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diff --git a/10649-h/10649-h.htm b/10649-h/10649-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..63611ee --- /dev/null +++ b/10649-h/10649-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11138 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beacon Lights of History, Volume XIV, by John Lord</title> + <style type="text/css"> + <!-- + * { font-family: Times;} + P { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 14pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + HR { width: 33%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + // --> + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume XIV, by John +Lord</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a> + +Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume XIV + +Author: John Lord + +Release Date: January 9, 2004 [eBook #10649] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: iso-8859-1 + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME XIV*** + +</pre> +<center><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner,<br> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3></center> +<br> +<hr class="full"> +<br> +<br> +<center><i>LORD'S LECTURES</i></center> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2> + +<h2>BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.</h2> + +<center>AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE," +ETC., ETC.</center> +<br><br> + +<h2>VOLUME XIV.</h2> + +<h2>THE NEW ERA.</h2> + +<center> +A SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME, BY RECENT WRITERS,<br> +AS SET FORTH IN THE PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. +</center> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.</h2> + +<p>In preparing the new edition of Dr. Lord's great work, it has been +thought desirable to do what the venerable author's death in 1894 did +not permit him to accomplish, and add a volume summarizing certain broad +aspects of achievement in the last fifty years. It were manifestly +impossible to cover in any single volume--except in the dry, cyclopaedic +style of chronicling multitudinous facts, so different from the vivid, +personal method of Dr. Lord--all the growths of the wonderful period +just closed. The only practicable way has been to follow our author's +principle of portraying <i>selected historic forces</i>,--to take, as +representative or typical of the various departments, certain great +characters whose services have signalized them as "Beacon Lights" along +the path of progress, and to secure adequate portrayal of these by men +known to be competent for interesting exposition of the several themes.</p> + +<p>Thus the volume opens with a paper on "Richard Wagner: Modern Music," by +Henry T. Finck, the musical critic of the <i>New York Evening Post</i>, and +author of various works on music, travel, etc.; and then follow in order +these: "John Ruskin: Modern Art," by G. Mercer Adam, author of "A Précis +of English History," recently editor of the <i>Self-Culture Magazine</i> and +of the Werner Supplements to the Encyclopaedia Britannica; "Herbert +Spencer: The Evolutionary Philosophy," and "Charles Darwin: His Place in +Modern Science," both by Mayo W. Hazeltine, literary editor of the <i>New +York Sun</i>, whose book reviews over the signature "M.W.H." have for years +made the <i>Sun's</i> book-page notable; "John Ericsson: Navies of War and +Commerce," by Prof. W.F. Durand, of the School of Marine Engineering and +the Mechanic Arts in Cornell University; "Li Hung Chang: The Far East," +by Dr. William A. P. Martin, the distinguished missionary, diplomat, and +author, recently president of the Imperial University, Peking, China; +"David Livingstone: African Exploration," by Cyrus C. Adams, +geographical and historical expert, and a member of the editorial staff +of the <i>New York Sun</i>; "Sir Austen H. Layard: Modern Archaeology," by +Rev. William Hayes Ward, D.D., editor of <i>The Independent</i>, New York, +himself eminent in Oriental exploration and decipherment; "Michael +Faraday: Electricity and Magnetism," by Prof. Edwin J. Houston of +Philadelphia, an accepted authority in electrical engineering; and, +"Rudolf Virchow: Modern Medicine and Surgery," by Dr. Frank P. Foster, +physician, author, and editor of the <i>New York Medical Journal</i>.</p> + +<p>The selection of themes must be arbitrary, amid the numberless lines of +development during the "New Era" of the Nineteenth Century, in which +every mental, moral, and physical science and art has grown and +diversified and fructified with a rapidity seen in no other five +centuries. It is hoped, however, that the choice will be justified by +the interest of the separate papers, and that their result will be such +a view of the main features as to leave a distinct impression of the +general life and advancement, especially of the last half of +the century.</p> + +<p>It is proper to say that the preparation and issuance of Dr. Lord's +"Beacon Lights of History" were under the editorial care of Mr. John E. +Howard of Messrs. Fords, Howard, and Hulbert, the original publishers of +the work, while the proof-sheets also received the critical attention of +Mr. Abram W. Stevens, one of the accomplished readers of the University +Press in Cambridge, Mass. Mr. Howard has also supervised the new +edition, including this final volume, which issues from the same choice +typographical source.</p> + +<p>NEW YORK, September, 1902.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#RICHARD_WAGNER:_MODERN_MUSIC.">RICHARD WAGNER</a></i>.</p> + +<p>MODERN Music.</p> + +<p>BY HENRY T. FINCK.</p> + +Youth-time; early ambitions as a composer.<br> + +Weber, his fascinator and first inspirer.<br> + +"Der Freischutz" and "Euryanthe" prototypes of his operas.<br> + +Their supernatural, mythical, and romantic elements.<br> + +What he owed to his predecessors acknowledged in his essay on "The Music +of the Future" (1860).<br> + +Marriage and early vicissitudes.<br> + +"Rienzi," "The Novice of Palermo," and "The Flying Dutchman".<br> + +Writes stories and essays for musical publications.<br> + +After many disappointments wins success at Dresden.<br> + +"Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin".<br> + +Compromises himself in Revolution of 1849 and has to seek safety in +Switzerland.<br> + +Here he conceives and partly writes the "Nibelung Tetralogy".<br> + +Discouragements at London and at Paris.<br> + +"Siegfried" and "Tristan and Isolde".<br> + +Finds a patron in Ludwig II. of Bavaria.<br> + +Nibelung Festival at Bayreuth.<br> + +"Parsifal" appears; death of Wagner at Vienna (1882).<br> + +Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin.<br> + +Other eminent composers and pianists.<br> + +Liszt as a contributor to current of modern music.<br> + +Berlioz, Saint-Saëns, Tchaikovsky, Dvorák, Strauss, and Weber.<br> + +"The Music of the Future" the music of the present.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#JOHN_RUSKIN.">JOHN RUSKIN</a></i>.</p> + +<p>MODERN ART.</p> + +<p>BY G. MERCER ADAM.</p> + +Passionate and luminous exponent of Nature's beauties.<br> + +His high if somewhat quixotic ideal of life.<br> + +Stimulating writings in ethics, education, and political economy.<br> + +Frederic Harrison on Ruskin's stirring thoughts and melodious speech.<br> + +Birth and youth-time; Collingwood's "Life" and his own "Praeterita".<br> + +Defence of Turner and what it grew into.<br> + +Architectural writings, lectures, and early publications.<br> + +Interest in Pre-Raphaelitism and its disciples.<br> + +Growing fame; with admiring friends and correspondents.<br> + +On the public platform; personal appearance of the man.<br> + +Economic and socialistic vagaries.<br> + +F. Harrison on "Ruskin as Prophet" and teacher.<br> + +Inspiring lay sermons and minor writings.<br> + +Reformer and would-be regenerator of modern society.<br> + +Attitude towards industrial problems of his time.<br> + +Founds the communal "Guild of St. George".<br> + +Philanthropies, and lecturings in "Working Men's College".<br> + +Death and epoch-making influence, in modern art.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#HERBERT_SPENCER.">HERBERT SPENCER</a></i>.</p> + +<p>THE EVOLUTIONARY PHILOSOPHY.</p> + +<p>BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE.</p> + +Constructs a philosophical system in harmony with the theory of +evolution.<br> + +Birth, parentage, and early career.<br> + +Scheme of his system of Synthetic Philosophy.<br> + +His "Facts and Comments;" views on party government, patriotism, and +style.<br> + +His religious attitude that of an agnostic.<br> + +The doctrine of the Unknowable and the knowable.<br> + +"First Principles;" progress of evolution in life, mind, society, and +morality.<br> + +The relations of matter, motion, and force.<br> + +"Principles of Biology;" the data of; the development hypothesis.<br> + +The evolutionary hypothesis <i>versus</i> the special creation hypothesis; +arguments.<br> + +Causes and interpretation of the evolution phenomena.<br> + +Development as displayed in the structures and functions of individual +organisms.<br> + +"Principles of Psychology;" the evolution of mind and analysis of mental +states.<br> + +"Principles of Sociology;" the adaptation of human nature to the social +state.<br> + +Evolution of governments, political and ecclesiastical; industrial +organizations.<br> + +Qualifications; Nature's plan an advance, and again a retrogression.<br> + +Social evolution; equilibriums between constitution and conditions.<br> + +Assisted by others in the collection, but not the systemization, of his +illustrative material.<br> + +"Principles of Ethics;" natural basis for; secularization of morals.<br> + +General inductions; his "Social Statics".<br> + +Relations of Mr. Spencer and Mr. Darwin to the thought of the Nineteenth +Century.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#CHARLES_ROBERT_DARWIN.">CHARLES DARWIN</a></i>.</p> + +<p>HIS PLACE IN MODERN SCIENCE.</p> + +<p>BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE.</p> + +The Darwinian hypothesis a rational and widely accepted explanation of the<br> + genesis of organic life on the earth.<br> + +Darwin; birth, parentage, and education.<br> + +Naturalist on the voyage of the "Beagle".<br> + +His work on "Coral Reefs" and the "Geology of South America".<br> + +Observations and experiments on the transmutation of species.<br> + +Contemporaneous work on the same lines by Alfred R. Wallace.<br> + +"The Origin of Species" (1859).<br> + +His "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" (1868).<br> + +"The Descent of Man" (1871).<br> + +On the "Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals" (1872).<br> + +"Fertilization of Orchids" (1862), "The Effects of Cross<br> + and Self-Fertilization" (1876), and "The Formation of<br> + Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms" (1881).<br> + +Ill-health, death, and burial.<br> + +Personality, tastes, and mental characteristics.<br> + +His beliefs and agnostic attitude toward religion.<br> + +His prime postulate, that species have been modified during a long +course of descent.<br> + +Antagonistic views on the immutability of species.<br> + +His theory of natural selection: that all animal and plant life has a common<br> + progenitor, difference in their forms arising primarily from beneficial variations.<br> + +Enunciates in the "Descent of Man" the great principle of Evolution, and<br> + the common kinship of man and the lower animals.<br> + +Biological evidence to sustain this view.<br> + +Man's moral qualities, and the social instinct of animals.<br> + +Religious beliefs not innate, nor instinctive.<br> + +Bearing of this on belief in the immortality of the soul.<br> + +As a scientist Darwin concerned only with truth; general acceptance of his theory<br> + of the origin of species.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#JOHN_ERICSSON.">JOHN ERICSSON</a></i>.</p> + +<p>NAVIES OF WAR AND COMMERCE.</p> + +<p>BY PROF. W. F. DUKAND.</p> + +Ericsson's life-work little foreseen in his youth and early +surroundings.<br> + +His impress on the engineering practice of his time.<br> + +Dependence, in our modern civilization, on the utilization of the great natural<br> + forces and energies of the world.<br> + +Life-periods in Sweden, England, and the United States.<br> + +Birth, parentage, and early engineering career.<br> + +An officer in the Swedish army, and topographical surveyor for his +native government.<br> + +Astonishing insight into mechanical and scientific questions.<br> + +His work, 1827 to 1839, when he came to the United States.<br> + +"A spendthrift in invention;" versatility and daring.<br> + +The screw-propeller <i>vs</i>. the paddle-wheel for marine propulsion.<br> + +Designs and constructs the steam-frigate "Princeton" and the hot-air +ship "Ericsson".<br> + +The Civil War and his services in the art of naval construction.<br> + +His new model of a floating battery and warship, "The Monitor".<br> + +The battle between it and the "Merrimac" a turning-point in naval aspect +of the war.<br> + +"The Destroyer," built in connection with Mr. Delamater.<br> + +Improves the character and reduces friction in the use of heavy +ordnance.<br> + +Work on the improvement of steam-engines for warships.<br> + +Death, and international honors paid at his funeral.<br> + +His work in improving the motive-power of ships.<br> + +Special contributions to the art of naval war.<br> + +Ships of low freeboard equipped with revolving turrets.<br> + +Influence of his work lives in the modern battleship.<br> + +Other features of work which he did for his age.<br> + +Personality and professional traits.<br> + +Essentially a designer rather than a constructing engineer.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#LI_HUNG_CHANG.">LI HUNG CHANG</a></i>.</p> + +<p>THE FAR EAST.</p> + +<p>BY W.A.P. MARTIN, D.D., LL.D.</p> + +Introductory; Earl Li's foreign fame; his rising star.<br> + +Intercourse with China by land.<br> + +The Great Wall; China first known to the western world through its +conquest by the Mongols.<br> + +The houses of Han, Tang, and Sang.<br> + +The diplomat Su Wu on an embassy to Turkey.<br> + +Intercourse by sea.<br> + +Expulsion of the Mongols; the magnetic needle.<br> + +Art of printing; birth of alchemy.<br> + +Manchu conquest; Macao and Canton opened to foreign trade.<br> + +The Opium War.<br> + +Li Hung Chang appears on the scene.<br> + +His contests for academical honors and preferment.<br> + +The Taiping rebellion.<br> + +Li a soldier; General Ward and "Chinese Gordon".<br> + +The Arrow War; the treaties.<br> + +Lord Elgin's mistake leads to renewal of the war.<br> + +Fall of the Peiho forts and flight of the Court.<br> + +The war with France.<br> + +Mr. Seward and Anson Burlingame.<br> + +War ended through the agency of Sir Robert Hart.<br> + +War with Japan.<br> + +Perry at Tokio (Yeddo); overturn of the Shogans.<br> + +Formosa ceded to Japan.<br> + +China follows Japan and throws off trammels of antiquated usage.<br> + +War with the world.<br> + +The Boxer rising; menace to the Peking legations.<br> + +Prince Ching and Viceroy Li arrange terms of peace.<br> + +Li's death; patriot, and patron of educational reform.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#DAVID_LIVINGSTONE.">DAVID LIVINGSTONE</a></i>.</p> + +<p>AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT.</p> + +<p>BY CYRUS C. ADAMS.</p> + +Difficulties of exploration in the "Dark Continent"<br> + +Livingstone's belief that "there was good in Africa," and that it was +worth reclaiming.<br> + +His early journeyings kindled the great African movement.<br> + +Youthful career and studies, marriage, etc.<br> + +Contact with the natives; wins his way by kindness.<br> + +Sublime faith in the future of Africa.<br> + +Progress in the heart of the continent since his day.<br> + +Interest of his second and third journeyings (1853-56).<br> + +Visits to Britain, reception, and personal characteristics.<br> + +Later discoveries and journeyings (1858-1864, 1866-1873).<br> + +Death at Chitambo (Ilala) Lake Bangweolo, May 1, 1873.<br> + +General accuracy of his geographical records; his work, as a whole, +stands the test of time.<br> + +Downfall of the African slave-trade, the "open sore of the world".<br> + +Remarkable achievements of later explorers and surveyors.<br> + +The work of Burton, Junker, Speke, and Stanley.<br> + +Father Schynse's chart.<br> + +Surveys of Commander Whitehouse.<br> + +Missionary maps of the Congo Free State and basin.<br> + +Other areas besides tropical Africa made known and opened up.<br> + +Pygmy tribes and cannibalism in the Congo basin.<br> + +Human sacrifices now prohibited and punishable with death.<br> + +Railway and steamboat development, and partition of the continent.<br> + +South Africa: the gold and diamond mines and natural resources.<br> + +Future philanthropic work.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#SIR_AUSTEN_HENRY_LAYARD.">SIR AUSTEN HENRY LAYARD</a></i>.</p> + +<p>MODERN ARCHAEOLOGY.</p> + +<p>BY WILLIAM HAYES WARD, D.D., LL/D.</p> + +Overthrow of Nineveh and destruction of the Assyrian Empire.<br> + +Kingdoms and empires extant and buried before the era of Hebrew and +Greek history.<br> + +Bonaparte in Egypt, and the impulse he gave to French archaeology.<br> + +Champollion and his deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions.<br> + +Paul Émile Botta and his discoveries in Assyria.<br> + +His excavations of King Sargon's palace at Khorsabad.<br> + +Layard begins his excavations and discoveries at Nineveh.<br> + +Sir Stratford Canning's (Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe) gift to the British<br> + Museum of the marbles of Halicarnassus.<br> + +Layard's published researches, "Nineveh and its Remains," and "Babylon +and Nineveh".<br> + +His work, "The Monuments of Nineveh" (1849-53).<br> + +Obelisk and monoliths of Shalmaneser II., King of Assyria, discovered by +Layard at Nimroud.<br> + +George Smith and his discovery of the Babylonian account of the Deluge.<br> + +Light thrown by these discoveries on the Pharaoh of the Bible, and on Melchizedek,<br> + who reigned in Abraham's day.<br> + +Other archaeologists of note, Glaser, De Morgan, De Sarzec, and Botta.<br> + +Relics of Buddha, and the Hittite inscriptions.<br> + +The Moabite Stone, and work of the English Palestine Exploration Fund at +Jerusalem.<br> + +Dr. Schliemann's labors among the ruins of Troy.<br> + +Researches and discoveries at Crete.<br> + +The mounds, pyramids, and temples of the American aborigines.<br> + +The cliff-dwellers and the Mayas, Incas, and Toltecs.<br> + +The Calendar Stone and statue of the gods of war and death found in +Mexico.<br> + +What treasure yet remains to be recovered of a past civilization.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#MICHAEL_FARADAY.">MICHAEL FARADAY</a></i>.</p> + +<p>ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.</p> + +<p>BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH.D.</p> + +"The Prince of Experimental Philosophers".<br> + +Unprecocious as a child; environment of his early years.<br> + +His early study of Mrs. Marcet's "Conversations on Chemistry," and the<br> + articles on electricity in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica".<br> + +Appointed laboratory assistant at the London Royal Institution.<br> + +Inspiration received from his teacher, Sir Humphry Davy.<br> + +Investigations in chemistry, electricity, and magnetism.<br> + +His discovery (1831) of the means for developing electricity direct from +magnetism.<br> + +Substitutes magnets for active circuits.<br> + +Simplicity of the apparatus used in his successful experiments.<br> + +Some of the results obtained by him in his experimental researches.<br> + +What is to-day owing to him for his discovery and investigation of all forms of<br> + magneto-electric induction.<br> + +His discovery of the relations between light and magnetism.<br> + +Action of glass and other solid substances on a beam of polarized light.<br> + +His paper on "Magnetization of Light and the Illumination of the Lines +of Magnetic Force".<br> + +His contribution (1845) on the "Magnetic Condition of All Matter".<br> + +Investigation of the phenomena which he calls "the Magne-crystallic +force".<br> + +Extent of his work in the electro-chemical field.<br> + +His invention of the first dynamo.<br> + +His alternating-current transformer.<br> + +Induction coils and their use in producing the Röntgen rays.<br> + +Edison's invention of the fluoroscope.<br> + +Faraday's gift to commercial science of the electric motor.<br> + +His dynamo-electric machine.<br> + +Modern electric transmissions of power.<br> + +Tesla's multiphase alternating-current motor.<br> + +Faraday's electric generator and motor.<br> + +The telephone, aid given by Faraday's discoveries in the invention and use of<br> + the transmitter.<br> + +Modern power-generating and transmission plants a magnificent testimonial to<br> + the genius of Faraday.<br> + +Death and honors.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<p><i><a href="#RUDOLF_VIRCHOW.">RUDOLF VIRCHOW</a></i>.</p> + +<p>MEDICINE AND SURGERY.</p> + +<p>BY FRANK P. FOSTER, M.D.</p> + +Jenner demonstrates efficacy of vaccination against smallpox.<br> + +Debt to the physicists, chemists, and botanists of the new era.<br> + +Appendicitis (peritonitis), its present frequency.<br> + +Experimental methods of study in physiology.<br> + +Hahnemann, founder of homoeopathy, and physical diagnosis of the sick.<br> + +The clinical thermometer and other instruments of precision.<br> + +Animal parasites the direct cause of many diseases.<br> + +Bacteria and the germ theory of disease.<br> + +Pasteur, viruses, and aseptic surgery.<br> + +Consumption and its germ; the corpuscles and their resistance to +bacterial invasion.<br> + +Antitoxines as a cure in diphtheria.<br> + +Their use in surgery; asepticism and Lord Lister.<br> + +Listerism and midwifery.<br> + +American aid in the treatment of fractures.<br> + +Use of artificial serum in disease treatment.<br> + +Koch's tuberculin and its use in consumption.<br> + +Chemistry as a handmaid of medicine.<br> + +Brown-Séquard and "internal secretions".<br> + +Febrile ailment and cold-water applications.<br> + +Surgical anaesthetics; Long, Morton, and Simpson.<br> + +Ovariotomy operations by McDowell and Bell.<br> + +Professional nursing.<br> + +Virchow and the literature of medicine, anatomy, and physiology; his death;<br> + his "Archiv," "Cellular-Pathology," etc.<br> + +<br><hr style="width: 25%;"><br> + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<p>VOLUME XIV.</p> + +<a href="Illus0486.jpg">Dr. Jenner Vaccinates a Child</a> + <i>After the painting by George Gaston Melingue</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0487.jpg">Richard Wagner</a> + <i>After the painting by Franz von Lenbach</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0488.jpg">John Ruskin</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0489.jpg">Herbert Spencer</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0490.jpg">Charles Robert Darwin</a> + <i>After the painting by G. F. Watts, R.A.</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0491.jpg">John Ericsson</a> + <i>From a contemporaneous engraving</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0492.jpg">Li Hung Chang</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0493.jpg">David Livingstone</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0494.jpg">Sir Austen Henry Layard</a> + <i>After the painting by H. W. Phillips</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0495.jpg">Michael Faraday</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + +<a href="Illus0496.jpg">Rudolf Virchow</a> + <i>After a photograph from life</i><br> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<h2><a name="RICHARD_WAGNER:_MODERN_MUSIC."></a>RICHARD WAGNER: MODERN MUSIC.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>BY HENRY T. FINCK.</p> +<br> + +<p>If the Dresden schoolboys who attended the <i>Kreuzschule</i> in the years +1823-1827 could have been told that one of them was destined to be the +greatest opera composer of all times, and to influence the musicians of +all countries throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, they +would, no doubt, have been very much surprised. Nor is it likely that +they could have guessed which of them was the chosen one. For Richard +Wagner--or Richard Geyer, as he was then called, after his +stepfather--was by no means a youthful prodigy, like Mozart or Liszt. It +is related that Beethoven shed tears of displeasure over his first music +lessons; nevertheless, it was obvious from the beginning that he had a +special gift for music. Richard Wagner, on the other hand, apparently +had none. When he was eight years old his stepfather, shortly before his +death, heard him play on the piano two pieces from one of Weber's +operas, which made him wonder if Richard might "perhaps" have talent for +music. His piano teacher did not believe even in that "perhaps," but +told him bluntly he would "never amount to anything" as a musician.</p> + +<p>For poetry, however, young Richard had a decided inclination in his +school years; and this was significant, inasmuch as it afterwards became +his cardinal maxim that in an opera "the play's the thing," and the +music merely a means of intensifying the emotional expression. Before +his time the music, or rather the singing of florid tunes, had been "the +thing," and the libretto merely a peg to hang these tunes on. In this +respect, therefore, the child was father to the man. At the age of +eleven he received a prize for the best poem on the death of a +schoolmate. At thirteen he translated the first twelve books of Homer's +Odyssey. He studied English for the sole purpose of being able to read +Shakspeare. Then he projected a stupendous tragedy, in the course of +which he killed off forty-two persons, many of whom had to be brought +back as ghosts to enable him to finish the play.</p> + +<p>This extravagance also characterized his first efforts as a composer, +when he at last turned to music, at the age of sixteen. One of his first +tasks, when he had barely mastered the rudiments of composition, was to +write an overture which he intended to be more complicated than +Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Heinrich Dorn, who recognized his talent +amid all the bombast, conducted this piece at a concert. At the +rehearsal the musicians were convulsed with laughter, and at the +performance the audience was at first surprised and then disgusted at +the persistence of the drum-player, who made himself heard loudly every +fourth bar. Finally there was a general outburst of hilarity which +taught the young man a needed lesson.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly the germs of his musical genius had been in Wagner's brain +in his childhood,--for genius is not a thing that can be acquired. They +had simply lain dormant, and it required a special influence to develop +them. This influence was supplied by Weber and his operas. In 1815, two +years after Wagner's birth, the King of Saxony founded a German opera in +Dresden, where theretofore Italian opera had ruled alone. Weber was +chosen as conductor, and thus it happened that Wagner's earliest and +deepest impressions came from the composer of the "Freischütz." In his +autobiographic sketch Wagner writes: "Nothing gave me so much pleasure +as the 'Freischütz.' I often saw Weber pass by our house when he came +from rehearsals. I always looked upon him with a holy awe." It was lucky +for young Richard that his stepfather, Geyer, besides being a +portrait-painter, an actor, and a playwright, was also one of Weber's +tenors at the opera. This enabled the boy, in spite of the family's +poverty, to hear many of the performances. In fact, Wagner, like Weber, +owes a considerable part of his success as a writer for the stage to the +fact that he belonged to a theatrical family, and thus gradually learned +"how the wheels go round." Such practical experience is worth more than +years of academic study.</p> + +<p>While Wagner cordially acknowledged the fascination which Weber's music +exerted on him in his boyhood, he was hardly fair to Weber in his later +writings. In these he tries to prove that his own music-dramas are an +outgrowth of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. When Beethoven wrote that work, +Wagner argues, he had come to the conclusion that purely instrumental +music had reached a point beyond which it could not go alone, wherefore +he called in the aid of poetry (sung by soloists and chorus), and thus +intimated that the art-work of the future was the musical drama,--a +combination of poetry and music.</p> + +<p>This is a purely fantastic notion on Wagner's part. There is no evidence +that Beethoven had any such purpose; he merely called in the aid of the +human voice to secure variety of sound and expression. Poetry and music +had been combined centuries before Beethoven in the opera and in +lyric song.</p> + +<p>No, the roots of Wagner's music-dramas are not to be found in Beethoven, +but in Weber. His "Freischütz" and "Euryanthe" are the prototypes of +Wagner's operas. The "Freischütz" is the first masterwork, as Wagner's +operas are the last, up to date, of the romantic school; and it embodies +admirably two of the principal characteristics of that school: one, a +delight in the demoniac, the supernatural--what the Germans call +<i>gruseln</i>; the other, the use of certain instruments, alone or in +combination, for the sake of securing peculiar emotional effects. In +both these respects Wagner followed in Weber's footsteps. With the +exception of "Rienzi" and "Die Meistersinger," all of his operas, from +the "Flying Dutchman" to "Parsifal," embody supernatural, mythical, +romantic elements; and in the use of novel tone colors for special +emotional effects he opened a new wonder-world of sound, to which Weber, +however, had given him the key.</p> + +<p>"Lohengrin," the last one of what are usually called Wagner's "operas," +as distinguished from his "music-dramas" (comprising the last seven of +his works), betrays very strongly the influence of Weber's other +masterwork, "Euryanthe." This opera, indeed, may also be called the +direct precursor of Wagner's music-dramas. It contains eight "leading +motives," which recur thirty times in course of the opera; and the +dramatic recitatives are sometimes quite in the "Wagnerian" manner. But +the most remarkable thing is that Weber uses language which practically +sums up Wagner's idea of the music-drama. "'Euryanthe,'" he says, "is a +purely dramatic work, which depends for its success solely on the +co-operation of the united sister-arts, and is certain to lose its +effect if deprived of their assistance."</p> + +<p>When Wagner wrote his essay on "The Music of the Future" for the +Parisians (1860) he remembered his obligations to the Dresden idol of +his boyhood by calling attention to "the still very noticeable +connection" of his early work, "Tannhäuser," with "the operas of my +predecessors, among whom I name especially Weber," He might have +mentioned others,--Gluck, for instance, who curbed the vanity of the +singers, and taught them that they were not "the whole show;" Marschner, +whose grewsome "Hans Heiling" Wagner had in mind when he wrote his +"Flying Dutchman;" Auber, whose "Masaniello," with its dumb heroine, +taught Wagner the importance and expressiveness of pantomimic music, of +which there are such eloquent examples in all his operas. During his +three and a half years' sojourn in Paris, just at the opening of his +career as an opera composer (1839-1842), he learned many things +regarding operatic scenery, machinery, processions, and details, which +he subsequently turned to good account. Even Meyerbeer, the ruler of the +musical world in Paris at that time, was not without influence on him, +though he had cause to disapprove of him because of his submission to +the demands of the fashionable taste of the day, which contrasted so +strongly with Wagner's own courageous defiance of everything +inconsistent with his ideals of art. The result to-day--Meyerbeer's fall +and Wagner's triumph--shows that courage, like honesty, is, in the long +run, the best policy, and, like virtue, its own reward.</p> + +<p>It is important to bear in mind all these lessons that Wagner learned +from his predecessors, as it helps to explain the enormous influence he +exerted on his contemporaries. Wonderful as was the power and +originality of his genius, even he could not have achieved such results +had he not had truth on his side,--truth, as hinted at, in moments of +inspiration, by many of his predecessors.</p> + +<p>Wagner was most shamefully misrepresented by his enemies during his +lifetime. A thousand times they wrote unblushingly that he despised and +abused the great masters, whereas in truth no one ever spoke of them +more enthusiastically than he, or was more eager to learn of them, +though, to be sure, he was honest and courageous enough also to call +attention to their shortcomings. In all his autobiographic writings +there is not a more luminous passage than the following, in which he +relates his experiences as conductor at the Riga Opera in 1838, when he +was at work on "Rienzi":--</p> + +<p>"The peculiar gnawing melancholy which habitually overpowered me when I +conducted one of our ordinary operas was interrupted by an +inexpressible, enthusiastic delight, when, here and there, during the +performance of nobler works, I became conscious of the incomparable +effects that can be produced by musico-dramatic combinations on the +stage,--effects of a depth, sincerity, and direct realistic vivacity, +such as no other art can produce. I felt quite elated and ennobled +during the time that I was rehearsing Méhul's enchanting 'Joseph' with +my little opera company." "Such impressions," he continues, "like +flashes of lightning" revealed to him "unsuspected possibilities." It +was by utilizing these "possibilities" and hints, and at the same time +avoiding the errors and blemishes of his predecessors, that his +superlative genius was enabled to create such unapproachable masterworks +as "Siegfried" and "Tristan and Isolde."</p> + +<p>The way up to those peaks was, however, slow and toilsome. For years he +groped in darkness, and light came but gradually. It has already been +intimated that his genius was slow in developing. A brief review of his +romantic career will bring out this and other interesting points.</p> + +<p>At the time when Richard Wagner was born (May 22, 1813), Leipzig was in +such a state of commotion on account of the war to liberate Germany from +the Napoleonic yoke that the child's baptism was deferred several +months. To his schooldays reference has been made already, and we may +therefore pass on to the time when he tried to make his living as an +operatic conductor. Although he was then only twenty-one years old, he +showed remarkable aptitude for this kind of work from the beginning, and +it was through no fault of his that misfortune overtook every opera +company with which he had anything to do. The bankruptcy, in 1836, of +the manager of the Magdeburg Opera, affected him most disastrously, for +it came at the moment when he had arranged for the first performance of +an opera he had written, entitled, "Das Liebesverbot," or "The Novice of +Palermo," and which therefore was given only once. Many years later an +attempt was made to revive this juvenile work at Munich, but the project +was abandoned because, as the famous Wagnerian tenor, Heinrich Vogl, +informed the writer of this article, "Its arias and other numbers were +such ludicrous and undisguised imitations of Donizetti and other popular +composers of that time that we all burst out laughing, and kept up the +merriment throughout the rehearsal." This is of interest because it +shows that Wagner, like that other great reformer, Gluck, began his +career by writing fashionable operas in the Italian style. A still +earlier opera of his, "The Fairies,"--the first one he completed,--was +not produced till 1888, fifty-five years after it had been written, and +five years after Wagner's death. This has been performed a number of +times in Munich, but it is so weak and uninteresting in itself that it +required a splendid stage setting, and the "historic" curiosity of +Wagner's admirers to make it palatable. It is significant that already +in these early works, Wagner wrote his own librettos,--a policy which he +pursued to the end.</p> + +<p>Königsberg was the next city where the opera company with which he was +connected, failed. This was the more embarrassing to him, as he had in +the meantime been so unwise as to marry a pretty actress, Minna Planer, +who was destined, for a quarter of a century, to faithfully share his +experiences,--chiefly disappointments. The pittance he got as conductor +of these small German opera companies did not pay his expenses, all the +less as he was fond of luxurious living, and, like most artists, the +world over, foolishly squandered his money when he happened to have any.</p> + +<p>At Riga, where Wagner next attempted to establish himself, the opera +company again got into trouble, and his financial straits became such +that, relying on his future ability to meet his obligations, he resolved +to leave that part of the world altogether and seek his fortune in +Paris. He knew that the Prussian Meyerbeer had won fame and fortune +there,--why should not he have the same good luck? He had unbounded +confidence in his own ability, and what increased his hopes of a +Parisian success, was that he had already completed two acts of a grand +historic opera, "Rienzi," based on Bulwer's novel, and written in the +sensational and spectacular style of Meyerbeer. He supposed that all he +had to do was to go to Paris, finish this opera, get it accepted through +the influence of his countryman and colleague, Meyerbeer, and--wake up +some morning famous and wealthy. He was not the first man who built +castles in Spain.</p> + +<p>To-day a trip from Riga to Paris is a very simple affair. You get into a +train, and in about twenty-four hours are at your goal. In 1839 there +were no such conveniences. Wagner had to go to the Prussian seaport of +Pillau, and there board a sailing vessel which took him to London in +three weeks and a half. His journey, however, was a much more romantic +affair than a railway trip would have been. In the first place, it was a +real flight--from his creditors whom he had to evade. Next he had to +dodge the Russian sentries, whose boxes were placed on the boundary line +only a thousand yards apart. A friend discovered a way of accomplishing +this feat, and Wagner presently found himself on the ship, with his +wife and his enormous Newfoundland dog. In his trunk he had what he +hoped would help him to begin a brilliant career in Paris: one opera +completed,--"The Novice of Palermo;" two acts of another,--"Rienzi;" and +in his head he had the plot and some of the musical themes for a +third,--"The Flying Dutchman."</p> + +<p>The sea voyage came just in time to give him local color for this weird +nautical opera. Three times the vessel was tossed by violent storms, and +once the captain was obliged to seek safety in a Norwegian harbor. The +sailors told Wagner their version of the "Flying Dutchman" legend, and +altogether these adventures were the very thing he wanted at the time, +and aided him in making his opera realistic, both in its text and its +music, which imitates the howling of the storm winds and "smells of the +salt breezes."</p> + +<p>So for once our young musician had a streak of luck. But it did not last +long. He found Paris a very large city, and with very little use for +him. He made the most diverse efforts to support himself, nearly always +without success. Once it seemed as if his hopes were to be fulfilled. +The Théâtre de la Renaissance accepted his "Novice of Palermo;" but at +the last moment there was the usual bankruptcy of the management,--the +fourth that affected him! Then he wrote a Parisian Vaudeville, but it +had to be given up because the actors declared it could not be executed. +The Grand Opera, on which he had fixed his eye, was absolutely out of +the question. He was brought to such straits that he offered to sing in +the chorus of a small Boulevard theatre, but was rejected. His wife +pawned her jewels; on several occasions it is said that she even went +into the street to beg a few pennies for their supper. It was doubtless +during these years of starvation that Wagner acquired those gastric +troubles which in later years often prevented him from working more than +an hour or two a day.</p> + +<p>A few German friends occasionally gave a little pecuniary aid, but the +only regular source of income was musical hackwork for the publisher +Schlesinger, who gladly availed himself of Wagner's skill in having him +make vocal scores of operas, or arrange popular melodies for the piano +and other instruments. Wagner also wrote stories and essays for musical +periodicals, for which he received fair remuneration; but his attempt to +compose romances and become a parlor favorite failed. Nobody wanted his +songs, and he finally offered them to the editor of a periodical in +Germany for two dollars and a half to four dollars apiece. This may seem +ludicrously pathetic; but then had not poor Schubert, a little more than +a decade before this, sold much better songs for twenty cents each!</p> + +<p>Meyerbeer no doubt aided Wagner, but considering his very great +influence in Paris, he achieved surprisingly little for him. The score +of "Rienzi" had been completed in 1840, and in the spring of the next +year, Wagner went to Meudon, near Paris, and there composed the music of +"The Flying Dutchman," in seven weeks, but neither of these operas +seemed to have the least chance to appear on the boards of the Grand +Opera. The best their author could do was to sell the libretto of "The +Flying Dutchman" for one hundred dollars, reserving the right to set it +to music himself.