon favourably received, and +from which connection he obtained very profitable employment as a +valuer." + + + 1837 + +"My connection with Cambridge Observatory was not yet finished. I had +determined that I would not leave a figure to be computed by my +successor. In October I had (at my private expense) set Mr Glaisher to +work on reducing the observations of Sun, Moon, and Planets made in +1833, 1834, 1835; and subsequently had the calculations examined by Mr +Hartnup. This employed me at times through 1837. I state here, once +for all, that every calculation or other work in reference to the +Cambridge Observatory, in this and subsequent years, was done at my +private expense. The work of the Northumberland Telescope was going on +through the year: from Nov. 24th to 29th I was at Cambridge on these +works. + +"An object-glass of 6-3/4 inches aperture (a most unusual size at this +time, when it was difficult to find a 4-inch or 5-inch glass) had been +presented to the Greenwich Observatory by my friend Mr Sheepshanks, +and on Mar. 29th I received from the Admiralty authority for mounting +it equatoreally in the empty South Dome, which had been intended for a +copy of the Palermo Circle.--In the month of July the Admiralty wished +for my political assistance in a Greenwich election, but I refused to +give any.--On Jan. 3rd I gave notice to the Admiralty that I had +finished the computations of Groombridge's Catalogue, and was ready to +print. The printing was authorized and proceeded (the introduction was +finished on Nov. 22nd), but the book was not quite ready till the +beginning of 1838.--In connection with the Cavendish experiment: on +June 10th I wrote to Spring Rice (Chancellor of the Exchequer) for +_£500_, which was soon granted: and from this time there is a great +deal of correspondence (mainly with Mr Baily) upon the details of the +experiment and the theory of the calculation.--On July 24th I saw the +descent of the parachute by which Mr Cocking was killed. I attended +the coroner's inquest and gave evidence a few days later. + +"The Planetary Reductions from 1750 to 1830 had been going on: the +computers (Glaisher, Hartnup, and Thomas) worked in the Octagon Room, +and considerable advance was made.--In consequence of the agitation of +the proposal by Mr Lubbock to form empirical tables of the Moon, for +which I proposed to substitute complete reduction of the observations +of the Moon from 1750, the British Association at York (Oct. 23rd, +1837) appointed a deputation (including myself) to place the matter +before the Government. I wrote on the matter to Mr Wood (Lord Halifax) +stating that it would be proper to raise the First Assistant's salary, +and to give me more indefinite power about employing computers. In all +these things I received cordial assistance from Mr Wood. The +Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr Spring Rice) received us on Dec. 20th: +statements were furnished by me, and the business was sanctioned +immediately.--During this year I was very much engaged in +correspondence with Lubbock and others on improvements of the Lunar +Theory. + +"In the operations of 1836 and 1837 a great quantity of papers had +been accumulated. I had kept them in reasonably good order, tied up in +bundles: but this method began to fail in convenience, as the number +increased. The great lines of classification were however now well +understood. I believe it was in the latter part of the year 1837 that +I finally settled on the principle of arranging papers in packets and +subordinate packets, every paper being flat, by the use of four +punched holes in every paper. I have never seen any principle of +arrangement comparable to this. It has been adopted with the greatest +ease by every assistant, and is used to the present time (1871) +without alteration. + +"On Jan. 3rd I was informed unofficially by Mr Wood (Admiralty +Secretary) that the addition of the Magnetic Ground was sanctioned. On +Feb. 16th Mr Rhodes (an officer of the Department of Woods and Works) +came to put me formally in possession of the ground. Between Apr. 26th +and May 13th the ground was enclosed, and my garden was completely +protected from the public. The plan of the building was settled, and +numerous experiments were made on various kinds of concrete: at last +it was decided to build with wood. + +"After a dinner given by Lord Burlington, Chancellor, the first +meeting of the London University was held on Mar. 4th, and others +followed. On Apr. 18th I handed to the Chancellor a written protest +against a vote of a salary of _£1000_ to the Registrar: which salary, +in fact, the Government refused to sanction. Dissensions on the +question of religious examination were already beginning, but I took +little part in them. + +"In 1833 Mr Henderson had resigned the superintendance of the Cape of +Good Hope Observatory, and Mr Maclear was appointed. I recommended the +same Official Instructions for him (they had included an allusion to +La Caille's Arc of Meridian) with an addition on the probability of +Trigonometrical Survey, on Aug. 8th, 1837. On Feb. 24th, 1837, I wrote +to Beaufort suggesting that Bradley's Sector should be used for +verifying the astronomical determinations, and subsequently received +the approval of the Admiralty. In June Sir J. Herschel and I had an +interview with Mr Wood on the Cape equipment generally. The Sector was +erected with its new mounting, careful drawings were made of every +part, instructions were prepared for its use, and on Aug. 10th it was +sent to Woolwich Dockyard and shipped for the Cape. + +"Of private history: On Aug. 23rd I started with my wife for an +excursion in South Wales, &c. On Sept. 9th I gave a lecture in the +Town Hall of Neath. While at Swansea we received news of the death of +my wife's father, the Rev. Richard Smith, and returned at once.--In +this year Arthur Biddell bought the little Eye estate for me." + + + 1838 + +"Cambridge Observatory:--On Dec. 29th, 1837, I had set Mr Glaisher to +work in collecting the annual results for star-places from the +Cambridge Observations, to form one catalogue: I examined the +calculations and the deduced catalogue, and on Dec. 14, 1838, +presented it to the Royal Astronomical Society, under the title of +'The First Cambridge Catalogue.'--For the Northumberland telescope I +was engaged with Simms about the clockwork from time to time up to +Apr. 30th, and went to Cambridge about it. The instrument was brought +to a useable state, but some small parts were still wanting. + +"At Greenwich:--In April I drew up a little history of the Observatory +for the Penny Cyclopaedia.--On June 30th the Lords of the Admiralty +paid a short visit to the Observatory: on this occasion Mr Wood +suggested a passage connecting the Observatory with the +dwelling-house, and I subsequently prepared sketches for it; it was +made in the next year.--In the course of the year the Sheepshanks +Equatoreal was mounted, and Encke's Comet was observed with it from +Oct. 26th to Nov. 13th.--On Mar. 31st, &c. I reported to the Admiralty +on the selection of chronometers for purchase, from a long list: this +was an important beginning of a new system.--The Magnetic Observatory +was built, in the form originally planned for it (a four-armed cross +with equal arms, one axis being in the magnetic meridian) in the +beginning of this year. (No alteration has since been made in form up +to the present time, 1871, except that the north arm has been +lengthened 8 feet a few years ago.) On May 21st a magnet was suspended +for the first time, Mr Baily and Lieut. (afterwards Sir William) +Denison being present.--Groombridge's Catalogue was finished, and on +Mar. 3rd I arranged for sending out copies.--The Planetary Reductions +were carried on vigorously. On May 31st, 1838, the Treasury assented +to the undertaking of the Lunar Reductions and allotted _£2,000_ for +it: preparations were made, and in the autumn 7 computers were +employed upon it. It will easily be seen that this undertaking added +much to my labours and cares.--The geodetic affairs of the Cape of +Good Hope began to be actively pressed, and in February Beaufort wrote +to me in consequence of an application from Maclear, asking about a +standard of length for Maclear (as foundation for a geodetic +survey). I made enquiries, and on Mar. 13th wrote to Mr Wood, alluding +also generally to the want of a National English standard after the +destruction of the Houses of Parliament. On Apr. 24th the Admiralty +sanctioned my procuring proper Standard Bars.--In connection with the +Cavendish Experiment, I have an immense quantity of correspondence +with Mr Baily, and all the mathematics were furnished by me: the +experiment was not finished at the end of the year.--The Perturbations +of Uranus were now attracting attention. I had had some correspondence +on this subject with Dr Hussey in 1834, and in 1837 with Eugène +Bouvard. On Feb. 24th, of 1838, I wrote to Schumacher regarding the +error in the tabular radius-vector of Uranus, which my mode of +reducing the observations enabled me to see. + +"The National Standards of Length and Weight had been destroyed in the +fire of the Houses of Parliament. On May 11th I received a letter from +Mr Spring Rice, requesting me to act (as chairman) with a committee +consisting of F. Baily, J.E. Drinkwater Bethune, Davies Gilbert, +J.G.S. Lefevre, J.W. Lubbock, G. Peacock, and R. Sheepshanks, to +report on the steps now to be taken. I accepted the charge, and the +first meeting was held at the Observatory on May 22nd; all subsequent +meetings in London, usually in the apartments of the Royal +Astronomical Society. I acted both as chairman and as working +secretary. Our enquiries went into a very wide field, and I had much +correspondence. + +"On Jan. 4th Mr Wood wrote to me, mentioning that Capt. Johnson had +made some observations on the magnetism of iron ships, and asking +whether they ought to be continued; a steamer being offered at _£50_ +per week. I applied to Beaufort for a copy of Johnson's Observations, +and on Jan. 7th replied very fully, discouraging such observations; +but recommending a train of observations expressly directed to +theoretical points. On Feb. 17th I reported that I had examined the +Deptford Basin, and found that it would do fairly well for +experiments. On July 14th, 1838, Capt. Beaufort wrote to me that the +Admiralty wished for experiments on the ship, the 'Rainbow,' then in +the river, and enquired whether I would undertake them and what +assistance I desired, as for instance that of Christie or Barlow. I +replied that one person should undertake it, either Christie, Barlow, +or myself, and that a basin was desirable. On July 16th and 17th I +looked at the basins of Woolwich and Deptford, approving the +latter. On July 21st the Admiralty gave me full powers. From July 23rd +I was almost entirely employed on preparations. The course of +operations is described in my printed Paper: the original maps, +curves, and graphical projections, are in the bound MSS.: 'Correction +of Compass in Iron Ships--"Rainbow,"' at the Greenwich +Observatory. The angular disturbances were found on July 26th and +30th, requiring some further work on a raft, so that they were finally +worked out on Aug. 11th. I struggled hard with the numbers, but should +not have succeeded if it had not occurred to me to examine the +horizontal magnetic intensities. This was done on Aug. 14th, and the +explanation of the whole was suggested at once: graphical projections +were made on Aug. 16th and 17th for comparison of my explanation with +observations, and the business was complete. On Aug. 17th and 18th I +measured the intensity of some magnets, to be used in the ship for +correction. It is to be remarked that, besides the effect of polar +magnetism, there was no doubt of the existence of an effect of induced +magnetism requiring correction by other induced magnetism: and +experiments for this were made in the Magnetic Observatory. All was +ready for trial: and on Aug. 20th I carried my magnets and iron +correctors to Deptford, mounted them in the proper places, tried the +ship, and the compass, which had been disturbed 50 degrees to the +right and 50 degrees to the left, was now sensibly correct. On +Aug. 21st I reported this to the Admiralty, and on Aug. 24th I tried +the ship to Gravesend. On Aug. 30th I had the loan of her for an +expedition with a party of friends to Sheerness, and on Sept. 9th I +accompanied her to Gravesend, on her first voyage to Antwerp.--On +Oct. 5th application was made to me by the owner of the 'Ironsides' to +correct her compasses. In consequence of this I went to Liverpool on +Oct. 25th, and on this occasion made a very important improvement in +the practical mode of performing the correction.--On Nov. 16th I +reported to the Admiralty in considerable detail. On Dec. 4th I had an +interview with Lord Minto (First Lord of the Admiralty) and Mr +Wood. They refused to sanction any reward to me.--The following is a +copy of the report of the Captain of the 'Rainbow' after her voyage to +Antwerp: 'Having had the command of the Rainbow steamer the two +voyages between London and Antwerp, I have the pleasure to inform you +that I am perfectly satisfied as to the correctness of the compasses, +and feel quite certain they will continue so. I took particular notice +from land to land from our departure and found the bearings by compass +to be exact.'"--The following extracts from letters to his wife refer +to the "Ironsides": on Oct. 28th 1838 he writes, "I worked up the +observations so much as to see that the compass disturbance is not so +great as in the 'Rainbow' (35° instead of 50°), but quite enough to +make the vessel worthless; and that it is quite different in direction +from that in the 'Rainbow'--so that if they had stolen one of the +'Rainbow' correctors and put it into this ship it would have been much +worse than before." And on Nov. 1st he writes, "On Wednesday I again +went to the ship and tried small alterations in the correctors: I am +confident now that the thing is very near, but we were most abominably +baffled by the sluggishness of the compass." + +"The University of London:--On Jan. 6th I attended a sub-committee +meeting on the minimum of acquirements for B.A. degree, and various +meetings of the Senate. On July 14th I intimated to Mr Spring Rice my +wish to resign. I had various correspondence, especially with Mr +Lubbock, and on Dec. 13th I wrote to him on the necessity of stipends +to Members of Senate. The dissensions on religious examination became +very strong. I took a middle course, demanding examination in the +languages and books, but absolutely refusing to claim any religious +assent. I expressed this to Dr Jerrard, the principal representative +on the religious side, by calling on him to substitute the words +'Recognition of Christian Literature' for 'Recognition of Christian +Religion': I addressed a printed letter to Lord Burlington +(Chancellor) and the Members of the Senate, on this subject. + +"Of private history: In January I made a short excursion in Norfolk +and Suffolk, and visited Prof. Sedgwick at Norwich. In April I paid a +short visit to Mr Courtney at Sanderstead, with my wife. On June 14th +my son Hubert was born. In September I went with my sister by +Cambridge, &c., to Luddington, where I made much enquiry concerning my +father and the family of Airy who had long been settled there. We then +visited various places in Yorkshire, and arrived at Brampton, near +Chesterfield, where Mrs Smith, my wife's mother, now resided. And +returned by Rugby. I had much correspondence with my brother and for +him about private pupils and a better church living. I complained to +the Bishop of Norwich about the mutilation of a celebrated monument in +Playford Church by the incumbent and curate." + +The following extracts are from letters to his wife relating to the +above-mentioned journeys: + + + CLOSE, NORWICH. + _1838, Jan. 21_. + +I do not know what degree of cold you may have had last night, but +here it was (I believe) colder than before--thermometer close to the +house at 3°. I have not suffered at all. However I do not intend to go +to Lowestoft. + + + BRAMPTON. + _1838, Sept. 30th_. + +We began to think that we had seen enough of Scarborough, so we took a +chaise in the afternoon to Pickering, a small agricultural town, and +lodged in a comfortable inn there. On Wednesday morning at 8 we +started by the railroad for Whitby, in a huge carriage denominated the +Lady Hilda capable of containing 40 persons or more drawn by one +horse, or in the steep parts of the railway by two horses. The road +goes through a set of defiles of the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire +which are extremely pretty: at first woody and rich, then gradually +poorer, and at last opening on a black moor with higher moors in +sight: descending in one part by a long crooked inclined plane, the +carriage drawing up another load by its weight: through a little +tunnel: and then along a valley to Whitby. The rate of travelling was +about 10 miles an hour. Betsy declares that it was the most agreeable +travelling that she ever had. + +Yesterday (Saturday) Caroline drove Betsy and Miss Barnes drove me to +Clay Cross to see the works at the great railroad tunnel there. Coming +from the north, the railroad passes up the Chesterfield valley close +by the town and continues up the same valley, till it is necessary for +it to enter the valley which runs the opposite way towards Buttersley: +the tunnel passes under the high ground between these two vallies: so +that it is in reality at the water-shed: it is to be I think more than +a mile long, and when finished 27 feet clear in height, so it is a +grand place. We saw the preparations for a blast, and heard it fired: +the ladies stopping their ears in due form. + + + 1839 + +"Cambridge Observatory:--On Mar. 7th I went to Cambridge on the +business of the Northumberland Telescope: I was subsequently engaged +on the accounts, and on Aug. 16th I finally resigned it to +Prof. Challis, who accepted it on Aug. 19th. On Sept. 11th I +communicated its completion and the settlement of accounts to the Duke +of Northumberland. The total expense was _£1938. 9s. 2d._ + 15000 +francs for the object-glass. + +"At Greenwich Observatory:--On Jan. 3rd I received the last revise of +the 1837 Observations, and on Jan. 8th the first sheet for 1838.--In +July I report on selection from a long list of chronometers which had +been on trial, and on Sept. 2nd I pointed out to Capt. Beaufort that +the system of offering only one price would be ruinous to the +manufacture of chronometers, and to the character of those supplied to +the Admiralty: and that I would undertake any trouble of classifying +the chronometers tried. This letter introduced the system still in use +(1871), which has been most beneficial to the manufacture. On +Sept. 11th I proposed that all trials begin in the first week of +January: this also has been in use as an established system to the +present time.--It was pointed out to me that a certain chronometer was +affected by external magnetic power. I remedied this by placing under +it a free compass magnet: a stand was specially prepared for it. I +have never found another chronometer sensibly affected by +magnetism.--In November and December I tried my new double-image +micrometer.--Between May 16th and Oct. 13th a fireproof room was +constructed in the southern part of the quadrant room; and in November +a small shed was erected over the entrance to the North Terrace.--The +position of the free Meridional Magnet (now mounted in the Magnetic +Observatory) was observed at every 5 m. through 24 hours on Feb. 22nd +and 23rd, May 24th and 25th, Aug. 30th and 31st, and Nov. 29th and +30th. This was done in cooperation with the system of the Magnetic +Union established by Gauss in Germany.--The Reduction of the Greenwich +Planetary and Lunar Observations, 1750 to 1830, went on steadily. I +had six and sometimes seven computers constantly at work, in the +Octagon Room.--As in 1838 I had a great amount of correspondence with +Mr Baily on the Cavendish Experiment.--I attended as regularly as I +could to the business of the University of London. The religious +question did not rise very prominently. I took a very active part, and +have a great deal of correspondence, on the nature of the intended +examinations in Hydrography and Civil Engineering.--On the Standards +Commission the chief work was in external enquiries.--On June 6th I +had enquiries from John Quincey Adams (U.S.A.) on the expense, &c., of +observatories: an observatory was contemplated in America.--I had +correspondence about the proposed establishment of observatories at +Durham, Glasgow, and Liverpool. + +"I had in this year a great deal of troublesome and on the whole +unpleasant correspondence with the Admiralty about the correction of +the compass in iron ships. I naturally expected some acknowledgment of +an important service rendered to Navigation: but the Admiralty +peremptorily refused it. My account of the Experiments &c. for the +Royal Society is dated April 9th. The general success of the +undertaking soon became notorious, and (as I understood) led +immediately to extensive building of iron ships: and it led also to +applications to me for correction of compasses. On Jan. 9th I was +addressed in reference to the Royal Sovereign and Royal George at +Liverpool; July 18th the Orwell; May 11th two Russian ships built on +the Thames; Sept. 4th the ships of the Lancaster Company. + +"I had much work in connection with the Cape of Good Hope Observatory, +chiefly relating to the instrumental equipment and to the geodetical +work. As it was considered advisable that any base measured in the +Cape Colony should be measured with compensation bars, I applied to +Major Jervis for the loan of those belonging to the East Indian +Survey, but he positively refused to lend them. On Jan. 20th I applied +to Col. Colby for the compensation bars of the British Survey, and he +immediately assented to lending them. Col. Colby had suggested to the +Ordnance Department that Capt. Henderson and several sappers should be +sent to use the measuring bars, and it was so arranged. It still +appeared desirable to have the command of some soldiers from the +Garrison of Cape Town, and this matter was soon arranged with the +military authorities by the Admiralty. + +"The following are the principal points of my private history: it was +a very sad year. On Jan. 24th I went with my wife to Norwich, on a +visit to Prof. Sedgwick, and in June I visited Sir J. Herschel at +Slough. On June 13th my dear boy Arthur was taken ill: his malady soon +proved to be scarlet fever, of which he died on June 24th at 7 in the +morning. It was arranged that he should be buried in Playford +churchyard on the 28th, and on that day I proceeded to Playford with +my wife and my eldest son George Richard. At Chelmsford my son was +attacked with slight sickness, and being a little unwell did not +attend his brother's funeral. On July 1st at 4h.15m. in the morning he +also died: he had some time before suffered severely from an attack of +measles, and it seemed probable that his brain had suffered. On July +5th he was buried by the side of his brother Arthur in Playford +churchyard.--On July 23rd I went to Colchester on my way to +Walton-on-the-Naze, with my wife and all my family; all my children +had been touched, though very lightly, with the scarlet fever.--It was +near the end of this year that my mother quitted the house (Luck's) at +Playford, and came to live with me at Greenwich Observatory, where she +lived till her death; having her own attendant, and living in perfect +confidence with my wife and myself, and being I trust as happy as her +years and widowhood permitted. My sister also lived with me at the +Observatory." + + + 1840 + +"In the latter part of 1839, and through 1840, I had much +correspondence with the Admiralty, in which I obtained a complete +account of the transfer of the Observatory from the Ordnance +Department to the Admiralty, and the transfer of the Visitation of the +Observatory from the Royal Society to the present Board of +Visitors. In 1840 I found that the papers of the Board of Longitude +were divided between the Royal Society and the Admiralty: I obtained +the consent of both to bring them to the Observatory. + +"In this year I began to arrange about an annual dinner to be held at +the Visitation.--My double-image micrometer was much used for +observations of circumpolar double stars.--In Magnetism and +Meteorology, certain quarterly observations were kept up; but in +November the system of incessant eye-observations was commenced. I +refused to commence this until I had secured a 'Watchman's Clock' for +mechanical verification of the regular attendance of the +Assistants.--With regard to chronometers: In this year, for the first +time, I took the very important step of publishing the rates obtained +by comparisons at the Observatory. I confined myself on this occasion +to the chronometers purchased by the Admiralty. In March a +pigeon-house was made for exposure of chronometers to cold.--The Lunar +and Planetary Reductions were going on steadily.--I was consulted +about an Observatory at Oxford, where I supported the introduction of +the Heliometer.--The stipend of the Bakerian Lecture was paid to me +for my explanation of Brewster's new prismatic fringes.--The business +of the Cape Observatory and Survey occupied much of my time.--In 1838 +the Rev. H. J. Rose (Editor of the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana) had +proposed my writing a Paper on Tides, &c.; In Oct. 1840 I gave him +notice that I must connect Tides with Waves, and in that way I will +take up the subject. Much correspondence on Tides, &c., with Whewell +and others followed. + +"With regard to the Magnetical and Meteorological Establishment. On +June 18th Mr Lubbock reported from the Committee of Physics of the +Royal Society to the Council in favour of a Magnetic and +Meteorological Observatory near London. After correspondence with +Sheepshanks, Lord Northampton, and Herschel, I wrote to the Council on +July 9th, pointing out what the Admiralty had done at Greenwich, and +offering to cooperate. In a letter to Lord Minto I stated that my +estimate was _£550_, including _£100_ to the First Assistant: +Lubbock's was _£3,000_. On Aug. 11th the Treasury assented, limiting +it to the duration of Ross's voyage. On Aug. 17th Wheatstone looked at +our buildings and was satisfied. My estimate was sent to the +Admiralty, viz. _£150_ outfit, _£520_ annual expense; and Glaisher to +be Superintendent. I believe this was allowed for the present; for +the following year it was placed on the Estimates. Most of the +contemplated observations were begun before the end of 1840: as much +as possible in conformity with the Royal Society's plan. Mr Hind +(subsequently the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac) and Mr Paul +were the first extra assistants. + +"Of private history. On Feb. 29th I went to Cambridge with my Paper on +the Going Fusee. On Mar. 27th I went to visit Mrs Smith, my wife's +mother, at Brampton near Chesterfield. I made a short visit to +Playford in April and a short expedition to Winchester, Portsmouth, +&c., in June. From Sept. 5th to Oct. 3rd I was travelling in the +North of England and South of Scotland." [This was an extremely active +and interesting journey, in the course of which a great number of +places were visited by Airy, especially places on the Border mentioned +in Scott's Poems, which always had a great attraction for him. He also +attended a Meeting of the British Association at Glasgow and made a +statement regarding the Planetary and Lunar Reductions: and looked at +a site for the Glasgow Observatory.] "In November I went for a short +time to Cambridge and to Keysoe (my brother's residence). On +Dec. 26th my daughter Hilda was born (subsequently married to +E.J. Routh). In this year I had a loss of _£350_ by a fire on my Eye +estate." + + * * * * * + +The following extracts are from letters to his wife. Some of them +relate to matters of general interest. They are all of them +characteristic, and serve to shew the keen interest which he took in +matters around him, and especially in architecture and scenery. The +first letter relates to his journey from Chesterfield on the previous +day. + + + FLAMSTEED HOUSE, + _1840, April 2_. + +I was obliged to put up with an outside place to Derby yesterday, much +against my will, for I was apprehensive that the cold would bring on +the pain in my face. Of that I had not much; but I have caught +something of sore throat and catarrh. The coach came up at about 22 +minutes past 8. It arrived in Derby at 20 minutes or less past 11 +(same guard and coachman who brought us), and drew up in the street +opposite the inn at which we got no dinner, abreast of an omnibus. I +had to go to a coach office opposite the inn to pay and be booked for +London, and was duly set down in a way-bill with _name_; and then +entered the omnibus: was transferred to the Railway Station, and then +received the Railway Ticket by shouting out my name. If you should +come the same way, you would find it convenient to book your place at +Chesterfield to London by your name (paying for the whole, namely, +coach fare, omnibus fare _-/6_, and railway fare _£1. 15s. 0d._ first +class). Then you will only have to step out of the coach into the +omnibus, and to scream out once or twice to the guard to make sure +that you are entered in the way-bill and that your luggage is put on +the omnibus. + + * * * * * + + FLAMSTEED HOUSE, GREENWICH, + _1840, April 15_. + +I forgot to tell you that at Lord Northampton's I saw some specimens +of the Daguerrotype, pictures made by the Camera Obscura, and they +surpass in beauty of execution anything that I could have +imagined. Baily who has two or three has promised to lend them for +your inspection when you return. Also I saw some post-office stamps +and stamped envelopes: I do not much admire the latter. + + * * * * * + +The following relates to the fire on his Eye farm, referred to above: + + + PLAYFORD, + _1840, April 23_. + +On Wednesday (yesterday) went with my uncle to the Eye Estate, to see +the effects of the fire. The farming buildings of every kind are as +completely cleared away as if they had been mown down: not a bit of +anything but one or two short brick walls and the brick foundations of +the barns and stacks. The aspect of the place is much changed, because +in approaching the house you do not see it upon a back-ground of +barns, &c., but standing alone. The house is in particularly neat and +good order. I did not think it at all worth while to make troublesome +enquiries of the people who reside there, but took Mr Case's +account. There seems no doubt that the fire was caused by the +maid-servant throwing cinders into a sort of muck-place into which +they had been commonly thrown. I suppose there was after all this dry +weather straw or muck drier than usual, and the cinders were hotter +than usual. The whole was on fire in an exceedingly short time; and +everything was down in less than an hour. Two engines came from Eye, +and all the population of the town (as the fire began shortly after +two o'clock in the afternoon). It is entirely owing to these that my +house, and the farm (Sewell's) on the opposite side of the road, were +not burned down. At the beginning of the fire the wind was N.E. which +blew directly towards the opposite farm (Sewell's): although the +nearest part of it (tiled dwelling house) was 100 yards off or near +it, and the great barn (thatched roof) considerably further, yet both +were set on fire several times. All this while, the tail of my house +was growing very hot: and shortly after the buildings fell in burning +ruins, the wind changed to N.W., blowing directly to my house. If this +change had happened while the buildings were standing and burning, +there would have been no possibility of saving the house. As it was, +the solder is melted from the window next the farm-yard, and the roof +was set on fire in three or four places. One engine was kept working +on my house and one on the opposite farm. A large pond was pretty +nearly emptied. Mr Case's horses and bullocks were got out, not +without great difficulty, as the progress of the fire was fearfully +rapid. A sow and nine pigs were burnt, and a large hog ran out burnt +so much that the people killed it immediately. + + * * * * * + + GEORGE INN, WINCHESTER, + _1840, June 21_. + +At Winchester we established ourselves at the George and then without +delay proceeded to St Cross. I did not know before the nature of its +hospital establishment, but I find that it is a veritable set of +alms-houses. The church is a most curious specimen of the latest +Norman. I never saw one so well marked before--Norman ornaments on +pointed arches, pilasters detached with cushion capitals, and various +signs: and it is clearly an instance of that state of the style when +people had been forced by the difficulties and inelegancies of the +round arch in groining to adopt pointed arches for groining but had +not learnt to use them for windows.......This morning after breakfast +went to the Cathedral (looking by the way at a curious old cross in +the street). I thought that its inside was wholly Norman, and was most +agreeably surprised by finding the whole inside groined in every part +with excellent late decorated or perpendicular work. Yet there are +several signs about it which lead me to think that the whole inside +has been Norman, and even that the pilasters now worked up into the +perpendicular are Norman. The transepts are most massive old Norman, +with side-aisles running round their ends (which I never saw +before). The groining of the side aisles of the nave very effective +from the strength of the cross ribs. The clerestory windows of the +quire very large. The organ is on one side. But the best thing about +the quire is the wooden stall-work, of early decorated, very +beautiful. A superb Lady Chapel, of early English. + + * * * * * + + PORTSMOUTH, + _1840, June 23_. + +We left Winchester by evening train to the Dolphin, Southampton, and +slept there. At nine in the morning we went by steamboat down the +river to Ryde in the Isle of Wight: our steamer was going on to +Portsmouth, but we thought it better to land at Ryde and take a boat +for ourselves. We then sailed out (rather a blowing day) to the vessel +attending Col. Pasley's operations, and after a good deal of going +from one boat to another (the sea being so rough that our boat could +not be got up to the ships) and a good deal of waiting, we got on +board the barge or lump in which Col. Pasley was. Here we had the +satisfaction of seeing the barrel of gunpowder lowered (there was more +than a ton of gunpowder), and seeing the divers go down to fix it, +dressed in their diving helmets and supplied with air from the great +air-pump above. When all was ready and the divers had ascended again, +the barge in which we were was warped away, and by a galvanic battery +in another barge (which we had seen carried there, and whose +connection with the barrel we had seen), upon signal given by sound of +trumpet, the gunpowder was fired. The effect was most wonderful. The +firing followed the signal instantaneously. We were at between 100 and +200 yards from the place (as I judge), and the effects were as +follows. As soon as the signal was given, there was a report, louder +than a musket but not so loud as a small cannon, and a severe shock +was felt at our feet, just as if our barge had struck on a +rock. Almost immediately, a very slight swell was perceived over the +place of the explosion, and the water looked rather foamy: then in +about a second it began to rise, and there was the most enormous +outbreak of spray that you can conceive. It rose in one column of 60 +or 70 feet high, and broad at the base, resembling a stumpy sheaf with +jagged masses of spray spreading out at the sides, and seemed to grow +outwards till I almost feared that it was coming to us. It sunk, I +suppose, in separate parts, for it did not make any grand squash down, +and then there were seen logs of wood rising, and a dense mass of +black mud, which spread gradually round till it occupied a very large +space. Fish were stunned by it: our boatmen picked up some. It was +said by all present that this was the best explosion which had been +seen: it was truly wonderful. Then we sailed to Portsmouth.......The +explosion was a thing worth going many miles to see. There were many +yachts and sailing boats out to see it (I counted 26 before they were +at the fullest), so that the scene was very gay. + + * * * * * + +Here are some notes on York Cathedral after the fire: + + RED LION HOTEL, REDCAR, + _1840, Sept. 7_. + +My first letter was closed after service at York Cathedral. As soon as +I had posted it, I walked sedately twice round the cathedral, and then +I found the sexton at the door, who commiserating me of my former vain +applications, and having the hope of lucre before his eyes, let me +in. I saw the burnt part, which looks not melancholy but +unfinished. Every bit of wood is carried away clean, with scarcely a +smoke-daub to mark where it has been: the building looks as if the +walls were just prepared for a roof, but there are some deep dints in +the pavement, shewing where large masses have fallen. The lower parts +of some of the columns (to the height of 8 or 10 feet) are much scaled +and cracked. The windows are scarcely touched. I also refreshed my +memory of the chapter-house, which is most beautiful, and which has +much of its old gilding reasonably bright, and some of its old paint +quite conspicuous. And I looked again at the old crypt with its late +Norman work, and at the still older crypt of the pre-existing church. + + * * * * * + + + 1841 + +"The routine work of the Observatory in its several departments was +carried on steadily during this year.--The Camera Obscura was removed +from the N.W. Turret of the Great Room, to make way for the +Anemometer.--In Magnetism and Meteorology the most important thing was +the great magnetic storm of Sept. 29th, which revealed a new class of +magnetic phenomena. It was very well observed by Mr Glaisher, and I +immediately printed and circulated an account of it.--In April I +reported that the Planetary Reductions were completed, and furnished +estimates for the printing.--In August I applied for 18,000 copies of +the great skeleton form for computing Lunar Tabular Places, which were +granted.--I reported, as usual, on various Papers for the Royal +Society, and was still engaged on the Cavendish Experiment.--In the +University of London I attended the meeting of Dec. 8th, on the +reduction of Examiners' salaries, which were extravagant.--I furnished +Col. Colby with a plan of a new Sector, still used in the British +Survey.--I appealed to Colby about the injury to the cistern on the +Great Gable in Cumberland, by the pile raised for the Survey +Signal.--On Jan. 3rd occurred a most remarkable tidal disturbance: the +tide in the Thames was 5 feet too low. I endeavoured to trace it on +the coasts, and had a vast amount of correspondence: but it elicited +little. + +"Of private history: I was a short time in Suffolk in March.--On +Mar. 31st I started with my wife (whose health had suffered much) for +a trip to Bath, Bristol, Cardiff, Swansea, &c. While at Swansea we +received news on Apr. 24th of the deadly illness of my dear mother. We +travelled by Neath and Cardiff to Bath, where I solicited a rest for +my wife from my kind friend Miss Sutcliffe, and returned alone to +Greenwich. My dear mother had died on the morning of the 24th. The +funeral took place at Little Whelnetham (near Bury) on May 1st, where +my mother was buried by the side of my father. We went to Cambridge, +where my wife consulted Dr Haviland to her great advantage, and +returned to Greenwich on May 7th.--On May 14th to 16th I was at +Sanderstead (Rev. J. Courtney) with Whewell as one sponsor, at the +christening of my daughter Hilda.--In September I went for a trip with +my sister to Yorkshire and Cumberland, in the course of which we +visited Dent (Sedgwick's birthplace), and paid visits to Mr +Wordsworth, Miss Southey, and Miss Bristow, returning to Greenwich on +the 30th Sept.--From June 15th to 19th I visited my brother at +Keysoe." + +The following extracts are from letters written to his wife while on +the above trip in Yorkshire and Cumberland: + + + RED LION INN, REDCAR, + _1841, Sept. 11_. + +We stopped at York: went to the Tavern Hotel. In the morning (Friday) +went into the Cathedral. I think that it improves on acquaintance. The +nave is now almost filled with scaffolding for the repair of the roof, +so that it has not the bare unfinished appearance that it had when I +was there last year. The tower in which the fire began seems to be a +good deal repaired: there are new mullions in its windows, &c. We +stopped to hear part of the service, which was not very effective. + + * * * * * + +Here are notes of his visit to Dentdale in Yorkshire, the birthplace +of his friend Sedgwick: + + + KING'S HEAD, KENDAL, + _1841, Sept. 15_. + +The day was quite fine, and the hills quite clear. The ascent out of +Hawes is dull; the little branch dale is simple and monotonous, and so +are the hills about the great dale which are in sight. The only thing +which interested us was the sort of bird's-eye view of Hardraw dell, +which appeared a most petty and insignificant opening in the great +hill side. But when we got to the top of the pass there was a +magnificent view of Ingleborough. The dale which was most nearly in +front of us is that which goes down to Ingleton, past the side of +Ingleborough. The mountain was about nine miles distant. We turned to +the right and immediately descended Dent-dale. The three dales (to +Hawes, to Ingleton, and to Dent) lay their heads together in a most +amicable way, so that, when at the top, it is equally easy to descend +down either of them. We found very soon that Dent-dale is much more +beautiful than that by which we had ascended. The sides of the hills +are steeper, and perhaps higher: the bottom is richer. The road is +also better. The river is a continued succession of very pretty falls, +almost all of which have scooped out the lower strata of the rock, so +that the water shoots clear over. For several miles (perhaps 10) it +runs upon bare limestone without a particle of earth. From the head of +the dale to the village of Dent is eight miles. At about half-way is a +new chapel, very neat, with a transept at its west end. The village of +Dent is one of the strangest places that I ever saw. Narrow street, up +and down, with no possibility of two carriages bigger than children's +carts passing each other. We stopped at the head inn and enquired +about the Geolog: but he is not in the country. We then called on his +brother, who was much surprised and pleased to see us. His wife came +in soon after (his daughter having gone with a party to see some +waterfall) and they urged us to stop and dine with them. So we walked +about and saw every place about the house, church, and school, +connected with the history of the Geolog: and then dined. I promised +that you should call there some time when we are in the north together +and spend a day or two with them. Mr Sedgwick says it is reported that +Whewell will take Sedbergh living (which is now vacant: Trinity +College is patron). Then we had our chaise and went to Sedbergh. The +very mouth of Dent-dale is more contracted than its higher +parts. Sedbergh is embosomed among lumping hills. Then we had another +carriage to drive to Kendal. + + * * * * * + +Here is a recollection of Wordsworth: + + + SALUTATION, AMBLESIDE, + _1841, Sept. 19_. + +We then got our dinner at Lowwood, and walked straight to Ambleside, +changed our shoes, and walked on to Rydal to catch Wordsworth at +tea. Miss Wordsworth was being drawn about in a chair just as she was +seven years ago. I do not recollect her appearance then so as to say +whether she is much altered, but I think not. Mr Wordsworth is as +full of good talk as ever, and seems quite strong and well. Mrs +Wordsworth looks older. Their son William was at tea, but he had come +over only for the day or evening. There was also a little girl, who I +think is Mrs Wordsworth's niece. + + + 1842 + +"In this year I commenced a troublesome work, the Description of the +Northumberland Telescope. On Sept. 9th I wrote to the Duke of +Northumberland suggesting this, sending him a list of Plates, and +submitting an estimate of expense _£120_. On Sept. 19th I received the +Duke's assent. I applied to Prof. Challis (at the Cambridge +Observatory) requesting him to receive the draughtsman, Sly, in his +house, which he kindly consented to do. + +"With regard to Estimates. I now began to point out to the Admiralty +the inconvenience of furnishing separate estimates, viz. to the +Admiralty for the Astronomical Establishment, and to the Treasury for +the Magnetical and Meteorological Establishment.--The great work of +the Lunar Reductions proceeded steadily: 14 computers were employed on +them.--With regard to the Magnetical and Meteorological Establishment: +I suppose that James Ross's expedition had returned: and with this, +according to the terms of the original grant, the Magnetical and +Meteorological Establishments expired. There was much correspondence +with the Royal Society and the Treasury, and ultimately Sir R. Peel +consented to the continuation of the establishments to the end of +1845.--In this year began my correspondence with Mr Mitchell about the +Cincinnati Observatory. On Aug. 25 Mr Mitchell settled himself at +Greenwich, and worked for a long time in the Computing Room.--And in +this year Mr Aiken of Liverpool first wrote to me about the Liverpool +Observatory, and a great deal of correspondence followed: the plans +were in fact entirely entrusted to me.--July 7th was the day of the +Total Eclipse of the Sun, which I observed with my wife at the +Superga, near Turin. I wrote an account of my observations for the +Royal Astronomical Society.--On Jan. 10th I notified to Mr Goulburn +that our Report on the Restoration of the Standards was ready, and on +Jan. 12th I presented it. After this followed a great deal of +correspondence, principally concerning the collection of authenticated +copies of the Old Standards from all sides.--In some discussions with +Capt. Shirreff, then Captain Superintendent of the Chatham Dockyard, +I suggested that machinery might be made which would saw ship-timbers +to their proper form, and I sent him some plans on Nov. 8th. This was +the beginning of a correspondence which lasted long, but which led to +nothing, as will appear hereafter.--On Dec. 15th, being on a visit to +Dean Peacock at Ely, I examined the Drainage Scoop Wheel at +Prickwillow, and made a Report to him by letter, which obtained +circulation and was well known.--On May 26th the manuscript of my +article, 'Tides and Waves,' for the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana was +sent to the printer. I had extensive correspondence, principally on +local tides, with Whewell and others. Tides were observed for me by +Colby's officers at Southampton, by myself at Christchurch and Poole, +at Ipswich by Ransome's man; and a great series of observations of +Irish Tides were made on my plan under Colby's direction in June, July +and August.--On Sept. 15th Mr Goulburn, Chancellor of the Exchequer, +asked my opinion on the utility of Babbage's calculating machine, and +the propriety of expending further sums of money on it. I replied, +entering fully into the matter, and giving my opinion that it was +worthless.--I was elected an Honorary Member of the Institution of +Civil Engineers, London. + +"The reduction and printing of the astronomical observations had been +getting into arrear: the last revise of the 1840 observations went to +press on May 18th, 1842. On Aug. 18th came into operation a new +organization of Assistants' hours of attendance, &c., required for +bringing up reductions. I worked hard myself and my example had good +effect." His reference to this subject in his Report to the Visitors +is as follows: "I have in one of the preceding articles alluded to the +backwardness of our reductions. In those which follow it I trust that +I have sufficiently explained it. To say nothing of the loss, from ill +health, of the services of most efficient assistants, I am certain +that the quantity of current work will amply explain any +backwardness. Perhaps I may particularly mention that in the +observations of 1840 there was an unusual quantity of equatoreal +observations, and the reductions attending these occupied a very great +time. But, as regards myself, there has been another cause. The +reduction of the Ancient Lunar and Planetary Observations, the +attention to chronometer constructions, the proposed management of the +printing of papers relating to important operations at the Cape of +Good Hope; these and similar operations have taken up much of my +time. I trust that I am doing well in rendering Greenwich, even more +distinctly than it has been heretofore, the place of reference to all +the world for the important observations, and results of observations, +on which the system of the universe is founded. As regards myself, I +have been accustomed, in these matters, to lay aside private +considerations; to consider that I am not a mere Superintendent of +current observations, but a Trustee for the honour of Greenwich +Observatory generally, and for its utility generally to the world; +nay, to consider myself not as mere Director of Greenwich Observatory, +but (however unworthy personally) as British Astronomer, required +sometimes by my office to interfere (when no personal offence is +given) in the concerns of other establishments of the State. If the +Board supports me in this view there can be little doubt that the +present delay of computations, relating to current observations, will +be considered by them as a very small sacrifice to the important +advantage that may be gained by proper attention to the observations +of other times and other places." + +"Of private history: In February I went for a week to Playford and +Norwich, visiting Prof. Sedgwick at the latter place. On Mar. 1st my +third daughter Christabel was born. In March I paid a short visit to +Sir John Herschel at Hawkhurst. From June 12th to Aug. 11th I was +travelling with my wife on the Continent, being partly occupied with +the observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 7th. The +journey was in Switzerland and North Italy. In December I went to +Cambridge and Ely, visiting Dr Peacock at the latter place." + +From Feb. 23rd to 28th Airy was engaged on Observations of Tides at +Southampton, Christchurch, Poole, and Weymouth. During this expedition +he wrote frequently (as he always did) to his wife on the incidents of +his journey, and the following letters appear characteristic: + + + KING'S ARMS, CHRISTCHURCH, + OR XCHURCH, + _1842, Feb. 24_. + +The lower of the above descriptions of my present place of abode is +the correct one, as I fearlessly assert on the authority of divers +direction-posts on the roads leading to it (by the bye this supports +my doctrine that x in Latin was not pronounced eks but khi, because +the latter is the first letter of Christ, for which x is here +traditionally put). Finding this morning that Yolland (who called on +me as soon as I had closed the letter to you) was perfectly inclined +to go on with the tide observations at Southampton, and that his +corporals of sappers were conducting them in the most exemplary +manner, I determined on starting at once. However we first went to +look at the New Docks (mud up to the knees) and truly it is a very +great work. There is to be enclosed a good number of acres of water 22 +feet deep: one dock locked in, the other a tidal dock or basin with +that depth at low water. They are surrounded by brick walls eight feet +thick at top, 10 or more at bottom; and all the parts that ever can be +exposed are faced with granite. The people reckon that this work when +finished will attract a good deal of the London commerce, and I should +not be surprised at it. For it is very much easier for ships to get +into Southampton than into London, and the railway carriage will make +them almost one. A very large steamer is lying in Southampton Water: +the Oriental, which goes to Alexandria. The Lady Mary Wood, a large +steamer for Lisbon and Gibraltar, was lying at the pier. The said pier +is a very pleasant place of promenade, the water and banks are so +pretty, and there is so much liveliness of ships about it. Well I +started in a gig, in a swashing rain, which continued off and on for a +good while. Of the 21 miles, I should think that 15 were across the +New Forest. I do not much admire it. As for Norman William's +destruction of houses and churches to make it hunting ground, that is +utter nonsense which never could have been written by anybody that +ever saw it: but as to hunting, except his horses wore something like +mud-pattens or snow-shoes, it is difficult to conceive it. Almost the +whole Forest is like a great sponge, water standing in every part. In +the part nearer to Xchurch forest trees, especially beeches, seem to +grow well. We stopped to bait at Lyndhurst, a small place high up in +the Forest: a good view, such as it is, from the churchyard. The +hills of the Isle of Wight occasionally in sight. On approaching +Xchurch the chalk cliffs of the west end of the Isle of Wight (leading +to the Needles) were partly visible; and, as the sun was shining on +them, they fairly blazed. Xchurch is a small place with a +magnificent-looking church (with lofty clerestory, double transept, +&c., but with much irregularity) which I propose to visit +to-morrow. Also a ruin which looks like an abbey, but the people call +it a castle. There is a good deal of low land about it, and the part +between the town and the sea reminded me a good deal of the estuary +above Cardigan, flat ill-looking bogs (generally islands) among the +water. I walked to the mouth of the river (more than two miles) +passing a nice little place called Sandford, with a hotel and a lot of +lodgings for summer sea-people. At the entrance of the river is a +coastguard station, and this I find is the place to which I must go in +the morning to observe the tide. I had some talk with the coastguard +people, and they assure me that the tide is really double as +reported. As I came away the great full moon was rising, and I could +read in her unusually broad face (indicating her nearness to the +earth) that there will be a powerful tide. I came in and have had +dinner and tea, and am now going to bed, endeavouring to negociate for +a breakfast at six o'clock to-morrow morning. It is raining cats and +dogs. + + * * * * * + + LUCE'S HOTEL, WEYMOUTH, + _1842, Feb. 27_. + +This morning when I got up I found that it was blowing fresh from +S.W. and the sea was bursting over the wall of the eastern extremity +of the Esplanade very magnanimously. So (the swell not being +favourable for tide-observations) I gave them up and determined to go +to see the surf on the Chesil Bank. I started with my great-coat on, +more for defence against the wind than against rain; but in a short +time it began to rain, and just when I was approaching the bridge +which connects the mainland with the point where the Chesil Bank ends +at Portland (there being an arm of the sea behind the Chesil Bank) it +rained and blew most dreadfully. However I kept on and mounted the +bank and descended a little way towards the sea, and there was the +surf in all its glory. I cannot give you an idea of its majestic +appearance. It was evidently very high, but that was not the most +striking part of it, for there was no such thing as going within a +considerable distance of it (the occasional outbreaks of the water +advancing so far) so that its magnitude could not be well seen. My +impression is that the height of the surf was from 10 to 20 feet. But +the striking part was the clouds of solid spray which formed +immediately and which completely concealed all the other operations of +the water. They rose a good deal higher than the top of the surf, so +the state of things was this. A great swell is seen coming, growing +steeper and steeper; then it all turns over and you see a face just +like the pictures of falls of Niagara; but in a little more than one +second this is totally lost and there is nothing before you but an +enormous impenetrable cloud of white spray. In about another second +there comes from the bottom of this cloud the foaming current of water +up the bank, and it returns grating the pebbles together till their +jar penetrates the very brain. I stood in the face of the wind and +rain watching this a good while, and should have stood longer but that +I was so miserably wet. It appeared to me that the surf was higher +farther along the bank, but the air was so thickened by the rain and +the spray that I could not tell. When I returned the bad weather +abated. I have now borrowed somebody else's trowsers while mine are +drying (having got little wet in other parts, thanks to my great-coat, +which successfully brought home a hundredweight of water), and do not +intend to stir out again except perhaps to post this letter. + + * * * * * + + FLAMSTEED HOUSE, + _1842, May 15_. + +Yesterday after posting the letter for you I went per steamboat to +Hungerford. I then found Mr Vignoles, and we trundled off together, +with another engineer named Smith, picking up Stratford by the way, to +Wormwood Scrubs. There was a party to see the Atmospheric Railway in +action: including (among others) Sir John Burgoyne, whom I met in +Ireland several years ago, and Mr Pym, the Engineer of the Dublin and +Kingstown Railway, whom I have seen several times, and who is very +sanguine about this construction; and Mr Clegg, the proposer of the +scheme (the man that invented gas in its present arrangements), and +Messrs Samuda, two Jews who are the owners of the experiment now going +on; and Sir James South! With the latter hero and mechanician we did +not come in contact. Unfortunately the stationary engine (for working +the air-pump which draws the air out of the pipes and thus sucks the +carriages along) broke down during the experiment, but not till we had +seen the carriage have one right good run. And to be sure it is very +funny to see a carriage running all alone "as if the Devil drove it" +without any visible cause whatever. The mechanical arrangements we +were able to examine as well after the engine had broken down as at +any time. And they are very simple and apparently very satisfactory, +and there is no doubt of the mechanical practicability of the thing +even in places where locomotives can hardly be used: whether it will +pay or not is doubtful. I dare say that the Commissioners' Report has +taken a very good line of discrimination. + + * * * * * + + + 1843 + +"In March I wrote to Dr Wynter (Vice-Chancellor) at Oxford, requesting +permission to see Bradley's and Bliss's manuscript Observations, with +the view of taking a copy of them. This was granted, and the books of +Transits were subsequently copied under Mr Breen's superintendence. +--The following paragraph is extracted from the Report to +the Visitors: 'In the Report of last year, I stated that our +reductions had dropped considerably in arrear. I have the satisfaction +now of stating that this arrear and very much more have been +completely recovered, and that the reductions are now in as forward a +state as at any time since my connection with the Observatory.' In +fact the observations of 1842 were sent to press on Mar. 1st, +1843.--About this year the Annual Dinner at the Visitation began to be +more important, principally under the management of Capt. W.H. Smyth, +R.N.--In November I was enquiring about an 8-inch object-glass. I had +already in mind the furnishing of our meridional instruments with +greater optical powers.--On July 14th the Admiralty referred to me a +Memorial of Mr J.G. Ulrich, a chronometer maker, claiming a reward for +improvements in chronometers. I took a great deal of trouble in the +investigation of this matter, by books, witnesses, &c., and finally +reported on Nov. 4th that there was no ground for claim.--In April I +received the first application of the Royal Exchange Committee, for +assistance in the construction of the Clock: this led to a great deal +of correspondence, especially with Dent.--The Lunar Reductions were +going on in full vigour.--I had much work in connection with the Cape +Observatory: partly about an equatoreal required for the Observatory, +but chiefly in getting Maclear's work through the press.--In this year +I began to think seriously of determining the longitude of Valencia in +Ireland, as a most important basis for the scale of longitude in these +latitudes, by the transmission of chronometers; and in August I went +to Valencia and examined the localities. In September I submitted a +plan to the Admiralty, but it was deferred.--The new Commission for +restoring the Standards was appointed on June 20th, I being Chairman. +The work of collecting standards and arranging plans was going on; Mr +Baily attending to Standards of Length, and Prof. W.H. Miller to +Standards of Weight. We held two meetings.--A small assistance was +rendered to me by Mr Charles May (of the firm of Ransomes and May), +which has contributed much to the good order of papers in the +Observatory. Mr Robert Ransome had remarked my method of punching +holes in the paper by a hand-punch, the places of the holes being +guided by holes in a piece of card, and said that they could furnish +me with something better. Accordingly, on Aug. 28th Mr May sent me the +punching machine, the prototype of all now used in the Observatory. + +"On Sept. 25th was made my proposal for an Altazimuth Instrument for +making observations of the Moon's place more frequently and through +parts of her orbit where she could never be observed with meridional +instruments; the most important addition to the Observatory since its +foundation. The Board of Visitors recommended it to the Admiralty, +and the Admiralty sanctioned the construction of the instrument and +the building to contain it." The following passage is quoted from the +Address of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of Visitors at the +Special Meeting of Nov. 10th, 1843: "The most important object in the +institution and maintenance of the Royal Observatory has always been +the Observations of the Moon. In this term I include the determination +of the places of fixed stars which are necessary for ascertaining the +instrumental errors applicable to the instrumental observations of the +Moon. These, as regards the objects of the institution, were merely +auxiliaries: the history of the circumstances which led the Government +of the day to supply the funds for the construction of the Observatory +shews that, but for the demands of accurate Lunar Determinations as +aids to navigation, the erection of a National Observatory would never +have been thought of. And this object has been steadily kept in view +when others (necessary as fundamental auxiliaries) were passed +by. Thus, during the latter part of Bradley's time, and Bliss's time +(which two periods are the least efficient in the modern history of +the Observatory), and during the latter part of Maskelyne's presidency +(when, for years together, there is scarcely a single observation of +the declination of a star), the Observations of the Moon were kept up +with the utmost regularity. And the effect of this regularity, as +regards its peculiar object, has been most honourable to the +institution. The existing Theories and Tables of the Moon are founded +entirely upon the Greenwich Observations; the Observatory of Greenwich +has been looked to as that from which alone adequate observations can +be expected, and from which they will not be expected in vain: and it +is not perhaps venturing too much to predict that, unless some gross +dereliction of duty by the managers of the Observatory should occur, +the Lunar Tables will always be founded on Greenwich Observations. +With this impression it has long been to me a matter of +consideration whether means should not be taken for rendering the +series of Observations of the Moon more complete than it can be made +by the means at present recognized in our observatories."--In +illustration of the foregoing remarks, the original inscription still +remaining on the outside of the wall of the Octagon Room of the +Observatory may be quoted. It runs thus: 'Carolus II's Rex Optimus +Astronomiae et Nauticae Artis Patronus Maximus Speculam hanc in +utriusque commodum fecit Anno D'ni MDCLXXVI Regni sui XXVIII curante +Iona Moore milite RTSG.' + +"The Ashburton Treaty had been settled with the United States, for the +boundary between Canada and the State of Maine, and one of its +conditions was, that a straight line about 65 miles in length should +be drawn through dense woods, connecting definite points. It soon +appeared that this could scarcely be done except by astronomical +operations. Lord Canning, Under Secretary of the Foreign Office, +requested me to nominate two astronomers to undertake the work. I +strongly recommended that Military Officers should carry out the work, +and Capt. Robinson and Lieut. Pipon were detached for this service. On +Mar. 1st they took lodgings at Greenwich, and worked at the +Observatory every day and night through the month. My detailed +astronomical instructions to them were drawn out on Mar. 29th. I +prepared all the necessary skeleton forms, &c., and looked to their +scientific equipment in every way. The result will be given in 1844. + +"Of private history: In January I went to Dover with my wife to see +the blasting of a cliff there: we also visited Sir J. Herschel at +Hawkhurst. In April I was at Playford, on a visit to Arthur +Biddell. On Apr. 9th my daughter Annot was born. From July 22nd to +August 25th I was travelling in the South of Ireland, chiefly to see +Valencia and consider the question of determining its longitude: +during this journey I visited Lord Rosse at Birr Castle, and returned +to Weymouth, where my family were staying at the time. In October I +visited Cambridge, and in December I was again at Playford." + +The journey to Cambridge (Oct. 24th to 27th) was apparently in order +to be present on the occasion of the Queen's visit there on the 25th: +the following letter relating to it was written to his wife: + + + SEDGWICK'S ROOMS, + TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. + _1843, Oct. 26, Thursday_. + +I have this morning received your letter: I had no time to write +yesterday. There are more things to tell of than I can possibly +remember. The Dean of Ely yesterday was in a most ludicrous state of +misery because his servant had sent his portmanteau (containing his +scarlet academicals as well as everything else) to London, and it went +to Watford before it was recovered: but he got it in time to shew +himself to-day. Yesterday morning I came early to breakfast with +Sedgwick. Then I walked about the streets to look at the +flags. Cambridge never had such an appearance before. In looking along +Trinity Street or Trumpington Street there were arches and flags as +close as they could stand, and a cord stretched from King's Entrance +to Mr Deck's or the next house with flags on all its length: a flag on +St Mary's, and a huge royal standard ready to hoist on Trinity +Gateway: laurels without end. I applied at the Registrar's office for +a ticket which was to admit me to Trinity Court, the Senate House, +&c., and received from Peacock one for King's Chapel. Then there was +an infinity of standing about, and very much I was fatigued, till I +got some luncheon at Blakesley's rooms at 1 o'clock. This was +necessary because there was to be no dinner in hall on account of the +Address presentation. The Queen was expected at 2, and arrived about +10 minutes after 2. When she drove up to Trinity Gate, the +Vice-Chancellor, masters, and beadles went to meet her, and the +beadles laid down their staves, which she desired them to take +again. Then she came towards the Lodge as far as the Sundial, where +Whewell as master took the college keys (a bundle of rusty keys tied +together by a particularly greasy strap) from the bursar Martin, and +handed them to the Queen, who returned them. Then she drove round by +the turret-corner of the court to the Lodge door. Almost every member +of the University was in the court, and there was a great hurraing +except when the ceremonies were going forward. Presently the Queen +appeared at a window and bowed, and was loudly cheered. Then notice +was given that the Queen and Prince would receive the Addresses of the +University in Trinity hall, and a procession was formed, in which I +had a good place, as I claimed rank with the Professors. A throne and +canopy were erected at the top of the hall, but the Queen did not sit, +which was her own determination, because if she had sat it would have +been proper that everybody should back out before presenting the +Address to the Prince: which operation would have suffocated at least +100 people. The Queen wore a blue gown and a brown shawl with an +immense quantity of gold embroidery, and a bonnet. Then it was known +that the Queen was going to service at King's Chapel at half past +three: so everybody went there. I saw the Queen walk up the antechapel +and she looked at nothing but the roof. I was not able to see her in +chapel or to see the throne erected for her with its back to the +Table, which has given great offence to many people. (I should have +said that before the Queen came I called on Dr Haviland, also on +Scholefield, also on the Master of Christ's.) After this she returned +to Trinity, and took into her head to look at the chapel. The cloth +laid on the pavement was not long enough and the undergraduates laid +down their gowns. Several of the undergraduate noblemen carried +candles to illuminate Newton's statue. After this the Prince went by +torchlight to the library. Then I suppose came dinner, and then it was +made known that at half-past nine the Queen would receive some Members +of the University. So I rigged myself up and went to the levée at the +Lodge and was presented in my turn; by the Vice-Chancellor as +"Ex-Professor Airy, your Majesty's Astronomer Royal." The Queen and +the Prince stood together, and a bow was made to and received from +each. The Prince recognised me and said "I am glad to see you," or +something like that. Next to him stood Goulburn, and next Lord +Lyndhurst, who to my great surprise spoke very civilly to me (as I +will tell you afterwards). The Queen had her head bare and a sort of +French white gown and looked very well. She had the ribbon of the +Garter on her breast; but like a ninny I forgot to look whether she +had the Garter upon her arm. The Prince wore his Garter. I went to bed +dead tired and got up with a headache.