</p> + +<p>The outcome of all these disappointments was that he finally lost hope +so far as Paris was concerned, and sent his "Rienzi" to Dresden and his +"Flying Dutchman" to Berlin. The "Novice of Palermo" he had given up +entirely after the bankruptcy of the Renaissance Théâtre, because, as he +wrote, "I felt that I could no longer respect myself as its composer." +Meyerbeer had, at his request, kindly sent a note to the intendant of +the Dresden Opera, in which he said, among other things, that he had +found the selections from "Rienzi," which Wagner had played for him, +"highly imaginative and of great dramatic effect." Tichatschek, the +famous Dresden tenor, examined the score, and liked the title role; the +chorus director, Fischer, also pleaded for the acceptance of the opera; +and so at last Wagner got word in Paris that it would be produced in +Dresden. As Berlin, too, retained the manuscript of his other opera, +there was reason enough for him to end his Parisian sojourn and return +to his native country. He went overland this time, and, to cite his own +words, "For the first time I saw the Rhine; with tears in my eyes I, the +poor artist, swore eternal allegiance to my German fatherland."</p> + +<p>It was fortunate in every way that he went to Dresden. His opera +required many alterations and improvements, which he alone could make. +He was permitted to superintend the rehearsals, which was, of course, a +great advantage to the opera. The singers grew more and more +enthusiastic over the music, and when the first public performance was +given, on October 20, 1842, the audience also was delighted and remained +to the very end, although the performance lasted six hours. The composer +immediately applied the pruning-knife and reduced the duration to four +hours and a half (from 6 to 10.30,--opera hours were early in those +days); but the tenor, Tichatschek, declared with tears in his eyes, "I +shall not permit any cuts in my part! It is too heavenly."</p> + +<p>Those were proud and happy days for Wagner. "I, who had hitherto been +lonely, deserted, homeless," he wrote, "suddenly found myself loved, +admired, by many even regarded with wonderment." "Rienzi" was repeated a +number of times to overcrowded houses, though the prices had been put +up. It was regarded as "a fabulous success," and the management was +eager to follow it up with another. So the score of "The Flying +Dutchman" was demanded of Berlin (where they seemed in no hurry to use +it), and at once put into rehearsal. It was produced in Dresden on +January 2, 1843, only about ten weeks after "Rienzi,"--an almost +unprecedented event in the life of an opera composer. Wagner conducted +the second opera himself (also "Rienzi," after the first few +performances), and gave so much satisfaction that he was shortly +afterwards appointed to the position of royal conductor (which he held +about six years).</p> + +<p>So far, all seemed well. But disappointments soon began to overshadow +his seeming good luck. The first production of the "Flying Dutchman" can +hardly be called a success. Wagner himself characterized the performance +as being, in its main features, "a complete failure," and the stage +setting "incredibly awkward and wooden" (very different from what it is +in Dresden to-day). Mme. Schroeder-Devrient was an admirable "Senta," +and received enthusiastic applause; but the opera itself puzzled the +audience rather than pleased it.</p> + +<p>The music-lovers of Dresden had expected another opera <i>à la</i> Meyerbeer, +like "Rienzi," with its arias and duos, its din and its dances, its +pomps and processions, its scenic and musical splendors. Instead of +that, they heard a work utterly unlike any opera ever before written; an +opera without arias, duets, and dances, without any of the glitter that +had theretofore entertained the public; an opera that simply related a +legend in one breath, as it were,--like a dramatic ballad; an opera that +indulged in weird chromatic scales, and harsh but expressive harmonies, +with an unprecedented license. Here was the real Wagner, but even in +this early and comparatively crude and simple phase, Wagner was too +novel and revolutionary to be appreciated by his contemporaries; hence +it is not to be wondered at that the "Flying Dutchman," after four +performances in Dresden, and a few in Cassel and Berlin, disappeared +from the stage for ten years.</p> + +<p>Although Wagner was now royal conductor, he did not succeed in securing +a revival of this opera at Dresden. His next work, "Tannhäuser," was +nevertheless promptly accepted. The score was completed on April 13, +1845, and six, months later (October 19), the first performance was +given. Wagner had thrown himself with all his soul into the composition +of this score. To a friend in Berlin he wrote: "This opera must be good, +or else I never shall be able to do anything worth while." The public at +first seemed to agree with him. Seven performances were given before the +end of the season, and it was resumed the following year; yet Wagner +came to the conclusion that he had written the opera "for a few intimate +friends, but not for the public," to cite his own words. What the public +had expected and desired was shown by its enthusiastic reception of +"Rienzi," and its colder treatment of the "Dutchman." But "Tannhäuser" +was like the second opera; in fact, even "more so." Wagner had outlived +the time when he was willing to make concessions to current taste and +fashion; thenceforth he went his own way, eager, indeed, for approval, +but stubbornly refusing to win it by sacrificing his high art ideals.</p> + +<p>Here was true heroism, genuine manliness! Had he been willing to write +more operas like "Rienzi," he might have revelled in wealth (he loved +wealth!) and basked in the sunshine of popularity, like Meyerbeer. But +not one inch of concession did he make for the sake of the much-coveted +riches and popular favor.</p> + +<p>Yet was not his next work, "Lohengrin," of a popular character? Popular +to-day, yes; but in the days of his Dresden conductorship he could not +even get it accepted for performance at his own opera-house! It was +completed in August, 1847 (the last act having been written first and +the second last), but although he remained in Dresden two years longer, +all his efforts to get it staged failed, for various reasons. And when, +at last, Liszt gave it for the first time, on August 28, 1850, at +Weimar, whence it gradually made its way to other opera-houses, its +reception everywhere showed that it was very far from being considered a +"popular" work. The critics, especially, vied with one another in +abusing this same "Lohengrin," which at present is sung more frequently +than any other opera; and they continued to abuse it until about twenty +years ago. "An abyss of ennui," "void of all melody," "an insult to the +very essence of music," "a caricature of music," "algebraic harmonies," +"no tangible ideas," "not a dozen bars of melody," "an opera without +music," "an incoherent mass of rubbish,"--are a few of the "critical" +opinions passed on this opera, which is now regarded in all countries as +a very wonderland of beautiful melodies and expressive harmonies.</p> + +<p>The non-acceptance in Dresden of this glorious opera, concerning which +Wagner wrote, "It is the best thing I have done so far," was only one of +many trials and disappointments which daily harassed him. He was over +head and ears in debt, because, in his confidence in the immediate +success of his operas, he had had them printed at once, at his own +expense. The opera-houses were very slow in accepting them, and this +left him in a sad predicament. There were, moreover, enemies +everywhere,--ignorant, old-fashioned professionals, who objected to his +way of interpreting the masters (though it was afterwards admitted that +he was epoch-making as an interpreter of their deepest thoughts). All +this galled him; and, furthermore, no attention whatever was paid to his +pet plans for reforming the Dresden Opera, and theatrical matters +in general.</p> + +<p>In the state of mind brought about by this condition of affairs, it +needed but a firebrand to start an explosion. This firebrand was +supplied by the revolutionary uprising of 1849. Now, although Wagner had +never really cared much for politics (to his friend Fischer he once +wrote: "I do not consider true art possible until politics cease to +exist"), he was foolish enough to believe that a general overturning of +affairs would benefit art-matters, too, and facilitate his operatic +reforms; so he became, as he himself admits, "a revolutionist in behalf +of the theatre." He actively assisted the insurgents, and the +consequence was that, when the rebellion failed, he had to leave Dresden +and seek safety in flight.</p> + +<p>Three of the leaders of the insurrection--Roeckel, Bakunin, and Heubner; +personal friends of Wagner--were captured and imprisoned; he himself was +so lucky as to escape to Weimar, where Franz Liszt took care of him. It +so happened that Liszt, who had given up his career as concert pianist +(though all the world was clamoring to hear him), and was conducting the +Weimar Opera, had been preparing a performance of "Tannhäuser," to which +Wagner would, under normal conditions, have been invited as a matter of +course. He was now there, but as a political fugitive, wherefore it was +not deemed advisable to have him attend the public performance; but he +did secretly witness a rehearsal, and was delighted to find that Liszt's +genius had enabled him to penetrate into the innermost recesses of this +music. It was impossible, however, for him to stay any longer. The +Dresden police had issued a warrant for the arrest of "the royal +Kapellmeister Richard Wagner," who was to be "placed on trial for active +participation in the riots which have taken place here." No time was, +therefore, to be lost. Late in the evening of May 18, Liszt's noble +patroness, the Princess Wittgenstein, received this note from him: "Can +you give the bearer sixty thalers? Wagner is obliged to fly, and I +cannot help him at this moment."</p> + +<p>Early the next morning Wagner, provided with a false pass, left Weimar +and headed for Switzerland, which was to be his home for the greater +part of the following twelve years of his exile from Germany. Had he +been caught, like his friends, and, like them, imprisoned during these +years, it is not likely that the world would now possess those seven +monuments of his ripest genius, "Rheingold," "Die Walküre," "Siegfried," +"Götterdämmerung," "Tristan and Isolde," "Die Meistersinger," and +"Parsifal." Even as it was, the world has undoubtedly lost an immortal +opera or two through his unfortunate participation in the rebellion. For +during the first four years of his exile, he did not compose any music. +He reasoned that he had written four good operas and nobody seemed to +want them; why, therefore, should he compose any more?</p> + +<p>At the same time, he realized that there were natural reasons why his +operas were not understood. They were written in such a novel style, +both vocal and instrumental, that the singers, players, and conductors +found it difficult to perform them correctly, the consequence being that +they did not specially impress the audiences, which, moreover, were +bewildered by finding themselves listening to works so radically +different from what they had been accustomed to in the opera-houses. In +the hope of remedying this state of affairs Wagner devoted several years +to writing essays, in which he explained his aims and ideals for the +benefit both of performers and listeners. Little attention was, however, +paid to these essays, and although they are valuable aesthetic +treatises, most lovers of Wagner would gladly give them for the operas +he might have written in the same time,--operas uniting the +characteristics of "Lohengrin" and "The Valkyrie."</p> + +<p>Wagner's letters to Liszt and other friends show that he suffered +tortures, and was often brought to the verge of suicide by the thought +that, as a political refugee, he was unable to go to Germany to +superintend the production of his works. His one consolation was that, +as he put it, through the friendship of Liszt his art had found a home +at Weimar at the moment when he himself became homeless. Weimar became, +as it were, a sort of preliminary Bayreuth, to which pilgrimages were +made to hear Wagner's operas. Liszt not only produced the "Flying +Dutchman," "Tannhäuser," and "Lohengrin," but wrote eloquent essays on +them, and in every possible way advanced the good cause. It has been +justly said that by his efforts he accelerated the vogue of Wagner's +operas fully ten years. He also helped him pecuniarily, and induced +others to do the same. Never in the world's history has one artist done +so much for another as Liszt did for Wagner during all the years of his +exile in Switzerland.</p> + +<p>Few persons would consider residence in Switzerland (the usual home in +those days of political refugees) a special hardship; nor would Wagner +have considered it in that light except for the solicitude he felt for +the children of his brain. Otherwise he greatly enjoyed life in that +glorious country, and the Alpine ozone nourished and stimulated his +brain. Moreover, from the creative point of view, it was an actual +advantage for him to be away from the opera-houses of the great +capitals. In Switzerland, except for a short time when he was connected +with the Zurich opera, he heard no operatic music except such as his own +brain created. Undoubtedly this helps to account for the astounding +originality of the music-dramas he wrote in Switzerland.</p> + +<p>These music-dramas go as far beyond "Lohengrin" in certain directions as +"Lohengrin" goes beyond the operas of Wagner's predecessors. It was a +reckless thing to do, to make another such giant stride before the world +had caught up with his first, and he had to suffer the consequences; +but genius disregards prudence, and looks to the future alone. What he +was now writing was what his enemies tauntingly called "the music of the +future," because, as they said, nobody liked it at present; but what he +himself called the "art work of the future," in which all the fine arts +are inseparably united.</p> + +<p>The biggest of his works, the "Nibelung Tetralogy," was conceived and +for the most part written in Switzerland. Before leaving Dresden he had +already written the poem of an opera which he called "Siegfried's +Death." Returning to this in his exile he came to the conclusion, +gradually, that the legend on which it is based, and which he had +sketched out in prose at the beginning, contained the material for two, +three, nay, four operas. Accordingly, he wrote the poems of these: +first, "Götterdämmerung," then "Siegfried," "Die Walküre," and +"Rheingold." The music to these four dramas was, however, composed in +the reverse order, in which they were to be performed.</p> + +<p>Wagner indulged in no illusions regarding these music-dramas. He knew +that they were beyond the capacity of even the best royal opera-houses +of that time, and that they could be performed only under exceptional +conditions, such as he finally succeeded, after herculean efforts and +many disappointments, in securing at Bayreuth in 1876. It is of great +interest to note that the germs of a sort of "Bayreuth festival plan" +can be found in his letters as early as 1850,--the year when "Lohengrin" +had its first hearing. Thus a full quarter of a century elapsed between +the conception of this festival plan and its execution. But Wagner had +the patience of Job, as well as his capacity for suffering.</p> + +<p>Amid privations of all sorts, he wrote the sublime music of these +dramas, beginning with "Rheingold," on Nov. 1, 1853,--the first time he +had put new operatic melodies on paper since the completion of +"Lohengrin," in August, 1847. In his head, to be sure, he had been +carrying much of the Nibelung music for some time, for he habitually +created his leading melodies at the same time as the verse; and the four +Nibelung poems were in print in 1853. On May 28, 1854, the score of +"Rheingold" was completed, and four weeks later he began the sketches of +"The Valkyrie," the completed score of which was in his desk by the end +of March, 1856.</p> + +<p>In the meantime his poverty had compelled him, much against his wishes, +to accept an offer from the London Philharmonic Society to conduct their +concerts for a season (March to June, 1855). He had reason to bitterly +regret this action. With the limited number of rehearsals at his command +it was impossible for him to make the orchestra follow his intentions +and reveal his greatness as a conductor. He was not allowed to make the +programmes, and the directors, ignorant of the fact that they had +engaged the greatest musical genius of the century, gave no Wagner +concert, and put only a few short selections from his early operas on +the programs. Thus his hopes of creating a desire for the hearing of his +complete operas, which had been one of his motives in going to London, +were frustrated. He was, moreover, constantly abused for doing things +differently from Mendelssohn, and the leading critics referred to his +best music as "senseless discord," "inflated display of extravagance and +noise," and so on. Almost the only pleasant episode was the sympathy and +interest of Queen Victoria, who had a long talk with him, and informed +him that his music had enraptured her.</p> + +<p>For all this trouble and loss of time (he found himself unable in London +to do any satisfactory work on the uncompleted "Valkyrie" score), he +received the munificent sum of $1,000,--considerably less than many +Wagner singers to-day get for one evening's work. Shortly before leaving +London he wrote to a friend that he would bring home about 200 +francs,--$40! For this he had wasted four months of precious time and +endured endless "contrarieties and vulgar animosities," to use his +own words.</p> + +<p>Equally unsuccessful were his efforts, a few years later, to better +himself financially by a series of concerts in Paris (1860). They +resulted in a large deficit. Nor was he benefited by the performances of +his "Tannhäuser," which were given at the grand opera in March, 1861, by +order of Napoleon, at the request of the influential Princess +Metternich. He had refused to interpolate a vulgar ballet in the second +act for the benefit of the members of the aristocratic Jockey Club, who +dined late and insisted on having a ballet on entering the opera-house. +They took their revenge by creating such a disturbance every evening +that after the third performance Wagner refused to allow any further +repetitions, although the house on the third night had been completely +sold out. He was to receive $50 for each performance. The result was +$150, or less than 50 cents a day, for a year's hard work and no end of +worry in connection with the rehearsals.</p> + +<p>How many men are there in the annals of art who would have refused, +after all these disappointments and bitter lessons, to make <i>some</i> +concessions? Wagner was writing a gigantic work, the Nibelung Tetralogy, +which, he was convinced, would never yield a penny's profit during his +lifetime. Sometimes despair seized him. In one of his letters he +exclaims: "Why should I, poor devil, burden and torture myself with such +terrible tasks, if the present generation refuses to let me have even a +workshop?" Yet the only deviation he made from his plan was that when +he had reached the second act of the third of the Nibelung dramas, the +poetic "Siegfried," in June, 1857, he made up his mind to abandon the +Tetralogy for the time being, and compose an opera which might be +performed separately and once more bring him into contact with +the stage.</p> + +<p>This opera was "Tristan and Isolde;" but instead of being a concession, +it turned out to be the most difficult and Wagnerian of all his +works,--an opera with much emotion but little action, no processions or +choruses such as "Lohengrin" still had, and, of course, no arias or +tunes whatever. "Tristan and Isolde" was completed in 1859, and Wagner +would have much preferred to have its performance in Paris commanded by +Napoleon in place of "Tannhäuser." What the Jockey Club would have done +in that case is inconceivable, for, compared with "Tristan," +"Tannhäuser" is almost Meyerbeerian, if not Donizettian. No singers, +moreover, could have been found in Paris able to interpret this work, +with its new vocal style,--"speech-song," as the Germans call it. Even +Germany could do nothing, at first, with this opera. In Vienna, after +fifty-four rehearsals, it was abandoned, in 1863, as "impossible," and +that city did not produce it till after Wagner's death. Instead of +bringing him into immediate contact with the stage, it was not heard +<i>anywhere</i> till seven years after its completion.</p> + +<p>There was one more card for him to play. All his operas, so far, had +been tragedies. What if he were to write a comic opera? Would not that +be likely to get him access to the stage again, and help him +financially? He had the plan for a comic opera; indeed, he had sketched +it as early as 1845, at the same time as the plot of "Lohengrin." +Sixteen years it lay dormant in his brain. At last he wrote out the poem +in Paris, immediately after the "Tannhäuser" disaster there. Perhaps it +would be more accurate to call "Die Meistersinger" a humorous opera; for +while the story of the mediaeval knight who wins the goldsmith's +daughter has comic features, its chief characteristic is humor, with +that undercurrent of seriousness that belongs to all masterpieces of +humor. To a certain extent, it is a musical and poetic autobiography, +the victorious young Knight Walter, who sings as he pleases, without +regard to pedantic rules, representing Wagner himself and the "music of +the future," while the vain and malicious Beckmesser stands for the +critics, and Hans Sachs for enlightened public opinion.</p> + +<p>It was during the time that he wrote the gloriously melodious and +spontaneous music to this poem that the most important event of his life +happened. Work on the score was repeatedly interrupted by the necessity +of making some money. Most of his concerts in German cities, undertaken +for this purpose, did not yield him any profits. In Russia, however, he +was very successful, and as he had the promise of a repetition of his +success, he rented a fine villa at Penzing, near Vienna, and proceeded +to enjoy life for a change. Who can blame him for this? As he said to a +friend not long after this, "I am differently organized from others, +have sensitive nerves, must have beauty, splendor, and light. Is it +really such an outrageous thing if I lay claim to the little bit of +luxury which I like,--I, who am preparing enjoyment for the world and +for thousands?"</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the second Russian project failed, through no fault of his +own, and as he had borrowed money at usurious rates on his expected +profits, he found himself compelled to fly once more from his creditors. +After spending a short time in Switzerland, he went to Stuttgart, where +he persuaded his friend Weissheimer to go with him into the Suabian +Alps, where he intended to hide for half a year, until he could finish +his "Meistersinger," and with the score raise money for his creditors. +The wagon had already been ordered for the next morning, May 3, 1864, +and Wagner was packing his trunk, when a card was brought up to him with +the inscription: "von Pfistenmeister, Secrétaire aulique de S.M. le roi +de Bavière," and the message that the Baron came by order of the King of +Bavaria, and was very anxious to see him.</p> + +<p>King Ludwig II. of Bavaria had declared, while he was still crown +prince, that as soon as he became king he would show the world how +highly he held the genius of Wagner in honor. He kept his word. One of +his first acts was to despatch Baron von Pfistenmeister to search for +Wagner, and not to return without him. He was to tell him that the king +was his most ardent admirer; that he wanted him to come at once to +Munich, to live there in comfort, at the king's expense, to complete his +Nibelung operas, and produce them forthwith. Was it a wonder that when +the Baron had left, Wagner, who was thus suddenly raised from the depth +of despair (he had even meditated suicide) to the height of happiness, +fell on Weissheimer's neck, and wept for joy.</p> + +<p>Surely the brain of a Dumas could not have conceived a more romantic +event than this sudden transformation of one who was a fugitive from +debtor's prison into the favorite of a young and enthusiastic king. At +last Wagner had an opportunity to bring forward his music-dramas. +"Tristan and Isolde" was sung at the Munich Opera on June 10, 1865, with +an excellent cast, and Hans von Bülow as conductor. "Die Meistersinger" +followed on June 21,1868. Both these works were received with enthusiasm +by the ever-growing band of Wagner-lovers. His plan of building a +special theatre in Munich for the performance of his Nibelung operas +could not be carried out, however, even with the king's aid; for his +great influence with the king (he was rumored to be even his political +and religious adviser, though this was not true), aroused so much +hostile feeling that Wagner finally decided to have his Nibelung +festival at the old secluded town of Bayreuth.</p> + +<p>At the suggestion of the eminent pianist, Carl Taussig, Wagner societies +were formed in the cities of Europe and America to raise funds for this +festival and give Wagner a chance to establish a tradition by showing +the world how his operas should be performed. With the aid of these and +liberal contributions by his ever-devoted king, Wagner was able, after +many trials, tribulations, and postponements, to bring out, at last, his +great Tetralogy, on August 13, 14,16, and 17, of the year 1876. It was +beyond comparison the most interesting and important event in the whole +history of music. Wagner had personally visited the opera-houses +throughout the land and selected the best singers. The audience included +the Emperors of Germany and Brazil, King Ludwig, the Grand Dukes of +Weimar and Baden, eminent composers like Liszt, Grieg, Saint-Saëns, and +many other notable persons. The impression made by the great work was +the deeper because of the unusual circumstances: the theatre specially +constructed after Wagner's novel plan; the amphitheatric seats; the +concealed orchestra; the stereoscopic clearness and nearness of the +stage scenes, etc.</p> + +<p>The necessity of charging very high rates ($225 for the four dramas) +naturally prevented the audiences from being large, and the result was +that Wagner had a deficit of $37,000 on his hands as the reward for his +genius and years of business worries. When, however, his last work, the +sublime, semi-religious "Parsifal," was produced in 1882, there was a +balance in his favor. He was then in his sixty-ninth year, and the +exertion of producing this final masterpiece was too great for him. To +recuperate, he went to Venice, where he died on Feb. 13, 1882. King +Ludwig sent a special train to convey his body to Bayreuth, where it was +buried in the garden behind his villa Wahnfried.</p> + +<p>Since Wagner's death the Bayreuth festivals have been kept up with +ever-increasing success, under the guidance of his widow Cosima, the +daughter of Liszt (whom he married in 1870, four years after the death +of his first wife), and their son, Siegfried, who has in recent years +also won some success as an opera composer. The performances at Bayreuth +are no longer what they were during Wagner's lifetime,--models for all +the world; but they are still of unique interest. In truth, headquarters +like Bayreuth are no longer needed, for all the German cities now vie +with one another in their efforts to interpret the Wagner operas +according to the composer's intentions; and his influence on other +musicians, which began with the performance of "Lohengrin" under Liszt, +in 1850, is to-day greater than ever,--more powerful, perhaps, than that +ever exerted by any other master.</p> + +<p>But while an eminent German critic wrote not long ago that "the +music-drama of Wagner constitutes modern opera," it would be a huge +mistake to make Wagnerism synonymous with modern music in general. Apart +from the opera, there are several other very powerful currents, and +while most of them can be traced to the first half of the nineteenth +century, they are none the less modern. Their principal sources are +Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin, to whom we must add, in the second half +of the century, Liszt.</p> + +<p>The symphonies of Haydn and Mozart are like toy-houses compared with the +massive architecture of Beethoven's. He not only elaborated the forms, +but varied the rhythms, broadened the melody, and deepened the +expression of orchestral music. In his works, too, are to be found the +germs of romanticism, which others, notably Mendelssohn and Schumann, +developed so fascinatingly in their best works. Most of Mendelssohn's +compositions have had their day; but Schumann is still a force in modern +music and will long remain so.</p> + +<p>Brahms, the musical Browning, is, musically speaking, a son of Schumann +and a grandson of Beethoven. While even Brahms did not escape the +influence of Wagner, nor that of the romanticists Schubert and Chopin, +still, in his essence, he represents reaction against modern romanticism +and an atavistic return to the spirit of Beethoven. He has been, for +decades, the idol of Wagner's enemies; yet, in truth, there was no +occasion for opposing these two men, since they worked in entirely +different fields. Brahms wrote no operas, while Wagner wrote little but +operas. The real antagonist of Brahms is Liszt, who also worked only for +the concert hall and who represents poetic or pictorial music (programme +music), while Brahms stands for absolute music, or music <i>per se</i>, +without any poetic affiliations.</p> + +<p>While Schubert in his youth also came under the influence of his great +contemporary, Beethoven, he soon emancipated himself completely from +him, even in the symphony, in which, as Schumann pointed out, he opened +up "an entirely new world" of melody, color, and emotion. His +orchestration is more varied, euphonious, and enchanting than +Beethoven's, and in this direction he did for the symphony what Weber +did for the opera. By using the brass instruments pianissimo, for color +instead of for loudness, he opened a path in which later masters, +including Wagner, eagerly followed him. Schubert was also the first +composer who revealed the exquisite beauty and the great emotional power +of the freest modulation from key to key. His poetic impromptus for +piano became the model for Mendelssohn's "Songs without Words," and the +multitudinous forms of modern short pieces, while his melodious, dainty, +graceful valses were the forerunners of the exquisite dance-music which +subsequently made Vienna famous, and which reached its climax in Johann +Strauss the younger, universally known as "the waltz king."</p> + +<p>In all these respects, Schubert was epoch-making; and if the beautiful +details he suggested to his successors up to the present day could be +taken out of their works there would be some surprising blanks. +Especially also is this true in the realm of lyric song, for, as +everybody knows, he practically created the art song as we know and love +it. The greatest of his immediate successors, Schumann and Franz, +cheerfully admitted that they could never have written such songs as +they gave the world but for Schubert, and the same confession might be +made by the latest of the great songwriters, Grieg, Richard Strauss, and +our American MacDowell. Schubert's best songs have never been equalled. +They belong in the realm of modern music quite as much as Wagner's +music-dramas and Liszt's symphonic poems.</p> + +<p>Chopin is another composer who, although he died in 1849 (Schubert died +in 1828), is as modern as the masters just named. He was as boldly +original as Schubert, and as great a magician in the art of arousing +deep emotion by means of novel, unexpected modulations. As an originator +of new harmonic progressions he has had only three equals,--Bach, +Schubert, and Wagner. Harmonies as ultra-modern as those of Wagner's +"Parsifal" may be found in some of the mazurkas of Chopin. He was, as +Rubinstein called him, "the soul of the pianoforte." No one before or +after him knew how to make that instrument speak so eloquently. By +ingeniously scattering the notes of a chord over the keyboard while +holding down the pedal, he practically gave the player three or four +hands, and greatly enlarged the harmonic and coloristic possibilities of +the pianoforte. Liszt, Rubinstein, Paderewski, and others have gone +farther still in the same direction, but he showed the way, and most of +his pieces are as delightful and as modern now as they were on the day +when they were written. He wrote a few sonatas, but the majority of his +works are short pieces such as are characteristic of the modern +romantic school.</p> + +<p>Before Chopin modernized pianoforte music the world's greatest composers +had been Italians, Germans, and Frenchmen. Chopin's father was a +Frenchman, but his mother was a native of Poland, and he was born in +that country. While his music has the French qualities of elegance and +clearness (which every one admires in the works of Gounod, Bizet, +Massenet, and other Parisian masters), in its essence it is Polish--a +fact of special significance, for from this time on other nations than +the three mentioned--especially the Slavic and Scandinavian--begin to +play a prominent role in music. In this brief sketch only the greatest +names can be considered,--such names as Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky, +Dvorák, Grieg.</p> + +<p>Rubinstein was not only one of the greatest pianists, but one of the +most spontaneous and fertile melodists of all times. His frequently +careless workmanship and his foolish, savage hostility to the dominant +Wagner movement prevented him from enjoying the fruits of his rare +genius. He felt that, had it not been for the all-absorbing Wagner, he +himself might have been as popular as Mendelssohn. Although a Russian, +there is little local color in his music, for the enchanting exotic +melodic intervals in his "Persian" songs are Oriental in general, rather +than Russian in particular. Similar exotic intervals may be found in the +"Aïda" of Verdi, a pure Italian. Rubinstein, like Mendelssohn and +Meyerbeer, was a Hebrew. His day will yet come, for his Dramatic and +Ocean symphonies are among the grandest orchestral works in existence.</p> + +<p>His countryman, Tschaikowsky, also was neglected during his lifetime; +but since his death he has become, especially in London, almost as +popular as Wagner; and deservedly so, for he was a genius of the +highest type, less in his songs and pianoforte works than in his +symphonies and symphonic poems, which include some of the most inspired +pages in modern music. In some of his compositions there is a barbaric +splendor which proclaims the Russian and delights those who like exotic +novelty in music. Like all the Russians, Tschaikowsky was strongly +influenced by Liszt; indeed, it may be said that in Russia Liszt was +more potent in shaping the course of modern music than even Wagner.</p> + +<p>Another Slavic composer, the Bohemian Dvorák, is of special interest to +Americans not only because he is one of the greatest of modern +orchestral writers (a colorist of rare charm), but because he presided +for several years over Mrs. Thurber's National Conservatory of Music in +New York, and there wrote that truly melodious and deeply emotional +work, "From the New World," which has become almost as popular as +Tschaikowsky's "Pathétique." His Bohemian rhythms have a unique charm.</p> + +<p>Among the Scandinavian composers the greatest, by far, is Grieg, one of +the most original melodists and harmonists of all times. His songs, in +particular, are destined to immortality; they are among the very best +written since Schubert. Of his pianoforte and chamber music, too, it can +be said that everything is new, free from commonplace, and ultra-modern. +He has written mostly short pieces, and for that reason has had to wait +(like Chopin in his day) a long time for full recognition of his genius, +the critics not having yet got over the foolish habit of measuring +art-works with a yardstick. Like Chopin, moreover, Grieg has had the +ill-fortune of having his most original and individual traits accredited +to his nation and described as "national peculiarities." His music does +contain such peculiarities; but it is necessary to distinguish between +what is Norwegian and what is Griegian. Grieg's little pieces and songs +are big with genius.</p> + +<p>The Hungarian Liszt is another immortal master who, beside the fruits of +his individual genius, contributed to the current of modern music some +of those exotic national traits which distinguish it from that of +earlier epochs when it was almost exclusively Italian, French, and +German. His fifteen Hungarian rhapsodies constitute, however, only a +small part of the invaluable legacy he has left the world. He was the +most many-sided of all musicians,--the greatest of all pianists, and one +of the best composers of oratorios, songs, orchestral, and pianoforte +works,--everything, in short, except operas and chamber music. He was +also the greatest of teachers and (with the exception of Wagner) the +greatest of conductors; as such, he carried out both his own and +Wagner's new and revolutionary principles of interpretation, which have +gradually made the orchestral conductor a personage of even greater +importance, in concert hall and opera-house, than the prima donna, +travelling, like her, from city to city, to delight lovers of music.</p> + +<p>One might have expected that the prince of pianists, being at the same +time a composer, would do for the pianoforte what Bach had done for +choral and organ music, Beethoven for the symphony, Schubert for the art +song, and Wagner for the opera. But he could not, for Chopin had +anticipated him. In only one direction was it possible to go beyond +Chopin,--in that of making the piano capable of reproducing orchestral +effects. This, Liszt achieved in his own works and his transcriptions. +But, after all, the grandest pianoforte, while delightful as such, is +but a poor substitute for an orchestra. Hence it was natural that Liszt +should give up the pianoforte as his specialty and devote himself +particularly to the orchestra.</p> + +<p>In this domain he was destined to achieve reforms similar to those of +Wagner in the opera. The "classical" symphony, like the old-fashioned +opera, consists of detached numbers, or movements, that have no organic +connection with one another. For the detached numbers of the opera +Wagner substituted his "continuous melody;" and he provided an organic +connection of all the parts by means of the "leading motives" or +characteristic melodies and chords which recur whenever the situation +calls for them. In the same spirit Liszt transformed the symphony into +the symphonic poem, which is continuous and has a leading motive uniting +all its parts.</p> + +<p>There is another aspect to the symphonic poem, in which Liszt deviated +from Wagner. In Wagner's operas there is plenty of descriptive or +pictorial music, but no program music, properly speaking; for even in +such things as the Ride of the Valkyries, or the Magic Fire Scene, the +music does not depend on a programme, but is explained by the scenery. +In programme music, on the other hand, the scene or the poetic idea is +simply explained in the programme, or else merely hinted at in the title +of the piece. Crude attempts in this direction were made centuries ago, +but programme music as an important branch of music is a modern +phenomenon. Beethoven encouraged it by his "Pastoral Symphony," and the +French Berlioz did some very remarkable things in this line in his +dramatic symphonies; but it remained for Liszt to hit the nail on the +head in his symphonic poems. The French Saint-Saëns followed him, rather +than his countryman Berlioz; so did Tschaikowsky, Dvorak, and most +modern composers, up to Richard Strauss, whose symphonic poems are the +most widely discussed, praised, and abused compositions of our time.</p> + +<p>To the great names contained in the preceding paragraphs another must +be added,--that of an Italian. By an odd coincidence, Verdi was born in +the same year as Wagner, 1813. But what is far more remarkable is that +at the close of their careers, so different otherwise, these two great +composers met again--in their music, Verdi as a Wagnerian convert. Up to +his fifty-eighth year Verdi had written two dozen operas, all made up of +strings of arias in the old-fashioned way,--superb arias, many of them, +especially in "Il Trovatore" and "Aïda," but still arias. Then he rested +from his labors sixteen years; and when he appeared on the stage again, +with his "Otello" and "Falstaff," he had adopted Wagner's maxims that +arias are out of place in a music-drama; that "the play's the thing," +and that the music should follow the text word for word.</p> + +<p>Surely, this was the most remarkable of Wagner's triumphs and conquests. +He who had been denounced for decades as being unable to write properly +for the voice was actually taken up as a model by the greatest composer +of Italy, the land of song. Moreover, all the young composers of Italy +have turned their backs on the traditions of Italian opera. The chief +ambition of Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, and all the others has been +to be called "the Italian Wagner;" and their operas are much more like +Wagner's than like Rossini's and Donizetti's, being free from arias and +the vocal embroideries that formerly were the essence of Italian opera. +The same is true of the operas written in recent decades in France, +Germany, and other countries. Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Humperdinck, +Goldmark, Richard Strauss, Paderewski, and all the others have followed +in Wagner's footsteps.</p> + +<p>Such, briefly told, is the story of Richard Wagner and Modern Music. The +"music of the future" has become the music of the present. What the +future will bring no one can tell. Croakers say, as they have always +said, that the race of giants has died out. But who knew, fifty years +ago, that Wagner and Liszt, or even their predecessors, Chopin and +Schumann, and the song specialist, Robert Franz, were giants? We know it +now, and future generations will know whether we have giants among us. +Things of beauty that will be a joy forever have been created by men of +genius now living in Europe; such men as the Norwegian Grieg, the +Bohemian Dvorák, the French Saint-Saëns and Massenet, the Hungarian +Goldmark, the German Humperdinck and Richard Strauss, the Polish +Paderewski. England has more good composers and listeners than it ever +had before; and the same is true of America. We have no school of opera +yet, but the best operettas of Victor Herbert and De Koven deserve +mention by the side of those of the French. Offenbach, Lecocq, and +Audran, the Viennese Strauss, Suppé, and Milloecker, the English +Sullivan. The orchestral compositions of our John K. Paine are +masterworks, and the songs and pianoforte pieces of MacDowell are equal +to anything produced in Europe since Chopin and Franz. We have several +other men of great promise, and altogether the outlook for America, as +well as for Europe, is bright.</p> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>The books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles on Wagner would fill a +library. He has been more written about than any writers except +Shakspere, Goethe, and Dante. He was also fond of writing about himself. +His autobiography (extending only to 1865) has not yet been given to the +public; but there are many autobiographic pages in the ten volumes of +his literary works, which have been Englished by Ellis. Of great value +are Wagner's letters to Liszt and to other friends. These were utilized +for the first time in "Wagner and His Works," the most elaborate +biography in the English language, by the author of the foregoing +article. Shorter American and English books on Wagner have been written +by Kobbé, Krehbiel, Henderson, Hueffer, Newman, &c. Of French writers +Lavignac, Jullien, Mendès, Servières, Schuré, may be mentioned. Of great +value are Kufferath's monographs on the Wagner operas and Liszt's +analyses. In Germany the standard work of reference is the third edition +of Glasenopp, in six volumes, four of which are now (1902) in print. +Other German writers are Porges, Wolzogen, Pohl, Nohl, Tappert, +Chamberlain, &c. The best histories of Modern Music in general are +Langhaus's larger work and Riemann's "Geschichte der Musik seit +Beethoven." The best general work for reference is "Great Composers and +Their Works," edited by Professor Paine of Harvard. References to about +10,000 articles on Wagner may be found in Oesterlein's "Katalog Einer +Richard Wagner Bibliothek," 3 vols.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="JOHN_RUSKIN."></a>JOHN RUSKIN.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1819-1900.</p> + +<p>MODERN ART.</p> + +<p>BY G. MERCER ADAM.</p> +<br> + +<p>What John Ruskin has done in a prosaic, commercial, and Philistine age, +in teaching the world to love and study the Beautiful, in opening to it +the hidden mysteries and delights of art, and in inciting the passion +for taking pleasure in and even possessing embodiments of it, that age +owes to the great prose-poet and enthusiastic author of "Modern +Painters." Neither before nor since his day has literature known such a +passionate and luminous exponent of Nature's beauties, such an +inculcator in men's minds of the art of observing her ways and methods, +or one who has given the world such deep insight into what constitutes +the true and the beautiful in art. For these things, and for opening new +worlds of instruction and delight to his age in the realm of art, +heightened by the charm of his marvellous prose, we can readily pardon +Ruskin for his weaknesses and perverseness,--for his dogmatisms, his +fervors, and ecstasies, his exaggerations of praise and blame, and even +for the missionary propagation of his often unsound economic gospel, +valuable though it may be in illustrating and enforcing morality in its +aesthetic aspect. Despite his enemies, and all that the critics have +said contradicting his theories, Ruskin was a surprise and a revelation +to his time. In not a little of all that he said and did, it is true, we +cannot concur; nor can we fail to see the errors he fell into through +his want of reserve and his headlong haste to say and do the things he +said and did; nevertheless, he was a great and inspiring teacher in +things that appeal to our sense of the beautiful, and earnest in his +zeal to raise men's intellectual and moral standard of life. Like most +enthusiasts and geniuses, he had, now and then, his hours of reaction, +waywardness, and gloom; but there was much that was noble and ennobling +in the man, as well as rich and fructifying in his thought. Even in his +social and moral exhortations, tinctured as they are with medievalism, +and however much we may here again disagree with him, he had much that +was uplifting and inspiring to say to his time,--a time that had great +need of his apostolic counsellings and his fervent inculcations of +morality, industry, religion, and humanity.</p> + +<p>Throughout Mr. Ruskin's works--and they are amazingly manifold--a strong +and intense purpose runs, given to the highest and noblest ends; and +though their author at times wearies his reader by his diffuseness and +his digressions, and to some is almost fanatical in his reverence for +art, he is ever imaginative and eloquent, and has created for us a new, +instructive, and uniquely fresh and thoughtful body of art-literature. +The truth of infinite value he teaches is "realism,"--the doctrine that +all truth and beauty are to be attained by a reverent and faithful study +of nature, and not, as a reviewer expresses it, "by substituting vague +forms, bred by imagination on the mists of feeling, in place of +definite, substantial reality. The thorough acceptance of this doctrine +would remould our life; and he who teaches its application, even to any +single department of human activity, and with such power as Mr. +Ruskin's, is a prophet for his generation." In all his various labors +and aims, Mr. Ruskin set before himself a high, if somewhat quixotic, +ideal of life, and with great earnestness did much, not only for the +elevation of his fellow-men, but for the development of sound artistic +taste and the enriching and spiritualizing of life by seeking to +surround it at all times with the true and the beautiful, and with the +old-time virtues of purity, manliness, and courage.</p> + +<p>Among the "Beacon Lights" of the age there can be no question that +Ruskin is worthy of an exalted place, since few men of our modern time, +rich as it is in eminent thinkers and writers, has done more than he to +illumine the many subjects with which he has so fascinatingly +dealt,--and that not only in art and its cult of the Beautiful, but in +ethics, education, and political economy. The energies, activities, and +impulses he constantly put forth, as well as the high principles that +ever guided him in his earnest endeavor to improve the intellectual and +moral condition of his kind, mark his era as a great artistic epoch in +the onward and upward progress of the race. By stimulus, suggestion, and +inspiration he has powerfully influenced his time, though manifestly not +a little of the seed he abundantly and hopefully scattered has fallen +upon barren ground. Nevertheless, where the seed has fallen and +germinated, the yield has been large: "his spirit has passed far wider +than he ever knew or conceived; and his words, flung to the winds, have +borne fruit a hundredfold in lands that he never thought of or designed +to reach." With what pride and gratitude should not the age regard him +and his memory,--one who has quickened the sensibilities of men in +looking upon nature; opened our dull eyes to its manifold beauties; made +plain to the average intelligence what Art is and stands for; implanted +in our souls worship of the beautiful; shown workingmen how to use their +tools in the highest interests of their craft, and taught maidens what +and how to read as well as how and in what spirit to sew and cook. The +world too often acknowledges its true teachers and prophets only when it +begins to build them some belated tomb. "This, at any rate," gratefully +exclaims Frederic Harrison,<a name="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> "we will not suffer to be done to +John Ruskin."</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a> Written by Mr. F.H. on Professor Ruskin's eightieth +birthday (February 8, 1899). + +<p>"We may all of us recall to-day with love and gratitude the enormous +mass of stirring thoughts and melodious speech about a thousand things, +divine and human, beautiful and good, which for a whole half-century the +author of 'Modern Painters' has given to the world. They cover every +phase of nature, every type of art, of history, society, economics, +religion; the past and the future; all rules of human duty, whether +personal or social, domestic or national.... He spake to us of trees, +from the cedar of Lebanon unto the hyssop on the wall; he spake also of +beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes. He has put +new beauty for us into the sky and the clouds and the rainbow, into the +seas at rest or in storm, into the mountains and into the lakes, into +the flowers and the grass, into crystals and gems, into the mightiest +ruins of past ages, and into the humblest rose upon a cottage wall. He +has done for the Alps and the cathedrals of Italy and France, for Venice +and Florence, what Byron did for Greece. We look upon them all now with +new and more searching eyes. Whole schools of art, entire ages of old +workmanship, the very soul of the Middle Age, have been revealed with a +new inspiration and transfigured in a more mysterious light. Poetry, +Greek sculpture, mediaeval worship, commercial morality, the training of +the young, the nobility of industry, the purity of the home,--a thousand +things that make up the joy and soundness of human life have been +irradiated by the flashing searchlight of one ardent soul: irradiated, +let us say, as this dazzling ray shot round the horizon, glancing from +heaven to earth, and touching the gloom with fire. We need not, even +today, be tempted from truth, or pretend that the light is permanent or +complete. It has long ceased to flash round the welkin, and its very +scintillations have disturbed our true vision. But we remember still its +dazzling power and its revelation of things that our eyes had not seen.</p> + +<p>"What we especially love to dwell on to-day is this: that in all this +unrivalled volume of printed thoughts, in this encyclopaedic range of +topic by this most voluminous and most versatile of modern writers [may +we not say of all English writers?] there is not one line that is base, +or coarse, or frivolous; not a sentence that was framed in envy, malice, +wantonness, or cruelty; not one piece that was written to win money, or +popularity, or promotion; not a line composed for any selfish end or in +any trivial mood. Think what we may of this enormous library of print, +we know that every word of it was put forth of set purpose without any +hidden aim, utterly without fear, and wholly without guile; to make the +world a little better, to guide, inspire, and teach men, come what +might, scoff as they would, turn from him as they chose, though they +left him alone, a broken old man crying in the wilderness, with none to +hear or to care. They might think it all utterly vain; we may think much +of it was in vain: but it was always the very heart's blood of a rare +genius and a noble soul."</p> + +<p>Before entering, somewhat in detail, into Ruskin's vast and varied +labors, let us briefly outline the scope and character of the work which +gave the art critic and prophet of his time his chief fame. The +personal incidents in his life need not detain us at the outset, as they +are not specially eventful, and may be more fully gathered from the +excellent "Life" of Ruskin, by his friend and some-time secretary, W.G. +Collingwood, or from the delightfully interesting reminiscences by the +master himself in his autobiographic "Praeterita," published near the +close of his long, arduous, and fruitful career. John Ruskin was born in +London on the 8th of February, 1819. He was of Scotch ancestry, his +father being a prosperous wine merchant in London, who acquired +considerable wealth in trade, which the son in time inherited, and nobly +used in his many private benevolences and philanthropic enterprises. The +comfortable circumstances in which he was born, coupled with his +father's own love of pictures and books, were helpful in giving +encouragement and direction to the young student's studies and tastes. +His mother, a deeply religious woman, was, moreover, influential in +implanting the serious element in Ruskin's character and life, and in +familiarizing him with the Bible, whose noble English, in King James' +version, manifestly entered early into the youth's ardent, prophetic +soul, and, as a writer, had much to do in forming his magnificent prose +style. Ruskin was in early years--indeed, far on in his manhood--in +delicate health, and consequently he was educated privately till he +passed to Christ Church College, Oxford, where, at the age of twenty, he +won the Newdigate prize for verse, and graduated in 1842. His taste for +art was manifested at an early age, and after passing from the +university he studied painting under J.D. Harding and Copley Fielding; +but his masters, as he tells us in "Praeterita," were Rubens and +Rembrandt.</p> + +<p>At the outset of his career Ruskin, as is well known, was led to take up +a defence of J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851) and the contemporary school of +English landscape-painting against the foreign trammels, which had +fastened themselves upon modern art, and especially to prove the +superiority of modern landscape-painters over the old masters. This +revolutionary opinion, though at first it was hotly contested, +established the new critic's position as a writer on art, and the +defence, or exposition rather, grew into the famous work called "Modern +Painters" (5 vols., 1843-60). This elaborate work deals with general +aesthetic principles, and, notwithstanding its occasional extravagances, +alike of praise and censure, its charm is irresistible, presenting us +with its brilliant and original author's ideas of beauty, to which he +freshly and powerfully awakened the world, while enshrining throughout +the work the most enchanting word-poems on mountain, leaf, cloud, and +sea, which, it is not too much to say, will live forever in English +literature. In the second volume Mr. Ruskin takes up the Italian +painters, and discusses at length the merits of their respective +schools; in the others, as well as in the work as a whole, we have a +body of principles which should govern high art-work, as well as new +ideas as to what should constitute the equipment of the painter, and +that not only as regards the technique of his art, but in the effect to +be produced on the onlooker in viewing the skilled work of one who, +above all accomplishments, should be lovingly and intimately in contact +with nature.</p> + +<p>From the study of painting Mr. Ruskin passed for a time to that of +architecture. In this department we have from his pen "The Seven Lamps +of Architecture" (1849) and "The Stones of Venice" (1851-53). In these +two complementary works their author sets forth as in an impressive +sermon the new and admonitory lesson that architecture is the exponent +of the national characteristics of a people,--the higher and nobler sort +exemplifying the religious life and moral virtue in a nation, the +debased variety, on the other hand, expressing the ignoble qualities of +national vice and shame. The text of "The Stones" is Venice, and the +design of the volumes, in the author's words, is to show that the Gothic +architecture of Venice "had arisen out of, and indicated, a state of +pure domestic faith and national virtue;" while its renaissance +architecture "had arisen out of and indicated a state of concealed +national infidelity and domestic corruption." The earlier work, "The +Seven Lamps,"--the Lamp of Sacrifice, of Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, +Memory, Obedience,--looks upon architecture "as the revealing medium or +lamp through which flame a people's passions,--the embodiment of their +polity, life, history, and religious faith in temple and palace, mart +and home." Akin to these two eloquent works, in which their author +thoughtfully sets forth the civic virtues and moral tone, as well as the +debased characteristics, by which architecture is produced at certain +eras in a people's life, is the earlier volume on "The Poetry of +Architecture" (1837), which discusses the relation between architecture +and its setting of landscape or other environment, illustrated by +examples drawn from regions he had visited,--the English Lakeland, +France, Switzerland, Spain, and northern Italy.</p> + +<p>After these works followed lectures on drawing, perspective, decoration, +and manufacture, with later theories (crotchets, some have impiously +called them) on political economy, Pre-Raphaelitism, <i>et cetera</i>, with a +flood of opinions on social, ethical, and art subjects, enriched by rare +intellectual gifts and much religious fervor. Ruskin's whole writings +form a body of literature unique of its kind, pervaded with great charm +of literary style, and inspired by a high moral purpose. Ruskin's +excursions into non-aesthetic fields, and the strange jumble of +Christian communism to which, late in life, he gave vehement expression, +it must be honestly admitted, have detracted much from his early fame. +In everything he wrote the Ruskinian spirit comes strongly out, colored +with an amiable egotism and enforced by great assurance of conviction. +The moral purpose he had in view, and the charm and elevated tone of his +writings, lead us to forget the wholly ideal state of society he sought +to introduce, while we are won to the man by the passion of his noble +enthusiasms.</p> + +<p>Like Carlyle and Emerson, Ruskin was by his parents intended for the +ministry; but for the ministry he had himself no inclination. The +broadening out early of his mind and the freeing of his thought on +doctrinal subjects, which took him far from the narrow evangelicalism of +his youth, made the ministry of the church repugnant to him, though he +was always a deeply religious man and a force ever making for +righteousness. At the same time, he numbered many divines among his most +cherished friends, and he frequently, and with admitted edification, was +to be found in chapel and church. Meanwhile he continued busily to +educate himself for whatever profession he might choose or drift into, +supplemented by such fitful periods of schooling as his delicate health +permitted, as well as by many jaunts with his parents to the English +lakes and other parts of the kingdom, and by frequent tours on the +Continent, especially in Italy and Switzerland. Before he arrived at his +teens, young Ruskin had composed much, both in prose and verse, and he +early manifested an aptitude for drawing, as well as a decided taste for +art, which, it is said, was in some measure incited by the gift, from a +partner of his father, of a copy of the poet Rogers' "Italy," with +engravings by Turner. Nor, early in manhood, did he escape a youth's +fond dream of love, for as a worshipper of beauty, and an enthusiast of +the "Wizard of the North," we find him drawn tenderly to a daughter of +Lockhart, editor of the "Quarterly Review," a grandchild of his famous +countryman, Sir Walter Scott. The affair, however, though encouraged by +his parents, who longed to see their son settled in life, came to +nought, chiefly owing to the young lover's weak physical frame and +uncertain health. Later on, unhappily, he was caught in the toils of +another Scottish lass, for whom, it is related, he had written "The King +of the Golden River" (1841), and whose rare beauty had readily attracted +him. With her, in 1848, he made an ill-assorted marriage, only to find, +some years afterwards, his heart riven and a bitter ingredient dropped +into his life's chalice by a fatal defection on the wife's part, she +having become enamoured of the then rising young painter, Millais, whom +Ruskin had trustingly invited to his house to paint her portrait. The +sequel of the affair is a pitiful one, which Ruskin ever afterward hid +deep in his heart, though at the time, finding that the woman was unable +to live at the intellectual and spiritual altitude of her loyal husband, +the latter, with a magnanimity beyond parallel, pardoned both Millais +and the erring one, consented to a divorce, and actually stood by her at +the altar as the faithless one took upon herself new vows unto a new +husband. The estrangement and loss of a wife gave Ruskin afresh to +Art,--his true and fondly cherished bride.</p> + +<p>At this period, as we know, English painting was at a low ebb, mediocre +and conventional, though with a show of artificial brilliance. Ruskin, +with his scorn of the artificial and scholastic, threw himself into the +work of overturning the established, complacent school of the time, and +with splendid enthusiasm and an unfailing belief in himself and his +ideas he undertook to reform what had been, and to raise current +conceptions of art to a more exalted and lofty plane. We have seen what +he had already achieved in his first dashing period of literary +activity, in the production of the early volumes of "Modern Painters," +and in his "Seven Lamps" and "Stones of Venice." While he was at work on +the concluding volumes of the first and last of these great books there +arose in England the somewhat fantastic movement in art, launched by the +Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which included such Ruskinites and other +devotees of early Christian and mediaeval painting as Rossetti, Millais, +Morris, Burne-Jones, and Holman Hunt. Towards this new school of +symbolists and affectationists Ruskin was not at first drawn, since it +seemed to him unduly idealistic, if not mystic, and smacked not a +little, as he thought, of popery. Later, however, he saw good in it, as +a breaking away from academic trammels; while he recognized the earnest +enthusiasm of the little band of artists and artist-poets, as well as +their technical dexterity and brilliance. With ready decision as well as +with his accustomed zeal for art, Ruskin ended by defending and +applauding the new innovators, particularly as their chief motive was +the one the master had always strenuously pled for,--adherence to the +simplicity of nature. Their scrupulous attention to detail, +characteristic of the Pre-Raphaelites, later on bore good results, even +after the Brotherhood fell apart, especially in William Morris's +application of their art-principles to household decoration and +furnishings. But for the time the movement was loudly mocked and +decried, and perhaps all the more because of Ruskin's espousal of the +fervid band, his letters of defence in the London "Times," and his +discussion in his booklet on "Pre-Raphaelitism." Heedless of the outcry, +Ruskin pursued his own self-confident course, and by the year 1860 he +had completed his "Modern Painters," and, in spite of objurgation and +detraction, had won a great name for himself as a critic and expounder, +while expanding himself over almost the whole world of art.</p> + +<p>We have said that Pre-Raphaelitism, as a movement in art, was +contemporaneously jeered at; while to-day, among superficial or +inappreciative students of the period, seriously to mention it or any of +its cultured brotherhood is to provoke a smile. Nevertheless, there was +not a little high merit in the movement, which Ruskin was keen-eyed and +friendly enough to recognize, while much that is worthy afterwards came +out of it in the later work of the more notable of its members as well +as in that of their unenrolled associates and the admirers of the +Pre-Raphaelite method. What the movement owed to Ruskin is now frankly +conceded, in the lesson the brotherhood took to heart from his +counsellings,--to divest art of conventionality, and to work with +scrupulous fidelity and sincerity of purpose. Nor was contemporary art +alone the gainer by the movement; it also had its influence on poetry, +though this has been obscured--so far as any beneficial influence can be +traced at all--by the tendency manifested in some of the more amorous +poetic swains of the period, who professed to derive their inspiration +from the Brotherhood, to identify themselves with what has been styled +the "Fleshly School" of verse. Of the latter number, Swinburne, in his +early "Poems and Ballads," was perhaps the greatest sinner, though +atoned for in part by the lyrical art and ardor of his verse, and much +more by the higher qualities and scholarly characteristics of his later +dramatic Work. Nor is Dante Rossetti himself, in some of his poems, free +from the same taint, despite the fact of his interesting individuality +as the chief inspirer and laborer among the Brotherhood. Yet the +movement owed much to both his brush and his pen of other and nobler, +because reverential, work, as those will admit who know "The Blessed +Damozel," "Sister Helen," and his fine collection of sonnets, "The House +of Life," as well as his famous paintings, "The Girlhood of Mary +Virgin," and his Annunciation picture, "Ecce Ancilla Domini." Of the +product of other Pre-Raphaelites of note,--such as Ford Madox Brown, +Millais, Morris, Woolner the sculptor, Coventry Patmore, and Holman +Hunt,--much that is commendable as well as finely imaginative came from +their hands, and justified Ruskin in his gallant advocacy of the +movement, its founders, and their work.</p> + +<p>By this time, of which we have been writing, Ruskin had reached the +early meridian of his powers, and, as we have hinted, had wrested from +the unwilling many a juster recognition of his amazing industry and +genius. To his fond and indulgent parents this was a great source of +pride and satisfaction, and the practical evidence of it was the throng +of visitors to the family seats of Herne Hill and Denmark Hill, in the +then London suburbs, where Ruskin long had his home, and by the +attentions and honor paid to their son by universities, academies, and +public bodies, as well as by many eminent personages and the +intellectual <i>élite</i> of the nation. Among those with whom the young +celebrity was then ultimate and reckoned among his admiring +correspondents were, besides Turner (who died in 1851) and the chief +artists of the time, the Carlyles and the Brownings, Mary Russell +Mitford, Charlotte Bronté, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Monckton Milnes (Lord +Houghton), Charles Eliot Norton, Lady Trevelyan (Macaulay's sister), +Whewell, Maurice, Kingsley, Dr. John Brown (author of "Rab and his +Friends"), Tennyson, and Dean Milman. To these might be added many +notable foreigners whom he either met with in his continental travels or +who were attracted to him by a lively interest in his writings. In his +home, thanks to a wealthy and indulgent father, he was surrounded with +every comfort, short of luxury, if we except under the latter the large +sums expended on the purchase of "Turners" and many famous foreign +pictures, and a vast and increasing collection of favorite books and +other treasures and curios.</p> + +<p>Of the author's home-life we get many delightful reminiscences in +"Praeterita," with entertaining talks of his childhood days, his +youthful companions, his toys and animate pets, his early playful +adventures in authorship, and other garrulities with which, late in life +when the work, as it remains, was incompletely put together, he beguiled +the weariness and feebleness of old age. But we are anticipating, for we +are writing of Ruskin when his hand was yet on the plough, and the +plough was still in the furrow, and half a long life's arduous work was +yet before him. At this era, no brain could well have been more active +or fuller of philanthropies than his, for we approach the second period +of his life's grand activities,--the era of a new departure in the +interests that occupied him and the herculean tasks he set himself +to do.</p> + +<p>Before recording some of the achievements of this time and glancing at +the inciting causes of the transition which marks the era we have now +reached, let us note the demands made upon Mr. Ruskin's thought and +labor by universities and public institutions, whose audiences desired +to have him appear before them in person and address them upon topics in +which he and they were interested. These appearances on the lecture +platform were now numerous, since many throughout the kingdom were eager +to see and know the man whose art criticisms, principles that govern the +beautiful, and stimulating thought on all subjects, had made so deep an +impression on the reflecting minds of the age. His earliest appearance +on the rostrum was at Edinburgh, where he delivered four lectures +before the Philosophical Institution, chiefly on landscape-painters and +on Christian art, with a plea for the use of Gothic in domestic +architecture. Subsequent appearances were at Manchester, where he spoke +on the Political Economy of Art and the relation of art to manufactures; +at the South Kensington Museum, London, which had just been opened; and +later at Oxford, where further on in his career he became Slade +Professor of Art in his own University. From the accounts of these +public lectures we get opinions as to the personal appearance of Ruskin +at the period which add to our knowledge of him from paintings, +drawings, and photographs, though not a few of these accounts vary from +those given us in books, chiefly sketched by his lady friends and +correspondents. The more trusty of the contemporary pictures speak of +him as having "light, sand-colored hair; his face more red than pale; +the mouth well cut, with a good deal of decision in its curve, though +somewhat wanting in sustained dignity and strength; an aquiline nose; +his forehead by no means broad or massive, but the brows full and well +bound together; the eye [says the observer from whom we are quoting] we +could not see, in consequence of the shadows that fell upon his +[Ruskin's] countenance from the lights overhead, but we are sure that +the poetry and passion we looked for almost in vain in other features +must be concentrated here." Miss Mitford speaks of him at this time as +"eloquent and distinguished-looking, fair and slender, with a gentle +playfulness, and a sort of pretty waywardness that was quite charming." +Another, a visitor at his London home, characterizes him as "emotional +and nervous, with a soft, genial eye, a mouth thin and severe, and a +voice that, though rich and sweet, yet had a tendency to sink into a +plaintive and hopeless tone." Later on in years we have this verbal +portrait from a disciple of the great art-teacher, occurring in an +inaugural address delivered before the Ruskin Society of Glasgow: "That +spare, stooping figure, the rough-hewn, kindly face, with its mobile, +sensitive mouth, and clear deep eyes, so sweet and honest in repose, so +keen and earnest and eloquent in debate!"</p> + +<p>When the fifth and last volume of "Modern Painters" was finally off his +hands, Mr. Ruskin not only engaged, as we have seen, in occasional +lecturing, but began (1861) to add a prolific series of +<i>brochures</i>--many of them with quaint but significant titles--to his +already stupendous mass of writing. Their subjects were not alone +aesthetics, but now treated of ethical, social, and political questions, +the prophetic declarations and earnest appeals of a man of wide and +varied culture, deep thought, and large experience. The attempted +alliance of political economy with art was a novel undertaking in that +sixth lustrum of the past century, even by a man of Mr. Ruskin's +eminence and fame in the world of letters. But Mr. Ruskin was a bold and +earnest man, as well as a genius; and he had too much to tell his +heedless, <i>laissez-faire</i> age to keep silent on themes, remote as they +were from those he had hitherto taught, and of which he desired to +deliver his soul, whatever ridicule it might provoke and however adverse +the criticism levelled against him. His humanity and moral sense were +outraged by the manner in which the mass of his countrymen lived, and +trenchant was his castigation of this and eager as well as righteous his +desire to amend their condition and elevate and inspire their minds. As +an economist, it is true, there was not a little that was false as well +as eccentric in what he preached; moreover, much of his counsel was +directly socialistic in its trend, repugnant in large degree to his +English readers and hearers; but all this was atoned for by the honesty +and philanthropy of his motives, by his phenomenal fervor and eloquence, +and by the literary beauty and charm of every page he wrote. +Nevertheless, as in Carlyle--for in these depreciations the style of the +seer of Chelsea was deeply upon him--the note of calamity and the wail +of despair are too much in evidence in Ruskin's writings at this period, +while, like Carlyle also, he was equally precipitate and impulsive in +his attacks on things as they were. Yet in the economic condition just +then of England, and in the circumstances environing the labor world, +there was, possibly, justification for the rebukes and objurgations of +onlookers of the type of both of these men, and very humanitarian as +well as practically helpful were Ruskin's counsel and aid to labor and +to all who sought to raise and expand their outlook and better their +condition in life. Towards politics Ruskin was never drawn, but had he +been more prosaic and less given to anathematizing, most valuable would +have been his aid in legislation at this era of political and moral +reform. But if political science, or science in any other of its +branches or departments, did not come within his purview, great was the +revolution he wrought in the working-man's surroundings, and immense the +illumination he shed upon industry and on the spirit in which the +laborer should think and work.</p> + +<p>Referring to Ruskin at this period of his career, and to his influence +as a social and moral exhorter, Frederic Harrison, from whom we have +already quoted, has an admirable passage on "Ruskin as Prophet," <a name="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +which, as it is presumably too little known, we take pleasure in +embodying in these pages.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2">[2]</a> "Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and other Literary Estimates," by +Frederic Harrison; London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1900. + +<p>"The influence of Ruskin," says Mr. Harrison, "has been part of the +great romantic, historical, catholic, and poetic revival of which +Scott, Carlyle, Coleridge, Freeman, Newman, and Tennyson in our own +country have been leading spirits within the last two generations in +England. There is no need to compare him with any one of these as a +source of original intellectual force. He owns Scott and Carlyle as his +masters, and he might vehemently repudiate certain of the others +altogether. His work has been to put this romantic, historical, and +genuine sympathy inspired by Scott, Wordsworth, and Carlyle into a new +understanding of the arts of form. The philosophic impulse assuredly was +not his own. It is a compound of Scott, Carlyle, Dante, and the Bible. +The compound is strange, for it makes him talk sometimes like a Puritan +father, and sometimes like a Cistercian monk. At times he talks as Flora +MacIvor talked to young Waverley; at other times like Thomas Carlyle +inditing a Latter-day Pamphlet. But to transfuse into this modern +generation of Englishmen this romantic, catholic, historical, and social +sympathy as applied to the arts of form, needed gifts that neither +Scott, nor Carlyle, nor Newman, nor Tennyson possessed--the eye, if not +the hand, of a consummate landscape painter, a torrent of ready +eloquence on every imaginable topic, a fierce and desperate courage that +feared neither man nor devil, neither failure nor ridicule, and above +all things an exquisite tenderness that is akin to St. Francis or St. +Vincent de Paul....</p> + +<p>"Here is a man who, laboring for fifty years, has scattered broadcast a +thousand fine ideas to all who practise the arts, and all who care for +art. He has roused in the cultured world an interest in things of art +such as a legion of painters and ten royal academies could never have +done. He has poured out a torrent of words, some right, some wrong, but +such as have raised the level of art into a new world, which have +adorned English literature for centuries, and have inspired the English +race for generations; he has cast his bread upon the waste and muddy +waters with a lavish hand, and has not waited to find it again, though +it has been the seed of abundant harvest to others."</p> + +<p>Again, speaking of what Ruskin sought to accomplish in the regeneration +of modern society, and the reformation of our social ideals, and of that +"heroic piece of Quixotism" he founded, "the Guild of St. George," Mr. +Harrison remarks:--</p> + +<p>"The first life of John Ruskin was the life of a consummate teacher of +art and master of style; the second life was the life of priest and +evangelist.... Here is the greatest living master [the passage was +written while Mr. Ruskin was yet alive] of the English tongue, one of +the most splendid lights of our noble literature, one to whom a dozen +paths of ambition and power lay open, who had everything that could be +offered by genius, fame, wealth, social popularity, and intense +sensitiveness to all lovely things--and this man, after thirty years of +untiring labor, devotes himself to train, teach, delight, and inspire a +band of young men, girls, workmen, children,--all who choose to come +around him. He lavishes the whole of his fortune on them; he brings to +their door his treasures of art, science, literature, and poetry; he +founds and endows museums; he offers these costly and precious +collections to the people; he wears out his life in teaching them the +elements of art, the elements of manufacture, the elements of science; +he shows workmen how to work, girls how to draw, to sing, to play; he +gives up to them his wealth, his genius, his peace, his whole life. He +is not content with writing books in his study, with enjoying art at +home or abroad; he must carry his message into the streets. He gives +himself up--not to write beautiful thoughts: he seeks to build up a +beautiful world.... When I see this author of 'Modern Painters' and the +'Stones of Venice,' the man who has exhausted almost all that Europe +contains of the beautiful, who has thought and spoken of almost every +phase of human life, and has entered so deeply into the highest +mysteries of the greatest poets--when I see him surrounding himself in +his old age with lads and lasses, schoolgirls and workmen, teaching them +the elements of science and art, reading to them poems and tales, +arranging for them games and holidays, ornaments and dresses, lavishing +on these young people his genius and his wealth, his fame and his +future--I confess my memory goes back instinctively to a fresco I saw in +Italy years ago--was it Luini's?--wherein the Master sat in a crowd of +children and forbade them to be removed, saying that 'of such is the +kingdom of heaven.'"</p> + +<p>With this generous tribute to and appreciation of Ruskin, despite the +economic vagaries into which the great critic and teacher of his time +fell, we may more confidently approach the busy era of his later and +self-sacrificing labors, and with less apology take space to deal--as +compactly and intelligently as we can--with some of the more notable of +the many books and <i>brochures</i> of the period. Difficult as would be the +task, fortunately there is little need to epitomize these works, as many +of them are better known, and perhaps more attentively read, than his +earlier, bulkier, and more ambitious writings. A few of them lie outside +the economic gospel of their apostolic author, and these we will first +and briefly deal with. A number of them are instructive and inspiring +lay sermons on the mystical union between nature and art, beauty and +utility, and their reflex in the reverential homage for the beautiful +and the worthy in the mind and character of the English-speaking race. +The whole form a great body of fine and thoughtful work, which is as +enchaining as its meaning is often profound. The best-known of these lay +sermons is: "The Queen of the Air" (1869), a splendid blending of his +fancy with the Greek nature-myths of cloud and storm, represented by +Athena, goddess of the heavens, of the earth, and of the heart. The +parable drawn is that "the air is given us for our life, the rain for +our thirst and baptism, the fire for our warmth, the sun for our light, +and the earth for our meat and rest." Related to the work is "Ethics of +the Dust" (1865), lectures to little housewives on mineralogy and +crystallography, nature's work in crystallization being the text for a +diatribe against sordid living. "Sesame and Lilies," which belongs also +to this period of the writer's work, consists of three addresses, +delivered at Manchester and at Dublin, designed specially for young +girls, and treating in the main of good and improving literature. The +first of them, "Of Kings' Treasuries," deals with the treasures hidden +in books, the writings of the world's great men; its sequel, "Of Queens' +Gardens," deals with the function and sphere of woman, and, by way of +application, with the how and the what to read; the third lecture, on +"The Mystery of Life and its Arts," is a discursive but inspiring +consideration of what life is and how most successfully to battle with +it in the way of our work and of our appointed duty. All three lectures, +observes a commentator, "tell men and women of the ideals they should +set before them; how to read and to build character under the +inspiration of the nobility of the past, fitting one's self for such +great society; how to develop noble womanhood; how to bear one's self +toward the wonder of life, toward one's work in the world, and toward +one's duty to others."