--About the degree to the Prince +and the other movements I will write again. + + * * * * * + +Here is a note from Cubitt relating to the blasting of the Round Down +Cliff at Dover referred to above: + + GREAT GEORGE STREET, + _Jan. 20th, 1843_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +_Thursday_ next the 26th at 12 is the time fixed for the attempt to +blow out the foot of the "Round Down" Cliff near Dover. + +The Galvanic apparatus has been repeatedly tried in place--that is by +exploding cartridges in the very chambers of the rock prepared for the +powder--with the batteries at 1200 feet distance they are in full form +and act admirably so that I see but little fear of failure on that +head. + +They have been rehearsing the explosions on the plan I most strongly +recommended, that is--to fire each chamber by an independent battery +and circuit and to discharge the three batteries simultaneously by +signal or word of command which answers well and "no mistake." + +I shall write to Sir John Herschel to-day, and remain + + My dear Sir, + Very truly yours, + W. CUBITT. + +G.B. Airy, Esq. + + * * * * * + +The following extracts are from letters to his wife written in Ireland +when on his journey to consider the determination of the longitude of +Valencia. + + SKIBBEREEN, + _1843, July 28_. + +By the bye, to shew the quiet of Ireland now, I saw in a newspaper at +Cork this account. At some place through which a repeal-association +was to pass (I forget its name) the repealers of the place set up a +triumphal arch. The police pulled it down, and were pelted by the +repealers, and one of the policemen was much bruised. O'Connell has +denounced this place as a disgrace to the cause of repeal, and has +moved in the full meeting that the inhabitants of this place be struck +off the repeal list, with no exception but that of the parish priest +who was proved to be absent. And O'Connell declares that he will not +pass through this place. Now for my journey. It is a sort of +half-mountain country all the way, with some bogs to refresh my eyes. + + + VALENCIA HOTEL, + _1843, August 6_. + +It seems that my coming here has caused infinite alarm. The common +people do not know what to conjecture, but have some notion that the +"sappers and miners" are to build a bridge to admit the charge of +cavalry into the island. An attendant of Mrs Fitzgerald expressed how +strange it was that a man looking so mild and gentle could meditate +such things "but never fear, Maam, those that look so mild are always +the worst": then she narrated how that her husband was building some +stables, but that she was demanding of him "Pat, you broth of a boy, +what is the use of your building stables when these people are coming +to destroy everything." I suspect that the people who saw me walking +up through the storm yesterday must have thought me the prince of the +powers of the air at least. + + + HIBERNIAN HOTEL, TRALEE, + _1843, August 7_. + +I sailed from Valencia to Cahersiveen town in a sail-boat up the water +(not crossing at the ferry). I had accommodated my time to the wish of +the boatman, who desired to be there in time for prayers: so that I +had a long waiting at Cahersiveen for the mail car. In walking through +the little town, I passed the chapel (a convent chapel) to which the +people were going: and really the scene was very curious. The chapel +appeared to be overflowing full, and the court in front of it was full +of people, some sitting on the ground, some kneeling, and some +prostrate. There were also people in the street, kneeling with their +faces towards the gate pillars, &c. It seemed to me that the priest +and the chapel were of less use here than even in the continental +churches, and I do not see why both parties should not have stopped at +home. When the chapel broke up, it seemed as if the streets were +crammed with people. The turnout that even a small village in Ireland +produces is perfectly amazing. + + + 1844 + +"In the course of 1843 I had put in hand the engraving of the drawings +of the Northumberland Telescope at Cambridge Observatory, and wrote +the description for letterpress. In the course of 1844 the work was +completed, and the books were bound and distributed. + +"The building to receive the Altazimuth Instrument was erected in the +course of the year; during the construction a foreman fell into the +foundation pit and broke his leg, of which accident he died. This is +the only accident that I have known at the Observatory.--The +Electrometer Mast and sliding frame were erected near the Magnetic +Observatory.--The six-year Catalogue of 1439 stars was finished; this +work had been in progress during the last few years.--In May I went to +Woolwich to correct the compasses of the 'Dover,' a small iron steamer +carrying mails between Dover and Ostend: this I believe was the first +iron ship possessed by the Admiralty.--The Lunar Reductions were +making good progress; 16 computers were employed upon them. I made +application for printing them and the required sum (_£1000_) was +granted by the Treasury.--In this year commenced that remarkable +movement which led to the discovery of Neptune. On Feb. 13th +Prof. Challis introduced Mr Adams to me by letter. On Feb. 15th I sent +my observed places of Uranus, which were wanted. On June 19th I also +sent places to Mr E. Bouvard.--As regards the National Standards, Mr +Baily (who undertook the comparisons relating to standards of length) +died soon, and Mr Sheepshanks then undertook the work.--I attended the +meeting of the British Association held at York (principally in +compliment to the President, Dr Peacock), and gave an oral account of +my work on Irish Tides.--At the Oxford Commemoration in June, the +honorary degree of D.C.L. was conferred on M. Struve and on me, and +then a demand was made on each of us for _£6. 6s._ for fees. We were +much disgusted and refused to pay it, and I wrote angrily to Dr +Wynter, the Vice-Chancellor. The fees were ultimately paid out of the +University Chest. + +"In this year the longitude of Altona was determined by M. Struve for +the Russian Government. For this purpose it was essential that +facilities should be given for landing chronometers at Greenwich. But +the consent of the customhouse authorities had first to be obtained, +and this required a good deal of negotiation. Ultimately the +determination was completed in the most satisfactory manner. The +chronometers, forty-two in number, crossed the German Sea sixteen +times. The transit observers were twice interchanged, in order to +eliminate not only their Personal Equation, but also the gradual +change of Personal Equation. On Sept. 30th Otto Struve formally wrote +his thanks for assistance rendered. + +"For the determination of the longitude of Valencia, which was carried +out in this year, various methods were discussed, but the plan of +sending chronometers by mail conveyance was finally approved. From +London to Liverpool the chronometers were conveyed by the railways, +from Liverpool to Kingstown by steamer, from Dublin to Tralee by the +Mail Coaches, from Tralee to Cahersiveen by car, from Cahersiveen to +Knightstown by boat, and from Knightstown to the station on the hill +the box was carried like a sedan-chair. There were numerous other +arrangements, and all succeeded perfectly without a failure of any +kind. Thirty pocket chronometers traversed the line between Greenwich +and Kingstown about twenty-two times, and that between Kingstown and +Valencia twenty times. The chronometrical longitudes of Liverpool +Observatory, Kingstown Station, and Valencia Station are 12m 0.05s, +24m 31.17s, 41m 23.25s; the geodetic longitudes, computed from +elements which I published long ago in the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana, are 12m 0.34s, 24m 31.47s, 41m 23.06s. It appears from +this that the elements to which I have alluded represent the form of +the Earth here as nearly as is possible. On the whole, I think it +probable that this is the best arc of parallel that has ever been +measured. + +"With regard to the Maine Boundary: on May 7th Col. Estcourt, the +British Commissioner, wrote to me describing the perfect success of +following out my plan: the line of 64 miles was cut by directions laid +out at the two ends, and the cuttings met within 341 feet. The country +through which this line was to pass is described as surpassing in its +difficulties the conception of any European. It consists of +impervious forests, steep ravines, and dismal swamps. A survey for the +line was impossible, and a tentative process would have broken the +spirit of the best men. I therefore arranged a plan of operations +founded on a determination of the absolute latitudes and the +difference of longitudes of the two extremities. The difference of +longitudes was determined by the transfer of chronometers by the very +circuitous route from one extremity to the other; and it was necessary +to divide the whole arc into four parts, and to add a small part by +measure and bearing. When this was finished, the azimuths of the line +for the two ends were computed, and marks were laid off for starting +with the line from both ends. One party, after cutting more than +forty-two miles through the woods, were agreeably surprised, on the +brow of a hill, at seeing directly before them a gap in the woods on +the next line of hill; it opened gradually, and proved to be the line +of the opposite party. On continuing the lines till they passed +abreast of each other, their distance was found to be 341 feet. To +form an estimate of the magnitude of this error, it is to be observed +that it implies an error of only a quarter of a second of time in the +difference of longitudes; and that it is only one-third (or nearly so) +of the error which would have been committed if the spheroidal form of +the Earth had been neglected. I must point out the extraordinary merit +of the officers who effected this operation. Transits were observed +and chronometers were interchanged when the temperature was lower than +19° below zero: and when the native assistants, though paid highly, +deserted on account of the severity of the weather, the British +officers still continued the observations upon whose delicacy +everything depended. + +"Of private history: From July 3rd to Aug. 13th I was in Ireland with +my wife. This was partly a business journey in connection with the +determination of the longitude of Valencia. On Jan. 4th I asked Lord +Lyndhurst (Lord Chancellor) to present my brother to the living of +Helmingham, which he declined to do: but on Dec. 12th he offered +Binbrooke, which I accepted for my brother." + + + 1845 + +"A map of the Buildings and Grounds of the Observatory was commenced +in 1844, and was still in progress.--On Mar. 19th I was employed on a +matter which had for some time occupied my thoughts, viz., the +re-arrangement of current manuscripts. I had prepared a sloping box +(still in use) to hold 24 portfolios: and at this time I arranged +papers A, and went on with B, C, &c. Very little change has been made +in these.--In reference to the time given to the weekly report on +Meteorology to the Registrar General, the Report to the Board of +Visitors contains the following paragraph: 'The devotion of some of my +assistants' time and labour to the preparation of the Meteorological +Report attached to the weekly report of the Registrar General, is, in +my opinion, justified by the bearing of the meteorological facts upon +the medical facts, and by the attention which I understand that Report +to have excited.'--On Dec. 13th the sleep of Astronomy was broken by +the announcement that a new planet, Astraea, was discovered by Mr +Hencke. I immediately circulated notices.--But in this year began a +more remarkable planetary discussion. On Sept. 22nd Challis wrote to +me to say that Mr Adams would leave with me his results on the +explanation of the irregularities of Uranus by the action of an +exterior planet. In October Adams called, in my absence. On Nov. 5th I +wrote to him, enquiring whether his theory explained the irregularity +of radius-vector (as well as that of longitude). I waited for an +answer, but received none. (See the Papers printed in the Royal +Astronomical Society's Memoirs and Monthly Notices).--In the Royal +Society, the Royal Medal was awarded to me for my Paper on the Irish +Tides.--In the Royal Astronomical Society I was President; and, with a +speech, delivered the Medal to Capt. Smyth for the Bedford Catalogue +of Double Stars.--On Jan. 21st I was appointed (with Schumacher) one +of the Referees for the King of Denmark's Comet Medal: I have the +King's Warrant under his sign manual.--The Tidal Harbour Commission +commenced on Apr. 5th: on July 21st my Report on Wexford Harbour (in +which I think I introduced important principles) was communicated. One +Report was made this year to the Government.--In the matter of Saw +Mills (which had begun in 1842), I had prepared a second set of plans +in 1844, and in this year Mr Nasmyth made a very favourable report on +my plan. A machinist of the Chatham Dock Yard, Sylvester, was set to +work (but not under my immediate command) to make a model: and this +produced so much delay as ultimately to ruin the design.--On Jan. 1st +I was engaged on my Paper 'On the flexure of a uniform bar, supported +by equal pressures at equidistant points.'" (This was probably in +connection with the support of Standards of Length, for the +Commission. Ed.).--In June I attended the Meeting of the British +Association at Cambridge, and on the 20th I gave a Lecture on +Magnetism in the Senate House. The following quotation relating to +this Lecture is taken from a letter by Whewell to his wife (see Life +of William Whewell by Mrs Stair Douglas): "I did not go to the Senate +House yesterday evening. Airy was the performer, and appears to have +outdone himself in his art of giving clearness and simplicity to the +hardest and most complex subjects. He kept the attention of his +audience quite enchained for above two hours, talking about +terrestrial magnetism."--On Nov. 29th I gave evidence before a +Committee of the House of Commons on Dover Harbour Pier. + +"With respect to the Magnetical and Meteorological Establishment, the +transactions in this year were most important. It had been understood +that the Government establishments had been sanctioned twice for +three-year periods, of which the second would expire at the end of +1845: and it was a question with the scientific public whether they +should be continued. My own opinion was in favour of stopping the +observations and carefully discussing them. And I am convinced that +this would have been best, except for the subsequent introduction of +self-registering systems, in which I had so large a share. There was +much discussion and correspondence, and on June 7th the Board of +Visitors resolved that 'In the opinion of the Visitors it is of the +utmost importance that these observations should continue to be made +on the most extensive scale which the interests of those sciences may +require.' The meeting of the British Association was held at Cambridge +in June: and one of the most important matters there was the Congress +of Magnetic Philosophers, many of them foreigners. It was resolved +that the Magnetic Observatory at Greenwich be continued +permanently. At this meeting I proposed a resolution which has proved +to be exceedingly important. I had remarked the distress which the +continuous two-hourly observations through the night produced to my +Assistants, and determined if possible to remove it. I therefore +proposed 'That it is highly desirable to encourage by specific +pecuniary reward the improvement of self-recording magnetical and +meteorological apparatus: and that the President of the British +Association and the President of the Royal Society be requested to +solicit the favourable consideration of Her Majesty's Government to +this subject,' which was adopted. In October the Admiralty expressed +their willingness to grant a reward up to _£500_. Mr Charles Brooke +had written to me proposing a plan on Sept. 23rd, and he sent me his +first register on Nov. 24th. On Nov. 1st the Treasury informed the +Admiralty that the Magnetic Observatories will be continued for a +further period. + +"The Railway Gauge Commission in this year was an important +employment. The Railways, which had begun with the Manchester and +Liverpool Railway (followed by the London and Birmingham) had advanced +over the country with some variation in their breadth of gauge. The +gauge of the Colchester Railway had been altered to suit that of the +Cambridge Railway. And finally there remained but two gauges: the +broad gauge (principally in the system allied with the Great Western +Railway); and the narrow gauge (through the rest of England). These +came in contact at Gloucester, and were likely to come in contact at +many other points--to the enormous inconvenience of the public. The +Government determined to interfere, beginning with a Commission. On +July 3rd Mr Laing (then on the Board of Trade) rode to Greenwich, +bearing a letter of introduction from Sir John Lefevre and a request +from Lord Dalhousie (President of the Board of Trade) that I would act +as second of a Royal Commission (Col. Sir Frederick Smith, Airy, Prof. +Barlow). I assented to this: and very soon began a vigorous course of +business. On July 23rd and 24th I went with Prof. Barlow and our +Secretary to Bristol, Gloucester, and Birmingham: on Dec. 17th I went +on railway experiments to Didcot: and on Dec. 29th to Jan. 2nd I went +to York, with Prof. Barlow and George Arthur Biddell, for railway +experiments. On Nov. 21st I finished a draft Report of the Railway +Gauge Commission, which served in great measure as a basis for that +adopted next year. + +"Of private history: I wrote to Lord Lyndhurst on Feb. 20th, +requesting an exchange of the living to which he had presented my +brother in Dec. 1844 for that of Swineshead: to which he +consented.--On Jan. 29th I went with my wife on a visit to my uncle +George Biddell, at Bradfield St George, near Bury.--On June 9th I went +into the mining district of Cornwall with George Arthur Biddell.--From +Aug. 25th to Sept. 26th I was travelling in France with my sister and +my wife's sister, Georgiana Smith. I was well introduced, and the +journey was interesting.--On Oct. 29th my son Osmund was born.--Mr +F. Baily bequeathed to me _£500_, which realized _£450_." + +Here are some extracts from letters written to his wife relating to +the visit to the Cornish mines, &c.-- + + + PEARCE'S HOTEL, FALMOUTH, + _1845, June 12th, Thursday_. + +Then we walked to the United Mines in Gwennap. The day was very fine +and now it was perfectly broiling: and the hills here are long and +steep. At the United Mines we found the Captain, and he invited us to +join in a rough dinner, to which he and the other captains were going +to sit down. Then we examined one of the great pumping engines, which +is considered the best in the country: and some other engines. Between +3 and 4 there was to be a setting out of some work to the men by a +sort of Dutch Auction (the usual way of setting out the work here): +some refuse ores were to be broken up and made marketable, and the +subject of competition was, for how little in the pound on the gross +produce the men would work them up. While we were here a man was +brought up who was hurt in blasting: a piece of rock had fallen on +him. At this mine besides the ladder ways, they have buckets sliding +in guides by which the men are brought up: and they are just preparing +for work another apparatus which they say is tried successfully at +another mine (Tresavean): there are two wooden rods _A_ and _B_ +reaching from the top to the bottom, moved by cranks from the same +wheel, so that one goes up when the other goes down, and vice versâ: +each of these rods has small stages, at such a distance that when the +rod _A_ is down and the rod _B_ is up, the first stage of _A_ is level +with the first stage of _B_: but when the rod _A_ is up and the rod +_B_ is down, the second stage of _A_ is level with the first stage of +_B_: so a man who wants to descend steps on the first stage of _A_ and +waits till it goes down: then he steps sideways on the first stage of +_B_ and waits till it goes down: then he steps sideways to the second +stage of _A_ and waits till it goes down, and so on: or if a man is +coming up he does just the same. While we were here Mr R. Taylor +came. We walked home (a long step, perhaps seven miles) in a very hot +sun. Went to tea to Mr Alfred Fox, who has a house in a beautiful +position looking to the outside of Falmouth Harbour. + + * * * * * + + PENZANCE, + _1845, June 14, Saturday_. + +Yesterday morning we breakfasted early at Falmouth, and before 9 +started towards Gwennap. I had ascertained on Thursday that John +Williams (the senior of a very wealthy and influential family in this +country) was probably returned from London. So we drove first to his +house Burntcoose or Barncoose, and found him and his wife at +home. (They are Quakers, the rest of the family are not.) Sedgwick, +and Whewell, and I, or some of our party including me, had slept once +at their house. They received George and me most cordially, and +pressed us to come and dine with them after our visit to Tresavean +mine, of which intention I spoke in my last letter: so I named 4 +o'clock as hour for dinner. After a little stay we drove to Tresavean, +where I found the Captain of the mine prepared to send an Underground +Captain and a Pit-man to descend with us. So we changed our clothes +and descended by the ladders in the pumpshaft. Pretty work to descend +with the huge pump-rods (garnished with large iron bolts) working +violently, making strokes of 12 feet, close to our elbows; and with a +nearly bottomless pit at the foot of every ladder, where we had to +turn round the foot of the ladder walking on only a narrow +board. However we got down to the bottom of the mine with great safety +and credit, seeing all the mighty machinery on the way, to a greater +depth than I ever reached before, namely 1900 feet. From the bottom of +the pump we went aside a short distance into the lowest workings where +two men nearly naked were driving a level towards the lode or vein of +ore. Here I felt a most intolerable heat: and upon moving to get out +of the place, I had a dreadful feeling of feebleness and fainting, +such as I never had in my life before. The men urged me to climb the +ladders to a level where the air was better, but they might as well +have urged me to lift up the rock. I could do nothing but sit down and +lean fainting against the rocks. This arose entirely from the badness +of the air. After a time I felt a trifle better, and then I climbed +one short ladder, and sat down very faint again. When I recovered, two +men tied a rope round me, and went up the ladder before me, supporting +a part of my weight, and in this way I ascended four or five ladders +(with long rests between) till we came to a level, 260 fathoms below +the adit or nearly 300 fathoms below the surface, where there was a +tolerable current of pretty good air. Here I speedily recovered, +though I was a little weak for a short time afterwards. George also +felt the bad air a good deal, but not so much as I. He descended to +some workings equally low in another place (towards which the party +that I spoke of were directing their works), but said that the air +there was by no means so bad. We all met at the bottom of the +man-engine 260 fathoms below the adit. We sat still a little while, +and I acquired sufficient strength and nerve, so that I did not feel +the slightest alarm in the operation of ascending by the +man-engine. This is the funniest operation that I ever saw: it is the +only absolute novelty that I have seen since I was in the country +before: it has been introduced 2-1/2 years in Tresavean, and one day +in the United Mines. In my last letter I described the principle. In +the actual use there is no other motion to be made by the person who +is ascending or descending than that of stepping sideways each time +(there being proper hand-holds) with no exertion at all, except that +of stepping exactly at the proper instant: and not the shadow of +unpleasant feeling in the motion. Any woman may go with the most +perfect comfort, if she will but attend to the rules of stepping, and +forget that there is an open pit down to the very bottom of the +mine. In this way we were pumped up to the surface, and came up as +cool as cucumbers, instead of being drenched with perspiration. In my +description in last letter I forgot to mention that between the stages +on the moving rods which I have there described there are intermediate +stages on the moving rods (for which there is ample room, inasmuch as +the interval between the stages on each rod used by one person is 24 +feet), and these intermediate stages are used by persons _descending_: +so that there are persons _ascending_ and persons _descending_ at the +same time, who never interfere with each other and never step on the +same stages, but merely see each other passing on the other rods--It +is a most valuable invention. We then changed our clothes and washed, +and drove to Barncoose, arriving in good time for the dinner. I found +myself much restored by some superb Sauterne with water. When we were +proposing to go on to Camborne, Mr and Mrs Williams pressed us so +affectionately to stop that we at length decided on stopping for the +night, only bargaining for an early breakfast this morning. This +morning after breakfast, we started for Redruth and Camborne. The +population between them has increased immensely since I was here +before. &c. &c. + + * * * * * + +Here is a letter written to his wife while he was engaged on the +business of the Railway Gauge Commission. It contains reminiscences of +some people who made a great figure in the railway world at that time, +and was preceded by a letter which was playfully addressed "From the +Palace of King Hudson, York." + + + GEORGE INN, YORK, + _1845, Dec. 30_. + +I wrote yesterday from Mr Hudson's in time for the late post, and hope +that my letter might be posted by the servant to whom it was +given. Our affairs yesterday were simple: we reached Euston Station +properly, found Watson there, found a carriage reserved for us, eat +pork-pie at Wolverton (not so good as formerly), dined at Derby, and +arrived in York at 5.20. On the way Watson informed me that the +Government have awarded us _£500_ each. Sir F. Smith had talked over +the matter with us, and I laid it down as a principle that we +considered the business as an important one and one of very great +responsibility, and that we wished either that the Government should +treat us handsomely or should consider us as servants of the State +acting gratuitously, to which they assented. I think the Government +have done very well. Mr Hudson, as I have said, met us on the platform +and pressed us to dine with him (though I had dined twice). Then we +found the rival parties quarrelling, and had to arrange between +them. This prevented me from writing for the early post. (I forgot to +mention that Saunders, the Great Western Secretary, rode with us all +the way). At Hudson's we had really a very pleasant dinner: I sat +between Vernon Harcourt and Mrs Malcolm (his sister Georgiana) and +near to Mr Hudson. This morning we were prepared at 9 at the Station +for some runs. Brunel and other people had arrived in the night. And +we have been to Darlington and back, with a large party in our +experimental train. George Arthur Biddell rode on the engine as +representing me. But the side wind was so dreadfully heavy that, as +regards the wants of the case, this day is quite thrown away. We have +since been to lunch with Vernon Harcourt (Mrs Harcourt not at home) +and then went with him to look at the Cathedral. The Chapter-house, +which was a little injured, has been pretty well restored: all other +things in good order. The Cathedral looks smaller and lower than +French cathedrals. Now that we have come in, the Lord Mayor of York +has just called to invite us to dinner to-morrow.--I propose to George +Arthur Biddell that he go to Newcastle this evening, in order to see +glass works and other things there to-morrow, and to return when he +can. + +I think that I can persuade Barlow to stop to see the experiments out, +and if so I shall endeavour to return as soon as possible. The +earliest day would be the day after to-morrow. + + * * * * * + +The following extract is from a letter written to Mr Murray for +insertion in his Handbook of France, relating to the Breakwater at +Cherbourg, which Airy had visited during his journey in France in the +autumn of this year. + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1845, Oct. 8th_. + +My opinion on the construction I need not say ought not to be quoted: +but you are quite welcome to found any general statement on it; or +perhaps it may guide you in further enquiries. To make it clear, I +must speak rather generally upon the subject. There are three ways in +which a breakwater may be constructed. 1. By building a strong wall +with perpendicular face from the bottom of the sea. 2. By making a +bank with nothing but slopes towards the sea. 3. By making a sloping +bank to a certain height and then building a perpendicular wall upon +it.--Now if the 1st of these constructions could be arranged, I have +no doubt that it would be the best of all, because a sea does not +_break_ against a perpendicular face, but recoils in an unbroken +swell, merely making a slow quiet push at the wall, and not making a +violent impact. But practically it is nearly impossible. The 2nd +construction makes the sea to break tremendously, but if the sloping +surface be made of square stone put together with reasonable care +there is not the smallest tendency to unseat these stones. This is the +principle of construction of Plymouth Breakwater. In the 3rd +construction, the slope makes the sea to break tremendously, and then +it strikes the perpendicular face with the force of a battering ram: +and therefore in my opinion this is the worst construction of all. A +few face-stones may easily be dislodged, and then the sea entering +with this enormous force will speedily destroy the whole. This is the +form of the Cherbourg Digue. + +From this you will gather that I have a full belief that Plymouth +Breakwater will last very long, and that the Digue of Cherbourg, at +least its upper wall, will not last long. The great bank will last a +good while, gradually suffering degradation, but still protecting the +Road pretty well. + +I was assured by the officers residing on the Digue that the sea which +on breaking is thrown vertically upwards and then falls down upon the +pavement does sometimes push the stones about which are lying there +and which weigh three or four tons. + +I saw some preparations for the foundations of the fort at the eastern +extremity of the Digue. One artificial stone of concrete measured +12'9" × 6'7" × 5'7", and was estimated to weigh 25000 kilogrammes. + + + + CHAPTER VI. + + AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY--1846 TO 1856. + + + 1846 + +"On Nov. 7th I proposed a change in the form of Estimates for the +Observatory. The original astronomical part was provided by the +Admiralty, and the new magnetical and meteorological part was provided +by the Treasury: and the whole Estimates and Accounts of the +Observatory never appeared in one public paper. I proposed that the +whole should be placed on the Navy Estimates, but the Admiralty +refused. I repeated this in subsequent years, with no success. +Meantime I always sent to the Admiralty a duplicate of my +Treasury Estimate with the proper Admiralty Estimate.--Stephenson's +Railway through the lower part of the Park, in tunnel about 850 feet +from the Observatory, was again brought forward. On Feb. 20th it was +put before me by the Government, and on March 9th I made experiments +at Kensal Green, specially on the effect of a tunnel: which I found to +be considerable in suppressing the tremors. On May 6th I made my +Report, generally favourable, supposing the railway to be in +tunnel. On May 13th I, with Mr Stephenson, had an interview at the +Admiralty with Lord Ellenborough and Sir George Cockburn. The Earl +appeared willing to relax in his scruples about allowing a railway +through the Park, when Sir George Cockburn made a most solemn protest +against it, on the ground of danger to an institution of such +importance as the Observatory. I have no doubt that this protest of +Sir George Cockburn's really determined the Government. On June 10th I +was informed that the Government refused their consent. After this the +South Eastern Railway Company adopted the line through Tranquil +Vale.--In consequence of the defective state of Paramatta Observatory +I had written to Sir Robert Peel on April 16th raising the question of +a General Superintending Board for Colonial Observatories: and on June +27th I saw Mr Gladstone at the Colonial Office to enquire about the +possibility of establishing local Boards. On June 29th a general plan +was settled, but it never came to anything.--Forty volumes of the +Observatory MSS. were bound--an important beginning.--Deep-sunk +thermometers were prepared by Prof. Forbes.--On June 22nd Sir Robert +Inglis procured an Order of the House of Commons for printing a paper +of Sir James South's, ostensibly on the effects of a railway passing +through Greenwich Park, but really attacking almost everything that I +did in the Observatory. I replied to this on July 21st by a letter in +the Athenaeum addressed to Sir Robert Inglis, in terms so strong and +so well supported that Sir James South was effectually silenced." The +following extract from a letter of Airy's to the Earl of Rosse, dated +Dec. 15th 1846, will shew how pronounced the quarrel between Airy and +South had become in consequence of the above-mentioned attack and +previous differences: "After the public exposure which his conduct in +the last summer compelled me to make, I certainly cannot meet him on +equal terms, and desire not to meet him at all." (Ed.).--"In the +Mag. and Met. Department, I was constantly engaged with Mr Charles +Brooke in the preparation and mounting of the self-registering +instruments, and the chemical arrangements for their use, to the end +of the year. With Mr Ronalds I was similarly engaged: but I had the +greatest difficulty in transacting business with him, from his +unpractical habits.--The equipment of the Liverpool Observatory, under +me, was still going on: I introduced the use of Siemens's Chronometric +Governor for giving horary motion to an Equatoreal there. I have since +introduced the same principle in the Chronograph Barrel and the Great +Equatoreal at Greenwich: I consider it important.--On Feb. 13th I +received the Astronomical Society's Medal for the Planetary +Reductions.--In the University of London: At this time seriously began +the discussion whether there should be a compulsory examination in +matters bearing on religious subjects. After this there was no +peace.--For discovery of Comets three medals were awarded by +Schumacher and me: one to Peters, two to De Vico. A comet was seen by +Hind, and by no other observer: after correspondence, principally in +1848, the medal was refused to him.--With respect to the Railway Gauge +Commission: On Jan. 1st, in our experiments near York, the engine ran +off the rails. On Jan. 29th the Commissioners signed the Report, and +the business was concluded by the end of April. Our recommendation was +that the narrow gauge should be carried throughout. This was opposed +most violently by partisans of the broad gauge, and they had +sufficient influence in Parliament to prevent our recommendation from +being carried into effect. But the policy, even of the Great Western +Railway (in which the broad gauge originated), has supported our +views: the narrow gauge has been gradually substituted for the broad: +and the broad now (1872) scarcely exists.--On June 20th Lord Canning +enquired of me about makers for the clock in the Clock Tower of +Westminster Palace. I suggested Vulliamy, Dent, Whitehurst; and made +other suggestions: I had some correspondence with E. B. Denison, about +clocks.--I had much correspondence with Stephenson about the Tubular +Bridge over the Menai Straits. Stephenson afterwards spoke of my +assistance as having much supported him in this anxious work: on +Dec. 11th I was requested to make a Report, and to charge a fee as a +Civil Engineer; but I declined to do so. In January I went, with +George Arthur Biddell, to Portsmouth, to examine Lord Dundonald's +rotary engine as mounted in the 'Janus,' and made a Report on the same +to the Admiralty: and I made several subsequent Reports on the same +matter. The scheme was abandoned in the course of next year; the real +cause of failure, as I believe, was in the bad mounting in the ship. + +"The engrossing subject of this year was the discovery of Neptune. As +I have said (1845) I obtained no answer from Adams to a letter of +enquiry. Beginning with June 26th of 1846 I had correspondence of a +satisfactory character with Le Verrier, who had taken up the subject +of the disturbance of Uranus, and arrived at conclusions not very +different from those of Adams. I wrote from Ely on July 9th to +Challis, begging him, as in possession of the largest telescope in +England, to sweep for the planet, and suggesting a plan. I received +information of its recognition by Galle, when I was visiting Hansen at +Gotha. For further official history, see my communications to the +Royal Astronomical Society, and for private history see the papers in +the Royal Observatory. I was abused most savagely both by English and +French." + +The Report to the Visitors contains an interesting account of the +Great Lunar Reductions, from which the following passage is extracted: +"Of the Third Section, containing the comparison of Observed Places +with Tabular Places, three sheets are printed, from 1750 to 1756. This +comparison, it is to be observed, does not contain a simple comparison +of places, but contains also the coefficients of the various changes +in the moon's place depending on changes in the elements.... The +process for the correction of the elements by means of these +comparisons is now going on: and the extent of this work, even after +so much has been prepared, almost exceeds belief. For the longitude, +ten columns are added in groups, formed in thirteen different ways, +each different way having on the average about nine hundred +groups. For the ecliptic polar distance, five columns are added in +groups, formed in seven different ways, each different way having on +the average about nine hundred groups. Thus it will appear that there +are not fewer than 150,000 additions of columns of figures. This part +of the work is not only completed but is verified, so that the books +of comparison of Observed and Tabular Places are, as regards this +work, completely cleared out. The next step is to take the means of +these groups, a process which is now in hand: it will be followed by +the formation and solution of the equations on which the corrections +of the elements depend." + +The following remarks, extracted from the Report to the Visitors, with +respect to the instrumental equipment of the Observatory, embody the +views of the Astronomer Royal at this time: "The utmost change, which +I contemplate as likely to occur in many years, in regard to our +meridional instruments, is the substitution of instruments of the same +class carrying telescopes of larger aperture. The only instrument +which, as I think, may possibly be called for by the demands of the +astronomer or the astronomical public, is a telescope of the largest +size, for the observation of faint nebulae and minute double +stars. Whether the addition of such an instrument to our apparatus +would be an advantage, is, in my opinion, not free from doubt. The +line of conduct for the Observatory is sufficiently well traced; there +can be no doubt that our primary objects ought to be the accurate +determination of places of the fundamental Stars, the Sun, the +Planets, and, above all, the Moon. Any addition whatever to our powers +or our instrumental luxuries, which should tend to withdraw our +energies from these objects, would be a misfortune to the +Observatory." + +Of private history: "In March I visited Prof. Sedgwick at Norwich.--On +Mar. 28th the 'Sir Henry Pottinger' was launched from Fairbairn's Yard +on the Isle of Dogs, where I was thrown down and dislocated my right +thumb.--From Apr. 10th to 15th I was at Playford.--On June 10th Prof. +Hansen arrived, and stayed with me to July 4th.--From July 6th to 10th +I was visiting Dean Peacock at Ely.--From July 23rd to 29th I was at +Playford, where for the first time I lodged in my own cottage. I had +bought it some time before, and my sister had superintended +alterations and the addition of a room. I was much pleased thus to be +connected with the happy scenes of my youth.--From Aug. 10th to Oct. +11th I was with my wife and her sister Elizabeth Smith on the +Continent. We stayed for some time at Wiesbaden, as my nerves were +shaken by the work on the Railway Gauge Commission, and I wanted the +Wiesbaden waters. We visited various places in Germany, and made a +10-days' excursion among the Swiss Mountains. At Gotha we lodged with +Prof. Hansen for three days; and it was while staying here that I +heard from Prof. Encke (on Sept. 29th) that Galle had discovered the +expected planet. We visited Gauss at Göttingen and Miss Caroline +Herschel at Hannover. We had a very bad passage from Hamburgh to +London, lasting five days: a crank-pin broke and had to be repaired: +after four days our sea-sickness had gone off, during the gale--a +valuable discovery for me, as I never afterwards feared +sea-sickness.--On Dec. 22nd I attended the celebration of the 300th +anniversary of Trinity College." + + * * * * * + +The following extracts relating to the engines of the "Janus" are +taken from letters to his wife dated from Portsmouth, Jan. 6th and +7th, 1846: + +As soon as possible we repaired to the Dock Yard and presented +ourselves to the Admiral Superintendant--Admiral Hyde Parker (not Sir +Hyde Parker). Found that the "Janus" had not arrived: the Admiral +Superintendant (who does not spare a hard word) expressing himself +curiously thereon. But he had got the proper orders from the Admiralty +relating to me: so he immediately sent for Mr Taplin, the +superintendant of machinery: and we went off to see the small engine +of Lord D--d's construction which is working some pumps and other +machinery in the yard. It was kept at work a little longer than usual +for us to see it. And I have no hesitation in saying that it was +working extremely well. It had not been opened in any way for half a +year, and not for repair or packing for a much longer time.... This +morning we went to the Dock Yard, and on entering the engine house +there was Shirreff, and Lord D--d soon appeared. The "Janus" had come +to anchor at Spithead late last night, and had entered the harbour +this morning. Blowing weather on Saturday night. We had the engine +pretty well pulled to pieces, and sat contemplating her a long +time. Before this Denison had come to us. We then went on board the +"Janus" with Shirreff but not with Lord D--d. The engines were still +hot, and so they were turned backwards a little for my edification. +(This was convenient because, the vessel being moored by her +head, she could thus strain backwards without doing mischief.) The +vacuum not good. Then, after a luncheon on board, it was agreed to run +out a little way. But the engines absolutely stuck fast, and would not +stir a bit. This I considered a perfect Godsend. So the paddle-wheels +(at my desire) were lashed fast, and we are to see her opened +to-morrow morning. + +This morning (Jan. 7th) we all went off to the "Janus," where we +expected to find the end of the cylinder (where we believe yesterday's +block to have taken place) withdrawn. But it was not near it. After a +great many bolts were drawn, it was discovered that one bolt could not +be drawn, and in order to get room for working at it, it was necessary +to take off the end of the other cylinder. And such a job! Three +pulley hooks were broken in my sight, and I believe some out of my +sight. However this auxiliary end was at last got off: and the people +began to act on the refractory bolt. But by this time it was getting +dark and the men were leaving the dockyard, so I left, arranging that +what they could do in preparation for me might be done in good time +to-morrow morning. + + + 1847 + +"On Nov. 13th I circulated an Address, proposing to discontinue the +use of the Zenith Tube, because it had been found by a long course of +comparative trials that the Zenith Tube was not more accurate than the +Mural Circle. The Address stated that 'This want of superior +efficiency of the Zenith Tube (which, considered in reference to the +expectations that had been formed of its accuracy, must be estimated +as a positive failure) is probably due to two circumstances. One is, +the use of a plumb-line; which appears to be affected with various +ill-understood causes of unsteadiness. The other is, the insuperable +difficulty of ventilating the room in which the instrument is +mounted.'--On December 20th I circulated an Address, proposing a +Transit Circle, with telescope of 8 inches aperture. The Address +states as follows: 'The clear aperture of the Object-Glass of our +Transit Instrument is very nearly 5 inches, that of our Mural Circle +is very nearly 4 inches.'--I had been requested by the Master-General +of Ordnance (I think) to examine Candidates for a Mastership in +Woolwich Academy, and I was employed on it in February and March, in +conjunction with Prof. Christie.--In January I applied to Lord +Auckland for money-assistance to make an astronomical journey on the +Continent, but he refused.--On Mar. 19th Sir James South addressed to +the Admiralty a formal complaint against me for not observing with the +astronomical instruments: on Mar. 31st I was triumphantly acquitted by +the Admiralty.--In June I was requested by the Commissioners of +Railways to act as President of a Commission on Iron Bridges +(suggested by the fall of the bridge at Chester). Lord Auckland +objected to it, and I was not sorry to be spared the trouble of +it.--In December I was requested, and undertook to prepare the +Astronomical part of the Scientific Manual for Naval Officers.--On +Sept. 24th occurred a very remarkable Magnetic Storm, to which there +had been nothing comparable before. Mr Glaisher had it observed by eye +extremely well, and I printed and circulated a paper concerning +it.--Hansen, stimulated by the Lunar Reductions, discovered two long +inequalities in the motion of the Moon, produced by the action of +Venus. In the Report to the Visitors this matter is thus referred to: +'In the last summer I had the pleasure of visiting Prof. Hansen at +Gotha, and I was so fortunate as to exhibit to him the corrections of +the elements from these Reductions, and strongly to call his attention +to their certainty, the peculiarity of their fluctuations, and the +necessity of seeking for some physical explanation. I have much +pleasure in indulging in the thought, that it was mainly owing to this +representation that Prof. Hansen undertook that quest, which has +terminated in the discovery of his two new lunar inequalities, the +most remarkable discovery, I think, in Physical Astronomy.'--In +discussing points relating to the discovery of Neptune, I made an +unfortunate blunder. In a paper hastily sent to the Athenaeum +(Feb. 18th) I said that Arago's conduct had been indelicate. I +perceived instantly that I had used a wrong expression, and by the +very next post I sent an altered expression. This altered expression +was not received in time, and the original expression was printed, to +my great sorrow. I could not then apologize. But at what appeared to +be the first opportunity, in December, I did apologize; and my apology +was accepted. But I think that Arago was never again so cordial as +before.--On July 4th Hebe was discovered. After this Iris and +Flora. Now commenced that train of discoveries which has added more +than 100 planets to the Solar System.--On Oct. 8th was an Annular +Eclipse of the Sun, of which the limit of annularity passed near to +Greenwich. To determine the exact place, I equipped observatories at +Hayes, Lewisham South End, Lewisham Village, Blackwall, Stratford, +Walthamstow, and Chingford. The weather was bad and no observation was +obtained.--In the Royal Astronomical Society: In 1846, the dispute +between the partisans of Adams and Le Verrier was so violent that no +medal could be awarded to either. In 1847 I (with other Fellows of the +Society) promoted a special Meeting for considering such a +modification of the bye-laws that for this occasion only it might be +permissible to give two medals. After two days' stormy discussion, it +was rejected.--In the University of London: At a meeting in July, +where the religious question was discussed, it was proposed to receive +some testimonial from affiliated bodies, or to consider that or some +other plan for introducing religious literature. As the propriety of +this was doubtful, there was a general feeling for taking legal +advice: and it was set aside solely on purpose to raise the question +about legal consultation. _That_ was negatived by vote: and I then +claimed the consideration of the question which we had put aside for +it. By the influence of H. Warburton, M.P., this was denied. I wrote a +letter to be laid before the Meeting on July 28th, when I was +necessarily absent, urging my claim: my letter was put aside. I +determined never to sit with Warburton again: on Aug. 2nd I intimated +to Lord Burlington my wish to retire, and on Aug. 29th he transmitted +to the Home Secretary my resignation. He (Lord Burlington) fully +expressed his opinion that my claim ought to have been allowed.--On +June 9th, on the occasion of Prince Albert's state visit to Cambridge, +knighthood was offered to me through his Secretary, Prof. Sedgwick, +but I declined it.--In September, the Russian Order of St Stanislas +was offered to me, Mr De Berg, the Secretary of Embassy, coming to +Greenwich personally to announce it: but I was compelled by our +Government Rules to decline it.--I invited Le Verrier to England, and +escorted him to the Meeting of the British Association at Oxford in +June.--As regards the Westminster Clock on the Parliamentary Building: +in May I examined and reported on Dent's and Whitehurst's clock +factories. Vulliamy was excessively angry with me. On May 31st a great +Parliamentary Paper was prepared in return to an Order of the House of +Lords for correspondence relating to the Clock.--With respect to the +Saw Mills for Ship Timber: work was going on under the direction of +Sylvester to Mar. 18th. It was, I believe, at that time, that the +fire occurred in Chatham Dock Yard which burnt the whole of the +saw-machinery. I was tired of my machinery: and, from the extending +use of iron ships, the probable value of it was much diminished; and I +made no effort to restore it." + +Of private history: "In February I went to Derby to see Whitehurst's +clock factory; and went on with my wife to Brampton near Chesterfield, +where her mother was living.--From Apr. 1st to 5th I was at +Playford.--On Holy Thursday, I walked the Parish Bounds (of Greenwich) +with the Parish officers and others. From Apr. 19th to 24th I was at +Birmingham (on a visit to Guest, my former pupil, and afterwards +Master of Caius College) and its neighbourhood, with George Arthur +Biddell.--From June 23rd to 28th I was at Oxford and Malvern: my +sister was at Malvern, for water-cure: the meeting of the British +Association was at Oxford and I escorted Le Verrier thither.--July +28th to 30th I was at Brampton.--From August 10th to September 18th I +was engaged on an expedition to St Petersburg, chiefly with the object +of inspecting the Pulkowa Observatory. I went by Hamburg to Altona, +where I met Struve, and started with him in an open waggon for Lübeck, +where we arrived on Aug. 14th. We proceeded by steamer to Cronstadt +and Petersburg, and so to Pulkowa, where I lodged with O. Struve. I +was here engaged till Sept. 4th, in the Observatory, in expeditions in +the neighbourhood and at St Petersburg, and at dinner-parties, &c. I +met Count Colloredo, Count Ouvaroff, Count Stroganoff, Lord Bloomfield +(British Ambassador), and others. On Sept. 4th I went in a small +steamer to Cronstadt, and then in the Vladimir to Swinemünde: we were +then towed in a passage boat to Stettin, and I proceeded by railway to +Berlin. On Sept. 9th I found Galle and saw the Observatory. On +Sept. 10th I went to Potzdam and saw Humboldt. On the 12th I went to +Hamburg and lodged with Schumacher: I here visited Repsold and +Rümker. On Sept. 14th I embarked in the John Bull for London, and +arrived there on the evening of the 18th: on the 16th it was blowing +'a whole gale,' reported to be the heaviest gale known for so many +hours; 4 bullocks and 24 sheep were thrown overboard.--From Dec. 3rd +to 8th I was at Cambridge, and from the 22nd to 31st at Playford." + + * * * * * + +Here is a letter to his wife written from Birmingham, containing a +note of the progress of the ironwork for the Menai Bridge: + + + EDGBASTON, BIRMINGHAM, + _1847, Apr. 22_. + +Yesterday morning we started between 10 and 11 for Stourbridge, first +to see some clay which is celebrated all over the world as the only +clay which is fit to make pots for melting glass, &c. You know that in +all these fiery regions, fire-clay is a thing of very great +importance, as no furnace will stand if made of any ordinary bricks +(and even with the fire-clay, the small furnaces are examined every +week), but this Stourbridge clay is as superior to fire-clay as +fire-clay is to common brick-earth. Then we went to Fosters' puddling +and rolling works near Stourbridge. These are on a very large scale: +of course much that we saw was a repetition of what we had seen +before, but there were slitting mills, machines for rolling the +puddled blooms instead of hammering them, &c., and we had the +satisfaction of handling the puddling irons ourselves. Then we went to +another work of the Fosters not far from Dudley, where part of the +work of the Tube Bridge for the Menai is going on. The Fosters are, I +believe, the largest iron masters in the country, and the two +principal partners, the elder Mr Foster and his Nephew, accompanied us +in all our inspections and steppings from one set of works to another. +The length of Tube Bridge which they have in hand here is only 120 +feet, about 1/4 of the whole length: and at present they are only busy +on the bottom part of it: but it is a prodigious thing. I shall be +anxious about it. Then we went to other works of the Fosters' at +King's Wynford, where they have blast furnaces: and here after seeing +all other usual things we saw the furnaces tapped. In this district +the Fosters work the 10-yard coal in a way different from any body +else: they work out the upper half of its thickness and then leave the +ground to fall in: after a year or two this ground becomes so hard as +to make a good safe roof, and then they work away the other half: thus +they avoid much of the danger and difficulty of working the thick bed +all at once. The ventilation of these mines scarcely ever requires +fires, and then only what they call "lamps," those little fire-places +which are used for giving light at night. (In the Northumberland and +Durham pits, they constantly have immense roaring fires to make a +draught.) Then we came home through Dudley. + + * * * * * + +During his stay in Russia, there was a great desire manifested by the +astronomers and scientific men of Russia that he should be presented +to the Emperor. This would no doubt have taken place had not the +movements of the Court and his own want of time prevented it. The +following letter to the British Ambassador, Lord Bloomfield, relates +to this matter: + + PULKOWA, + _1847, August 25th_. + _Wednesday evening_. + +MY LORD, + +I had the honour yesterday to receive your Lordship's note of Sunday +last, which by some irregularity in the communications with this place +reached me, I believe, later than it ought. From this circumstance, +and also from my being made acquainted only this afternoon with some +official arrangements, I am compelled to trouble you at a time which I +fear is less convenient than I could have desired. + +The object of my present communication is, to ask whether (if the +movements of the Court permit it) it would be agreeable to your +Lordship to present me to the Emperor. In explanation of this enquiry, +I beg leave to state that this is an honour to which, personally, I +could not think of aspiring. My presence however at Pulkowa at this +time is in an official character. As Astronomer Royal of England, I +have thought it my duty to make myself perfectly acquainted with the +Observatory of Pulkowa, and this is the sole object of my journey to +Russia. It is understood that the Emperor takes great interest in the +reputation of the Observatory, and I am confident that the remarks +upon it which I am able to make would be agreeable to him. + +I place these reasons before you, awaiting entirely Your Lordship's +decision on the propriety of the step to which I have alluded. I am +to leave St Petersburg on Saturday the 4th of September. + + I have the honor to be + My Lord, + Your Lordship's very faithful servant, + G. B. AIRY. + +_Lord Bloomfield, &c., &c._ + + * * * * * + +It was probably in acknowledgment of this letter that in due time he +received the following letter with the offer of the Russian Order of +St Stanislas: + +MONSIEUR L'ASTRONOME ROYAL, + +Sa Majesté l'Empereur en appréciant les travaux assidus qui vous ont +donné une place distinguée au rang des plus illustres Astronomes de +l'Europe, et la coopération bienveillante, que vous n'avez cessé de +témoigner aux Astronomes Russes dans les expéditions, dont ils étaient +chargés, et en dernier lieu par votre visite à l'Observatoire central +de Poulkova, a daigné sur mon rapport, vous nommer Chevalier de la +seconde classe de l'Ordre Impérial et Royal de St Stanislas. Je ne +manquerai pas de vous faire parvenir par l'entremise de Lord +Bloomfield les insignes et la patente de l'ordre. + +Veuillez en attendant, Monsieur, recevoir mes sincères félicitations +et l'assurance de ma parfaite considération. + + Le Ministre de l'instruction publique, + CTE OUVAROFF. + +ST PÉTERSBOURG, + + _ce_ 24 _Août_, 1847 + ---------- + 5 _Septbr._ + _à Mr G. B. Airy, Esq., + Astronome Royal de S. M. Britannique à + Greenwich_. + + * * * * * + +Airy provisionally accepted the Order, but wrote at once to Lord John +Russell the following letter of enquiry: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1847, Oct. 15_. + +MY LORD, + +In respect of the office of Astronomer Royal, I refer to the first +Lord of the Treasury as Official Patron. In virtue of this relation I +have the honour to lay before your Lordship the following statement, +and to solicit your instructions thereon. + +For conducting with efficiency and with credit to the nation the +institution which is entrusted to me, I have judged it proper to +cultivate intimate relations with the principal Observatories of +Europe, and in particular with the great Observatory founded by the +Emperor of Russia at Pulkowa near St Petersburg. I have several times +received Mr Struve, the Director of that Observatory, at Greenwich: +and in the past summer I made a journey to St Petersburg for the +purpose of seeing the Observatory of Pulkowa. + +Since my return from Russia, I have received a communication from +Count Ouvaroff, Minister of Public Instruction in the Russian Empire, +informing me that the Emperor of Russia desires to confer on me the +decoration of Knight Commander in the second rank of the Order of St +Stanislas. + +And I have the honour now to enquire of your Lordship whether it is +permitted to me to accept from the Emperor of Russia this decoration. + + I have the honour to be, + My Lord, + Your Lordship's very obedient servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Rt Honble Lord John Russell, + &c. &c. &c. + First Lord of the Treasury_. + + * * * * * + +The answer was as follows: + + DOWNING STREET, + _October 19, 1847_. + +SIR, + +I am desired by Lord John Russell to acknowledge the receipt of your +letter, of the 14th inst. and to transmit to you the enclosed paper +respecting Foreign Orders by which you will perceive that it would be +contrary to the regulations to grant you the permission you desire. + + I am, Sir, + Your obedient servant, + C.A. GREY. + +_G. B. Airy, Esq_. + + * * * * * + +The passage in the Regulations referred to above is quoted in the +following letter to Count Ouvaroff: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1847, Oct. 22_. + +SIR, + +Referring to your Excellency's letter of the 24 August/5 September, +and to my answer of the 25th September, in which I expressed my sense +of the high honor conferred on me by His Majesty the Emperor of Russia +in offering me, through your Excellency, the Order of St Stanislas, +and my pride in accepting it:--I beg leave further to acquaint you +that I have thought it necessary to make enquiry of Lord John Russell, +First Lord of Her Majesty's Treasury, as to my competency to accept +this decoration from His Majesty the Emperor of Russia: and that his +Lordship in reply has referred me to the following Regulation of the +British Court; + +"5th. That no Subject of Her Majesty could be allowed to accept the +Insignia of a Foreign Order from any Sovereign of a Foreign State, +except they shall be so conferred in consequence of active and +distinguished services before the Enemy, either at Sea, or in the +Field; or unless he shall have been actually employed in the Service +of the Foreign Sovereign." + +In consequence of the stringency of this Regulation, it is my duty now +to state to your Excellency that I am unable to accept the decoration +which His Majesty the Emperor of Russia was pleased, through your +Excellency, to offer to me. + +I beg leave to repeat the expression of my profound reverence to His +Majesty and of my deep sense of the honor which he has done me. + + I have the honor to be, + Sir, + Your Excellency's very faithful + and obedient servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_To His Excellency + Count Ouvaroff, + &c. &c._ + +In the course of the following year a very handsome gold medal, +specially struck, was transmitted by Count Ouvaroff on the part of the +Emperor of Russia, to Mr Airy. + + + 1848 + +"In April I received authority to purchase of Simms an 8-inch +object-glass for the new Transit Circle for _£300_. The glass was +tested and found satisfactory. While at Playford in January I drew the +first plans of the Transit Circle: and C. May sketched some +parts. Definite plans were soon sent to Ransomes and May, and to Simms +in March. The instrument and the building were proceeded with during +the year. The New Transit Circle was to be erected in the Circle +Room, and considerable arrangement was necessary for continuing the +Circle Observations with the existing instruments, whilst the new +instrument was under erection. When the new Transit is completely +mounted, the old Transit Instrument may be removed, and the Transit +Room will be free for any other purpose. I propose to take it as +Private Room for the Astronomer Royal.--On May 12th I made my first +proposal of the Reflex Zenith Tube. The principle of it is as follows: +Let the micrometer be placed close to the object-glass, the frame of +the micrometer being firmly connected with the object-glass cell, and +a reflecting eye-piece being used with no material tube passing over +the object-glass: and let a basin of quicksilver be placed below the +object-glass, but in no mechanical connection with it, at a distance +equal to half the focal length of the object-glass. Such an +instrument would at least be free from all uncertainties of twist of +plumb-line, viscosity of water, attachment of upper plumb-line +microscope, attachment of lower plumb-line microscope, and the +observations connected with them: and might be expected, as a result +of this extreme simplicity, to give accurate results.--A considerable +error was discovered in the graduation of Troughton's Circle, +amounting in one part to six seconds, which is referred to as follows: +'This instance has strongly confirmed me in an opinion which I have +long held--that no independent division is comparable in general +accuracy to engine-division,--where the fundamental divisions of the +engine have been made by Troughton's method, and where in any case the +determination by the astronomer of errors of a few divisions will +suffice, in consequence of the uniformity of law of error, to give the +errors of the intermediate divisions.'--The method of observing with +the Altazimuth is carefully described, and the effect of it, in +increasing the number of observations of the Moon, is thus given for +the thirteen lunations between 1847, May 15, and 1848, May 30. 'Number +of days of complete observations with the Meridional Instruments, 111; +number of days of complete observations with Altitude and Azimuth +Instrument, 203. The results of the observations appear very good; +perhaps a little, and but a little, inferior to those of the +Meridional Instruments. I consider that the object for which this +instrument was erected is successfully attained.'--Being satisfied +with the general efficiency of the system arranged by Mr Brooke for +our photographic records (of magnetical observations) I wrote to the +Admiralty in his favour, and on Aug. 25th the Admiralty ordered the +payment of _£500_ to him. A Committee of the Royal Society also +recommended a reward of _£250_ to Mr Ronalds, which I believe was paid +to him.--On May 1st the last revise of the Lunar Reductions was +passed, and on May 5th, 500 copies were sent for binding.--In this +year Schumacher and I refused a medal to Miss Mitchell for a Comet +discovered, because the rules of correspondence had not been strictly +followed: the King of Denmark gave one by special favour.--In this +year occurred the discovery of Saturn's 8th Satellite by Mr Lassell: +upon which I have various correspondence.--On the 18th of December the +degree of LL.D. was conferred upon me by the University of +Edinburgh.--The Ipswich Lectures: A wish had been expressed that I +would give a series of Astronomical Lectures to the people of +Ipswich. I therefore arranged with great care the necessary apparatus, +and lectured six evenings in a room (I forget its name--it might be +Temperance Hall--high above St Matthew's Street), from Mar. 13th to +the end of the week. A shorthand writer took them down: and these +formed the 'Ipswich Lectures,' which were afterwards published by the +Ipswich Museum (for whose benefit the lectures were given) and by +myself, in several editions, and afterwards by Messrs Macmillan in +repeated editions under the title of 'Airy's Popular Astronomy.'--It +had been found necessary to include under one body all the unconnected +Commissions of Sewers for the Metropolis, and Lord Morpeth requested +me to be a member. Its operations began on Oct. 28th. In constitution +it was the most foolish that I ever knew: consisting of, I think, some +200 persons, who could not possibly attend to it. It came to an end in +the next year." + +Of private history: "I was at Playford from Jan. 1st to 11th, and +again from Jan. 17th to 25th: also at Playford from June 21st to July +12th.--From Aug. 23rd to Sept. 12th I was in Ireland on a visit to +Lord Rosse at Parsonstown, chiefly engaged on trials of his large +telescope. I returned by Liverpool, where I inspected the Liverpool +Equatoreal and Clockwork, and examined Mr Lassell's telescopes and +grinding apparatus.