</p> + +<p>Other lectures and <i>brochures</i> of or about this period are "Hortus +Inclusus" (The Enclosed Garden), being "Messages from the Wood to the +Garden sent in happy days to two sister ladies," residing at Coniston, +and collected in 1887; "Arrows of the Chace," letters on various +subjects to newspapers, gathered and edited in 1880; "The Two Paths," +lectures on art and its application to Decoration and Manufacture +(1859); "Ariadne Florentina" (1873), a monograph on Italian wood and +metal engraving; "Aratra Pentelici" (1872), on the elements and +principles of sculpture; and "The Eagle's Nest" (1872), on the relation +of natural science to art. Still pursuing his delightful methods of +interpreting nature and teaching the world instructive lessons, even +from the common things of mother earth, we have a series of three +eloquent discourses, entitled (1) "Proserpina," studies of Alpine and +other wayside flowers, dwelling on the mystery of growth in plants and +the tender beauty of their form; (2) "Deucalion," a sort of glorified +geological text-book, treating of stones and their life-history, and +showing the wearing effect upon them of waves and the action of water; +and (3) "Love's Meinie" (1873), a rapture about birds and their +feathered plumage, delivered at Eton and at Oxford. This trilogy, +dealing with botany, geology, and ornithology, was presented to his +audiences with illustrative drawings, representing the flora met with in +his travels or found in the neighborhood of his new home in the +Lancashire lakes, with sketches of regions, including the +characteristics of the soil, in which he had been reared, and talks of +the note and habit of all birds that were wont to warble over him their +morning song. "The Pleasures of England," the "Harbours of England," and +the "Art of England" further treat of his loved native land, the first +of these being talks on the pleasures of learning, of faith, and of +deed, illustrated by examples drawn from early English history, and the +last treating of representative modern English artists, chiefly of the +Pre-Raphaelite school. "The Laws of Fésole" (1878) deals with the +principles of Florentine draughtsmanship; "St. Mark's Rest," with the +art and architecture of Venice; and "Val d'Arno," with early Tuscan art, +interspersed with the author's accustomed ethical reflections. "Mornings +in Florence," intended for the use of visitors to the art galleries of +the beautiful city on the Arno, deals in the true artist-spirit with its +famous examples of Christian art, giving prominence here also to the +ethical side of the city's history. "In Montibus Sanctis," and "Coeli +Enarrant," the one comprising studies of mountain form, and the other of +cloud form and their visible causes, though separately published, are +only reprints of the author's larger and nobler embodiment of his views +on art, in "Modern Painters." "The King of the Golden River," of which +we have previously spoken, is a fairy tale of much beauty, which he +wrote for the "Fair Maid of Perth" whom he married, and who separated +herself from him on the plea of "incompatibility." Playful as is the +style of the story, it is not without a moral, on what constitutes true +wealth and happiness. "The Crown of Wild Olive" (1866) consists of +lectures on work, traffic, and war; the latter lecture, delivered at the +Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, was also separately published +under the title of "The Future of England." The two former, being +addressed to working-men, laborers, and traders, discuss economic +problems, and set forth tentatively their author's antagonized political +ethics, with which, in drawing this essay to a close, we now venture +to deal.</p> + +<p>After the magnificent work done by Ruskin in art up to his fortieth +year, that he should turn, for practically the remainder of his life, to +the seemingly vain and profitless task of a social reformer and +regenerator of modern society, has to most men been a riddle too elusive +and enigmatic to solve. And yet, in his earlier career, had he not +himself prepared us for just such a departure as he took in the sixties, +for in art was he not equally revolutionary and iconoclastic, as well as +personally self-willed, passionate, and impulsive? Moreover, had not +Mother Nature endowed him with the gifts of a seer and made him +chivalrous as well as intensely sympathetic, while his early training +inclined him to be serious, and even ascetic? Nor were the rebuffs he +met with throughout his career calculated at this stage to make him +court the applause of his fellow-men or be mindful of the world's +censure or approval. Nor can one well quarrel with what he had now to +say on many a subject, visionary and enthusiast as he always was, and +given over to mediaeval views and preachments, and to abounding moral +and ethical exhortation. Like Carlyle's, his voice was that of one +crying in the wilderness, and yet in the industrial and social condition +of Britain at the era there was need of just such appeals for +regeneration and reform as Ruskin strenuously uttered, accompanied by +indignant rebukes of grossness, vulgarity, and meanness, as manifested +in masses of the people. If in his strivings after amelioration he was +too denunciatory as well as too radical, we must remember the temper and +manner of the man, and recognize how difficult it was in him, or in any +iconoclast who scorned modern science as Ruskin scorned it, to reconcile +the age of steam and industrial machinery, which he spurned and would +have none of, with the views he held of Christianity, morals, and faith. +His views on political economy, which he treated neither as an art nor a +science, might be perverse and wrong-headed, and his method of adapting +prophetic and apostolic principles to the practice of every-day life +utterly impracticable; but the virtues he counselled the nation to +manifest, and the graces he enjoined of truthfulness, justice, +temperance, bravery, and obedience, were qualities needed to be +cultivated in his time, with a fuller recognition of and firmer trust in +God and His right of sway in the world He had created.</p> + +<p>What Ruskin's economic views were, and what his relations to the +industrial and social problems of his time, most readers of our author +know, are mainly to be found in "Fors Clavigera," a series of letters to +working-men, covering the years 1871-84, and in his early essays on +political economy, "Unto this Last" (1860), and "Munera Pulveris" +(1863). "Unto this Last" appeared in its original form in the pages of +the "Cornhill Magazine," then edited by Thackeray, and our author speaks +confidently of it as embodying his maturest and worthiest thoughts on +social science. The work, which will be found the key to Ruskin's +economic gospel, embraces four essays, treating successively of the +responsibilities and duties of those called to fill all offices of +national trust and service; of the true sources of a nation's riches; of +the right distribution of such riches; and of what is meant by the +economic terms,--value, wealth, price, and produce. Under these several +heads, Ruskin expresses his conviction that co-operation and government +are in all things the law of life, while the deadly things are +competition and anarchy. Whatever errors the book<a name="FNanchor3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> contains--and the +author's unconscious arrogance and dogmatism made him blind to them--his +views were set forth with his accustomed vigor and eloquence, and in +the honest belief that he was more than fundamentally right. It was for +such helpful work as this, and what he accomplished in the kindred +volume, "Munera Pulveris," which first appeared in "Fraser's Magazine," +that Ruskin for the time dropped his revelations in art to let a new +world of thought into the "dismal science" of political economy, +confound its old-time instructors, and gird at the evils of the +age,--the greed, selfishness, and petty bargaining spirit of industrial +and commercial life. Nor in conducting such a crusade as this was Ruskin +abandoning his old and less controverted gospel of art. He was but +carrying into new and barren fields the high ideals he had hitherto +counselled his age to emulate and heed, and in his sympathy with labor +seeking to bring into its world the comeliness of beauty and the cheer +of prosperity, comfort, and happiness. In "Time and Tide" (1867), and +more at length in "Fors Clavigera," Ruskin reiterates his message to +labor, to get rid of ever-environing misery by realizing what are the +true sources of happiness,--pleasure in sincere and honest work, +inspired by intelligence, culture, religion, and right living. What he +desires for the working-man he desires also for his family, and +consequently he urges parents to train their sons and daughters to see +and love the beautiful, to cultivate their higher instincts, and call +forth and feed their souls. In all this there is much helpful, tonic +thought, which the church or the nation, roused to zeal and earnest +activity, might fittingly teach, and so advance the material weal of the +people, extend the area of public enlightenment and morality, and herald +the dawn of a new and higher civilization.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3">[3]</a> Alluding to the quaint title under which these "Cornhill" +essays afterwards appeared,--a title that hints at the gist of the +work,--Mr. Ruskin's biographer tells us that the motto was taken from +Christ's parable of the husbandman and the laborers: "Friend, I do thee +no wrong. Didst thou not agree with me for a penny? Take that thine is, +and go thy way. I will give UNTO THIS LAST even as unto +thee."--Matt. xx. 14. + +<p>Other aspects of Mr. Ruskin's economic gospel are, unfortunately, not so +sane and beneficent. His altruism knows no bounds, as his philanthropy +and zeal have but few restraints. After the fashion of his mentor, +Carlyle, he is carried away by his humanitarianism and his unreserved +acceptance of the doctrine of the equality and brotherhood of man. Hence +come his economic heresies in regard to rent and interest, and capital +and usury, his denunciations of the division of labor, his Tolstoian +impoverishment of himself for the benefit of his fellow-man, and his +dictum that the wealth of the nation should be its own, and not accrue +to the individual. Hence, also, the wholly ideal state of society he +attempted to realize in his communal Guild of St. George, with its rigid +government and restraints upon the personal liberty of its members. +Ideally beautiful, admittedly, was the plan and scheme of the little +state, with its disciplinings, exactions, and devout selective creed. +But the age is a practical, unimaginative one, and whatever compacts men +make, even for their highest welfare, there are, it is to be feared, +few so loyal, tractable, and docile as to place themselves for long +under such tutoring and one-patterned, fashioning forms of co-operative +living. Into whatever millennial state Ruskin sought to usher his little +band of English followers and disciples, one must speak appreciatively +of his motives in projecting the scheme, and of the money and labor he +personally lavished upon the Utopian project. Reverently also must one +speak of the catholic creed to which its members were asked to +subscribe: namely, to trust in God, recognize the nobleness of human +nature, labor faithfully with one's might, be loyal to one's common +country, its laws, and its monarch's or ruler's orders, so far as they +are consistent with the higher law of God; while exacting obedience, and +a pledge that one will not deceive, either for gain or other motive; +will not rob; will not hurt any living creature nor destroy any +beautiful thing; and will honor one's own body by proper care for it, +for the joy and peace of life. All this is very exemplary and beautiful, +and not over-hard to live up to, though the working-men of Sheffield in +time wearied of the organization, and the Guild and its noble ideals is +now, we believe, but a memory, if we except the art museum and library +of the Order taken over and still maintained by the town.</p> + +<p>More practical, may we not say, than this imitation of the Florentine +<i>arti</i> of the Middle Ages was the Working Men's College, founded in +London in the fifties by that other earnest Christian Socialist, F.D. +Maurice, in which Ruskin lectured gratuitously, took charge of the +drawing classes, and hied off to the country with its members to sketch +from nature and otherwise instruct and entertain them. Yet good in many +respects came of the Guild of St. George, in the impulse it gave to the +revival of the then dormant industries, such as the hand-spinning of +linen, hand-weaving of carpets and woollen fabrics, lace-making, +wood-carving, and metal-working, besides the stimulus it gave, with the +infusion of higher ideals of workmanship, to the decorative arts, and +the improvement in the sightliness of factories, and in the homes and +surroundings of labor. Here Ruskin's philanthropy and reform zeal showed +themselves most worthily in the financial aid he gave in the pulling +down, in crowded districts of the British metropolis, of poor tenements, +and the building up in their place of clean, attractive, and wholesome +habitations. In such benevolences and well-doings, and in this life of +renunciation and self-sacrifice, Ruskin spent himself, and made serious +inroads into his bodily health and strength, as well as scattered the +fortune--about a million dollars--left him by his now deceased father. +But this was the manner and character of Ruskin, and this the mode of +expressing his love for his fellow-man, which in myriad ways showed +itself throughout a long and strenuous career of devotion to high +ideals, and of practical, tender help in all good works. In all his +philanthropies he was true to his own preachings and counsellings, +spending and being spent in the spirit of his Divine Master, his whole +soul aglow with reverence and adoration and tender with a profound moral +emotion. Besides his rare endowments as a lover of the beautiful, he had +that other precious gift, of golden speech, which threw a mantle of +loveliness over every book he wrote and perpetual lustre over the domain +of letters.</p> + +<p>Ruskin's declining years, while hallowed by suffering, were cheered by +many tender attentions and unexpected kindnesses, and by the +recognition, by many notable public bodies and eminent contemporaries, +of his long life of great service and devotion to his kind. In our +modern age, from which, in his loved Coniston home, he passed from life +Jan. 20, 1900, no one more reverently than he has looked deeper into the +mystery of life, thought more concernedly of its problems, shed more +passionately and eloquently about him love for the beautiful, or +practically and helpfully done more--layman only though he was--for +religion and humanity. At his death the nation paid honor to his memory +by offering his remains a resting-place in the great fane of England's +illustrious dead, Westminster Abbey; but Ruskin had himself otherwise +ordered the disposal of his body. "Bury me," he said, "at Coniston." +And there, on the fifth day after his falling softly asleep, amid a +concourse of loving friends, the earthly tenement of the great art +critic and lover of righteousness was laid to rest, his grave strewn +with myriad wreaths, garlands, and crosses of beautiful, bright flowers.</p> + +<p>Here, after his long, strenuous, militant career, do we leave this +inspiring teacher and "consecrated priest of the Ideal," his gentle soul +finding rest and peace after the myriad troubles and tumults of life. +Still now is the once active, fertile, stimulating mind of the man who +so effectively roused his generation from its complacent smugness and +indifference in its appreciation of the beautiful, and with ardent +boldness challenged established beliefs in art and defied the +conventionality and authority of his time. His has been a powerful force +in innumerable departments of human thought, and epoch-making the +influence he has exerted in giving to the world new ideals of the +beautiful and in shaping modern opinion and taste in art. How great is +the work he has done, and what a library of stimulating, inspiring books +he has left us, comparatively few realize, as they little realize what +the age owes to him for his noble activities in well-doing and his many +and impressive lessons and influence. In a commonplace, commercial time, +how stimulating as well as ardent have been his appeals for +sensitiveness of perception in regard to art, and of the tone and +spirit in which it ought to be viewed and valued! And with what tender, +reverent feeling has he not opened our hearts to compassion and to +consideration for the welfare of our fellow-man, and how potent have +been his counsellings pointing to the true and abiding sources of +pleasure in life! Long must his formative opinions and influence extend, +and in the minds of all who think and reflect abiding must be the charm +as well as the power of his imaginative, glowing thought. That he met +with opposition and hostility in his day was but the price to be paid +for the disturbing, correcting, disciplining, yet inspiring part he +played in the work he so impulsively set himself to do. One smiles now +at the epithets of scorn and contumely once hurled at him, at the man +who, little understood as he has been, has done so much to uplift and +purify the thought of his time and do battle with the forces opposed to +reform and arrayed against those of light and truth. And how great were +the weapons with which he was armed, and how varied as well as +marvellous the talents he brought into play in the onslaught upon +shallowness, convention, and ignorance! Truly, he has done much for his +time, and great has been the gain Modern Art has won from his inspiring +lessons and thought. The coming of such a man, and at the time that was +his, one cannot help reflecting, was one of the providences of an +overruling Power, and adequately to estimate his influence and work, +and the tone and temper in which he wrought, we have but to consider +what the age would have been, in countless departments of thought and +activity, had the century now passed possessed no John Ruskin.</p> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>Collingwood, W. G. Life of Ruskin.</p> + +<p>Harrison, Frederic. Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and other Estimates.</p> + +<p>Mather, Marshall. John Ruskin, his Life and Teaching.</p> + +<p>Bayne, Peter. Lessons from my Masters--Carlyle, Tennyson, and Ruskin.</p> + +<p>Japp, Alex. H. Carlyle, Tennyson, and Ruskin.</p> + +<p>Spielmann, M.H. John Ruskin.</p> + +<p>Waldstein, Charles. Work of John Ruskin.</p> + +<p>Ward, May Alden. Prophets of the Nineteenth Century: Carlyle, Ruskin, +and Tolstoi.</p> + +<p>Bates, Herbert. Annotated edition, with Introduction, of Ruskin's +"Sesame and Lilies" and "The King of the Golden River."</p> + +<p>Ruskin's "Praeterita": An Autobiography.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="HERBERT_SPENCER."></a>HERBERT SPENCER.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1820-</p> + +<p>THE EVOLUTIONARY PHILOSOPHY.</p> + +<p>BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE.</p> +<br> + +<p>Herbert Spencer occupies a unique place in the history of human thought, +because he has been the first to attempt the construction of a +philosophical system in harmony with the theory of Evolution and with +the results of modern science. To his contemporaries he is known almost +exclusively as the author of the colossal work which he has chosen to +call the "Synthetic Philosophy." Concerning his personality very little +information has been published, and it is doubtful whether he will deem +it worth while to leave behind him the materials for a detailed +biography. About his private life we know even less than we know about +that of Kant. The very few facts obtainable may be summed up in a score +of sentences.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>I.</h2> + +<p>Herbert Spencer was born on April 27, 1820, at Derby, in England, and +was an only surviving child. His father was a schoolmaster in the town +named, and secretary of a philosophical society. From him the son seems +to have imbibed the love of natural science and the faculty of +observation conspicuous in his work. The father was particularly +interested in entomology, and Spencer himself used to collect, describe, +and draw insects when a boy. At the age of thirteen he was sent to study +with an uncle, Rev. Thomas Spencer, a liberal clergyman and a scholar, +with whom he remained three years, carrying on the study of natural +history, which he had begun in childhood. He now devoted himself to +mathematics, evincing a singular capacity for working out original +problems. At this time, too, he became familiar with physical and +chemical investigations, and already exhibited a strong tendency to +experimental inquiry and original research. His aversion to linguistic +studies put a university career out of the question. At the age of +seventeen he entered the office of Sir Charles Fox and began work as a +civil engineer, but about eight years afterward he gave up this +profession, and devoted the whole of his time to scientific experiments +and studies, and to contributions on philosophical questions to various +periodicals. As early as 1842, in a series of letters to the +Nonconformist newspaper on "The Proper Sphere of Government," he +propounded a belief in human progress based on the modifiability of +human nature through adaptation to its social surroundings, and he +asserted the tendency of these social arrangements to assume of +themselves a condition of stable equilibrium. From 1848 to 1853 he was +sub-editor of the Economist newspaper, and in his first important work, +"Social Statics," published in 1850, he developed the ethical and +sociological ideas which had been set forth in his published letters. +The truth that all organic development is a change from a state of +homogeneity to a state of heterogeneity is regarded by Spencer as the +organizing principle of his subsequent beliefs. It was gradually +expounded and applied by him in a series of articles contributed to the +"North British," the "British Quarterly," the "Westminster," and other +reviews. In these essays, and especially in the volume of "Principles of +Psychology," published in 1855, the doctrine of Evolution began to take +definite form, and to be applied to various departments of inquiry. It +was not until four years later--a fact to be carefully borne in mind by +those who would estimate correctly the relation of Spencer to +Darwin--that the publication of the latter's "Origin of Species" +afforded a wide basis of scientific truth for what had hitherto been +matter of speculation, and demonstrated the important part played by +natural selection in the development of organisms. As early as March, +1860, Spencer issued a prospectus, in which he set forth the general aim +and scope of a series of works which were to be issued in periodical +parts, and would, collectively, constitute a system of philosophy. In +1862 appeared the "First Principles," and in 1867 the "Principles of +Biology." In 1872 the "Principles of Psychology" was published; the +first part of the "Principles of Ethics" in 1879; and his "Principles of +Sociology" in three volumes, begun in 1876, was completed in 1896. In +the preface to the third volume of the last-named work the author +explains that the fourth volume originally contemplated, which was to +deal with the linguistic, intellectual, moral, and aesthetic phenomena, +would have to remain unwritten by reason of the author's age and +infirmities. The astounding extent of Herbert Spencer's labors becomes, +indeed, the more marvellous when one considers that impaired health has +for many years incapacitated him for persistent application. Owing +partly to his ill health, and partly to the absorbing nature of his +occupation, his life has been a retired one, and in the ordinary sense +of the term, uneventful. He has never married, and, although the high +opinion of his writings formed by contemporaries has led to many +academic honors being pressed upon him at home and abroad, these have +all been declined. It only remains to mention that in 1882 he visited +the United States, where the importance of his speculations had been +early recognized, and that his home is now in Brighton, England.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>II.</h2> + +<p>In Mr. Spencer's latest book, "Facts and Comments," a little light is +thrown on the author's habits, opinions, and predilections. Referring to +the athleticism to which so much attention is paid just now in English +and American universities, he points out how erroneous it is to identify +muscular strength with constitutional strength. Not only is there error +in assuming that increase of muscular power and increase of general +vigor necessarily go together, but there is error in assuming that the +reverse connection cannot hold. As a matter of fact, the abnormal powers +acquired by gymnasts may be at the cost of constitutional deterioration. +In a paper on "Party Government" the author maintains that what we boast +of as political freedom consists in the ability to choose a despot, or a +group of oligarchs, and, after long misbehavior has produced +dissatisfaction, to choose another despot or group of oligarchs: having +meanwhile been made subject to laws, some of which are repugnant. +Abolish the existing conventional usages, with respect to party +fealty,--let each member of parliament feel that he may express by his +vote his adverse belief respecting a government measure, without +endangering the government's stability,--and the whole vicious system of +party government would disappear. In a paper on "Patriotism," Mr. +Spencer says that to him the cry "Our country, right or wrong," seems +detestable. The love of country, he adds, is not fostered in him by +remembering that when, after England's Prime Minister had declared that +Englishmen were bound in honor to the Khedive to reconquer the Soudan, +they, after the reconquest, forthwith began to administer it in the name +of the Queen and the Khedive, thereby practically annexing it; and when, +after promising through the mouths of two colonial Ministers not to +interfere in the internal affairs of the Transvaal, the British +Government proceeded to insist on certain electoral arrangements, and +made resistance the excuse for a desolating war. As to the transparent +pretence that the Boers commenced the war, Mr. Spencer reminds us that +in the far West of the United States, where every man carries his life +in his hands and the usages of fighting are well understood, it is held +that he is the real aggressor who first moves his hand toward his +weapon. The application to the South African contest is obvious. In an +essay on "Style," Mr. Spencer tells us that his own diction has been, +from the beginning, unpremeditated. It has never occurred to him to take +any author as a model. Neither has he at any time examined the writing +of this or that author with a view of observing its peculiarities. The +thought of style, considered as an end in itself, has rarely, if ever, +been present with him, his sole purpose being to express ideas as +clearly as possible, and, when the occasion called for it, with as much +force as might be. He has observed, however, he says, that some +difference has been made in his style by the practice of dictation. Up +to 1860 his books and review articles were written with his own hand. +Since then they have all been dictated. He thinks that there is +foundation for the prevailing belief that dictation is apt to cause +diffuseness. The remark was once made to him, it seems, by two good +judges--George Henry Lewes and George Eliot--that the style of "Social +Statics" is better than the style of his later volumes; Mr. Spencer +would ascribe the contrast to the deteriorating effect of dictation. A +recent experience has strengthened him in this conclusion. When lately +revising "First Principles," which originally was dictated, the cutting +out of superfluous words, clauses, sentences, and sometimes paragraphs, +had the effect of abridging the work by about one-tenth. Touching the +style of other writers, Mr. Spencer points out the defects in some +passages quoted from Matthew Arnold and Froude. He says that he is +repelled by the ponderous, involved structure of Milton's prose, and he +dissents from the applause of Ruskin's style on the ground that it is +too self-conscious, and implies too much thought of effect. On the other +hand, he has always been attracted by the finished naturalness of +Thackeray.</p> + +<p>A word should here be said about the misconception of Mr. Spencer's +position with reference to the fundamental postulate of religions,--a +misconception which used to be more current than it is now. He cannot +fairly be described as a materialist. He is no more a materialist than +he is a theist. He is, in the strictest sense of the word, an agnostic. +He was the most conspicuous example of the <i>thing</i> before Huxley +invented the <i>word</i>. The misconception was shared by no less a man than +the late Benjamin Jowett, the well-known master of Balliol College, +Oxford, who, in one of his published "Letters," says: "I sometimes think +that we platonists and idealists are not half so industrious as those +repulsive people who only 'believe what they can hold in their hand,' +Bain, H. Spencer, etc., who are the very Tuppers of philosophy." It is +hard to see how the law of evolution and other generalizations of an +abstract kind with which Mr. Spencer's name is associated can be held in +anybody's hands. Letting that pass, however, Mr. Spencer has himself +suggested that, since the system of synthetic philosophy begins with a +division entitled the "Unknowable," having for its purpose to show that +all material phenomena are manifestations of a Power which transcends +our knowledge,--that "force as we know it can be regarded only as a +Conditioned effect of the Unconditioned Cause"--there has been thereby +afforded sufficiently decided proof of belief in something which cannot +be held in the hands. It is, indeed, absurd to apply the epithet +"materialist" to a man who has written in "The Principles of +Psychology": "Hence, though of the two it seems easier to translate +so-called matter into so-called spirit than to translate so-called +spirit into so-called matter (which latter is, indeed, wholly +impossible), yet no translation can carry us beyond our symbols."</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>III.</h2> + +<p>Any exposition of the "Synthetic Philosophy" must, of course, begin with +the volume entitled "First Principles." In the first part of this +preliminary work the author carries a step further the doctrine of the +Unknowable put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel. He points out the +various directions in which science leads to the same conclusion, and +shows that in their united belief in an Absolute that transcends not +only human knowledge but human conception lies the only possible +reconciliation of science and religion. In the second part of the same +book Mr. Spencer undertakes to formulate the laws of the Knowable. That +is to say, he essays to state the ultimate principles discernible +throughout all manifestations of the Absolute,--those highest +generalizations now being disclosed by science, such, for example, as +"the Conservation of Force," which are severally true, not of one class +of phenomena, but of <i>all</i> classes of phenomena, and which are thus the +keys to all classes of phenomena.</p> + +<p>The conclusions reached in "First Principles" may be thus summed up: +over and over again in the five hundred pages devoted to their +formulation, it is shown in various ways that the deepest truths we can +reach are simply statements of the widest uniformities in our +experiences of the relations of Matter, Motion, and Force; and that +Matter, Motion, and Force are but symbols of the Unknown reality. A +Power of which the nature remains forever inconceivable, and to which no +limits in Time and Space can be imagined, works in us certain effects. +These effects have certain likenesses of kind, the most general of which +we class together under the names of Matter, Motion, and Force; and +between these effects there are likenesses of connection, the most +constant of which we class as laws of the highest certainty. Analysis +reduces these several kinds of effects to one kind of effect; and these +several kinds of uniformity to one kind of uniformity. The highest +achievement of Science is the interpretation of all orders of phenomena +as differently conditioned manifestations of this one kind of effect, +under differently conditioned modes of this one kind of uniformity. When +science has done this, however, it has done nothing more than +systematize our experiences, and has in no degree extended the limits of +our experiences. We can say no more than before whether the +uniformities are as absolutely necessary as they have become to our +thought relatively necessary. The utmost possibility for us is an +interpretation of the process of things, as it presents itself to our +limited consciousness; but how this process is related to the actual +process we are unable to conceive, much less to know.</p> + +<p>Similarly we are admonished to remember that, while the connection +between the phenomenal order and the ontological order is forever +inscrutable, so is the connection between the conditioned forms of being +and the unconditioned form of being forever inscrutable. The +interpretation of all phenomena in terms of Matter, Motion, and Force is +nothing more than the reduction of our complex symbols of thought to the +simplest symbols; and when the equation has been brought to its lowest +terms, the symbols remain symbols still. Hence the reasonings contained +in "First Principles" afford no support to either of the antagonist +hypotheses respecting the ultimate nature of things. Their implications +are no more materialistic than they are spiritualistic, and no more +spiritualistic than they are materialistic. The establishment of +correlation and equivalence between the forces of the outer and the +inner worlds serves to assimilate either to the other, according as we +set out with one or the other. He who rightly interprets the doctrine +propounded in "First Principles" will see that neither the forces of +the outer, nor the forces of the inner, world can be taken as ultimate. +He will see that, though the relation of subject and object renders +necessary to us the antithetical conceptions of Spirit and Matter, the +one is no less than the other to be regarded as but a sign of the +Unknown Reality which underlies both.</p> + +<p>In logical order the formulation of "First Principles" should have been +followed by the application of them to Inorganic Nature. This great +division of Mr. Spencer's subject is passed over, however; partly +because, even without it, the scheme is too extensive to be carried out +in the lifetime of one man; and partly because the interpretation of +Organic Nature, after the proposed method, is of more immediate +importance. Before noting how Mr. Spencer applies his fundamental +principles to the interpretation of the phenomena of life, it may be +well to put before the reader's eye the "formula of evolution" in the +author's own language: "Evolution is an integration of matter and +concomitant dissipation of motion; during which the matter passes from +an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent +heterogeneity; and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel +transformation." This law of evolution is equally applicable to all +orders of phenomena,--"astronomic, geologic, biologic, psychologic, +sociologic, etc.,"--since these are all component parts of one cosmos, +though disguised from one another by conventional groupings. It is +obvious that, so long as evolution is merely established by induction, +it belongs, not to philosophy, but to science. To belong to philosophy +it must be deduced from the persistence of force. Mr. Spencer holds that +this can be done. For any finite aggregate, being unequally exposed to +surrounding forces, will become more diverse in structure, every +differentiated part will become the parent of further differences; at +the same time, dissimilar units in the aggregate tend to separate, and +those which are similar, to cluster together ("segregation"); and this +subdivision and dissipation of forces, so long as there are any forces +unbalanced by opposite forces, must end at last in rest; the penultimate +stage of this process "in which the extremest multiformity and most +complex moving equilibrium are established," being the highest +conceivable state. The various derivative laws of phenomenal changes are +thus deducible from the persistence of force. It remains to apply them +to inorganic, organic, and superorganic existences. The detailed +treatment of inorganic evolution is omitted, as we have said, from +Spencer's plan, and he proceeds to interpret "the phenomena of life, +mind, and society in terms of Matter, Motion, and Force."</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>IV.</h2> + +<p>The first volume of the "Principles of Biology" consists of three parts, +the first of which sets forth the data of biology, including those +general truths of physics and chemistry with which rational biology must +start. The second part is allotted to the inductions of biology, or, in +other words, to a statement of the leading generalizations which +naturalists, physiologists, and comparative anatomists have established. +The third and final part of the first volume of the "Principles of +Biology" deals with the speculation commonly known as "the development +hypothesis," and considers its <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> evidences.</p> + +<p>The inductive evidences for the evolutionary hypothesis, as +contra-distinguished from the special-creation hypothesis, are dealt +with in four chapters. The "Arguments from Classification" are these: +Organisms fall into groups within groups; and this is the arrangement +which we see results from evolution where it is known to take place. Of +these groups within groups, the great or primary ones are the most +unlike, the sub-groups are less unlike, the sub-sub-group still less +unlike, and so on; and this, too, is a characteristic of groups +demonstrably produced by evolution. Moreover, indefiniteness of +equivalence among the groups is common to those which we know have been +evolved, and to those supposed in the volume before us to have been +evolved. There is the further significant fact that divergent groups are +allied through their lowest rather than their highest members. Of the +"Arguments from Embryology," the first is that, when developing embryos +are traced from their common starting-point, and their divergencies and +re-divergencies are symbolized by a genealogical tree, there is manifest +a general parallelism between the arrangement of its primary, secondary, +and tertiary branches, and the arrangement of the divisions and +subdivisions of Mr. Spencer's classifications. Nor do the minor +deviations from this general parallelism, which look like difficulties, +fail on closer observation to furnish additional evidence; since those +traits of a common ancestry which embryology reveals are, if +modifications have resulted from changed conditions, liable to be +disguised in different ways and degrees, in different lines of +descendants. Mr. Spencer next considers the "Arguments from Morphology." +Apart from those kinships among organisms disclosed by their +developmental changes, the kinships which their adult forms show are +profoundly significant. The unities of type found under such different +externals are inexplicable, except as results of community of descent, +with non-community of modification. Again, each organism analyzed apart +shows, in the likenesses obscured by unlikenesses of its component +parts, a peculiarity which can be ascribed only to the formation of a +more heterogeneous organism out of a more homogeneous one. And, once +more, the existence of rudimentary organs, homologous with organs that +are developed in allied animals or plants, while it admits of no other +rational interpretation, is satisfactorily interpreted by the hypothesis +of evolution. Last of the inductive evidences are the "Arguments from +Distribution." While the facts of distribution in space are +unaccountable as results of designed adaptation of organisms to their +habitats, they are accountable as results of the competition of species, +and the spread of the more fit into the habitats of the less fit, +followed by the changes which new conditions induce. Though the facts of +distribution in time are so fragmentary that no positive conclusion can +be drawn, yet all of them are reconcilable with the hypothesis of +evolution, and some of them yield strong support,--especially the near +relationship existing between the living and extinct types in each great +geographical area. Thus of these four categories of evidence, each +furnishes several arguments which point to the same conclusion. This +coincidence would give to the induction a very high degree of +probability, even were it not enforced by deduction. As a matter of +fact, the conclusion deductively reached is in harmony with the +inductive conclusion. Mr. Spencer has deductively shown that, by its +lineage and its kindred, the evolution-hypothesis is as closely allied +with the proved truths of modern science as is the antagonist +hypothesis, that of special creation, with the proved errors of ancient +ignorance. He has shown that, instead of being a mere pseud-idea, it +admits of elaboration into a definite conception, so showing its +legitimacy as an hypothesis. Instead of positing a purely fictitious +process, the process which it alleges proves to be one actually going on +around us. To which may be added that the evolution-hypothesis presents +no radical incongruities from a moral point of view. On the other hand, +the special-creation hypothesis is shown to be not even a thinkable +hypothesis, and, while thus intellectually illusive, to have moral +implications irreconcilable with the professed beliefs of those who +hold it.</p> + +<p>Passing from the evidence that Evolution has taken place to the +question--How has it taken place?--Mr. Spencer finds in known agencies +and known processes adequate causes of its phenomena. In astronomic, +geologic, and meteorologic changes, ever in progress, ever combining in +new and more involved ways, we have a set of inorganic factors to which +all organisms are exposed; and in the varying and complicated actions of +organisms on one another we have a set of organic factors that alter +with increasing rapidity. Thus, speaking generally, all members of the +Earth's flora and fauna experience perpetual rearrangements of external +forces. Each organic aggregate, whether considered individually or as a +continuously existing species, is modified afresh by each fresh +distribution of external forces. To its pre-existing differentiations +new differentiations are added; and thus that lapse to a more +heterogeneous state, which would have a fixed limit were the +circumstances fixed, has its limits perpetually removed by the perpetual +change of the circumstances. These modifications upon modifications, +which result in evolution, structurally considered, are the +accompaniments of those functional alterations continually required to +re-equilibrate inner with outer actions. That moving equilibrium of +inner actions corresponding with outer actions, which constitutes the +life of an organism, must either be overthrown by a change in the outer +actions or must undergo perturbations that cannot end until there is a +readjusted balance of functions and correlative adaptation of +structures. But where the external changes are either such as are fatal +when experienced by the individuals, or such as act on the individuals +in ways that do not affect the equilibrium of their functions, then the +readjustment results through the effects produced on the species as a +whole: there is indirect equilibration. By the preservation in +successive generations of those whose moving equilibria are less at +variance with the requirements, there is produced a changed equilibrium +completely in harmony with the requirements.</p> + +<p>Even were this the whole of the evidence assignable for the belief that +organisms have been gradually evolved, Mr. Spencer holds that the belief +would have a warrant higher than is possessed by many beliefs which are +regarded as established. As a matter of fact, however, the evidence is +far from exhausted. At the outset of the first volume of "Principles of +Biology," it was remarked by the author that the phenomena presented by +the organic world as a whole cannot be properly dealt with apart from +the phenomena presented by each organism in the course of its growth, +development, and decay. The interpretation of either class of phenomena +implies interpretation of the other, since the two are in reality parts +of one process. Hence the validity of any hypothesis respecting the one +class of phenomena may be tested by its congruity with phenomena of the +other class. In the second volume of "The Principles of Biology," Mr. +Spencer passes to the more special phenomena of development, as +displayed in the structures and functions of individual organisms. If +the hypothesis that plants and animals have been progressively evolved +be true, it must furnish us with keys to these special phenomena. Mr. +Spencer finds that the hypothesis does this, and by doing it gives +numberless additional vouchers for its truth. It is impossible for us +here to review, even in outline, the extensive field traversed in the +second volume of "Principles of Biology." We would not omit, however, +to direct attention to the interesting conclusion reached by Mr. Spencer +toward the close of the volume with regard to the future of the human +race considered from the viewpoint of the possible pressure of +population upon subsistence. He points out that in man all the +equilibrations between constitution and conditions, between the +structure of society and the nature of its members, between fertility +and mortality, advance simultaneously towards a common climax. In +approaching an equilibrium between his nature and the ever-varying +circumstances of his inorganic environment, and in approaching an +equilibrium between his nature and all the requirements of the social +state, man is at the same time approaching that lowest limit of +fertility at which the equilibrium of population is maintained by the +addition of as many infants as there are subtractions by death.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>V.</h2> + +<p>Next in logical order and in order of publication come the two volumes +collectively entitled "The Principles of Psychology." In these volumes +an attempt is made to trace objectively the evolution of mind from +reflex action through instinct to reason, memory, feeling, and will, +from the interaction of the nervous system with its environment. +Subjectively, mental states are analyzed, and it is contended that all +of them--including those primary scientific ideas, the perceptions of +matter, motion, space, and time, assumed in the "First Principles"--can +be analyzed into a primitive element of consciousness, something which +can be defined only as analogous to a nervous shock. These perceptions +have now become innate in the individual. They may be called--as Kant +called space and time--forms of intuition; but they have been acquired +empirically by the race, through the persistence of the corresponding +phenomena in the environment, and from the accumulated experiences of +each individual being transmitted in the form of modified structure to +his descendants. This principle of heredity is one of the laws by which +individuals are connected with one another into an organic whole; and we +thus pass to what Spencer calls super-organic evolution, implying the +co-ordinated actions of many individuals, and giving rise to the science +of sociology.</p> + +<p>It is this science which Mr. Spencer undertakes to expound in the three +volumes entitled the "Principles of Sociology." The first of these +volumes presents a statement of the several sets of factors entering +into social phenomena. These factors are, first, human ideas and +feelings considered in their necessary order of evolution; secondly, +surrounding natural conditions; and, thirdly, those ever-complicating +conditions to which society itself gives origin. Under the caption "The +Inductions of Sociology," are set forth the general facts, structural +and functional, gathered from a survey of societies and their changes; +in other words, the empirical generalizations that are arrived at by +comparing different societies, or successive stages of the same +societies. The author then examines the evolution of governments, +general and local, as this is determined by natural causes; their +several types and metamorphosis; their increasing complexity and +specialization, and the progressive limitation of their functions. From +political the author turns to ecclesiastical organization. He traces the +differentiation of religious government from secular; its successive +complications and the multiplication of sects; the growth and continued +modification of religious ideas, as caused by advancing knowledge and +changing moral character; and the gradual reconciliation of these ideas +with the truths of abstract science. A good deal of space is devoted to +what the author calls ceremonial organization, by which he means that +third kind of government which, having a common root with the others, +and slowly becoming separate from and supplementary to them, serves to +regulate the minor actions of life. Finally, Mr. Spencer discusses +industrial organization; that is to say, the development of productive +and distributive agencies, considered in its necessary causes, +comprehending not only the progressive division of labor and the +increasing complexity of each industrial agency, but also the +successive forms of industrial government as passing through like phases +with political government.</p> + +<p>Many pages would be requisite adequately to describe the result of the +inquiries prosecuted by Mr. Spencer during some twenty years, and +embodied in the three volumes entitled "Principles of Sociology." The +ultimate conclusions reached, however, may be summed up in a few +paragraphs. It is the author's final conviction that, if the process of +evolution, which, unceasing throughout past time, has brought life to +its present height, continues throughout the future, as we cannot but +anticipate, then, amid all the rhythmical changes in each society, amid +all the lives and deaths of nations, amid all the supplantings of race +by race, there will go on that adaptation of human nature to the social +state which began when savages first gathered together into hordes for +mutual defence,--an adaptation finally complete. Mr. Spencer foresees +that many will think this a wild imagination. Though everywhere around +them are creatures with structures and instincts which have been +gradually so moulded as to subserve their own welfares and the welfares +of their species, yet the immense majority ignore the implication that +human beings, too, have been undergoing in the past, and will undergo in +the future, progressive adjustments to the lives imposed on them by +circumstances. There are a few, nevertheless, who think it rational to +conclude that what has happened with all lower forms must happen with +the highest forms,--a few who infer that among types of men those most +fitted for making a well-working society will hereafter, as heretofore, +from time to time, emerge and spread at the expense of types less +fitted, until a fully fitted type has arisen.</p> + +<p>It is, at the same time, conceded that the view thus suggested cannot be +accepted without qualification. If we carry our thoughts as far forward +as palaeolithic implements carry them back, we are introduced, not to an +absolute optimism, but to a relative optimism. The cosmic process brings +about retrogression, as well as progression, where the conditions favor +it. Only amid an infinity of modifications, adjusted to an infinity of +changes of circumstances, do there now and then occur some which +constitute an advance: other changes, meanwhile, caused in other +organisms, usually not constituting forward steps in organization, and +often constituting steps backward. Evolution does not imply a latent +tendency to improve everywhere in operation. There is no uniform ascent +from lower to higher, but only an occasional production of a form, +which, in virtue of greater fitness for more complex conditions, becomes +capable of a longer life of a more varied kind. And, while such higher +type begins to dominate over lower types, and to spread at their +expense, the lower types survive in habitats or modes of life that are +not usurped, or are thrust into inferior habitats or modes of life in +which they retrogress.</p> + +<p>Mr. Spencer's examination of "The Principles of Sociology" has led him +to the belief that what holds with organic types must hold also with +types of society. Social evolution throughout the future, like social +evolution throughout the past, must, while producing, step after step, +higher societies, leave outstanding many lower. Varieties of men adapted +here to inclement regions, there to regions that are barren, and +elsewhere to regions unfitted, by ruggedness of surface or insalubrity, +for supporting large populations, will, in all probability, continue to +form small communities of simple structures. Moreover, during future +competitions among the higher races, there will probably be left, in the +less desirable regions, minor nations formed of men inferior to the +highest; at the same time that the highest overspread all the great +areas which are desirable in climate and fertility. But while the entire +assemblage of societies thus fulfils the law of evolution by increase of +heterogeneity,--while within each of them contrasts of structure, caused +by differences of environments and entailed occupations, cause +unlikenesses implying further heterogeneity, we may infer that the +primary process of evolution--integration--which, up to the present +time, has been displayed in the formation of larger and larger nations, +will eventually reach a still higher stage, and bring yet greater +benefits. As when small tribes were welded into great tribes, the head +chief stopped inter-tribal warfare; as, when small feudal governments +became subject to a king, feudal wars were prevented by him,--so, in +time to come, a federation of the highest nations, exercising supreme +authority (already foreshadowed by occasional agreements among "the +Powers"), may, by forbidding wars between any of its constituent +nations, put an end to the re-barbarization which is continually undoing +civilization.</p> + +<p>When, eventually, this peace-maintaining federation has been formed, Mr. +Spencer looks for effectual progress towards that equilibrium between +constitution and conditions,--between inner faculties and outer +requirements,--implied by the final stage of human evolution. Adaptation +to the social state, now perpetually hindered by anti-social conflict, +may then go on unhindered; and all the great societies, in other +respects differing, may become similar in those cardinal traits which +result from complete self-ownership of the unit, and from exercise over +him of nothing more than passive influence by the aggregate. On the one +hand, by continual repression of aggressive instincts and by continual +exercise of feelings which prompt ministration to public welfare, and, +on the other hand, by the lapse of restraints gradually becoming less +necessary, there will be produced, in Mr. Spencer's forecast, a kind of +man so constituted that, while fulfilling his own desires, he will +fulfil also the social needs. Already, small groups of men, shielded by +circumstances from external antagonisms, have been moulded into forms of +moral nature so superior to our own that the account of their goodness +almost savors of romance; and it is reasonable to infer that what has +even now happened on a small scale may, under kindred conditions, +ultimately happen on a large scale. Prolonged studies, showing among +other things the need for certain qualifications above indicated, but +also revealing facts like that just named, have not caused our author to +recede from the belief expressed nearly fifty years ago that "the +ultimate man will be one whose private requirements coincide with public +ones. He will be that manner of man who, in spontaneously fulfilling his +own nature, incidentally performs the functions of a social unit; and +yet is only enabled so to fulfil his own nature by all others doing +the like."</p> + +<p>Before taking leave of the "Principles of Sociology," we should caution +the reader against a misconception that might seem, at first sight, to +find some warrant in the following remark of a sympathetic reviewer: +"Like Aristotle, he [Mr. Spencer] has had to delegate large portions of +his work to be done for him by others." As our author has himself +pointed out in "Facts and Comments," the reviewer's reference will be +rightly interpreted by those who know that the work delegated by +Aristotle to others was simply the <i>collection</i> of materials for his +Natural History, not the classification of those materials, much less +the drawing of inductions from them. As not one reader in ten knows +this, however, wrong impressions are likely to be made by the reviewer's +remark. Mr. Spencer's name being especially associated with the +"Synthetic Philosophy," the sentence quoted will suggest to many the +thought that large portions of that work were written by deputy. This, +of course, the reviewer did not mean to say. The work to which he +referred is entitled "Descriptive Sociology, or groups of sociological +facts, classified and arranged by Herbert Spencer, compiled and +abstracted by David Duncan, Richard Scheppig and James Collier," eight +parts of which have thus far appeared. Knowing that he should be unable +to read all the works of travel and history containing the facts he +should need when dealing with the science of society, Mr. Spencer +engaged these gentlemen--first one, then two, then three--to read up for +him and arrange the extracts they made in a manner prescribed. With much +material he had himself accumulated in the course of many years, our +author incorporated a much larger amount of material derived from the +compilations just mentioned when writing the "Principles of Sociology."</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>VI.</h2> + +<p>It is the two volumes entitled the "Principles of Ethics" to which we +shall lastly invite attention. The six parts of which this work is +composed were published in an irregular manner. Part I., presenting the +data of ethics, was issued in 1879; Part IV., a treatise on "Justice," +in 1891; Parts II. and III., which set forth respectively the inductions +of ethics and the ethics of individual life, and which, along with Part +I., form the first volume, were issued in 1892; Parts V. and VI., which +treat respectively of negative beneficence and positive beneficence, +were issued in 1893, and, along with Part IV., constitute the second +volume. With regard to the "Principles of Ethics," considered as a +whole, it should be noted that the author was prompted to prepare the +work, notwithstanding the ill health by which he was incessantly +interrupted, by the conviction that the establishment of rules of +conduct on a scientific basis is a pressing need. Now that moral +injunctions are losing the authority given by their supposed sacred +origin, the secularization of morals is becoming imperative. Those who +reject the current creed appear to assume that the controlling agency +conferred by it may safely be thrown aside. On the other hand, those +who defend the current creed allege that, in the absence of the guidance +it yields, no guidance can exist, divine commandments being, in their +opinion, the only possible guides. Dissenting from both of these +beliefs, Mr. Spencer has had for his primary purpose in the two volumes +under review to show that, apart from any supposed supernatural basis, +the principles of ethics have a natural basis. In these two volumes this +natural basis is set forth, and its corollaries are elaborated. If the +conclusions to which the general law of evolution introduces us are not +in all cases as definite as might be wished, yet our author submits that +they are more definite than those to which we are introduced by the +current creed. Complete definiteness is not, of course, to be expected. +Right regulation of the actions of so complex a being as man, living +under conditions so complex as those presented by a society, evidently +forms a subject-matter unlikely to admit of specific statements +throughout its entire range.</p> + +<p>The principal inductions drawn from the data collected in the first of +these volumes may be set forth in a few sentences. Multitudinous proofs +are brought forward of the fact that the ethical sentiment prevailing in +different societies, and in the same society under different conditions, +are sometimes diametrically opposed. In Europe and in the United States +to have committed a murder disgraces for all time a man's memory, and +disgraces for generations all who are related to him. By the Pathans, +however, a contrary sentiment is displayed. One who had killed a Mellah +(priest) and failed to find refuge from the avengers, said at length: "I +can but be a martyr; I will go and kill a Sahib." He was hanged after +shooting a sergeant, perfectly satisfied "at having expiated his +offence." The prevailing ethical sentiment in England is such that a man +who should allow himself to be taken possession of and made an +unresisting slave would be regarded with scorn; but the people of +Drekete, a slave-district of Fiji, "said it was their duty to become +food and sacrifices for the chiefs," and that "they were honored by +being considered adequate to such a noble task." Less extreme, though +akin in nature, is the contrast between the feelings which the history +of Englishmen has recorded within a few centuries. In Elizabeth's time, +Sir John Hawkins initiated the slave-trade, and, in commemoration of the +achievement, was allowed to put in his coat-of-arms: "a demi-moor +proper, bound with a cord,"--the honorableness of his action being thus +assumed by himself, and recognized by Queen and public. At the present +day, on the other hand, the making slaves of men, called by Wesley "the +sum of all villanies," is regarded in England with detestation; and for +many years the British government maintained a fleet to suppress the +slave-trade. Again, peoples who have emerged from the primitive +family-and-clan organization, hold that one who is guilty of a crime +must himself bear the punishment, and it is thought extreme injustice +that the punishment should fall upon any one else. The remote ancestors +of the English people thought and felt differently, as do still the +Australians, whose "first great principle with regard to punishment is +that all the relatives of a culprit, in the event of his not being +found, are implicated in his guilt: the brothers of the criminal +conceive themselves to be quite as guilty as he is." Then, too, among +civilized peoples the individualities of women are so far recognized +that the life and liberty of a wife are not supposed to be bound up with +those of her husband; and she now, having obtained a right to exclusive +possession of property, contends for complete independence, domestic and +political. It is, or was, otherwise in Fiji. The wives of the Fijian +chiefs consider it a sacred duty to suffer strangulation on the deaths +of their husbands. A woman who had been rescued by an Englishman +"escaped during the night, and, swimming across the river, and +presenting herself to her own people, insisted upon the completion of +the sacrifice which she had in a moment of weakness reluctantly +consented to forego." Another foreign observer tells of a Fijian woman +who loaded her rescuer "with abuse, and ever afterwards manifested the +most deadly hatred towards him." In England and on the Continent the +religious prohibition of theft and the legal punishment of it are joined +with a strong social reprobation, so that the offence of a thief is +never condoned. In Beloochistan, on the other hand, quite contrary ideas +and feelings are current. There "a favorite couplet is to the effect +that the Biloch who steals and murders, secures Heaven to seven +generations of ancestors." In England and the United States reprobation +of untruthfulness is strongly expressed, alike by the gentleman and the +laborer. In many parts of the world it is not so. In Blantyre, for +example, according to MacDonald, "to be called a liar is rather a +compliment." Once more: English sentiment is such that the mere +suspicion of incontinence on the part of a woman is enough to blight her +life; but there are peoples whose sentiments entail no such effect, and, +in some cases, a reverse effect is produced: "Unchastity is, with the +Wetyaks, a virtue." It seems, then, that in respect of all the leading +divisions of human conduct, different races of men, and the same races +at different stages, entertain opposite beliefs, and display +opposite feelings.</p> + +<p>In Mr. Spencer's opinion, the evidence here brought to a focus ought to +dissipate once for all the belief in a moral sense, as commonly +entertained. A long experience of mankind, however, prevents him from +indulging in such an expectation. Among men at large, lifelong +convictions are not to be destroyed either by conclusive arguments or +multitudinous facts. Only to those who are not by creed or cherished +theory committed to the hypothesis of a supernaturally created human +species will the evidence above summed up prove that the human mind has +no originally implanted conscience. Mr. Spencer himself at one time +espoused the doctrine of the intuitive moralists, but it has gradually +become clear to him that the qualifications required practically +obliterate the doctrine as enunciated by them. It has become clear to +him, in other words, that if among civilized folk the current belief is +that a man who robs and does not repent will be eternally damned, while +an accepted proverb among the Bilochs is, that "God will not favor a man +who does not steal and rob," it is impossible to hold that men have in +common an innate perception of right and wrong.</p> + +<p>At the same time, while the inductions drawn by Mr. Spencer from the +data of ethics show that the moral-sense doctrine in its original form +is not true, they also show that it adumbrates a truth, and a much +higher truth. For the facts cited, chapter after chapter, unite in +proving that the sentiments and ideas current in each society become +adjusted to the kinds of activity predominating in it. A life of +constant external enmity generates a code in which aggression, conquest, +revenge, are inculcated, while peaceful occupations are reprobated. +Conversely, a life of settled internal amity generates a code +inculcating the virtues conducing to harmonious co-operation,--justice, +honesty, veracity, regard for others' claims. The implication is that, +if the life of internal amity continues unbroken from generation to +generation, there must result not only the appropriate code, but the +appropriate emotional nature,--a moral sense adapted to the moral +requirements. Men so conditioned will acquire to the degree needful for +complete guidance that innate conscience which the intuitive moralists +erroneously supposed to be possessed by mankind at large. There needs +but a continuance of absolute peace externally and a rigorous insistence +on non-aggression internally, to insure the moulding of men into a form +naturally characterized by all the virtues. This general induction is +re-enforced by especial induction. Now as displaying this high trait of +nature, now as displaying that, Mr. Spencer has instanced various +uncivilized peoples who, inferior to us in other respects, are morally +superior to us. He has also pointed out that such peoples are, one and +all, free from inter-tribal antagonisms. The peoples showing this +connection between external and internal peacefulness on the one hand, +and superior morality on the other, are of various races. In the Indian +Hills are found some who are by origin Mongolian, Kelarian, Dravidian; +in the forests of Malacca, Burma, and in secluded parts of China exist +such tribes of yet other bloods; in the East Indian archipelago are +some belonging to the Papuan stock; in Japan there are the amiable +Ainos, who have no traditions of internecine strife; and in North Mexico +exists yet another such people unrelated to the rest, the Pueblos. Our +author holds that no more conclusive proof could be wished than that +supplied by these isolated groups of men, who, widely remote in locality +and differing in race, are alike in the two respects that circumstances +have long exempted them from war, and that they are now organically +good. May we not reasonably infer, asks Mr. Spencer, in conclusion, that +the state reached by these small, uncultured tribes may be reached by +the great cultured nations, when the life of internal amity shall be +unqualified by the life of external enmity?</p> + +<p>We bring to an end our review of the "Synthetic Philosophy" by pointing +out that the ethical doctrine constituting the culmination of the system +which is set forth in the "Principles of Ethics" is fundamentally a +corrected and elaborated version of the doctrine propounded in "Social +Statics" issued as long ago as 1850. The correspondence between the two +works is shown not only by the coincidence of their constructive +divisions, but also by the agreement of their cardinal ideas. As in the +one, so in the other, Man, in common with lower creatures, is held to be +capable of indefinite change by adaptation to conditions. In both he is +regarded as undergoing transformation from a nature appropriate to his +aboriginal wild life, to a nature appropriate to a settled civilized +life; and in both this transformation is described as a moulding into a +form fitted for harmonious co-operation. In both works, too, this +moulding is said to be effected by the repression of certain primitive +traits no longer needed, and the development of needful traits. As in +the first work, so in this last, the great factor in the progressive +modification is shown to be sympathy. It was contended in "Social +Statics," as it is contended in the "Principles of Ethics," that +harmonious social co-operation implies that limitation of individual +freedom which results from sympathetic regard for the freedoms of +others; and that the law of equal freedom is the law in conformity to +which equitable individual conduct and equitable social arrangements +co-exist. Mr. Spencer's theory in 1850 was, as his theory still is, that +the mental products of Sympathy which constitute what is called "the +moral sense," arise as fast as men are disciplined into social life; and +that along with them arise intellectual perceptions of right human +relations, which become clearer as the form of social life becomes +better. Further, in the earlier work it was inferred, as it is inferred +in the latest, that there is being effected a conciliation of individual +natures with social requirements; so that there will eventually be +achieved the greatest individuation, along with the greatest mutual +dependence,--an equilibrium of such kind that each, in fulfilling the +wants of his own life, will aid in fulfilling the wants of all other +lives. We observe, finally, that, in the first work, there were drawn +essentially the same corollaries respecting the rights of individuals +and their relations to the State that are drawn in the "Principles +of Ethics."</p> + +<p>A word may be said in conclusion about the difference between the +relation of Mr. Spencer on the one hand and Darwin on the other to the +thought of the Nineteenth Century. The fact is not to be lost sight of +that the principles of the Evolutionary, or, as Mr. Spencer prefers to +term it, the Synthetic, philosophy were formulated before the +publication of the "Origin of Species." What the ultimately general +acceptance of the theory propounded in Darwin's work did for Mr. Spencer +was precisely this: it greatly strengthened the biological evidence for +the evolutionary hypothesis. That hypothesis was upheld, however, by +evidence drawn not merely from biology, but from many other sources. +Moreover, while the Darwinian theory of natural selection, supplemented +as it was by the adoption of the Lamarkian factors,--the effect of use +and disuse and the assumed transmissibility of acquired +character,--merely attempted to explain the mode in which the changes in +organic life have taken place upon the earth, the evolutionary +hypothesis put forth by Mr. Spencer professed to be applicable to the +whole sphere of the knowable. It is further to be borne in mind that Mr. +Spencer has devoted a large part of his life to tracing in detail the +applications of his fundamental principles to social, political, +religious, and ethical phenomena. Darwin, on the other hand, strictly +confined himself to the biological field, and left to disciples the task +of indicating the bearing of the Darwinian theory upon sociology, +theology, and morals.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>The Complete Works of Herbert Spencer (The Synthetic Philosophy).</p> + +<p>Also, "Facts and Comments," by Herbert Spencer (Appleton's).</p> + +<p>John Fiske's "Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy."</p> + +<p>F.H. Collins's "Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy."</p> + +<p>A.D. White's "Herbert Spencer: The Completion of the Synthetic +Philosophy."</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="CHARLES_ROBERT_DARWIN."></a>CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1809-1882;</p> + +<p>HIS PLACE IN MODERN SCIENCE.</p> + +<p>BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE.</p> +<br> + +<p>There is no doubt that, by the judgment of a large majority of +scientists, the place of pre-eminence in the history of science during +the nineteenth century should be assigned to Charles Robert Darwin. The +theory associated with his name deserves to be called epoch-making. The +Darwinian hypothesis, indeed, should not be confounded with the cosmic +theory of Evolution which was formulated earlier and independently by +Herbert Spencer, and supported by many arguments drawn from sources +outside the field of natural history. The specific merit of the +Darwinian hypothesis is that it furnishes a rational and almost +universally accepted explanation of the mode in which changes have taken +place in the development of organic life upon the earth. With the +possible cosmical applications of his theory Darwin did not concern +himself, though the bearing of his hypothesis upon wider problems was at +once discerned, and has been set forth by Spencer and others. Before +stating, however, the conclusions at which Darwin arrived in his "Origin +of Species," the "Descent of Man," and other writings, and before +indicating the extent to which these conclusions have been adopted, we +should say a word about his interesting, amiable, and exemplary +personality. Concerning his private life, there is no lack of +information. He himself wrote an autobiographical sketch which has been +amplified by his son Francis Darwin, and supplemented with numerous +extracts from his correspondence.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>I.</h2> + +<p>Charles Robert Darwin was born at Shrewsbury, Feb. 12, 1809. His mother +was a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, the well-known Staffordshire potter, +and his father, Dr. Robert Waring Darwin, was a son of Erasmus Darwin, +celebrated in the eighteenth century as a physician, a naturalist, and a +poet. It is a curious fact that in some of his speculations Erasmus +Darwin anticipated the views touching the evolution of organic life +subsequently announced by Lamarck, and ultimately incorporated by +Charles Darwin in the theory that bears his name. The only taste kindred +to natural history which Dr. Darwin possessed in common with his father +and his son was a love of plants. The garden of his house in Shrewsbury, +where Charles Darwin spent his boyhood, was filled with ornamental +trees and shrubs, as well as fruit-trees.</p> + +<p>When Charles Darwin was about eight years old, he was sent to a +day-school, and it seems that even at this time his taste for natural +history, and especially for collecting shells and minerals, was well +developed. In the summer of 1818 he entered Dr. Butler's great school in +Shrewsbury, well known to the amateur makers of Latin verse by the +volume entitled "Sabrinae Corolla." He expressed the opinion in later +life that nothing could have been worse for the development of his mind +than this school, as it was strictly classical, nothing else being +taught except a little ancient biography and history. During his whole +life he was singularly incapable of mastering any language. With respect +to science, he continued collecting minerals with much zeal, and after +reading White's "Selborne" he took much pleasure in watching the habits +of birds. Towards the close of his school life he became deeply +interested in chemistry, and was allowed to assist his elder brother in +some laboratory experiments. In October, 1825, he proceeded to Edinburgh +University, where he stayed for two years. He found the lectures +intolerably dull, with the exception of those on chemistry. Curiously +enough, while walking one day with a fellow-undergraduate, the latter +burst forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on evolution. So +far as Darwin could afterwards judge, no impression was made upon his +own mind. He had previously read his grandfather's "Zoönomia," in which +similar views had been propounded, but no discernible effect had been +produced upon him. Nevertheless, it is probable enough that the hearing +rather early in life such views maintained and praised may have favored +his upholding them under a different form in the "Origin of Species."</p> + +<p>While at Edinburgh, Darwin was a member of the Plinian Society, and read +a couple of papers on some observations in natural history. After two +sessions had been spent at Edinburgh, Darwin's father perceived that the +young man did not like the thought of being a physician, and proposed +that he should become a clergyman. In pursuance of this proposal, he +went to the University of Cambridge in 1828, and three years later took +a B.A. degree. In his autobiography the opinion is expressed that at +Cambridge his time was wasted. It was there, however, that he became +intimately acquainted with Professor Henslow, a man of remarkable +acquirements in botany, entomology, chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. +During his last year at Cambridge Darwin read with care and interest +Humboldt's "Personal Narrative," and Sir John Herschel's "Introduction +to the Study of Natural Philosophy." These books influenced him +profoundly, arousing in him a burning desire to make even the most +humble contribution to the structure of natural science. At Henslow's +suggestion he began the study of biology, and in 1831 accompanied +Professor Sedgwick in the latter's investigations amongst the older +rocks in North Wales.</p> + +<p>It was Professor Henslow who secured for young Darwin the appointment of +naturalist to the voyage of the "Beagle." This voyage lasted from Dec. +27, 1831, to Oct. 2, 1836. The incidents of this voyage will be found +set forth in Darwin's "Public Journeys." The observations made by him in +geology, natural history, and botany gave him a place of considerable +distinction among scientific men. In 1844 he published a series of +observations on the volcanic islands visited during the voyage of the +"Beagle," and two years later "Geological Observations on South +America." These two books, together with a volume entitled "Coral +Reefs," required four and a half years' steady work. In October, 1846, +he began the studies embodied in "Cirripedia" (barnacles). The outcome +of these studies was published in two thick volumes. The time came when +Darwin doubted whether the work was worth the consumption of the time +employed, but probably it proved of use to him when he had to discuss in +the "Origin of Species" the principles of a natural classification. From +September, 1854, and during the four ensuing years, Darwin devoted +himself to observing and experimenting in relation to the transmutation +of species, and in arranging a huge pile of notes upon the subject. As +early as October, 1838, it had occurred to him as probable, or at least +possible, that amid the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on +in the animal world, favorable variations would tend to be preserved, +and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The result would be the formation +of new species.</p> + +<p>It was not until June, 1842, however, that Darwin allowed himself the +satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of his theory in +thirty-five pages. This was enlarged two years later into one of 230 +pages. Early in 1856, Sir Charles Lyell, the well-known geologist, +advised him to write out his views upon the subject fully, and Darwin +began to do so on a scale three or four times as extensive as that which +was afterwards followed in his "Origin of Species." He got through about +half the work on this scale. His plans were overthrown, owing to the +curious circumstance that, in the summer of 1858, Mr. Alfred E. Wallace, +who was then in the Malay archipelago, sent him an essay "On the +Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type." It +turned out upon perusal that this essay contained exactly the same +theory as that which Darwin was engaged in elaborating. Mr. Wallace +expressed the wish that, if Darwin thought well of the essay, he should +send it to Lyell. It was Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker who +insisted that Darwin should allow an abstract from his manuscript, +together with a letter to Prof. Asa Gray, dated Sept. 5, 1857, to be +published at the same time with Wallace's essay. Darwin was unwilling to +take this course, being then unacquainted with Mr. Wallace's generous +disposition. As a matter of fact, the joint productions excited very +little attention, and the only published notice of them asserted that +what was new in them was false, and that what was true was old. From the +indifference evinced to the papers which first propounded the theory of +natural selection, Darwin drew the inference that it is necessary for +any new view to be explained at considerable length in order to obtain +the public ear.</p> + +<p>In September, 1858, Darwin, at the earnest advice of Lyell and Hooker, +set to work to prepare a volume on the transmutation of species. The +book cost him more than thirteen months' hard labor. It was published in +November, 1859, under the title of "Origin of Species." This, which +Darwin justly regarded as the chief work of his life, was from the first +highly successful. The first edition was sold on the day of publication, +and the book was presently translated into almost every European tongue. +Darwin himself attributed the success of the "Origin" in large part to +his having previously written two condensed sketches, and to his having +finally made an abstract of a much larger manuscript, which itself was +an abstract. By this winnowing process he had been enabled to select the +more striking facts and conclusions. As to the current assertion that +the "Origin" succeeded because the subject was in the air, or because +men's minds were prepared for it, Darwin was disposed to doubt whether +this was strictly true. In previous years he had occasionally sounded +not a few naturalists, and had never come across a single one who seemed +to doubt about the permanence of species. Probably men's minds were +prepared in this sense, that innumerable well-verified facts were stored +away in the memories of naturalists, ready to take their proper places +as soon as any theory which would account for them should be strongly +supported. Darwin himself thought that he gained much by a delay in +publishing, from about 1839, when the "Darwinian" theory was clearly +conceived, to 1859; and that he lost nothing, because he cared very +little whether men attributed most originality to him or to Wallace.