--From Dec. 6th to 20th I was at Edinburgh with my +wife, on a visit to Prof. J. D. Forbes. We made various excursions, +and I attended lectures by Prof. Wilson and Sir W. Hamilton: on the +18th I gave a lecture in Prof. Forbes's room. I received the Honorary +Degree of LL.D., and made a statement on the Telescopes of Lord Rosse +and Mr Lassell to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Returned to +Greenwich by Brampton." + + * * * * * + +Here is a reminiscence of the "Ipswich Lectures," in a letter to his +wife, dated Playford, 1848 Mar. 14, "At the proper time I went to the +hall: found a chairman installed (Mr Western): was presented to him, +and by him presented to the audience: made my bow and commenced. The +room was quite full: I have rarely seen such a sea of faces; about 700 +I believe. Everything went off extremely well, except that the rollers +of the moving piece of sky would squeak: but people did not mind it: +and when first a star passed the meridian, then Jupiter, then some +stars, and then Saturn, he was much applauded. Before beginning I gave +notice that I should wait to answer questions: and as soon as the +lecture was finished the Chairman repeated this and begged people to +ask. So several people did ask very pertinent questions (from the +benches) shewing that they had attended well. Others came up and +asked questions." + + * * * * * + +The following extracts are from letters written to his wife while on +his visit to Lord Rosse at Parsonstown in Ireland. On the way he +stopped at Bangor and looked at the Tubular Bridge Works, which are +thus referred to: "Stopped at Bangor, settled _pro tem_. at the +Castle, and then walked past the Suspension Bridge towards the Tube +Works, which are about 1-1/2 mile south-west of the Suspension Bridge. +The way was by a path through fields near the water side: and from one +or two points in this, the appearance of the Suspension Bridge was +most majestic. The Tube Bridge consists of four spans, two over water +and two over sloping land. The parts for the double tube over the +water spans (four lengths of tube) are building on a platform as at +Conway, to be floated by barges as there: the parts over the sloping +banks are to be built in their place, on an immense scaffolding. I +suspect that, in regard to these parts, Stephenson is sacrificing a +great deal of money to uniformity of plan: and that it would have been +much cheaper to build out stone arches to the piers touching the +water.... The Tube Works are evidently the grand promenade of the +idlers about Bangor: I saw many scores of ladies and gentlemen walking +that way with their baskets of provision, evidently going to gipsy in +the fields close by." + + + THE CASTLE, PARSONSTOWN, + _1848, Aug. 29_. + +After tea it was voted that the night was likely to be fine, so we all +turned out. The night was uncertain: sometimes entirely clouded, +sometimes partially, but objects were pretty well seen when the sky +was clear: the latter part was much steadier. From the interruption by +clouds, the slowness of finding with and managing a large instrument +(especially as their finding apparatus is not perfectly arranged) and +the desire of looking well at an object when we had got it, we did not +look at many objects. The principal were, Saturn and the Annular +Nebula of Lyra with the 3-feet; Saturn, a remarkable cluster of stars, +and a remarkable planetary nebula, with the 6-feet. With the large +telescope, the evidence of the quantity of light is prodigious. And +the light of an object is seen in the field without any colour or any +spreading of stray light: and it is easy to see that the vision with a +reflecting telescope may be much more perfect than with a +refractor. With these large apertures, the rings round the stars are +insensible. The planetary nebula looked a mass of living and intensely +brilliant light: this is an object which I do not suppose can be seen +at all in our ordinary telescopes. The definition of the stars near +the zenith is extremely good: with a high power (as 800) they are +points or very nearly so--indeed I believe quite so--so that it is +clear that the whole light from the great 6-feet mirror is collected +into a space not bigger than the point of a needle. But in other +positions of the telescope the definition is not good: and we must +look to-day to see what is the cause of this fault. It is not a fault +in the telescope, properly so-called, but it is either a tilt of the +mirror, or an edge-pressure upon the mirror when the telescope points +lower down which distorts its figure, or something of that kind. So I +could not see Saturn at all well, for which I was sorry, as I could so +well have compared his appearance with what I have seen before. I +shall be very much pleased if we can make out what is the fault of +adjustment, and so correct it as to get good images everywhere. It is +evident that the figuring of the mirror, the polishing, and the +general arrangement, are perfectly managed. + + + THE CASTLE, PARSONSTOWN, + _1848, Aug. 30_. + +Yesterday we were employed entirely about the Great Telescope, +beginning rather late. The principal objects had relation to the fault +of definition when the telescope is pointed low (which I had remarked +on the preceding night), and were, to make ourselves acquainted with +the mechanism of the mirror's mounting generally, and to measure in +various ways whether the mirror actually does shift its place when the +telescope is set to different angles of elevation. For the latter we +found that the mirror actually does tilt 1/4 of an inch when the tube +points low. This of itself will not account for the fault but it +indicates that the lower part is held fast in a way that may cause a +strain which would produce the fault. These operations and reasonings +took a good deal of time. Lord Rosse is disposed to make an alteration +in the mounting for the purpose of correcting this possible strain. + + + THE CASTLE, PARSONSTOWN, + _1848, Aug. 31_. + +The weather here is still vexatious: but not absolutely repulsive. +Yesterday morning Lord Rosse arranged a new method of suspending the +great mirror, so as to take its edgewise pressure in a manner that +allowed the springy supports of its flat back to act. This employed +his workmen all day, so that the proposed finish of polishing the new +mirror could not go on. I took one Camera Lucida sketch of the +instrument in the morning, dodging the heavy showers as well as I +could; then, as the afternoon was extremely fine, I took another, with +my head almost roasted by the sun. This last view is extremely pretty +and characteristic, embracing parts of the mounting not shewn well in +the others, and also shewing the Castle, the Observatory, and the +3-feet telescope. The night promised exceedingly well: but when we got +actually to the telescope it began to cloud and at length became +hopeless. However I saw that the fault which I had remarked on the two +preceding nights was gone. There is now a slight exhibition of another +fault to a much smaller extent. We shall probably be looking at the +telescope to-day in reference to it. + + + THE CASTLE, PARSONSTOWN, + _1848, Sept. 1_. + +Yesterday we made some alterations in the mounting of the great +mirror. We found that sundry levers were loose which ought to be firm, +and we conjectured with great probability the cause of this, for +correction of which a change in other parts was necessary. The mirror +was then found to preserve its position much more fixedly than +before.... At night, upon trying the telescope, we found it very +faulty for stars near the zenith, where it had been free from fault +before. The screws which we had driven hard were then loosened, and +immediately it was made very good. Then we tried with some lower +objects, and it was good, almost equally good, there. For Saturn it +was very greatly superior to what it had been before. Still it is not +satisfactory to us, and at this time a strong chain is in preparation, +to support the mirror edgeways instead of the posts that there were at +first or the iron hoop which we had on it yesterday. + +Nobody would have conceived that an edgewise gripe of such a mass of +metal could derange its form in this way. + +Last night was the finest night we have had as regards clouds, though +perhaps not the best for definition of objects. + + + THE CASTLE, PARSONSTOWN, + _1848, Sept. 2_. + +I cannot learn that the fault in the mirror had been noticed before, +but I fancy that the observations had been very much confined to the +Zenith and its neighbourhood. + + + 1849 + +"In July the new constant-service water-pipes to the Observatory were +laid from Blackheath. Before this time the supply of water to the +Observatory had been made by a pipe leading up from the lower part of +the Park, and was not constant.--In May the new staircase from my +dwelling-house to the Octagon Room was commenced.--In the Report to +the Visitors there is a curious account of Mr Breen's (one of the +Assistants) personal equation, which was found to be different in +quantity for observations of the Moon and observations of the +Stars.--The most important set of observations (of planets) was a +series of measures of Saturn in four directions, at the time when his +ring had disappeared. They appear completely to negative the idea that +Saturn's form differs sensibly from an ellipsoid.--Among the General +Remarks of the Report the following appears: 'Another change (in +prospect) will depend on the use of galvanism; and as a probable +instance of the application of this agent, I may mention that, +although no positive step has hitherto been taken, I fully expect in +no long time to make the going of all the clocks in the Observatory +depend on one original regulator. The same means will probably be +employed to increase the general utility of the Observatory, by the +extensive dissemination throughout the kingdom of accurate +time-signals, moved by an original clock at the Royal Observatory; and +I have already entered into correspondence with the authorities of the +South Eastern Railway (whose line of galvanic communication will +shortly pass within nine furlongs of the Observatory) in reference to +this subject.'--I agreed with Schumacher in giving no medal to Mr +G. P. Bond; his comet was found to be Petersen's. Five medals were +awarded for comets in 1847 (Hind, Colla, Mauvais, Brorsen, +Schweizer).--The Liverpool Observatory was finished this year: and the +thanks of the Town Council were presented to me.--Respecting Fallows's +Observations at the Cape of Good Hope: I had received the Admiralty +sanction for proceeding with calculations in 1846, and I employed +computers as was convenient. On July 20th of this year I was ready +with final results, and began to make enquiries about Fallows's +personal history, and the early history of the Cape Observatory. On +Oct. 23rd I applied for sanction for printing, which was given, and +the work was soon finished off, in the Astronomical Society's +Memoirs.--In the month of March I had commenced correspondence with +various persons on the imperfect state of publication of the British +Survey. Sheets of the Map were issued by scores, but not one of them +had an indication of latitude or longitude engraved. I knew that great +pains had been taken in giving to the principal triangulation a degree +of accuracy never before reached, and in fixing the astronomical +latitudes of many stations with unequalled precision. Finally I +prepared for the Council of the Royal Society a very strong +representation on these subjects, which was adopted and presented to +the Government. It was entirely successful, and the Maps were in +future furnished with latitude and longitude lines.--I was elected +President of the Royal Astronomical Society on Feb. 9th.--In June I +went with Sheepshanks to see some of the operation of measuring a Base +on Salisbury Plain. The following extract from a letter to his wife +dated 1849, June 27th, relates to this expedition: 'In the morning we +started before eight in an open carriage to the Plain: looking into +Old Sarum on our way. The Base is measured on what I should think a +most unfavourable line, its north end (from which they have begun now, +in verification of the old measure) being the very highest point in +the whole plain, called Beacon Hill. The soldiers measure only 252 +feet in a day, so it will take them a good while to measure the whole +seven miles. While we were there Col. Hall (Colby's successor) and +Yolland and Cosset came.'" + +Of private history: "I made short visits to Playford in January, April +and July. From July 28th to Sept. 12th I made an expedition with my +wife to Orkney and Shetland.--From Dec. 24th to 26th I was at +Hawkhurst, on a visit to Sir John Herschel." + + + 1850 + +"The Report to the Board of Visitors opens with the following +paragraph: 'In recording the proceedings at the Royal Observatory +during the last year, I have less of novelty to communicate to the +Visitors than in the Reports of several years past. Still I trust that +the present Report will not be uninteresting; as exhibiting, I hope, a +steady and vigorous adherence to a general plan long since matured, +accompanied with a reasonable watchfulness for the introduction of new +instruments and new methods when they may seem desirable.'--Since the +introduction of the self-registering instruments a good many +experiments had been made to obtain the most suitable light, and the +Report states that 'No change whatever has been made in these +instruments, except by the introduction of the light of coal-gas +charged with the vapour of coal-naptha, for photographic +self-registration both of the magnetic and of the meteorological +instruments.... The chemical treatment of the paper is now so well +understood by the Assistants that a failure is almost unknown. And, +generally speaking, the photographs are most beautiful, and give +conceptions of the continual disturbances in terrestrial magnetism +which it would be impossible to acquire from eye-observation.' +--Amongst the General Remarks of the Report it is stated +that 'There are two points which have distinctly engaged my +attention. The first of these is, the introduction of the American +method of observing transits, by completing a galvanic circuit by +means of a touch of the finger at the instant of appulse of the +transiting body to the wire of the instrument, which circuit will then +animate a magnet that will make an impression upon a moving +paper. After careful consideration of this method, I am inclined to +believe that, in Prof. Mitchell's form, it does possess the advantages +which have been ascribed to it, and that it may possess peculiar +advantages in this Observatory, where the time-connection of transits +made with two different instruments (the Transit and the Altazimuth) +is of the highest importance.... The second point is, the connection +of the Observatory with the galvanic telegraph of the South Eastern +Railway, and with other lines of galvanic wire with which that +telegraph communicates. I had formerly in mind only the connection of +this Observatory with different parts of the great British island: but +I now think it possible that our communications may be extended far +beyond its shores. The promoters of the submarine telegraph are very +confident of the practicability of completing a galvanic connection +between England and France: and I now begin to think it more than +possible that, within a few years, observations at Paris and Brussels +may be registered on the recording surfaces at Greenwich, and vice +versa.'--Prof. Hansen was engaged in forming Lunar Tables from his +Lunar Theory, but was stopped for want of money. On Mar. 7th I +represented this privately to Mr Baring, First Lord of the Admiralty; +and on Mar. 30th I wrote officially to the Admiralty, soliciting +_£150_ with the prospect, if necessary, of making it _£200_. On +Apr. 10th the Admiralty gave their assent. The existence of Hansen's +Lunar Tables is due to this grant.--The King of Denmark's Medal for +Comets was discontinued, owing to the difficulties produced by the +hostility of Prussia.--On Aug. 1st I gave to the Treasury my opinion +on the first proposal for a large reflector in Australia: it was not +strongly favourable.--In August, being (with my wife and Otto Struve) +on a visit to Lady Breadalbane at Taymouth Castle, I examined the +mountain Schehallien.--As in other years, I reported on several Papers +for the Royal Society, and took part in various business for them.--In +the Royal Astronomical Society I had much official business, as +President.--In March I communicated to the Athenaeum my views on the +Exodus of the Israelites: this brought me into correspondence with +Miss Corbaux, Robert Stephenson, Capt. Vetch, and Prof. J.D. +Forbes.--In December I went to the London Custom House, to +see Sir T. Freemantle (Chairman of Customs), and to see how far +decimal subdivisions were used in the Custom House." + +Of private history: "From Mar. 19th to 22nd I was on an expedition to +Folkestone, Dover, Dungeness, &c.--From Apr. 3rd to 8th at Playford, +and again for short periods in June and July.--From Aug. 1st to +Sept. 5th I was travelling in Scotland with my wife and Otto Struve +(for part of the time). At Edinburgh I attended the Meeting of the +British Association, and spoke a little in Section A. I was nominated +President for 1851 at Ipswich. We travelled to Cape Wrath and returned +by Inverness and the Caledonian Canal.--I was at Playford for a short +time in October and December." + + + 1851 + +"In this year the great shed was built (first erected on the Magnetic +Ground, and about the year 1868 transferred to the South Ground).--The +chronometers were taken from the old Chronometer Room (a room on the +upper story fronting the south, now, 1872, called Library 2) and were +put in the room above the Computing Room (where they remained for 10 +or 12 years, I think): it had a chronometer-oven with gas-heat, +erected in 1850.--The following passage is quoted from the Report to +the Visitors:--'As regards Meridional Astronomy our equipment may now +be considered complete. As I have stated above, an improvement might +yet be made in our Transit Circle; nevertheless I do not hesitate to +express my belief that no other existing meridional instrument can be +compared with it. This presumed excellence has not been obtained +without much thought on my part and much anxiety on the part of the +constructors of the instrument (Messrs Ransomes and May, and Mr +Simms). But it would be very unjust to omit the further statement that +the expense of the construction has considerably exceeded the original +estimate, and that this excess has been most liberally defrayed by the +Government.'--In December Sir John Herschel gave his opinion (to the +Admiralty, I believe) in favour of procuring for the Cape Observatory +a Transit Circle similar to that at Greenwich.--I had much +correspondence about sending Pierce Morton (formerly a pupil of mine +at Cambridge, a clever gentlemanly man, and a high wrangler, but +somewhat flighty) as Magnetic Assistant to the Cape Observatory: he +was with me from May to October, and arrived at the Cape on +Nov. 27th.--I was much engaged with the clock with conical motion of +pendulum, for uniform movement of the Chronographic Barrel.--Regarding +galvanic communications: On Sept. 19th I had prepared a Draft of +Agreement with the South Eastern Railway Company, to which they +agreed. In November I wrote to Sir T. Baring (First Lord of the +Admiralty) and to the Admiralty for sanction, which was given on +Dec. 18th. In December I had various communications about laying wires +through the Park, &c., &c., and correspondence about the possibility +of using sympathetic clocks: in June, apparently, I had seen +Shepherd's sympathetic clock at the Great Exhibition, and had seen the +system of sympathetic clocks at Pawson's, St Paul's Churchyard.--In +the last quarter of this year I was engaged in a series of +calculations of chronological eclipses. On Sept. 30th Mr Bosanquet +wrote to me about the Eclipse of Thales, and I urged on the +computations related to it, through Mr Breen. In October the eclipse +of Agathocles (the critical eclipse for the motion of the Moon's node) +was going on. In October Hansteen referred me to the darkness at +Stiklastad.--I went to Sweden to observe the total eclipse of July +28th, having received assistance from the Admiralty for the journeys +of myself, Mr Dunkin, Mr Humphreys and his friend, and Capt. +Blackwood. I had prepared a map of its track, in which an +important error of the _Berliner Jahrbuch_ (arising from neglect of +the earth's oblateness) was corrected. I gave a lecture at the Royal +Institution, in preparation for the eclipse, and drew up suggestions +for observations, and I prepared a scheme of observations for +Greenwich, but the weather was bad. The official account of the +Observations of the Eclipse, with diagrams and conclusions, is given +in full in a paper published in the Royal Astr. Society's +Memoirs.--This year I was President of the British Association, at the +Ipswich Meeting: it necessarily produced a great deal of business. I +lectured one evening on the coming eclipse. Prince Albert was present, +as guest of Sir William Middleton: I was engaged to meet him at +dinner, but when I found that the dinner day was one of the principal +soirée days, I broke off the engagement.--On May 26th I had the first +letter from E. Hamilton (whom I had known at Cambridge) regarding the +selection of professors for the University of Sydney. Herschel, +Maldon, and H. Denison were named as my coadjutors. Plenty of work +was done, but it was not finished till 1852.--In connection with the +clock for Westminster Palace, in February there were considerations +about providing other clocks for the various buildings; and this +probably was one reason for my examining Shepherd's Clocks at the +Great Exhibition and at Pawson's. In November I first proposed that +Mr E.B. Denison should be associated with me. About the end of the +year, the plan of the tower was supplied to me, with reference to the +suspension of the weights and other particulars.--In 1850 Admiral +Dundas (M.P. for Greenwich and one of the Board of Admiralty) had +requested me to aid the Trustees of the Dee Navigation against an +attack; and on Mar. 19th 1851 I went to Chester to see the state of +the river. On Jan. 1st 1852 I went to give evidence at the Official +Enquiry.--At a discussion on the construction of the Great Exhibition +building in the Institution of Civil Engineers, I expressed myself +strongly on the faulty principles of its construction.--In this year I +wrote my first Paper on the landing of Julius Caesar in Britain, and +was engaged in investigations of the geography, tides, sands, &c., +relating to the subject." + +Of private history: "I was several times at Playford during January, +and went there again on Dec. 23rd.--In this year a very heavy +misfortune fell on us. My daughter, Elizabeth, had been on a visit to +Lady Herschel at Hawkhurst, and on Apr. 2nd Sir J. Herschel wrote to +me, saying that she was so well in health. She returned a few days +later, and from her appearance I was sure that she was suffering under +deadly disease. After some time, an able physician was consulted, who +at once pronounced it to be pulmonary. A sea voyage was thought +desirable, and my wife took her to Shetland, where there was again a +kind welcome from Mr Edmonston. But this, and the care taken on her +return, availed nothing: and it was determined to take her to +Madeira. My wife and daughter sailed in the brig 'Eclipse' from +Southampton on Dec. 11th. The termination came in 1852.--On Nov. 23rd +I went to Bradfield, near Bury: my uncle, George Biddell, died, and I +attended the funeral on Nov. 29th.--From July 18th to Aug. 24th I was +in Sweden for the Observation of the Eclipse, and returned through +Holland.--In October I was about a week at Ventnor and Torquay, and +from Dec. 7th to 11th at Southampton, on matters connected with my +daughter's illness." + +The following extracts are from letters to his wife, relating to the +Observation of the eclipse, his interview with the King of Sweden, +&c., and his visit to the pumping engines at Haarlem: + + + _July 28, half-past 10, morning_. + +The weather is at present most perfectly doubtful. Nearly the whole +sky is closely covered, yet there is now and then a momentary gleam of +sun. The chances are greatly against much of the eclipse being +seen. All is arranged to carry off the telescope, &c., at 11: they can +be carted to the foot of the hill, and we have made out a walking-pass +then to the top. We are to dine with Mr Dickson afterwards. + + + _July 28, 10 at night_. + +Well we have had a glorious day. As soon as we started, the weather +began to look better. We went up the hill and planted my telescope, +and the sky shewed a large proportion of blue. At first I placed the +telescope on the highest rock, but the wind blew almost a gale, and +shook it slightly: so I descended about 8 feet to one side. (The power +of doing this was one of the elements in my choice of this station, +which made me prefer it to the high hill beyond the river.) The view +of scenery was inexpressibly beautiful. The beginning of eclipse was +well seen. The sky gradually thickened from that time, so that the sun +was in whitish cloud at the totality, and barely visible in dense +cloud at the end of the eclipse. The progress of the eclipse brought +on the wonderful changes that you know: just before the totality I saw +a large piece of blue sky become pitch black; the horror of totality +was very great; and then flashed into existence (I do not know how) a +broad irregular corona with red flames _instantly seen_ of the most +fantastic kind. The darkness was such that my assistant had very great +trouble in reading his box chronometer. (A free-hand explanatory +diagram is here given.) Some important points are made out from +this. 1st the red flames certainly belong to the sun. 2nd they +certainly are in some instances detached. 3rd they are sometimes quite +crooked. 4th they seem to be connected with spots. The corona was +brilliant white. One star brilliant: I believe Venus. I had no time to +make observations of polarization, &c., although prepared. When the +totality was more than half over I looked to N. and N.W., and in these +regions there was the fullest rosy day-break light. After the +sun-light reappeared, the black shadow went travelling away to the +S.E. exactly like the thunder-storm from the Main. The day then grew +worse, and we came home here (after dinner) in pouring rain. + + + STOCKHOLM, + _1851, Aug. 5_. + +I then by appointment with Sir Edmund Lyons went with him to the +Minister for Foreign Affairs, Baron Stjerneld, who received me most +civilly. My business was to thank him for the orders which had been +given to facilitate the landing of our telescopes, &c., &c. He was +quite familiar with the names of my party, Humphreys Milaud, &c., so +that I trust they have been well received (I have had no letter). He +intimated, I suppose at Sir E. Lyons's suggestion, that perhaps King +Oscar might wish to see me, but that it would not be on Tuesday. So I +replied that I was infinitely flattered and he said that he would send +a message to Sir E. Lyons by Tuesday evening. Now all this put me in a +quandary: because I wanted to see Upsala, 47 miles off: and the +steamboats on the Mälar only go in the morning and return in the +morning: and this was irreconcileable with waiting for his Majesty's +appointment which might be for Wednesday morning. So after +consultation Sir E. Lyons put me in the hands of a sort of courier +attached to the Embassy, and he procured a calèche, and I posted to +Upsala yesterday afternoon (knocking the people up at 11 at night) and +posted back this afternoon. And sure enough a message has come that +the king expects me at 11 to-morrow morning. Posting of course is much +dearer than steam-boat travelling, but it is cheap in comparison with +England: two horses cost 1s. for nearly 7 miles. At Upsala there is a +very good old cathedral, I suppose the only one in Sweden: and many +things about the University which interested me. I sent my card to +Professor Fries, and he entirely devoted himself to me: but imagine +our conversation--he spoke in _Latin_ and I in French: however we +understood each other very well. It is on the whole a dreary country +except where enlivened by lakes: some parts are pine forests and birch +forests, but others are featureless ground with boulder stones, like +the worst part of the Highlands. + + + _August 6, Wednesday, 3 o'clock_. + +I rigged myself in black trowsers and white waistcoat and neckcloth +this morning. Sir Edmund Lyons called. Baron Wrede called on me: he +had observed the Eclipse at Calmar and brought his drawing, much like +mine. He conducted me to the Palace. The Minister for Foreign Affairs +came to me. In the waiting-room I was introduced to the +Lieutenant-Governor of Christianstad, who had had the charge of +Humphreys and Milaud. He had placed a _guard of soldiers_ round them +while they were observing. They saw the eclipse well. Captain +Blackwood went to Helsingborg instead of Bornholm, and saw well. I am +sorry to hear that it was cloudy at Christiania, Mr Dunkin's +station. I heard some days ago that Hind had lost his telescope, but I +now heard a very different story: that he landed at Ystad, and found a +very bad hotel there: that he learnt from Murray that the hotels at +Carlscrona (or wherever he meant to go) were much worse; and so he +grew faint at heart and turned back. I was summoned in to the King +and presented by the Minister (Stjerneld), and had a long conversation +with him: on the eclipse, the arc of meridian, the languages, and the +Universities. We spoke in French. Then Baron Wrede went with me to the +Rittershus (House of Lords or Nobles) in Session, and to the Gallery +of Scandinavian Antiquities, which is very remarkable: the collection +of stone axes and chisels, bronze do., iron do., ornaments, &c. is +quite amazing. I was struck with seeing specimens from a very distant +age of the Maid of Norway's brooch: the use of which I explained to +the Director. + +I dined and drove out with Sir E. Lyons, and called at the houses of +the Baron Stjerneld and of the Norwegian Minister Baron Duë, and had +tea at the latter. Most of these people speak English well, and they +seem to live in a very domestic family style. I should soon be quite +at home here: for I perceive that my reception at Court, &c., make +people think that I am a very proper sort of person. + + * * * * * + +The extract concerning his visit to the Pumping-Engines at Haarlem is +as follows: + + + LEYDEN, + _1851, August 20, Wednesday_. + +I went to see the great North Holland Canal, and went a mile or two in +a horse-drawn-boat upon it: a very comfortable conveyance. Saw +windmills used for sawing timber and other purposes, as well as some +for grinding and many for draining. Yesterday at half-past one I went +by railway to Haarlem. I did not look at anything in the town except +going through it and seeing that it is a curious fantastic place, but +I drove at once to the burgomaster to ask permission to visit one of +the three great pumping engines for draining the immense Haarlem lake, +and then drove to it. Imagine a round tower with a steam-cylinder in +its center; and the piston which works up-and-down, instead of working +one great beam as they usually do, works _eight_, poking out on +different sides of the round tower, and each driving a pump 6 feet in +diameter. I am glad to have seen it. Then by railway here. + + * * * * * + + + 1852 + +"Galvanic communication was now established with Lewisham station +(thus giving power of communicating with London, Deal, &c.).--From the +Report to the Board of Visitors it appears that, in the case of the +Transit Circle, the azimuth of the Instrument as determined by +opposite passages of the Pole Star had varied four seconds; and in the +case of the Altazimuth, there was a discordance in the azimuthal zeros +of the Instrument, as determined from observations of stars. In both +cases it was concluded that the discordances arose from small +movements of the ground.--Under the head of 'General Remarks' in the +Report, the following paragraph occurs: 'It will be perceived that the +number of equatoreal observations made here at present is small: and +that they are rarely directed to new comets and similar objects which +sometimes excite considerable interest. This omission is +intentional. It is not because the instrumental means are wanting (for +our Equatoreals, though not comparable to those of either Cambridge, +or of Pulkowa, are fully equal to those usually directed to such +objects), but it is because these observations are most abundantly +supplied from other observatories, public and private, and because the +gain to those observations from our taking a part in them would, +probably, be far less than the loss to the important class of +observations which we can otherwise follow so well. Moreover, I am +unwilling to take any step which could be interpreted as attempting to +deprive the local and private observatories of honours which they have +so nobly earned. And, finally, in this act of abstinence, I am +desirous of giving an example of adhesion to one principle which, I am +confident, might be extensively followed with great advantage to +astronomy:--the principle of division of labour.'--Discoveries of +small planets were now not infrequent: but the only one of interest to +me is Melpomene, for the following reason. On 1852 June 24 I lost my +most dear, amiable, clever daughter Elizabeth: she died at +Southampton, two days after landing from Madeira. On that evening Mr +Hind discovered the planet; and he requested me to give a name. I +remembered Horace's 'Praecipe lugubres cantus, Melpomene,' and +Cowley's 'I called the buskin'd muse Melpomene and told her what sad +story I would write,' and suggested Melpomene, or Penthos: Melpomene +was adopted.--The first move about the Deal Time Ball was in a letter +from Commander Baldock to the Admiralty, suggesting that a Time Ball, +dropped by galvanic current from Greenwich, should be attached to one +of the South Foreland Lighthouses. The Admiralty sent this for my +Report. I went to the place, and I suggested in reply (Nov. 15th) that +a better place would be at an old signal station on the chalk +downs. The decisive change from this was made in 1853.--As the result +of my examination and enquiries into the subject of sympathetic +clocks, I established 8 sympathetic clocks in the Royal Observatory, +one of which outside the entrance gate had a large dial with +Shepherd's name as Patentee. Exception was taken to this by the +solicitor of a Mr Bain who had busied himself about galvanic +clocks. After much correspondence I agreed to remove Shepherd's name +till Bain had legally established his claim. This however was never +done: and in 1853 Shepherd's name was restored.--In Nov. 1851, +Denison had consented to join me in the preparation of the Westminster +Clock. In Feb. 1852 we began to have little disagreements. However on +Apr. 6th I was going to Madeira, and requested him to act with full +powers from me.--I communicated to the Royal Society my Paper on the +Eclipses of Agathocles, Thales, and Xerxes.--In the British +Association, I had presided at the Ipswich Meeting in 1851, and +according to custom I ought to attend at the 1852 Meeting (held at +Belfast) to resign my office. But I was broken in spirit by the death +of my daughter, and the thing generally was beyond my willing +enterprise. I requested Sir Roderick Murchison to act generally for +me: which he did, as I understood, very gracefully.--In this year a +proposal was made by the Government for shifting all the Meeting Rooms +of the Scientific Societies to Kensington Gore, which was stoutly +resisted by all, and was finally abandoned." + +Of private history: "I was at Playford in January, and went thence to +Chester on the enquiry about the tides of the Dee; and made excursions +to Halton Castle and to Holyhead.--From Apr. 8th to May 14th I was on +the voyage to and from Madeira, and on a short visit to my wife and +daughter there.--On June 23rd I went to Southampton to meet my wife +and daughter just landed from Madeira: on June 24th my dear daughter +Elizabeth died: she was buried at Playford on June 29th.--I was at +Playford also in July and December.--From Sept. 16th to 24th I went to +Cumberland, viâ Fleetwood and Peel." + + + 1853 + +"On May 3rd 1853 I issued an address to the individual Members of the +Board of Visitors, proposing the extension of the Lunar Reductions +from 1830. From this it appears that 'Through the whole period (from +1830 to 1853), the places of the Moon, deduced from the observations, +are compared with the places computed in the Nautical Almanac: that +is, with Burckhardt's tables, which have been used for many years in +computing the places of the Nautical Almanac.......Very lately, +however, Mr Adams has shewn that Burckhardt's Parallax is erroneous in +formula and is numerically incorrect, sometimes to the amount of seven +seconds. In consequence of this, every reduction of the Observations +of the Moon, from 1830 to the present time, is sensibly erroneous. And +the error is of such a nature that it is not easy, in general, to +introduce its correction by any simple process.... The number of +observations to the end of 1851 (after which time the parallax will be +corrected in the current reductions) is about 2560. An expense +approaching to _£400_ might be incurred in their reduction.' +Subsequently I made application to the Admiralty, and the _£400_ was +granted on Dec. 12th.--In the Report to the Visitors it is stated that +with regard to the Transit Circle, changes are under contemplation in +its reflection-apparatus: one of these changes relates to the material +of the trough. 'Several years ago, when I was at Hamburgh, my revered +friend Prof. Schumacher exhibited to me the pacifying effect of a +copper dish whose surface had been previously amalgamated with +quicksilver.......The Rev. Charles Pritchard has lately given much +attention to this curious property of the metals, and has brought the +practical operation of amalgamation to great perfection. Still it is +not without difficulty, on account of a singular crystallization of +the amalgam.'--With regard to the Chronograph, the Report states: 'The +Barrel Apparatus for the American method of observing transits is not +yet brought into use.... I have, however, brought it to such a state +that I am beginning to try whether the Barrel moves with sufficient +uniformity to be itself used as the Transit Clock. This, if perfectly +secured, would be a very great convenience, but I am not very sanguine +on that point.'--A change had been made in the Electrometer-apparatus: +'A wire for the collection of atmospheric electricity is now stretched +from a chimney on the north-west angle of the leads of the Octagon +Room to the Electrometer pole.... There appears to be no doubt that a +greater amount of electricity is collected by this apparatus than by +that formerly in use.'--As regards the Magnetical Observations: 'The +Visitors at their last Meeting, expressed a wish that some attempt +should be made to proceed further in the reduction or digest of the +magnetical results, if any satisfactory plan could be devised. I +cannot say that I have yet satisfied myself on the propriety of any +special plan that I have examined.... I must, however, confess that, +in viewing the capricious forms of the photographic curves, my mind is +entirely bewildered, and I sometimes doubt the possibility of +extracting from them anything whatever which can be considered +trustworthy.'--Great progress had been made with the distribution of +time. 'The same Normal Clock maintains in sympathetic movement the +large clock at the entrance gate, two other clocks in the Observatory, +and a clock at the London Bridge Terminus of the South-Eastern +Railway.... It sends galvanic signals every day along all the +principal railways diverging from London. It drops the Greenwich Ball, +and the Ball on the Offices of the Electric Telegraph Company in the +Strand;... All these various effects are produced without sensible +error of time; and I cannot but feel a satisfaction in thinking that +the Royal Observatory is thus quietly contributing to the punctuality +of business through a large portion of this busy country. I have the +satisfaction of stating to the Visitors that the Lords Commissioners +of the Admiralty have decided on the erection of a Time-Signal Ball at +Deal, for the use of the shipping in the Downs, to be dropped every +day by a galvanic current from the Royal Observatory. The construction +of the apparatus is entrusted to me. Probably there is no roadstead in +the world in which the knowledge of true time is so important.'--The +Report includes an account of the determination of the Longitude of +Cambridge Observatory by means of galvanic signals, which appear to +have been perfectly successful.--Under the head of General Remarks the +following passage appears: 'The system of combining the labour of +unattached computers with that of attached Assistants tends materially +to strengthen our powers in everything relating to computation. We +find also, among the young persons who are engaged merely to serve as +computers, a most laudable ambition to distinguish themselves as +observers; and thus we are always prepared to undertake any +observations which may be required, although necessarily by an +expenditure of strength which would usually be employed on some other +work.'--Considerable work was undertaken in preparing a new set of +maps of our buildings and grounds.--On Apr. 23rd there was a small +fire in the magnetic observatory, which did little mischief.--In +December I wrote my description of the Transit Circle.--Lieut. +Stratford, the Editor of the Nautical Almanac, died, and +there was some competition for the office. I was willing to take +it at a low rate, for the addition to my salary: Mr Main--and I think +Mr Glaisher--were desirous of exchanging to it: Prof. Adams was +anxious for it. The Admiralty made the excellent choice of Mr +Hind.--In October Faraday and I, at Lothbury, witnessed some +remarkable experiments by Mr Latimer Clark on a galvanic current +carried four times to and from Manchester by subterranean wires (more +than 2000 miles) shewing the retardation of visible currents (at their +maximum effect) and the concentration of active power. I made +investigations of the velocity of the Galvanic Current.--I was engaged +on the preliminary enquiries and arrangements for the Deal Time +Ball.--With respect to the Westminster Clock; an angry paper was +issued by Mr Vulliamy. In October I expostulated with Denison about +his conduct towards Sir Charles Barry: on November 7th I resigned.--On +Feb. 11th I was elected President of the Royal Astronomical +Society.--In the Royal Institution I lectured on the Ancient +Eclipses.--On Dec. 15th I was elected to the Academy of +Brussels.--After preliminary correspondence with Sir W. Molesworth +(First Commissioner of Works, &c.) and Sir Charles Barry (Architect of +the Westminster Palace), I wrote, on May 14th, to Mr Gladstone about +depositing the four Parliamentary Copies of Standards, at the Royal +Observatory, the Royal Mint, the Royal Society, and within a wall of +Westminster Palace. Mr Gladstone assented on June 23rd.--On Mar. 26th +I wrote to Mr Gladstone, proposing to take advantage of the new copper +coinage for introducing the decimal system. I was always strenuous +about preserving the Pound Sterling. On May 10th I attended the +Committee of the House of Commons on decimal coinage: and in May and +September I wrote letters to the Athenaeum on decimal coinage.--I had +always something on hand about Tides. A special subject now was, the +cry about intercepting the tidal waters of the Tyne by the formation +of the Jarrow Docks, in Jarrow Slake; which fear I considered to be +ridiculous." + +Of private history: "From Jan. 15th to 24th I was at Playford.--On +Mar. 4th I went to Dover to try time-signals.--From June 24th to +Aug. 6th I was at Little Braithwaite near Keswick, where I had hired a +house, and made expeditions with members of my family in all +directions. On July 28th I went, with my son Wilfrid, by Workington +and Maryport to Rose Castle, the residence of Bishop Percy (the Bishop +of Carlisle), and on to Carlisle and Newcastle, looking at various +works, mines, &c.--On Dec. 24th I went to Playford." + + + 1854 + +The chronograph Barrel-Apparatus for the American method of transits +had been practically brought into use: "I have only to add that this +apparatus is now generally efficient. It is troublesome in use; +consuming much time in the galvanic preparations, the preparation of +the paper, and the translation of the puncture-indications into +figures. But among the observers who use it there is but one opinion +on its astronomical merits--that, in freedom from personal equation +and in general accuracy, it is very far superior to the observations +by eye and ear."--The printing and publication of the Observations, +which was always regarded by Airy as a matter of the first importance, +had fallen into arrear: "I stated in my last Report that the printing +of the Observations for 1852 was scarcely commenced at the time of the +last meeting of the Visitors. For a long time the printing went on so +slowly that I almost despaired of ever again seeing the Observations +in a creditable state. After a most harassing correspondence, the +printers were at length persuaded to move more actively, ... but the +volume is still very much behind its usual time of publication."--"The +Deal Time-Ball has now been erected by Messrs Maudslays and Field, and +is an admirable specimen of the workmanship of those celebrated +engineers. The galvanic connection with the Royal Observatory (through +the telegraph wires of the South Eastern Railway) is perfect. The +automatic changes of wire-communications are so arranged that, when +the Ball at Deal has dropped to its lowest point, it sends a message +to Greenwich to acquaint me, not with the time of the beginning of its +fall (which cannot be in error) but with the fact that it has really +fallen. The Ball has several times been dropped experimentally with +perfect success; and some small official and subsidiary arrangements +alone are wanting for bringing it into constant use."--The operations +for the galvanic determination of the longitude of Brussels are +described, with the following conclusion: "Thus, about 3000 effective +signals were made, but only 1000 of these were admissible for the +fundamental objects of the operation. The result, I need scarcely +remark, claims a degree of accuracy to which no preceding +determination of longitude could ever pretend. I apprehend that the +probable error in the difference of time corresponds to not more than +one or two yards upon the Earth's surface.--A careful scheme had been +arranged for the determination of the longitude of Lerwick, but +'unfortunately, the demand for chronometers caused by our large naval +armament has been so considerable that I cannot reckon on having at my +disposal a sufficient number to carry on this operation successfully; +and I have, therefore, unwillingly deferred it to a more peaceful +time.'--The covering stone of Halley's Tomb in Lee Churchyard was much +shattered, and I applied to the Admiralty for funds for its complete +restoration: these were granted on Feb. 3rd.--In this year, under my +cognizance, _£100_ was added to the Hansen grant.--I had much +correspondence and work in connection with the printing of Maclear's +work at the Cape of Good Hope. In June, all accounts, &c. about the +Transit Circle were closed at the Admiralty, and the instrument was +completely mounted at the Cape.--Dr Scoresby (who in his own way was +very imperious) had attacked my methods of correcting the compass in +iron ships: I replied in a letter to the Athenaeum on Oct. 17th.--I +made enquiries about operations for determining the longitude of +Vienna, but was utterly repelled by the foreign telegraph offices.--In +the Royal Astronomical Society; I prepared the Address on presenting +the Medal to Rümker.--In Melbourne University: The first letter +received was from the Chancellor of the University dated Jan. 26th, +requesting that Sir John Herschel, Prof. Malden, Mr Lowe +(subsequently Chancellor of the Exchequer), and I would select +professors. We had a great deal of correspondence, meetings, +examination of testimonials, &c., and on August 14th we agreed on +Wilson, Rowe, McCoy, and Hearn.--On Feb. 17th I received the Prussian +Order of Merit.--I had correspondence with the Treasury on the scale +to be adopted for the Maps of the British Survey. I proposed 1/3000, +and for some purposes 1/600.--I printed a Paper on the Deluge, in +which I shewed (I believe to certainty) that the Deluge of Genesis was +merely a Destructive Flood of the Nile.--Being well acquainted with +the mountains of Cumberland, I had remarked that a 'man' or cairn of +stones erected by the Ordnance Surveyors on the Great Gable had +covered up a curious natural stone trough, known as one of the +remarkable singularities of the country. This year, without giving any +notice to the Ordnance Surveyors, I sent two wallers from Borrowdale +to the mountain top, to remove the 'man' about 10 feet and expose the +trough. Sir Henry James afterwards approved of my act, and refunded +the expense.--I investigated the optical condition of an eye with +conical cornea. + +"The Harton Colliery Experiment: I had long wished to repeat the +experiment which I had attempted unsuccessfully in 1826 and 1828, of +determining by pendulum-vibrations the measure of gravity at the +bottom of a mine. Residing near Keswick this summer, and having the +matter in my mind, I availed myself of an introduction from Dr Leitch +to some gentlemen at South Shields, for inspection of the Harton +Colliery. I judged that it would answer pretty well. I find that on +Aug. 11th I wrote to Mr Anderson (lessee of the mine), and on the same +day to the Admiralty requesting authority to employ a Greenwich +Assistant, and requesting _£100_ for part payment of expenses. On +August 16th the Admiralty assent. There were many preparations to be +made, both personal and instrumental. My party consisted of Dunkin +(Superintendant), Ellis, Criswick, Simmons, Pogson, and Rümker: I did +not myself attend the detail of observations. The observations began +on Oct. 2nd and ended on Oct. 21st: supplementary observations were +subsequently made at Greenwich for examining the coefficient of +temperature-correction. On Oct. 24th I gave a Lecture at South Shields +on the whole operation. In 'Punch' of Nov. 18th there was an excellent +semi-comic account of the experiment, which as I afterwards found was +written by Mr Percival Leigh." + +Of private history: "On Jan. 18th I returned from Playford. From +Mar. 10th to 13th I was at Deal, and visited Sir John Herschel at +Hawkhurst.--From June 28th to Aug. 7th I was staying with my family at +The Grange, in Borrowdale near Keswick: and also made an expedition to +Penrith, Carlisle, Newcastle, Jarrow, &c.; and descended the Harton +Pit.--In September and also in October I was at South Shields on the +Harton Experiments.--From Dec. 14th to 18th I was at Cambridge, and on +the 26th I went to Playford." + +The following letter, written in answer to a lady who had asked him to +procure permission from Lord Rosse for her to observe with his +telescope, is characteristic: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH. + _1854, September 20_. + +DEAR MADAM, + +The state of things with regard to Lord Rosse's Telescope is this. If +a night is fine, it is wanted for his use or for the use of +professional astronomers. If it is not fine, it is of no use to +anybody. Now considering this, and considering that the appropriation +of the telescope on a fine night to any body but a technical +astronomer is a misapplication of an enormous capital of money and +intellect which is invested in this unique instrument--it is against +my conscience to ask Lord Rosse to place it at the service of any +person except an experienced astronomer. No introduction, I believe, +is necessary for seeing it in the day-time. The instrument stands +unenclosed in the Castle Demesne, to which strangers are admitted +without question, I believe............... + + Faithfully yours, + G.B. AIRY. + + + 1855 + +"On May 9th it was notified to me (I think through the Hydrographer) +that the Admiralty were not unwilling to increase my salary. I made +application therefore; and on Jan. 21st 1856 Sir Charles Wood notified +to me that the Admiralty consented to have it raised from _£800_ to +_£1000_.--In the Report to the Board of Visitors it appears that 'At +the instance of the Board of Trade, acting on this occasion through a +Committee of the Royal Society, a model of the Transit Circle (with +the improvement of perforated cube, &c. introduced in the Cape +Transit Circle) has been prepared for the Great Exhibition at +Paris.'--Under the head of Reduction of Astronomical Observations it +is stated that 'During the whole time of which I have spoken, the +galvanic-contact method has been employed for transits, with the +exception of a few days, when the galvanic apparatus was out of order. +From the clock errors, I have deduced the personal equations of the +observers in our usual way.... The result is that the magnitude of the +personal equations in the galvanic-touch method is not above half of +that in the eye and ear method.'--With regard to the Reduction of the +Magnetical Observations, 'I have not yet felt sufficiently satisfied +with any proposed method of discussing the magnetic results to devote +any time to their further treatment.'--'The Time-Signal Ball at Deal +was brought into regular use at the beginning of the present year. In +a short time, however, its action was interrupted, partly by +derangement of the apparatus, and partly by the severity of the +weather, which froze the sulphuric acid to the state of jelly. I sent +an assistant and workman to put it in order, and since that time it +has generally acted very well.--Application has been made to me from +one of the important offices of Government (the Post Office) for the +galvanic regulation of their clocks.--On considering the risks to +which various galvanic communications are liable, and the financial +necessity for occupying wires as little as possible, I perceived that +it was necessary to devise constructions which should satisfy the +following conditions. First, that a current sent once a day should +suffice for adjusting the clock, even if it had gone ten or more +seconds wrong. Secondly, that an occasional failure of the current +should not stop the clock. I have arranged constructions which possess +these characters, and the artist (Mr C. Shepherd) is now engaged in +preparing estimates of the expense. I think it likely that this may +prove to be the beginning of a very extensive system of clock +regulation."--With respect to the operations for determining the +longitude of Paris, it is stated that, "The whole number of days of +signal transmission was eighteen, and the whole number of signals +transmitted was 2530. The number of days considered available for +longitude, in consequence of transits of stars having been observed at +both Observatories, was twelve, and the number of signals was +1703. Very great care was taken on both sides, for the adjustments of +the instruments. The resulting difference of longitude, 9m. 20.63s., +is probably very accurate. It is less by nearly 1s. of time than that +determined in 1825 by rocket-signals, under the superintendance of Sir +John Herschel and Col. Sabine. The time occupied by the passage of the +galvanic current appears to be 1/12th of a second."--With regard to +the Pendulum Experiments in the Harton Colliery, after mentioning that +personal assistance had been sought and obtained from the +Observatories of Cambridge, Oxford, Durham, and Red Hill, the Report +states that "The experiments appear to have been in every point +successful, shewing beyond doubt that gravity is increased at the +depth of 1260 feet by 1/10000th part. I trust that this combination +may prove a valuable precedent for future associations of the +different Observatories of the kingdom, when objects requiring +extensive personal organization shall present themselves."--On +Oct. 18th the Astronomer Royal printed an Address to the Individual +Members of the Board of Visitors on the subject of a large new +Equatoreal for the Observatory. After a brief statement of the +existing equipment of the Observatory in respect of equatoreal +instruments, the Address continues thus: "It is known to the Visitors +that I have uniformly objected to any luxury of extrameridional +apparatus, which would materially divert us from a steady adherence to +the meridional system which both reason and tradition have engrafted +on this Observatory. But I feel that our present instruments are +insufficient even for my wishes; and I cannot overlook the +consideration that due provision must be made for future interests, +and that we are nearer by twenty years to the time when another +judgment must decide on the direction which shall be given to the +force of the Observatory."--"In August I had some correspondence about +the Egyptian wooden astronomical tablets with Mr Gresswell and others: +they were fully examined by Mr Ellis.--In this year I was much engaged +on schemes for compasses, and in June I sent my Paper on Discussions +of Ships' Magnetism to the Royal Society.--On Dec. 6th the mast of the +Observatory time-ball broke, and the Ball fell in the Front Court.--On +Aug. 4th my valued friend Mr Sheepshanks died; and on Aug. 14th I went +to London to see the Standard Bars as left by him. Afterwards, on +Oct. 25th I went to Reading to collect the papers about Standards left +by Mr Sheepshanks.--I made a mechanical construction for Euclid I. 47, +with which I was well satisfied.--On Apr. 13th I joined a deputation +to the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Sir G. Cornewall Lewis) on Decimal +Coinage." + +Of private history: "I was at Playford for a large part of +January.--On Mar, 26th I went to Reading, to visit Mr Sheepshanks, and +afterwards to Silchester and Hereford.--On June 21st I went with my +wife and two eldest sons to Edinburgh and other places in Scotland, +but residing principally at Oban, where I hired a house. Amongst other +expeditions, I and my son Wilfrid went with the 'Pharos' (Northern +Lights Steamer) to the Skerry Vohr Lighthouse, &c. I also visited +Newcastle, &c., and returned to Greenwich on Aug. 2nd.--From Oct. 12th +to 17th I was at Cambridge.--On Dec. 24th I went to Playford." + + + + CHAPTER VII. + + AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY--1856 TO 1866. + + + 1856 + +"In the Report to the Visitors there is an interesting account of the +difficulties experienced with the Reflex Zenith Tube in consequence of +the tremors of the quicksilver transmitted through the ground. +Attempts were made to reduce the tremor by supporting the +quicksilver trough on a stage founded at a depth of 10 feet below the +surface, but it was not in the smallest degree diminished, and the +Report states that 'The experience of this investigation justifies me +in believing that no practicable depth of trench prevents the +propagation of tremor when the soil is like that of Greenwich Hill, a +gravel, in all places very hard, and in some, cemented to the +consistency of rock.'--With respect to the regulation of the Post +Office clocks, 'One of the galvanic clocks in the Post Office +Department, Lombard Street, is already placed in connection with the +Royal Observatory, and is regulated at noon every day ... other clocks +at the General Post Office are nearly prepared for the same +regulation, and I expect that the complete system will soon be in +action.'--Under the head of General Remarks a careful summary is given +of the work of the Observatory, and the paragraph concludes as +follows: 'Lastly there are employments which connect the scientific +Observatory with the practical world; the distribution of accurate +time, the improvement of marine time-keepers, the observations and +communications which tend to the advantage of Geography and +Navigation, and the study, in a practical sense, of the modifications +of Magnetism; a careful attention to these is likely to prove useful +to the world, and conducive to the material prosperity of the +Observatory: and these ought not to be banished from our system.'--In +September I prepared the first specification for the building to carry +the S.E. Dome.--In September, learning that Hansen's Lunar Tables were +finished in manuscript, I applied to Lord Clarendon and they were +conveyed to me through the Foreign Office: in October I submitted to +the Admiralty the proposal for printing the Tables, and in November I +learned that the Treasury had assented to the expense.--Lieut. +Daynou's eclipses and occultations for longitudes of points +in South Africa, observed in 1854 and 1855, were calculated +here in this year.--On Feb. 16th I made my first application to Sir +C. Wood (First Lord of the Admiralty) for assistance to C. Piazzi +Smyth to carry out the Teneriffe Experiment: grounding it in part on +the failure of attempts to see the solar prominences. He gave +encouragement, and on Mar. 18th I transmitted Piazzi Smyth's Memorial +to the Admiralty: on May 2nd the Admiralty authorized an expense of +_£500_. I drew up suggestions.--The Sheepshanks Fund: After the death +of my friend Richard Sheepshanks, his sister Miss Anne Sheepshanks +wished to bestow some funds in connection with the University of +Cambridge, Trinity College, and Astronomy, to which his name should be +attached. There must have been some conversation with me, but the +first letter is one from De Morgan in August. In September I had a +conversation with Miss Sheepshanks, and sent her my first draft of a +scheme, to which she assented. On Sept. 30th I wrote to Whewell +(Master of Trinity) who was much trusted by Miss Sheepshanks: he +consented to take part, and made some suggestions. There was further +correspondence, but the business did not get into shape in this +year.--In connection with the Correction of the Compass in Iron Ships: +I discussed the observations made in the voyage of the Royal +Charter. On Feb. 13th I proposed to the Admiralty a system of mounting +the compasses with adjustable magnets, and it was ordered to be tried +in the Trident and Transit.--In February I reported to the Admiralty +that the Deal Time-Ball had been successful, and I proposed time-balls +at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Sheerness. There was much correspondence +in various directions about Portsmouth and Devonport, and in March I +went to Devonport and specially examined Mount Wise and the Devonport +Column.--I had correspondence with Sir Howard Douglas about the sea +breaking over the unfinished Dover Pier. I have an idea that this +followed evidence given by me to a Harbour Commission, in which I +expressed as a certainty that the sea will not be made to break by a +vertical wall." + +Of private history: "I returned from Playford on Jan. 18th.--From +June 16th to August 5th I was, with my son Wilfrid, on an expedition +to South Italy and Sicily: on our return from Sicily, we remained for +three days ill at Marseilles from a touch of malaria.--On Dec. 22nd I +went to Playford.--In acknowledgment of the pleasure which I had +derived from excursions in the Cumberland Passes, I made a foot-bridge +over a troublesome stream on the Pass of the Sty Head." + + + 1857 + +"In the Report to the Visitors, when on the subject of the Altazimuth, +the following paragraph occurs: 'I alluded in a preceding section to +the cutting away of a very small portion of one of the rays of the +three-armed pier which carries the Altazimuth. The quality of the +brickwork is the best that I have ever seen, and not a single brick +was disturbed beyond those actually removed. Yet the effect was to +give the Altazimuth an inclination of about 23". This inclination +evidently depends on the elasticity of the brickwork.'--With reference +to the new S.E. Equatoreal the Report states that 'The support of the +north or upper end of the polar axis has been received, and is planted +within the walls of the building in a position convenient for raising +it to its ultimate destination. It is one piece of cast-iron, and +weighs nearly 5 tons.'--Small changes as previously mentioned had been +noticed with regard to the Zero of Azimuth of the Transit Circle, and +the Report states that 'In regard to the Azimuth of the Transit +Circle, and the Azimuth of its Collimator, Mr Main has brought +together the results of several years, and the following law appears +to hold. There is a well-marked annual periodical change in the +position of the Transit Circle, the southerly movement of the eastern +pivot having its minimum value in September, and its maximum in March, +the extreme range being about 14 seconds; and there is a similar +change, but of smaller amount, in the position of the Collimator. I +cannot conjecture any cause for these changes, except in the motion of +the ground. There is also a well-marked connection between the state +of level of the axis and the temperature. The eastern pivot always +rises when the temperature rises, the extreme range being about 6 +seconds. I cannot offer any explanation of this.'--Under the head of +Extraneous Works the Report states that 'The British Government had +for some years past contributed by pecuniary grants to the preparation +of Prof. Hansen's Lunar Tables. In the last winter they undertook the +entire expense of printing a large impression of the Tables. The +reading of the proof-sheets (a very considerable labour) has been +effected entirely at the Observatory. I may take this opportunity of +stating that the use of these Tables has enabled me, as I think, +incontestably to fix the capture of Larissa to the date B.C. 557, May +19. This identification promises to prove valuable, not merely for its +chronological utility, but also for its accurate determination of an +astronomical epoch, the point eclipsed being exactly known, and the +shadow having been very small.'--In April I gave a lecture to the +Royal Astronomical Society on the methods available through the next +25 years for the determination of the Sun's parallax.--Dr +Livingstone's observations for African longitudes were computed at the +Observatory.--The Admiralty enquire of me about the feasibility of +adopting Piazzi Smyth's construction for steadying telescopes on board +ship: I gave a Report, of mixed character, on the whole +discouraging.--I had correspondence with G.P. Bond and others about +photographing the Stars and Moon.--On Feb. 17th Piazzi Smyth's books, +&c. relating to the Teneriffe Experiment were sent to me: I +recommended that an abridged Report should be sent to the Royal +Society.--Respecting the Sheepshanks Fund: there was correspondence +with Miss Sheepshanks and Whewell, but nothing got into shape this +year: Miss Sheepshanks transferred to me _£10,000_ lying at Overend +and Gurney's.--In November experiments were made for the longitude of +Edinburgh, which failed totally from the bad state of the telegraph +wire between Deptford and the Admiralty.--In June the first suggestion +was made to me by Capt. Washington for time-signals on the Lizard +Point: which in no long time I changed for the Start Point.--The +Admiralty call for estimates for a time-ball at Portsmouth: on +receiving them they decline further proceeding.--I was engaged in +speculations and correspondence about the Atlantic Submarine +Cable.--In the Royal Astronomical Society, I presented Memoirs and +gave lectures on the three great chronological eclipses (Agathocles, +Thales, Larissa)."--On Dec. 5th Airy wrote to the Vice-Chancellor of +the University of Cambridge, objecting to the proposed changes +regarding the Smith's Prizes--a subject in which he took much +interest, and to which he ascribed great importance.--On Apr. 27th I +was in correspondence with G. Herbert of the Trinity House, about +floating beacons.--In July I reported to the Treasury on the Swedish +Calculating Engine (I think on the occasion of Mr Farr, of the +Registrar-General's Office, applying for one).--In November I had +correspondence about the launch of the Great Eastern, and the main +drainage of London." + +Of private history: "On Jan. 14th I returned from Playford.--From June +27th to Aug. 5th I was travelling in Scotland with my wife and two +eldest sons, chiefly in the West Highlands. On our return we visited +Mrs Smith (my wife's mother) at Brampton.--On Dec. 26th I went to +Playford." + + + 1858 + +"In the Minutes of the Visitors it is noted that the new Queen's +Warrant was received. The principal change was the exclusion of the +Astronomer Royal and the other Observatory Officers from the +Board.--In the Report to the Visitors it is stated that 'The Papers of +the Board of Longitude are now finally stitched into books. They will +probably form one of the most curious collections of the results of +scientific enterprise, both normal and abnormal, which exists.'--It +appears that the galvanic communications, external to the Observatory, +had been in a bad state, the four wires to London Bridge having +probably been injured by a thunderstorm in the last autumn, and the +Report states that 'The state of the wires has not enabled us to drop +the Ball at Deal. The feeble current which arrives there has been used +for some months merely as giving a signal, by which an attendant is +guided in dropping the Ball by hand.'--Regarding the new Equatoreal +the Report states that 'For the new South-East Equatoreal, the +object-glass was furnished by Messrs Merz and Son in the summer of +last year, and I made various trials of it in a temporary tube carried +by the temporary mounting which I had provided, and finally I was well +satisfied with it. I cannot yet say that I have certainly divided the +small star of gamma Andromedae; but, for such a test, a combination of +favourable circumstances is required. From what I have seen, I have no +doubt of its proving a first-rate object-glass.'--On March 15th was an +annular eclipse of the Sun, for the observation of which I sent +parties fully equipped to Bedford, Wellingborough, and Market +Harborough. The observations failed totally in consequence of the bad +weather: I myself went to Harrowden near Wellingborough.--Respecting +the Altazimuth, the Report states that with due caution as to the zero +of azimuth 'the results of observation are extremely good, very nearly +equal to those of the meridional instrument; perhaps I might say that +three observations with the Altazimuth are equivalent to two with the +Transit Circle.'--Respecting Meteorological Observations the Report +states that 'The observations of the maximum and minimum thermometers +in the Thames, interrupted at the date of the last Report, have been +resumed, and are most regularly maintained. Regarding the Thames as +the grand climatic agent on London and its neighbourhood, I should +much regret the suppression of these observations.'--After much +trouble the longitude of Edinburgh had been determined: 'the retard of +the current is 0.04s very nearly, and the difference of longitudes 12m +43.05s, subject to personal equations.'--The Report concludes thus: +'With regard to the direction of our labours, I trust that I shall +always be supported by the Visitors in my desire to maintain the +fundamental and meridional system of the Observatory absolutely +intact. This, however, does not impede the extension of our system in +any way whatever, provided that such means are arranged for carrying +out the extension as will render unnecessary the withdrawal of +strength from what are now the engrossing objects of the +Observatory.'--I had much correspondence on Comets, of which Donati's +great Comet was one: the tail of this Comet passed over Arcturus on +October 5th.--Respecting the Sheepshanks Fund: In September I met +Whewell at Leeds, and we settled orally the final plan of the +scheme. On Oct. 27th I saw Messrs Sharp, Miss Sheepshanks's +solicitors, and drew up a Draft of the Deed of Gift. There was much +correspondence, and on Nov. 20th I wrote to the Vice-Chancellor of +Cambridge University. A counter-scheme was proposed by Dr Philpott, +Master of St Catharine's College. By arrangement I attended the +Council of the University on Dec. 3rd, and explained my views, to +which the Council assented. On Dec. 9th the Senate accepted the gift +of Miss Sheepshanks.--I had much correspondence throughout this year, +with the Treasury, Herschel, Sabine, and the Royal Society, about the +continuation of the Magnetic Establishments. The Reductions of the +Magnetic Observations 1848-1857 were commenced in February of this +year, under the direction of Mr Lucas, a computer who had been engaged +on the Lunar Reductions.--In this year I came to a final agreement +with the South Eastern Railway Company about defining the terms of our +connection with them for the passage of Time Signals. I was authorized +by the Admiralty to sign the 'protocol' or Memorandum of Agreement, +and it was signed by the South Eastern Railway Directors.--On +Aug. 28th I made my first proposal to Sir John Packington (First Lord +of the Admiralty) for hourly time signals on the Start Point, and in +September I went to the Start to examine localities, &c. On Dec. 23rd +the Admiralty declined to sanction it.--I presented to the Royal +Society a Paper about drawing a great-circle trace on a Mercator's +chart.--In October I gave a Lecture on Astronomy in the Assembly Room +at Bury.--On Jan. 25th I was busied with my Mathematical Tracts for +republication."--In this year Airy published in the Athenaeum very +careful and critical remarks on the Commissioners' Draft of Statutes +for Trinity College. He was always ready to take action in the +interests of his old College. This Paper procured him the warmest +gratitude from the Fellows of the College. + +Of private history: "On Jan. 23rd I returned from Playford. From July +5th to Aug. 6th I was on an expedition in Switzerland with my two +eldest sons. At Paris we visited Le Verrier, and at Geneva we visited +Gautier, De La Rive, and Plantamour. We returned by Brussels.--On +Dec. 23rd I went to Playford."--In this year was erected in Playford +Churchyard a granite obelisk in memory of Thomas Clarkson. It was +built by subscription amongst a few friends of Clarkson's, and the +negociations and arrangements were chiefly carried out by Airy, who +zealously exerted himself in the work which was intended to honour the +memory of his early friend. It gave him much trouble during the years +1856 to 1858. + +Here is a letter to the Editor of the Athenaeum on some other Trinity +matters: + + + _1858, November 22_. + +DEAR SIR, + +In the Athenaeum of November 20, page 650, column 3, paragraph 4, +there is an account of the erection of the statue of Barrow in Trinity +College Antechapel (Cambridge) conceived in a spirit hostile to the +University, and written in great ignorance of the facts. On the latter +I can give the writer some information. + +The Marquis of Lansdowne, who was a Trinity man and whose son was of +Trinity, intimated to the authorities of the College that he was +desirous of placing in the antechapel a statue of _Milton_. This, +regard being had to the customs and the college-feelings of Cambridge, +was totally impossible. The antechapel of every college is sacredly +reserved for memorials of the men of that college only; and Milton was +of Christ's College. The Marquis of Lansdowne, on hearing this +objection, left the choice of the person to be commemorated, to +certain persons of the college, one of whom (a literary character of +the highest eminence and a profound admirer of Milton) has not resided +in Cambridge for many years. Several names were carefully considered, +and particularly one (not mentioned by your correspondent) of very +great literary celebrity, but in whose writings there is ingrained so +much of ribaldry and licentiousness that he was at length given +up. Finally the choice rested on Barrow, not as comparable to Milton, +but as a person of reputation in his day and as the best who could be +found under all the circumstances. + +Cromwell never was mentioned; he was a member of Sidney College: +moreover it would have been very wrong to select the exponent of an +extreme political party. But Cromwell has I believe many admirers in +Cambridge, to which list I attach myself. + +I had no part in the negociations above mentioned, but I saw the +original letters, and I answer for the perfect correctness of what I +have stated. But as I am not a principal, I decline to appear in +public. + +It is much to be desired, both for the Athenaeum and for the public, +that such an erroneous statement should not remain uncorrected. And I +would suggest that a correction by the Editor would be just and +graceful, and would tend to support the Athenaeum in that high +position which it has usually maintained. + + I am, dear Sir, + Yours very faithfully, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Hepworth Dixon, Esq._ + + + 1859 + +"The Report to the Visitors states that 'The Lunar Reductions with +amended elements (especially parallax) for correction of Observations +from 1831 to 1851 are now completed. It is, I think, matter of +congratulation to the Observatory and to Astronomy, that there are now +exhibited the results of uninterrupted Lunar Observations extending +through more than a century, made at the same place, reduced under the +same superintendence and on the same general principles, and compared +throughout with the same theoretical Tables.'--After reference to the +great value of the Greenwich Lunar Observations to Prof. Hansen in +constructing his Tables, and to the liberality of the British +Government in their grants to Hansen, the Report continues thus: 'A +strict comparison of Hansen's Tables with the Greenwich Observations +of late years, both meridional and extra-meridional, was commenced. +The same observations had, in the daily routine of the Observatory, +been compared with the Nautical Almanac or Burckhardt's Tables. The +result for one year only (1852) has yet reached me, but it is most +remarkable. The sum of squares of residual errors with Hansen's Tables +is only one-eighth part of that with Burckhardt's Tables. When it is +remembered that in this is included the entire effect of errors and +irregularities of observation, we shall be justified in considering +Hansen's Tables as nearly perfect. So great a step, to the best of my +knowledge, has never been made in numerical physical theory. I have +cited this at length, not only as interesting to the Visitors from the +circumstance that we have on our side contributed to this great +advance, but also because an innovation, peculiar to this Observatory, +has in no small degree aided in giving a decisive character to the +comparison. I have never concealed my opinion that the introduction +and vigorous use of the Altazimuth for observations of the Moon is the +most important addition to the system of the Observatory that has been +made for many years. The largest errors of Burckhardt's Tables were +put in evidence almost always by the Altazimuth Observations, in +portions of the Moon's Orbit which could not be touched by the +meridional instruments; they amounted sometimes to nearly 40" of arc, +and they naturally became the crucial errors for distinction between +Burckhardt's and Hansen's Tables. Those errors are in all cases +corrected with great accuracy by Hansen's Tables.'--The Report +concludes with the following paragraph: 'With the inauguration of the +new Equatoreal will terminate the entire change from the old state of +the Observatory. There is not now a single person employed or +instrument used in the Observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time, +nor a single room in the Observatory which is used as it was used +then. In every step of change, however, except this last, the ancient +and traditional responsibilities of the Observatory have been most +carefully considered: and, in the last, the substitution of a new +instrument was so absolutely necessary, and the importance of +tolerating no instrument except of a high class was so obvious, that +no other course was open to us. I can only trust that, while the use +of the Equatoreal within legitimate limits may enlarge the utility and +the reputation of the Observatory, it may never be permitted to +interfere with that which has always been the staple and standard work +here.'--Concerning the Sheepshanks Fund: There was much correspondence +about settling the Gift till about Feb. 21st. I took part in the first +examination for the Scholarship in October of this year, and took my +place with the Trinity Seniority, as one of their number on this +foundation, for some general business of the Fund.--With respect to +the Correction of the Compass in Iron Ships: I sent Mr Ellis to +Liverpool to see some practice there in the correction of the +Compass. In September I urged Mr Rundell to make a voyage in the Great +Eastern (just floated) for examination of her compasses, and lent him +instruments: very valuable results were obtained. Mr Archibald Smith +had edited Scoresby's Voyage in the Royal Charter, with an +introduction very offensive to me: I replied fully in the Athenaeum of +Nov. 7th.--The Sale of Gas Act: An Act of Parliament promoted by +private members of the House of Commons had been passed, without the +knowledge or recollection of the Government. It imposed on the +Government various duties about the preparation of Standards. +Suddenly, at the very expiration of the time allowed this +came to the knowledge of Government. On Oct. 1st Lord Monteagle +applied to me for assistance. On Oct. 15th and 22nd I wrote to Mr +Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and received authority to ask for +the assistance of Prof. W.H. Miller.--I made an examination of Mr +Ball's eyes (long-sighted and short-sighted I think).--In February I +made an Analysis of the Cambridge Tripos Examination, which I +communicated to some Cambridge residents." In a letter on this subject +to one of his Cambridge friends Airy gives his opinion as follows: "I +have looked very carefully over the Examination Papers, and think them +on the whole very bad. They are utterly perverted by the insane love +of Problems, and by the foolish importance given to wholly useless +parts of Algebraical Geometry. For the sake of these, every Physical +Subject and every useful application of pure mathematics are cut down +or not mentioned." This led to much discussion at Cambridge. In this +year the Smith's Prizes were awarded to the 4th and 6th Wranglers. + +Of private history: "On Apr. 29th Mrs Smith (my wife's mother) died at +Brampton.--From July 4th to Aug. 2nd I was in France (Auvergne and the +Vivarais) with my two eldest sons. Maclear travelled with us to +Paris.--On Dec. 23rd I went to Playford."--Antiquities and historical +questions connected with military movements had a very great +attraction for Airy. On his return from the expedition in France +above-mentioned, he engaged in considerable correspondence with +military authorities regarding points connected with the battle of +Toulouse. And in this year also he had much correspondence with the +Duke of Northumberland concerning his Map of the Roman Wall, and the +military points relating to the same. + + + 1860 + +"In June Mr Main accepted the office of Radcliffe Observer at Oxford +(Mr Johnson having died) and resigned the First Assistancy at +Greenwich: in October Mr Stone was appointed First Assistant.--At an +adjourned Meeting of the Visitors on June 18th there were very heavy +discussions on Hansen's merits, and about the grant to him. Papers +were read from Sir J. Lubbock, Babbage, South, Whewell, and +me. Finally it was recommended to the Government to grant _£1000_ to +Hansen, which was paid to him.--In the Report to the Board of Visitors +the following remark occurs: 'The apparent existence of a discordance +between the results of Direct Observations and Reflection Observations +(after the application of corrections for flexure, founded upon +observations of the horizontal collimator wires) to an extent far +greater than can be explained by any disturbance of the direction of +gravity on the quicksilver by its distance from the vertical, or by +the attraction of neighbouring masses, perplexes me much.'--With +respect to the discordance of dips of the dipping-needles, which for +years past had been a source of great trouble and puzzle, the Report +states that 'The dipping-needles are still a source of anxiety. The +form which their anomalies appear to take is that of a special or +peculiar value of the dip given by each separate needle. With one of +the 9-inch needles, the result always differs about a quarter of a +degree from that of the others. I can see nothing in its mechanical +construction to explain this.--Reference is made to the spontaneous +currents through the wires of telegraph companies, which are +frequently violent and always occur at the times of magnetic storms, +and the Report continues 'It may be worth considering whether it would +ever be desirable to establish in two directions at right angles to +each other (for instance, along the Brighton Railway and along the +North Kent Railway) wires which would photographically register in the +Royal Observatory the currents that pass in these directions, +exhibiting their indications by photographic curves in close +juxtaposition with the registers of the magnetic elements.'--In +connection with the Reduction of the Greenwich Lunar Observations from +1831 to 1851, the Report states that 'The comparison of Hansen's Lunar +Tables with the Greenwich Observations, which at the last Visitation +had been completed for one year only, has now been finished for the +twelve years 1847 to 1858. The results for the whole period agree +entirely, in their general spirit, with those for the year 1852 cited +in the last Report. The greatest difference between the merits of +Burckhardt's and Hansen's Tables appears in the Meridional Longitudes +1855, when the proportion of the sum of squares of errors is as 31 +(Burckhardt) to 2 (Hansen). The nearest approach is in the Altazimuth +Latitudes 1854, when the proportion of the sum of squares of errors is +as 12 (Burckhardt) to 5 (Hansen).'--A special Address to the Members +of the Board of Visitors has reference to the proposals of M. Struve +for (amongst other matters) the improved determination of the +longitude of Valencia, and the galvanic determination of the extreme +Eastern Station of the British triangles.--On Sept. 13th I circulated +amongst the Visitors my Remarks on a Paper entitled 'On the Polar +Distances of the Greenwich Transit-Circle, by A. Marth,' printed in +the Astronomische Nachrichten; the Paper by Mr Marth was an elaborate +attack on the Greenwich methods of observation, and my Remarks were a +detailed refutation of his statements.--On Oct. 20th I made enquiry of +Sabine as to the advantage of keeping up magnetic observations. On +Oct. 22nd he wrote, avoiding my question in some measure, but saying +that our instruments must be changed for such as those at Kew (his +observatory): I replied, generally declining to act on that +advice.--In March and April I was in correspondence with Mr Cowper +(First Commissioner of Works, &c.) about the bells of the Westminster +Clock; also about the smoky chimneys of the various apartments of the +Palace. On Apr. 21st I made my Report on the clock and bells, 20 +foolscap pages. I employed a professional musician to examine the +tones of the bells.--In November I was writing my book on Probable +Errors, &c.--I was engaged on the Tides of Kurrachee and Bombay.--The +first examination of Navy telescopes was made for the Admiralty. +--Hoch's Paper on Aberration appeared in the Astronomische +Nachrichten. This (with others) led to the construction of the +water-telescope several years later.--In September I wrote in the +Athenaeum against a notion of Sir H. James on the effect of an +upheaval of a mountain in changing the Earth's axis. In October I had +drawn up a list of days for a possible evagation of the Earth's poles: +but apparently nothing was done upon them. + +"In this year I was a good deal occupied for the Lighthouse +Commission. On Feb. 21st Admiral Hamilton (chairman) applied to me for +assistance. In April I went to Chance's Factory in Birmingham on this +business. In May I made my report on the Start Lighthouse, after +inspection with the Commission. In June, with my son Hubert, I visited +the Whitby Lighthouses, and discovered a fault of a singular kind +which most materially diminished their power. This discovery led to a +general examination of lighthouses by the Trinity Board, to a +modification of many, and to a general improvement of system. On June +25th I reported on the Lights at Calais, Cap de Valde, Grisnez, South +Foreland, and North Foreland. In August I had been to the North +Foreland again, and in September to Calais and the Cap d'Ailly. In +October I went with my son Hubert to Aberdeen to see the Girdleness +Lighthouse. On Nov. 10th I made a General Report. + +"This was the year of the great total solar eclipse visible in +Spain. At my representation, the Admiralty placed at my command the +large steamship 'Himalaya' to carry about 60 astronomers, British and +Foreign. Some were landed at Santander: I with many at Bilbao. The +Eclipse was fairly well observed: I personally did not do my part +well. The most important were Mr De La Rue's photographic operations. +At Greenwich I had arranged a very careful series of observations with +the Great Equatoreal, which were fully carried out." + +The eclipse expedition to Spain, shortly referred to above, was most +interesting, not merely from the importance of the results obtained +(and some of the parties were very fortunate in the weather) but from +the character of the expedition. It was a wonderful combination of +the astronomers of Europe, who were all received on board the +'Himalaya,' and were conveyed together to the coast of Spain. The +polyglot of languages was most remarkable, but the utmost harmony and +enthusiasm prevailed from first to last, and this had much to do with +the general success of the expedition. Those who landed at Bilbao +were received in the kindest and most hospitable manner by Mr +C.B. Vignoles, the engineer-in-chief of the Bilbao and Tudela Railway, +which was then under construction. This gentleman made arrangements +for the conveyance of parties to points in the interior of the country +which were judged suitable for the observation of the eclipse, and +placed all the resources of his staff at the disposal of the +expedition in the most liberal manner. The universal opinion was that +very great difficulty would have been experienced without the active +and generous assistance of Mr Vignoles. It is needless to say that the +vote of thanks to Mr Vignoles, proposed by the Astronomer Royal during +the return voyage, was passed by acclamation and with a very sincere +feeling of gratitude: it was to the effect that 'without the great and +liberal aid of Mr C.B. Vignoles, and the disinterested love of science +evinced by him on this occasion, the success of the "Himalaya" eclipse +expedition could not have been ensured.' There is a graphic and +interesting account of the reception of the party at Bilbao given in +the 'Life of C.B. Vignoles, F.R.S., Soldier and Civil Engineer,' by +O.J. Vignoles, M.A. + +Of private history: "On May 26th my venerable friend Arthur Biddell +died. He had been in many respects more than a father to me: I cannot +express how much I owed to him, especially in my youth.--From June +12th to 15th I visited the Whitby Lighthouses with my son +Hubert.--From July 6th to 28th I was in Spain, on the 'Himalaya' +expedition, to observe the total eclipse: I was accompanied by my +wife, my eldest son, and my eldest daughter.--From Oct. 5th to 18th I +went with my son Hubert to Aberdeen to see the Girdleness Lighthouse, +making lateral trips to Cumberland in going and returning.--On +Dec. 21st I went to Playford." + + + 1861 + +"In the Report to the Visitors there is great complaint of want of +room. 'With increase of computations, we want more room for computers; +with our greatly increased business of Chronometers and +Time-Distribution, we are in want of a nearly separate series of rooms +for the Time-Department: we want rooms for book-stores; and we require +rooms for the photographic operations and the computations of the +Magnetic Department.'--The Report gives a curious history of Dr +Bradley's Observations, which in 1776 had been transferred to the +University of Oxford, and proceeds thus: 'More lately, I applied (in +the first instance through Lord Wrottesley) to the Vice-Chancellor, Dr +Jeune, in reference to the possibility of transferring these +manuscripts to the Royal Observatory.... Finally, a decree for the +transfer of the manuscript observations to the Royal Observatory, +without any condition, was proposed to Convocation on May 2nd, and was +passed unanimously. And on May 7th my Assistant, Mr Dunkin, was sent +to Oxford to receive them. And thus, after a delay of very nearly a +century, the great work of justice is at length completed, and the +great gap in our manuscript observations is at length filled +up.'--With reference to the Transit Circle, it had been remarked that +the Collimators were slightly disturbed by the proximity of the +gas-flames of their illuminators, and after various experiments as to +the cause of it, the Report proceeds thus: 'To my great surprise, I +found that the disturbance was entirely due to the radiation of the +flame upon a very small corner (about 16 square inches) of the large +and massive stone on which the collimator is planted. The tin plates +were subsequently shaped in such a manner as to protect the stone as +well as the metal; and the disturbance has entirely ceased.' +--Regarding the large S.E. Equatoreal, the Report states that +'On the character of its object-glass I am now able to speak, first, +from the examination of Mr Otto Struve, made in a favourable state of +atmosphere; secondly, from the examinations of my Assistants (I have +not myself obtained a sight of a test-object on a night of very good +definition). It appears to be of the highest order. The small star of +gamma Andromedae is so far separated as to shew a broad dark space +between its components. Some blue colour is shewn about the bright +planets.'--It is noted in the Report that 'The Equatoreal observations +of the Solar Eclipse are completely reduced; and the results are +valuable. It appears from them that the error in right ascension of +Burckhardt's Lunar Tables at the time of the eclipse amounted to about +38"; while that of Hansen's (ultimately adopted by Mr Hind for the +calculation of the eclipse) did not exceed 3".'--With regard to +Chronometers it is stated that 'By use of the Chronometer Oven, to +which I have formerly alluded, we have been able to give great +attention to the compensation. I have reason to think that we are +producing a most beneficial effect on the manufacture and adjustment +of chronometers in general.'--With regard to the Cape of Good Hope +Observatory and Survey, the Admiralty enquire of me when the Survey +work will be completed, and I enquire of Maclear 'How is the printing +of your Survey Work?' In 1862 I began to press it strongly, and in +1863 very strongly.--I introduced a method (constantly pursued since +that time at the Royal Observatory) for computing interpolations +without changes of sign.--I had correspondence with Herschel and +Faraday, on the possible effect of the Sun's radiant heat on the sea, +as explaining the curve of diurnal magnetic inequality. (That diurnal +inequality was inferred from the magnetic reductions 1848-1857, which +were terminated in 1860.)--Regarding the proposal of hourly +time-signals on the Start Point, I consulted telegraph engineers upon +the practical points, and on Dec. 21st I proposed a formal scheme, in +complete detail. (The matter has been repeatedly brought before the +Admiralty, but has been uniformly rejected.)--I was engaged on the +question of the bad ocular vision of two or three persons.--The +British Association Meeting was held at Manchester: I was President of +Section A. I gave a Lecture on the Eclipse of 1860 to an enormous +attendance in the Free Trade Hall." The following record of the +Lecture is extracted from Dr E.J. Routh's Obituary Notice of Airy +written for the Proceedings of the Royal Society. "At the meeting of +the British Association at Manchester in 1861, Mr Airy delivered a +Lecture on the Solar Eclipse of 1860 to an assembly of perhaps 3000 +persons. The writer remembers the great Free Trade Hall crowded to +excess with an immense audience whose attention and interest, +notwithstanding a weak voice, he was able to retain to the very end of +the lecture....The charm of Professor Airy's lectures lay in the +clearness of his explanations. The subjects also of his lectures were +generally those to which his attention had been turned by other +causes, so that he had much that was new to tell. His manner was +slightly hesitating, and he used frequent repetitions, which perhaps +were necessary from the newness of the ideas. As the lecturer +proceeded, his hearers forgot these imperfections and found their +whole attention rivetted to the subject matter." + +Of private history: "On Jan. 2nd there was a most remarkable +crystallization of the ice on the flooded meadows at Playford: the +frost was very severe.--From June 20th to Aug. 1st I was at the Grange +near Keswick (where I hired a house) with my wife and most of my +family.--From Nov. 5th to 14th I was on an expedition in the South of +Scotland with my son Wilfrid: we walked with our knapsacks by the +Roman Road across the Cheviots to Jedburgh.--On Dec. 21st I went to +Playford." + + + 1862 + +"The Report to the Board of Visitors states that 'A new range of +wooden buildings (the Magnetic Offices) is in progress at the +S.S.E. extremity of the Magnetic Ground. It will include seven +rooms.'--Also 'I took this opportunity (the relaying of the +water-main) of establishing two powerful fire-plugs (one in the Front +Court, and one in the Magnetic Ground); a stock of fire-hose adapted +to the "Brigade-Screw" having been previously secured in the +Observatory.'--'Two wires, intended for the examination of spontaneous +earth-currents, have been carried from the Magnetic Observatory to the +Railway Station in the town of Greenwich. From this point one wire is +to be led to a point in the neighbourhood of Croydon, the other to a +point in the neighbourhood of Dartford. Each wire is to be connected +at its two extremities with the Earth. The angle included between the +general directions of these two lines is nearly a right angle.'--'The +Kew unifilar magnetometer, adapted to the determination of the +horizontal part of terrestrial magnetic force in absolute measure, was +mounted in the summer of 1861; and till 1862 February, occasional +observations (14 in all) were taken simultaneously with the old and +with the new instrument. The comparison of results shewed a steady but +very small difference, not greater probably than may correspond to the +omission of the inverse seventh powers of distance in the theoretical +investigation; proving that the old instrument had been quite +efficient for its purpose.'--Great efforts had been made to deduce a +law from the Diurnal Inequalities in Declination and Horizontal Force, +as shewn by the Magnetic observations; but without success: the Report +states that 'The results are most amazing, for the variation in +magnitude as well as in law. What cosmical change can be indicated by +them is entirely beyond my power of conjecture.'--'I have alluded, in +the two last Reports, to the steps necessary, on the English side, for +completing the great Arc of Parallel from Valencia to the Volga. The +Russian portion of the work is far advanced, and will be finished (it +is understood) in the coming summer. It appeared to me therefore that +the repetition of the measure of astronomical longitude between +Greenwich and Valencia could be no longer delayed. Two Assistants of +the Royal Observatory (Mr Dunkin and Mr Criswick) will at once proceed +to Valencia, for the determination of local time and the management of +galvanic signals.'--'I now ask leave to press the subject of Hourly +Time Signals at the Start Point on the attention of the Board, and to +submit the advantage of their addressing the Board of Admiralty upon +it. The great majority of outward-bound ships pass within sight of the +Start, and, if an hourly signal were exhibited, would have the means +of regulating their chronometers at a most critical part of their +voyage. The plan of the entire system of operations is completely +arranged. The estimated expense of outfit is _£2017_, and the +estimated annual expense is _£326_; both liable to some uncertainty, +but sufficiently exact to shew that the outlay is inconsiderable in +comparison with the advantages which might be expected from it. I know +no direction of the powers of the Observatory which would tend so +energetically to carry out the great object of its establishment, +viz. "the finding out the so much desired Longitude at Sea."'--The +attention of the Visitors is strongly drawn to the pressure on the +strength of the Observatory caused by the observation of the numerous +small planets, and the paragraph concludes thus: 'I shall, however, +again endeavour to effect a partition of this labour with some other +Observatory.'--A small fire having occurred in the Magnetic +Observatory, a new building of zinc, for the operation of +naphthalizing the illuminating gas, is in preparation, external to the +Observatory: and thus one of the possible sources of accidental fire +will be removed.--Miss Sheepshanks added, through me, _£2000_ to her +former gift: I transferred it, I believe, to the Master and Seniors of +Trinity College."--In this year Airy contributed to the Royal Society +two Papers, one "On the Magnetic properties of Hot-Rolled and +Cold-Rolled Malleable Iron," the other "On the Strains in the Interior +of Beams." He gave evidence before the Select Committee on Weights and +Measures, and also before the Public Schools Commission. + +In the latter part of 1862 a difference arose between Airy and +Major-General Sabine, in consequence of remarks made by the latter at +a meeting of the Committee of Recommendations of the British +Association. These remarks were to the effect "That it is necessary to +maintain the complete system of self-registration of magnetic +phenomena at the Kew Observatory, because no sufficient system of +magnetic record is maintained elsewhere in England"; implying +pointedly that the system at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich was +insufficient. This matter was taken up very warmly by Airy, and after +a short and acrimonious correspondence with Sabine, he issued a +private Address to the Visitors, enclosing copies of the +correspondence with his remarks, and requesting the Board to take the +matter of this attack into their careful consideration. This Address +is dated November 1862, and it was followed by another dated January +1863, which contains a careful reply to the various points of General +Sabine's attack, and concludes with a distinct statement that he (the +Astronomer Royal) can no longer act in confidence with Sabine as a +Member of the Board of Visitors. + +Of private history: There were the usual short visits to Playford at +the beginning and end of the year.--From June 28th to Aug. 5th he was +in Scotland (chiefly in the Western Highlands) with his wife and his +sons Hubert and Osmund. In the course of this journey he visited the +Corryvreckan whirlpool near the island of Scarba, and the following +paragraph relating to this expedition is extracted from his journal: +"Landed in Black Mile Bay, island of Luing, at 10.30. Here by previous +arrangement with Mr A. Brown, agent of the steam-boat company, a +4-oared boat was waiting to take us to Scarba and the Corryvreckan. We +were pulled across to the island of Lunga, and rowed along its length, +till we came to the first channel opening from the main sea, which the +sailors called the Little Gulf. Here the sea was rushing inwards in a +manner of which I had no conception. Streams were running with raving +speed, sometimes in opposite directions side by side, with high +broken-headed billows. Where the streams touched were sometimes great +whirls (one not many yards from our boat) that looked as if they would +suck anything down. Sometimes among all this were great smooth parts +of the sea, still in a whirling trouble, which were surrounded by the +mad currents. We seemed entirely powerless among all these." + +In the beginning of this year (1862) the Duke of Manchester, in +writing to the Rev. W. Airy, had said, "I wish your brother, the +Astronomer Royal, could be induced to have investigations made as to +whether the aspects of the Planets have any effect on the weather." +This enquiry produced the following reply: + +A subject like that of the occult influences of the planets (using the +word occult in no bad sense but simply as meaning not _thoroughly_ +traced) can be approached in two ways--either by the à priori +probability of the existence of such influences, or by the à +posteriori evidence of their effects. If the two can be combined, the +subject may be considered as claiming the dignity of a science. Even +if the effects alone are certain, it may be considered that we have a +science of inferior degree, wanting however that definiteness of law +and that general plausibility which can only be given when true +causes, in accordance with antecedent experience in other cases, can +be suggested. + +Now in regard to the à priori probability of the existence of +planetary influences, I am far from saying that such a thing is +impossible. The discoveries of modern philosophy have all tended to +shew that there may be many things about us, unknown even to the +scientific world, but which well-followed accidents reveal with the +most positive certainty. It is known that every beam of light is +accompanied by a beam of chemical agency, totally undiscoverable to +the senses of light or warmth, but admitting of separation from the +luminous and warm rays; and producing photogenic effects. We know +that there are disturbances of magnetism going on about us, affecting +whole continents at a time, unknown to men in general, but traceable +with facility and certainty, and which doubtless affect even our +brains and nerves (which are indisputably subject to the influence of +magnetism). + +Now in the face of these things I will not undertake to say that there +is any impossibility, or even any want of plausibility in the +supposition that bodies external to the earth may affect us. It may +well be cited in its favour that it is certain that the sun affects +our magnetism (it is doubtful whether it does so _im_mediately, or +mediately by giving different degrees of warmth to different parts of +the earth), and it is believed on inferior evidence that the moon also +affects it. It may therefore seem not impossible or unplausible that +other celestial bodies may affect perhaps others of the powers of +nature about us. But there I must stop. The denial of the +impossibility is no assertion of the truth or probability, and I +absolutely decline to take either side--either that the influences are +real, or that the influences are unreal--till I see evidence of their +effects. + +Such evidence it is extremely difficult to extract from ordinary facts +of observation. I have alluded to the sun's daily disturbance of the +magnet as one of the most certain of influences, yet if you were to +observe the magnet for a single day or perhaps for several days, you +might see no evidence of that influence, so completely is it involved +with other disturbances whose causes and laws are totally unknown. + +I believe that, in addition to the effects ascribable to Newtonian +gravitation (as general motion of the earth, precession of the +equinoxes, and tides), this magnetic disturbance is the only one yet +established as depending on an external body. Men in general, however, +do not think so. It appears to be a law of the human mind, to love to +trace an effect to a cause, and to be ready to assent to any specious +cause. Thus all practical men of the lower classes, even those whose +pecuniary interests are concerned in it, believe firmly in the +influence of the moon upon the winds and the weather. I believe that +every careful examiner of recorded facts (among whom I place myself as +regards the winds) has come to the conclusion that the influence of +the moon is not discoverable. + +I point out these two things (magnetic disturbances and weather) as +tending to shew that notoriety or the assumed consent of practical +men, are of no value. The unnotorious matter may be quite certain, the +notorious matter may have no foundation. Everything must stand on its +own evidence, as completely digested and examined. + +Of such evidence the planetary influence has not a particle. + +My intended short note has, in the course of writing, grown up into a +discourse of very unreasonable length; and it is possible that a large +portion of it has only increased obscurity. At any rate I can add +nothing, I believe, which can help to explain more fully my views on +this matter. + + * * * * * + +In this year (1862, June 9th) Airy received the Honorary Degree of +LL.D. in the University of Cambridge. He was nominated by the Duke of +Devonshire, as appears from the following letter: + + LISMORE CASTLE, IRELAND, + _April 19th, 1862_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +It is proposed according to usage to confer a considerable number of +Honorary Degrees on the occasion of my first visit to Cambridge as +Chancellor of the University. + +I hope that you will allow me to include your name in that portion of +the list which I have been invited to draw up. + +The ceremony is fixed for the 10th of June. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + DEVONSHIRE. + +_The Astronomer Royal_. + + * * * * * + +Airy's reply was as follows: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1862, April 21_. + +MY LORD DUKE, + +I am exceedingly gratified by your communication this day received, +conveying a proposal which I doubt not is suggested by your Grace's +recollection of transactions now many years past. + +I have always been desirous of maintaining my connection with my +University, and have in various ways interested myself practically in +its concerns. It would give me great pleasure to have the connection +strengthened in the flattering way which you propose. + +I had conceived that alumni of the University were not admissible to +honorary degrees; but upon this point the information possessed by +your Grace, as Chancellor of the University, cannot be disputed. + + I am, my Lord Duke, + Your Grace's very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_His Grace + The Duke of Devonshire_. + + * * * * * + +There were in all 19 Honorary Degrees of Doctor of Laws conferred on +the 9th of June, including men of such eminence as Armstrong, Faraday, +and Fairbairn. + + + 1863 + +In this year there were several schemes for a Railway through the +lower part of Greenwich Park, the most important being the scheme of +the London, Chatham and Dover Railway Company. In reference to this +scheme the Report to the Visitors states "I may say briefly that I +believe that it would be possible to render such a railway innocuous +to the Observatory; it would however be under restrictions which might +be felt annoying to the authorities of the Railway, but whose +relaxation would almost ensure ruin to the Observatory."--"The +meridional observations of Mars in the Autumn of 1862 have been +compared with those made at the Observatory of Williamstown, near +Melbourne, Australia, and they give for mean solar parallax the value +8.932", exceeding the received value by about 1/24th part. (A value +nearly identical with this 8.93" has also been found by comparing the +Pulkowa and Cape of Good Hope Observations.)"--"The results of the new +Dip-Instrument in 1861 and 1862 appear to give a firm foundation for +speculations on the state and change of the dip. As a general result, +I may state as probable that the value of dip in the middle of 1843 +was about 69°1', and in the middle of 1862 about 68°11'. The decrease +of dip appears to be more rapid in the second half of this interval +than in the first; the dip at beginning of 1853 being about +68°44'."--With reference to the re-determination of the longitude of +Valencia, it is stated that "The concluded longitude agrees almost +exactly with that determined by the transmission of chronometers in +1844; and entitles us to believe that the longitudes of Kingstown and +Liverpool, steps in the chronometer conveyance, were determined with +equal accuracy."--"The computations, for inferring the direction and +amount of movement of the Solar System in space from the observed +proper motions of 1167 stars, have been completed. The result is, that +the Sun is moving towards a point, R.A. 264°, N.P.D. 65° (not very +different from Sir W. Herschel's, but depending much in N.P.D. on the +accuracy of Bradley's quadrant observations), and that its annual +motion subtends, at the distance of a star of the first magnitude, the +angle 0.4". But the comparison, of the sum of squares of apparent +proper motions uncorrected, with the sum of squares of apparent proper +motions corrected for motion of Sun, shews so small an advance in the +explanation of the star's apparent movements as to throw great doubt +on the certainty of results; the sum of squares being diminished by +only 1/25th part."--"I had been writing strongly to Maclear on the +delays in publishing both the geodetic work and the Star Catalogue at +the Cape of Good Hope: he resolves to go on with these works. In +December I am still very urgent about the geodesy." + +Of private history: There was the usual short visit to Playford at the +beginning and end of the year.--"From June 27th to August 10th I was +travelling in the North and West of Scotland with my wife, my youngest +son Osmund, and my daughter Annot." + + * * * * * + +In this year the offer of Knighthood (for the third time) was made to +Airy through the Rt Hon. Sir George C. Lewis, Bart. The offer was +accepted on Feb. 12th, 1863, but on the same day a second letter was +written as follows: + + + _1863, Feb. 12_. + +DEAR SIR, + +I am extremely ignorant of all matters connected with court +ceremonial, and in reference to the proposed Knighthood would ask +you:-- + +1. I trust that there is no expense of fees. To persons like myself of +small fortune an honour may sometimes be somewhat dear. + +2. My highest social rank is that given by my Academical Degree of +D.C.L. which I hold in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In +regard to costume, would it be proper that I should appear in the +scarlet gown of that degree? or in the ordinary Court Dress? + + I am, Dear Sir, + Yours very faithfully, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Right Honourable + Sir George C. Lewis, Bart., + &c. &c. &c._ + + +To this letter Sir G.C. Lewis replied that the fees would amount to +about _£30_, an intimation which produced the following letter: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, S.E. + _1863, Feb. 19th_. + +DEAR SIR, + +I have to acknowledge your letter of yesterday: and I advert to that +part of it in which it is stated that the Fees on Knighthood amount to +about _£30_. + +Twenty-seven years ago the same rank was offered to me by Lord John +Russell and Mr Spring Rice (then Ministers of the Crown), with the +express notice that no fees would be payable. I suppose that the usage +(whatever it be) on which that notice was founded still subsists. + +To a person whose annual income little more than suffices to meet the +annual expenses of a very moderate establishment, an unsought honour +may be an incumbrance. It appears, at any rate, opposed to the spirit +of such an honour, that it should be loaded with Court Expenses in its +very creation. + +I hope that the principle stated in 1835 may serve as precedent on +this occasion. + + I am, dear Sir, + Your very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Right Honourable + Sir G. C. Lewis, Bart., + &c. &c. &c._ + +No intimation however was received that the fees would be remitted on +the present occasion, and after consideration the proposed Knighthood +was declined in the following letter: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, S.E. + _1863, April 15_. + +DEAR SIR, + +I have frequently reflected on the proposal made by you of the honour +of Knighthood to myself. I am very grateful to you for the favourable +opinion which you entertain in regard to my supposed claims to notice, +and for the kindness with which you proposed publicly to express +it. But on consideration I am strongly impressed with the feeling that +the conditions attached by established regulation to the conferring of +such an honour would be unacceptable to me, and that the honour itself +would in reality, under the circumstances of my family-establishment +and in my social position, be an incumbrance to me. And finally I have +thought it best most respectfully, and with a full sense of the +kindness of yourself and of the Queen's Government towards me, to ask +that the proposal might be deferred. + +There is another direction in which a step might be made, affecting my +personal position in a smaller degree, but not tending to incommode +me, which I would ask leave to submit to your consideration. It is, +the definition of the Rank of the Astronomer Royal. The singular +character of the office removes it from ordinary rules of rank, and +sometimes may produce a disagreeable contest of opinions. The only +offices of similar character corresponding in other conditions to that +of the British Astronomer Royal are those of the Imperial Astronomers +at Pulkowa (St Petersburg) and Paris. In Russia, where every rank is +clearly defined by that of military grade, the Imperial Astronomer has +the rank of Major-General. In France, the definition is less precise, +but the present Imperial Astronomer has been created (as an attachment +of rank to the office) a Senator of the Empire. + + I am, dear Sir, + Your very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Rt Hon. Sir George C. Lewis, Bart., + &c. &c. &c._ + +Sir G. C. Lewis died before receiving this letter, and the letter was +afterwards forwarded to Lord Palmerston. Some correspondence followed +between Lord Palmerston and Airy on the subject of attaching a +definite rank to the office of Astronomer Royal, as proposed in the +above letter. But the Home Office (for various reasons set forth) +stated that the suggestion could not be complied with, and the whole +subject dropped. + + + 1864 + +The following remarks are extracted from the Report of the Astronomer +Royal to the Board of Visitors.--"In a very heavy squall which +occurred in the gale of December 2 of last year, the stay of the lofty +iron pillar outside of the Park Rails, which carried our telegraph +wires, gave way, and the pillar and the whole system of wires +fell."--"An important alteration has been made in the Magnetic +Observatory. For several years past, various plans have been under +consideration for preventing large changes of temperature in the room +which contains the magnetic instruments. At length I determined to +excavate a subterraneous room or cellar under the original room. The +work was begun in the last week in January, and in all important +points it is now finished."--"In the late spring, some alarm was +occasioned by the discovery that the Parliamentary Standard of the +Pound Weight had become coated with an extraneous substance produced +by the decomposition of the lining of the case in which it was +preserved. It was decided immediately to compare it with the three +Parliamentary Copies, of which that at the Observatory is one. The +National Standard was found to be entirely uninjured."--"On November +16 of last year, the Transit Instrument narrowly escaped serious +injury from an accident. The plate chain which carries the large +western counterpoise broke. The counterpoise fell upon the pier, +destroying the massive gun-metal wheels of the lifting machinery, but +was prevented from falling further by the iron stay of the gas-burner +flue."--"The Prismatic Spectrum-Apparatus had been completed in +1863. Achromatic object-glasses are placed on both sides of the prism, +so that each pencil of light through the prism consists of parallel +rays; and breadth is given to the spectrum by a cylindrical lens. The +spectral lines are seen straighter than before, and generally it is +believed that their definition is improved."--"For observation of the +small planets, a convention has been made with M. Le Verrier. From +new moon to full moon, all the small planets visible to 13h are +observed at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich. From full moon to new +moon, all are observed at the Imperial Observatory of Paris. The +relief gained in this way is very considerable."--"In determining the +variations in the power of the horizontal-force and vertical-force +magnets depending on temperature, it was found by experiment that this +depended materially on whether the magnet was heated by air or by +water, and 'The result of these experiments (with air) is to give a +coefficient for temperature correction four or five times as great as +that given by the water-heatings,'"--"With regard to the discordances +of the results of observations of dip-needles, experiments had been +made with needles whose breadth was in the plane passing through the +axis of rotation, and it appeared that the means of extreme +discordances were, for an ordinary needle 11' 45", and for a flat +needle 3' 27"," and the Report continues thus: "After this I need not +say that I consider it certain that the small probable errors which +have been attributed to ordinary needles are a pure delusion."--The +Report states that in the various operations connected with the trials +and repairs of chronometers, and the system of time-signals +transmitted to various time-balls and clocks, about one-fourth of the +strength of the Observatory is employed, and it continues thus: +"Viewing the close dependence of Nautical Astronomy upon accurate +knowledge of time, there is perhaps no department of the Observatory +which answers more completely to the original utilitarian intentions +of the Founder of the Royal Observatory."--"With regard to the +proposal of time-signals at the Start Point, it appears that +communications referring to this proposal had passed between the Board +of Admiralty and the Board of Trade, of which the conclusion was, that +the Board of Trade possessed no funds applicable to the defraying of +the expenses attending the execution of the scheme. And the Admiralty +did not at present contemplate the establishment of these time-signals +under their own authority."--Amongst other Papers in this year, Airy's +Paper entitled "First Analysis of 177 Magnetic Storms," &c., was read +before the Royal Society. + +Of private history: "There was the usual visit to Playford in the +beginning of the year.--From June 8th to 23rd I made an excursion with +my son Hubert to the Isle of Man, and the Lake District.--From +Sept. 7th to 14th I was on a trip to Cornwall with my two eldest sons, +chiefly in the mining district.--In August of this year my eldest +(surviving) daughter, Hilda, was married to Mr E.J. Routh, Fellow of +St Peter's College, Cambridge, at Greenwich Parish Church. They +afterwards resided at Cambridge." + + + 1865 + +"Our telegraphic communications of every kind were again destroyed by +a snow-storm and gale of wind which occurred on Jan. 28th, and which +broke down nearly all the posts between the Royal Observatory and the +Greenwich Railway Station.--The Report to the Visitors states that +'The only change of Buildings which I contemplate as at present +required is the erection of a fire-proof Chronometer Room. The +pecuniary value of Chronometers stored in the Observatory is sometimes +perhaps as much as _£8000_.'--The South Eastern and London Chatham and +Dover scheme for a railway through the Park was again brought +forward. There was a meeting of Sir J. Hanmer's Committee at the +Observatory on May 26th. Mr Stone was sent hastily to Dublin to make +observations on Earth-disturbance by railways there. I had been +before the Committee on May 25th. On Sept. 1st I approved of an +amended plan. In reference to this matter the Report states that 'It +is proper to remark that the shake of the Altazimuth felt in the +earthquake of 1863, Oct. 5th, when no such shake was felt with +instruments nearer to the ground (an experience which, as I have heard +on private authority, is supported by observation of artificial +tremors), gives reason to fear that, at distances from a railway which +would sufficiently defend the lower instruments, the loftier +instruments (as the Altazimuth and the Equatoreals) would be sensibly +affected.'--Some of the Magnets had been suspended by steel wires, +instead of silk, of no greater strength than was necessary for safety, +and the Report states that 'Under the pressure of business, the +determination of various constants of adjustment was deferred to the +end of the year. The immediate results of observation, however, began +to excite suspicion; and after a time it was found that, in spite of +the length of the suspending wire (about 8 feet) the +torsion-coefficient was not much less than 1/6. The wires were +promptly dismounted, and silk skeins substituted for them. With these, +the torsion-coefficient is about 1/210.'--The Dip-Instrument, which +had given great trouble by the irregularities of the dip-results, had +been compared with two dip-instruments from Kew Observatory, which +gave very good and accordant results. 'It happened that Mr Simms, by +whom our instruments now in use were prepared, and who had personally +witnessed our former difficulties, was present during some of these +experiments. Our own instrument being placed in his hands (Nov. 10th +to 19th) for another purpose, he spontaneously re-polished the +apparently faultless agate-bearings. To my great astonishment, the +inconsistencies of every kind have nearly or entirely vanished. On +raising and lowering the needles, they return to the same readings, +and the dips with the same needle appear generally consistent.' Some +practical details of the polishing process by which this result had +been secured are then given.--After numerous delays, the apparatus for +the self-registration of Spontaneous Earth Currents was brought into a +working state in the month of March. A description of the arrangement +adopted is given in the Report.--'All Chronometers on trial are rated +every day, by comparison with one of the clocks sympathetic with the +Motor Clock. Every Chronometer, whether on trial or returned from a +chronometer-maker as repaired, is tried at least once in the heat of +the Chronometer-Oven, the temperature being usually limited to 90° +Fahrenheit; and, guided by the results of very long experience, we +have established it as a rule, that every trial in heat be continued +through three weeks.'--'The only employment extraneous to the +Observatory which has occupied any of my time within the last year is +the giving three Lectures on the Magnetism of Iron Ships (at the +request of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education) in the +Theatre of the South Kensington Museum. The preparations, however, +for these Lectures, to be given in a room ill-adapted to them, +occupied a great deal of my own time, and of the time of an Assistant +of the Observatory.'--'Referring to a matter in which the interests of +Astronomy are deeply concerned, I think it right to report to the +Visitors my late representation to the Government, to the effect that, +in reference to possible observation of the Transit of Venus in 1882, +it will be necessary in no long time to examine the coasts of the +Great Southern Continent.'" + +Of private history: "There were the usual visits to Playford at the +beginning and end of the year.--From June 18th to 26th I was on a trip +in Wales with my sons Hubert and Osmund.--From Sept. 6th to Oct. 2nd I +was staying with most of my family at Portinscale near Keswick: we +returned by Barnard Castle, Rokeby, &c." + + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY--1866 TO 1876. + + + 1866 + +In this year the cube of the Transit Circle was pierced, to permit +reciprocal observations of the Collimators without raising the +instrument. This involved the construction of improved Collimators, +which formed the subject of a special Address to the Members of the +Board of Visitors on Oct. 21st 1865.--From the Report to the Visitors +it appears that "On May 23rd 1865, a thunderstorm of great violence +passed very close to the Observatory. After one flash of lightning, I +was convinced that the principal building was struck. Several +galvanometers in the Magnetic Basement were destroyed. Lately it has +been remarked that one of the old chimneys of the principal building +had been dislocated and slightly twisted, at a place where it was +surrounded by an iron stay-band led from the Telegraph Pole which was +planted upon the leads of the Octagon Room."--"On consideration of the +serious interruptions to which we have several times been exposed from +the destruction of our open-air Park-wires (through snow-storms and +gales), I have made an arrangement for leading the whole of our wires +in underground pipes as far as the Greenwich Railway Station."--"The +Committee of the House of Commons, to whom the Greenwich and Woolwich +Line of the South Eastern Railway was referred, finally assented to +the adoption of a line which I indicated, passing between the +buildings of the Hospital Schools and the public road to +Woolwich."--"The Galvanic Chronometer attached to the S. E. Equatoreal +often gave us a great deal of trouble. At last I determined, on the +proposal of Mr Ellis, to attempt an extension of Mr R. L. Jones's +regulating principle. It is well known that Mr Jones has with great +success introduced the system of applying galvanic currents +originating in the vibrations of a normal pendulum, not to drive the +wheelwork of other clocks, but to regulate to exact agreement the +rates of their pendulums which were, independently, nearly in +agreement; each clock being driven by weight-power as before. The same +principle is now applied to the chronometer.... The construction is +perfectly successful; the chronometer remains in coincidence with the +Transit Clock through any length of time, with a small constant error +as is required by mechanical theory."--"The printed volume of +Observations for 1864 has two Appendixes; one containing the +calculations of the value of the Moon's Semi-diameter deduced from 295 +Occultations observed at Cambridge and Greenwich from 1832 to 1860, +and shewing that the Occultation Semi-diameter is less than the +Telescopic Semi-diameter by 2"; the other containing the reduction of +the Planetary Observations made at the Royal Observatory in the years +1831-1835; filling up the gap, between the Planetary Reductions +1750-1830 made several years ago under my superintendence, and the +Reductions contained in the Greenwich Volumes 1836 to the present +time: and conducted on the same general principles."--"Some trouble +had been found in regulating the temperature of the Magnetic Basement, +but it was anticipated that in future there would be no difficulty in +keeping down the annual variation within about 5° and the diurnal +variation within 3°.--Longitudes in America were determined in this +year by way of Valencia and Newfoundland: finished by Nov. 14th." + +Of private history: In April he made a short visit to Ventnor in the +Isle of Wight.--From June 15th to July 23rd he was on an expedition in +Norway with his son Osmund and his nephew Gorell Barnes.--There was +probably a short stay at Playford in the winter. + +In this and in the previous year (1865) the free-thinking +investigations of Colenso, the Bishop of Natal, had attracted much +notice, and had procured him the virulent hostility of a numerous +section. His income was withheld from him, and in consequence a +subscription fund was raised for his support by his admirers. Airy, +who always took the liberal side in such questions, was a subscriber +to the fund, and wrote the following letter to the Bishop: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, S.E., + _1865, July 24_. + +MY LORD, + +With many thanks I have to acknowledge your kind recollection of me in +sending as a presentation copy the work on Joshua, Judges, and +especially on the divided authorship of Genesis; a work whose +investigations, founded in great measure on severe and extensive +verbal criticism, will apparently bear comparison with your Lordship's +most remarkable examination of Deuteronomy. I should however not do +justice to my own appreciation if I did not remark that there are +other points considered which have long been matters of interest to +me. + +On several matters, some of them important, my present conclusions do +not absolutely agree with your Lordship's. But I am not the less +grateful for the amount of erudition and thought carefully directed to +definite points, and above all for the noble example of unwearied +research and freedom in stating its consequences, in reference to +subjects which scarcely ever occupy the attention of the clergy in our +country. + + I am, My Lord, + Yours very faithfully, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Lord Bishop of Natal_. + + * * * * * + +Here also is a letter on the same subject, written to Professor +Selwyn, Professor of Divinity at Cambridge:-- + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E., + _1866, May 5_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +The MS. concerning Colenso duly arrived. + +I note your remarks on the merits of Colenso. I do not write to tell +you that I differ from you, but to tell you why I differ. + +I think that you do not make the proper distinction between a person +who invents or introduces a tool, and the person who uses it. + +The most resolute antigravitationist that ever lived might yet +acknowledge his debt to Newton for the Method of Prime and Ultimate +Ratios and the Principles of Fluxions by which Newton sought to +establish gravitation. + +So let it be with Colenso. He has given me a power of tracing out +truth to a certain extent which I never could have obtained without +him. And for this I am very grateful. + +As to the further employment of this power, you know that he and I use +it to totally different purposes. But not the less do I say that I owe +to him a new intellectual power. + +I quite agree with you, that the sudden disruption of the old +traditional view seems to have unhinged his mind, and to have sent him +too far on the other side. I would not give a pin for his judgment. + +Nevertheless, I wish he would go over the three remaining books of the +Tetrateuch. + +I know something of Myers, but I should not have thought him likely to +produce anything sound on such things as the Hebrew Scriptures. I +never saw his "Thoughts." + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Professor Selwyn_. + + * * * * * + +The following letter has reference to Airy's proposal to introduce +certain Physico-Mathematical subjects into the Senate-House +Examination for B.A. Honors at Cambridge. On various occasions he +sharply criticized the Papers set for the Senate-House Examination and +the Smith's Prize Examination, and greatly lamented the growing +importance of pure mathematics and the comparative exclusion of +physical questions in those examinations. His proposal as finally +submitted in the letter that follows was somewhat modified (as regards +the mode of introducing the subjects) from his original draft, in +deference to the opinions of Whewell, Adams, Routh, and other friends +to whom he had submitted it. His proposal was favourably received by +the Mathematical Board, and recommendations were made in the +direction, though not to the extent, that he desired, and he +subsequently submitted a Memorandum on those recommendations: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1866, May 11_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +You will perceive, from perusal of the enclosed paper, that I have +acted on the permission which you kindly gave me, to transmit to you +my proposal for extension of the mathematical education of the +University in the Physical direction. + +It is an unavoidable consequence of the structure of the University +that studies there will have a tendency to take an unpractical form +depending much on the personal tastes of special examiners. I trust +that, as a person whose long separation from the daily business of the +University has enabled him to see in some measure the wants of the +external scientific and practical world, I may be forgiven this +attempt to bring to the notice of the University my ideas on the +points towards which their attention might perhaps be advantageously +turned. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Very faithfully yours, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Rev. Dr Cartmell, + Master of Christ's College + and Vice-Chancellor._ + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1866, May 11_. + +MY DEAR MR VICE-CHANCELLOR, + +About two years ago, by the kindness of the University, an opportunity +was presented to me of orally stating what I conceived to be +deficiencies in the educational course of the University as regards +mathematical physics. Since that time, the consideration of those +deficiencies, which had long been present to me, has urged itself on +my attention with greater force: and finally I have entertained the +idea that I might without impropriety communicate to you my opinion, +in a less fugitive form than on the occasion to which I have alluded: +with the request that, if you should deem such a course appropriate, +you would bring it before the Board of Mathematical Studies, and +perhaps ultimately make it known to the Resident Members of the +Senate. + +I will first give the list of subjects, which I should wish to see +introduced, and to the prosecution of which the generally admirable +course of the University is remarkably well adapted: and I will then, +without entering into every detail, advert to the process by which I +think it probable the introduction of these subjects could be +effected. + +In the following list, the first head is purely algebraical, and the +second nearly so: but they are closely related to observational +science, and to the physical subjects which follow. Some of the +subjects which I exhibit on my list are partially, but in my opinion +imperfectly, taught at present. I entirely omit from my list Physical +Optics, Geometrical Astronomy, and Gravitational Astronomy of Points: +because, to the extent to which Academical Education ought to go, I +believe that there is no teaching on these sciences comparable to that +in the University of Cambridge. (It is, of course, still possible that +improvements may be made in the books commonly used.) It might, +however, be a question, whether, as regards the time and manner of +teaching them, some parts of these subjects might ultimately be +associated with the other subjects included in my list. + + I. _List of subjects proposed for consideration_. + +(1) Partial Differential Equations to the second order, with their +arbitrary functions: selected principally with reference to the +physical subjects. + +(2) The Theory of Probabilities as applied to the combination of +Observations. + +(3) Mechanics (including Hydraulic Powers) in the state which verges +upon practical application, and especially including that part in +which the abstract ideas of _power_ and _duty_ occur. + +(4) Attractions. This subject is recognized in the existing course of +the University: but, so far as I can infer from examination-papers, it +appears to be very lightly passed over. + +(5) The Figure of the Earth, and its consequences, Precession, &c. I +believe that the proposal is sanctioned, of adopting some part of this +theory in the ordinary course; but perhaps hardly so far as is +desirable. + +(6) The Tides. + +(7) Waves of Water. + +(8) Sound (beginning with Newton's investigation); Echoes; Pipes and +Vibrating Strings; Acoustics; the Mathematical part of Music. + +(9) Magnetism, terrestrial and experimental, and their connection. + +(I omit for the present Mineralogy and Mathematical Electricity.) + +This list of subjects appears formidable: but they are in reality +easy, and would be mastered in a short time by the higher Wranglers. + + II. _Mode of introducing these subjects into the University_. + +After much consideration, and after learning the opinions of several +persons whose judgment claims my deepest respect, I propose the +gradual introduction of these subjects into the Examination for Honors +at admission to the B.A. Degree, as soon as the preparation of Books +and the readiness of Examiners shall enable the University to take +that step. I conceive that, by a judicious pruning of the somewhat +luxuriant growth of Pure Algebra, Analytical Geometry, and Mere +Problems, sufficient leisure may be gained for the studies of the +undergraduates, and sufficient time for the questions of the +examiners. I do not contemplate that the students could advance very +far into the subjects; but I know the importance of beginning them; +and, judging from the train of thoughts, of reading, and of +conversation, among the Bachelors with whom I associated many years +ago, I believe that there is quite a sufficient number who will be +anxious to go deep into the subjects if they have once entered into +them. If six Wranglers annually would take them up, my point would be +gained. The part which these gentlemen might be expected, in a short +time, to take in the government of the University, would enable them +soon to act steadily upon the University course: the efficiency of the +University instruction would be increased; and the external character +of the University would be raised. + +The real difficulties, and they are not light ones, would probably be +found in providing Examiners and Books. At present, both are wanting +within the University. Where there is a great and well-founded +objection to intrusting examinations to persons foreign to the +University, and where the books have to be created with labour and +with absolute outlay of money (for their sale could never be +remunerative), the progress must be slow. Still progress would be +certain, if the authorities of the University should think the matter +deserving of their hearty encouragement. + +Requesting that you and the Members of the University will accept this +proposal as an indication of my deep attachment to my University, + + I am, + My dear Mr Vice-Chancellor, + Your very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Rev. Dr Cartmell, + &c. &c. + Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge_. + + + 1867 + +"In this year it was arranged that my Treasury accounts were to be +transferred to the Admiralty, making the simplification which I had so +long desired.--From the Report to the Visitors it appears that a relic +of the Geodetic operations commenced in 1787 for connecting the +Observatories of Greenwich and Paris, in the shape of an observing +cabin on the roof of the Octagon Room, was shifted and supported in +such a manner that the pressure on the flat roof was entirely +avoided.--With regard to the Transit Circle, the new Collimators with +telescopes of seven inches aperture had been mounted. When the Transit +Telescope directed vertically is interposed, the interruptions in the +central cube impair the sharpness of definition, still leaving it +abundantly good for general use. It had been regarded as probable that +the astronomical flexure of the telescope, after cutting away small +portions of the central cube, would be found sensibly changed: and +this proved to be the case. The difference of flexures of the two ends +has been altered more than a second of arc.--Referring to a new +Portable Altazimuth which had lately been tested, the Report states as +follows: 'I may mention that a study of defects in the vertical circle +of a small Altazimuth formerly used by me, and an inspection of the +operations in the instrument-maker's work-shop, have convinced me that +the principal error to be feared in instruments of this class is +ovality of the graduated limb; this cannot be eliminated by two +microscopes, and such an instrument should never be fitted with two +only. Our instrument has four.'--'In Osler's Anemometer, a surface of +2 square feet is now exposed to the wind instead of one foot as +formerly; and the plate is supported by weak vertical springs instead +of rods running on rollers. Its indications are much more delicate +than formerly.'--'The Meteors on Nov. 14th were well observed. Eight +thousand and three hundred were registered. The variations of +frequency at different times were very well noted. The points of +divergence were carefully determined.'--Referring to the gradual +improvement in the steadiness of chronometers from 1851 to 1866, it +appears that from 1851 to 1854 the 'trial number' (which is a +combination of changes of weekly rate representing the fault of the +chronometer) varied from 34.8s to 52.5s, while from 1862 to 1866 it +varied from 21.2s to 25.8s.--The following statement will shew the +usual steadiness of the Great Clock on the Westminster Palace: On 38 +per cent. of days of observation, the clock's error was below 1s. On +38 per cent, the error was between 1s and 2s. On 21 per cent. it was +between 2s and 3s. On 2 per cent. between 3s and 4s. On 1 per cent. +between 4s and 5s.--The Report contains an account of the +determination of the longitude of Cambridge U.S. by Dr B. A. Gould, by +means of galvanic currents through the Atlantic Cable, in the spring +of 1867: and advantage was taken of this opportunity for +re-determining the longitude of Feagh Main near Valencia in +Ireland. The longitude of Feagh Main, found by different methods is as +follows: By chronometers in 1844, 41m 23.23s; by galvanic +communication with Knight's Town in 1862, 41m 23.37s; by galvanic +communication with Foilhommerum in 1866, 41m 23.19s. The collected +results for longitude of Cambridge U.S. from different sources are: By +moon-culminators (Walker in 1851, and Newcomb in 1862-3), 4h 44m +28.42s and 4h 44m 29.56s respectively; by Eclipses (Walker in 1851), +4h 44m 29.64s; by occultations of Pleiades (Peirce 1838-1842, and +1856-1861), 4h 44m 29.91s and 4h 44m 30.90s respectively; by +chronometers (W. C. Bond in 1851, and G. P. Bond in 1855), 4h 44m +30.66s and 4h 44m 31.89s respectively; by Atlantic Cable 1866, 4h 44m +30.99s.--After noticing that many meteorological observatories had +suddenly sprung up and had commenced printing their observations in +detail, the Report continues thus: 'Whether the effect of this +movement will be that millions of useless observations will be added +to the millions that already exist, or whether something may be +expected to result which will lead to a meteorological theory, I +cannot hazard a conjecture. This only I believe, that it will be +useless, at present, to attempt a process of mechanical theory; and +that all that can be done must be, to connect phenomena by laws of +induction. But the induction must be carried out by numerous and +troublesome trials in different directions, the greater part of which +would probably be failures.'--There was this year an annular eclipse; +I made large preparations at the limits of the annularity; failed +entirely from very bad weather."--In this year Airy contributed a +Paper to the Institution of Civil Engineers 'On the use of the +Suspension Bridge with stiffened roadway for Railway and other Bridges +of Great Span,' for which a Telford Medal was awarded to him by the +Council of the Institution. And he communicated several Papers to the +Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. + +Of private history: There was the usual visit to Playford in +January.--In April there was a short run to Alnwick and the +neighbourhood, in company with Mr and Mrs Routh.--From June 27th to +July 4th he was in Wales with his two eldest sons, visiting Uriconium, +&c. on his return.--From August 8th to Sept. 7th he spent a holiday in +Scotland and the Lake District of Cumberland with his daughter +Christabel, visiting the Langtons at Barrow House, near Keswick, and +Isaac Fletcher at Tarn Bank. + +In June of this year (1867) Airy was elected an Honorary Fellow of his +old College of Trinity in company with Connop Thirlwall, the Bishop of +St David's. They were the first Honorary Fellows elected by the +College. The announcement was made in a letter from the Master of +Trinity (W.H. Thompson), and Airy's reply was as follows: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1867, June 12th_. + +MY DEAR MASTER, + +I am very much gratified by your kind note received this morning, +conveying to me the notice that the Master and Sixteen Senior Fellows +had elected me, under their new powers, as Honorary Fellow of the +College. + +It has always been my wish to maintain a friendly connection with my +College, and I am delighted to receive this response from the +College. The peculiar form in which the reference to the Statute +enables them to put it renders it doubly pleasing. + +As the Statute is new, I should be obliged by a copy of it. And, at +any convenient time, I should be glad to know the name of the person +with whom I am so honorably associated. + + I am, My dear Master, + Very faithfully yours, + G.B. AIRY. + + * * * * * + +Consequent on Airy's proposals in 1866 for the introduction of new +physical subjects into the Senate-House Examination and his desire +that the large number of questions set in Pure Mathematics, or as he +termed it "Useless Algebra," should be curtailed, there was a smart +and interesting correspondence between him and Prof. Cayley, who was +the great exponent and advocate of Pure Mathematics at Cambridge. Both +of them were men of the highest mathematical powers, but diametrically +opposed in their views of the use of Mathematics. Airy regarded +mathematics as simply a useful machine for the solution of practical +problems and arriving at practical results. He had a great respect for +Pure Mathematics and all the processes of algebra, so far as they +aided him to solve his problems and to arrive at useful results; but +he had a positive aversion to mathematical investigations, however +skilful and elaborate, for which no immediate practical value could be +claimed. Cayley on the contrary regarded mathematics as a useful +exercise for the mind, apart from any immediate practical object, and +he considered that the general command of mathematics gained by +handling abstruse mathematical investigations (though barren in +themselves) would be valuable for whatever purpose mathematics might +be required: he also thought it likely that his researches and +advances in the field of Pure Mathematics might facilitate the +solution of physical problems and tend to the progress of the +practical sciences. Their different views on this subject will be +seen from the letters that follow: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1867, Nov. 8_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I think it best to put in writing the purport of what I have said, or +have intended to say, in reference to the Mathematical Studies in the +University. + +First, I will remark on the study of Partial Differential Equations. +I do not know that one branch of Pure Mathematics can be considered +higher than another, except in the utility of the power which it +gives. Measured thus, the Partial Differential Equations are very +useful and therefore stand very high, as far as the Second Order. +They apply, to that point, in the most important way, to the great +problems of nature concerning _time_, and _infinite division of +matter_, and _space_: and are worthy of the most careful study. Beyond +that Order they apply to nothing. It was for the purpose of limiting +the study to the Second Order, and at the same time working it +carefully, philosophically, and practically, up to that point, that I +drew up my little work. + +On the general question of Mathematical Studies, I will first give my +leading ideas on what I may call the moral part. I think that a heavy +responsibility rests on the persons who influence most strongly the +course of education in the University, to direct that course in the +way in which it will be most useful to the students--in the two ways, +of disciplining their powers and habits, and of giving them scientific +knowledge of the highest and most accurate order (applying to the +phenomena of nature) such as will be useful to them through life. I do +not think that the mere personal taste of a teacher is sufficient +justification for a special course, unless it has been adopted under a +consideration of that responsibility. Now I can say for myself that I +have, for some years, inspected the examination papers, and have +considered the bearing of the course which they imply upon the +education of the student, and am firmly convinced that as regards men +below the very few first--say below the ten first--there is a +prodigious loss of time without any permanent good whatever. For the +great majority of men, such subjects as abstract Analytical Geometry +perish at once. With men like Adams and Stokes they remain, and are +advantageous; but probably there is not a single man (beside them) of +their respective years who remembers a bit, or who if he remembers +them has the leisure and other opportunities of applying them. + +I believe on the other hand that a careful selection of physical +subjects would enable the University to communicate to its students a +vast amount of information; of accurate kind and requiring the most +logical treatment; but so bearing upon the natural phenomena which are +constantly before us that it would be felt by every student to possess +a real value, that (from that circumstance) it would dwell in his +mind, and that it would enable him to correct a great amount of flimsy +education in the country, and, so far, to raise the national +character. + +The consideration of the education of the reasoning habits suggests +ideas far from favourable to the existing course. I am old enough to +remember the time of mere geometrical processes, and I do not hesitate +to say that for the cultivation of accurate mental discipline they +were far superior to the operations in vogue at the present day. There +is no subject in the world more favourable to logical habit than the +Differential Calculus in all its branches _if logically worked in its +elements_: and I think that its applications to various physical +subjects, compelling from time to time an attention to the elementary +grounds of the Calculus, would be far more advantageous to that +logical habit than the simple applications to Pure Equations and Pure +Algebraical Geometry now occupying so much attention. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Professor Cayley_. + + * * * * * + +DEAR SIR, + +I have been intending to answer your letter of the 8th November. So +far as it is (if at all) personal to myself, I would remark that the +statutory duty of the Sadlerian Professor is that he shall explain and +teach the principles of Pure Mathematics and apply himself to the +advancement of the Science. + +As to Partial Differential Equations, they are "high" as being an +inverse problem, and perhaps the most difficult inverse problem that +has been dealt with. In regard to the limitation of them to the second +order, whatever other reasons exist for it, there is also the reason +that the theory to this order is as yet so incomplete that there is no +inducement to go beyond it; there could hardly be a more valuable step +than anything which would give a notion of the form of the general +integral of a Partial Differential Equation of the second order. + +I cannot but differ from you _in toto_ as to the educational value of +Analytical Geometry, or I would rather say of Modern Geometry +generally. It appears to me that in the Physical Sciences depending on +Partial Differential Equations, there is scarcely anything that a +student can do for himself:--he finds the integral of the ordinary +equation for Sound--if he wishes to go a step further and integrate +the non-linear equation (dy/dx)²(d²y/dt²) = a²(d²y/dx²) he is simply +unable to do so; and so in other cases there is nothing that he can +add to what he finds in his books. Whereas Geometry (of course to an +intelligent student) is a real inductive and deductive science of +inexhaustible extent, in which he can experiment for himself--the very +tracing of a curve from its equation (and still more the consideration +of the cases belonging to different values of the parameters) is the +construction of a theory to bind together the facts--and the selection +of a curve or surface proper for the verification of any general +theorem is the selection of an experiment in proof or disproof of a +theory. + +I do not quite understand your reference to Stokes and Adams, as types +of the men who alone retain their abstract Analytical Geometry. If a +man when he takes his degree drops mathematics, he drops geometry--but +if not I think for the above reasons that he is more likely to go on +with it than with almost any other subject--and any mathematical +journal will shew that a very great amount of attention is in fact +given to geometry. And the subject is in a very high degree a +progressive one; quite as much as to Physics, one may apply to it the +lines, Yet I doubt not thro' the ages one increasing purpose runs, and +the thoughts of men are widened with the progress of the suns. + + I remain, dear Sir, + Yours very sincerely, + A. CAYLEY. + + CAMBRIDGE, + _6 Dec., 1867_. + + * * * * * + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1867, December 9_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I have received with much pleasure your letter of December 6. In this +University discussion, I have acted only in public, and have not made +private communication to any person whatever till required to do so by +private letter addressed to me. Your few words in Queens' Hall seemed +to expect a little reply. + +Now as to the Modern Geometry. With your praises of this science--as +to the room for extension in induction and deduction, &c.; and with +your facts--as to the amount of space which it occupies in +Mathematical Journals; I entirely agree. And if men, after leaving +Cambridge, were designed to shut themselves up in a cavern, they could +have nothing better for their subjective amusement. They might have +other things as good; enormous complication and probably beautiful +investigation might be found in varying the game of billiards with +novel islands on a newly shaped billiard table. But the persons who +devote themselves to these subjects do thereby separate themselves +from the world. They make no step towards natural science or +utilitarian science, the two subjects which the world specially +desires. The world could go on as well without these separatists. + +Now if these persons lived only for themselves, no other person would +have any title to question or remark on their devotion to this barren +subject. But a Cambridge Examiner is not in that position. The +University is a national body, for education of young men: and the +power of a Cambridge Examiner is omnipotent in directing the education +of the young men; and his responsibility to the cause of education is +very distinct and very strong. And the question for him to consider +is--in the sense in which mathematical education is desired by the +best authorities in the nation, is the course taken by this national +institution satisfactory to the nation? + +I express my belief that it is _not_ satisfactory. I believe that many +of the best men of the nation consider that a great deal of time is +lost on subjects which they esteem as puerile, and that much of that +time might be employed on noble and useful science. + +You may remember that the Commissions which have visited Cambridge +originated in a Memorial addressed to the Government by men of +respected scientific character: Sabine was one, and I may take him as +the representative. He is a man of extensive knowledge of the +application of mathematics as it has been employed for many years in +the science of the world; but he has no profundity of science. He, as +I believe, desired to find persons who could enter accurately into +mathematical science, and naturally looked to the Great Mathematical +University; but he must have been much disappointed. So much time is +swallowed up by the forced study of the Pure Mathematics that it is +not easy to find anybody who can really enter on these subjects in +which men of science want assistance. And so Sabine thought that the +Government ought to interfere, probably without any clear idea of what +they could do. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Professor Cayley_. + + * * * * * + +DEAR SIR, + +I have to thank you for your last letter. I do not think everything +should be subordinated to the educational element: my idea of a +University is that of a place for the cultivation of all +science. Therefore among other sciences Pure Mathematics; including +whatever is interesting as part of this science. I am bound therefore +to admit that your proposed extension of the problem of billiards, _if +it_ were found susceptible of interesting mathematical developments, +would be a fit subject of study. But in this case I do not think the +problem could fairly be objected to as puerile--a more legitimate +objection would I conceive be its extreme speciality. But this is not +an objection that can be brought against Modern Geometry as a whole: +in regard to any particular parts of it which may appear open to such +an objection, the question is whether they are or are not, for their +own sakes, or their bearing upon other parts of the science to which +they belong, worthy of being entered upon and pursued. + +But admitting (as I do not) that Pure Mathematics are only to be +studied with a view to Natural and Physical Science, the question +still arises how are they best to be studied in that view. I assume +and admit that as to a large part of Modern Geometry and of the Theory +of Numbers, there is no present probability that these will find any +physical applications. But among the remaining parts of Pure +Mathematics we have the theory of Elliptic Functions and of the +Jacobian and Abelian Functions, and the theory of Differential +Equations, including of course Partial Differential Equations. Now +taking for instance the problem of three bodies--unless this is to be +gone on with by the mere improvement in detail of the present +approximate methods--it is at least conceivable that the future +treatment of it will be in the direction of the problem of two fixed +centres, by means of elliptic functions, &c.; and that the discovery +will be made not by searching for it directly with the mathematical +resources now at our command, but by "prospecting" for it in the field +of these functions. Even improvements in the existing methods are more +likely to arise from a study of differential equations in general than +from a special one of the equations of the particular problem: the +materials for such improvements which exist in the writings of +Hamilton, Jacobi, Bertrand, and Bour, have certainly so arisen. And +the like remarks would apply to the physical problems which depend on +Partial Differential Equations. + +I think that the course of mathematical study at the University is +likely to be a better one if regulated with a view to the cultivation +of Science, as if for its own sake, rather than directly upon +considerations of what is educationally best (I mean that the best +educational course will be so obtained), and that we have thus a +justification for a thorough study of Pure Mathematics. In my own +limited experience of examinations, the fault which I find with the +men is a want of analytical power, and that whatever else may have +been in defect Pure Mathematics has certainly not been in excess. + + I remain, dear Sir, + Yours sincerely, + A. CAYLEY. + + CAMBRIDGE, + _10th Dec., 1867_. + + * * * * * + + _1867, December 17_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +Since receiving your letter of 9th I positively have not had time to +express the single remark which I proposed to make on it. + +You state your idea that the educational element ought not to be the +predominating element in the University. "I do not think that every +thing should be subordinated to the educational element." I cannot +conceal my surprise at this sentiment. Assuredly the founders of the +Colleges intended them for education (so far as they apply to persons +in statu pupillari), the statutes of the University and the Colleges +are framed for education, and fathers send their sons to the +University for education. If I had not had your words before me, I +should have said that it is impossible to doubt this. + +It is much to be desired that Professors and others who exercise no +control by force should take every method, not only of promoting +science in themselves, but also of placing the promoted science before +students: and it is much to be desired that students who have passed +the compulsory curriculum should be encouraged to proceed into the +novelties which will be most agreeable to them. But this is a totally +different thing from using the Compulsory Force of Examination to +drive students in paths traced only by the taste of the examiner. For +them, I conceive the obligation to the nation and the duty to follow +the national sense on education (as far as it can be gathered from its +best representatives) to be undoubted; and to be, in the intensity of +the obligation and duty, most serious. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Professor Cayley_. + + * * * * * + + + 1868 + +"In the South-East Dome, the alteration proposed last year for +rendering the building fire-proof had been completely carried out. The +middle room, which was to be appropriated to Chronometers, was being +fitted up accordingly.--From the Report it appears that 'our +subterranean telegraph wires were all broken by one blow, from an +accident in the Metropolitan Drainage Works on Groom's Hill, but were +speedily repaired.'--In my office as Chairman of successive +Commissions on Standards, I had collected a number of Standards, some +of great historical value (as Ramsden's and Roy's Standards of Length, +Kater's Scale-beam for weighing great weights, and others), &c. These +have been transferred to the newly-created Standards Department of the +Board of Trade."--In the Report is given a detailed account of the +system of preserving and arranging the manuscripts and correspondence +of the Observatory, which was always regarded by Airy as a matter of +the first importance.--From a careful discussion of the results of +observation Mr Stone had concluded that the refractions ought to be +diminished. 'Relying on this, we have now computed our mean +refractions by diminishing those of Bessel's Fundamenta in the +proportion of 1 to 0.99797.'--The Magnetometer-Indications for the +period 1858-1863 had been reduced and discussed, with remarkable +results. It is inferred that magnetic disturbances, both solar and +lunar, are produced mediately by the Earth, and that the Earth in +periods of several years undergoes changes which fit it and unfit it +for exercising a powerful mediate action.--The Earth-current records +had been reduced, and the magnetic effect which the currents would +produce had been computed. The result was, that the agreement between +the magnetic effects so computed and the magnetic disturbances really +recorded by the magnetometers was such as to leave no doubt on the +general validity of the explanation of the great storm-disturbances of +the magnets as consequences of the galvanic currents through the +earth.--Referring to the difficulty experienced in making the +meteorological observations practically available the Report states +thus: 'The want of Meteorology, at the present time, is principally in +suggestive theory.'--In this year Airy communicated to the Royal +Astronomical Society a Paper 'On the Preparatory Arrangements for the +Observation of the Transits of Venus 1874 and 1882': this subject was +now well in hand.--The First Report of the Commissioners (of whom he +was Chairman) appointed to enquire into the condition of the Exchequer +Standards was printed: this business took up much time.--He was in +this year much engaged on the Coinage Commission. + +Of private history: There was the usual winter visit to Playford, and +a short visit to Cambridge in June.--From about Aug. 1st to Sept. 3rd +he was travelling in Switzerland with his youngest son and his two +youngest daughters. In the course of this journey they visited +Zermatt. There had been much rain, the rivers were greatly flooded, +and much mischief was done to the roads. During the journey from Visp +to Zermatt, near St Nicholas, in a steep part of the gorge, a large +stone rolled from the cliffs and knocked their baggage horse over the +lower precipice, a fall of several hundred feet. The packages were all +burst, and many things were lost, but a good deal was recovered by men +suspended by ropes. + +In this year also Airy was busy with the subject of University +Examination, which in previous years had occupied so much of his +attention, as will be seen from the following letters: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1868, March 12_. + +MY DEAR MASTER, + +I have had the pleasure of corresponding with you on matters of +University Examination so frequently that I at once turn to you as the +proper person to whom I may address any remarks on that important +subject. + +Circumstances have enabled me lately to obtain private information of +a most accurate kind on the late Mathematical Tripos: and among other +things, I have received a statement of every individual question +answered or partly answered by five honour-men. I have collected the +numbers of these in a small table which I enclose. + +I am struck with the _almost_ nugatory character of the five days' +honour examination as applied to Senior Optimes, and I do not doubt +that it is _totally_ nugatory as applied to Junior Optimes. It appears +to me that, for all that depends on these days, the rank of the +Optimes is mere matter of chance. + +In the examinations of the Civil Service, the whole number of marks is +published, and also the number of marks gained by each candidate. I +have none of their papers at hand, but my impression is that the +lowest candidates make about 1 in 3; and the fair candidates about 2 +in 3, instead of 1 in 10 or 1 in 13 as our good Senior Optimes. + + I am, my dear Master, + Very truly yours, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Rev. Dr Cookson, + Master of St Peters College, + &c. &c._ + + +The Table referred to in the above letter is as follows: + +Number of Questions, and numbers of Answers to Questions as given by +several Wranglers and Senior Optimes, in the Examination of +Mathematical Tripos for Honours, 1868, January 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. + + Number of Questions and Riders in the Printed Papers. + + Questions. Riders. Aggregate. +In the 10 Papers of the 5 days 123 101 224 + + NUMBER OF QUESTIONS AND RIDERS ANSWERED. + + Questions. Riders. Aggregate. + By a Wrangler, between the + 1st and 7th 69-1/2 25-1/2 95 1 in 2.36 + By a Wrangler, between the + 12th and 22nd 48-1/2 12-1/2 61 1 in 3.68 + By a Wrangler, between the + 22nd and 32nd 36 12-1/2 48-1/2 1 in 4.62 + By a Sen. Opt. between the + 1st and 10th 17-1/2 5 22-1/2 1 in 9.95 + By a Sen. Opt. between the + 10th and 20th 14-1/2 2 16-1/2 1 in 3.60 + + G.B. AIRY. + +_1868, March 12_. + + * * * * * + + ST PETER'S COLLEGE LODGE, CAMBRIDGE, + _March 13th, 1868_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I am much obliged by your letter and enclosed paper. + +Anything done in the last five days by a Junior Optime only shews +(generally) that he has been employing some of his time +_mischievously_, for he must have been working at subjects which he is +quite unable to master or cramming them by heart on the chance of +meeting with a stray question which he may answer. + +The chief part of the Senior Optimes are in something of the same +situation. + +I think that the proposed addition of a day to the first part of the +Examination, in which "easy questions in physical subjects" may be +set, is, on this account, a great improvement. + +Our new Scheme comes on for discussion on Friday next, March 20, at 2 +p.m. in the Arts School. It is much opposed by private tutors, +examiners and others, and may possibly be thrown out in the Senate +this year, though I hope that with a little patience it may be +carried, in an unmutilated form, eventually. + +The enclosed Report on the Smith's Prize Examination will be discussed +at the same time. + +I will consider what is best to be done on the subject to which your +note refers, without delay. With many thanks, + + I am, + Very faithfully yours, + H.W. COOKSON, + +_The Astronomer Royal._ + + * * * * * + +In this year certain Members of the Senate of the University of +Cambridge petitioned Parliament against the abolition of religious +declarations required of persons admitted to Fellowships or proceeding +to the degree of M.A. The document was sent to Airy for his signature, +and his reply was as follows: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1868, March 18_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +Though I sympathize to a great extent with the prayer of the petition +to Parliament which you sent to me yesterday, and assent to most of +the reasons, I do not attach my signature to it, for the following +considerations: + +1. I understand, from the introductory clause, and from the +unqualified character of the phrase "any such measures" in the second +clause, that the petition objects to granting the M.A. degree without +religious declaration. I do not see any adequate necessity for this +objection, and I cannot join in it. + +2. It appears to me that the Colleges were intended for two collateral +objects:--instruction by part of the Fellows, on a religious basis; +and support of certain Fellows for scientific purposes, without the +same ostentatious connection with religion. I like this spirit well, +and should be glad to maintain it. + +3. I therefore think (as I have publicly stated before) that the +Master of the College ought to be in holy orders; and so ought those +of the Fellows who may be expected to be usually resident and to take +continuous part in the instruction. But there are many who, upon +taking a fellowship, at once lay aside all thoughts of this: and I +think that such persons ought not to be trammelled with declarations. + +4. My modification of existing regulations, if it once got into shape, +would I dare say be but a small fraction of that proposed by the +"measures in contemplation." Still I do not like to join in +unqualified resistance to interference in the affairs of the +Established Colleges, with that generality of opposition to +interference which the petition seems to intimate. + +I agree with articles 3, 4, and 5; and I am pleased with the graceful +allusion in article 4 to the assistance which has been rendered by the +Colleges, and by none perhaps so honourably as Trinity, to the +parishes connected with it. And I could much wish that the spirit of 3 +and 5 could be carried out, with some concession to my ideas in _my_ +paragraph 3, above. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Rev. Dr Lightfoot._ + + * * * * * + + + 1869 + +From the Report to the Board of Visitors it appears that application +had been made for an extension of the grounds of the Observatory to a +distance of 100 feet south of the Magnetic Ground, and that a Warrant +for the annexation of this space was signed on 1868, Dec. 8. The new +Depôt for the Printed Productions of the Observatory had been +transferred to its position in the new ground, and the foundations for +the Great Shed were completed.--"The courses of our wires for the +registration of spontaneous terrestrial galvanic currents have been +entirely changed. The lines to Croydon and Deptford are abandoned; and +for these are substituted, a line from Angerstein Wharf to Lady Well +Station, and a line from North Kent Junction to Morden College +Tunnel. At each of these points the communication with Earth is made +by a copper plate 2 feet square. The straight line connecting the +extreme points of the first station intersects that connecting the two +points of the second station, nearly at right angles, and at little +distance from the Observatory.--The question of dependence of the +measurable amount of sidereal aberration upon the thickness of glass +or other transparent material in the telescope (a question which +involves, theoretically, one of the most delicate points in the +Undulatory Theory of Light) has lately been agitated on the Continent +with much earnestness. I have calculated the curvatures of the lenses +of crown and flint glass (the flint being exterior) for correcting +spherical and chromatic aberration in a telescope whose tube is filled +with water, and have instructed Mr Simms to proceed with the +preparation of an instrument carrying such a telescope. I have not +finally decided whether to rely on Zenith-distances of gamma Draconis +or on right-ascensions of Polaris. In any form the experiment will +probably be troublesome.--The transit of Mercury on 1868, Nov. 4th, +was observed by six observers. The atmospheric conditions were +favourable; and the singular appearances usually presented in a +planetary transit were well seen.--Mr Stone has attached to the +South-East Equatoreal a thermo-multiplier, with the view of examining +whether heat radiating from the principal stars can be made sensible +in our instruments. The results hitherto obtained are encouraging, but +they shew clearly that it is vain to attempt this enquiry except in +the most superb weather; and there has not been a night deserving that +epithet for some months past.--The preparations for observing the +Transits of Venus were now begun in earnest. I had come to the +conclusion, that after every reliance was placed on foreign and +colonial observatories, it would be necessary for the British +Government to undertake the equipment of five or six temporary +stations. On Feb. 15th I sent a pamphlet on the subject to Mr Childers +(First Lord of Admiralty), and in April I wrote to the Secretary, +asking authority for the purchase of instruments. On June 22nd +authority is given to me for the instruments: the Treasury assent to +_£10,500_. On August 9th I had purchased 3 equatoreals.--I have given +a short course of Lectures in the University of Cambridge on the +subject of Magnetism, with the view of introducing that important +physical science into the studies of the University. The want of books +available to Students, and the novelty of the subject, made the +preparation more laborious than the duration of the lectures would +seem to imply."--In this year there was much work on the Standards +Commission, chiefly regarding the suggested abolition of Troy Weight, +and several Papers on the subject were prepared by Airy.--He also +wrote a long and careful description of the Great Equatoreal at +Greenwich. + +Of private history: There was the usual visit to Playford in the +winter. Mrs Airy was now becoming feebler, and did not now leave +Greenwich: since April of this year her letters were written in +pencil, and with difficulty, but she still made great efforts to keep +up the accustomed correspondence.--In April Airy went to Cambridge to +deliver his lectures on magnetism to the undergraduates: the following +passage occurs in one of his letters at this time: "I have a mighty +attendance (there were 147 names on my board yesterday), and, though +the room is large with plenty of benches, I have been obliged to bring +in some chairs. The men are exceedingly attentive, and when I look up +I am quite struck to see the number of faces staring into mine. I go +at 12, and find men at the room copying from my big papers: I lecture +from 1 to 2, and stop till after 3, and through the last hour some men +are talking to me and others are copying from the papers; and I +usually leave some men still at work. The men applaud and shew their +respect very gracefully. There are present some two or three persons +who attended my former lectures, and they say that I lecture exactly +as I did formerly. One of my attendants is a man that they say cannot, +from years and infirmity and habit, be induced to go anywhere else: Dr +Archdall, the Master of Emmanuel. I find that some of my old +lecturing habits come again on me. I drink a great deal of cold water, +and am very glad to go to bed early."--From June 10th-30th he was +travelling in Scotland, and staying at Barrow House near Keswick (the +residence of Mr Langton), with his son Hubert.--Subsequently, from +Aug. 17th to 31st, he was again in the Lake District, with his +daughter Christabel, and was joined there by his son Hubert on the +24th. The first part of the time was spent at Tarn Bank, near +Carlisle, the residence of Mr Isaac Fletcher, M.P. From thence he made +several expeditions, especially to Barrow in Furness and Seascale, +where he witnessed with great interest the Bessemer process of making +steel. From Barrow House he made continual excursions among the +Cumberland mountains, which he knew so well. + + + 1870 + +"In this year Mr Stone, the First Assistant, was appointed to the Cape +of Good Hope Observatory, and resigned his post of First Assistant. Mr +Christie was appointed in his place.--From the Report to the Visitors +it appears that 'A few months since we were annoyed by a failure in +the illumination of the field of view of the Transit Circle. The +reflector was cleaned, but in vain; at last it was discovered that one +of the lenses (the convex lens) of the combination which forms the +object-glass of a Reversed Telescope in the interior of the +Transit-axis, and through which all illuminating light must pass, had +become so corroded as to be almost opaque.'--The South-East Equatoreal +has been partly occupied with the thermo-multiplier employed by Mr +Stone for the measure of heat radiating from the principal stars. Mr +Stone's results for the radiation from Arcturus and alpha Lyrae appear +to be incontrovertible, and to give bases for distinct numerical +estimation of the radiant heat of these stars.--In my last Report I +alluded to a proposed systematic reduction of the meteorological +observations during the whole time of their efficient +self-registration. Having received from the Admiralty the funds +necessary for immediate operations, I have commenced with the +photographic registers of the thermometers, dry-bulb and wet-bulb, +from 1848 to 1868.--Our chronometer-room contains at present 219 +chronometers, including 37 chronometers which have been placed here by +chronometer-makers as competing for the honorary reputation and the +pecuniary advantages to be derived from success in the half-year's +trial to which they are subjected. I take this opportunity of stating +that I have uniformly advocated the policy of offering good prices for +the chronometers of great excellence, and that I have given much +attention to the decision on their merits; and I am convinced that +this system has greatly contributed to the remarkably steady +improvement in the performance of chronometers. In the trial which +terminated in August 1869, the best chronometers (taking as usual the +average of the first six) were superior in merit to those of any +preceding year.--With the funds placed at my disposal for the Transit +of Venus 1874 I purchased three 6-inch equatoreals, and have ordered +two: I have also ordered altazimuths (with accurate vertical circles +only), and clocks sufficient, as I expect, to equip five stations. For +methods of observation, I rely generally on the simple +eye-observation, possibly relieved of some of its uncertainty by the +use of my colour-correcting eyepiece. But active discussion has taken +place on the feasibility of using photographic and spectroscopic +methods; and it will not be easy for some time to announce that the +plan of observations is settled.--There can be no doubt, I imagine, +that the first and necessary duty of the Royal Observatory is to +maintain its place well as an Observing Establishment; and that this +must be secured, at whatever sacrifice, if necessary, of other +pursuits. Still the question has not unfrequently presented itself to +me, whether the duties to which I allude have not, by force of +circumstances, become too exclusive; and whether the cause of Science +might not gain if, as in the Imperial Observatory of Paris for +instance, the higher branches of mathematical physics should not take +their place by the side of Observatory routine. I have often felt the +desire practically to refresh my acquaintance with what were once +favourite subjects: Lunar Theory and Physical Optics. But I do not at +present clearly see how I can enter upon them with that degree of +freedom of thought which is necessary for success in abstruse +investigations." + +Of private history: There was a longer visit than usual to Playford, +lasting till Jan. 27th.--In April he made a short excursion (of less +than a week) with his son Hubert to Monmouth, &c.--From June 14th to +July 2nd he was staying at Barrow House, near Keswick, with his son +Hubert: during this time he was much troubled with a painful +skin-irritation of his leg and back, which lasted in some degree for a +long time afterwards.--From Sept. 25th to Oct. 6th he made an +excursion with his daughter Christabel to Scarborough, Whitby, &c., +and again spent a few days at Barrow House. + + + 1871 + +"In April 1870 the Assistants had applied for an increase of salary, a +request which I had urged strongly upon the Admiralty. On Jan. 27 of +this year the Admiralty answered that, on account of Mr Childers's +illness, the consideration must be deferred to next year! The +Assistants wrote bitterly to me: and with my sanction they wrote to +the First Lord. On Jan. 31st I requested an interview with Mr Baxter +(secretary of the Admiralty), and saw him on Feb. 3rd, when I obtained +his consent to an addition of _£530_. There was still a difficulty +with the Treasury, but on June 27th the liberal scale was +allowed.--Experiments made by Mr Stone shew clearly that a local +elevation, like that of the Royal Observatory on the hill of Greenwich +Park, has no tendency to diminish the effect of railway tremors.--The +correction for level error in the Transit Circle having become +inconveniently large, a sheet of very thin paper, 1/270 inch in +thickness, was placed under the eastern Y, which was raised from its +bed for the purpose. The mean annual value of the level-error appears +to be now sensibly zero.--As the siege and war operations in Paris +seriously interfered with the observations of small planets made at +the Paris Observatory, observations of them were continued at +Greenwich throughout each entire lunation during the investment of the +city.--The new Water-Telescope has been got into working order, and +performs most satisfactorily. Observations of gamma Draconis have been +made with it, when the star passed between 20h and 17h, with some +observations for adjustment at a still more advanced time. As the +astronomical latitude of the place of observation is not known, the +bearing of these observations on the question of aberration cannot be +certainly pronounced until the autumn observations shall have been +made; but supposing the geodetic latitude to be accordant with the +astronomical latitude, the result for aberration appears to be +sensibly the same as with ordinary telescopes.--Several years since, I +prepared a barometer, by which the barometric fluctuations were +enlarged, for the information of the public; its indications are +exhibited on the wall, near to the entrance gate of the Observatory. A +card is now also exhibited, in a glass case near the public barometer, +giving the highest and lowest readings of the thermometer in the +preceding twenty-four hours.--Those who have given attention to the +history of Terrestrial Magnetism are aware that Halley's Magnetic +Chart is very frequently cited; but I could not learn that any person, +at least in modern times, had seen it. At last I discovered a copy in +the library of the British Museum, and have been allowed to take +copies by photolithography. These are appended to the Magnetical and +Meteorological Volume for 1869.--The trials and certificates of +hand-telescopes for the use of the Royal Navy have lately been so +frequent that they almost become a regular part of the work of the +Observatory. I may state here that by availing myself of a theory of +eyepieces which I published long since in the Cambridge Transactions, +I have been able to effect a considerable improvement in the +telescopes furnished to the Admiralty.--The occurrence of the Total +Eclipse of the Sun in December last has brought much labour upon the +Observatory. As regards the assistants and computers, the actual +observation on a complicated plan with the Great Equatoreal (a plan +for which few equatoreals are sufficiently steady, but which when +properly carried out gives a most complete solution of the geometrical +problem) has required, in observation and in computation, a large +expenditure of time.--My preparations for the Transit of Venus have +respect only to eye-observation of contact of limbs. With all the +liabilities and defects to which it is subject, this method possesses +the inestimable advantage of placing no reliance on instrumental +scales. I hope that the error of observation may not exceed four +seconds of time, corresponding to about 0.13" of arc. I shall be very +glad to see, in a detailed form, a plan for making the proper measures +by heliometric or photographic apparatus; and should take great +interest in combining these with the eye-observations, if my selected +stations can be made available. But my present impression is one of +doubt on the certainty of equality of parts in the scale employed. An +error depending on this cause could not be diminished by any +repetition of observations."--After referring to the desirability of +vigorously prosecuting the Meteorological Reductions (already begun) +and of discussing the Magnetic Observations, the Report concludes +thus: "There is another consideration which very often presents itself +to my mind; the waste of labour in the repetition of observations at +different observatories..... I think that this consideration ought not +to be put out of sight in planning the courses of different +Observatories."--In this year De Launay's Lunar Theory was +published. This valuable work was of great service to Airy in the +preparation of the Numerical Lunar Theory, which he subsequently +undertook.--In the latter part of this year Airy was elected President +of the Royal Society, and held the office during 1872 and 1873. At +this time he was much pressed with work, and could ill afford to take +up additional duties, as the following quotation from a letter to one +of his friends shews: "The election to the Presidency of R.S. is +flattering, and has brought to me the friendly remembrances of many +persons; but in its material and laborious connections, I could well +have dispensed with it, and should have done so but for the respectful +way in which it was pressed on me." + +Of private history: There was the usual winter visit to Playford.--In +April he made a short trip to Cornwall with his daughter Annot.--In +June he was appointed a Companion of the Bath, and was presented at +Court on his appointment.--Mrs Airy was staying with her daughter, Mrs +Routh, at Hunstanton, during June, her state of health being somewhat +improved.--From August 1st to 28th he was chiefly in Cumberland, at +Barrow House, and at Grange, Borrowdale, where his son Osmund was +staying for a holiday. + + + 1872 + +"From the Report to the Board of Visitors it appears that 'The Normal +Siderial Clock for giving sidereal time by galvanic communication to +the Astronomical Observatory was established in the Magnetic Basement +in 1871, June; that locality being adapted for it on account of the +uniformity of temperature, the daily changed of temperature rarely +exceeding 1° Fahrenheit. Its escapement is one which I suggested many +years ago in the Cambridge Transactions; a detached escapement, very +closely analogous to the ordinary chronometer escapement, the pendulum +receiving an impulse only at alternate vibrations.... The steadiness +of rate is very far superior to any that we have previously +attained.'--The aspect of railway enterprise is at present favourable +to the Park and to the Observatory. The South-Eastern Railway Company +has made an arrangement with the Metropolitan Board of Works for +shifting the course of the great Southern Outfall Sewer. This enables +the Company to trace a new line for the railway, passing on the north +side of London Street, at such a distance from the Observatory as to +remove all cause of alarm. I understand that the Bill, which was +unopposed, has passed the Committee of the House of Commons. I trust +that the contest, which has lasted thirty-seven years, is now +terminated.--The observations of 7 Draconis with the Water-Telescope, +made in the autumn of 1871, and the spring of 1872, are reduced, the +latter only in their first steps.... Using the values of the level +scales as determined by Mr Simms (which I have no reason to believe to +be inaccurate) the spring and autumn observations of 1871 absolutely +negative the idea of any effect being produced on the constant of +aberration by the amount of refracting medium traversed by the +light.--The great Aurora of 1872 Feb. 4 was well observed. On this +occasion the term Borealis would have been a misnomer, for the +phenomenon began in the South and was most conspicuous in the +South. Three times in the evening it exhibited that umbrella-like +appearance which has been called (perhaps inaccurately) a corona. I +have very carefully compared its momentary phenomena with the +corresponding movements of the magnetometers. In some of the most +critical times, the comparison fails on account of the violent +movements and consequent faint traces of the magnetometers. I have not +been able to connect the phases of aurora and those of magnetic +disturbance very distinctly.--The Report contains a detailed account +of the heavy preparations for the observation of the Transit of Venus +1874, including the portable buildings for the instruments, the +instruments themselves (being a transit-instrument, an altazimuth, and +an equatoreal, for each station), and first class and second-class +clocks, all sufficient for the equipment of 5 stations, and continues +thus: I was made aware of the assent of the Government to the wish of +the Board of Visitors, as expressed at their last meeting, that +provision should be made for the application of photography to the +observation of the Transit of Venus. It is unnecessary for me to +remark that our hope of success is founded entirely on our confidence +in Mr De La Rue. Under his direction, Mr Dallmeyer has advanced far in +the preparation of five photoheliographs.... The subject is recognized +by many astronomers as not wholly free from difficulties, but it is +generally believed that these difficulties may be overcome, and Mr De +La Rue is giving careful attention to the most important of them.--I +take this opportunity of reporting to the Board that the Observatory +was honoured by a visit of His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil, who +minutely examined every part."--After referring to various subjects +which in his opinion might be usefully pursued systematically at the +Observatory, the Report proceeds thus: "'The character of the +Observatory would be somewhat changed by this innovation, but not, as +I imagine, in a direction to which any objection can be made. It would +become, pro tanto, a physical observatory; and possibly in time its +operations might be extended still further in a physical +direction.'--The consideration of possible changes in the future of +the Observatory leads me to the recollection of actual changes in the +past. In my Annual Reports to the Visitors I have endeavoured to +chronicle these; but still there will be many circumstances which at +present are known only to myself, but which ought not to be beyond the +reach of history. I have therefore lately employed some time in +drawing up a series of skeleton annals of the Observatory (which +unavoidably partakes in some measure of the form of biography), and +have carried it through the critical period, 1836-1851. If I should +command sufficient leisure to bring it down to 1861, I think that I +might then very well stop." (The skeleton annals here referred to are +undoubtedly the manuscript notes which form the basis of the present +biography. Ed.)--"On Feb. 23rd in this year I first (privately) formed +the notion of preparing a numerical Lunar Theory by substituting +Delaunay's numbers in the proper Equations and seeing what would come +of it." + +Of private history: There was the usual visit to Playford--in this +year later than usual--from Feb. 4th to Mar. 4th. The letters written +during this visit are, as usual, full of freshness and delight at +finding himself in his favourite country village.--On June 5th he went +to Barrow House, near Keswick, to be present at the marriage of his +second son Hubert to Miss S. C. Langton, daughter of Z. Langton Esq., +of Barrow House.--After the wedding he made a trip through the +Trossachs district of Scotland with his daughter Annot, and returned +to Greenwich on June 17th. + +On the 26th June 1872 Airy was appointed a Knight Commander of the +Most Honourable Order of the Bath: he was knighted by the Queen at +Osborne on the 30th of July. In the course of his official career he +had three times been offered Knighthood, and had each time declined +it: but it seemed now as if his scruples on the subject were removed, +and it is probable that he felt gratified by the public recognition of +his services. Of course the occasion produced many letters of +congratulation from his friends: to one of these he replied as +follows: "The real charm of these public compliments seems to be, that +they excite the sympathies and elicit the kind expressions of private +friends or of official superiors as well as subordinates. In every way +I have derived pleasure from these." From the Assistants of the Royal +Observatory he received a hearty letter of congratulation containing +the following paragraph. "Our position has naturally given us peculiar +opportunities for perceiving the high and broad purposes which have +characterized your many and great undertakings, and of witnessing the +untiring zeal and self-denial with which they have been pursued." + + * * * * * + +On the 18th of March 1872 Airy was nominated a Foreign Associate of +the Institut de France, to fill the place vacant by the death of Sir +John Herschel. The following letter of acknowledgment shews how much +he was gratified by this high scientific honour: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1872, March 23_. + +_À_ Messieurs + Messieurs ELIE DE BEAUMONT, + _et_ J.B. DUMAS, + _Secrétaires perpetuels de l'Académie + des Sciences, Institut de France._ + +GENTLEMEN, + +I am honoured with your letter of March 18, communicating to me my +nomination by the Academy of Sciences to the place rendered vacant in +the class of Foreign Associates of the Academy by the decease of Sir +John Herschel, and enclosing Copy of the Decree of the President of +the French Republic approving the Election. + +It is almost unnecessary for me to attempt to express to you the pride +and gratification with which I receive this announcement. By universal +consent, the title of _Associé Etranger de l'Académie des Sciences_ is +recognised as the highest distinction to which any man of science can +aspire; and I can scarcely imagine that, unless by the flattering +interpretation of my friends in the Academy, I am entitled to bear +it. But in any case, I am delighted to feel that the bands of +friendship are drawn closer between myself and the distinguished body +whom, partly by personal intercourse, partly by correspondence, and in +every instance by reputation, I have known so long. + +I beg that you will convey to the Academy my long-felt esteem for that +body in its scientific capacity, and my deep recognition of its +friendship to me and of the honor which it has conferred on me in the +late election. + + I have the honor to be + Gentlemen, + Your very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + + * * * * * + +On the 20th November 1872 Airy was nominated a Grand Cross in the +Imperial Order of the Rose of Brazil: the insignia of the Order were +accompanied by an autograph letter from the Emperor of Brazil, of +which the following is a transcript. + + +MONSIEUR, + +Vous êtes un des doyens de la science, et le Président de l'illustre +Société, qui a eu la bienveillance d'inscrire mon nom parmi ceux de +ses associés. La manière, dont vous m'avez fait les honneurs de votre +Observatoire m'a imposé aussi l'agréable devoir d'indiquer votre nom à +l'empereur de Brésil pour un témoignage de haute estime, dont je suis +fort heureux de vous faire part personellement, en vous envoyant les +décorations que vous garderez, an moins, comme un souvenir de ma +visite à Greenwich. + +J'espère que vous m'informerez, quand il vous sera aisé, des travaux +de votre observatoire, et surtout de ce que l'on aura fait pour +l'observation du passage de Vénus et la détermination exacte de la +passage. + +J'ai reçu déjà les _Proceedings de la Royal Society_ lesquels +m'intéressent vivement. + +Je voudrais vous écrire dans votre langue, mais, comme je n'en ai pas +l'habitude, j'ai craigné de ne pas vous exprimer tout-à-fait les +sentiments de + + Votre affectionné, + D. PEDRO D'ALCANTARA. + + RIO, +_22 Octobre, 1872_. + + * * * * * + +Airy's reply was as follows: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1872, November 26_. + +SIRE, + +I am honoured with your Imperial Majesty's autograph letter of October +22 informing me that, on considering the attention which the Royal +Society of London had been able to offer to your Majesty, as well as +the explanation of the various parts of the establishment of this +Observatory which I had the honor and the high gratification to +communicate, You had been pleased to place my name in the Imperial +Order of the Rose, and to present to me the Decorations of Grand Cross +of that Order. + +With pride I receive this proof of Your Majesty's recollection of your +visit to the scientific institutions of Great Britain. + +The Diploma of the appointment to the Order of the Rose, under the +Imperial Sign Manual, together with the Decorations of the Order, have +been transmitted to me by his Excellency Don Pereira de Andrada, Your +Majesty's Representative at the British Court. + +Your Majesty has been pleased to advert to the approaching Transit of +Venus, on the preparations for which you found me engaged. It is +unfortunate that the Transit of 1874 will not be visible at Rio de +Janeiro. For that of 1882, Rio will be a favourable position, and we +reckon on the observations to be made there. Your Majesty may be +assured that I shall loyally bear in mind your desire to be informed +of any remarkable enterprise of this Observatory, or of any principal +step in the preparations for the Transit of Venus and of its results. + + I have the honor to be + Sire, + Your Imperial Majesty's very faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_To His Majesty + The Emperor of Brazil._ + + * * * * * + +Airy's old friend, Adam Sedgwick, was now very aged and infirm, but +his spirit was still vigorous, and he was warm-hearted as ever. The +following letter from him (probably the last of their long +correspondence) was written in this year, and appears characteristic: + + + TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, + _May 10, 1872_. + +MY DEAR AIRY, + +I have received your card of invitation for the 1st of June, and with +great joy should I count upon that day if I thought that I should be +able to accept your invitation: but alas I have no hope of the kind, +for that humiliating malady which now has fastened upon me for a full +year and a half has not let go its hold, nor is it likely to do so. A +man who is journeying in the 88th year of his pilgrimage is not likely +to throw off such a chronic malady. Indeed were I well enough to come +I am deaf as a post and half blind, and if I were with you I should +only be able to play dummy. Several years have passed away since I was +last at your Visitation and I had great joy in seeing Mrs Airy and +some lady friends at the Observatory, but I could not then attend the +dinner. At that Meeting were many faces that I knew, but strangely +altered by the rude handling of old Time, and there were many new +faces which I had never seen before at a Royal Society Meeting; but +worse than all, all the old faces were away. In vain I looked round +for Wollaston, Davy, Davies Gilbert, Barrow, Troughton, &c. &c.; and +the merry companion Admiral Smyth was also away, so that my last visit +had its sorrowful side. But why should I bother you with these old +man's mopings. + +I send an old man's blessing and an old man's love to all the members +of your family; especially to Mrs Airy, the oldest and dearest of my +lady friends. + + I remain, my dear Airy, + Your true-hearted old friend, + his + ADAM X SEDGWICK. + mark + +P.S. Shall I ever again gaze with wonder and delight from the great +window of your Observatory. + +The body of the above letter is in the handwriting of an amanuensis, +but the signature and Postscript are in Sedgwick's handwriting. (Ed.) + + * * * * * + + + 1873 + +"Chronographic registration having been established at the Paris +Observatory, Mr Hilgard, principal officer of the American Coast +Survey, has made use of it for determining the longitude of Harvard +from Greenwich, through Paris, Brest, and St Pierre. For this purpose +Mr Hilgard's Transit Instrument was planted in the Magnetic Court. I +understand that the result does not sensibly differ from that obtained +by Mr Gould, through Valentia and Newfoundland.--It was known to the +scientific world that several of the original thermometers, +constructed by Mr Sheepshanks (in the course of his preparation of the +National Standard of Length) by independent calibration of the bores, +and independent determination of the freezing and boiling points on +arbitrary graduations, were still preserved at the Royal Observatory. +It was lately stated to me by M. Tresca, the principal officer of the +International Metrical Commission, that, in the late unhappy war in +Paris, the French original thermometers were destroyed; and M. Tresca +requested that, if possible, some of the original thermometers made by +Mr Sheepshanks might be appropriated to the use of the International +Commission. I have therefore transferred to M. Tresca the three +thermometers A.6, S.1, S.2, with the documentary information relating +to them, which was found in Mr Sheepshanks's papers; retaining six +thermometers of the same class in the Royal Observatory.--The Sidereal +Standard Clock continues to give great satisfaction. I am considering +(with the aid of Mr Buckney, of the firm of E. Dent and Co.) an +arrangement for barometric correction, founded on the principle of +action on the pendulum by means of a magnet which can be raised or +lowered by the agency of a large barometer.