</p> + +<p>Darwin's "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" was begun +in 1860, but was not published till 1868. The book was a big one, and +cost him four years and two months' hard labor. It gives in the first +volume all his personal observations, and an immense number of facts, +collected from various sources, about domestic productions, animal and +vegetable. In the second volume the causes and laws of variation, +inheritance, etc., are discussed. Towards the end of the work is +propounded the hypothesis of Pangenesis, which has been generally +rejected, and which the author himself looked upon as unverified, +although by it a remarkable number of isolated facts could be connected +together and rendered intelligible.</p> + +<p>The "Descent of Man" was published in February, 1871. Touching this +work, Darwin has told us that, as soon as he had become (in 1837 or +1838) convinced that species were mutable productions, he could not +avoid the belief that man must come under the same law. Accordingly, he +collected notes on the subject for his own satisfaction, and not for a +long time with any intention of publishing. In the "Origin of Species," +the derivation of any particular species is never discussed; but in +order that no honorable man should accuse him of concealing his views, +Darwin had thought it best to add that by that work, "light would be +thrown on the origin of man and his history." It would have impeded the +acceptance of the theory of natural selection if Darwin had paraded, +without giving any evidence, his conviction with respect to man's +origin. When he found, however, that many naturalists accepted his +doctrine of the evolution of species, it seemed to him advisable to work +up such notes as he possessed, and to publish a special treatise on the +origin of man. He was the more glad to do so, as it gave him an +opportunity of discussing at length sexual selection, a subject which +had always interested him.</p> + +<p>Darwin's book on the "Expression of Emotion in Men and Animals" was +published in the autumn of 1872. This had been intended to form a +chapter on the subject in the "Descent of Man," but as soon as Darwin +began to put his notes together he saw that it would require a separate +treatise. In July, 1875, appeared the book on "Insectivorous Plants." +The fact that a plant should secrete, when properly excited, a fluid +containing an acid and ferment closely analogous to the digestive fluid +of an animal, was certainly a remarkable discovery. In the autumn of +1876 appeared "The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization," a work in +which are described the endless and wonderful contrivances for the +transportation of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. +About the same time was brought out an enlarged edition of the +"Fertilization of Orchids," originally published in 1862. Among the +minor works issued during the later years of Darwin's life may be +mentioned particularly the little book on "The Formation of Vegetable +Mould through the Action of Worms." This was the outgrowth of a short +paper read before the Geological Society more than fourteen +years before.</p> + +<p>In order to appreciate the enormous amount of research accomplished by +Charles Darwin, it is needful to keep in mind the conditions of +ill-health under which almost continually he worked. For nearly forty +years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men. His life was +one long struggle against the weariness and drain of sickness. During +his last ten years there were signs of amendment in several particulars, +but a loss of physical vigor was apparent. Writing to a friend in 1881, +he complained that he no longer had the heart or strength to begin any +prolonged investigations. In February and March, 1882, he frequently +experienced attacks of pain in the region of the heart, attended with +irregularity of the pulse. On April 18 he fainted, and was brought back +to consciousness with great difficulty. He seemed to recognize the +approach of death, and said, "I am not the least afraid to die." On the +afternoon of Wednesday, April 19, he passed away. On April 26 he was +interred in Westminster Abbey. The funeral was attended by +representatives of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Russia, and by +delegates of the universities and learned societies of which he had been +a member. Among the pall-bearers were Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph +Hooker, Professor Huxley, Mr. A.R. Wallace, Mr. James Russell Lowell, +the Duke of Argyll, and the Duke of Devonshire. The grave is +appropriately placed in the north aisle of the nave, only a few feet +from the last resting-place of Sir Isaac Newton.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>II.</h2> + +<p>An outline of Darwin's personality would not be complete without a +glance at some of his mental characteristics, and at his attitude toward +religion. Of his intellectual powers, he himself speaks with +extraordinary modesty in his autobiography. He points out that he always +experienced much difficulty in expressing himself clearly and concisely, +but he opines that this very difficulty may have had the compensating +advantage of forcing him to think long and intently about every +sentence, and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in his +own observations, or in those of others. He disclaimed the possession of +any great quickness of apprehension or wit, such as distinguished +Huxley. He protested, also, that his power to follow a long and purely +abstract train of thought was very limited, for which reason he felt +certain that he never could have succeeded with metaphysics or +mathematics. His memory, too, he described as extensive, but hazy. So +poor in one sense was it that he never could remember for more than a +few days a single date or a line of poetry. On the other hand, he did +not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that, +while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning. This, he +thought, could not be true, because the "Origin of Species" is one long +argument from the beginning to the end, and has convinced many able +men. No one, he submits, could have written it without possessing some +power of reasoning. He was willing to assert that "I have a fair share +of invention, and of common sense or judgment, such as every fairly +successful lawyer or doctor must have, but not, I believe, in any higher +degree." He adds humbly that perhaps he was "superior to the common run +of men in noticing things which easily escape attention, and in +observing them carefully."</p> + +<p>Writing in the last year of his life, he expressed the opinion that in +two or three respects his mind had changed during the preceding twenty +or thirty years. Up to the age of thirty or beyond it poetry of many +kinds gave him great pleasure. Formerly, too, pictures had given him +considerable, and music very great, delight. In 1881, however, he said: +"Now for many years I cannot endure to read a line of poetry; I have +tried lately to read Shakspeare, and found it so intolerably dull that +it nauseated me. I have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music. +Music generally sets me thinking too energetically of what I have been +at work on, instead of giving me pleasure. I retain some taste for fine +scenery, but it does not cause me the exquisite delight which it +formerly did." Darwin was convinced that the loss of these tastes was +not only a loss of happiness, but might possibly be injurious to the +intellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling the +emotional side of one's nature. So far as he could judge, his mind had +become in his later years a kind of machine for grinding general laws +out of large collections of facts, and that atrophy had taken place in +that part of the brain on which the higher aesthetic tastes depend. +Curiously enough, however, he retained his relish for novels, and for +books on history, biography, and travels.</p> + +<p>It is well known that Darwin was extremely reticent with regard to his +religious views. He believed that a man's religion was essentially a +private matter. Repeated attempts were made to draw him out upon the +subject, and some of these were partially successful. Writing to a Dutch +student in 1873, he said: "I may say that the impossibility of +conceiving that this grand and wondrous universe, with our conscious +selves, arose through chance seems to me the chief argument for the +existence of God; but whether this is an argument of real value I have +never been able to decide. I am aware that if we admit a First Cause, +the mind still craves to know whence it came and how it arose. Nor can I +overlook the difficulty from the immense amount of suffering through the +world. I am also induced to defer to a certain extent to the judgment of +the many able men who have fully believed in God; but here again I see +how poor an argument this is. The safest conclusion seems to me that +the whole subject is beyond the scope of man's intellect; but man can do +his duty." To questions put by a German student in 1879, he replied: +"Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so far as the habit of +scientific research makes a man cautious in admitting evidence. For +myself I do not believe that there ever has been any revelation. As for +a future life, every man must judge for himself between conflicting +vague probabilities." In the same year he told another correspondent: +"In my most extreme fluctuations I have never been an atheist in the +sense of denying the existence of a God. I think that generally (and +more and more as I grow older), but not always, that an Agnostic would +be the more correct description of my state of mind." His latest view is +indicated in a letter dated July 3, 1881. Here he expressed the "inward +conviction that the universe is not the result of chance." He adds, +however: "But, then, with me the horrid doubt always arises whether the +convictions of man's mind, which has been developed from the mind of the +lower animals, are of any value, or at all trustworthy. Would any one +trust the convictions in a monkey's mind, if there are any convictions +in such a mind?" The Duke of Argyll has recorded the few words on the +subject spoken by Darwin in the last year of his life. The Duke said +that it was impossible to look at the wonderful contrivances for +certain purposes in nature, and fail to recognize that they were the +effect and the expression of mind. Darwin looked at the Duke very hard, +and said, "Well, that often comes over me with overwhelming force; but +at other times"--here he shook his head vaguely--"it seems to go away."</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>III.</h2> + +<p>We pass to a consideration of Darwin's masterworks, the "Origin of +Species," the "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," and +the "Descent of Man." Before indicating the conclusions reached in the +first of these works, we should point out to what extent Darwin had been +preceded by dissenters from the belief once almost universally +entertained by biologists that species were independently created, and, +once created, were immutable. Lamarck was the first naturalist whose +divergent views upon the subject excited much attention. In writings +published at various dates from 1801 to 1815, he upheld the doctrine +that all species, including man, are descended from other species. He +pronounced it probable that all changes in the organic, as well as in +the inorganic world, were the result of law, and not of miraculous +interposition. He seems to have been led to his opinion that the change +of species had been gradual by the difficulty experienced in +distinguishing species from varieties by the almost perfect gradation of +forms in certain groups, and by the analogy of domestic productions. +With respect to the means of modification, he attributed something to +the direct action of the physical conditions of life, something to the +crossing of already existing forms, and much to use and disuse, or, in +other words, to the effect of habit. Finally, he held that characters +acquired by an existing individual might be transmitted to its +offspring.</p> + +<p>In 1813 Dr. W.C. Wells read before the Royal Society "An Account of a +White Female, Part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro." In this +paper the author distinctly recognized the principle of natural +selection, but applied it only to the races of man, and in man only to +certain characters. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an +immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observed, first, that all +animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that +agriculturalists improve their domesticated animals by selection. He +added that what is done in the latter case by art seems to be done with +equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature in the formation of +varieties of mankind fitted for the countries which they inhabit. Again +in 1831 Mr. Patrick Matthew published a work on "Naval Timber and +Arboriculture," in which he put forth precisely the same view +concerning the origin of species as that propounded by Mr. Wallace and +by Darwin. Unfortunately for himself, the view was cursorily suggested +in scattered passages of an appendix to a work on a different subject, +so that it remained unnoticed until Mr. Matthew himself drew attention +to it in 1860, after the publication of the "Origin of Species." We +observe finally that Mr. Herbert Spencer, in an essay published in 1852, +and republished six years later, contrasted the theories of the creation +and the development of organic beings. He argued from the analogy of +domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species +undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, +and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been +modified; and he attributed the modification to the change of +circumstances.</p> + +<p>The two volumes comprising the "Origin of Species" constitute, as the +author said, one long argument. It is, of course, impossible in the +space at our command to recapitulate in detail even the leading facts +and inferences which are brought forward to prove that species have been +modified during a long course of descent. We must confine ourselves to a +succinct statement of the author's general conclusions. What he +undertakes to prove is that the modification of species during a long +course of descent has been effected chiefly through the natural +selection of numerous successive slight favorable variations, aided in +an important manner by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of +parts; and in an unimportant manner,--that is, in relation to adaptive +structures, whether past or present, by the direct action of external +conditions, and by variations which seem to us, in our ignorance, to +arise spontaneously. It should be observed that Darwin does not +attribute the modification exclusively to natural selection. What he +asserts is: "I am convinced that natural selection has been the main, +but not the exclusive, means of modification." He submits that a false +theory would hardly explain in so satisfactory a manner as does the +theory of natural selection the several large classes of facts +marshalled in the two volumes now under review. If it be objected that +this is an unsafe method of arguing, Darwin rejoins that it is a method +usual in judging of the common events of life, and has often been used +by the greatest natural philosophers. The undulatory theory of light, +for instance, has thus been arrived at; and the belief in the revolution +of the earth on its own axis was, until lately, supported by scarcely +any direct evidence. It is no valid objection to the Darwinian theory of +the origin of species that science as yet throws no light on the far +higher problem of the essence or origin of life. Neither has any one +explained what is the essence of the attraction of gravity, though +nobody now objects to following out the results consequent on this +unknown element of attraction.</p> + +<p>Why, it may be asked, did nearly all the most eminent naturalists and +geologists until recently decline to believe in the mutability of +species? Darwin replies that the belief that species were immutable +productions was almost unavoidable as long as the history of the world +was thought to be of short duration. Even now that we have acquired some +idea of the lapse of time, men are too apt to assume without proof that +the geological record is so perfect that it would have afforded plain +evidence of the mutation of species if they had really undergone +mutation. The chief cause, however, of the once-prevalent unwillingness +to admit that one species has given birth to other and distinct species +is the fact that men are slow to admit great changes of which they do +not see the steps. The difficulty is the same which was experienced by +many geologists when Lyell first insisted that long lines of inland +cliffs had been formed and great valleys excavated, not by catastrophes, +but by the slow-moving agencies which we see still at work. The human +mind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term of even a million years; +cannot add up and perceive the full effects of many slight variations +accumulated during an almost infinite number of generations.</p> + +<p>When the first edition of the "Origin of Species" was published in 1859, +Darwin wrote that he by no means expected to convince experienced +naturalists whose minds were stocked with a multitude of facts, all +regarded during a long course of years from a point of view directly +opposite to his. He looked forward with confidence, however, to the +future, to young and rising naturalists, who would be able to view both +sides of the question with impartiality. He predicted that, when the +conclusions reached by him and by Mr. Wallace concerning the origin of +species should be generally accepted, there would be a considerable +revolution in natural history. Naturalists, for instance, would be +forced to acknowledge that the only distinction between species and +well-marked varieties is that the latter are known or believed to be +connected at the present day by intermediate gradations, whereas species +were formerly, though they are not now, thus connected. It might thus +come to pass that forms generally acknowledged in 1859 to be merely +varieties, would thereafter be thought worthy of specific names; in +which case scientific and common language would come into accordance. In +short, Darwin looked forward to the time when species would have to be +treated in the same manner as genera are treated by those naturalists +who admit that genera are merely artificial combinations made for +convenience.</p> + +<p>Darwin also foresaw that when his theory of the origin of species should +be adopted, other and more general departments of natural history would +rise greatly in interest. The terms used by naturalists--such terms as +affinity, relationship, community of type, paternity, morphology, +adaptive characters, rudimentary and abortive organs, etc.--would cease +to be metaphorical, and would have a plain signification. "When," he +wrote, "we no longer look at an organic being as a savage looks at a +ship, as something wholly beyond his comprehension; when we regard every +production of nature as one which has had a long history; when we +contemplate every complex structure and instinct as the summing up of +many contrivances, each useful to the possessor, in the same way as any +great mechanical invention is the summing up of the labor, the +experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous workmen; when +we thus view each organic being, how far more interesting--I speak from +experience--does the study of natural history become." Once more: "When +we can feel assured that all the individuals of the same species, and +all the closely allied species of most genera, have within a not very +remote period descended from one parent, and have migrated from some one +birthplace; and when we better know the many means of migration, then, +by the light which geology now throws, and will continue to throw, on +former changes of climate and of the level of the land, we shall surely +be enabled to trace in an admirable manner the former migrations of the +inhabitants of the whole world."</p> + +<p>When Darwin published the "Origin of Species," he was aware that +theologians and philosophers seemed to be fully satisfied with the view +that each species had been independently created, and was immutable. To +his own mind, however, it accorded better with what was known of the +laws impressed on matter by the Creator that the production and +extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have +been due to secondary causes like those determining the birth and death +of the individual. "When I view," he said, "all beings not as special +creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived +long before the first bed of the Cambrian system was deposited, they +seem to me to become ennobled." And again: "As all the living forms of +life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the +Cambrian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by +generation has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has +desolated the whole world. Hence we may look with some confidence to a +secure future of great length. And as natural selection works slowly by +and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will +tend to progress towards perfection."</p> + +<p>For his own part, Darwin could see no good reason why the views +propounded in the two volumes comprising the "Origin of Species" should +shock the religious feelings of any one. Touching the likelihood of +such a result, he reassured himself by recalling the fact that the +greatest discovery ever made by man--namely, the law of the attraction +of gravitation--was attacked by Leibnitz "as subversive of natural, and +inferentially, of revealed, religion." Darwin was confident that, if any +such impressions were made by his theory, they would prove but +transient, and that ultimately men would come to see that it is just as +noble a conception of the Deity to believe that He created a few +original forms capable of self-development into other and needful forms +as to believe that it required the fresh act of creation to supply the +voids caused by the action of His laws.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>IV.</h2> + +<p>It was, as we have said, in 1868 that Darwin published the two volumes +collectively entitled "Variation of Animals and Plants under +Domestication." It is the second and largely corrected edition brought +out in 1875 which we have under our eye. It is the outcome of the views +maintained by the author in this work and elsewhere that not only the +various domestic races but the most distinct genera and orders within +the same great class--for instance, mammals, birds, reptiles, and +fishes--are all the descendants of one common progenitor, and the whole +vast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen from +simple variability. Darwin recognized that he who for the first time +should consider the subject under this point of view would be struck +dumb with amazement. He submits, however, that the amazement ought to be +lessened when we reflect that beings almost infinite in number during an +almost infinite lapse of time have often had their whole organization +rendered in some degree plastic, and that each slight modification of +structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complex +conditions of life has been preserved, whilst each which was in any way +injurious has been rigorously destroyed. The long-continued accumulation +of beneficial variations will infallibly have led to structures as +diversified, as beautifully adapted for various purposes, and as +excellently co-ordinated as we see in the animals and plants around us. +Hence Darwin regards selection as the paramount power, whether applied +by man to the formation of domestic beings or by nature to the +production of species. Employing a favorite metaphor, he said: "If an +architect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice without the use of +cut stone, by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipice +wedge-form stones for his arches, elongated stones for his lintels, and +flat stones for his roof, we should admire his skill and regard him as +the paramount power. Now, the fragments of stone, though indispensable +to the architect, bear to the edifice built by him the same relation +which the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the varied +and admirable structures ultimately acquired by their modified +descendants."</p> + +<p>Some critics of the Darwinian theory of the origin of species have +declared that natural selection explains nothing, unless the precise +cause of each slight individual difference be made clear. Darwin rejoins +that if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of +building how the edifice had been raised, stone upon stone, and why +wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat stones for the +roof, etc.; and if the use of each part and of the whole building were +pointed out,--it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had +been made clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of each +fragment could not be told. This, in Darwin's opinion, is a nearly +parallel case, with the objection that selection explains nothing +because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the +structure of each being. The shape of the fragments of stone at the base +of the hypothetical precipice may be called accidental, but the term is +not strictly applicable; for the shape of each depends on a long +sequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature of the rock, +on the lines of deposition or cleavage, on the form of the mountain, +which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation, and, lastly, +on the storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments.</p> + +<p>In regard to the use, however, to which the fragments may be put, their +shape may be strictly said to be accidental. Here Darwin acknowledged +that we are brought face to face with a great difficulty in alluding to +which he felt that he was travelling beyond his proper province. "An +omniscient Creator must have foreseen every consequence which results +from the laws imposed by Him. But can it be reasonably maintained that +the Creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in any ordinary +sense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes, so +that the builder might erect his edifice? If the various laws which have +determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the +builder's sake, can it be maintained with any greater probability that +He specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the +innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants,--many of +these variations being of no service to man, and not beneficial, far +more often injurious, to the creatures themselves? Did He ordain that +the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the +fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fan-tail breeds? Did He +cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a +breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity with jaws fitted to pin +down the bull for man's brutal sport?"</p> + +<p>It is obvious, however, that if we give up the principle in one +case,--if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were +intentionally guided in order that the greyhound, for instance, that +perfect image of symmetry and vigor, might be formed,--no shadow of +reason can be assigned for the belief that variations similar in nature +and the result of the same general laws which have been the groundwork +through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted +animals in the world, man included, were intentionally and specially +guided. Darwin, therefore, was unable to follow the distinguished +botanist, Prof. Asa Gray, in his belief that "variation has been led +along certain beneficial lines," like a stream "along definite and +useful lines of irrigation." Darwin's conclusion was that, if we assume +that each particular variation was from the beginning of all time +preordained, then that plasticity of organization which leads to many +injurious deviations of structure, as well as the redundant power of +reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, and, as +a consequence, to a natural selection or survival of the fittest, must +appear to us superfluous laws of nature.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>V.</h2> + +<p>Next to the "Origin of Species," the volume which sets forth Darwin's +theory of the "Descent of Man" naturally excited the most widespread +attention. This book, which took the author three years to write, was +published in 1871, a second and carefully revised edition appearing +three years later. The data brought together occupy more than six +hundred pages. The conclusions reached may be summed up in a few +paragraphs. The principal induction from the evidence is that man is +descended from some less highly organized form. It was Darwin's +conviction that the grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never +be shaken, for the close similarity between man and the lower animals in +embryonic development, as well as in innumerable points of structure and +constitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance,--the +rudiments which he retains and the abnormal reversions to which he is +occasionally liable,--are facts which cannot be disputed. Viewed in the +light of our knowledge of the whole organic world, their meaning is +unmistakable. The great principle of evolution stands out clear and firm +when these groups of facts are considered in connection with others, +such as the mutual affinities of the members of the same group, their +geographical distribution in past and present times, and their +geological succession. It is pronounced incredible that all these facts +should speak falsely. He who is not content to look like a savage at the +phenomena of nature as disconnected cannot any longer believe that man +is the product of a separate act of creation. He will be forced to admit +that the close resemblance of the embryo of man to that, for instance, +of a dog,--the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole frame on the +same plan with that of other mammals, independently of the uses to which +the parts may be put; the occasional reappearance of various structures, +for instance, of several muscles which man does not normally possess, +but which are common to the Quadrumana, and a crowd of analogous +facts,--all point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man is +the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor.</p> + +<p>Darwin recognized that the high standard of our intellectual powers and +moral disposition constitutes the greatest difficulty which presents +itself after we have been driven by the mass of biological evidence to +accept his conclusion as to the origin of man. Touching this point, he +observes: "Every one who admits the principle of evolution must see that +the mental powers of the higher animals, which are the same in kind with +those of man, though so different in degree, are capable of advancement. +Thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the higher apes +and of a fish, or between those of an ant and scale-insect, is immense; +yet their development does not offer any special difficulty, for with +our domesticated animals the mental faculties are certainly variable, +and the variations are inherited. No one doubts that their mental +faculties are of the utmost importance to animals in a state of nature. +Therefore the conditions are favorable for their development through +natural selection. The same conclusion may be extended to man; the +intellect must have been all-important to him, even at a very remote +period, as enabling him to invent and use language, to make weapons, +tools, traps, etc., whereby, with the aid of his social habits, he long +ago became the most dominant of all living creatures."</p> + +<p>It is further pointed out that a great stride in the development of +man's intellect must have followed as soon as the half-art and +half-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use of +language must have reacted on the brain, and produced an inherited +effect, and this again will have reacted on the improvement of language. +The largeness of the brain in man relatively to his body, compared with +the size of that organ in the lower animals, is attributable in chief +part to the early use of some simple form of language, that engine which +affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites trains +of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of the +senses, or, if they did arise, could not be followed out. The higher +intellectual powers of man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction, +self-consciousness, etc., probably follow from the continued improvement +and exercise of the other mental faculties.</p> + +<p>How man's moral qualities came to be developed is an interesting problem +which is considered by Darwin at some length. He holds that their +foundation lies in the social instincts under which term are included +family ties. These instincts are highly complex, and, in the case of the +lower animals, give special tendencies toward certain definite actions. +But the more important elements are love and the distinct emotion of +sympathy. Animals endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in one +another's company, warn one another of danger, defend and aid one +another in many ways. These instincts do not extend to all the +individuals of the species, but only to those of the same community. As, +however, they are highly beneficial to the species, they have in all +probability been acquired through natural selection. In Darwin's +judgment the moral nature of man has reached its present standard partly +through the advancement of his reasoning powers, and consequently, of a +just public opinion, but especially from his sympathies having been +rendered more tender and widely diffused through the effects of habit, +example, instruction, and reflection. It is pronounced not improbable +that, after long practice, virtuous tendencies may be inherited.</p> + +<p>Let us look a little more closely at the matter, for the difficulty of +explaining morality forms one of the greatest obstacles to the +acceptance of the Darwinian account of the descent of man. What do we +mean by a moral being? Manifestly, a moral being is one who is capable +of reflecting on his past actions and their motives, and of approving of +some while he disapproves of others. Man is the one being who certainly +deserves this designation, though attempts have recently been made to +show that a rudimentary morality may be traced in some of the lower +animals. In the fourth chapter of the book before us, Darwin undertakes +to demonstrate that the moral sense follows,--first, from the enduring +and ever-present nature of the social instincts; secondly, from man's +appreciation of the approbation and disapprobation of his fellows; and, +thirdly, from the high activity of his mental faculties, with past +impressions extremely vivid; in these latter respects he differs from +the lower animals. Owing to this condition of mind, man cannot avoid +looking both backwards and forwards, and comparing past impressions. +Hence, after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his social +instincts, he reflects and compares the now weakened impression of such +past impulses with the ever-present social instincts; and he then feels +that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts leave +behind them, and resolves to act differently for the future. This +dissatisfaction Darwin would identify with conscience. Any instinct +permanently stronger or more enduring than another gives rise to a +feeling which we express by saying that it <i>ought</i> to be obeyed. Darwin +suggests that a pointer dog, if able to reflect on his past conduct, +would say to himself I <i>ought</i> (as indeed we say of him) to have pointed +at that hare, and not have yielded to the passing temptation of +hunting it.</p> + +<p>The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but +the most decisive, of all the distinctions between man and the lower +animals. Darwin brings forward in the book before us a quantity of +reasons for holding it to be impossible that this belief is innate or +instinctive in man. In some races of men, for instance, we encounter a +total want of the idea of God. On the other hand, a belief in +all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal, and apparently +follows from a considerable advance in man's reason, and from a still +greater advance in the faculties of imagination, curiosity, and wonder. +"I am aware," says Darwin, "that the assumed instinctive belief in God +has been used by many persons as an argument for His existence. But this +is a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to believe in the +existence of many cruel and malignant spirits only a little more +powerful than man; for the belief in them is far more general than in a +beneficent deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator does +not seem to arise in the mind of man until he has been elevated by +long-continued culture."</p> + +<p>How does the belief in the advancement of man from some low organized +form bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul? Sir John Lubbock +has proved that the barbarous races of man possess no clear belief of +the kind; but, as Darwin continually reminds us, arguments derived from +the primeval beliefs of savages are of little or no avail on either side +of a question. Attention is directed by Darwin to the more relevant fact +that few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility of determining +at what precise period in the development of the individual, from the +first trace of a minute germinal vesicle, man becomes an immortal being. +He submits that there should be no greater cause for anxiety because the +period cannot possibly be determined in the gradually ascending +organic scale.</p> + +<p>Darwin was well aware that the conclusions arrived at in the work before +us--namely, that man is descended from some lowly organized form--would +be highly distasteful to many. The very persons, however, who regard the +conclusions with distaste admit without hesitation that they are +descended from barbarians. Darwin recalls the astonishment which he +himself felt on first seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken +shore, when the reflection rushed upon his mind that such men had been +his ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with paint, +their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with excitement, and +their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. They possessed +hardly any arts, and, like wild animals, lived on what they could catch; +they had no government, and were merciless to every one not of their own +small tribe. Remembering the impression made on him by the Fuegians, +Darwin suggests that he who has seen a savage in his native land will +not feel much shame if forced to acknowledge that the blood of some more +humble creature flows in his veins. "For my own part," he says, "I would +as soon be descended from that heroic little monkey who braved his +dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper,--or from that old +baboon, who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph his +young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs,--as from a savage who +delights to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practises +infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no +decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions." Darwin holds, in +fine, that man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, +though not through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic +scale; it is further submitted that the fact of his having thus risen, +instead of having been aboriginally placed there, may give him hope for +a still higher destiny in the distant future.</p> + +<p>As a scientist, however, Darwin is not concerned with hopes or fears, +but simply with the truth, as man's reason enables him to discern it. We +must recognize, he thinks, as the truth, established by an overwhelming +array of inductive evidence, that man, with all his noble qualities, +with sympathy which he feels for the most debased, with benevolence +which extends not only to other men, but to the humblest living +creature, with his godlike intellect, which has penetrated into the +movements and constitution of the solar system--with all these exalted +powers--man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his +lowly origin.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>VI.</h2> + +<p>We have said that Darwin's theory of the origin of species, together +with its corollary, the descent of man, has met with almost universal +acceptance by scientists. We have to use the qualifying adverb, because +some of Darwin's contemporaries, including Virchow and Owen, not to +mention St. George Mivart and the Duke of Argyll, have withheld their +adhesion. Since his death, moreover, his disciples have tended to split +into two schools. On the one hand, Weismann has rejected the Lamarckian +factors,--the effect of use and disuse upon organs, and the +transmissibility of acquired characters. The importance of these factors +has been emphatically re-asserted, on the other hand, by Lankester and +others. Whether biologists, however, range themselves in the +Neo-Darwinian or in the Neo-Lamarckian camp, the value of the principle +of natural selection is acknowledged by all, and nobody now asserts the +independent creation and permanence of species.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>The Complete Works of Darwin, published by D. Appleton and Company.</p> + +<p>The Works of Alfred Russel Wallace.</p> + +<p>Francis Darwin's "Life of Charles Darwin."</p> + +<p>Huxley's Writings, <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>Haeckel's "Natural History of Creation."</p> + +<p>Weismann's "Studies in the Theory of Descent" and subsequent papers.</p> + +<p>Romanes's "Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution."</p> + +<p>Lankester's "Degeneration."</p> + +<p>Fiske's "Darwinism and Other Essays."</p> + +<p>For adverse criticism of Darwin, read Mivart's "Genesis of Species," and +the Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature."</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="JOHN_ERICSSON."></a>JOHN ERICSSON.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1803-1889.</p> + +<p>NAVIES OF WAR AND COMMERCE.</p> + +<p>BY W.F. DURAND, PH.D.</p> +<br> + +<p>The exact combination of inspiration, heredity, and environment which +serves to produce genius will perhaps ever be a problem beyond the skill +of human intelligence. When the rare elements do combine, however, the +result is always worthy of most careful study, both because great +achievements furnish a healthy stimulus to emulation, and because some +glimpse may be gained of Nature's working in the formation of her +rarest products.</p> + +<p>Few lives better illustrate these remarks than that of John Ericsson. +Born of middle-class parentage and with no apparent source of heredity +from which to draw the stores of genius which he displayed throughout +his life, and with surroundings in boyhood but little calculated to +awaken and inspire the life-work which later made him famous, from this +beginning and with these early surroundings John Ericsson became +unquestionably the greatest of the engineers of the age in which he +lived and of the century which witnessed such mighty advances along all +engineering lines. The imprint left by Ericsson's life on the +engineering practice of his age was deep and lasting, and if one may +dare look into the future, the day is far removed when engineers will +have passed beyond their dependence on his life and labors.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps not amiss that, before looking more closely at the +achievements of Ericsson's life and activity, note should be taken of +the large dependence of our present civilization and mode of life on the +engineer and his work.</p> + +<p>In different ages of the world's history each has received its name, +appropriate or fanciful as the case may have been. For the modern age no +name is perhaps more adequately descriptive than the "Age of Energy," +the age in which our entire fabric of civilization rests upon the +utilization of the energies of nature for the needs of humanity, and to +an extent little appreciated by those who have not considered the matter +from this point of view. If we consider the various elements which enter +into our modern civilization,--the items which enter into the daily life +of the average man or woman; the items which we have come to consider as +necessities and those which we may consider as luxuries; the items which +go to make up our needs as expressed in terms of shelter, food, +intercommunication between man and his fellow, and pleasure,--the most +casual consideration of such will serve to show distributed throughout +almost the entire fabric of our civilization dependence at some point on +the power of the steam-engine, the water-wheel, or windmill, the subtle +electric current, or the heat-energy of coal, petroleum oil, or natural +gas. The harnessing and efficient utilization of these great natural +energies is the direct function of the engineer, or more especially of +the dynamic engineer, and in this noble guild of workers, Ericsson +carved for himself an enduring place and left behind a record which +should serve as an inspiration to all who are following the same pathway +in later years.</p> + +<p>No one feature perhaps better differentiates our modern civilization +from that of earlier times, four hundred years ago, or even one hundred, +than that of intercommunication between man and his fellow. Compare the +opportunities for such intercommunication in the present with those in +the time of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Isaac Newton, George Washington, or +Napoleon I. We now have our steamships, steam and electric railroads, +cable, telegraph, and telephone. A few years ago not a single one was +known. The modern age is one which demands the utmost in the possibility +of communication between man and his kind, and in this respect the wide +world is now smaller than the confines of an English county a +century ago.</p> + +<p>In this field, as we shall see, Ericsson did some of his greatest work, +and left perhaps his most permanent record for the future.</p> + +<p>Ericsson's life falls most naturally into three periods chronologically +or geographically, and likewise into three periods professionally, +though the latter mode of subdivision has by no means the same +boundaries as the former. The first mode of subdivision gives us the +life in Sweden, the life in England, and the life in the United States. +The second mode gives us the life of struggle and obscurity, the life of +struggle, achievement, and recognition, and the calmer and easier life +of declining years with recognition, reward, and the assurance of a +life's work well done.</p> + +<p>John Ericsson was born in the province of Vermland, Sweden, in 1803. His +father was Olof Ericsson, a mine owner and inspector who was well +educated after the standard of his times, having graduated at the +college in Karlstad, the principal town of the province. His mother was +Britta Sophia Yngstrom, a woman of Flemish-Scotch descent, and to whom +Ericsson seems to have owed many of his stronger characteristics. Three +children were born: Caroline in 1800, Nils in 1802, and John in 1803. Of +John's earliest boyhood we have but slight record, but there seems to +have been a clear foreshadowing of his future genius. He was considered +the wonder of the neighborhood, and busied himself day after day with +the machinery of the mines, drawing the form on paper with his rude +tools or making models with bits of wood and cord, and endeavoring thus +to trace the mystery of its operation.</p> + +<p>In 1811 the Ericsson family fell upon evil times. Due to a war with +Russia, business became disturbed and in the end Olof Ericsson became +financially ruined. This brought the little family face to face with the +realities of life, and we soon after find the father occupying a +position as inspector on the Göta Canal, a project which was just then +occupying serious attention after having been neglected for nearly one +hundred years, and nearly three hundred years after it was first +proposed in 1526. Through this connection, in 1815, John and Nils +Ericsson were appointed as cadets in a corps of Mechanical Engineers to +be employed in carrying out the Government's plans with reference to the +canal. During the winter of 1816-17 and at the age of thirteen, John +Ericsson received regular instruction from some of his officers in +Algebra, Chemistry, Field Drawing, and Geometry, and the English +language. Ericsson's education previous to this seems to have consisted +chiefly in lessons at home or from tutors, after the manner of the time. +He had thus received instruction in the ordinary branches and in +drawing and some chemistry. His training in drawing seems to have been +unusually thorough and comprehensive, and with a natural genius for such +work, his later remarkable skill at the drawing board is doubtless in no +small measure due to the excellent instruction which he received in his +early years. His progress in his duties as a young engineer was rapid, +and he was soon given employment in connection with the canal-work, +involving much responsibility and calling for experience and skill.</p> + +<p>At length on reaching the age of seventeen he became stirred with +military ambition, and, dissatisfied with his present prospects, he left +his position with its opportunities for the future, and entered the +Swedish army as ensign of a regiment of Field Chasseurs. This regiment +was famous for its rifle practice, and Ericsson was soon one of its most +expert marksmen. The routine of army life was, however, far from being +sufficient to satisfy the uneasy genius of John Ericsson, and we soon +find him engaged in topographical surveying for the Government, and so +rapid and industrious in his work that as the surveyors were paid in +accordance with the amount accomplished, he was carried on the pay rolls +as two men, and paid as such, in order that the amount which he received +might not seem too excessive for one individual. Even this was not +sufficient to exhaust his energy, and about this time he conceived the +idea of publishing a book of plates descriptive of the machinery +commonly employed in the mining operations of his day. To this end he +collected a large number of sketches which he had prepared in his +earlier years, and made arrangements to take up the work of preparation +for publication. The drawings selected were to be engraved for the book, +and, nothing daunted by the undertaking, Ericsson proposed to do this +work himself. After some discouragement the engraving was undertaken, +and eighteen copper plates of the sixty-five selected, averaging in size +fifteen by twenty inches, were completed within a year. In various ways +the project met with delays, and it soon became apparent that the rapid +advance in the applications of machinery to mining would render the work +out of date, and it was at length abandoned.</p> + +<p>At about this time Ericsson seems to have taken up seriously his work on +his so-called "flame-engine," certain experiments made by his father +having suggested to him the hope that a source of power might in this +way be developed which would be more economical than the steam-engine. +At this point we see entering into Ericsson's life an idea which never +left him, which controlled much of his work in mid-life, and which +attracted no small part of his attention throughout his closing years. +This idea was the discovery of some form of heat-engine which should be +more economical than the steam-engine, especially as it was in his day. +The flame-engine idea grew rapidly, and soon absorbed his chief +attention. Military life now lost its attraction, and in 1826 obtaining +leave of absence he left his native land and turned his face toward +London, doubtless with the hope strong within him that a substitute for +the steam-engine had been found, and that his future lay secure and easy +before him.</p> + +<p>The characteristic features of Ericsson's life up to this time, when he +had reached his twenty-third year, are energy, industry, independence, +all in most pronounced degree, and combined with a most astonishing +insight into mechanical and scientific questions. It was not a period of +achievement, but one of formation and of development in those qualities +which were soon to make him famous in both worlds. Of his work during +this period of life little or nothing outside the idea embodied in the +flame-engine can be said to belong to the permanent record of his life's +achievement. This appeared in the "Caloric" engine, and still later in +the well-known Ericsson "Air" engine of the present day.</p> + +<p>This era was one of development and promise, and richly were the +promises fulfilled in the achievements of his later years. A careful +study of his life to this point is sufficient to show that, with health +and time, such a nature would certainly leave a mark wide and deep on +the world in which it was placed. His characteristics were such that +achievement was the very essence of life, and, with the promise and +potency as revealed in this first twenty-three years of his life, we may +be well prepared for the brilliant record of the remaining sixty-three.</p> + +<p>With Ericsson's arrival in London began the second important period of +his life. His first efforts were directed toward the introduction of the +flame-engine, but he soon found unexpected difficulties in the use of +coal as fuel instead of wood, and it became clear that in order to live +he must turn his attention to other matters for a time. Then followed a +series of remarkable pieces of work in which Ericsson's genius showed +itself, either in original invention or in the adaptation and +improvement of the existing facts and material of engineering practice. +While thus occupied, his leave from his regiment expired, and he seems +to have overlooked taking proper steps to have it renewed. He was thus +placed technically in the attitude of a deserter. Through the +intervention of a friend, however, he was soon afterward restored, and +promoted to the rank of Captain in the Swedish Army. This commission he +immediately resigned, and thus his record became technically cleared of +all reproach.</p> + +<p>To give a mere list of the work with which Ericsson was occupied during +the years from 1827 to 1839, when he removed to the United States, would +be no small task, and reference to the more important only can be here +made. Compressed air for transmitting power, forced draft for boilers by +means of centrifugal blowers, steam boilers of new and improved types, +the surface condenser for marine engines, the location of the engines of +a ship for war purposes below the water line, the steam fire-engine, the +design and construction of the "Novelty" (a locomotive for the Rainhill +contest in 1829, when Stephenson's "Rocket" was awarded the prize, +though Ericsson, heavily handicapped in time and by lack of a track on +which to adjust and perfect the "Novelty," achieved a result apparently +in many ways superior to Stephenson's with the "Rocket"), various +designs for rotary engines, an apparatus for making salt from brine, +further experimental work with various forms of heat, or so-called +"caloric" engines, and the final development, in 1833, of a type from +which great results were for a time expected, superheated steam and +engines for its use, a deep-sea-sounding apparatus embodying the same +principle as that later developed by Lord Kelvin in the well-known +apparatus of the present day, a machine for cutting files automatically, +various types of steam-engines, and finally his work in connection with +the introduction of the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion for +steam vessels. These are some of the important lines of work on which +Ericsson was engaged during the twelve years of his life in London. In +connection with some he was undoubtedly a pioneer, and deserves credit +as an original inventor; in connection with others, his work was that of +improvement or adaptation; but in all his influence was profound, and +the legacy which we have received from this period of engineering +progress is due in no small degree to Ericsson, and to his work in +London during these years. At a later point we shall refer in some +further detail to these questions, but desire for the moment, rather, to +gain a broad and comprehensive view of his life as a whole.</p> + +<p>Ericsson has been by some called a spendthrift in invention, and the +term is not without some justice in its application. His genius was +uneasy, and his mind was oppressed by the wealth of his ideas. It was +this very wealth which led him from one idea to another, without always +taking sufficient time in which to develop and perfect his plans. Rich +in invention, he cared but little for exploitation, and when the truth +of his predictions was demonstrated, or the ground of his expectation +justified, he was eager for new achievements and new combinations of the +materials of engineering progress. In this spirit of struggle and +unrest, he passed the years in London, rapidly becoming known for his +versatility in invention, and for his daring and originality in the +details of his engineering work. From 1833 to 1839, or during the second +half of this term of residence in London, he became in increasing +measure absorbed in his work connected with the screw-propeller as a +means of marine propulsion.</p> + +<p>Ericsson's name in the popular mind has been most commonly associated +with the "Monitor" and her fight with the "Merrimac" in the Civil War, +and next, probably, with the screw-propeller as a means of marine +propulsion. It will, therefore, be proper at the present point to refer +in some further detail to the circumstances connected with his relation +to the introduction of the screw-propeller.</p> + +<p>Regarding this question an entire volume might be written without doing +more than justice to the subject, but only a brief statement of the +chief facts can be here attempted.</p> + +<p>As early as the Seventeenth Century the possibility of developing a +propulsive thrust by the use of a submerged helicoidal, or screw, +propeller, had been vaguely recognized, and during the following, or +Eighteenth Century, the same idea had been brought forward. It had been +viewed in this connection, however, merely as a curiosity, and led to no +immediate results. Later, in 1804, Francis B. Stevens, of New Jersey, in +an experimental boat on the Hudson, operated twin screws, and +demonstrated their applicability to the requirements of marine practice. +These propellers, in fact, had a form far more nearly approaching the +modern screw-propeller than did those which came somewhat later, and +which marked the real entry of the screw-propeller into actual and +practical service.</p> + +<p>Again, in 1812, Ressel, a student in the University of Vienna, began to +study the screw-propeller, and his first drawing dates from this time. +In 1826 he carried on experiments in a barge driven by hand, and in 1827 +an Austrian patent was granted him. Two years later he applied his screw +to a boat with an engine of six horse-power, and a speed of six miles +per hour was said to have been attained. Then came a bursting +steam-pipe, and the police put a stop to the experiments, which seem to +have had no further results.</p> + +<p>Likewise in 1823 Captain Delisle, of the French Engineers, presented a +memorial to his Government in which he urged the use of the submerged +propeller for the propulsion of steam vessels. No especial attention was +given to the suggestion, however, and it was apparently forgotten until +later, when the propeller had become a demonstrated success. Then this +memorial was remembered, and its author brought forward to receive his +share of credit in connection with the adaptation of the propeller to +marine propulsion.</p> + +<p>These various attempts to introduce the screw-propeller seem curiously +enough to have had no lasting result. They were not followed up, and in +the mean time had to some extent passed out of memory, or, if +remembered, the absence of result can hardly have acted as an incentive +to fresh effort. At the same time it must be admitted that the +screw-propeller as a possibility for marine propulsion was known in a +vague way to the engineering practice of the day, and it is at this time +of course quite impossible to say how much may have been known by +Ericsson, Smith, or others concerned in later developments, or to what +extent they may have been dependent for suggestion on what had preceded +them. The question of who invented the screw-propeller in the absolute +sense is entirely futile and without answer. No one could ever have +reasonably advanced any such unique claim. At the best it is simply a +question of the relative influence in the introduction, improvement, and +practical application of what was the common property of the engineering +practice of the day.</p> + +<p>In 1833, or at the period now under consideration, however, the +paddle-wheel was the recognized instrument of marine propulsion. Since +the beginning of the century it had been growing in use with the gradual +growth in the application of steam, and at this time it held the field +alone. Some years earlier it appears that some of the objections to the +paddle-wheel had become plainly apparent to Ericsson, although, +occupied with other matters as he was, there was no immediate result. He +apparently recognized that the slow revolutions possible with the +paddle-wheel did not favor the improvement of the steam-engine along the +lines which have since been followed, and he saw clearly that for +warship purposes the engines employed, exposed above the water-line to +destruction from the shell of an enemy, were entirely out of the +question. Finally in 1833 and 1834 we find him employed by a carrying +company in London to conduct numerous trials with submerged propellers +in the London and Birmingham canal. In an affidavit made in March, 1845, +he states that in 1833 his attention was particularly called to the +subject of oblique propulsion, and that under his direction propellers +of various patterns and embodying these principles were fitted on a +canal-boat named the "Francis," and later in 1834 to another called the +"Annatorius." Shortly after this, or in 1835, his ideas took more +definite form, and he refers to his work in a letter to his friend John +Bourne in the following terms:--</p> + +<p>"1835. Designed a rotary propeller to be actuated by steam-power +consisting of a series of segments of a screw attached to a thin broad +hoop supported by arms so twisted as also to form part of a screw. The +propeller subsequently applied to the steamship 'Princeton' was +identical with my said design of 1835. Even the mode adopted to +determine, by geometrical construction, the twist of the blades and arms +of the 'Princeton's' and other propellers was identical with my design +of the year last mentioned."</p> + +<p>At about this same time, or in 1835, the attention of Mr. F.P. Smith +seems to have been drawn to the subject of the screw-propeller, and we +find him taking out a patent for his form, consisting of an elongated +helix or spiral of several turns, under date of May 31, 1836. Ericsson's +patent followed some six weeks later, or on July 13, 1836. While it thus +appears that Ericsson had been studying the problem since 1833 or +earlier, according to his own statements, there is no evidence that +Smith's attention was drawn to the matter earlier than 1835. Delay on +Ericsson's part in the matter of patent gives the earlier date to Smith. +The mere date of a patent, however, is of small moment for our present +purposes. It must be admitted that the modern form of screw-propeller is +quite unlike either of these original forms, although they all involve +of course the same fundamental principles. Ericsson's propeller may +properly be called an engineering success, built on sound principles, +but improved and largely modified by the results of later experience and +research. Smith's propeller, while capable of propelling a boat, was the +design of an amateur rather than of an engineer, and in comparison with +Ericsson's seemed to show a somewhat less accurate appreciation of the +underlying principles upon which the propeller operates.</p> + +<p>In the present case, as we have noted above, the question is not so much +one of invention as of influence in introduction, adaptation, and +improvement. The screw-propeller was already known, but had not been +introduced into and made a part of actual engineering practice. Services +in this direction are all that can be claimed for any of those concerned +with the question during the third decade of the Nineteenth Century. +From this point of view we must give to Ericsson large credit. He had +the courage of his convictions, and did not allow his work in this +direction to lapse for lack of effort on his part to secure its +introduction into the practice of the day.</p> + +<p>Thus, in 1837, the "Francis B. Ogden" was built for the special purpose +of testing the power of the screw-propeller, and was operated on the +Thames for the benefit of the British Admiralty and many others. Shortly +after this, and largely through the influence of Capt. Robert F. +Stockton of the American Navy and Francis B. Ogden, the American Consul +at Liverpool, Ericsson began to consider a visit to the United States +for the purpose of building, under Stockton's auspices, a vessel for the +United States Navy. While these negotiations were under way, in 1838, he +built for Captain Stockton a screw-steamer named the "Robert F. +Stockton," the trials of which attracted much attention from the public +at large and from engineers of the time. At about the same period +Ericsson's propeller was fitted to a canal-boat called the "Novelty," +plying between Manchester and London. This was presumably the first +instance of a screw-propeller employed on a vessel actually used for +commercial purposes.</p> + +<p>Finally, in pursuance of Ericsson's plans with Captain Stockton, he left +England Nov. 1, 1839, and started for New York in the steamer "Great +Western," where he arrived November 23, after a long and stormy passage.</p> + +<p>We now reach the final scene of Ericsson's life and professional +activities. His visit was at first intended only as temporary, and he +seems to have anticipated an early return after carrying out his plans +with reference to a ship for the United States Navy. To quote from a +letter to his friend, Mr. John O. Sargent, he says: "I visited this +country at Mr. Ogden's most earnest solicitations to introduce my +propeller on the canals and inland waters of the United States. I had at +the same time strong reasons for supposing that Stockton would be able +to start the 'big frigate' for which I had prepared such laborious plans +in England." The event was otherwise determined, however, and during the +remaining fifty years of his life he lived and wrought in the New World, +and as a citizen of his adopted country.</p> + +<p>If the record of his twelve years of work in London was long, that for +the remaining and maturer years of his life may well be imagined as +vastly greater. During the earlier part of this period, or until the +Civil War, when all his energies were concentrated upon his work in +connection with the "Monitor" type of warship, we find the same wealth +of invention and human energy, but for the most part directed along +lines related to marine and naval construction. It was a period of +training for the fuller fruitage of his genius during the Civil War.</p> + +<p>Shortly after his arrival, or in 1840, a prize was offered by the +Mechanics' Institute of New York for the best plan of a steam +fire-engine. With his previous experience in London, Ericsson easily +carried off the palm and was awarded the prize. He further occupied +himself with the introduction of propellers on boats engaged in the +inland navigation of the United States, with the design and construction +of the United States steam frigate "Princeton," with the development of +the compound principle in the steam-engine, then in 1851 with his +hot-air ship "Ericsson," or ship propelled by hot-air or caloric +engines, as they were then termed, and later with caloric engines in +smaller sizes for stationary purposes, of which several thousand were +sold during the next succeeding years.</p> + +<p>In the work of introducing his propellers good progress was made, +especially in boats built for use on the Great Lakes, so that by 1844, +when the U.S.S. "Princeton" went into commission, there were in use some +twenty-five vessels with the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion.</p> + +<p>The project of building a vessel for the American Navy, the purpose +which had most strongly attracted Ericsson to the United States, +suffered long delay in connection with the arrangements between Captain +Stockton and the naval authorities at Washington. At length, in 1841, +Captain Stockton was authorized to proceed with the construction of a +screw steam frigate of about one thousand tons. This was the U.S.S. +"Princeton," which marks an epoch as the first screw vessel-of-war. She +was followed by the French "Pomone" in 1843, and the English "Amphion" +in 1844, for the equipment of which Ericsson's agent in England, Count +Von Rosen, received commissions from the French and English governments +respectively.</p> + +<p>The "Princeton" was completed in due time and was equipped with two +12-inch wrought-iron guns, one brought by Ericsson from England and one +designed and built under the direction of Captain Stockton. At the +trials of the ship in 1844 the latter gun exploded, killing the +Secretaries of State and of the Navy, besides other prominent visitors +on board, and wounding several others. This terrible disaster threw an +entirely undeserved stigma upon the ship herself and upon Ericsson's +work, and it was not until many years after that his name was entirely +free from some kind of reproach in connection with the "Princeton" and +the deplorable results of the accident on board.</p> + +<p>These are some of the principal lines of work with which Ericsson +occupied himself during the twenty-two years between 1839 and 1861. At +the latter date came the supreme opportunity of his life, and his +services in the art of naval construction during the remainder of the +Civil War, which was then in progress, are a part of the history of that +great struggle. Here, as with the propeller, volumes might be written in +the attempt to give a full account of the inception, growth, and final +vindication of Ericsson's ideas regarding naval offence and defence, as +expressed by the means available in the engineering practice of the day. +The leading points only can be summarized.</p> + +<p>The question of armored ships was in the air. The advantages of armor +had been already demonstrated on the French ship "Gloire" and others in +connection with the naval part of the Crimean War, and there was a +feeling that ironclads of some kind were a necessity of the situation. +These facts were perhaps more clearly realized at the South than at the +North; and early in 1861 we find Mr. Stephen R. Mallory, the Confederate +Secretary of the Navy, taking active steps to raise the "Merrimac," +which had been sunken at the Norfolk Navy Yard, and convert her into an +armor-clad. Information regarding this project naturally became known to +the Federal authorities, and occasioned President Lincoln and the entire +Cabinet the most serious anxiety. At length on August 3, 1861, the +appointment of a Board was authorized, the duty of which it should be to +examine into the question fully, obtain plans, and recommend the +construction of such armor-clads as they should judge best suited to the +demands of the situation.</p> + +<p>Shortly after this, Ericsson forwarded to President Lincoln a +communication in which he offered to construct a vessel "for the +destruction of the Rebel fleet at Norfolk and for scouring the Southern +rivers and inlets of all craft protected by Rebel batteries." For one +reason or another this communication does not seem to have produced any +immediate result. Later, however, when the Board made its report dated +September 16, they registered the opinion that the present demand called +for "vessels invulnerable to shot, of light draft of water, before going +into a more perfect system of large iron-clad seagoing vessels of war." +In pursuance of this idea they recommended the construction of three +vessels,--Ericsson's floating battery, a broadside vessel later known as +the "Ironsides," and the "Galena." Mr. C.S. Bushnell, who was +instrumental in bringing Ericsson's plans actually before the Board, +later associated with himself and Ericsson in the project two gentlemen +of means, and large manufacturers of iron plate, Mr. John A. Griswold +and Mr. John F. Winslow, who advanced most of the money needed, Mr. +Bushnell supplying the remainder. The keel was laid Oct. 25, 1861, and +the "Monitor," as she was named by Ericsson, was launched Jan. 30, 1862, +and was turned over to the Government Feb. 19, 1862. This brief record +of construction leaves untold all history of the ceaseless struggle +against time and of the superb organization and distribution of the work +which made possible the completion of such a piece of work in the period +of one hundred working days.</p> + +<p>One important fact which goes far to explain this astonishing speed in +design and construction is found in the fact that Ericsson was not +dealing with an entirely new and freshly developed proposition. He has +stated that the thought of a floating battery, which should be small in +size, but impregnable to the heaviest guns known and yet heavily armed +herself, had long occupied his thoughts in connection with the problem +of the defence of Sweden. Ericsson never forgot his native land, and +gave to her political troubles and to the question of her defence +against her more powerful neighbors much serious thought. As a result of +this study, he had produced as early as 1854 a design embodying all the +essential features of the "Monitor," and this design, shown by a model, +was in that year sent to Napoleon III., who was then at war with Russia. +This was in the hope that he might in this way contribute to the +overthrow of the latter, the hereditary enemy of his native land.</p> + +<p>The design, however, was not adopted, and after it was returned was laid +aside to collect the dust of his office, until the experiences of the +Civil War brought it again to the light. The plan in all its main +features had therefore long been matured, and it only remained to +proceed rapidly with the details and with the realization of the idea in +the most suitable materials to be obtained.</p> + +<p>The result of the battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" in +Hampton Roads is a part of history. The relentless devastation which the +latter had begun on the old wooden ships of the American Navy at Hampton +Roads was stayed, and the wild fears at the North concerning the +destruction which she might cause to the shipping and to the seaboard +cities was calmed. The "Merrimac" met her master, and retired from the +conflict crippled and shorn of power for further evil. A short time +later she sank beneath the waters of the Chesapeake, and is now +remembered only as the antagonist of the "Monitor."</p> + +<p>If the result of this battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" +marked a turning-point in the naval aspect of the Civil War, it wrought +a no less marked change in the standing and fortunes of her designer. +Some of his engineering efforts had not met with the success for which +he or his friends had hoped. The engines of the air-ship, while a +success as a piece of mechanism, were so enormous and heavy that she had +to be considered as a commercial failure, and the venture was not +repeated; the deplorable accident on the "Princeton" was by some held to +be in part chargeable to Ericsson, though a later and full knowledge of +the circumstances shows that such was in no wise the case. Again, +Ericsson, as an experimenter and pioneer, was by some considered as a +dreamer, and before the "Monitor" was completed there was no lack of +croakers who prophesied failure or who openly ridiculed the idea. This +condition was of course natural. In many ways Ericsson was ahead of his +age; and, again, it must not be supposed that he avoided mistakes or +that all of his work fully realized the expectations which were based +upon it. Furthermore, Ericsson's spirit was proud, and he was little +disposed to accept criticism from those whom he felt to be unqualified +to pass adequate judgment on his work, while he was especially impatient +under the system by which government work was done. He was therefore but +little disposed to pleasantly submit to the exasperating delays and +interferences with his work which arose from the methods of doing +public business, and it is no more than the simple truth to say that +during the preceding years the relations between Ericsson and the +officials of the Navy Department had often become seriously strained, +and they were seldom in cordial accord regarding the various questions +which arose in connection with his public work.</p> + +<p>With the demonstration made by the "Monitor," however, the attitude of +the public changed in a moment, and Ericsson was hailed on every hand as +a public benefactor. He received the thanks of Congress on March 28, +1862, and of the Legislature of the State of New York a little later. +Besides these, he was the recipient of numbers of memorials and +mementoes, and of such praise in every form as might well have disturbed +the equilibrium of a mind less well balanced. In all this change of +public opinion, the one thing which must have given him the deepest +satisfaction was the change in the attitude of the naval authorities at +Washington. He was now considered as one whose ideas had demonstrated +their right to serious and respectful attention, and a large fleet of +vessels of the monitor type was ordered, similar to but larger than the +prototype, and containing such minor changes as experience had +suggested. Yet even this was not accomplished without objection. The +officers of the navy were accustomed to the old type of wooden ship, +and were slow to realize that naval war was, after all, an engineering +problem, and that the ideas of the engineer must now be substituted for +those which had been sanctified by long ages of past experience. Still, +the demonstration was too convincing to admit of serious question, and +Ericsson and his associates in business were busily occupied during the +remainder of the war in the design and construction of a numerous fleet +of vessels of the monitor type.</p> + +<p>Ericsson's work during this period was enormous. One design followed +another in quick succession, while work of supervision and inspection +and cares of a business nature all combined to make a burden which would +have broken down a nature less determined and self-centred, and a body +less inured to physical endurance and sustained nervous tension.</p> + +<p>This prodigious load was not so much but that he found time to devote to +the needs of other nations, and in 1862 he offered to construct for the +Chilian government a monitor similar to those under construction for the +United States, while later a similar offer was made to the Peruvian +Government. With the close of the Civil War Ericsson found still further +time to devote to the introduction of this type of vessel into foreign +navies, and a considerable part of his time seems to have been occupied +with projects of this character, and more particularly with the question +of the naval defence of his native land. As regards the introduction of +warships of the monitor type, the results were not so pronounced as +might have been expected, and while the influence of the idea is seen in +the practice of every maritime nation in regard to the construction of +its warships, still, for the most part, the leading nations preferred to +make application of the idea in their own way rather than order such +vessels direct from their original designer. Yet in not a few cases the +original type was faithfully copied, though it is not always clear to +what extent Ericsson himself may have had direct contact with their +designs. In 1866 the Swedes were able to test the first of a small fleet +of monitors built after Ericsson's plans. This was called the "John +Ericsson," and was armed with two 15-inch guns presented to Sweden by +Ericsson himself. Later, in 1868, he designed for Spain and +superintended the construction of thirty small gunboats for use in +Cuban waters.</p> + +<p>For nearly ten years now Ericsson had devoted most of his energies to +the art of war. It was a time of change and unrest. Heavy guns and armor +had brought about a complete break with the past. The torpedo, which had +made its appearance in crude form during the Civil War, was attracting +more and more attention, and questions of naval offence and defence and +of the best governmental policy were attracting the serious attention of +all whose duty led them into relation with such matters. Into this +problem in its broadest aspects Ericsson threw himself in the early +'seventies with all the ardor of his younger days.</p> + +<p>It is proper to explain here that there was one feature of the earlier +plans which were submitted to Napoleon III. in 1854, which he did not +embody in the "Monitor," and which, indeed, was omitted from all +published plans and descriptions of the system given out in former +years. This was a system of submarine or subaqueous attack, which, he +states in a letter to John Bourne, had attracted his attention since +1826. The time now seemed ripe for the presentation and development of +this idea, and he accordingly developed his designs for a torpedo, and +for a method of firing it under water from a gun carried in the bow of a +boat, and suitably opening to allow the discharge of the torpedo +projectile. This was Ericsson's so-called "Destroyer" system, and was +embodied finally in a boat called the "Destroyer," which he built in +company with his friend, Mr. C.H. Delamater, and with which he carried +on numerous experiments. In the end, however, the system did not commend +itself to the naval authorities, and the "Destroyer" was left on her +designer's hands, an instance of difference of opinion between Ericsson +and those charged with the duty of naval administration, and with no +supreme test of war to provide opportunity for the determination as to +which were the more correct in their judgment. With the "Destroyer," +and his work in connection with her, closes the record of Ericsson's +connection with the advance in naval construction.</p> + +<p>During these later years of his life it must not be supposed that he was +less busily occupied than in earlier life. His was a nature which knew +no rest, and to the last day of his life he was literally in the +harness. Only brief mention however can be made of some of the more +important lines of work which interested the closing years of +Ericsson's life.</p> + +<p>In connection with his naval designs, he devoted much study to the +improvement of heavy ordnance, both as to the gun and its mounting. In +particular, his mounting of the guns in the "Monitor" was quite +original, and the friction arrangement for absorbing the recoil was a +great improvement over methods then in use, and served as a model for +many copies and adaptations of the same principles in later years by +other designers. In 1863 he also designed and built for the acceptance +of the Government a forged 13-inch wrought-iron gun. While his design +was an advance on those of the day, the demands on the makers of iron +forgings were more than could be successfully met, and the gun developed +some slight cracks in the test, which prevented further developments on +this line. Ericsson always maintained that the tests to which this gun +was submitted were unfairly severe, and he showed how the defects could +be remedied by a steel lining. But the Naval Bureau of Ordnance insisted +that this should be done at his own expense, and as he had already lost +some $20,000 on the gun, he was unwilling to proceed farther, and the +matter was allowed to lapse.