--The Altazimuth has +received some important alterations. An examination of the results of +observations had made me dissatisfied with the bearings of the +horizontal pivots in their Y's. Mr Simms, at my request, changed the +bearings in Y's for bearing in segments of circles, a construction +which has worked admirably well in the pivots of the Transit Circle." +(And in various other respects the instrument appears to have received +a thorough overhauling. Ed.)--"With the consent of the Royal Society +and of the Kew Committee, the Kew Heliograph has been planted in the +new dome looking over the South Ground. It is not yet finally +adjusted.--Some magnetic observations in the Britannia and Conway +tubular bridges were made last autumn. For this purpose I detached an +Assistant (Mr Carpenter), who was aided by Capt. Tupman, R.M.A.; in +other respects the enterprise was private and at private expense.--The +rates of the first six chronometers (in the annual trials) are +published, in a form which appears most likely to lead to examination +of the causes that influence their merits or demerits. This report is +extensively distributed to British and Foreign horologists and +instrument-makers. All these artists appear to entertain the +conviction that the careful comparisons made at this Observatory, and +the orderly form of their publication, have contributed powerfully to +the improvement of chronometers.--Very lately, application has been +made to me, through the Board of Trade, for plans and other +information regarding time-signal-balls, to assist in guiding the +authorities of the German Empire in the establishment of time signals +at various ports of that State. In other foreign countries the system +is extending, and is referred to Greenwich as its origin.--The +arrangements and preparations for the observation of the Transit of +Venus occupied much attention. With regard to the photoheliographs it +is proposed to make trial of a plan proposed by M. Janssen, for +numerous photographs of Venus when very near to the Sun's limb. On +Apr. 26th the engaging of photographic teachers was sanctioned. +Observers were selected and engaged. A working model of the +Transit was prepared, and the use of De La Rue's Scale was +practised. There was some hostile criticism of the stations selected +for the observation of the Transit, which necessitated a formal +reply.--Reference is made to the increase of facilities for making +magnetical and meteorological observations. The inevitable result of +it is, that observations are produced in numbers so great that +complete reduction becomes almost impossible. The labour of reduction +is very great, and it is concluded that, of the enormous number of +meteorological observations now made at numerous observatories, very +few can ever possess the smallest utility.--Referring to my Numerical +Lunar Theory: on June 30th, 1873, a theory was formed, nearly but not +perfectly complete. Numerical development of powers of a÷r and +r÷a. Factors of corrections to Delaunay first attempted, but entirely +in numerical form."--In March of this year Airy was consulted by Mr +W.H. Barlow, C.E., and Mr Thomas Bouch (the Engineer of the Tay +Bridge, which was blown down in 1879, and of a proposed scheme for a +Forth Bridge in 1873) on the subject of the wind pressure, &c., that +should be allowed for in the construction of the bridge. Airy's report +on this question is dated 1873, Apr. 9th: it was subsequently much +referred to at the Official Enquiry into the causes of the failure of +the Tay Bridge.--At the end of this year Airy resigned the Presidency +of the Royal Society. In his Address to the Society on Dec. 1st he +stated his reasons in full, as follows: "the severity of official +duties, which seem to increase, while vigour to discharge them does +not increase; and the distance of my residence.... Another cause is a +difficulty of hearing, which unfits me for effective action as +Chairman of Council." + +Of private history: There was the usual visit to Playford in January: +also a short visit in May: and a third visit at Christmas.--There was +a short run in June, of about a week, to Coniston, with one of his +daughters.--And there was a trip to Weymouth, &c., for about 10 days, +with one of his daughters, in the beginning of August--On his return +from the last-mentioned trip, Airy found a letter from the Secretary +of the Swedish Legation, enclosing the Warrant under the Royal Sign +Manual of His Majesty (Oscar), the King of Sweden and Norway, by which +he was nominated as a First Class Commander of the Order of the North +Star, and accompanying the Decorations of that Order. + + + 1874 + +"In this year Mr Glaisher resigned his appointment: I placed his +Department (Magnetical and Meteorological) under Mr Ellis.--A balance +of peculiar construction has been made by Mr Oertling, from my +instructions, and fixed near the public barometer at the Entrance +Gate. This instrument enables the public to test any ordinary pound +weight, shewing on a scale the number of grains by which it is too +heavy or too light.--Fresh counterpoises have been attached to the +Great Equatoreal to balance the additional weight of the new +Spectroscope, which was finally received from Mr Browning's hands on +May 2nd of the present year. The Spectroscope is specifically adapted +to sweeping round the Sun's limb, with a view to mapping out the +prominences, and is also available for work on Stars and Nebulae, the +dispersive power being very readily varied. An induction-coil, capable +of giving a six-inch spark, has been made for this instrument by Mr +Browning.--Some new classes of reductions of the meteorological +observations from 1848 to 1868 have been undertaken and completed in +the past year. The general state of this work is as follows: The +diurnal changes of the dry-bulb thermometer, as depending on the +month, on the temperature waves, on the barometric waves, on the +overcast and cloudless states of the sky, and on the direction of the +wind, have been computed and examined for the whole period; and the +exhibition of the results is ready for press. The similar reductions +for the wet-bulb thermometer are rapidly approaching completion. +--Regarding the preparations for the Transit of Venus Expeditions. +Originally five stations were selected and fully equipped +with equatoreals, transits, altazimuths, photoheliographs, and clocks; +but I have since thought it desirable to supplement these by two +branch stations in the Sandwich Islands and one in Kerguelen's Island; +and the additional instruments thus required have been borrowed from +various sources, so that there is now an abundant supply of +instrumental means.... There will thus be available for observation of +the Transit of Venus 23 telescopes, nine of which will be provided +with double-image-micrometers; and five photoheliographs; and for +determination of local time, and latitude and longitude, there will be +nine transits and six altazimuths.... All the observers have undergone +a course of training in photography; first, under a professional +photographer, Mr Reynolds, and subsequently under Capt. Abney, R.E., +whose new dry-plate process is to be adopted at all the British +Stations.... A Janssen slide, capable of taking 50 photographs of +Venus and the neighbouring part of the Sun's limb at intervals of one +second, has been made by Mr Dallmeyer for each of the five +photoheliographs."--Attached to the Report to the Visitors is a copy +of the Instructions to Observers engaged in the Transit of Venus +Expeditions, prepared with great care and in remarkable detail.--"In +the past spring I published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal +Astronomical Society a statement of the fundamental points in a new +treatment of the Lunar Theory, by which, availing myself of all that +has been done in the best algebraical investigations of that theory, I +trust to be able by numerical operations only to give greater accuracy +to final results. Considerable progress has been made in the extensive +numerical developments, the work being done, at my private expense, +entirely by a junior computer; and I hope, at any rate, to put it in +such a state that there will be no liability to its entire loss. When +this was reported to the Board of Visitors, it was resolved on the +motion of Prof. Stokes, that this work, as a public expense, ought to +be borne by the Government; and this was forwarded to the +Admiralty. On June 24th I wrote to the Secretary of the Admiralty, +asking for _£100_ for the present year, which after the usual +enquiries and explanations was sanctioned on Aug. 29th." + +Of private history: There were short visits to Playford in January, +June, and October, but only for a few days in each case.--In March +there was a run of two or three days to Newnham (on the Severn) to see +the Bore on the Severn, and to Malvern.--In July he went to Newcastle +to observe with Mr Newall's great telescope, but the weather was +unfavourable: he then went on to Barrow House near Keswick, and spent +a few days there, with excursions among the mountains.--On Aug. 13th +he went with his daughter Christabel to the Isle of Arran, and then by +Glasgow to the Trosachs, where he made several excursions to verify +the localities mentioned in the "Lady of the Lake."--While in Scotland +he heard of the death of his brother, the Rev. William Airy, and +travelled to Keysoe in Bedfordshire to attend the funeral; and +returned to Greenwich on Aug. 24th. + + + 1875 + +"In October of this year I wrote to the Admiralty that I had grounds +for asking for an increase of my salary: because the pension which had +been settled on my wife, and which I had practically recognized as +part of my salary, had been terminated by her death; so that my salary +now stood lower by _£200_ than that of the Director of Studies of the +Royal Naval College. The Admiralty reply favourably, and on Nov. 27th +the Treasury raise my salary to _£1_,200.--For the service of the +Clock Movement of the Great Equatoreal, a water-cistern has been +established in the highest part of the Ball-Turret, the necessity for +which arose from the following circumstance: The Water Clock was +supplied by a small pipe, about 80 feet in length, connected with the +3-inch Observatory main (which passes through the Park), at a distance +of about 250 feet from any other branch pipe. In spite of this +distance I have seen that, on stopping the water-tap in the +Battery-Basement under the North-East Turret, the pressure in the +gauge of the Water Clock has been instantly increased by more than 40 +lbs. per square inch. The consequent derangement of the Water Clock in +its now incessant daily use became intolerable. Since the independent +supply was provided, its performance has been most satisfactory.--With +the Spectroscope the solar prominences have been mapped on 28 days +only; but the weather of the past winter was exceptionally +unfavourable for this class of observation. After mapping the +prominences, as seen on the C line, the other lines, especially F and +b, have been regularly examined, whenever practicable. Great care has +been taken in determining the position, angle, and heights of the +prominences in all cases. The spectrum of Coggia's Comet was examined +at every available opportunity last July, and compared directly with +that of carbon dioxide, the bands of the two spectra being sensibly +coincident. Fifty-four measures of the displacement of lines in the +spectra of 10 stars, as compared with the corresponding lines in the +spectra of terrestrial elements (chiefly hydrogen), have been made, +but some of these appear to be affected by a constant error depending +on faulty adjustment of the Spectroscope.--Photographs of the Sun have +been taken with the Kew Photoheliograph on 186 days; and of these 377 +have been selected for preservation. The Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, and +several stars (including the Pleiades and some double stars) have been +photographed with the Great Equatoreal, with fairly satisfactory +results, though further practice is required in this class of work.--I +would mention a supplemental mechanism which I have myself introduced +into some chronometers. I have long remarked that, in ordinary good +chronometers, the freedom from irregularities depending on mechanical +causes is most remarkable; but that, after all the efforts of the most +judicious makers, there is in nearly every case a perceptible defect +of thermal compensation. There is great difficulty in correcting the +residual fault, not only because an inconceivably small movement of +the weights on the balance-curve is required, but also because it +endangers the equilibrium of the balance. The mechanism adopted to +remedy the defect is described in a Paper in the Horological Journal +of July 1875 by Mr W. Ellis, and has received the approval of some +able chronometer-makers.--With respect to the Transit of Venus +Expeditions: The parties from Egypt and Rodriguez are returned. I am +in continual expectation of the arrival of the other parties. I +believe the eye-observations and the ordinary photographs to be quite +successful; I doubt the advantage of the Janssen; one of the +double-image-micrometers seems to have failed; and the +Zenith-telescope gives some trouble. At three stations at Rodriguez, +and three at Kerguelen, the observations appear to have been most +successful. At the Sandwich Islands, two of the stations appear to +have been perfectly successful (except that I fear that the Janssen +has failed), and a rich series of lunar observations for longitude is +obtained. At New Zealand, I grieve to say, the observations were +totally lost, entirely in consequence of bad weather. There has been +little annoyance from the dreaded 'black drop.' Greater inconvenience +and doubt have been caused by the unexpected luminous ring round +Venus.--With regard to the progress of my proposed New Lunar Theory: +Three computers are now steadily employed on the work. It will be +remembered that the detail and mass of this work are purely numerical; +every numerical coefficient being accompanied with a symbolical +correction whose value will sometimes depend on the time, but in every +case is ultimately to be obtained in a numerical form. Of these +coefficients, extracted (for convenience) from Delaunay's results, +there are 100 for parallax, 182 for longitude, 142 for latitude; the +arguments being preserved in the usual form."--After reviewing the +changes that had taken place at the Observatory during the past forty +years, the Report to the Board of Visitors concludes thus: "I much +desire to see the system of time-signals extended, by clocks or daily +signals, to various parts of our great cities and our dockyards, and +above all by hourly signals on the Start Point, which I believe would +be the greatest of all benefits to nautical chronometry. Should any +extension of our scientific work ever be contemplated, I would remark +that the Observatory is not the place for new physical investigations. +It is well adapted for following out any which, originating +with private investigators, have been reduced to laws susceptible +of verification by daily observation. The National Observatory +will, I trust, always remain on the site where it was first +planted, and which early acquired the name of 'Flamsteed Hill.' +There are some inconveniences in the position, arising principally +from the limited extent of the hill, but they are, in my opinion, very +far overbalanced by its advantages."--In a letter on the subject of +the Smith's Prizes Examination at Cambridge, which was always a matter +of the greatest interest to him, Airy renewed his objections to the +preponderance in the Papers of a class of Pure Mathematics, which he +considered was never likely under any circumstances to give the +slightest assistance to Physics. And, as before, these remarks called +forth a rejoinder from Prof. Cayley, who was responsible for many of +the questions of the class referred to.--In this year Airy completed +his "Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures," which were shortly +afterwards published as a book by Messrs Longmans, Green, & Co. In his +letter to the publishers introducing the subject, he says, "For many +years past I have at times put together a few sentences explanatory as +I conceive of the geographical and historical circumstances connected +with the principal events recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures. The view +which I take is free, but I trust not irreverent. They terminate with +a brief review of Colenso's great work. The collection now amounts to +a small book." From the references already given in previous years to +his Papers and correspondence on the geography of Exodus, his +correspondence with Colenso, &c. &c., it will be seen that he took a +great interest in the early history of the Israelites.--On August +10th, 1875, Airy celebrated the Bicentenary of the Royal Observatory +by a dinner in the Octagon Room, which was attended by the Presidents +of the Royal Society and the R. Astr. Society, and by a large number +of Scientific gentlemen interested in Astronomy.--In February he was +revising his Treatise on "Probabilities." + +Of private history: up to Jan. 16th Airy was at Playford as +usual.--For about a week in April he was in the Isle of Man with his +daughter Christabel.--In June there was a short trip to Salisbury, +Blandford, and Wimborne.--On August 12th he started with his daughter +Annot for a holiday in Cumberland, but on the next day he was recalled +by a telegram with the intelligence that a change for the worse had +come over his wife's health. Lady Airy died on August 13th, 1875. For +the last five years of her life she had been very helpless from the +effects of a paralytic stroke--a very sad ending to a bright and happy +life--and had been continually nursed throughout this time by her two +unmarried daughters with the greatest self-denial and devotion. Her +husband had been unremitting in his care and attention. Nothing was +wanting that the most thoughtful kindness could supply. And in all his +trips and excursions his constant and kind letters shewed how anxious +he was that she should participate in all his interests and +amusements. From the nature of the case it could hardly be said that +her death was unexpected, and he received the shock with the manly +steadiness which belonged to him. Lady Airy was buried in Playford +churchyard.--From Sept. 22nd to Oct. 4 he made a short expedition to +Wales (Capel Curig, &c.).--On Dec. 15th he attended the Commemoration +at Trinity College, Cambridge.--On Dec. 22nd he went as usual to +Playford. + +In this year Airy received the high honour of the Freedom of the City +of London, in the following communication: + + +STONE, Mayor.--A Common Council holden in the Chamber of the Guildhall +of the City of London, on Thursday the 29th day of April 1875. + +Resolved Unanimously + +That the Freedom of this City in a Gold Box of the value of One +hundred guineas be presented to Sir George Biddell Airy, K.C.B., +D.C.L., LL.D. &c., Astronomer Royal, as a recognition of his +indefatigable labours in Astronomy, and of his eminent services in the +advancement of practical science, whereby he has so materially +benefited the cause of Commerce and Civilization. + + MONCKTON. + +This Resolution was forwarded with a letter from Benjamin Scott, the +Chamberlain. Airy's reply was as follows: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, S.E. + _1875, May 1_. + +DEAR SIR, + +I have the honour to acknowledge your letter of April 30, accompanied +with Copy of the Resolution of the Common Council of the City of +London passed at their Meeting of April 29, under signature of the +Town Clerk, That the Freedom of the City of London in a valuable Box +be presented to me, in recognition of works stated in the +Resolution. And I am requested by you to inform you whether it is my +intention to accept the compliment proposed by the Corporation. + +In reply, I beg you to convey to the Right Honorable the Lord Mayor +and the Corporation that I accept with the greatest pride and pleasure +the honour which they propose to offer to me. The Freedom of our Great +City, conferred by the spontaneous act of its Municipal Governors, is +in my estimation the highest honour which it is possible to receive; +and its presentation at this time is peculiarly grateful to me. + + I have the honour to be, + Sir, + Your very obedient servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Benjamin Scott, Esq., + &c. &c. &c. +Chamberlain of the Corporation of the + City of London._ + +As it was technically necessary that a Freeman of the City of London +should belong to one or other of the City Companies, the Worshipful +Company of Spectacle Makers through their clerk (with very great +appropriateness) enquired whether it would be agreeable that that +Company should have the privilege of conferring their Honorary Freedom +on him, and added: "In soliciting your acquiescence to the proposal I +am directed to call attention to the fact that this Guild is permitted +to claim all manufacturers of Mathematical and Astronomical +Instruments within the City of London, which is now pleaded as an +apology for the wish that one so distinguished as yourself in the use +of such Instruments should be enrolled as a Member of this Craft." In +his reply, accepting the Freedom of the Company, Airy wrote thus: "I +shall much value the association with a body whose ostensible title +bears so close a relation to the official engagements which have long +occupied me. I have had extensive experience both in arranging and in +using optical and mathematical instruments, and feel that my own +pursuits are closely connected with the original employments of the +Company." The Freedom of the Company was duly presented, and the +occasion was celebrated by a banquet at the Albion Tavern on Tuesday, +July 6th. + +The Freedom of the City of London was conferred at a Court of Common +Council held at the Guildhall on Thursday the 4th of November. In +presenting the gold box containing the Freedom, the Chamberlain, in an +eloquent speech, first referred to the fact that this was the first +occasion on which the Freedom had been conferred on a person whose +name was associated with the sciences other than those of war and +statecraft. He then referred to the solid character of his work, in +that, while others had turned their attention to the more attractive +fields of exploration, the discovery of new worlds or of novel +celestial phenomena, he had incessantly devoted himself to the less +interesting, less obtrusive, but more valuable walks of practical +astronomy. And he instanced as the special grounds of the honour +conferred, the compilation of nautical tables of extraordinary +accuracy, the improvement of chronometers, the correction of the +compasses of iron ships, the restoration of the standards of length +and weight, and the Transit of Venus Expeditions. In his reply Airy +stated that he regarded the honour just conferred upon him as the +greatest and proudest ever received by him. He referred to the fact +that the same honour had been previously conferred on the valued +friend of his youth, Thomas Clarkson, and said that the circumstance +of his succeeding such a man was to himself a great honour and +pleasure. He alluded to his having received a small exhibition from +one of the London Companies, when he was a poor undergraduate at +Cambridge, and acknowledged the great assistance that it had been to +him. With regard to his occupation, he said that he had followed it in +a great measure because of its practical use, and thought it fortunate +that from the first he was connected with an institution in which +utility was combined with science. The occasion of this presentation +was celebrated by a Banquet at the Mansion House on Saturday July 3rd, +1875, to Sir George Airy (Astronomer Royal) and the Representatives of +Learned Societies. + +There is no doubt that Airy was extremely gratified by the honour that +he had received. It was to him the crowning honour of his life, and +coming last of all it threw all his other honours into the shade. To +his independent and liberal spirit there was something peculiarly +touching in the unsolicited approbation and act of so powerful and +disinterested a body as the Corporation of the City of London. + + + + CHAPTER IX. + + AT GREENWICH OBSERVATORY FROM JANUARY 1ST, 1876, + TO HIS RESIGNATION OF OFFICE ON AUGUST 15TH, + 1881. + + + 1876 + +"At the door from the Front Court to the staircase of the Octagon Room +(the original entrance to the Observatory as erected by Sir +Christopher Wren), a small porch-shelter has been often desired. I +proposed to fix there a fan-roof of quadrantal form, covering the +upper flat stone of the external steps.--On a critical examination of +the micrometer-screws of the Transit Circle it was found that the +corrections, which range from -1°38" to +0°76", indicate considerable +wear in the screws; and it was found that as much as one-hundreth part +of an inch had been worn away from some of the threads. The old screws +were consequently discarded, and new ones were made by Mr Simms.--The +adjustment of the Spectroscope has occupied a great deal of +attention. There was astigmatism of the prisms; and false light +reflected from the base of the prisms, causing loss both of light and +of definition. The latter defect was corrected by altering the angles, +and then astigmatism was corrected by a cylindrical lens near the +slit. The definition in both planes was then found to be perfect.--The +number of small planets has now become so great, and the interest of +establishing the elements of all their orbits so small,--while at the +same time the light of all those lately discovered is very faint, and +the difficulty and doubt of observation greatly increased,--that I +have begun to think seriously of limiting future observations to a +small number of these objects.--All observations with the Spectroscope +have been completely reduced; the measures of lines in the spectra of +elements being converted into corresponding wave-lengths, and the +observations of displacement of lines in the spectra of stars being +reduced so as to exhibit the concluded motion in miles per second, +after applying a correction for the earth's motion. Sixteen measures +of the F line in the spectrum of the Moon as compared with hydrogen +give a displacement corresponding to a motion of less than two miles a +second, which seems to shew that the method of comparison now adopted +is free from systematic error; and this is supported by the manner in +which motions of approach and recession are distributed among the +stars examined on each night of observation. The results recently +obtained appear to be on the whole as consistent as can be expected in +such delicate observations, and they support in a remarkable manner +the conclusions of Dr Huggins, with regard to the motions of those +stars which he examined.--Photographs of the sun have been taken with +the photoheliograph on 182 days. On one of the photographs, which was +accidentally exposed while the drop slit was being drawn up, there +appears to be a faint image of a cloud-like prominence close to the +sun's limb, though the exposure probably only amounted to a fraction +of a second. A prominence of unusual brilliancy was seen with the +Spectroscope about the same time and in the same position with +reference to the Sun's limb. All groups of Sun-spots and faculae have +been numbered, and the dates of their first and last appearances +entered up to the present time. Areas of spots have been measured, and +the measures have been reduced to millionths of the Sun's visible +hemisphere.--The examination of the readings of the deep-sunk +thermometers from 1846 to 1873 has exhibited some laws which had been +sufficiently established before this time, and some which were less +known. Among the former were the successive retardations of seasons +in successive descents, amounting to about four months at the depth of +25 feet; and the successive diminutions of the annual range of +temperature. Among the latter is the character of the changes from +year to year, which the great length of this series of observations +brings well to light. It is found that from year to year the mean +temperature of the surface for the year, varying by three or four +degrees of Fahrenheit, follows in its changes the mean temperature of +the atmosphere for the year, and that the changes of annual +temperature are propagated downwards, retarded in phase and +diminishing in amount of change, in the same manner (though probably +not following the same law) as the season changes. The inference from +this is, that changes of temperature come entirely from the exterior +and in no discoverable degree from the interior; an inference which +may be important in regard both to solar action and to geology. +--Referring to the Transit of Venus observations: In the +astronomical part of the reductions, there has been great labour and +difficulty in the determination of local sidereal times; some books of +observations required extensive transcription; some instrumental +errors are still uncertain; the latter determinations have perplexed +us so much that we are inclined to believe that, in spite of the great +facilities of reduction given by the transit instrument, it would be +better to rely on the altazimuth for time-determinations.... In the +photographic part, I have confined my attention entirely to measures +of the distance between the centres of the Sun and Planet, a +troublesome and complex operation.--Referring to the progress of the +Numerical Lunar Theory: With a repetition of grant from the Treasury, +I have usually maintained four junior computers on this work. The +progress, though considerable, has not been so great as I had hoped, +by reason of the excessive personal pressure upon me during the whole +year.--I wrote a letter of congratulation to Le Verrier on the +completion of his great work of Planetary Tables.--On May 13th the +Queen was at South Kensington, and I attended to explain the +astronomical instruments, and shewed Her Majesty one of the Transit of +Venus photographs." + +Of private history: He returned from his Playford visit on the 18th of +January.--In April there was a two-day trip to Colchester.--From June +13th to July 12th he was travelling in the North of Scotland and the +Orkneys with his daughters, staying for a short time with Mr Webster, +M.P., at Aberdeen, and with Mr Newall at Newcastle.--In September +there was a week's run to Birkenhead and Keswick.--In November a +week's run to Playford.--From the 13th to 15th of December he was at +Cambridge, and on the 28th he went to Playford for the usual winter +stay there. + + + 1877 + +"In April of this year I was much engaged on the subject of Mr Gill's +expedition to Ascension to observe for the determination of the +parallax of Mars at the approaching opposition of that planet.--A +large Direct-vision Spectroscope has been quite recently made by Mr +Hilger under Mr Christie's direction on a new plan, in which either +great dispersion or great purity of spectrum is obtained by the use of +'Half-prisms,' according as the incident pencil falls first on the +perpendicular or on the oblique face. In this Spectroscope either one +or two half prisms can be used at pleasure, according to the +dispersion required, and there is facility for increasing the train to +three or four half-prisms, though the dispersion with two only is +nearly double of that given by the large ten-prism Spectroscope. The +definition in this form of Spectroscope appears to be very fine.--At +the end of May 1876, spectroscopic determinations of the Sun's +rotation were made by observations of the relative displacement of the +Fraunhofer lines at the east and west limbs respectively. The results +are in close agreement with the value of the rotation found from +observations of Sun-spots. A similar determination has also been made +in the case of Jupiter, with equally satisfactory results.--An +Electrometer on Sir William Thomson's plan, for continuous +photographic registration of atmospheric electricity has been received +from Mr White of Glasgow. It was mounted in December.--The computation +of the photographic records of the barometer from 1854 to 1873 has so +far advanced that we can assert positively that there is no trace of +lunar tide in the atmosphere; but that there is a strongly marked +semi-diurnal solar tide, accompanied with a smaller diurnal tide. We +are at present engaged in comparing the barometric measures with the +directions of the wind.--Regarding the distribution of the printed +observations: There is no extensive wish for separate magnetic +observations, but general magnetic results are in great demand, +especially for mining operations, and to meet this a map of magnetic +declination is furnished in the newspaper called the 'Colliery +Guardian.'--As regards the operations for the Transit of Venus: The +computing staff has by degrees been reduced to two junior computers +within the Observatory; and one or two computers external to the +Observatory, who are employed on large groups of systematic +calculations. The principal part of the calculations remaining at the +date of the last Report was that applying to the determination of the +geographical longitudes of fundamental stations. At the moment of my +writing, the last of these (the longitude of Observatory Bay, +Kerguelen) is not absolutely finished:... The method of determining +the geographical longitude of the principal station in each group by +vertical transits of the Moon has been found very successful at +Honolulu and Rodriguez. For stations in high south latitude, +horizontal transits are preferable.--As regards the Numerical Lunar +Theory: With the view of preserving, against the ordinary chances of +destruction or abandonment, a work which is already one of +considerable magnitude, I have prepared and have printed as Appendix +to the Greenwich Observations (with additional copies as for a +separate work) the ordinary Equations of Lunar Disturbance, the novel +theory of Symbolical Variations, and the Numerical Developments of the +quantities on the first side of the Equations.--At various times from +February to May I was engaged on the reduction of Malta Tides, and on +a Paper concerning the same.--In July I was awarded the Albert Medal +for my Compass corrections, and received the same from the Prince of +Wales.--In February, Campbell's instrument for the registration of +sunshine was introduced: it was mounted in July." + +Of private history: "I was at Playford until Jan. 19th, in close +correspondence as usual with Mr Christie at the Observatory, and +attending to my Numerical Lunar Theory.--From Mar. 29th to Apr. 2nd I +went on a short trip to Hereford, Worcester, &c.--From June 8th to +20th I was at Playford.--From Aug. 13th to Sept. 8th Airy was on an +expedition in Ireland, chiefly in the North and West, with his +daughters. When at Dublin he visited Grubb's instrument factory. On +the return journey he stayed for some time in the Lake District of +Cumberland, and took soundings in the neighbourhood of the place of +the 'floating island' in Derwentwater." + +Airy took the greatest interest in antiquarian matters, whether +military or ecclesiastical, and his feelings on such matters is well +illustrated by the following letter: + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, S.E. + _1877, February 27_. + +DEAR SIR, + +I venture to ask if you can assist me in the following matter. + +In the Parish Church of Playford, near Ipswich, Suffolk, was a +splendid brass tombstone to Sir Thomas Felbrigg. By an act of folly +and barbarism, almost unequalled in the history of the world, the +Incumbent and Curate nearly destroyed the brass inscription +surrounding the image of the Knight. + +This tombstone is figured in Gough's Sepulchral Antiquities, which, I +presume, is to be found in the British Museum. + +And I take the liberty to ask if you would kindly look at the +engraving, and give me any suggestion as to the way in which some +copies of it could be made, in a fairly durable form. I am connected +with the parish of Playford, and am anxious to preserve for it this +memorial of a family of high rank formerly resident there. + + I am, dear Sir, + Very faithfully yours, + G.B. AIRY. + +_T. Winter Jones, Esq._ + +To this request Mr Winter Jones immediately acceded, and the engraving +was duly photographed, and copies were circulated with a historical +notice of Sir George (not Sir Thomas) Felbrigg and a history of the +Monument. Sir George Felbrigg was Esquire-at-Arms to Edward III., and +Lord of the Manor of Playford: he died in 1400, and was buried in the +North wall of Playford Church. + + + 1878 + +The Report to the Board of Visitors has this paragraph: "I continue to +remark the approaching necessity for Library extension. Without having +absolutely decided on a site, I may suggest that I should wish to +erect a brick building, about 50 feet by 20, consisting of two very +low stories (or rather of one story with a gallery running round its +walls), so low that books can be moved by hand without necessity for a +ladder.--In the month of December, 1877, the azimuthal error of the +Transit Circle had increased to 10". A skilful workman, instructed by +Mr Simms, easily reduced the error to about 2".5 (which would leave +its mean error nearly 0), the western Y being moved to the north so +far as to reduce the reading of the transit micrometer, when pointed +to the south, from 35r.500 to 35r.000. The level error was not +sensibly affected.--The Sidereal Standard Clock preserves a rate +approaching to perfection, so long as it is left without disturbance +of the galvanic-contact springs (touched by its pendulum), which +transmit signals at every second of time to sympathetic clocks and the +chronograph. A readjustment of these springs usually disturbs the +rate.--To facilitate the observations of stars, a new working +catalogue has been prepared, in which are included all stars down to +the third magnitude, stars down to the fifth magnitude which have not +been observed in the last two catalogues, and a list of 258 stars of +about the sixth magnitude of which the places are required for the +United States Coast Survey. The whole number of stars in our new +working list is about 2500. It may be here mentioned that an extensive +series of observations was made, during the autumn, of about 70 stars, +at the request of Mr Gill, for comparison with Mars, Ariadne, and +Melpomene.--On Apr. 10th last, a very heavy fall of rain took +place. Between Apr. 10d. 5h. and Apr. 11d. 2h., 2.824 inch. was +recorded, and 75 per cent. of this, or 2.12 inch., fell in the eight +hours between 13-1/2h. and 21-1/2h.; and on May 7, 1 inch of rain fell +in 50 minutes, of which 1/2 inch fell in 15 minutes.--The +supplementary compensation continues to be applied with success to +Government chronometers which offer facilities for its introduction, +and a marked improvement in the performance of chronometers returned +after repair by the makers appears to have resulted from the increased +attention now given to the compensation. Of the 29 competitive +chronometers, 25 have the supplementary compensation."--With regard to +the reduction of the observations of the Transit of Venus: After +reference to the difficulties arising from the errors and the +interpretation of the language used by some of the observers, the +Report continues thus: "Finally a Report was made to the Government on +July 5th, giving as the mean result for Mean Solar Parallax 8".76; the +results from ingress and from egress, however, differing to the extent +of 0".11.... After further examination and consideration, the result +for parallax has been increased to 8".82 or 8".83. The results from +photography have disappointed me much. The failure has arisen, perhaps +sometimes from irregularity of limb, or from atmospheric distortion, +but more frequently from faintness and from want of clear +definition. Many photographs, which to the eye appeared good, lost all +strength and sharpness when placed under the measuring microscope. A +final result 8".17 was obtained from Mr Burton's measures, and 8".08 +from Capt. Tupman's.--With regard to the Numerical Lunar Theory: A +cursory collection of the terms relating to the Areas (in the +Ecliptic) led me to suppose that there might be some error in the +computations of the Annual Equation and related terms. A most jealous +re-examination has however detected nothing, and has confirmed my +belief in the general accuracy of the numerical computations. I dare +not yet venture to assume an error in Delaunay's theory; but I +remember that the Annual Equation gave great trouble to the late Sir +John Lubbock, and that he more than once changed his conclusions as to +its true value.--In February I was engaged on the drawings and +preparations for my intended Lecture at Cockermouth on the probable +condition of the interior of the Earth. The Lecture was delivered in +April.--At different times in the autumn I was engaged on diagrams to +illustrate the passage of rays through eye-pieces and double-image +micrometers.--The miscellaneous scientific correspondence, which was +always going on, was in this year unusually varied and heavy." + +Of private history: He was at Playford till Jan. 26th.--In April he +went to Cockermouth to deliver his Lecture above-mentioned: the +journey was by Birmingham, where he stayed for two days (probably with +his son Osmund, who resided there), to Tarn Bank (the residence of +Isaac Fletcher, M.P.): the lecture was delivered on the 22nd: he made +excursions to Thirlmere and Barrow, and to Edward I.'s Monument, and +returned to Greenwich on the 27th.--From June 17th to 28th he was at +Playford.--From Aug. 19th to Sept. 17th he was travelling in Scotland, +visiting the Tay Bridge, the Loch Katrine Waterworks, &c., and spent +the last fortnight of his trip at Portinscale, near Keswick. On +Dec. 23rd he went to Playford. + + + 1879 + +"The manuscripts of every kind, which are accumulated in the ordinary +transactions of the Observatory, are preserved with the same care and +arranged on the same system as heretofore. The total number of bound +volumes exceeds 4000. Besides these there is the great mass of Transit +of Venus reductions and manuscripts, which when bound may be expected +to form about 200 volumes.--With regard to the numerous group of Minor +Planets, the Berlin authorities have most kindly given attention to my +representation, and we have now a most admirable and comprehensive +Ephemeris. But the extreme faintness of the majority of these bodies +places them practically beyond the reach of our meridian instrument, +and the difficulty of observation is in many cases further increased +by the large errors of the predicted places.--After a fine autumn, the +weather in the past winter and spring has been remarkably bad. More +than an entire lunation was lost with the Transit Circle, no +observation of the Moon on the meridian having been possible between +January 8 and March 1, a period of more than seven weeks. Neither Sun +nor stars were visible for eleven days, during which period the +clock-times were carried on entirely by the preceding rate of the +clock. The accumulated error at the end of this time did not exceed +0s'3.--Some difficulty was at first experienced with the Thomson +Electrometer, which was traced to want of insulation. This has been +mastered by the use of glass supporters, which carry some sulphuric +acid. The instrument is now in excellent order, and the photographic +registers have been perfectly satisfactory since 1879, February, when +the new insulators were applied.--From the annual curves of diurnal +inequality, deduced from the Magnetic Reductions, most important +inferences may be drawn, as to the connection between magnetic +phenomena and sun-spots. These annual curves shew a well-marked +change in close correspondence with the number of sun-spots. About the +epoch of maximum of sun-spots they are large and nearly circular, +having the same character as the curves for the summer months; whilst +about the time of sun-spot minimum they are small and +lemniscate-shaped, with a striking resemblance to the curves for the +winter months. The connection between changes of terrestrial magnetism +and sun-spots is shewn in a still more striking manner by a comparison +which Mr Ellis has made between the monthly means of the diurnal range +of declination and horizontal force, and Dr R. Wolf's 'relative +numbers' for frequency of sun-spots.--The records of sunshine with +Campbell's Registering Sun-dial are preserved in a form easily +accessible for reference, and the results are communicated weekly to +the Agricultural Gazette.--Prof. Oppolzer's results for the +determination of the longitudes of Vienna and Berlin, made in 1877, +have now been made public. They shew a remarkable agreement of the +Chronometric determination formerly made with the Telegraphic. It may +be of interest to recall the fact that a similar agreement was found +between the Chronometric and Telegraphic determinations of the +longitude of Valentia.--For observing the Transit of Venus of 1882, +the general impression appears to be that it will be best to confine +our observations to simple telescopic observations or micrometer +observations at Ingress and Egress, if possible at places whose +longitudes are known. For the first phenomenon (accelerated ingress) +the choice of stations is not good; but for the other phenomena +(retarded ingress, accelerated egress, retarded egress) there appears +to be no difficulty.--With regard to the Numerical Lunar Theory: +Respecting the discordance of Annual Equation, I suspend my +judgment. I have now discussed the theory completely; and in going +into details of secular changes, I am at this time engaged on that +which is the foundation of all, namely, the change of excentricity of +the Solar Orbit, and its result in producing Lunar Acceleration. An +important error in the theoretical formulae for Variations of Radius +Vector, Longitude, and Latitude, was discovered; some calculations +depending on them are cancelled."--Referring to the magnitude of the +printed volume of "Greenwich Observations," and the practicability of +reducing the extent of it, the Report states thus: "The tendency of +external scientific movement is to give great attention to the +phenomena of the Solar disc (in which this Observatory ought +undoubtedly to bear its part). And I personally am most unwilling to +recede from the existing course of magnetical and meteorological +observations....The general tendency of these considerations is to +increase the annual expenses of the Observatory. And so it has been, +almost continuously, for the last 42 years. The annual ordinary +expenses are now between 2-1/2 and 3 times as great as in my first +years at the Royal Observatory.--Mr Gill was appointed to the Cape +Observatory, and I wrote out instructions for him in March: there was +subsequently much correspondence respecting the equipment and repairs +of the Cape Observatory."--In the Monthly Notices of the Royal +Astronomical Society for January an article had appeared headed "Notes +on the late Admiral Smyth's Cycle of Celestial Objects, Vol. II." by +Mr Herbert Sadler. In this article Mr Sadler had criticized the work +of Admiral Smyth in a manner which Airy regarded as imputing bad faith +to Admiral Smyth. He at once took up the defence of his old friend +very warmly, and proposed certain Drafts of Resolutions to the Council +of the Society. These Resolutions were moved, but were amended or +negatived, and Airy immediately resigned his office of +Vice-President. There was considerable negociation on the subject, and +discussion with Lord Lindsay, and on May 9th Airy's Resolutions were +accepted by the Council.--In October Airy inspected the "Faraday" +telegraph ship, then lying in the river near Messrs Siemens' works, +and broke his finger by a fall on board the vessel.--In this year Airy +wrote and circulated a letter to the Members of the Senate of the +University of Cambridge, on the subject of the Papers set in the +Smith's Prizes Examination. In this letter, as on former occasions, he +objected much to the large number of questions in "purely idle +algebra, arbitrary combinations of symbols, applicable to no further +purpose." And in particular he singled out for comment the following +question, which was one of those set, "Using the term circle as +extending to the case where the radius is a pure imaginary, it is +required to construct the common chord of two given circles." This +drew forth as usual a rejoinder from Prof. Cayley, who wrote +enclosing a solution of his problem, but not at all to Airy's +satisfaction, who replied as follows: "I am not so deeply plunged in +the mists of impossibles as to appreciate fully your explanation in +this instance, or to think that it is a good criterion for University +candidates." + +Of private history: On Jan. 21st he returned from Playford.--On March +22nd he attended the funeral of his sister at Little Welnetham near +Bury St Edmunds: Miss Elizabeth Airy had lived with him at the +Observatory from shortly after his appointment.--For about a week at +the end of April he was visiting Matlock, Edensor, and Buxton.--From +June 14th to July 18th he was staying at Portinscale near Keswick.--He +was at Playford for two or three days in October, and went there again +on Dec. 23rd for his usual winter holiday. + +The following letter, relating to the life of Thomas Clarkson, was +written to Dr Merivale, Dean of Ely, after reading the account in the +"Times" of October 10th of the unveiling of a statue of Clarkson near +Ware: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + LONDON, S.E. + _1879, October 11_. + +DEAR SIR, + +Pardon my intrusion on you, in reference to a transaction which has +greatly interested me--the honour paid by you to the memory of Thomas +Clarkson. With very great pleasure I have heard of this step: and I +have also been much satisfied with the remarks on it in the "Times." I +well remember, in Clarkson's "History of the Abolition," which I read +some 60 years ago, the account of the circumstance, now commemorated +by you, which determined the action of his whole subsequent life. + +It is not improbable that, among those who still remember Clarkson, my +acquaintance with him began at the earliest time of all. I knew him, +intimately, from the beginning of 1815 to his death. The family which +he represented must have occupied a very good position in society. I +have heard that he sold two good estates to defray the expenses which +he incurred in his personal labours for Abolition: and his brother was +Governor of Sierra Leone (I know not at what time appointed). Thomas +Clarkson was at St John's College; and, as I gather from circumstances +which I have heard him mention, must have been a rather gay man. He +kept a horse, and at one time kept two. He took Orders in the Church; +and on one occasion, in the course of his Abolition struggle, he +preached in a church. But he afterwards resolutely laid aside all +pretensions to the title of Minister of the Church, and never would +accept any title except as layman. He was, however, a very earnest +reader of theology during my acquaintance with him, and appeared to be +well acquainted with the Early Fathers. + +The precise words in which was announced the subject for Prize Essay +in the University were "Anne liceat invitos in servitutem trahere." + +After the first great victory on the slave trade question, he +established himself in a house on the bank of Ullswater. I have not +identified the place: from a view which he once shewed me I supposed +it to be near the bottom of the lake: but from an account of the storm +of wind which he encountered when walking with a lady over a pass, it +seemed to be in or near Patterdale. When the remains of a mountaineer, +who perished in Helvellyn (as described in Scott's well-known poem), +were discovered by a shepherd, it was to Mr Clarkson that the +intelligence was first brought. + +He then lived at Bury St Edmunds. Mrs Clarkson was a lady of Bury. But +I cannot assign conjecturally any dates to his removals or his +marriage. His only son took his B.A. degree, I think, about 1817. + +I think it was in 1814 that he began his occupation of Playford +Hall--a moated mansion near Ipswich, formerly of great importance +--where he lived as Gentleman Farmer, managing a farm leased +from the Marquis of Bristol, and occupying a good position among the +gentry of the county. A relative of mine, with whom I was most +intimately acquainted, lived in the same parish (where in defiance of +school rules I spent nearly half my time, to my great advantage as I +believe, and where I still retain a cottage for occasional residence), +and I enjoyed much of Mr Clarkson's notice. It was by his strong +advice that I was sent to Cambridge, and that Trinity College was +selected: he rode with me to Rev. Mr Rogers of Sproughton for +introductory examination; he introduced me to Rev. C. Musgrave +(subsequently of Halifax), accidentally doing duty at Grundisburgh, +who then introduced me to Sedgwick, Peacock, and T. Musgrave +(subsequently of York). In 1825, when I spent the summer at Keswick, +he introduced me to Southey and Wordsworth. + +Mr Clarkson lived about thirty years at Playford Hall, and died there, +and lies interred with his wife, son, and grandson, in Playford +churchyard. I joined several friends in erecting a granite obelisk to +his memory in the same churchyard. His family is extinct: but a +daughter of his brother is living, first married to T. Clarkson's son, +and now Mrs Dickinson, of the Rectory, Wolferton. + + I am, my dear Sir, + Very faithfully yours, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Very Reverend, + The Dean of Ely._ + + + 1880 + +"The Admiralty, on final consideration of the estimates, decided not +to proceed with the erection of a new Library near the Magnetic +Observatory in the present year. In the mean time the space has been +cleared for the erection of a building 50 by 20 feet.--I have removed +the Electrometer Mast (a source of some expense and some danger), the +perfect success of Sir William Thomson's Electrometer rendering all +further apparatus for the same purpose unnecessary.--Many years ago a +double-image micrometer, in which the images were formed by the double +refraction of a sphere of quartz, was prepared by Mr Dollond for +Capt. Smyth, R.N. Adopting the same principle on a larger scale, I +have had constructed by Mr Hilger a micrometer with double refraction +of a sphere of Iceland spar. Marks have been prepared for examination +of the scale, but I have not yet had opportunity of trying it.--The +spectroscopic determination of Star-motions has been steadily +pursued. The stars are taken from a working list of 150 stars, which +may eventually be extended to include all stars down to the fourth +magnitude, and it is expected that in the course of time the motions +of about 300 stars may be spectroscopically determined.--A new +pressure-plate with springs has been applied by Mr Browning to Osler's +Anemometer, and it is proposed to make such modification as will give +a scale extending to 50 lbs. pressure on the square foot. Other parts +of the instrument have also been renewed.--As regards the reduction of +the magnetical results since 1863: In the study of the forms of the +individual curves; their relations to the hour, the month, the year; +their connection with solar or meteorological facts; the conjectural +physico-mechanical causes by which they are produced; there is much to +occupy the mind. I regret that, though in contemplation of these +curves I have remarked some singular (but imperfect) laws, I have not +been able to pursue them.--The mean temperature of the year 1879 was +46.1°, being 3.3° below the average of the preceding 38 years. The +highest temperature was 80.6° on July 30, and the lowest 13.7° on +Dec. 7. The mean temperature was below the average in every month of +the year; the months of greatest deviation being January and December, +respectively 6.8° and 7.6° below the average; the months of April, +May, July, and November were each between 4° and 5° below the average. +The number of hours of bright sunshine, recorded with Campbell's +Sunshine Instrument, during 1879, was only 983.--In the summer of 1879 +Commander Green, U.S.N., came over to this country for the purpose of +determining telegraphically the longitude of Lisbon, as part of a +chain of longitudes extending from South America to Greenwich. A +successful interchange of signals was made with Commander Green +between Greenwich and Porthcurno on four nights, 1879, June 25 to +29. The results communicated by Commander Green shew that the +longitude of Lisbon Observatory, as adopted in the Nautical Almanac, +requires the large correction of +8.54".--With regard to the coming +Transit of Venus in 1882: From the facility with which the +requirements for geographical position are satisfied, and from the +rapid and accurate communication of time now given by electric +telegraph, the observation of this Transit will be comparatively easy +and inexpensive. I have attached greater importance than I did +formerly to the elevation of the Sun.... I remark that it is highly +desirable that steps be taken now for determining by telegraph the +longitude of some point of Australia. I have stated as the general +opinion that it will be useless to repeat photographic observations. +--In April Mr Barlow called, in reference to the Enquiry on +the Tay Bridge Disaster. (The Bridge had been blown down on +Dec. 28th, 1879.) I prepared a memorandum on the subject for the Tay +Bridge Commission, and gave evidence in a Committee Room of the House +of Lords on Apr. 29th." (Much of the Astronomer Royal's evidence on +this occasion had reference to the opinions which he had expressed +concerning the wind-pressure which might be expected on the projected +Forth Bridge, in 1873.)--In May Airy was consulted by the +Postmaster-General in the matter of a dispute which had arisen between +the Post Office and the Telephone Companies, which latter were alleged +to have infringed the monopoly of the Post Office in commercial +telegraphs: Airy made a declaration on the subject.--In July Mr +Bakhuyzen came to England to determine the longitude of Leyden, on +which he was engaged till Sept. 9th, and carried on his observations +at the Observatory.--In July Airy was much engaged in perusing the +records of Mr Gill's work at the Cape of Good Hope. + +Of private history: On Jan. 24th he returned from Playford.--From June +14th to July 4th he was again at Playford.--From September 21st to +October 20th he was staying at Portinscale near Keswick.--On Dec. 23rd +he went again to Playford for his winter holiday. + +Respecting the agitation at Cambridge for granting University degrees +to women, the following extract from a letter addressed to a young +lady who had forwarded a Memorial on the subject for his +consideration, and dated Nov. 10th, 1880, contains Airy's views on +this matter. + +"I have not signed the Memorial which you sent for my consideration: +and I will endeavour to tell you why. I entirely approve of education +of young women to a higher pitch than they do commonly reach. I think +that they can successfully advance so far as to be able clearly to +understand--with gratification to themselves and with advantage to +those whose education they will superintend--much of the results of +the highest class of science which have been obtained by men whose +lives are in great measure devoted to it. But I do not think that +their nature or their employments will permit of their mastering the +_severe_ steps of beginning (and indeed all through) and the +_complicated_ steps at the end. And I think it well that this their +success should be well known--as it is sure to be--among their +relatives, their friends, their visitors, and all in whom they are +likely to take interest. Their connection with such a place as Girton +College is I think sufficient to lead to this. But I desire above all +that all this be done in entire subservience to what I regard as +_infinitely_ more valuable than any amount of knowledge, namely the +delicacy of woman's character. And here, I think, our views totally +separate. I do not imagine that the University Degree would really +imply, as regards education, anything more than is known to all +persons (socially concerned in the happiness of the young woman) from +the less public testimonial of the able men who have the means of +knowing their merits. And thus it appears to me that the admission to +University Degree would simply mean a more extended publication of +their names. I dread this." + + + 1881 + +"The new line of underground telegraph wires has been completed by the +officers of the General Post Office. The new route is down Croom's +Hill in Greenwich, and the result of this change, at least as regards +the earth-current wires, and probably as regards the other wires, has +not been satisfactory. It was soon found that the indications of the +earth-current wires were disturbed by a continual series of petty +fluctuations which almost completely masked the proper features of +earth currents.... If this fault cannot be removed, I should propose +to return to our original system of independent wires (formerly to +Croydon and Dartford).--The new Azimuth-mark (for the Altazimuth), +upon the parapet of the Naval College, is found to be perfectly +satisfactory as regards both steadiness and visibility. The +observations of a low star for zero of azimuth have been omitted since +the beginning of 1881; the mark, in combination with a high star, +appearing to give all that is necessary for this purpose.--All the +instruments have suffered from the congealing of the oil during the +severe weather of the past winter, and very thorough cleaning of all +the moving parts has been necessary.--The Solar Eclipse of 1880, +Dec. 31, was well observed. The first contact was observed by four +observers and the last contact by two. The computations for the +observations have been exceptionally heavy, from the circumstance that +the Sun was very low (86° 14' Z.D. at the last observation) and that +it has therefore been necessary to compute the refraction with great +accuracy, involving the calculation of the zenith distance for every +observation. And besides this, eighty-six separate computations of the +tabular R.A. and N.P.D. of cusps have been required.--Amongst other +interesting spectroscopic observations of the Sun, a remarkable +spectrum of a sun-spot shewing 17 strong black lines or bands, each as +broad as b_1, in the solar spectrum, was observed on 1880, Nov. 27 and +29. These bands to which there is nothing corresponding in the Solar +Spectrum (except some very faint lines) have also been subsequently +remarked in the spectrum of several spots.--The Police Ship 'Royalist' +(which was injured by a collision in 1879 and had been laid up in +dock) has not been again moored in the river, and the series of +observations of the temperature of the Thames is thus terminated. +--Part of the month of January 1881 was, as regards cold, +especially severe. The mean temperature of the period January 12 to +26 (15 days) was only 24.2°, or 14.7° below the average; the +temperature fell below 20° on 10 days, and rose above the freezing +point only on 3 days. The highest temperature in this period was +35.3°, the lowest 12.7°. On January 17th (while staying at Playford) +my son Hubert and I noticed an almost imperceptible movement in the +upper clouds from the South-East. On that night began the terrible +easterly gale, accompanied with much snow, which lasted to the night +of the 18th. The limiting pressure of 50 lbs. on the square foot of +Osler's Anemometer was twice exceeded during this storm.--With respect +to the Diurnal Inequalities of Magnetic Horizontal Force: Assuming it +to be certain that they originate from the Sun's power, not +immediately, but mediately through his action on the Earth, it appears +to me (as I suggested long ago) that they are the effects of the +attraction of the red end or north end of the needle by the heated +portions of our globe, especially by the heated sea, whose effect +appears to predominate greatly over that of the land. I do not say +that everything is thus made perfectly clear, but I think that the +leading phenomena may be thus explained. And this is almost +necessarily the way of beginning a science.--In the first few years +after the strict and systematic examination of competitive +chronometers, beginning with 1856, the accuracy of chronometers was +greatly increased. For many years past it has been nearly +stationary. I interpret this as shewing that the effects of bad +workmanship are almost eliminated, and that future improvement must be +sought in change of some points of construction.--Referring to the +Transit of Venus in 1874, the printing of all sections of the +Observations, with specimens of the printed forms employed, and +remarks on the photographic operations, is very nearly completed. An +Introduction is begun in manuscript. I am in correspondence with the +Commission which is entrusted with the arrangements for observation of +the Transit of 1882.--The Numerical Lunar Theory has been much +interrupted by the pressure of the Transit of Venus work and other +business."--In his Report to the Board of Visitors (his 46th and +last), Airy remarks that it would be a fitting opportunity for the +expression of his views on the general objects of the Observatory, and +on the duties which they impose on all who are actively concerned in +its conduct. And this he proceeds to do in very considerable +detail.--On May 5th he wrote to Lord Northbrook (First Lord of the +Admiralty) and to Mr Gladstone to resign his post of Astronomer +Royal. From time to time he was engaged on the subject of a house for +his future residence, and finally took a lease of the White House at +the top of Croom's Hill, just outside one of the gates of Greenwich +Park. On the 15th of August he formally resigned his office to Mr +W.H.M. Christie, who had been appointed to succeed him as Astronomer +Royal, and removed to the White House on the next day, August 16th. + +His holiday movements in the portion of the year up to August 16th +consisted in his winter visit to Playford, from which he returned on +Jan. 24th: and a subsequent visit to Playford from June 7th to 18th. + + * * * * * + +The following correspondence relating to Airy's retirement from office +testifies in a remarkable manner to the estimation in which his +services were held, and to the good feeling which subsisted between +him and his official superiors. + + + 10, DOWNING STREET, WHITEHALL, + _June 6, 1881_. + +DEAR SIR GEORGE AIRY, + +I cannot receive the announcement of your resignation, which you have +just conveyed to me, without expressing my strong sense of the +distinction you have conferred upon the office of Astronomer Royal, +and of the difficulty of supplying your place with a person of equal +eminence. Let me add the expression of my best wishes for the full +enjoyment of your retirement from responsibility. + + I remain, dear Sir George Airy, + Faithfully yours, + W.E. GLADSTONE. + + * * * * * + + ADMIRALTY, + _June 10th, 1881_. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to +acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 4th instant, intimating +your desire to retire on the 15th August next from the office of +Astronomer Royal. + +2. In reply I am to acquaint you that your wishes in this matter have +been communicated to the Prime Minister, and that the further +necessary official intimation will in due course be made to the +Treasury. + +3. At the same time I am instructed by their Lordships to convey to +you the expression of their high appreciation of the remarkably able +and gifted manner, combined with unwearied diligence and devotion to +the Public Service (especially as regards the Department of the State +over which they preside), in which you have performed the duties of +Astronomer Royal throughout the long period of forty-five years. + +4. I am further to add that their Lordships cannot allow the present +opportunity to pass without giving expression to their sense of the +loss which the Public Service must sustain by your retirement, and to +the hope that you may long enjoy the rest to which you are so justly +entitled. + + I am, Sir, + Your obedient Servant, + ROBERT HALL. + +_Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B. + &c., &c., + Royal Observatory, Greenwich._ + + * * * * * + + ADMIRALTY, + _28th June, 1881_. + +SIR, + +My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty have much pleasure in +transmitting copy of a resolution passed by the Board of Visitors of +the Royal Observatory on the 4th June last, bearing testimony to the +valuable services you have rendered to Astronomy, to Navigation, and +the allied Sciences throughout the long period during which you have +presided over the Royal Observatory. + + I am, Sir, + Your obedient Servant, + ROBERT HALL. + +_Sir George Biddell Airy, K.C.B. + &c., &c., &c., + Royal Observatory, Greenwich._ + + +"The Astronomer Royal (Sir George B. Airy) having announced his +intention of shortly retiring from his position at the Royal +Observatory, the following resolution proposed by Professor +J. C. Adams, and seconded by Professor G. G. Stokes, was then +unanimously adopted and ordered to be recorded in the Minutes of the +Proceedings. + +"The Board having heard from the Astronomer Royal that he proposes to +terminate his connection with the Observatory on the 15th of August +next, desire to record in the most emphatic manner their sense of the +eminent services which he has rendered to Astronomy, to Navigation and +the allied Sciences, throughout the long period of 45 years during +which he has presided over the Royal Observatory. + +"They consider that during that time he has not only maintained but +has greatly extended the ancient reputation of the Institution, and +they believe that the Astronomical and other work which has been +carried on in it under his direction will form an enduring monument of +his Scientific insight and his powers of organization. + +"Among his many services to Science, the following are a few which +they desire especially to commemorate: + +_(a)_ "The complete re-organization of the Equipment of the +Observatory. + +_(b)_ "The designing of instruments of exceptional stability and +delicacy suitable for the increased accuracy of observation demanded +by the advance of Astronomy. + +_(c)_ "The extension of the means of making observations of the Moon +in such portions of her orbit as are not accessible to the Transit +Circle. + +_(d)_ "The investigation of the effect of the iron of ships upon +compasses and the correction of the errors thence arising. + +_(e)_ "The Establishment at the Observatory and elsewhere of a System +of Time Signals since extensively developed by the Government. + +"The Board feel it their duty to add that Sir George Airy has at all +times devoted himself in the most unsparing manner to the business of +the Observatory, and has watched over its interests with an assiduity +inspired by the strongest personal attachment to the Institution. He +has availed himself zealously of every scientific discovery and +invention which was in his judgment capable of adaptation to the work +of the Observatory; and the long series of his annual reports to the +Board of Visitors furnish abundant evidence, if such were needed, of +the soundness of his judgment in the appreciation of suggested +changes, and of his readiness to introduce improvements when the +proper time arrived. While maintaining the most remarkable punctuality +in the reduction and publication of the observations made under his +own superintendance, he had reduced, collected, and thus rendered +available for use by astronomers, the Lunar and Planetary Observations +of his predecessors. Nor can it be forgotten that, notwithstanding his +absorbing occupations, his advice and assistance have always been at +the disposal of Astronomers for any work of importance. + +"To refer in detail to his labours in departments of Science not +directly connected with the Royal Observatory may seem to lie beyond +the province of the Board. But it cannot be improper to state that its +members are not unacquainted with the high estimation in which his +contributions to the Theory of Tides, to the undulatory theory of +Light, and to various abstract branches of Mathematics are held by men +of Science throughout the world. + +"In conclusion the Board would express their earnest hope, that in his +retirement Sir George Airy may enjoy health and strength and that +leisure for which he has often expressed a desire to enable him not +only to complete the numerical Lunar Theory on which he has been +engaged for some years past, but also to advance Astronomical Science +in other directions." + + * * * * * + + ADMIRALTY, + _27th October, 1881_. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to transmit +to you, herewith, a copy of a Treasury Minute, awarding you a Special +Pension of _£1100_ a year, in consideration of your long and brilliant +services as Astronomer Royal. + + I am, Sir, + Your obedient Servant, + ROBERT HALL. + +_Sir G.B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c., &c. + The White House, Croom's Hill, Greenwich._ + + +Copy of Treasury Minute, dated 10th October, 1881: + +My Lords have before them a statement of the services of Sir George +Biddell Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S., who has resigned the appointment of +Astronomer Royal on the ground of age. + +Sir George Airy has held his office since the year 1835, and has also, +during that period, undertaken various laborious works, demanding +scientific qualifications of the highest order, and not always such as +could strictly be said to be included among the duties of his office. + +The salary of Sir G. Airy as Astronomer Royal is _£1200_ a year, in +addition to which he enjoys an official residence rent free, and, +under ordinary circumstances he would be entitled to a pension equal +to two-thirds of his salary and emoluments. + +My Lords, however, in order to mark their strong sense of the +distinction which, during a long and brilliant career Sir George Airy +has conferred upon his office, and of the great services which, in +connection with, as well as in the discharge of, his duties, he has +rendered to the Crown and the Public, decide to deal with his case +under the IXth Section of the Superannuation Act, 1859, which empowers +them to grant a special pension for special services. + +Accordingly my Lords are pleased to award to Sir George Biddell Airy, +K.C.B., F.R.S., a special Retired Allowance of _£1100_ per annum. + + * * * * * + + THE WHITE HOUSE, + CROOM'S HILL, GREENWICH, + _1881, October 29_. + +SIR, + +I have the honour to acknowledge your letter of October 27, +transmitting to me, by instruction of The Lords Commissioners of +Admiralty, copy of a Treasury Minute dated 1881 October 10, in which +the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury are pleased to award +to me an annual retired allowance of _£1100_ per annum. + +Acknowledging the very liberal award of the Lords Commissioners of +Treasury, and the honourable and acceptable terms in which it is +announced, I take leave at the same time to offer to Their Lordships +of the Admiralty my recognition of Their Lordships' kindness and +courtesy in thus handing to me copy of the Treasury Minute. + + I have the honour to be, Sir, + Your very obedient Servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_The Secretary of the Admiralty,_ + + * * * * * + +From the Assistants of the Royal Observatory, with whom he was in +daily communication, whose faithful and laborious services he had so +often thankfully recognized in his Annual Reports to the Board of +Visitors, and to whom so much of the credit and success of the +Observatory was due, he received the following address: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1881, August 11_. + +DEAR SIR, + +We cannot allow the official relation which has so long existed +between yourself and us to terminate without expressing to you our +sense of the admirable manner in which you have, in our opinion, +upheld the dignity of the office of Astronomer Royal during the many +years that you have occupied that important post. + +Your long continued and varied scientific work has received such +universal recognition from astronomers in all lands, that it is +unnecessary for us to do more than assure you how heartily we join in +their appreciation of your labours. We may however add that our +position has given us opportunities of seeing that which others cannot +equally well know, the untiring energy and great industry which have +been therein displayed throughout a long and laborious career, an +energy which leads you in retirement, and at fourscore years of age, +to contemplate further scientific work. + +We would ask you to carry with you into private life the best wishes +of each one of us for your future happiness, and that of your family, +expressing the hope that the days of retirement may not be few, and +assuring you that your name will long live in our remembrance. + + We are, dear Sir, + Yours very faithfully, + W.H.M. CHRISTIE, EDWIN DUNKIN, WILLIAM + ELLIS, GEORGE STRICKLAND CRISWICK, W. + C. NASH, A.M.W. DOWNING, EDWARD W. + MAUNDER, W.G. THACKERAY, THOMAS LEWIS. + +_Sir G.B. Airy, K.C.B., &c., &c., + Astronomer Royal._ + + * * * * * + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1881, August 13_. + +MY DEAR MR CHRISTIE, + and Gentlemen of the Royal Observatory, + +With very great pleasure I have received your letter of August 11. I +thank you much for your recognition of the general success of the +Observatory, and of a portion of its conduct which--as you remark--can +scarcely be known except to those who are every day engaged in it: but +I thank you still more for the kind tone of your letter, which seems +to shew that the terms on which we have met are such as leaves, after +so many years' intercourse, no shadow of complaint on any side. + +Reciprocating your wishes for a happy life, and in your case a +progressive and successful one, + + I am, + My dear Mr Christie and Gentlemen, + Yours faithfully, + G.B. AIRY. + + * * * * * + +Throughout his tenure of office Airy had cultivated and maintained the +most friendly relations with foreign astronomers, to the great +advantage of the Observatory. Probably all of them, at one time or +another, had visited Greenwich, and to most of them he was well +known. On his retirement from office he received an illuminated +Address from his old friend Otto Struve and the staff of the Pulkowa +Observatory, an illuminated Address from the Vorstand of the +Astronomische Gesellschaft at Berlin signed by Dr Auwers and the +Secretaries, a complimentary letter from the Academy of Sciences at +Amsterdam, and friendly letters of sympathy from Dr Gould, +Prof. Newcombe, Dr Listing, and from many other scientific friends and +societies. His replies to the Russian and German Addresses were as +follows: + + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1881, August 5_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +I received, with feelings which I will not attempt to describe, the +Address of yourself and the Astronomers of Pulkowa generally, on the +occasion of my retirement from the office of Astronomer Royal. I can +scarcely credit myself with possessing all the varied claims to your +scientific regard which you detail. I must be permitted to attribute +many of them to the long and warm friendship which has subsisted so +long between the Directors of the Pulkowa Observatory and myself, and +which has influenced the feelings of the whole body of Astronomers +attached to that Institution. On one point, however, I willingly +accept your favourable expressions--I have not been sparing of my +personal labour--and to this I must attribute partial success on some +of the subjects to which you allude. + +In glancing over the marginal list of scientific pursuits, I remark +with pleasure the reference to _Optics_. I still recur with delight to +the Undulatory Theory, once the branch of science on which I was best +known to the world, and which by calculations, writings, and lectures, +I supported against the Laplacian School. But the close of your +remarks touches me much more--the association of the name of W. Struve +and my own. I respected deeply the whole character of your Father, and +I believe that he had confidence in me. From our first meeting in 1830 +(on a Commission for improvement of the Nautical Almanac) I never +ceased to regard him as superior to others. I may be permitted to add +that the delivery of his authority to the hands of his son has not +weakened the connection of myself with the Observatory of Poulkova. + +Acknowledging gratefully your kindness, and that of all the +Astronomers of the Observatory of Poulkova, and requesting you to +convey to them this expression, + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours most truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_To M. Otto von Struve, + Director of the Observatory of Poulkova + and the Astronomers of that Observatory._ + + * * * * * + + ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, + _1881, August 3_. + +MY DEAR SIR, + +With very great pleasure I received the Address of the Astronomische +Gesellschaft on occasion of my intended resignation of the Office of +Astronomer Royal: dated July 27, and signed by yourself as President +and Messrs Schoenfeld and Winnecke as Secretaries of the Astronomische +Gesellschaft. I thank you much for the delicacy of your arrangement +for the transmission of this document by the hands of our friend Dr +Huggins. And I think you will be gratified to learn that it arrived at +a moment when I was surrounded by my whole family assembled at my +_jour-de-fête_, and that it added greatly to the happiness of the +party. + +I may perhaps permit myself to accept your kind recognition of my +devotion of time and thought to the interests of my Science and my +Office. It is full reward to me that they are so recognized. As to +the success or utility of these efforts, without presuming, myself, to +form an opinion, I acknowledge that the connection made by the +Astronomische Gesellschaft, between my name and the advance of modern +astronomy, is most flattering, and will always be remembered by me +with pride. + +It is true, as is suggested in your Address, that one motive for my +resignation of Office was the desire to find myself more free for the +prosecution of further astronomical investigations. Should my health +remain unbroken, I hope to enter shortly upon this undertaking. + +Again acknowledging the kindness of yourself and the Vorstand of the +Astronomische Gesellschaft, and offering my best wishes for the +continued success of that honourable institution, + + I am, my dear Sir, + Yours very truly, + G.B. AIRY. + +_To Dr Aimers +and the Vorstand of the +Astronomische Gesellschaft._ + + + + CHAPTER X. + + AT THE WHITE HOUSE, GREENWICH. FROM HIS RESIGNATION + OF OFFICE ON AUGUST 15TH, 1881, TO HIS + DEATH ON JANUARY 2ND, 1892. + + HISTORY OF HIS LIFE AFTER HIS RESIGNATION OF + OFFICE. + +On the 16th of August 1881 Airy left the Observatory which had been +his residence for nearly 46 years, and removed to the White +House. Whatever his feelings may have been at the severing of his old +associations he carefully kept them to himself, and entered upon his +new life with the cheerful composure and steadiness of temper which he +possessed in a remarkable degree. He was now more than 80 years old, +and the cares of office had begun to weigh heavily upon him: the +long-continued drag of the Transit of Venus work had wearied him, and +he was anxious to carry on and if possible complete his Numerical +Lunar Theory, the great work which for some years had occupied much of +his time and attention. His mental powers were still vigorous, and his +energy but little impaired: his strong constitution, his regular +habits of life, the systematic relief which he obtained by short +holiday expeditions whenever he found himself worn with work, and his +keen interest in history, poetry, classics, antiquities, engineering, +and other subjects not immediately connected with his profession, had +combined to produce this result. And in leaving office, he had no idea +of leaving off work; his resignation of office merely meant for him a +change of work. It is needless to say that his interest in the welfare +and progress of the Observatory was as keen as ever; his advice was +always at the service of his successor, and his appointment as Visitor +a year or two after his resignation gave him an official position with +regard to the Observatory which he much valued. The White House, which +was to be his home for the rest of his life, is just outside one of +the upper gates of the Park, and about a quarter of a mile from the +Observatory. Here he resided with his two unmarried daughters. The +house suited him well and he was very comfortable there: he preferred +to live in the neighbourhood with which he was so familiar and in +which he was so well known, rather than to remove to a distance. His +daily habits of life were but little altered: he worked steadily as +formerly, took his daily walk on Blackheath, made frequent visits to +Playford, and occasional expeditions to the Cumberland Lakes and +elsewhere. + +The work to which he chiefly devoted himself in his retirement was the +completion of his Numerical Lunar Theory. This was a vast work, +involving the subtlest considerations of principle, very long and +elaborate mathematical investigations of a high order, and an enormous +amount of arithmetical computation. The issue of it was unfortunate: +he concluded that there was an error in some of the early work, which +vitiated the results obtained: and although the whole process was +published, and was left in such a state that it would be a +comparatively simple task for a future astronomer to correct and +complete it, yet it was not permitted to the original author of it to +do this. To avoid the necessity of frequent reference to this work in +the history of Airy's remaining years, it will be convenient to +summarize it here. It was commenced in 1872: "On Feb. 23rd in this +year I first (privately) formed the notion of preparing a Numerical +Lunar Theory by substituting Delaunay's numbers in the proper +Equations and seeing what would come of it." From this time forward +till his power to continue it absolutely failed, he pursued the +subject with his usual tenacity of purpose. During his tenure of +office every available opportunity was seized for making progress with +his Lunar Theory, and in every Report to the Visitors a careful +statement was inserted of the state in which it then stood. And, after +his resignation of office, it formed the bulk of his occupation. In +1873 the Theory was formed, and by 1874 it was so far advanced that he +published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society a +statement of the fundamental points of the Theory. In 1875, the +Theory having advanced to a stage where extensive arithmetical +computation was required, he obtained a small grant from the +Government in aid of the expense of the work, and other grants were +made in subsequent years. By 1878 the calculations were so far +advanced that an opinion could be formed as to the probable accuracy +of the Theory, and the following remark is made: "A cursory collation +of the terms relating to the Areas (in the Ecliptic) led me to suppose +that there might be some error in the computations of the Annual +Equation and related terms;" but no error could be discovered and the +work proceeded. The complex character of the Theory, and the extreme +care required in the mathematical processes, are well illustrated by +the following statement, which occurs in the Report of 1879, "An +important error in the theoretical formulae for Variations of Radius +Vector, Longitude, and Latitude, was discovered; some calculations +depending on them are cancelled." In 1880 and 1881 the work was +continued, but was "sadly interrupted by the pressure of the Transit +of Venus work and other business." After his resignation of the Office +of Astronomer Royal he had no further public assistance, and did much +of the computations himself, but a sum of _£100_ was contributed by Mr +De La Rue in furtherance of the work, and this sum was spent on +computers. In his retirement the work made good progress, and on +Dec. 31st, 1882, he made the following note: "I finished and put in +general order the final tables of Equations of Variations. This is a +definite point in the Lunar Theory.... I hope shortly to take up +severely the numerical operations of the Lunar Theory from the very +beginning." The work was continued steadily through 1883, and on +Mar. 24th, 1884, he made application through the Board of Visitors to +the Admiralty to print the work: after the usual enquiries as to the +expense this was acceded to, and copy was sent to the printers as soon +as it was ready. The first printed proofs were received on Feb. 5th, +1885, and the whole book was printed by the end of 1886. From the +frequent references in his journal to errors discovered and corrected +during the progress of these calculations, it would seem likely that +his powers were not what they had been, and that there was a +probability that some important errors might escape correction. He +was far too honest to blind himself to this possibility, and in the +Preface to his Numerical Lunar Theory he says thus: "I have explained +above that the principle of operations was, to arrange the fundamental +mechanical equations in a form suited for the investigations of Lunar +Theory; to substitute in the terms of these equations the numerical +values furnished by Delaunay's great work; and to examine whether the +equations are thereby satisfied. With painful alarm, I find that they +are not satisfied; and that the discordance, or failure of satisfying +the equations, is large. The critical trial depends on the great mass +of computations in Section II. These have been made in duplicate, with +all the care for accuracy that anxiety could supply. Still I cannot +but fear that the error which is the source of discordance must be on +my part. I cannot conjecture whether I may be able to examine +sufficiently into this matter." He resolutely took in hand the +revision of his work, and continued it till October 1888. But it is +clear from the entries in his journal that his powers were now unequal +to the task, and although from time to time he suspected that he had +discovered errors, yet it does not appear that he determined anything +with certainty. He never doubted that there were important errors in +the work, and later on he left the following private note on the +subject: + + NUMERICAL LUNAR THEORY. + + _1890, Sept. 29_. + +I had made considerable advance (under official difficulties) in +calculations on my favourite Numerical Lunar Theory, when I discovered +that, under the heavy pressure of unusual matters (two Transits of +Venus and some eclipses) I had committed a grievous error in the first +stage of giving numerical value to my Theory. + +My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never heartily proceeded +with it since. + + G.B. AIRY. + +Probably the error referred to here is the suspected error mentioned +above in his Report of 1878, as to which he subsequently became more +certain. + +Whatever may be the imperfections of the Numerical Lunar Theory, it is +a wonderful work to have been turned out by a man 85 years old. In its +idea and inception it embodies the experience of a long life actively +spent in practical science. And it may be that it will yet fulfil the +objects of its author, and that some younger astronomer may take it +up, correct its errors (wherever they may be), and fit it for +practical use. And then the labour bestowed upon it will not have +been in vain. + +Subject always to the absorbing occupations of the Lunar Theory he +amused himself with reading his favourite subjects of History and +Antiquities. His movements during the remainder of the year 1881 were +as follows: In September he paid a two days' visit to Lady Herschel at +Hawkhurst. From Oct. 4th to 17th he was at the Cumberland Lakes and +engaged in expeditions in the neighbourhood. From Nov. 5th to 8th he +was at Cambridge, inspecting Prof. Stuart's workshops, and other +scientific institutions. On Dec. 13th he went to Playford.--Amongst +miscellaneous matters: in November he wrote to Mr Rothery on the loss +of the 'Teuton' at some length, with suggestions for the safer +construction of such vessels.--In October he was asked for suggestions +regarding the establishment of a "Standard Time" applicable to the +railway traffic in the United States: he replied as follows: + + + _1881, Oct. 31_. + +SIR, + +I have to acknowledge your letter of October 17, introducing to my +notice the difficulty which appears to be arising in America regarding +a "Standard Time," for extensive use throughout N. America +"applicable to railway traffic only." The subject, as including +considerations of convenience in all the matters to which it applies, +is one of difficulties probably insuperable. The certainty, however, +that objections may be raised to every scheme, renders me less timid +in offering my own remarks; which are much at your service. + +I first comment upon your expression of "Standard Time... applicable +to railway traffic only." But do you mean this as affecting the +transactions between one railway and another railway, or as affecting +each railway and the local interests (temporal and others) of the +towns which it touches? The difference is so great that I should be +disposed to adopt it as marking very strongly the difference to be +made between the practices of railways among themselves and the +practices of railways towards the public; and will base a system on +that difference. + +As regards the practices of railways among themselves: if the various +railways of America are joined and inosculated as they are in England, +it appears to me indispensable that they have one common standard +_among themselves_: say Washington Observatory time. But this is only +needed for the office-transactions between the railways; it may be +kept perfectly private; never communicated to the public at all. And I +should recommend this as the first step. + +There will then be no difficulty in deducing, from these private +Washington times, the accurate local times at those stations (whose +longitude is supposed to be fairly well known, as a sailor with a +sextant can determine one in a few hours) which the railway +authorities may deem worthy of that honour; generally the termini of +railways. Thus we shall have a series of bases of local time, of +authoritative character, through the country. + +Of such bases _we_ have two, Greenwich and Dublin: and they are +separated by a sea-voyage. In the U.S. of America there must be a +greater number, and probably not so well separated. Still it is +indispensable to adopt such a system of local centers. + +No people in this world can be induced to use a reckoning which does +not depend clearly upon the sun. In all civilized countries it depends +(approximately) on the sun's meridian passage. Even the sailor on +mid-ocean refers to that phenomenon. And the solar passage, with +reasonable allowance, 20m. or 30m. one way or another, must be +recognized in all time-arrangements as giving the fundamental +time. The only practical way of doing this is, to adopt for a whole +region the fundamental time of a center of that region. + +And to this fundamental time, the local time of the railway, as now +entering into all the concerns of life, must be adapted. A solicitor +has an appointment to meet a client by railway; a physician to a +consultation. How is this to be kept if the railway uses one time and +every other act of life another? + +There is one chain of circumstances which is almost peculiar--that of +the line from New York to San Francisco. Here I would have two clocks +at every station: those on the north side all shewing San Francisco +time, and those on the south all shewing New York time. Every +traveller's watch would then be available to the end of his journey. + +A system, fundamentally such as I have sketched, would give little +trouble, and may I think be adopted with advantage. + + I am, Sir, + Your faithful servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_Mr Edward Barrington._ + + + 1882 + +He returned from Playford on Jan. 17: his other movements during the +year were as follows: from Apr. 27th to May 11th he was at Playford; +and again from August 1st to 24th. From Oct. 9th to Nov. 1st he was +travelling with his two unmarried daughters in the Lake District of +Cumberland: the journey was by Furness and Coniston to Portinscale +near Keswick; on Oct. 13th he fell and sprained his ankle, and his +excursions for the rest of the time were mainly conducted by +driving. Shortly after his return, on Nov. 11th, while walking alone +on Blackheath, he was seized with a violent attack of illness, and lay +helpless for some time before he was found and brought home: he seems +however to have recovered to a great extent in the course of a day or +two, and continued his Lunar Theory and other work as before. On June +22nd he made the following sad note, "This morning, died after a most +painful illness my much-loved daughter-in-law, Anna Airy, daughter of +Professor Listing of Göttingen, wife of my eldest son Wilfrid." In +February he wrote out his reminiscences of the village of Playford +during his boyhood. + +In June he was much disturbed in mind on hearing of some important +alterations made by the Astronomer Royal in the Collimators of the +Transit Circle, and some correspondence ensued on the subject.--During +the year he had much correspondence on the subject of the subsidences +on Blackheath. + +The following letter was written in reply to a gentleman who had asked +whether it could be ascertained by calculation how long it is since +the Glacial Period existed: + + _1882, July 4_. + +SIR, + +I should have much pleasure in fully answering your questions of July +3 if I were able to do so: but the subject really is very obscure. + +(1) Though it is recognized that the glacial period (or periods) is +late, I do not think that any one has ventured to fix upon a rude +number of years since elapsed. + +(2) We have no reason to think that the mean distance of the earth +from the sun has sensibly altered. There have been changes in the +eccentricity of the orbit (making the earth's distance from the sun +less in one month and greater in the opposite month), but I do not +perceive that this would explain glaciers. + +(3) I consider it to be certain that the whole surface of the earth, +at a very distant period, was very hot, that it has cooled gradually, +and (theoretically and imperceptibly) is cooling still. The glaciers +must be later than these hot times, and later than our last +consolidated strata: but this is nearly all that I can say. + + I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, + G.B. AIRY. + +_James Alston, Esq._ + + + 1883 + +From May 2nd to 29th he was at Playford. From July 10th to 20th he was +travelling in South Wales with his daughters.--From Oct. 10th to +Nov. 10th he was at Playford.--Between Nov. 20th of this year and +Jan. 4th of the year 1884, he sat several times to Mr John Collier for +his portrait: the picture was exhibited in the Academy of 1884; it is +a most successful and excellent likeness. + +Throughout the year he was very busy with the Numerical Lunar +Theory.--In March he was officially asked to accept the office of +Visitor of the Royal Observatory, which he accepted, and in this +capacity attended at the Annual Visitation on June 2nd, and addressed +a Memorandum to the Visitors on the progress of his Lunar Theory.--On +March 12th he published in several newspapers a statement in +opposition to the proposed Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway, which +he considered would be injurious to the Lake District, in which he +took so deep an interest.--In May he communicated to "The Observatory" +a statement of his objections to a Theory advanced by Mr Stone (then +President of the Royal Astronomical Society) to account for the +recognized inequality in the Mean Motion of the Moon. This Theory, on +a subject to which Airy had given his incessant attention for so many +years, would naturally receive his careful attention and criticism, +and it attracted much general notice at the time.--In December he +wrote to the Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society his opinion +as to the award of the Medal of the Society. In this letter he stated +the principles which guided him as follows: "I have always maintained +that the award of the Medal ought to be guided mainly by the +originality of communications: that one advance in a new direction +ought in our decision to outweigh any mass of work in a routine +already established: and that, in any case, scientific utility as +distinguished from mere elegance is indispensable."--In July +Lieut. Pinheiro of the Brazilian Navy called with an autograph letter +of introduction from the Emperor of Brazil. The Lieutenant desired to +make himself acquainted with the English system of Lighthouses and +Meteorology, and Airy took much trouble in providing him with +introductions through which he received every facility for the +thorough accomplishment of his object.--On Oct. 8th he forwarded to +Prof. Cayley proofs of Euclid's Propositions I. 47 and III. 35 with +the following remarks: "I place on the other side the propositions +which may be substituted (with knowledge of Euclid's VI. book) for the +two celebrated propositions of the geometrical books. They leave on my +mind no doubt whatever that they were invented as proofs by ratios, +and that they were then violently expanded into cumbrous geometrical +proofs."--On June 28th he declined to sign a memorial asking for the +interment of Mr Spottiswoode in Westminster Abbey, stating as his +reason, "I take it, that interment possessing such a public character +is a public recognition of benefits, political, literary, or +philosophical, whose effects will be great and durable. Now I doubt +whether it can be stated that Mr Spottiswoode had conferred such +benefits on Society. "But he adds at length his cordial recognition of +Mr Spottiswoode's scientific services.--Throughout his life Airy was a +regular attendant at church, and took much interest in the conduct of +the Church services. In October of this year he wrote a long letter +to the Vicar of Greenwich on various points, in which occurs the +following paragraph: "But there is one matter in the present form of +the Church Service, on which my feeling is very strong, namely the +(so-called, I believe) Choral Service, in the Confession, the Prayer, +and the Creed. I have long listened with veneration to our noble +Liturgy, and I have always been struck with the deep personally +religious feeling which pervades it, especially those parts of it +which are for 'The People.' And an earnest Priest, earnestly pressing +these parts by his vocal example on the notice of the People, can +scarcely fail to excite a corresponding earnestness in them. All this +is totally lost in the choral system. For a venerable persuasion there +is substituted a rude irreverential confusion of voices; for an +earnest acceptance of the form offered by the Priest there is +substituted--in my feeling at least--a weary waiting for the end of an +unmeaning form." He also objected much to singing the responses to the +Commandments. + + + 1884 + +From Apr. 29th to May 30th he was at Playford, concluding his Journal +there with the note "So ends a pleasant Vacation."--On June 11th he +went to Cambridge and attended the Trinity College Commemoration +Service, and dined in Hall.--From Aug. 14th to Sept. 11th he was at +Playford.--On Sept. 26th he made an expedition to Guildford and +Farnham.--During this year he was closely engaged on the Numerical +Lunar Theory, and for relaxation was reading theology and sundry books +of the Old Testament. + +On June 7th he attended at the Visitation of the Royal +Observatory.--In a letter written in April to Lt.-Col. Marindin, R.A., +on the subject of wind pressure there occurs the following remark: +"When the heavy gusts come on, the wind is blowing in directions +changing rapidly, but limited in extent. My conclusion is that in +arches of small extent (as in the Tay Bridge) every thing must be +calculated for full pressure; but in arches of large extent (as in the +Forth Bridge) every thing may be calculated for small pressure. And +for a suspension bridge the pressure is far less dangerous than for a +stiff arch."--In January he had some correspondence with Professor +Tyndall on the Theory of the "White Rainbow," and stated that he +thoroughly agreed with Dr Young's explanation of this phaenomenon. +--The following is extracted from a letter on May 1st to +his old friend Otto Struve: "I received from you about 3 or 4 weeks +past a sign of your friendly remembrance, a copy of your paper on the +Annual Parallax of Aldebaran. It pleased me much. Especially I was +delighted with your noble retention of the one equation whose result +differed so sensibly from that of the other equations. It is quite +possible, even probable, that the mean result is improved by it. I +have known such instances. The first, which attracted much attention, +was Capt. Kater's attempt to establish a scale of longitude in England +by reciprocal observations of azimuth between Beachy Head and +Dunnose. The result was evidently erroneous. But Colonel Colby, on +examination of the original papers, found that some observations had +been omitted, as suspicious; and that when these were included the +mean agreed well with the scale of observation inferred from other +methods."--In a letter to the Rev. R.C.M. Rouse, acknowledging the +receipt of a geometrical book, there occurs the following paragraph: +"I do not value Euclid's Elements as a super-excellent book of +instruction--though some important points are better presented in it +than in any other book of geometrical instruction that I have +seen. But I value it as a book of strong and distinct reasoning, and +of orderly succession of reasonings. I do not think that there is any +book in the world which presents so distinctly the 'because...... +therefore.......' And this is invaluable for the mental +education of youth."--In May he was in correspondence with Professor +Balfour Stewart regarding a projected movement in Terrestrial +Magnetism to be submitted to the British Association. Airy cordially +approved of this movement, and supported it to the best of his +ability, stating that in his opinion what was mainly wanted was the +collation of existing records.--In January and February he was much +pressed by Prof. Pritchard of Oxford to give his opinion as to the +incorrectness of statements made by Dr Kinns in his Lectures on the +Scientific Accuracy of the Bible. Airy refused absolutely to take part +in the controversy, but he could not escape from the correspondence +which the matter involved: and this led up to other points connected +with the early history of the Israelites, a subject in which he took +much interest. + + + 1885 + +From May 4th to June 3rd he was at Playford.--From July 2nd to 22nd he +was in the Lake District. The journey was by Windermere to Kentmere, +where he made enquiries concerning the Airy family, as it had been +concluded with much probability from investigations made by his +nephew, the Rev. Basil R. Airy, that the family was settled there at a +very early date. Some persons of the name of Airy were still living +there. He then went on by Coniston and Grasmere to Portinscale, and +spent the rest of his time in expeditions amongst the hills and visits +to friends.--On July 28th he went to Woodbridge in Suffolk and +distributed the prizes to the boys of the Grammar School there.--From +Oct. 9th to Nov. 12th he was again at Playford.--Throughout the year +he was busily engaged on the Numerical Lunar Theory, and found but +little time for miscellaneous reading. + +Of printed papers by Airy in this year the most important was one on +the "Results deduced from the Measures of Terrestrial Magnetic Force +in the Horizontal Plane," &c. This was a long Paper, communicated to +the Royal Society, and published in the Phil. Trans., and was the last +Scientific Paper of any importance (except the Volume of the Numerical +Lunar Theory) in the long list of "Papers by G.B. Airy." The +preparation of this Paper took much time.--Of miscellaneous matters: +In May a Committee of the Royal Society had been appointed to advise +the India Office as to the publication of Col. J. Herschel's pendulum +observations in India; and Airy was asked to assist the Committee with +his advice. He gave very careful and anxious consideration to the +subject, and it occupied much time.--In the early part of the year he +was asked by Sir William Thomson to assist him with an affidavit in a +lawsuit concerning an alleged infringement of one of his Patents for +the improvement of the Compass. Airy declined to make an affidavit or +to take sides in the dispute, but he wrote a letter from which the +following is extracted: "I cannot have the least difficulty in +expressing my opinion that you have made a great advance in the +application of my method of correcting the compass in iron ships, by +your introduction of the use of short needles for the compass-cards. +In my original investigations, when the whole subject was in darkness, +I could only use existing means for experiment, namely the long-needle +compasses then existing. But when I applied mechanical theory to +explanation of the results, I felt grievously the deficiency of a +theory and the construction which it suggested (necessarily founded on +assumption that the proportion of the needle-length to the other +elements of measure is small) when the length of the needles was +really so great. I should possibly have used some construction like +yours, but the Government had not then a single iron vessel, and did +not seem disposed to urge the enquiry. You, under happier auspices, +have successfully carried it out, and, I fully believe, with much +advantage to the science."--He wrote a Paper for the Athenaeum and had +various correspondence on the subject of the Badbury Rings in +Dorsetshire, which he (and others) considered as identical with the +"Mons Badonicus" of Gildas, the site of an ancient British battle.--In +February he was in correspondence with the Astronomer Royal on Uniform +Time Reckoning, and on considerations relating to it.--On June 6th he +attended the Annual Visitation of the Observatory, and brought before +the Board his investigations of the Diurnal Magnetic Inequalities, and +the revises of his Lunar Theory. + + + 1886 + +From June 8th to July 17th he was at Playford.--And again at Playford +from Oct. 5th to Nov. 8th.--On March 27th he had an attack of gout in +his right foot, which continued through April and into May, causing +him much inconvenience.--He was busy with the Numerical Lunar Theory +up to Sept. 25th, when he was reading the last proof-sheet received +from the printers: during this period his powers were evidently +failing, and there are frequent references to errors discovered and +corrected, and to uncertainties connected with points of the +Theory. But his great work on the Numerical Lunar Theory was printed +in this year: and there can be no doubt that he experienced a great +feeling of relief when this was accomplished.--He was in +correspondence with Prof. Adams as to the effect of his reduction of +the Coefficient of Lunar Acceleration on the calculation of the +ancient historical eclipses.--He compiled a Paper "On the +establishment of the Roman dominion in England," which was printed in +1887.--He wrote a notice concerning events in the life of Mr John +Jackson of Rosthwaite near Keswick, a well-known guide and +much-respected authority on matters relating to the Lake District.--He +also wrote a short account of the connection of the history of Mdlle +de Quéroualle with that of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.--On +June 4th he attended at the Annual Visitation of the Observatory. + + + 1887 + +On May 9th to 11th he made a short visit to Eastbourne and the +neighbourhood.--From June 8th to July 13th he was at Playford.--From +Aug. 29th to Sept. 5th he was travelling in Dorsetshire and Wiltshire: +he went first to Weymouth, a very favourite centre for excursions with +him, and afterwards visited Bridport and Lyme Regis: then by +Dorchester to Blandford, and visited the Hod Hill, Badbury Rings, &c.: +at Wimborne he was much interested in the architecture of the church: +lastly he visited Salisbury, Old Sarum, Stonehenge, &c., and returned +to Greenwich.--From Oct. 11th to Nov. 12th he was at Playford.--During +this year he partly occupied himself with arranging his papers and +drawings, and with miscellaneous reading. But he could not withdraw +his thoughts from his Lunar Theory, and he still continued to struggle +with the difficulties of the subject, and was constantly scheming +improvements. His private accounts also now gave him much +trouble. Throughout his life he had been accustomed to keep his +accounts by double entry in very perfect order. But he now began to +make mistakes and to grow confused, and this distressed him +greatly. It never seemed to occur to him to abandon his elaborate +system of accounts, and to content himself with simple entries of +receipts and expenses. This would have been utterly opposed to his +sense of order, which was now more than ever the ruling principle of +his mind. And so he struggled with his accounts as he did with his +Lunar Theory till his powers absolutely failed. In his Journal for +this year there are various entries of mental attacks of short +duration and other ailments ascribable to his advanced age. + +The last printed "Papers by G.B. Airy" belong to this year. One was +the Paper before referred to "On the establishment of the Roman +dominion in England": another was on the solution of a certain +Equation: and there were early reminiscences of the Cambridge Tripos, +&c.--In February he attended a little to a new edition of his Ipswich +Lectures, but soon handed it over to Mr H.H. Turner of the Royal +Observatory.--On May 23rd he was drawing up suggestions for the +arrangement of the Seckford School, &c., at Woodbridge.--On June 4th +he attended the Visitation of the Royal Observatory, when a resolution +was passed in favour of complete photography of the star-sky. + + + 1888 + +From the 14th to 16th of May he made a short expedition to +Bournemouth, and stopped on the way home to visit Winchester +Cathedral.--From June 27th to Aug. 3rd he was at Playford; and again +from Oct. 13th to Nov. 10th.--During the first half of the year he +continued his examination of his Lunar Theory, but gradually dropped +it. There are several references in his Journal to his feelings of +pain and weakness, both mental and bodily: at the end of March he had +an attack of gout in the fingers of his right hand. During the latter +part of the year he was troubled with his private accounts, as +before.--He does not appear to have been engaged on any miscellaneous +matters calling for special notice in this year. But he kept up his +astronomical correspondence--with Lockyer on the meteorite system of +planetary formation; with Pritchard on the work of the Oxford +University Observatory; with Adams on his Numerical Lunar Theory, &c., +and with others.--On June 2nd he attended the Visitation of the Royal +Observatory.--He amused himself occasionally with reading his +favourite subjects of history and antiquities, and with looking over +some of his early investigations of scientific questions. + + + 1889 + +On June 5th he made a one-day's excursion to Colchester.--From July +2nd to 27th he was in the Cumberland Lake District, chiefly at +Portinscale near Keswick. While staying at Portinscale he was seized +with a sudden giddiness and fell upon the floor: he afterwards wrote a +curious account of the visions which oppressed his brain immediately +after the accident. He returned by Solihull, where his son Osmund was +residing.--From Oct. 4th to Nov. 8th he was at Playford. While there +he drew up a short statement of his general state of health, adverting +particularly to the loss of strength in his legs and failure of his +walking powers.--His health seems to have failed a good deal in this +year: on Feb. 4th he had an accidental fall, and there are several +entries in his Journal of mental attacks, pains in his limbs, +affection of his eye-sight, &c.--In the early part of the year he was +much engaged on the history of the Airy family, particularly on that +of his father.--In this year the White House was sold by auction by +its owners, and Airy purchased it on May 24th.--He was still in +difficulties with his private accounts, but was making efforts to +abandon his old and elaborate system.--For his amusement he was +chiefly engaged on Theological Notes which he was compiling: and also +on early optical investigations, &c. + +On June 1st he attended the Visitation of the Royal Observatory, and +moved a resolution that a Committee be appointed to consider whether +any reduction can be effected in the amount of matter printed in the +Volume of Observations of the Royal Observatory. During his tenure of +office he had on various occasions brought this subject before the +Board of Visitors, and with his usual tenacity of purpose he now as +Visitor pressed it upon their notice.--In May he zealously joined with +others in an application to get for Dr Huggins a pension on the Civil +List.--In January he prepared a short Paper illustrated with diagrams +to exhibit the Interference of Solar Light, as used by him in his +Lectures at Cambridge in 1836: but it does not appear to have been +published.--In April he received a copy of a Paper by Mr Rundell, +referring to the complete adoption of his system of compass correction +in iron ships, not only in the merchant service, but also in the +Navy. This was a matter of peculiar gratification to Airy, who had +always maintained that the method of Tables of Errors, which had been +so persistently adhered to by the Admiralty, was a mistake, and that +sooner or later they would find it necessary to adopt his method of +mechanical correction. The passage referred to is as follows: "The +name of Sir George Airy, the father of the mechanical compensation of +the compass in iron vessels, having just been mentioned, it may not be +inappropriate to remind you that the present year is the fiftieth +since Sir George Airy presented to the Royal Society his celebrated +paper on this subject with the account of his experiments on the +'Rainbow' and 'Ironsides.' Fifty years is a long period in one man's +history, and Sir George Airy may well be proud in looking back over +this period to see how complete has been the success of his compass +investigation. His mode of compensation has been adopted by all the +civilized world. Sir William Thomson, one of the latest and perhaps +the most successful of modern compass adjusters, when he exhibited his +apparatus in 1878 before a distinguished meeting in London, remarked +that within the last ten years the application of Sir George Airy's +method had become universal, not only in the merchant service, but in +the navies of this and other countries, and added--The compass and the +binnacles before you are designed to thoroughly carry out in practical +navigation the Astronomer Royal's principles." + + + 1890 + +From May 17th to 24th he was on an expedition to North Wales, stopping +at Chester, Conway, Carnarvon, Barmouth, and Shrewsbury.--From June +18th to July 24th he was at Playford; and again from Oct. 11th to +Nov. 15th.--In this year his powers greatly failed, and he complained +frequently of mental attacks, weakness of limbs, lassitude, and +failure of sleep. He occupied himself as usual with his books, papers, +and accounts; and read Travels, Biblical History, &c., but nothing +very persistently. + +On June 7th he attended the Visitation of the Royal Observatory.--From +a letter addressed to him by Mr J. Hartnup, of Liverpool Observatory, +it appears that there had grown up in the mercantile world an +impression that very accurate chronometers were not needed for steam +ships, because they were rarely running many days out of sight of +land: and Airy's opinion was requested on this matter. He replied as +follows on Mar. 3rd: "The question proposed in your letter is purely a +practical one. (1) If a ship is _likely_ ever to be two days out of +sight of land, I think that she ought to be furnished with two _good_ +chronometers, properly tested. (2) For the proper testing of the rates +of the chronometers, a rating of the chronometers for three or four +days in a meridional observatory is necessary. A longer testing is +desirable."--In March he was in correspondence, as one of the Trustees +of the Sheepshanks Fund, with the Master of Trinity relative to grants +from the Fund for Cambridge Observatory. + + + 1891 + +From June 16th to July 15th he was at Playford. And again from +Oct. 12th to Dec. 2nd (his last visit). Throughout the year his +weakness, both of brain power and muscular power, had been gradually +increasing, and during this stay at Playford, on Nov. 11th, he fell +down in his bed-room (probably from failure of nerve action) and was +much prostrated by the shock. For several days he remained in a +semi-unconscious condition, and although he rallied, yet he continued +very weak, and it was not until Dec. 2nd that he could be removed to +the White House. Up to the time of his fall he had been able to take +frequent drives and even short walks in the neighbourhood that he was +so fond of, but he could take but little exercise afterwards, and on +or about Nov. 18th he made the following note: "The saddest expedition +that I have ever made. We have not left home for several days." + +The rapid failure of his powers during this year is well exemplified +by his handwriting in his Journal entries, which, with occasional +rallies, becomes broken and in places almost illegible. He makes +frequent reference to his decline in strength and brain-power, and to +his failing memory, but he continued his ordinary occupations, made +frequent drives around Blackheath, and amused himself with his family +history researches, arrangement of papers, and miscellaneous reading: +and he persisted to the last with his private accounts. His interest +in matters around him was still keen. On June 13th he was driving +along the Greenwich Marshes in order to track the course of the great +sewer; and on August 5th he visited the Crossness Sewage Works and +took great interest in the details of the treatment of the sewage.--In +March he contributed, with great satisfaction, to the Fund for the +Portrait of his old friend Sir G.G. Stokes, with whom he had had so +much scientific correspondence.--On July 25th an afternoon party was +arranged to celebrate the 90th anniversary of his birthday (the actual +anniversary was on July 27th). None of his early friends were there: +he had survived them all. But invitations were sent to all his +scientific and private friends who could be expected to come, and a +large party assembled. The afternoon was very fine, and he sat in the +garden and received his friends (many of whom had come from long +distances) in good strength and spirits. It was a most successful +gathering and was not without its meaning; for it was felt that, under +the circumstances of his failing powers, it was in all probability a +final leave-taking.--On July 27th he went down to the Greenwich Parish +Church at 9 p.m., to be present at the illumination of the church +clock face for the first time--a matter of local interest which had +necessitated a good deal of time and money. On this occasion at the +request of the company assembled in and around the Vestry he spoke for +about a quarter of an hour on Time--the value of accurate time, the +dissemination of Greenwich time throughout the country by time-signals +from the Observatory, and the exhibition of it by time-balls, &c., +&c.,--the subject to which so large a part of his life had been +devoted. It was a pleasant and able speech and gave great satisfaction +to the parishioners, amongst whom he had lived for so many years.--He +received two illuminated addresses--one from the Astronomer Royal and +Staff of the Royal Observatory; the other from the Vorstand of the +Astronomische Gesellschaft at Berlin--and various private letters of +congratulation. The address from the Staff of the Observatory was +worded thus: "We, the present members of the Staff of the Royal +Observatory, Greenwich, beg to offer you our most sincere +congratulations on the occasion of your 90th birthday. We cannot but +feel how closely associated we are with you, in that our whole +energies are directed to the maintenance and development of that +practical astronomical work, of which you essentially laid the +foundation. It affords us great pleasure to think that after the +conclusion of your life's work, you have been spared to live so long +under the shadow of the noble Observatory with which your name was +identified for half a century, and with which it must ever remain +associated." + +After his return from Playford he seemed to rally a little: but he +soon fell ill and was found to be suffering from hernia. This +necessitated a surgical operation, which was successfully performed on +Dec. 17th. This gave him effectual relief, and after recovering from +the immediate effects of the operation, he lay for several days +quietly and without active pain reciting the English poetry with which +his memory was stored. But the shock was too great for his enfeebled +condition, and he died peacefully in the presence of his six surviving +children on Jan. 2nd, 1892. He was buried in Playford churchyard on +Jan. 7th. The funeral procession was attended at Greenwich by the +whole staff of the Royal Observatory, and by other friends, and at his +burial there were present two former Fellows of the College to which +he had been so deeply attached. + + + + APPENDIX. + + LIST OF PRINTED PAPERS BY G.B. AIRY. + + LIST OF BOOKS WRITTEN BY G.B. AIRY. + + + + PRINTED PAPERS BY G.B. AIRY. + +With the instinct of order which formed one of his chief +characteristics Airy carefully preserved a copy of every printed Paper +of his own composition. These were regularly bound in large quarto +volumes, and they are in themselves a striking proof of his wonderful +diligence. The bound volumes are 14 in number, and they occupy a space +of 2 ft. 6 in. on a shelf. They contain 518 Papers, a list of which is +appended, and they form such an important part of his life's work, +that his biography would be very incomplete without a reference to +them. + +He was very careful in selecting the channels for the publication of +his Papers. Most of the early Papers were published in the +Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, but several of +the most important, such as his Paper "On an inequality of long period +in the motions of the Earth and Venus," were published in the +Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and others, such as +the articles on "The Figure of the Earth," "Gravitation," "Tides and +Waves," &c., were published in Encyclopaedias. After his removal to +Greenwich nearly all his Papers on scientific subjects (except +astronomy), such as Tides, Magnetism, Correction of the Compass, &c., +&c., were communicated to the Royal Society, and were published in the +Philosophical Transactions. But everything astronomical was reserved +for the Royal Astronomical Society. His connection with that Society +was very close: he had joined it in its earliest days (the date of his +election was May 9th, 1828), and regarded it as the proper medium for +the discussion of current astronomical questions, and for recording +astronomical progress. He was unremitting in his attendance at the +Monthly Meetings of the Society, and was several times President. In +the Memoirs of the Society 35 of his Papers are printed, and in +addition 129 Papers in the Monthly Notices. In fact a meeting of the +Society rarely passed without some communication from him, and such +was his wealth of matter that sometimes he would communicate as many +as 3 Papers on a single evening. For the publication of several short +mathematical Papers, and especially for correspondence on disputed +points of mathematical investigation, he chose as his vehicle the +Philosophical Magazine, to which he contributed 32 Papers. +Investigations of a more popular character he published in the +Athenaeum, which he also used as a vehicle for his replies to attacks +on his work, or on the Establishment which he conducted: in all he +made 55 communications to that Newspaper. To various Societies, such +as the Institution of Civil Engineers, the British Association, the +Royal Institution, &c., he presented Papers or made communications on +subjects specially suited to each; and in like manner to various +Newspapers: there were 58 Papers in this category. In so long an +official life there would naturally be a great number of Official +Reports, Parliamentary Returns, &c., and these, with other +miscellaneous Papers printed for particular objects and for a limited +circulation, amounted in all to 141. Under this head come his Annual +Reports to the Board of Visitors, which in themselves contain an +extremely full and accurate history of the Observatory during his +tenure of office. There are 46 of these Reports, and they would of +themselves form a large volume of about 740 pages. + + +The following summary of his Printed Papers shews the manner in which +they were distributed: + + SUMMARY OF PRINTED PAPERS BY G.B. AIRY. + + Number of + Papers. + + In the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 30 + In the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 29 + In the Proceedings of the Royal Society 9 + In the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society 35 + In the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 129 + In the Philosophical Magazine and Journal 32 + In the Athenaeum 55 + In Encyclopedias, and in various Newspapers + and Transactions 58 + In Official Reports, Addresses, Parliamentary Returns, + Evidence before Committees, Lectures, Letters, + Sundry Treatises, and Papers 141 + --- + Total 518 + + + + PRINTED PAPERS BY G.B. AIRY. + +Date when read +or published. Title of Paper. Where published. + +1822 Nov. 25 On the use of Silvered Glass for the Mirrors Camb. Phil. Soc. + of Reflecting Telescopes. + +1824 Mar. 15 On the Figure assumed by a Fluid Homogeneous Camb. Phil. Soc. + Mass, whose Particles are acted + on by their mutual Attraction, and by + small extraneous Forces. + +1824 May 17 On the Principles and Construction of the Camb. Phil. Soc. + Achromatic Eye-Pieces of Telescopes, + and on the Achromatism of Microscopes. + +1824 Trigonometry. Encycl. Metrop. + +1825 Feb. 21 On a peculiar Defect in the Eye, and a Camb. Phil. Soc. + mode of correcting it. + +1825 May 2 On the Forms of the Teeth of Wheels. Camb. Phil. Soc. + +1826 May 8 On Laplace's Investigation of the Attraction Camb. Phil. Soc. + of Spheroids differing little from a Sphere. + +1826 June 15 On the Figure of the Earth. Phil. Trans. + +1826 Nov. 26 On the Disturbances of Pendulums and Camb. Phil. Soc. + Balances, and on the Theory of + Escapements. + +1827 Feb. 15 Remarks on a Correction of the Solar Phil. Trans. + Tables, required by Mr South's + observations. + +1827 May 9 On some Passages in Mr Ivory's Remarks Phil. Mag. + on a Memoir by M. Poisson relating to + the Attraction of Spheroids. + +1827 May 14 On the Spherical Aberration of the Camb. Phil. Soc. + May 21 Eyepieces of Telescopes. + +1827 Dec. 6 On the corrections in the elements of Phil. Trans. + Delambre's Solar Tables required by the + observations made at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich. + +1828 Feb. 26 Address to the Members of the Senate, on + an Improvement in the Position of the + Plumian Professor. + +1828 Nov. 24 On the Longitude of the Cambridge + Observatory. Camb. Phil. Soc. + +1829 Nov. 13 On a method of determining the Mass of Astr. Soc. + the Moon from Transit Observations of (Memoirs) + Venus near her inferior conjunction. + +1829 Nov. 16 On a Correction requisite to be applied Camb. Phil. Soc. + to the Length of a Pendulum consisting + of a Ball suspended by a fine Wire. + +1829 Dec. 14 On certain Conditions under which a Camb. Phil. Soc. + Perpetual Motion is possible. + +1830 Aug. 17 Figure of the Earth. Encycl. Metrop. + +1831 Feb. 21 On the Nature of the Light in the Two Camb. Phil. Soc. + Rays produced by the Double Refraction + of Quartz. + +1831 Apr. 18 Addition to the above Paper. Camb. Phil. Soc. + +1831 Nov. 14 On a remarkable Modification of Newton's Camb. Phil. Soc. + Rings. + +1831 Nov. 24 On an inequality of long period in the Phil. Trans. + motions of the Earth and Venus. + +1832 Jan. 2 Translation of Encke's Dissertation (on + Encke's Comet) contained in Nos. 210 + and 211 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. + +1833 Mar. 5 On a new Analyzer, and its use in Camb. Phil. Soc. + Experiments of Polarization. + +1832 Mar. 19 On the Phenomena of Newton's Rings + when formed between two transparent + Substances of different refractive Powers. + +1832 May 2 Report on the Progress of Astronomy Trans Brit. Ass. + during the present century. + +1832 Oct. Report of the Syndicate of the Cambridge + Observatory. + +1833 Feb. 2 Remarks on Mr Potter's Experiment on Phil. Mag. + Interference. + +1833 Apr. 12 On the Mass of Jupiter, as determined R. Astr. Soc. + from the Observation of Elongations of (Memoirs) + the Fourth Satellite. + +1833 Syllabus of a Course of Experimental + Lectures. + +1833 May 7 On the Calculation of Newton's Camb. Phil. Soc. + Experiments on Diffraction. + +1833 May 7 Remarks on Sir David Brewster's Paper Phil. Mag. + "On the Absorption of Specific Rays" &c. + +1833 May 16 Results of the Repetition of Mr Potter's Phil. Mag. + Experiment of interposing a Prism in + the Path of Interfering Light. + +1833 May On a supposed black bar formed by Phil. Mag. + Diffraction. + +1833 June 20 Report on Mr Barlow's Fluid-Lens R. Soc. (Proc.) + Telescope + +1834 Mar. 14 Continuation of Researches into the Value R. Astr. Soc. + of the Mass of Jupiter, by observation of (Memoirs.) + the Elongations of the Fourth Satellite. + +1834 Apr. 14 On the Latitude of Cambridge Observatory Camb. Phil. Soc. + +1834 June Report of the Syndicate of the Cambridge + Observatory. + +1834 June 13 On the Position of the Ecliptic, as inferred R. Astr. Soc. + inferred from Transit and Circle (Memoirs.) + Observations made at Cambridge Observatory + in the year 1833. + +1834 June 13 Observations of the Solar Eclipse of July R. Astr. Soc. + 16th, 1833, made at Cambridge Observatory, (Memoirs.) + and Calculations of the Observations. + +1834 Nov. 24 On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass Camb. Phil. Soc. + with Circular Aperture. + +1834 Dec. 3 On the Calculation of the Perturbations Naut. Alm. + of the Small Planets and the Comets of (1837, App.) + short period. + +1835 May 8 Continuation of Researches into the Value R. Astr, Soc. + of Jupiter's Mass. (Memoirs.) + +1835 June Report of the Syndicate of the Cambridge + Observatory. + +1835 June 12 On the Position of the Ecliptic, as R. Astr. Soc. + inferred from Observations with the (Memoirs.) + Cambridge Transit and Mural Circle, + made in the year 1834. + +1835 June 12 On the Time of Rotation of Jupiter. R. Astr. Soc. + (Memoirs.) + +1836 Feb. 12 Speech on delivering the Medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to Sir John Herschel. (Proc.) + +1836 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1836 June 9 Report upon a Letter (on a Systematic R. Soc. + Course of Magnetic Observations) addressed (Proc.) + by M. le Baron de Humboldt to + His Royal Highness the President of + the Royal Society (by S. Hunter Christie + and G.B. Airy). + +1837 Jan. 13 Continuation of Researches into the Value R. Astr. Soc. + of Jupiter's Mass. (Memoirs.) + +1837 Feb. 10 Speech on delivering the Medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to Professor Rosenberger. (Proc) + +1837 Mar. 10 Results of the Observations of the Sun, R. Astr. Soc. + Moon, and Planets, made at Cambridge (Memoirs) + Observatory in the years 1833, 1834, and + 1835. + +1837 May 12 On the Position of the Ecliptic, as R. Astr. Soc. + inferred from Observations with the (Memoirs) + Cambridge Transit and Mural Circle, made + in the year 1835. + +1837 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1837 Sept. 9 Address delivered in the Town Hall of + Neath. + +1837 Nov. 10 On the Parallax of alpha Lyrae. R. Astr. Soc. + (Memoirs.) + +1838 Feb. 10 Address to the Earl of Burlington on + Religious Examination in the University + of London. + +1838 Mar. 26 On the Intensity of Light in the Camb. Phil. Soc. + neighbourhood of a Caustic. + +1838 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1838 Dec. 14 A Catalogue of 726 Stars, deduced from R. Astr. Soc. + the Observations made at the Cambridge (Memoirs.) + Observatory, from 1828 to 1835; reduced + to January 1, 1830. + +1839 Apr. 25 Account of Experiments on Iron-built Phil. Trans. + Ships, instituted for the purpose of + discovering a correction for the deviation + of the Compass produced by the iron of + the Ships. + +1839 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1839 Nov. 8 On the Determination of the Orbits of R. Astr. Soc. + Comets, from Observations. (Memoirs.) + +1839 Article "Gravitation." Penny Cyclop. + +1839 Article "Greenwich Observatory." Penny Cyclop. + +1840 Mar. 2 On a New Construction of the Camb. Phil. Soc. + Going-Fusee. + +1840 Mar. 13 On the Regulator of the Clock-work for R. Astr. Soc. + effecting uniform Movement of + Equatoreals. + +1840 May 15 On the Correction of the Compass in Un. Serv. Journ. + Iron-built Ships. (Proc.) + +1840 Results of Experiments on the Disturbance J. Weale. + of the Compass in Iron-built Ships. + +1840 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1840 June 18 On the Theoretical Explanation of an Phil. Trans. + apparent new Polarity in Light. + +1840 Nov. 19 Supplement to the above Paper. Phil. Trans. + +1840 Dec. 4 On the Diffraction of an Annular Aperture. Phil. Mag. + +1840 Dec. 9 Remarks on Professor Challis's Investigation Phil. Mag. + of the Motion of a Small Sphere + vibrating in a Resisting Medium. + +1841 Jan. 20 Correction to the above Paper "On the Phil. Mag. + Diffraction," &c. + +1841 Mar. 22 Remarks on Professor Challis's Reply to Phil. Mag. + Mr Airy's Objections to the Investigation + of the Resistance of the Atmosphere + to an Oscillating Sphere. + +1841 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1841 July 10 Reply to Professor Challis, on the Phil. Mag. + Investigation of the Resistance of the + Air to an Oscillating Sphere. + +1841 Oct. 26 Extraordinary Disturbance of the Magnets. + +1841 Nov. 25 On the Laws of the Rise and Fall of the Phil. Trans. + Tide in the River Thames. + +1841 Dec. 21 Report of the Commissioners appointed to + consider the steps to be taken for + Restoration of the Standards of Weight and + Measure. + +1842 Apr. 16 On the [Greek: Ichtis] of Diodorus Athenaeum. + +1842 May 13 Account of the Ordnance Zenith Sector. R. Astr. Soc. + (Proc.) + +1842 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1842 Nov. 11 Observations of the Total Solar Eclipse of R. Astr. Soc. + 1842 July 7. (Memoirs.) + +1842 Dec. 1 Remarks on the Present State of Hatcliff's Private + Charity (Greenwich). + +1842 Article on Tides and Waves. Encyc. Metrop. + +1843 Mar. 2 On the Laws of Individual Tides at Phil. Trans. + Southampton and at Ipswich. + +1843 Apr. 29 On Monetary and Metrical Systems. Athenaeum. + +1843 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1843 Sept. 25 Address to the Individual Members of the + Board of Visitors of the Royal + Observatory (proposing the Altazimuth). + +1843 Oct. 6 Account of the Northumberland Equatoreal + and Dome, attached to the Cambridge + Observatory. + +1843 Nov. 10 Address and Explanation of the proposed + Altitude and Azimuth Instrument to the + Board of Visitors of the Royal + Observatory. + +1844 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1844 Dec. 12 On the Laws of the Tides on the Coasts of Phil. Trans. + Ireland, as inferred from an extensive + series of observations made in connection + with the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. + +1845 Jan. 10 On the Flexure of a Uniform Bar R. Astr. Soc. + supported by a number of equal Pressures (Memoirs.) + applied at equidistant points, &c. + +1845 Feb. 14 Speech on delivering the Medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to Capt. Smyth (Proc.) + +1845 May 9 On a New Construction of the Divided R. Astr. Soc. + Eye-Glass Double-Image Micrometer. (Memoirs.) + +1845 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1845 July 21 On Wexford Harbour. + +1846 Report of the Gauge Commissioners. And + letter to Sir E. Ryan. + +1846 May 7 On the Equations applying to Light under Phil. Mag. + the action of Magnetism. + +1846 May 12 Remarks on Dr Faraday's Paper on Phil. Mag. + Ray-vibrations. + +1846 May 25 On a Change in the State of an Eye Camb. Phil. Soc. + affected with a Mal-formation. + +1846 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1846 June Account of the Measurement of an Arc of R. Astr. Soc. + Longitude between the Royal Observatory (Month. Not.) + of Greenwich and the Trigonometrical + Station of Feagh Main, in the Island + of Valentia. + +1846 July 25 Letter to Sir Robert Harry Inglis, Bart., Athenaeum. + M.P., in answer to Sir James South's + attack on the Observations at the + Greenwich Observatory. + +1846 Nov. On the Bands formed by the partial Phil. Mag. + Interception of the Prismatic Spectrum. + +1846 Nov. 13 Account of some circumstances historically R. Astr. Soc. + connected with the Discovery of the (Memoirs.) + Planet exterior to Uranus. + +1847 Jan. 8 Reduction of the Observations of Halley's R. Astr. Soc. + Comet made at the Cambridge Observatory in (Memoirs.) + the years 1835 and 1836. + +1847 Jan. 8 On a proposed Alteration of Bessel's Method R. Astr. Soc. + for the Computation of the Corrections by (Memoirs.) + which the Apparent Places of + Stars are derived from the Mean Places. + +1847 Feb. On Sir David Brewster's New Analysis of Phil. Mag. + Solar Light. + +1847 Feb. 20 On the Name of the New Planet. Athenaeum. + +1847 Feb. 27 Mr Adams and the New Planet. Athenaeum. + +1847 Plan of the Buildings and Grounds of the + Royal Observatory, Greenwich, with + Explanation and History. + +1847 May 14 Explanation of Hansen's Perturbations of R. Astr. Soc. + the Moon by Venus. (Month. Not.) + +1847 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1847 Nov. 30 Address to the Individual Members of the + Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory. + (Zenith Tube.) + +1847 Dec. 10 Results deduced from the Occultations of R. Astr. Soc. + Stars and Planets by the Moon, observed (Memoirs.) + at Cambridge Observatory from 1830 to 1835. + +1848 Feb. 11 Abstract of Struve's "Études d'Astronomie R. Astr. Soc. + Stellaire." (Month. Not.) + +1848 Mar. 13 Syllabus of Lectures on Astronomy to be + delivered at the Temperance Hall, + Ipswich. + +1848 Apr. 10 Remarks on Prof. Challis's Theoretical Phil. Mag. + Determination of the Velocity of Sound + +1848 May 8 Supplement to a Paper on the Intensity of Camb. Phil. Soc. + Light in the neighbourhood of a Caustic. + +1848 May 12 Address to Individual members of the + Board of Visitors. (New Transit Circle, + Reflex Zenith Tube, &c.) + +1848 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1848 June 9 Corrections of the Elements of the Moon's R. Astr. Soc. + Orbit, deduced from the Lunar (Memoirs.) + Observations made at the Royal Observatory, + of Greenwich from 1750 to 1830. + +1848 Aug. 9 Explanation of a proposed construction of + Zenith Sector: addressed to the Board + of Visitors of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. + +1848 Oct. 14 On the Construction of Chinese Balls Athenaeum. + +1849 Description of the Instruments of Process + used in the Photographic self-registration + of the Magnetical and Meteorological + Instruments at the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. + +1849 Description of the Altitude and Azimuth + Instrument erected at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1847. + +1849 Astronomy. (Tract written for the + Scientific Manual.) + +1849 Mar. 9 Substance of the Lecture delivered by the R. Astr. Soc. + Astronomer Royal on the large Reflecting (Month. Not.) + Telescopes of the Earl of Rosse and Mr + Lassell. + +1849 June On a difficulty in the problem of Sound. Phil. Mag. + +1849 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1849 June 8 On Instruments adapted to the Measure of R. Astr. Soc. + small Meridional Zenith Distances. (Month. Not.) + +1849 Nov. 9 Results of the Observations made by the R. Astr. Soc. + Rev. Fearon Fallows at the Royal (Memoirs.) + Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the + years 1829, 1830, 1831. + +1849 Nov. 9 On Bell's Calculating machine, and on R. Astr. Soc. + Lord Rosse's Telescope. (Month. Not.) + +1849 Nov. 10 On the Exodus of the Israelites. Athenaeum. + +1849 Dec. 14 On the Method of observing and recording R. Astr. Soc. + Transits, lately introduced in America, &c. (Month. Not.) + +1850 Jan. 10 On a problem of Geodesy. Phil. Mag. + +1850 Feb. 8 Address on presenting the Medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to M. Otto von Struve. (Month. Not.) + +1850 Mar. 15 On the Present State and Prospects of the R. Inst. + Science of Terrestrial Magnetism. + +1850 Mar. 16 On the Exodus of the Israelites Athenaeum. + +1850 Mar. 30 On the Exodus of the Israelites. Athenaeum. + +1850 May 10 Statement concerning Assistance granted R. Astr. Soc. + by the Admiralty to Hansen--Also on (Month. Not.) + Henderson's numbers for the teeth of + wheels. + +1850 May 10 On the Weights to be given to the separate R. Astr. Soc. + Results for Terrestrial Longitudes, (Memoirs.) + determined by the observation of Transits + of the Moon and Fixed Stars. + +1850 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1850 June 14 Letter from Hansen on his Lunar Tables.--Valz R. Astr. Soc. + on an arrangement of double-image (Month. Not.) + micrometer.--On the Computation of + Longitude from Lunar Transits + +1850 Dec. 13 On a Method of regulating the Clock-work R. Astr. Soc. + for Equatoreals. (Month. Not.) + +1850 Dec. 13 Supplement to a Paper "On the Regulation R. Astr. Soc. + of the Clock-work for effecting Uniform (Memoirs.) + Movement of Equatoreals." + +1850 Dec. 27 On the Relation of the Direction of the Phil. Trans. + Wind to the Age of the Moon, as inferred + from Observations made at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich, from 1840 Nov. + to 1847 Dec. + +1851 Jan. 14 Remarks on Mr Wyatt's Paper on the Inst. C.E. + Construction of the Building for the (Minutes.) + Exhibition of the Works of Industry of + all Nations in 1851. + +1851 Feb. 15 Address on presenting the medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to Dr Annibale de (Month. Not.) + Gasparis. + +1851 Mar. 28 Letter to Professor Challis regarding the + Adams Prize. + +1851 Mar. 29 On Caesar's place of landing in Britain. Athenaeum. + +1851 Suggestions to Astronomers for the Brit. Assoc. + Observation of the Total Eclipse of the + Sun on July 28, 1851. + +1851 Apr. 11 On the Determination of the probable R. Astr. Soc. + Stability of an Azimuthal Circle by (Month. Not.) + Observations of Star and a permanent + Collimator. + +1851 May 2 On the Total Solar Eclipse of 1851, July 28. R. Inst. + (Lecture.) + +1851 May 9 On the Vibration of a Free Pendulum in an R. Astr. Soc. + Oval differing little from a Straight Line (Memoirs) + +1851 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1851 July 2 The President's Address to the Twenty-first Athenaeum. + Meeting of the British Association for + the Advancement of Science, Ipswich. + +1851 Oct. 17 On Julius Caesar's Expedition against Naut. Mag. + England, in relation to his places of + departure and landing. + +1851 Nov. 14 Account of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on R. Astr. Soc. + 1851, July 28, as observed at Göttenburg, (Memoirs.) + at Christiania, and at Christianstadt. + +1851 Dec. 13 On the Geography of the Exodus. Athenaeum. + +1852 Jan. 9 On the Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851. R. Astr. Soc. + (Month. Not.) + +1852 On the place of Caesar's Departure from Soc. of Antiq. + Gaul for the Invasion of Britain, and (Memoirs.) + the Place of his Landing in Britain, + with an Appendix on the Battle of + Hastings. + +1852 On a New Method of computing the Naut. Alm. 1856, + Perturbations of planets, by J.F. App. + Encke--translated and illustrated with + notes by G.B. Airy. + +1852 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1853 Feb. 3 On the Eclipses of Agathocles, Thales, Phil. Trans. + and Xerxes. + +1853 Feb. 4 Lecture on the results of recent R. Inst. + calculations on the Eclipse of Thales + and Eclipses connected with it. + +1853 May 3 Address to the Individual Members of the + Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. (Lunar Reductions.) + +1853 May 14 On Decimal Coinage. Athenaeum. + +1853 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1853 June Lecture on the Determination of the R. Astr. Soc. + Longitude of the Observatory of (Month. Not.) + Cambridge by means of Galvanic Signals. + +1853 Sept. 10 On Decimal Coinage. Athenaeum. + +1853 Dec. 14 Description of the Transit Circle of the + Royal Observatory, Greenwich. (App. + Gr. Observ. 1852.) + +1853 Dec. 14 Regulations of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. (App. Gr. Observ. 1852.) + +1854 Jan. 14 On the Telegraphic Longitude of Brussels. Athenaeum. + +1854 Feb. 10 Address on presenting the Gold Medal of R. Astr. Soc. + the R. Astr. Soc. to Mr Charles Rümker. (Month. Not.) + +1854 Feb. 25 On Reforms in the University of Cambridge. Athenaeum. + +1854 Apr. 15 Letters relating to "The Late M. Mauvais." Liter. Gaz. + +1854 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1854 Sept. The Deluge. Private. + +1854 Oct. 28 On the Correction of the Compass in Iron Athenaeum. + Ships. (Scoresby's Experiments.) + +1854 Nov. 10 On the Difference of Longitude between R. Astr. Soc. + the Observatories of Brussels and Greenwich, (Memoirs.) + as determined by Galvanic Signals. + +1855 Jan. 1 Lecture at S. Shields on the Pendulum + Experiments in the Harton Pit, and + Letter on the Results. + +1855 Feb. 2 Lecture on the Pendulum Experiments R. Inst. + lately made in the Harton Colliery for + ascertaining the mean Density of the + Earth. + +1855 Feb. 3 On the Correction of the Compass in Iron Athenaeum. + Ships. (Remarks on Dr Scoresby's + Investigations.) + +1855 Address on presenting the Medal of the R. Astr. Soc. + R. Astr. Soc. to the Rev. William Rutter (Month. Not.) + Dawes. + +1855 Feb. 15 On the Computation of the Effect of the Phil. Trans. + Attraction of Mountain Masses, as + disturbing the Apparent Astronomical + Latitude of Stations in Geodetic Surveys. + +1855 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1855 Oct. 18 Address to the Individual Members of the + Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. (Equatoreal.) + +1855 Nov. 21 Remarks upon certain Cases of Personal R. Astr. Soc. + Equation which appear to have hitherto (Memoirs.) + escaped notice, accompanied with a Table + of Results. + +1855 Nov. 22 Discussion of the Observed Deviations of Phil. Trans. + the Compass in several Ships, Wood-built + and Iron-built: with a General + Table for facilitating the examination of + Compass-Deviations. + +1855 Description of the Reflex Zenith Tube of + the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. (App. + to the Greenwich Obs. for 1854.) + +1856 Jan. 9 On Professor Peirce's Criterion for Astr. Journ. + discordant observations. (Cambr.) + +1856 Jan. 24 Account of Pendulum Experiments undertaken Phil. Trans. + in the Harton Colliery, for the + purpose of determining the Mean Density + of the Earth. + +1856 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1856 Aug. 25 On Scheutz's Calculating Machine. Phil. Mag. + +1856 Aug. 30 Science and the Government. (Reply to Athenaeum. + statements in the Morning Chronicle + about the instrumental equipment of the + Royal Observatory.) + +1857 May 8 On the Means which will be available for R. Astr. Soc. + correcting the Measure of the Sun's (Month. Not.) + Distance in the next twenty-five years. + +1857 May 12 Knowledge expected in Computers and + Assistants in the Royal Observatory. + +1857 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1857 June 12 On the Eclipse of Agathocles, the Eclipse R. Astr. Soc. + at Larissa, and the Eclipse of Thales. (Memoirs.) + With an Appendix on the Eclipse of + Stiklastad. + +1857 June 18 Account of the Construction of the New Phil. Trans. + National Standard of Length, and of its + principal copies. + +1857 Dec. 5 Letter to the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge + University regarding Smith's Prizes. + +1857 Dec. 7 On the Substitution of Methods founded Camb. Phil. Soc. + on Ordinary Geometry for Methods + based on the General Doctrine of + Proportions, in the treatment of some + Geometrical Problems + +1857 Description of the Galvanic Chronographic Gr. Obs. 1856, + Apparatus of the Royal Observatory, App. + Greenwich. + +1858 Mar. 8 Suggestions for Observation of the Annular + Eclipse of the Sun on 1858, March 14-15. + +1858 Mar. 12 Note on Oltmann's Calculation of the R. Astr. Soc. + Eclipse of Thales. Also On a Method (Month. Not.) + of very approximately representing the + Projection of a Great Circle upon + Mercator's Chart. + +1858 May The Atlantic Cable Problem. Naut. Mag. + +1858 May 20 Report of the Ordnance Survey + Commission; together with Minutes of + Evidence and Appendix. + +1858 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1858 June 16 On the Mechanical Conditions of the Phil. Mag. + Deposit of a Submarine Cable. + +1858 July Instructions and Chart for Observations R. Astr. Soc. + of Mars in right ascension at the (Special.) + Opposition of 1860 for obtaining the + Measure of the Sun's Distance. + +1858 Aug. 20 On the Advantageous Employment of Photog. Notes. + Stereoscopic Photographs for the + representation of Scenery. + +1858 Nov. 6 On the "Draft of Proposed New Statutes Athenaeum. + for Trinity College, Cambridge." + +1858 Nov. 20 Letter to the Vice-Chancellor of the + University of Cambridge, offering the + Sheepshanks Endowment. + +1858 Dec. 6 Suggestion of a Proof of the Theorem Camb. Phil. Soc. + that Every Algebraic Equation has a + Root. + +1859 Manual of Astronomy--for the Admiralty. Parly. Paper. + +1859 Feb. 1 Letter to Lord Monteagle relating to the + Standards of Weights and Measures. + +1859 Feb. 4 Remarks on Mr Cayley's Trigonometrical Phil. Mag. + Theorem, and on Prof. Challis's Proof + that Equations have Roots. + +1859 Mar. 11 On the Movement of the Solar System in R. Astr. Soc. + Space. (Memoirs.) + +1859 Apr. 8 On the Apparent Projection of Stars upon R. Astr. Soc. + the Moon's Disc in Occultations. Also (Month. Not.) + Comparison of the Lunar Tables of + Burckhardt and Hansen with Observations + of the Moon made at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich. + +1859 Apr. 8 On the Apparent Projection of Stars upon R. Astr. Soc. + the Moon's Disc in Occultations. (Memoirs.) + +1859 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1859 June 10 Abstract of Maxwell's Paper "On the R. Astr. Soc. + Stability of the Motion of Saturn's Rings." (Month. Not.) + +1859 July 8 Corrections of the Elements of the Moon's R. Astr. Soc. + Orbit, deduced from the Lunar Observations (Memoirs.) + made at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich + from 1750 to 1851. + +1859 Sept. 10 On the Invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Athenaeum. + (Answer to Mr Lewin.) + +1859 Nov. 12 On Iron Ships--The Royal Charter. Athenaeum. + (Answer to Archibald Smith's Remarks.) + +1859 Nov. Circular requesting observations of small + Planets. + +1859 Dec. 9 Notice of the approaching Total Eclipse of R. Astr. Soc. + the Sun of July 18,1860, and suggestions (Month. Not.) + for observation. + +1859 Dec. 12 Supplement to A Proof of the Theorem Camb. Phil. Soc. + that Every Algebraic Equation has a Root. + +1860 Jan. 13 Description of the New Equatoreal at the R. Astr. Soc. + Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Also (Month. Not.) + Abstract of an Essay by Gen. T.F. de + Schubert on the Figure of the Earth. + +1860 Jan. 28 On the Claudian or Plautian Invasion of Athenaeum + Britain. + +1860 Feb. 2 Examination of Navy 2-foot Telescopes at + the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1860, + Jan. 31 to Feb. 2. + +1860 Feb. 11 Report on the Instrumental Equipments Ho. of Commons. + of the Exchequer Office of Weights and (Parly. Paper.) + Measures, as regards the means for + preventing Fraud in the Sale of Gas to + the Public; and on the Amendments which + may be required to the existing Legislation + on that subject. + +1860 Mar. 9 Address on the approaching Solar Eclipse R. Astr. Soc. + of July 18, 1860, &c. (Month. Not.) + +1860 May 10 Correspondence between the Lords Ho. of Commons. + Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, (Parly. Paper.) + &c., and the Astronomer Royal, relating + to Gas Measurement, and the Sale of + Gas Act. + +1860 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. And Address to the + Members of the Board in reference to + Struve's Geodetic suggestions. + +1860 June 7 Correspondence regarding the Grant of + _£1000_ to Prof. Hansen for his Lunar + Tables. + +1860 Sept. 13 Remarks on a Paper entitled "On the + Polar Distances of the Greenwich Transit + Circle, by A. Marth." Addressed to + the Members of the Board of Visitors. + +1860 Sept. 22 On Change of Climate, in answer to Athenaeum. + certain speculations by Sir Henry James. + +1860 Oct. 20 Circular relating to the distribution of + Greenwich Observations and other + publications of the Royal Observatory. + +1860 Nov. 9 Account of Observations of the Total R. Astr. Soc. + Solar Eclipse of 1860, July 18, made (Month. Not.) + at Hereña, near Miranda de Ebro; &c. &c. + +1860 Nov. 17 On Change of Climate: further discussion. Athenaeum. + +1860 Letters on Lighthouses, to the Commission + on Lighthouses. + +1860 Dec. 14 Note on the translation of a passage in a R. Astr. Soc. + letter of Hansen's relating to (Month. Not.) + coefficients. + +1861 Feb. 9 On the Temperature-correction of Syphon Athenaeum. + Barometers. + +1861 March Results of Observations of the Solar R. Astr. Soc. + Eclipse of 1860 July 18 made at the Royal (Month. Not.) + Observatory, Greenwich, for determination + of the Errors of the Tabular Elements of + the Eclipse. Also Suggestion of a new + Astronomical Instrument, for which the + name "Orbit-Sweeper" is proposed. Also + Theory of the Regulation of a Clock by + Galvanic Currents acting on the Pendulum. + +1861 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1861 June 5 On a supposed Failure of the Calculus of Phil. Mag. + Variations. + +1861 July Report of a Committee of the R. Soc. on R. Soc.(Proc.) + the advisability of re-measuring the + Indian Arc of Meridian. + +1861 Sept. 21 Lecture at Manchester on the Great Solar Athenaeum. + Eclipse of July 18, 1860. + +1861 Sept. 21 The same Lecture. London Review. + +1861 Oct. Examination Paper for the Sheepshanks + Exhibition. + +1861 Nov. 1 Translation of Dr Lamont's Paper "On the Phil. Mag. + most Advantageous Form of Magnets." + +1861 Nov. 8 Note on a Letter received from Hansen on R. Astr. Soc. + the Lunar Theory. Also Discussion of (Month. Not.) + a Result deduced by Mr D'Abbadie from + Observations of the Total Solar Eclipse + of 1860, July 18. + +1861 Nov. 16 Instructions for observing the Total Eclipse + of the Sun on December 31. + +1861 Dec. On a Projection by Balance of Errors for Phil. Mag. + Maps. + +1861 Dec. 28 On the Circularity of the Sun's Disk. R. Astr. Soc. + Also Table of Comparative Number of (Month. Not.) + Observations of Small Planets. + +1862 Jan. On the Direction of the Joints in the Phil. Mag. + Faces of Oblique Arches. + +1862 Mar. 15 Review of "An Historical Survey of the Athenaeum. + Astronomy of the Ancients" by the Rt + Hon. Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. + +1862 Apr. 24 Notes for the Committee on Weights and + Measures, 1862. + +1862 May 15 On the Magnetic Properties of Hot-Rolled Phil. Trans. + and Cold-Rolled Malleable Iron. + +1862 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1862 June 24 Evidence given before the Select + Committee on Weights and Measures. + +1862 Oct. 4 Biography of G.B. Airy (probably in part London Review. + based upon data supplied by himself). + +1862 Oct. 11 Abstract of Paper "On the Strains in the Athenaeum. + Interior of Beams and Tubular Bridges." + +1862 Oct. 11 Translation of a Letter from Prof. Lament Phil. Mag. + on Dalton's Theory of Vapour, &c. + +1862 Nov. 6 On the Strains in the Interior of Beams. Phil. Trans. + +1862 Nov. Correspondence with Sabine concerning + his attack on the Greenwich Magnetic + Observations. (Confidentially + communicated to the Board of Visitors.) + +1862 Nov. 21 Evidence given before the Public Schools + Commission. + +1862 Nov. Abstract of M. Auwers's Paper on the R. Astr. Soc. + proper motion of Procyon, and Note on (Month. Not.) + same. + +1862 Dec. Abstract of Mr Safford's Paper on the R. Astr. Soc. + Proper Motion of Sirius. Also on the (Month. Not.) + Forms of Lenses proper for the Negative + Eye-pieces of Telescopes. Also on the + measurements of the Earth, and the + dimensions of the Solar System. Also + on Fringes of Light in Solar Eclipses. + +1863 Jan. Address to the Board of Visitors on a + further attack by Sabine on the Greenwich + Magnetic Observations (confidential). + +1863 Jan. 9 On the Observations of Saturn made at R. Astr. Soc. + Pulkowa and Greenwich. (Month. Not.) + +1863 Feb. 24 Report to the Board of Trade on the + Proposed Lines of Railway through + Greenwich Park. + +1863 Mar. 2 Determination of the Longitude of Valencia + in Ireland by Galvanic Signals in the + summer of 1862 (App. III. to the Gr. + Astr. Obsns. 1862). + +1863 Mar. 13 On the Movement of the Solar System in R. Astr. Soc. + Space, deduced from the Proper Motions (Memoirs.) + of 1167 Stars. By Edwin Dunkin (for + G.B.A.). + +1863 Mar. 13 On the Visibility of Stars in the Pleiades R. Astr. Soc. + to the unarmed eye. (Month. Not.) + +1863 Mar. 21 On Marriage Odes. Athenaeum. + +1863 Apr. 9 Further Report as to the Probable Effects + of the London, Chatham and Dover + Railway on the Royal Observatory in + Greenwich Park. + +1863 Apr. 10 Determination of the Sun's Parallax from R. Astr. Soc. + observations of Mars during the (Month. Not.) + Opposition of 1862. By E.J. Stone (for + G.B.A.). Also Remarks on Struve's + account of a Local deviation in the + direction of Gravity, near Moscow. Also + an Account of an apparatus for the + observation of the spectra of stars, and + results obtained. + +1863 Apr. 23 On the Diurnal Inequalities of Phil. Trans. + Terrestrial Magnetism, as deduced from + observations made at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich, from 1841 + to 1857. + +1863 May 8 On the Discordance between the Results R. Astr. Soc. + for Zenith-Distances obtained by Direct (Memoirs.) + Observation, and those obtained by + Observation by Reflection from the + Surface of Quicksilver. + +1863 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1863 July 2 On the Amount of Light given by the R. Astr. Soc. + Moon at the greatest stage in the (Month. Not.) + Excentrically-total Eclipse, 1863, + June 1. + +1863 Aug. Plan of the Buildings and Grounds of the + Royal Observatory, Greenwich, with + Explanation and History. + +1863 Sept. 5 On the origin of the apparent luminous R. Astr. Soc. + band which, in partial eclipses of the (Month. Not.) + Sun, has been seen to surround the + visible portion of the Moon's limb. + +1863 Sept. 5 On the Invasions of Britain by Julius Athenaeum. +1863 Oct. 3 Caesar. + +1863 Oct. 17 The Earthquake as observed from Greenwich. Athenaeum. + +1863 Nov. On the Numerical Expression of the Phil. Mag. + Destructive Energy in the Explosions + of Steam-Boilers, &c. + +1863 Nov. 13 Convention arranged between M. Le Verrier R. Astr. Soc. + and the Astronomer Royal for meridional (Month. Not.) + observations of the small Planets, &c. + +1863 Nov. 13 Translation of Hansen's Paper R. Astr. Soc. + "Calculation of the Sun's Parallax (Month. Not.) + from the Lunar Theory," with Notes by + G.B.A. + +1863 Dec. 17 First Analysis of 177 Magnetic Storms, Phil. Trans. + registered by the Magnetic Instruments + in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, + from 1841 to 1857. + +1864 Jan. 8 Pontécoulant's Paper "Sur le Coefficiant R. Astr. Soc. + de l'Équation Parallactique déduit de la (Month. Not.) + Théorie," with Notes by G.B.A. + +1864 Jan. 26 Remarks on Redman's Paper on the East Inst. C. E. + Coast (Chesil Bank, &c.). (Minutes.) + +1864 Mar. 10 Note on a Passage in Capt. R. Astr. Soc. + Jacob's "Measures of Jupiter," &c. (Month. Not.) + +1864 Mar. 11 Notes for the Committee on Weights and Ho. of Comm. + Measures, 1862. (Parly. Paper.) + +1864 Mar. 17 On a Method of Slewing a Ship without Inst. Nav. Arch. + the aid of the Rudder. + +1864 Apr. 5 Comparison of the Chinese Record of Solar R. Astr. Soc. + Eclipses in the Chun Tsew with the (Month. Not.) + Computations of Modern Theory. + +1864 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1864 June 10 On the Transit of Venus, 1882, Dec. 6. R. Astr. Soc. + (Month. Not.) + +1864 June 10 On the bright band bordering the Moon's R. Astr. Soc. + Limb in Photographs of Eclipses. (Month. Not.) + +1864 Notes on Methods of Reduction + applicable to the Indian Survey. + +1864 Sept. 3 A Visit to the Corryvreckan. Athenaeum. + +1864 Sept. 29 Examination Paper for the Sheepshanks + Scholarship. + +1865 Jan. 13 Comparison of the Transit-Instrument in R. Astr. Soc. + its ordinary or reversible form with the (Month. Not.) + Transit-Instrument in its + non-reversible form, as adopted at + Greenwich, the Cape of Good Hope, and + other Observatories. + +1865 Mar. 9 Syllabus of a course of three Lectures + on "Magnetical Errors, &c., with special + reference to Iron Ships and their + Compasses," delivered at the South + Kensington Museum. + +1865 Apr. 1 Remarks on Mr Ellis's Lecture on the Horolog. Journ. + Greenwich System of Time Signals. + +1865 Apr. 1 Free Translation of some lines of Virgil, Athenaeum. + "Citharâ crinitus Iopas," &c. + +1865 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1865 June 17 Note on my Recommendation (in 1839) Athenaeum. + of Government Superintendence of the + Compasses of Iron Ships. Also Note on + the birthplace of Thomas Clarkson. + +1865 July On Hemiopsy. Phil. Mag. + +1865 Aug. 22 On the Value of the Moon's Semidiameter R. Astr. Soc. + as obtained by the Investigations of (Month. Not.) + Hugh Breen, Esq., from Occultations + observed at Cambridge and Greenwich. + +1865 Sept. 16 On "The Land of Goshen"--Reply to "A Athenaeum. + Suffolk Incumbent." + +1865 Oct. 21 Address of the Astronomer Royal to the + individual members of the Board of + Visitors. (On improved Collimators.) + +1865 Oct. 23 Note on an Error of Expression in two R. Astr. Soc. + previous Memoirs. Also Description and (Month. Not.) + History of a Quadrant made by Abraham + Sharp. + +1865 Nov. 11 On the Possible Derivation of the National Athenaeum. + Name "Welsh." + +1865 Essays on the Invasion of Britain by Julius Private. + Caesar; The Invasion of Britain by + Plautius, and by Claudius Caesar; The Early + Military Policy of the Romans in Britain; + The Battle of Hastings. (With corr.) + +1866 Mar. 10 On "The Compass in Iron Ships." Objections Athenaeum. + to passages in a Lecture by Archibald + Smith. + +1866 Apr. 13 On the Supposed Possible Effect of R. Astr. Soc. + Friction in the Tides, in influencing the (Month. Not.) + Apparent Acceleration of the Moon's Mean + Motion in Longitude. Also on a Method + of Computing Interpolations to the + Second Order without Changes of + Algebraic Sign. + +1866 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1866 July 17 Papers relating to Time Signals on the Ho. of Comm. + Start Point. (Parly. Paper.) + +1866 Sept. 1 On the Campaign of Aulus Plautius in Athenaeum. + Britain. (Reply to Dr Guest.) + +1866 Nov. 19 On the Continued Change in an Eye Camb. Phil. Soc. + affected with a peculiar malformation. + +1866 Dec. On the Simultaneous Disappearance of R. Astr. Soc. + Jupiter's Satellites in the year 1867. (Month. Not.) + Also Inference from the observed Movement + of the Meteors in the appearance of 1866, + Nov. 13-14. + +1867 Jan. 1 Memorandum for the consideration of the + Commission on Standards. (Policy of + introducing Metrical Standards.) + +1867 Jan. 12 On Decimal Weights and Measures. Athenaeum. + +1867 Feb. 19 On the use of the Suspension Bridge with Inst. C.E. + Stiffened Roadway for Railway and other (Minutes.) + Bridges of Great Span. + +1867 Mar. 21 Computation of the Lengths of the Waves Phil. Trans. + of Light corresponding to the Lines in + the Dispersion Spectrum measured by + Kirchhoff. + +1867 Mar. Corresponding Numbers of Elevation in R. Obs. (Also + English Feet, and of Readings of Aneroid Meteor. Soc. + or Corrected Barometer in English Apr. 17, 1867.) + Inches. + +1867 Apr. 16 Remarks on Sir W. Denison's Paper on Inst. C.E. + "The Suez Canal." (Minutes.) + +1867 May 3 Statement of the History and Position of Private. + the Blue-coat Girls' School, Greenwich. + +1867 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1867 June 14 On Certain Appearances of the Telescopic R. Astr. Soc. + Images of Stars described by the Rev. (Month. Not.) + W.R. Dawes. + +1867 Dec. 13 Note on the Total Solar Eclipse of 1868, R. Astr. Soc. + Aug. 17-18. (Month. Not.) + +1868 Biography of G.B. Airy. (Probably corrected + by himself.) + +1868 Jan. 4 Biography (with portrait) of G.B. Airy. Ill. Lond. News. + (Probably corrected by himself.) + +1868 Feb. 6 Comparison of Magnetic Disturbances Phil. Trans. + recorded by the Self-registering + Magnetometers at the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich, with Magnetic Disturbances + deduced from the corresponding Terrestrial + Galvanic Currents recorded by the + Self-registering Galvanometers of the Royal + Observatory. + +1868 Mar. 13 Address of the Astronomer Royal to the + Individual Members of the Board of Visitors. + (Number of Copies of Observations.) + +1868 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1868 July 24 First Report of the Commissioners appointed Parly. Paper. + to enquire into The Condition of + the Exchequer Standards. + +1868 Sept. 19 The Inundation at Visp. Athenaeum. + +1868 Nov. 9 On the Factorial Resolution of the Trinomial Camb. Phil. Soc. + x^n - 2cos n. a. + 1/x^n. + +1868 Dec. 10 On the Diurnal and Annual Inequalities Phil. Trans. + of Terrestrial Magnetism, as deduced + from Observations made at the Royal + Observatory from 1858 to 1863, &c. + +1868 Dec.11 On the Preparatory Arrangements for the R. Astr. Soc. + Observation of The Transits of Venus (Month. Not.) + 1874 and 1882. + +1868 Dec. 12 On the Migrations of the Welsh Nations. Athenaeum. + +1869 Mar. 8 Memorandum by the Chairman (on the + use of the Troy Weight) for the + consideration of the Members of the + Standards Commission. + +1869 Apr. 3 Second Report of the Commissioners appointed Parly. Paper. + to enquire into the condition of + the Exchequer (now Board of Trade) + Standards.--The Metric System. + +1869 April Syllabus of Lectures on Magnetism to be + delivered in the University of Cambridge. + +1869 Apr. 27 Remarks on Shelford's Paper "On the Inst. C.E. + Outfall of the River Humber." (Minutes.) + +1869 June 1 Memorandum for the consideration of the + Standards Commission, on the state of + the Question now before them regarding + the suggested Abolition of Troy Weight. + +1869 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1869 Supplementary Memorandum by the Astronomer + Royal on the proposed Abolition + of Troy Weight. + +1869 July 6 Correspondence between the Treasury, the Ho. of Comm. + Admiralty, and the Astronomer Royal, (Parly. Paper.) + respecting the arrangements to be made + for Observing the Transits of Venus, + which will take place in the years 1874 + and 1882. + +1869 Aug. 7 Note on Atmospheric Chromatic Dispersion R. Astr. Soc. + as affecting Telescopic Observation, and (Month. Not.) + on the Mode of Correcting it. + +1869 Oct. 19 Description of the Great Equatoreal of + the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + Greenwich Observations, 1868. App. + +1870 Feb. 3 Note on an Extension of the Comparison Phil. Trans. + of Magnetic Disturbances with Magnetic + Effects inferred from observed Terrestrial + Galvanic Currents; &c. &c. + +1870 Apr. 8 On the question of a Royal Commission Journ. Soc. Arts. + for Science. + +1870 May 2 Letters to the First Lord of the Admiralty + enclosing Application of the Assistants + for an increase of Salaries. + +1870 May 13 On Decimal and Metrical Systems. Journ. Soc. Arts. + +1870 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1870 Aug. 27 On the meaning of the word "Whippultree." Athenaeum. + +1870 Oct. 22 On the Locality of "Paradise." Athenaeum. + +1870 Nov. 12 On the Locality of the Roman Gesoriacum. Athenaeum. + +1870 Nov. 30 Recommendation of Prof. Miller for a R. Soc.(Proc.) + Royal Medal of the Royal Society. + (Quoted by the President.) + +1870 Revised Edition of "Astronomy." Man. Naut. Sci. + +1871 Jan. 21 The Burial of Sir John Moore. Athenaeum. + +1871 Mar. 14 Letter to the Hydrographer of the + Admiralty on the qualifications and + claims of the Assistants of the Royal + Observatory. + +1871 Apr. 5 Remarks on the Determination of a Ship's R. Soc. (Proc.) + Place at Sea. + +1871 May 2 Remarks on Samuelson's Paper "Description Inst. C.E. + of two Blast Furnaces," &c. (Minutes.) + +1871 May 3 Note on Barometric Compensation of the Phil. Mag. + Pendulum. + +1871 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1871 June 9 Remarks on Mr Abbott's observations on R. Astr. Soc. + eta Argûs. Also on A.S. Herschel's and (Month. Not.) + J. Herschel's Mechanism for measuring + Time automatically in taking Transits. + +1871 Erratum in Results of Greenwich R. Astr. Soc. + Observations of the Solar Eclipse of 1860, (Month. Not.) + July 18. Also Observations of the Solar + Eclipse of 1870, Dec. 21-22, made at the + Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + +1871 Aug. Investigation of the Law of the Progress Phil. Mag. + of Accuracy in the usual process for + Forming a Plane Surface. + +1871 Nov.16 Corrections to the Computed Lengths of Phil. Trans. + Waves of Light for Kirchhoff's Spectral + Lines. + +1871 On a supposed alteration in the amount R. Soc. (Proc.) + of Astronomical Aberration of Light, + produced by the passage of the Light + through a considerable thickness of + Refracting Medium. + +1871 Nov. 29 Biography of G.B. Airy. (Probably Daily Telegraph. + corrected by himself.) + +1871 Dec. 8 Note on a special point in the R. Astr. Soc. + determination of the Elements of the (Month. Not.) + Moon's Orbit from Meridional Observations + of the Moon. + +1871 Dec. 26 Proposed devotion of an Observatory to R. Astr. Soc. + observation of the phenomena of Jupiter's (Month. Not.) + Satellites. + +1872 Jan. Address to the Council of the Royal Society + on the propriety of continuing the Grant + to the Kew Observatory for meteorological + observations. + +1872 Feb. 8 Experiments on the Directive Power of Phil. Trans. + large Steel Magnets, of Bars of + magnetized Soft Iron, and of Galvanic + Coils, in their Action on external small + Magnets--with Appendix by James Stuart. + +1872 Feb. 12 Further Observations on the state of an Camb. Phil. Soc. + Eye affected with a peculiar malformation. + +1872 Mar. 20 Notes on Scientific Education, submitted + to the Royal Commission on Scientific + Instruction and the Advancement of + Science. + +1872 May 9 On a Supposed Periodicity in the R. Soc. (Proc.) + Elements of Terrestrial Magnetism, with a + period of 26-1/4 days. + +1872 Nov. 30 Address (as President) delivered at the + Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society. + +1872 Dec. 19 Magnetical Observations in the Phil. Trans. + Britannia and Conway Tubular Iron + Bridges. + +1873 Feb. 25 Remarks on Mr Thornton's Paper on Inst. C.E. + "The State Railways of (Minutes.) + India"--chiefly in reference to the + proposed break of gauge. + +1873 Mar. 12 Note on the want of Observations of R. Astr. Soc. + Eclipses of Jupiter's First Satellite (Month. Not.) + from 1868 to 1872. + +1873 Mar. 14 Letter to the Secretary of the R. Astr. Soc. + Admiralty on certain Articles which (Month. Not.) + had appeared in the Public Newspapers + in regard to the approaching Transit + of Venus. + +1873 Additional Note to the Paper on a R. Soc. (Proc.) + supposed Alteration in the Amount of + Astronomical Aberration of Light + produced by the passage of the Light + through a considerable thickness of + Refracting Medium. + +1873 Apr. 10 List of Candidates for election into the + Royal Society--classified. + +1873 On the Topography of the "Lady of Private. + the Lake." + +1873 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1873 Nov. 14 On the rejection, in the Lunar R. Astr. Soc. + Theory, of the term of Longitude (Month. Not.) + depending for argument on eight times + the mean longitude of Venus minus + thirteen times the mean longitude of + the Earth, introduced by Prof. + Hansen; &c. + +1873 Dec. 1 Address (as President) delivered at + the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal + Society. + +1874 Jan. On a Proposed New Method of treating R. Astr. Soc. + the Lunar Theory. (Month. Not.) + +1874 May 4 British Expeditions for the + Observation of the Transit of Venus, + 1874, December 8. Instructions to + Observers. + +1874 June 6 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1874 Aug. 6 Regulations of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. Appendix to the Greenwich + Observations, 1873. + +1874 Oct. 3 Science and Art. The Moon as carved Athenaeum. + on Lee church. + +1874 Nov. 13 Preparations for the Observation of the R. Astr. Soc. + Transit of Venus 1874, December 8-9. (Month. Not.) + +1874 Nov. 17 Remarks on the Paper "On the Nagpur Inst. C.E. + Waterworks." (Minutes.) + +1874 Dec. Telegrams relating to the Observations R. Astr. Soc. + of the Transit of Venus 1874, Dec. 9. (Month. Not.) + +1875 Feb. 2 Remarks on Mr Prestwich's Paper on the Inst. C.E. + Origin of the Chesil Bank. (Minutes.) + +1875 Feb 25 Letter to the Rev. N. M. Ferrers, on the + subject of the Smith's Prizes. + +1875 Mar. 12 On the Method to be used in Reducing R. Astr. Soc. + the Observations of the Transit of (Month. Not.) + Venus 1874, Dec. 8. + +1875 Mar. Report on the Progress made in the R. Astr. Soc. + Calculations for a New Method of (Month. Not.) + treating the Lunar Theory. + +1875 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1875 June 7 Apparatus for Final Adjustment of the Horolog. Journ. + Thermal Compensation of Chronometers, + by the Astronomer Royal. + +1875 Nov. Chart of the Apparent Path of Mars, 1877, R. Astr. Soc. + with neighbouring Stars. Also (Month. Not.) + Spectroscopic Observations made at the + Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Also + Observations of the Solar Eclipse of + 1875, September 28-29, made at the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich. + +1876 Jan. Report by the Astronomer Royal on the R. Astr. Soc. + present state of the Calculations in his (Month. Not.) + New Lunar Theory. + +1876 Jan. 27 Note on a point in the life of Sir William Athenaeum. + Herschel. + +1876 Mar. 15 Evidence given before the Government + Committee on the Meteorological + Committee. + +1876 May 20 On Toasting at Public Dinners. Public Opinion. + +1876 June 3 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors, + +1876 Aug. 7 On a Speech attributed to Nelson. Athenaeum. + +1876 Dec. Spectroscopic Results for the Rotation of R. Astr. Soc. + Jupiter and of the Sun, obtained at the (Month. Not.) + Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + +1877 Jan. Stars to be compared in R.A. with Mars, R. Astr. Soc. + 1877, for Determination of the Parallax (Month. Not.) + of Mars. + +1877 Mar. Note by the Astronomer Royal on the R. Astr. Soc. + Numerical Lunar Theory. Also Remarks (Month. Not.) + on Le Verrier's intra-Mercurial Planet. + Also on Observations for the Parallax of + Mars. + +1877 Mar. 27 Remarks on a Paper on "The River Inst. C.E. + Thames." (Minutes.) + +1877 Apr. On observing for Le Verrier's intra-Mercurial R. Astr. Soc. + Planet. Also on the Parallax of (Month. Not.) + Mars, and Mr Gill's proposed expedition. + +1877 May On the vulgar notion that the Sun or Moon The Observatory + is smallest when overhead. (No. 2). + +1877 June 2 Report of the Astronomer Royal to the + Board of Visitors. + +1877 July 16 Report on the Telescopic Observations of Ho. of Commons + the Transit of Venus 1874, made in the Parly. Paper. + Expedition of the British Government, + and on the Conclusion derived from + those Observations. + +1877 Sept. 13 On Spurious Discs of Stars produced by The Observatory + oval object-glasses. (No. 7). + +1877 Sept. 24 Obituary Notice of the work of Le Daily News. + Verrier--died Sept. 23, 1877. + +1877 Nov. 20 On the Value of the Mean Solar Parallax The Observatory + &c. from the British telescopic Observations (No. 8). + of the Transit of Venus 1874. + Also Remarks on Prof. Adams's Lunar + Theory. + +1877 Nov. On the Inferences for the Value of Mean R. Astr. Soc. + Solar Parallax &c. from the Telescopic (Month. Not.) + Observations of the Transit of Venus + 1874, which were made in the British + Expedition for the Observation of that + Transit. + +1877 Numerical Lunar Theory: Appendix to + Greenwich Astronomical Observations + 1875. + +1877 Dec. 6 On the Tides at Malta. Phil. Trans. + +1878 Correspondence with Le Verrier on his The Observatory + Planetary Tables in 1876. (No. 10). + +1878 On the Proposal of the French Committee The Observatory + to erect a Statue to Le Verrier. Also (No. 13). + on the Observation of the approaching + Transit of Mercury. + +1878 Mar. 11 On the Correction of the Compass in Phil. Mag. + Iron Ships without use of a Fixed + Mark. + +1878 Mar. 30 On the Standards of Length in the The Times. + Guildhall, London. + +1878 Apr. 27 Report of Lecture on "The probable W. Cumberland + condition of the Interior of the Times. + Earth." + On the probable condition of the Trans. of the + Interior of the Earth--Revised Cumberland + Edition of above Lecture. Assoc., &c. + +1878 June 1 Discussion of the Observations of The Observatory + the Transit of Mercury on May 6. (No. 14). + +1878 Abstract of Lecture delivered at The Observatory + Cockermouth on "The Interior of the (No. 14). + Earth." + +1978 June 1 Report of the Astronomer Royal to + the Board of Visitors. + +1878 July 1 Remarks on the measurement of the The Observatory + photographs taken in the Transit of (No. 15). + Venus Observations. + +1878 July 13 On the Variable Star R. Scuti: The Observatory + distortion in the Photo-heliograph. (No. 16). + +1878 Remarks on Mr Gill's Heliometric The Observatory + Observations of Mars. (No. 20). + +1878 Dec. Note on a Determination of the Mass R. Astr. Soc. + of Mars, and reference to his own (Month. Not.) + determination in 1828. Also Note on + the Conjunction of Mars and Saturn, + 1879, June 30. + +1879 Jan. 1 On the remarkable conjunction of The Observatory + the Planets Mars and Saturn which (No. 21). + will occur on 1879, June 30. + +1879 Feb. 15 On the names "Cabul" and "Malek." Athenaeum + +1879 Feb. 25 On Faggot Votes in Cornwall in 1828. Athenaeum + +1879 Mar. 13 Letter on the Examination Papers for + the Smith's Prizes. + +1879 Apr. 7 Drafts of Resolutions proposed + concerning Sadler's Notes on the + late Admiral Smyth's "Cycle of + Celestial Objects." + +1879 June 1 Letter to Le Verrier, dated 1875, The Observatory + Feb. 5, in support of the Method (No. 26). + of Least Squares. + +1879 June 1 Remarks in debate on Sadler's The Observatory + "Notes" above-mentioned. (No. 26). + +1879 June 7 Report of the Astronomer Royal to + the Board of Visitors. + +1879 July 29 Index to the Records of occasional R. Astr. Soc. + Observations and Calculations made (Month. Not. + at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, supplementary.) + and to other miscellaneous Papers + connected with that Institution. + +1879 Biography of G. B. Airy (perhaps + corrected by himself) in French, + published at Geneva. + +1879 Sept. On the Construction and Use of a Phil. Mag. + Scale for Gauging Cylindrical + Measures of Capacity. + +1880 On the Theoretical Value of the The Observatory + Acceleration of the Moon's Mean (No. 37). + Motion. + +1880 On the Secular Acceleration of The Observatory + the Moon--additional note. (No. 37). + +1880 Apr. 27 Memoranda for the Commission appointed + to consider the Tay Bridge casualty. + +1880 Apr. On the Theoretical Value of the R. Astr. Soc. + Acceleration of the Moon's Mean (Month. Not.) + Motion in Longitude produced by + the Change of Eccentricity of the + Earth's Orbit. + +1880 May On the Preparations to be made for R. Astr. Soc. + Observation of the Transit of Venus (Month. Not.) + 1882, Dec. 6. + +1880 On the present Proximity of Jupiter The Observatory + to the Earth, and on the Intervals of (No. 42). + Recurrence of the same Phaenomena. + +1880 June 5 Report of the Astronomer Royal to + the Board of Visitors. + +1880 Sept. 4 On the _e muet_ in French. Athenaeum. + +1880 Sept. 4 Excursions in the Keswick Keswick + District. Guardian. + +1880 Dec. 1 Description of Flamsteed's The Observatory + Equatoreal Sextant, and Remarks on (No. 44). + Graham. + +1880 Addition to a Paper entitled "On R. Astr. Soc. + the Theoretical Value of the Moon's (Month. Not. + Mean Motion in Longitude," &c. supplementary.) + +1881 Mar. Effect on the Moon's Movement in R. Astr. Soc. + Latitude, produced by the slow (Month. Not.) + change of Position of the Plane of + the Ecliptic. + +1881 June 4 Report of the Astronomer Royal to + the Board of Visitors. + +1881 Logarithms of the Values of all Inst. C. E. + Vulgar Fractions with Numerator and (Minutes.) + Denominator not exceeding 100: arranged in + order of magnitude. + +1881 July 6 A New Method of Clearing the Lunar + Distance.--Admiralty. + +1881 Aug. 4 On a Systematic Interruption in the order Phil. Mag. + of numerical values of Vulgar Fractions, + when arranged in a series of consecutive + magnitudes. + +1882 Sept. 15 Monthly Means of the Highest and R. Soc. (Proc.) + Lowest Diurnal Temperatures of the + Water of the Thames, and Comparison + with the corresponding Temperatures of + the Air at the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. + +1882 Oct. 19 On the Proposed Forth Bridge. Nature. + +1882 Dec. 7 On the Proposed Forth Bridge. Nature. + +1883 Jan. 21 On the Ossianic Poems. Athenaeum. + +1883 Mar. 12 On the proposed Braithwaite and Daily News. + Buttermere Railway. Times. + Standard. + +1883 Apr. 28 Memorandum on the progress of the + Numerical Lunar Theory, addressed to the + Board of Visitors of the Royal + Observatory, Greenwich. + +1883 Letter on The Apparent Inequality in the The Observatory + Mean Motion of the Moon. (No. 74). + +1883 Aug. 18 On a Singular Morning Dream. Nature. + +1883 Sept. 10 Power of organization of the common Nature. + mouse. + +1883 Nov. 17 On Chepstow Railway Bridge, with general Nature. + remarks suggested by that Structure. + +1884 Mar. 8 On the Erroneous Usage of the term Athenaeum. + "arterial drainage." + +1884 On the Comparison of Reversible and The Observatory + Non-reversible Transit Instruments. (No. 85). + +1884 Nov. 10 On an obscure passage in the Koran. Nature. (?) + +1885 May 28 An Incident in the History of Trinity Athenaeum. + College, Cambridge. + +1885 June 8 Incident No. 2 in the History of Trinity Athenaeum. + College, Cambridge. + +1885 Nov. 26 Results deduced from the Measure of Phil. Trans. + Terrestrial Magnetic Force in the Horizontal + Plane, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, + from 1841 to 1876. + +1886 Apr. 6 Integer Members of the First Centenary Nature. + satisfying the Equation + A² = B² + C². + +1887 Feb. 12 On the earlier Tripos of the University of Nature. (?) + Cambridge: in MSS. + + +1887 Apr. 14 On the Establishment of the Roman Dominion Nature. + in South-East Britain. + +1887 July 23 On a special Algebraic function, and its Camb. Phil. Soc. + application to the solution of (?) + some Equations: in MSS. + + + + BOOKS WRITTEN BY G. B. AIRY. + +Mathematical Tracts on Physical Astronomy, the Figure of the Earth, +Precession and Nutation, and The Calculus of Variations. This was +published in 1826. In a 2nd Edition published in 1831 the Undulatory +Theory of Optics was added to the above list. Four Editions of this +work have been published, the last in 1858. The Undulatory Theory of +Optics was published separately in 1877. + +Gravitation: an Elementary Explanation of the Principal Perturbations +in the Solar System. Written for the Penny Cyclopaedia, and published +previously as a book in 1834. There was a 2nd Edition in 1884. + +Trigonometry. This was written for the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana +about 1825, and was published as a separate book in 1855 under the +Title of "A Treatise on Trigonometry." + +Six Lectures on Astronomy delivered at the meetings of the friends of +the Ipswich Museum at the Temperance Hall, Ipswich, in the month of +March 1848. These Lectures under the above Title, and that of "Popular +Astronomy, a series of Lectures," have run through twelve editions. + +On the Algebraical and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and +the Combination of Observations, 1st Edition in 1861, 2nd in 1875, 3rd +in 1879. + +Essays on the Invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar; The Invasion of +Britain by Plautius, and by Claudius Caesar; The Early Military Policy +of the Romans in Britain; The Battle of Hastings, with Correspondence. +Collected and printed for private distribution in 1865. + +An Elementary Treatise on Partial Differential Equations. 1866. + +On Sound and Atmospheric Vibrations, with the Mathematical Elements of +Music. The 1st Edition in 1868, the 2nd in 1871. + +A Treatise on Magnetism, published in 1870. + +Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures, published in 1876. + +Numerical Lunar Theory, published in 1886. + + + +INDEX. + +Accidents (see also Illnesses) +Accounts +Acts and Opponencies +Adams, Prof. J.C. +Adams, John Quincey +Agrarian fires +Aiken +Airy, William, father of G.B.A. +Airy, Ann, mother of G.B.A. +Airy, William, brother of G.B.A., and Basil R. Airy, his son +Airy, Arthur, brother of G.B.A. +Airy, Elizabeth, sister of G.B.A. +Airy, Richarda, wife of G.B.A. +Airy, children of G.B.A. + George Richard + Elizabeth + Arthur + Wilfrid + Hubert + Hilda + Christabel + Annot + Osmund +Allsop +Alnwick +Altazimuth instrument +Althorp, Lord +American Observatories +American method of recording Observations (see Galvanic Registration) +Ampère +Ancient eclipses +Anderson, lessee of Harton Colliery +Anemometer (see Meteorology) +Anniversary parties +Antiquarian researches and notes +Arago +Architecture (see Cathedrals, &c.) +Astronomical Society (see Royal Astr. Soc.) +Astronomische Gesellschaft +Athenaeum newspaper +Athenaeum Club +Atkinson, Senior Wrangler 1821 +Atlantic cable +Atmospheric railway (see Railways) +Auckland, Lord +Aurora Borealis +Australian Observatories (see also Observatories) +Auwers, Dr +Babbage, Charles +Baily, Francis +Bakhuysen, of Leyden +Balance (Public Balance) +Baldock, Commander +Baldrey, assistant +Banks, optician +Baring, Sir T. +Barlow, Prof. +Barlow, W.H. +Barnard, Proctor +Barnes, Miss +Barnes, Gorell +Barometers +Barry, Sir C. +Barton, Bernard +Baxter, secretary to the Admiralty +Beacons, floating +Beaufort, Captain +Beaumont's Observatory +Bedingfield, pupil +Bell Scholarships (see Examinations) +Bessell, astronomer +Biddell, Arthur, uncle of G.B.A. +Biddell, George, uncle of G.B.A. +Biddell, William, uncle of G.B.A. +Biddell, George Arthur, son of Arthur Biddell +Biographical notes +Bissett, pupil +Blackwood, Captain +Blakesley, Canon +Blasting +Bliss's observations +Blomfield, G.B., pupil +Bloomfield, Lord +Board of Longitude +Boileau +Bond, G.P. +Books, written by G.B.A., Appendix +Book Society, Cambr. +Bosanquet +Bouch, T. Civ. Eng. +Boundary of Canada (see Canada) +Bouvard, E. +Bowstead +Bradley's observations +Brazil, Emperor of +Breakwaters (see Harbours) +Breen, assistant +Brewster, Sir D. +Bridges +Brinkley, Dr +Bristow, Miss +Britannia Bridge (see Bridges) +Brooke, Charles +British Association +Brougham, Lord +Browne, G.A. +Brunel, Civ. Eng. +Buck +Buckland, Dr +Buckle, pupil +Burgoyne, Sir J. +Burlington, Lord +Burton +Busts (see Portraits) +Calculating machines +Calvert +Cambridge Observatory: + Assistants + Instruments + Printed observations + General +Cambridge University +Cambridge Observatory, U.S.A. +Canada boundary +Cankrein, pupil +Canning, Lord +Cape of Good Hope, Observatory and Survey +Carpenter, assistant +Cartmell, Dr +Case +Catalogues of stars (see Stars) +Cathedrals and churches +Catton +Cavendish experiment +Cayley, Prof. +Challis, Prof. +Chalmers, Dr +Cherbourg (see Harbours) +Chesil Bank +Childers +Childers, First Lord of Admiralty +Christchurch +Christie, Prof. +Christie, Astronomer Royal +Chronographic barrel (see Galvanic Registration) +Chronometers +Churches (see Cathedrals) +Church service +Cincinnati Observatory +Clarendon, Lord +Clark, Latimer +Clarkson, Thomas, and Mrs Clarkson +Cleasby, pupil +Clegg +Clinton, pupil +Clocks +Cockburn, Sir G. +Coinage (see Decimal Coinage) +Colby, Col. +Colchester +Colenso, Bishop +College Hall +Collorado, Count +Colonial Observatories (see Observatories) +Comets +Commissions +Compass corrections +Cookson, Dr +Cooper, pupil +Cooper's telescope (see Telescopes) +Copying press +Corbaux, Miss +Corryvreckan whirlpool +Courtney, Rev. J. +Cowper, First Commissioner of Works +Crawford, pupil +Criswick, assistant +Cropley, +Crosse, Rev. E. +Cubitt, Sir W. +Daguerrotypes +Dalhousie, Lord +Davy, Sir Humphrey +Davy, Dr +Daynou, Lieut. +Deal time ball +De Berg +Decimal coinage and decimal subdividing +Dee navigation (see Rivers) +Degrees (see also Orders and Elections to Societies) +Deighton, publisher +De La Rive +De La Rue +De Launay +Deluge, The +De Morgan, A. +Denison, E.B. +Denison, Sir W. +Denison, H. +Denmark, King of +Dent, clockmaker +Dent-dale +Devonshire, Duke of +Dobbs, pupil +Dobree, lecturer +Docks (see Harbours) +Dolcoath experiments +Dollond, instrument maker +Drainage +Drinkwater, Bethune +Double-image micrometer +Douglas, Sir H. +Dover (see Harbours) +Dublin professorship (see Professorships) +Dublin Observatory (see Observatories) +Duë, Baron +Dundas, Admiral +Dundonald, Lord +Dunkin, assistant +Dunlop, astronomer +Durham observatory +Earnshaw +Earth currents +Eastons, manufacturers +Eclipses (see also Ancient Eclipses) +Edinburgh Observatory +Edmonston, Dr +Education (see University Education) +Egyptian Astronomical Tablets +Elections to societies, &c. (see also Degrees and Orders) +Electricity, atmospheric +Ellenborough, Lord +Ellis, W., assistant +Elphinstone +Encke and Encke's Comet +Encyclopaedia Metropolitana +Engines (see Steam-engines) +Equatoreal, large +Estcourt, Col. +Evans, lecturer +Examinations +Exhibitions and prizes +Exodus of the Israelites +Eye, defects of +Eye, estate at +Fallows, astronomer +Faraday +Farish +Farr +Fellowship +Field +Fisher +Fishmongers' Company +Fletcher, Isaac, M.P. +Floating Island, Derwentwater +Fluid telescope, Barlow's +Foley +Forbes, Prof. J.D. +Foster, Messrs +Fox, Alfred +Freedom of the City of London +Freemantle, Sir T. +French, Dr +Friends, Personal friends at Cambridge +Fries, Prof. +Galbraith +Galle +Galvanic communication, Time-signals, Clocks, and Registration + (see also Earth currents) +Gambard +Gas Act +Gauss +Gautier +Geodesy +Geology +Geological Society +Germany +Gibson, pupil +Gilbert, Messrs +Gilbert, Davies +Gill, astronomer +Gladstone, W.E. +Glaisher, assistant +Glasgow Observatory +Gordon +Gosset +Goulburn, Chancellor of the Exchequer +Gould, Dr B.A. +Goussel +Graduation of circles +Grant, of Glenmoriston +Great Circle sailing (see Navigation) +Great Eastern (see Ships) +Great Exhibition +Great Gable +Green, Commander U.S.N. +Greenwich +Greenwich Observatory, before his appointment as Astronomer Royal +Greenwich Observatory: + Appointment as Astronomer Royal, and subsequently as Visitor + Buildings and grounds in, + Instruments + Assistants + Computations + Papers and manuscripts (arrangement of) + Estimates + Printed Observations + Visitations and Reports + General +Gresswell +Groombridge's Catalogue (see Stars) +Guest, Caius College +Haarlem +Hall, Col. +Halley and Halley's Comet +Hamilton +Hamilton, Sir W.R. +Hamilton, Admiral +Hansard +Hansen, Prof. +Hansteen +Harbours +Harcourt, Rev. W. Vernon +Hartnup, astronomer +Harton Colliery experiments +Haviland, Dr +Hawkes, Trinity College +Hebrew Scriptures +Heliograph +Hencke +Henderson, astronomer +Henslow, Prof. +Herbert, G. +Hereford +Herschel, Sir John +Herschel, Miss Caroline +Herschel, Col. J. +Hervey, pupil +Higman, Tutor, Trinity College +Hilgard, U.S.A. +Himalaya Expedition +Hind, Moderator +Hind, Superintendent Nautical Almanac +Hopkins +Hovenden, pupil +Hudson +Huggins, Dr +Humboldt, Baron A. +Humphreys +Hussey, Dr +Hustler, Tutor, Trinity College +Hyde Parker, Admiral +Hygrometers +Ibbotson, pupil +Iliff +Illnesses +Inequality, Venus and Earth +Inglis, Sir R. +Institut de France +Institution of Civil Engineers +Inverness, Northern Institution of +Ipswich Lectures +Ireland, notes of +Ivory +Jackson +Jackson, John +James, Sir H. +Janus (see Steam-engines) +Jarrow (see Harbours) +Jeffries +Jerrard, Dr +Jervis, Major +Jeune, Dr, V.C. of Oxford +Johnson, Capt. +Johnson, astronomer +Jones, instrument-makers +Jones, R. +Journeys: + Scotland and Cumberland; Swansea; + Derbyshire, &c.; Wales; Keswick, &c.; Cornwall, + &c.; Orléans; Lake District, &c.; Continent, + Observatories, &c.; Cornwall, &c.; Derbyshire; Oxford + &c.; Cumberland; Ireland; Scotland; Derbyshire, &c.; + Cumberland, &c.; Ireland; Kent; S. Wales; + Luddington and Yorkshire; Border of Scotland; + S. Wales; Cumberland and Yorkshire; South of Ireland; + Ireland; France; Cornwall; Germany; Petersburg, &c.; + Ireland; Shetland; Scotland; + Sweden; Madeira; Cumberland; Cumberland; Oban, &c.; Italy and + Sicily; West Highlands; Switzerland; Central France; Spain + (eclipse); Cumberland; West Highlands; + West Highlands; Cumberland; Norway; Cumberland; Switzerland; + Cumberland; Cumberland; Cumberland; Scotland; Scotland; N. + of Scotland; Ireland; Scotland, &c.; + Cumberland; Cumberland; + Cumberland; Cumberland; S. Wales; Cumberland 358; Cumberland +Julius Caesar, landing of +Jupiter (see Planets) +Keeling +Kennedy +King, Joshua +Kingstown +Knight, publisher +Knighthood, offers of +Lagarde +Laing +Landman, Engineer +Langton +Lardner, Dr +Lassell, and Lassell's telescope +Latitude determinations +Lax, Prof. +Lectures: + College + Professorial + Miscellaneous +Lefevre, J.G.S. +Leitch, Dr +Le Verrier +Lewis, H. +Lewis, Sir G.C. +Lightfoot, Rev. Dr +Lighthouses +Lightning +Lillingstone +Lindsay, Lord +Listing, Prof. +Liverpool Observatory +Livingstone, Dr +Lloyd, Dr +Lloyd, Prof. +Lockyer +Lodge +London University +London, Freedom of the City +Long vacations, with pupils +Longitude determinations +Longitude, Board of (see Board of Longitude) +Lowe, Chancellor of the Exchequer +Lubbock, Sir John +Lucas (computer) +Lucasian Professorship (see Professorships) +Lunar Reductions +Lunar Theory and Tables (see also Numerical Lunar Theory) +Lyndhurst, Lord +Lyons, Sir E. +Macaulay, T.B. +Macdonnell, Dr +Maclean, of Loch Buy +Maclear, Astronomer +Madras Observatory 101 +Magnetic Observatory and Magnetism + (see also Meteorology, Compass corrections, and Earth currents) +Main, Robert +Maine Boundary (see Canada) +Maiden, Prof. +Malkin +Malta +Man-Engines (see Mines) +Manuscripts (see Papers) +Mars (see Planets) +Marshman, pupil +Marth, A. +Martin, Trin. Coll. +Maskelyne, astronomer +Mason +Mathematical Investigations (see also Appendix "Printed Papers") +Mathematical Tracts +Mathematical subjects in +Maudslays and Field +May, Ransomes and May +Medals +Melbourne University +Melville, Lord +Mercury (see Planets) +Merivale, Dr +Meteorology +Meteors +Middleton, Sir W. +Milaud +Military researches +Miller, Prof. +Mines +Minto, Lord +Mitchell, astronomer +Mitchell Miss +Molesworth, Sir W. +Monteagle, Lord +Monument in Playford church +Moon: + Observations of + Theory and Tables of (see Lunar Theory and Tables) + Reductions of Observations of (see Lunar Reductions) + Mass of +Morpeth, Lord +Morton, Pierce, pupil +Murchison, Sir R. +Murray, publisher +Musgrave, Charles +Musgrave, T. Archbishop +Myers +Nasmyth +Nautical Almanac +Navigation +Neate, pupil +Neptune and Uranus +Newall +Newcombe, Prof. +New Forest +Northampton, Lord +Northumberland Telescope +Numerical Lunar Theory +Observatories: see American, Australian, Beaumont's, + Cambridge, Cambridge U.S.A., + Cape of Good Hope, Cincinnati, + Colonial, Dublin, Durham, + Edinburgh, Glasgow, Greenwich, + Liverpool, Madras, Oxford, Paris, + Paramatta, Pulkowa, St Helena, + Williamstown +Occultations +O'Connell +Ogilby, pupil +Oppolzer, Prof. +Opponencies (see Acts and Opponencies) +Optics +Orders (see also Degrees and Elections to Societies) +Ouvaroff, Count +Oxford Observatory +Oxford, Miscellaneous +Packington, Sir J. +Palmerston, Lord +Papers (see Appendix "Printed Papers") +Papers, Arrangement of +Parachute, Fall of +Parallax (see Sun) +Paramatta Observatory +Parker, Charles +Parker, Vice-Chancellor +Paris, Dr +Paris Observatory +Paris Exhibition +Parliamentary Elections +Pasley +Paul +Peacock, George +Pearson, Dr +Peel, Sir Robert +Pendulum Investigations and Experiments +Penny Cyclopaedia +Pension +Pentland +Percy, Bishop +Personal sketch +Philosophical Society, Cambridge +Philpott, Dr +Photography +Piers (see Harbours) +Pinheiro, Lieut. +Pipon, Lieut. +Plana, astronomer +Planetary influences +Planetary Reductions +Planets (see also Transits of Venus) +Plantamour +Playford +Plumian Professorship (see Professorships) +Pocket-books for Observations +Pogson, astronomer +Pond, astronomer +Portlock, Capt. +Portraits, busts, &c. +Post Office, (clocks, &c.) +Post Office, stamps and envelopes +Pouillet +Prince Albert +Pritchard, Rev. C. +Prizes (see Exhibitions) +Probable errors +Professorships: + Dublin; Lucasian; Plumian +Public Schools Commission +Pulkowa Observatory +Pupils: + Bedingfield; Bissett; Blomfield; + Buckle; Cankrein; Cleasby; + Clinton; Cooper; Crawford; Dobbs; + Gibson; Guest; Hervey; + Hovenden; Ibbotson; Lewis; + Marshman; Morton; Neate; + Ogilby; Parker; Rosser; + Smith; Tinkler; Tottenham; + Turner; Wigram; Williamson +Pym, Engineer +Queen, H.M. the Queen, +Quéroualle, Mdlle de +Quetelet +Railways, near Observatory +Railway Gauge Commission +Railways, miscellaneous +Rain (see Meteorology) +Rainbows +Ransomes, also Ransomes and May 17, +Reach +Reflex zenith tube +Religious tests and views +Repsold +Rhodes +Richardson, assistant +Rigaud, Prof. +Rivers +Robinson, Dr +Robinson, Capt. +Rogers, Rev. +Rogers, school assistant +Romilly, Lord +Ronalds +Rose, Rev. H.J. +Rosse, Lord, and Rosse's Telescope +Rosser, pupil +Rothery +Rothman +Round Down Cliff, blasting of +Rouse, Rev. R.C. M. +Routh, Dr E.J. +Royal Astronomical Society (see also +Appendix "Printed Papers") +Royal Exchange clock +Royal Institution +Royal Society (see also Appendix "Printed Papers") +Royal Society of Edinburgh +Rüncker, Paramatta +Rüncker +Rundell +Rusby +Russell, Lord John +Sabine, Col. +Sadler, H. +Saint Helena Observatory +Samuda +Saturn (see Planets) +Saunders, G.W. By +Saw-mills (see Ship timbers) +Schehallien, mountain +Scholarship +Scholefield +Schumacher +Scientific Manual +Scoop-wheels +Scoresby, Dr +Scriptural Researches (see Hebrew Scriptures) +Sedgwick, Adam +Selwyn, Prof. +Senate House Examination (see also University Education) +Sewers Commission +Sheepshanks, Rev. Richard, and Miss +Sheepshanks +Sheepshanks Fund and Scholarship +Shepherd, clock-maker +Ship-timbers, Machinery for sawing, +Shirreff, Capt. +Simmons +Simms, F.W. +Simms (see Troughton and Simms) +Skeleton forms +Sly, draughtsman +Smith, Rev. R. Smith, father-in-law of G.B.A., and Mrs Smith, +Smith, the Misses Smith, sisters of + Richarda Airy, Susanna; + Elizabeth; Georgiana; + Florence; Caroline +Smith, Archibald +Smith, M., pupil +Smith's Prizes +Smyth, Capt. W.H. +Smyth, Piazzi +Societies, &c., Elections to (see Elections) +Solar Eclipses (see Eclipses) +Solar Inequality (see Sun) +Solar System (see Sun) +Solar Tables (see Sun) +South, Sir James +South's Telescope +South-Eastern Railway +Southampton +Southey (Poet) +Spectroscopy +Spottiswoode +Spring-Rice, Lord Monteagle +Standards of Length and Weight, and +Standards Commission +Stars +Start Point +Steam-engines +Stephenson, George +Stephenson, Robert +Steventon +Stewart, Prof. Balfour +Stjerneld, Baron +Stokes, Prof. +Stone, Astronomer +Stratford, Lieut. +Stroganoff, Count +Strutt, Lord Belper +Strutt, Jedediah +Struve, Otto +Stuart, Prof. J. +Sun: + Miscellaneous + Parallax of (see also Transits of Venus) + Eclipses of (see Eclipses) + Inequality, Venus and Earth + Tables of +Surveys (see Trigonometrical Surveys) +Sussex, Duke of, +Sutcliffe +Sutcliffe, Miss +Sydney University +Sylvester +Sweden, King of +Tate +Taylor, architect +Taylor, First Assistant to Pond, +Taylor, H. +Telegraphs (see Galvanic communications) +Telescopes (see also Cambridge Observatory Instruments, + and Greenwich Observatory Instruments) +Teneriffe Experiment +Thames, the River, +Theology (see also Hebrew Scriptures and Colenso) +Thermometers +Thermo-multiplier +Thirlwall, Bishop +Thomas, assistant +Thompson, Master Trin. Coll. +Thomson, Sir W. +Tidal Harbour Commission +Tides, +Time-signals and Time (see also Galvanic communication, &c.) +Time balls (see Time signals) +Tinkler, pupil +Tottenham, pupil +Traill, Dr +Transit Circle, +Transits of Venus +Trigonometrical Survey +Trinity College, Cambridge +Trinity House Tripos Examination (see Senate-House Examination) +Troughton and Simms +Tulley, optician +Tupman, Capt +Turner, pupil +Turton, Prof. +Tutorship +Ulrich, J.G. +Universities (see Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, Melbourne, + Oxford, Sydney) +University Education (see also Smith's Prizes and Senate-House Examination) +University Press, +Uranus (see Neptune) +Valencia (see also Longitude Determinations) +Venus (see Planets, and Transits of Venus) +Venus and Earth inequality (see Inequality) +Vernon Harcourt (see Harcourt) +Vetch, Capt. +Vibrations of ground +Vignoles, C.B., engineer +Vulliamy, clockmaker +Wales, Prince of +Walker, Byatt +Walker, James, engineer +Walker, Sydney, +Warburton, H. +Washington, Capt. +Water telescope (see also Fluid telescope) +Watson +Waves (see Tides) +Webster, M.P. for Aberdeen +Western +Westminster clock (see also Clocks) +Wexford harbour (see Harbours) +Wheatstone +Whewell, William +White House, the, +Wigram, pupil +Williams, John +Williamson, pupil +Williamstown Observatory +Wilson, Prof. +Winchester +Winds (see Meteorology) +Winning +Wood, Sir Charles +Wood, Dr +Woodbridge, Suffolk +Woodhouse, Prof. +Woolwich Academy (see Examinations) +Wordsworth, Dr, Master of Trin. Coll. +Wordsworth, poet +Wrede, Baron +Wynter, Vice-Chancellor, Oxford +Yolland, Col. +York Cathedral +Young, Dr + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography of Sir George Biddell +Airy, by George Biddell Airy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIR GEORGE AIRY *** + +***** This file should be named 10655-8.txt or 10655-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/6/5/10655/ + +Produced by Joseph Myers and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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