</p> + +<p>Throughout his entire career the improvement of the steam-engine +occupied a large share of Ericsson's attention, and in particular was +this the case in connection with his naval designs. From the +"Princeton," in 1841, to the "Destroyer," in 1878, there succeeded one +long series of types and forms of steam-engine, each in his opinion the +best adapted to the circumstances of the case. Naturally, opinions +differ, and he was brought into competition with other able engineers, +and his designs were often called into question or subjected to +criticism. In 1863, in competition with Chief Engineer Isherwood of the +navy, engines were designed for twin ships, the "Madawaska," afterward +known as the "Tennessee," and the "Wampanoag," afterward called the +"Florida." This was a battle royal of types and modes of application of +the power of the steam-engine to the propulsion of ships. The result was +a victory for Isherwood, although the "Madawaska," which was first +subjected to trial, made a speed higher than any warship at that time +afloat. This was exceeded by the "Wampanoag" a short time later; but +neither engine was of an enduring type, and after a time the machinery +of the "Madawaska" was removed, and she was repowered with a later type +of machinery, and long did service as the "Tennessee" in the list of +wooden frigates of the navy. The "Florida" was too expensive to maintain +in commission, and the special circumstances which had called her into +existence having passed by, she was laid up at New London, and never +again saw active service.</p> + +<p>Keenly as Ericsson was interested in the steam-engine, it must be +admitted that he always showed a more profound interest in some form of +engine which should be able to displace it with a superior efficiency; +and hence his long series of efforts relating to the flame-engine, the +caloric engine, the gas-engine, and finally the solar engine,--with +either steam or heated air as the medium for carrying the heat. During +the last years of his life some of his most patient and careful study +was given to the perfection of a solar engine, or engine for utilizing +directly the heat of the sun instead of that of coal or other carbon +compounds. Besides this direct line of study and experimentation, he +gave during these years much thought to various scientific problems +connected with solar energy, the tides, gravitation, the nature of heat, +etc., etc. A plan for deriving power direct from the tides, improvements +in high-speed engines for electric-lighting purposes, further +improvements in his hot-air engine in small sizes for commercial +purposes,--these are some of the further lines of work which occupied +the attention of his closing years.</p> + +<p>But the most cunningly devised of all mechanisms, the heart and brain, +must sooner or later tire and cease from their labors. The motive energy +becomes exhausted, and the mechanism must cease its work. So it was with +John Ericsson. In the first hour of the morning of March 8, 1889, +Ericsson died. This was within one day of the twenty-seventh anniversary +of the battle at Hampton Roads, the event with which the name of +Ericsson will always be associated, and which has given to it a +significance that will never be forgotten. His remains were first +interred in New York, and then, in 1890, in accordance with the request +of the Swedish Government, they were returned with impressive services +to his native land, where they now rest. In his death he received his +highest honors, for his remains were conveyed across the Atlantic by the +U.S.S. "Baltimore," one of the new ships of the navy specially detailed +for that service, and on both sides, in the United States and in Sweden, +the event was marked with every honor and ceremony which could indicate +the significance of his life and services for his adopted land and for +the world at large.</p> + +<p>The two pieces of work which perhaps will be most permanently linked +with the name of Ericsson are the screw-propeller as a means of marine +propulsion, and the "Monitor" as a type of warship. In addition to +these, however, his life-work was rich in results which bore direct +relation to many other improvements in the broad field of marine +engineering and naval architecture. Of these a few of the more important +may be mentioned, such as the surface condenser, distiller, and +evaporator, forced draft for combustion, placing machinery of warships +below the water-line, and their protection by coal, ventilation by +fan-blowers, together with a vast variety of items involved in the +conception and design of the "Monitor" as a whole, and in his other +naval designs.</p> + +<p>In order to appreciate the influence of Ericsson's life and work on the +field of marine construction, a brief glance may profitably be taken at +this branch of engineering work as it was before Ericsson's time, and as +it is now.</p> + +<p>The material employed for shipbuilding was almost entirely wood. This +was displaced in the 'sixties and 'seventies by iron, which in turn was +displaced by steel, so that at the present time, except for special +reason, no material other than steel is thought of for this purpose. +With the gradual displacement of wood by iron in the mercantile marine, +Ericsson's relation was only indirect. Some of the earlier mercantile +vessels in which he was interested were of wood and some of iron. In the +field of warship construction, however, his influence through the +"Monitor" was more direct, especially as to the value of metal armor as +a protection against great gun-fire. Still, it is no more than justice +to say that with the change from wood to iron which took place during +the active part of his life, Ericsson had only an indirect relation, and +the change would doubtless have come about at the same time, and in much +the same general way as it did, independent of any influence which his +work may have had upon the question. Turning to the means of propulsion, +we find sails as the main, or almost only, reliance during the early +years of the century. The steam-engine operating paddle-wheels had come +to be recognized as a possibility, and under certain conditions as a +commercial success. The screw-propeller as a means of propulsion was +known only as a freak idea, and was without status or recognition as a +commercial or practical means for propelling ships. So far as the +screw-propeller was thought of as a means of propulsion, it lay under a +suspicion of loss of efficiency due to the oblique nature of its action, +and this was supposed to be such as to render it necessarily and +essentially less efficient than the paddle-wheel.</p> + +<p>Ericsson lived to see the use of sails almost entirely discarded for war +purposes, and for mercantile purposes relegated to ships for special +service and of continually decreasing importance. He lived to see the +steam-engine take its place as the only means for supplying the power +required to propel warships, and attain a position of almost equal +relative importance in the mercantile marine. He lived to see the +paddle-wheel grow in importance and estimation as a means of propulsion +only in turn to be supplanted by the screw-propeller, which gradually +increased in engineering favor from the days of its obscure infancy +until it became the only means employed for the propulsion of ships +navigating the high seas, while it had become a most serious rival to +the paddle-wheel even for the purposes of interior and shallow-water +navigation,--long a field considered as peculiarly suited to the +paddle-wheel and to the engines adapted to its operation.</p> + +<p>Regarding the change from wind to steam for the motive-power of ships, +Ericsson did his full share among the engineers of his day, but it would +be unfair to many others to claim for him any exclusive or +preponderating influence in this movement, and in such matters it is +difficult to clearly define the services of any one man. The lines of +progress, however, have been in accord with his studies, and his work +has certainly had a most direct and powerful influence upon the +movement. The most important points of contact between Ericsson's work +and these advances were in connection with his introduction of the +surface condenser, the use of artificial draft, devices for heating feed +water, his studies in superheated steam and its use, and his work in +connection with the development of the compound principle in +steam-engines, his relation to the introduction of the screw-propeller, +and to the use of twin screws at a later time. He also devised and +adapted many new types of engines for marine purposes, having respect to +the geometrical character of the connections by means of which a +reciprocating motion of the piston may be transformed into a rotary +motion of the shaft. In particular, he was the first to introduce and +show the advantages of engines directly connected to the +propeller-shaft, instead of through the more indirect and clumsy modes +which others had previously thought necessary.</p> + +<p>Aside from his relation to the screw-propeller, perhaps no item of his +work in connection with the steam-engine is of more importance than the +surface condenser, with its variant forms in the distiller and +evaporator. If Ericsson had done nothing else, his claims to recognition +and remembrance as an engineer and benefactor might have been well +founded on his work in this connection. As it is, the fact that he was +so largely instrumental in their perfection and adaptation to marine +uses is wellnigh forgotten in the brighter light of his other +achievements.</p> + +<p>Regarding Ericsson's relation to the successful introduction of the +screw-propeller, little need be added to what has already been said. +Whatever may be urged regarding dates and patents or earlier years in +which the screw-propeller was used, it is a fact that in 1833-35 it was +not recognized as an accepted mode of propulsion. While known as a +possibility, it had no standing in the engineering practice of the day. +A few years later it was recognized as an accepted mode of propulsion +and had gained a permanent and definite place in the practice of the +day,--a place which has continued to grow in importance until its +earlier rival, the paddle-wheel, is almost on the brink of relegation to +museums of antiquities, except possibly for rare and special +shallow-water uses. A careful and dispassionate study of the facts, so +far as they can be known at the present time, seems to indicate clearly +that of those who were concerned in successfully adapting the +screw-propeller to the needs of marine propulsion and in laying the +foundation for these changed conditions, especially in the United +States, none was so prominent as Ericsson, or so fairly deserving of the +chief credit; and with this judgment the mature thought of the present +day seems to agree with little dissent.</p> + +<p>Turning to a consideration from a similar point of view of Ericsson's +services in connection with warship design and construction, note may be +first taken of the condition of the art of naval warfare in the years +1840-50, or when Ericsson first began his labors in this field.</p> + +<p>The material used was wood, the means of propulsion sails, with some +thought of steam-engines and paddle-wheels; the means of offence were +cast-iron guns large in number but small in size, the largest being 9 or +11 inches in diameter and throwing a shell of some 75 or 130 pounds +weight, while the means of defence consisted solely in the "wooden +walls," and modern ideas regarding armor had not even appeared above +the horizon.</p> + +<p>Ericsson's contributions to the art of naval warfare are embodied in the +"Princeton," the "Monitor" and its class, and the "Destroyer." In the +"Princeton" the material used was wood, and in the "Monitor" and +"Destroyer" iron, following simply the developments of the age. In the +three the means of propulsion was by screw-propeller. In the "Princeton" +the means of offence were two 12-inch wrought-iron guns, as already +noted. In the "Monitor" and its type the means of offence were two +11-inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns, followed later by larger guns of 13 +and 15 inches of similar type. In the double-turreted monitors four such +guns were of course installed. In the "Destroyer" the means of offence +was a single gun for discharging a torpedo under water at the bow. On +the "Princeton" the means of defence consisted still in wooden walls, +while in the "Monitor" and its class the change was profound and +complete. The essential idea of the "Monitor" was low freeboard and +thus small exposed surface to the ship herself, combined with the +mounting of guns in circular revolving turrets, thus giving an +all-around fire and on the whole making possible an adequate protection +of the exposed parts of the ship and providing for the combination in +maximum proportions of armored protection and heavy guns for offence. On +the "Destroyer" the means of defence consisted simply in a light +deflecting deck armor forward, the vessel being intended to fight bows +on and depending on her means of offence rather than defence, which were +made quite secondary in character.</p> + +<p>The "Monitor," however, was Ericsson's great contribution to the art of +naval war, and with it his name will always be associated. It broke with +the past in every way. It reduced the number of guns from many to few, +two or at most four; it reduced the freeboard from the lofty topsides of +the old ship-of-the-line to an insignificant two or three feet, and thus +made of the target a circular fort and a low-lying strip of armor. It +placed the guns in this circular fort and covered it with armor thick +enough to insure safety against any guns then afloat, and thus, as +perfectly as the engineering means of the day would permit, insured the +combination of offensive and defensive features in maximum degree. It +cleared away at one stroke masts, sails, and all the lofty top-hamper +which since time immemorial had seemed as much an essential feature of +the fighting ship as the guns themselves. It transformed the design of +the fighting ship from the older ideals expressed in the American +frigate "Constitution," or the English "Victory," to the simplest terms +of offence, defence, and steam motive-power. It made of the man-of-war a +machine rather than a ship, an engine of destruction to be operated by +engineers rather than by officers of the ancient and traditional type. +There is small wonder that in all quarters the idea of ships of this +type was not received with enthusiasm. The break with the past was too +definite and complete. The monitor type represented simply the solution +of the problem of naval warfare worked out by a man untrammelled by the +traditions of the past and determined only on reducing such a ship to +the simplest terms of offence and defence as expressed by the +engineering materials and possibilities of the day. Judged from this +standpoint, the vessel seems beyond criticism. She filled perfectly the +ideal set before himself by her designer, and represents as a complete +and harmonious whole what must still be recognized as the most perfect +solution of the problem in terms of the possibilities of those days.</p> + +<p>It is proper here that due reference should be made to the claims in +behalf of Mr. Theodore R. Timby as an inventor of the turret and of the +monitor idea as expressed thereby. These claims and the main facts in +the case have long been known, and there should certainly be no attempt +to take from any one his due share in the developments which gave to our +nation a "Monitor" in her hour of need. It is well known that Mr. Timby +between 1840 and 1850 conceived the idea of a revolving fort of iron +mounted with numerous guns and intended to take the place of the masonry +or earth-structures in common use for such purposes. He seems also to +have conceived of a similar structure for use on a ship of low +freeboard, and a model showing such a design was constructed. In 1843 he +filed a caveat for the invention of the revolving turret. Here the +matter apparently rested until 1862, and after the battle between the +"Monitor" and "Merrimac," when he took out a patent which was dated July +8, 1862, covering "a revolving tower for defensive and offensive +warfare, whether on land or water." Ericsson's associates in the +business of building monitors for the Government acquired these patents +of Timby, presumably as shrewd business men, in order to quiet any claim +on his part, and to have the plan available for land forts, should the +opportunity arise to push the business in this direction. There is no +question but that Ericsson was antedated by Timby in the suggestion of a +revolving turret, at least in so far as public notice is concerned. +Ericsson frankly admitted this, and stated that he made no claim to +absolute originality in this respect. He further stated what is +undoubtedly true, that the main idea in the turret, that of a circular +revolving fort, antedates the Nineteenth Century as a whole, and its +origin is lost in the uncertainties of early tradition. It is simply one +of those early ideas which naturally must have been known in essence +since time immemorial, and as such it was the common property of the +engineering practice of the century. It belongs neither to Timby nor to +Ericsson, and no claims regarding priority in this respect are worthy of +serious consideration. The question is not who first conceived the idea +of a revolving fort, but who designed and built the "Monitor" as she +was, and as she met the "Merrimac" on the 9th of March, 1862. The answer +to the latter is too well known a part of the history of the times to +admit of question or to call for further notice. Ericsson's claim for +recognition in this respect rests not on any priority of idea regarding +the use of a circular fort, but rather upon the actual "Monitor" as she +was built and as she crushed at one blow the sea-power of the South, and +representing as it did a completely and carefully designed whole, dating +back to the earlier dealings with Napoleon III. in 1854. This is an age +which judges men by what they do, and judged by this standard Ericsson's +claims in connection with the monitor type of warship are never likely +to be seriously questioned.</p> + +<p>Taking Ericsson's life and work, what portion remains as a permanent +acquisition or as a part of the practice of the present age? This is a +question which merits at least a moment's notice.</p> + +<p>We should not make the mistake of thinking that permanency is +necessarily a test of merit, or that the value of his services to the +world should be judged by such parts of his work as are plainly apparent +in the practice of the present day. A piece of work must be judged by +the circumstances which brought it forth, and by the completeness and +perfection of its adaptation to the needs and possibilities of its age.</p> + +<p>We have then the steam fire-engine; compressed air which he early +employed in England, and which has become an instrument of enormous +importance in connection with the industrial progress of the age, +although this is in no especial degree due to his efforts; the surface +condenser, distiller, and evaporator are a permanently and absolutely +essential part of modern marine practice; the screw-propeller has almost +sole possession of the field of marine propulsion; modern marine engines +and boilers in naval practice are always placed below the water-line and +are protected by deflective deck armor and frequently by coal as well; +the turret has become a permanent and accepted part of the practice of +the age, while the monitor type in its essential feature seems to be +evanescent.</p> + +<p>The modern battleship is a vastly more complex structure, and +represents more complex ideas and combinations than did Ericsson's +"Monitor." It contains a battery of guns of the heaviest type known to +naval ordnance. At present such guns are usually of 12-inch bore and +throw a shell of about 800 pounds weight, with an initial velocity of +nearly 3,000 feet per second. Then there is a supporting battery of +guns, 6, 7, or 8 inches in diameter of bore, and finally a secondary +battery of smaller quick-firing guns, throwing shells of from 1 pound to +20 or 30 pounds weight, and added to these there may be a torpedo outfit +as well. The exigencies of fighting ships at sea and in all weathers +seems to have pronounced against the monitor type with its low freeboard +as unsuitable for use on the open sea, while the enormous advances in +modern guns and armor have made a totally different problem of the +distribution of means offensive and defensive. Again, the monitor type +was never intended for long cruising, or indeed for other service than +the defence of coasts and harbors. The policy of building a vessel thus +adapted only to an inner line of defence, and not adapted to an outer +line of defence and offence as well, has been further called in +question, and the judgment of the present day has decided against such +policy. It is true that in the so-called "new navy," begun in 1883, one +monitor, the "Monterey," has been built, while four others of older +type have been somewhat modernized, and there are three monitors +building at the present time. It may be doubted, however, if they will +be followed by others, at least so long as the conditions of naval +warfare and the spirit of public policy remain as they now are.</p> + +<p>The monitor type was a perfect solution of the problem of its day, and +nobly it answered the calls made on it. The problem has now changed, the +conditions affecting its solution have also changed, and it is no +discredit to the original type that it now seems to have had its day, +and that it must give way to other forms more perfectly expressing the +spirit of the present age, and the means available for the solution of +present-day problems in the art of naval war.</p> + +<p>In many ways, however, the influence of Ericsson's work still lives in +the modern battleship, and while in our modern designs we have gotten +far away from the essential features of the monitor type, yet it is not +too much to say that the germ of the modern battleship is in many ways +found in the "Monitor," especially as expressed in terms of +concentration of heavy gun-fire and localized protection of gun +positions; and in more ways than may be suspected, the influence of +Ericsson and of his work had its part in the developments which have led +to the splendid designs of the present day.</p> + +<p>Returning again to our note of the dependence of the present age on +Ericsson, mention may be made of the blower for forcing the combustion +in steam-boilers as a well-established feature of standard marine +practice, and one absolutely essential to the development of the highest +attainable speeds, such as are required in warships, and especially in +those of the torpedo and modern "Destroyer" types. Likewise the use of +the fan for ventilation, as used by him in his early practice, has +become a necessity of modern conditions both on naval and passenger +ships, for the health and comfort of both passengers and crew. His long +series of experiments and his years of labor on air and other forms of +"caloric" engine are only represented by the "Ericsson air-engine" now +on the market, and having its fair share of service in locations where +simplicity of operation and scarcity of water may naturally suggest +its use.</p> + +<p>Of his labors in connection with a solar engine, and with other +questions which occupied much of the time of his closing years, we have +but little direct result. Others are at work on the idea of the solar +engine, and it may be that a practicable solution of the problem will +be found.</p> + +<p>Ericsson's lasting imprint on engineering practice, curious as it may +seem, was made in his earlier and middle life, rather than in his later +years, and we have even more in the way of permanent acquisition from +his earlier than from his middle years. This results from the fact that +in middle life he was largely engaged on warship designs, admirably +adapted to the needs of the time and to the possibilities of the age, +but no longer suited to either, while in later life he no longer found +it necessary to work at problems which would produce a direct financial +return, and therefore interested himself in a variety of questions +somewhat farther removed from the walks of every-day engineering +practice than those with which he was occupied in earlier life.</p> + +<p>In personality Ericsson possessed the most pronounced and self-centred +characteristics. Professionally he felt that to him had been granted a +larger measure of insight than to others into the mysteries of nature as +expressed in the laws of mechanics, and he was therefore little disposed +to listen to the advice or criticism of those about him. This was +undoubtedly one of Ericsson's most pronounced professional faults. He +did not realize that with all his insight into the laws of mechanics and +all his capacity for applying these laws to the solution of the problems +under consideration, he might well make some use of the work of his +fellow-laborers in the same field. So little disposed was he to thus use +the work of others that a given device or idea which had been in +previous use was often rejected and search made for another, different +and original, even though it might involve only some relatively trivial +part of the work. He was simply unwilling to follow in the lead of +others. He must lead or have none of it, and thus the fact that a device +or expedient was in common use would furnish an argument against rather +than for its adoption. His natural mode of work was utterly to disregard +precedent and to seek for fundamental solutions of his problems, having +only in view the conditions to be fulfilled, the laws of mechanics, and +the engineering materials of construction. This habit of independence +and of seclusion within the narrow circle of his own work so grew upon +him in later years that mechanical science made many advances of which +he took little or no note, and of which he refused to avail himself, +even though he might have done so greatly to his own advantage.</p> + +<p>In his later years, in a letter to his friend Captain Adlersparre, he +says: "Do not laugh at me now, Captain, when I say that nobody can +mislead me. Do not condemn me if I at the same time confess that I am +directed by nobody's judgment but my own, and that I never consult +anybody and take nobody's advice." In all matters connected with his +work his will was imperious, and he would brook no interference or +criticism. His temper was high, his organization sensitive, and many +times throughout his life, relations with his best friends became +strained by his instability of temper or impatience with what he might +construe as a criticism regarding his work. With this instability of +temper, however, was combined a deep-seated tenderness and kindness of +heart, and he was as quick to forget the cause of offence as he was to +manifest displeasure upon occasion.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the asperities of Ericsson's character in regard to his +professional work, and his entire lack of effort to make friends among +the learned of his day, recognition and unsought honors came in upon +him. He was elected to honorary membership in the societies of note in +the United States and Sweden, and in addition to the thanks of Congress +and of the Legislature of the State of New York, he received a +resolution of thanks from the Swedish Riksdag, or Parliament, in 1865. +In 1862 he was granted the rarely bestowed Rumford medal, and received +at other times during his life medals, honors, and decorations such as +have perhaps fallen to no other who has wrought in the same field of +human effort. While recognition of this character pleased him greatly +when it came spontaneously and willingly, he placed but little value on +that which he thought grudgingly or tardily tendered, and in one or two +instances refused membership in societies which he thought granted in +that manner.</p> + +<p>A large measure of this independence of character is necessary to the +performance of the work which Ericsson did. Had he been ever ready to +listen to the views of others, and to modify his ideas in accordance +with them, his greatest achievements would never have been accomplished. +In Ericsson, however, this characteristic was carried to an undue +extreme, and he might unquestionably have accomplished more had he been +able to co-operate with others and to accept and use freely the best +work of contemporaries in his own field.</p> + +<p>Ericsson was essentially a designing rather than a constructing +engineer. His genius lay in new adaptations of the principles of +mechanics or in new combinations of the elements of engineering practice +in such way as to further the purposes in view. His mode of expression +was the drawing-board. While he wrote vigorously and well, and while he +was a frequent contributor in later years to scientific literature, +especially on the subject of solar physics, yet his best and natural +mode of expression was the graphical representation of his designs on +the drawing-board. Forms and combinations took shape in his brain and +were transferred to the drawing with marvellous speed and skill. Those +who have been associated with him bear testimony that the amount of his +work was simply astounding, and that only by a combination of the most +remarkable celerity and industry could they have been accomplished.</p> + +<p>These drawings were furthermore so minute in detail and so accurate in +dimension that as a rule he did not find it necessary to give further +attention to the matter after it had left his hands. Of the many parts +of a complicated mechanism, one could be sent for construction to one +shop and another elsewhere, all ultimately coming together and making a +harmonious and perfectly fitting whole. In no other way could such +astonishing speed in the detailed construction of the "Monitor" and +other vessels of her type possibly have been made; and the fact that +such speed in construction was obtained, and largely in this manner, is +by no means the least impressive of the many evidences of Ericsson's +genius as a designer.</p> + +<p>The designs once completed on the drawing-board, however, Ericsson's +interest in the work ceased in great measure, and as a rule he paid but +little attention to constructive details, and took but slight interest +in the completed whole. Thus he is said to have visited his "Destroyer" +but once after she was built, and then simply in search of his +assistant. He also declined an invitation from the Assistant Secretary +of the Navy to visit Hampton Roads and inspect the "Monitor" immediately +after her fight with the "Merrimac." He seemed to have no curiosity to +inspect his work after it had left his hands, or to receive a report as +to the practical working of his designs. This shows a peculiar lack of +appreciation of the value of intimate contact with constructive and +operative engineering work. No one could hope to avoid errors, or to +realize by drawing-board alone the best possible solution of engineering +problems. Ericsson wilfully handicapped himself in this manner, and +might unquestionably have more effectively improved and perfected his +ideas had he been disposed to combine with his designs at the +drawing-board practical contact with his work as constructed.</p> + +<p>His work was all done in his office at his house. For the last +twenty-five years of his life he lived at 36 Beach Street, New York, +where he wrought every day in the year, and often until far into the +night. His office contained, beside his drawing-table and other +furniture, a long table, on which at times, when overcome by fatigue, he +would stretch himself and take a short nap, using a dictionary or low +wooden box for a pillow.</p> + +<p>His relations with his native land were always close, and, as already +hinted, he gave much of his best effort to the study of means for her +defence. Toward his friends and relatives he was the embodiment of +watchful care and generosity. His private benefactions were for his +means large, and were given with a whole-hearted generosity which must +have added much to the love and esteem in which the recipients regarded +him. His public benefactions were also notable, and during the later +years of his life he gave away regularly no inconsiderable share of his +income. Though gifted with reasonable prudence, he had no conception of +the "business sense," and no capacity as a money-getter. After acquiring +by his inventions and enterprise a modest competence, he devoted himself +almost entirely to work less directly related to a financial return, and +lived comfortably upon the principal which his earlier efforts +had provided.</p> + +<p>Ericsson had absolute faith in himself and in his mission to render +available the energies of nature for the uses of humanity and +civilization. His character was framed about the central idea of +fidelity to this mission. He was dogmatic and optimistic as regards his +own work; he had a contemptuous indifference to the work of others, and +a disregard of the help which he might derive from a closer study of +such work. He trained himself, body, mind, and affections, solely with +reference to his mission, and allowed no interference with it. He was +the embodiment of physical and mental vigor, prodigious industry, +continuity of purpose, indomitable courage, capacity for great +concentration of mind, and oblivion to all distracting surroundings. +With such characteristics, combined with the rare endowment of mental +capacity and insight regarding the principles of engineering science, +small wonder is it that his life was one so rich in results. It could +not have been otherwise, and the results simply came as a consequence +of the combination of the characteristics of the man and the +surroundings in which he was placed.</p> + +<p>The question as to how much more or how much better he might have done +had he possessed more faith in the work of others and a willingness to +be guided in some measure by their experience is of course idle. +Ericsson was a combination of certain capacities and characteristics; a +combination of other capacities and characteristics would not have been +Ericsson, and any discussion of such a supposition is therefore aside +from the purpose of this sketch.</p> + +<p>John Ericsson lived in a period of rapid engineering development and +change. Old ideals were passing away, and the heritage which the +Nineteenth Century was able to pass on to the Twentieth was in +preparation. In this preparation Ericsson bore a large and most +important part. So long as ships traverse the seas, Ericsson's name will +be remembered for his work in connection with the introduction of the +screw-propeller. So long as the memory of naval warfare endures, +Ericsson's name will be remembered for the part which he bore in the +transition from wood to iron, from unarmored ships to turrets and armor, +from scattered to concentrated energy of gun-fire, and for his general +share in the developments which have led to the ideal of a battleship +prevailing at the opening of the Twentieth century. For these and for +many other achievements he will be remembered, and his life and works +should serve as a constant stimulus to those upon whom the engineering +work of the present age has fallen, to see that with equal fidelity they +live up to the possibilities of their endowments and opportunities, and +serve with like fervency and zeal the needs of the age in which they +are placed.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition: Ericsson, John.</p> + +<p>The Life of John Ericsson: Church, W.C.</p> + +<p>History of the Steam Engine: Thurston, R.H.</p> + +<p>Steam Navy of the United States: Bennett, Frank M.</p> + +<p>Who invented the Screw Propeller?: Nicol, James.</p> + +<p>The Naval and Mail Steamers of the United States: Stuart, Charles B.</p> + +<p>A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of Steam +Navigation: Preble, Rear Admiral G.H.</p> + +<p>A Treatise on the Screw Propeller, Screw Vessels, and Screw Engine as +adapted for Purposes of Peace and War: Bourne, John.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="LI_HUNG_CHANG."></a>LI HUNG CHANG.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1823-1901.</p> + +<p>THE FAR EAST.</p> + +<p>BY W.A.P. MARTIN, D.D., LL.D</p> +<br> + +<p>INTRODUCTORY.</p> +<br> + +<p>Five years ago Earl Li was at the head of the "Tsungli Yamen," or +Foreign Office in Peking. The present writer, having known him long and +intimately, called one morning to request a letter of recommendation to +aid in raising money for an International Institute projected by the +Rev. Dr. Reid. "He's got one letter; why does he want another?" asked +Li, in a tone of mingled surprise and irritation. "True," said I, "but +that is from the Tsungli Yamen. Nobody in America knows anything about +the Yamen. What he wants is a personal letter from you; because the only +Chinese name besides Confucius that is known outside of China is Li +Hung Chang."</p> + +<p>"Ill give it! Ill give it!" he exclaimed, smiling from ear to ear at the +thought of his world-wide reputation.</p> + +<p>This was taking him on his weak side; but it was fact, not flattery.</p> + +<p>Over forty years ago Li's rising star first came to view in connection +with operations against the rebels in the vicinity of Shanghai, and from +that day to this, every war, domestic or foreign, has served to raise it +higher and make it shine the brighter. It reached its zenith in 1901, +when after settling terms of peace with several foreign powers he passed +off the stage at the ripe age of fourscore. What better type to set +forth his age and nation than the man who, through a long career of +unexampled activity, won for himself a triple crown of literary, +military, and civil honors? In physique he was a noble specimen of his +race, over six feet in height, and in his earlier years uncommonly +handsome. The first half of his existence was passed in comparative +obscurity at Hofei in Anhui, a region remote from contact with +foreign nations.</p> + +<p>It was there his character was formed, on native models; there he +carried off the higher prizes of the literary arena; and there he became +fitted for the rôle of China's typical statesman.</p> + +<p>His career in outline may be stated in a few words. His native province +being overrun by rebels, he passed from the school-room to the camp, and +got his earliest lessons in the military art under the leadership of the +eminent viceroy Tseng Ko Fan. The neighboring province of Kiangsu +falling into the hands of rebel hordes a few years later, he won renown +by recapturing its principal cities, by the aid of such men as the +American Ward and the English Gordon. His success as a general made him +governor of Kiangsu, and his success as governor raised him to the rank +of viceroy, holding for many years a post at one or other of the foci of +foreign trade north or south.</p> + +<p>Beyond the borders of China he was twice sent on special embassies, and +once he made the tour of the globe; but his most brilliant achievement +was in twice making peace on honorable terms, when his country was lying +prostrate before a victorious enemy.</p> + +<p>It remains to expand this incomparable catalogue; but to make +intelligible that remarkable series of events in which he bore such a +conspicuous part, we must first invite our readers to accompany us in a +historical retrospect in which we shall point out the opening and growth +of foreign intercourse.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>I.</h2> + +<p>INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA BY LAND.</p> + +<p>Of the nature of that intercourse in its earlier period, there exists a +monument that speaks volumes. That is no other than the Great Wall; +which, hugest of the works of man, stretches along the northern frontier +of China proper for one thousand five hundred miles from the sea to the +desert of Gobi. Erected 255 B.C. it shows that even at that early date +the enemies most dreaded by the Chinese were on the north. Yet how +signally it failed to effect its purpose! For since that epoch the +provinces of Northern China have passed no fewer than seven centuries +under Tartar sway. Two Tartar dynasties have succeeded in subjugating +the whole empire, and they have transmitted beyond the seas a reputation +which quite eclipses the fame of China's ancient sovereigns.</p> + +<p>In fact, that which first made China known to the western world was its +conquest by the Mongols in the thirteenth century. Barbarous nomads, +with longing eyes forever directed to the sunny plains of the south, +they also conquered India, bringing under their sceptre the two richest +regions of the globe. Of Genghis and Kubla, it may be asserted that they +realized a more extended dominion than Alexander, Caesar, or Napoleon +ever dreamed of. But</p> + + "Extended empire, like expanded gold,<br> + Exchanges solid strength for feeble splendor."<br> + +<p>Their tenure of China was of short duration,--less than a century. In +India, however, their successors, the great Moguls, continued to +maintain a semblance of sovereignty even down to our own times, when +they were wiped from the blackboard for having taken part in the +Sepoy mutiny.</p> + +<p>Liberal beyond precedent, Kubla Khan encouraged the establishment of a +Christian bishopric, in which John de Monte Corvino was the first +representative of the Holy See. He also welcomed those adventurous +Italians, the Polos, and sought to make use of them to open +communication with Europe. Yet we cannot forbear to express a doubt, +whether, aside from the Christian religion, Europe in that age had much +in the way of civilization to impart to China.</p> + +<p>Three of the native dynasties, which preceded the Mongol conquest, made +themselves famous by advancing the interests of civilization. The house +of Han (B.C. 202-A.D. 221) restored the sacred books, which the builder +of the Great Wall had destroyed in order to obliterate all traces of +feudalism and make the people submit to a centralized government. Even +down to the present day, the Chinese are proud to describe themselves as +"sons of Han." The house of Tang, A.D. 618-908, is noted above all for +the literary style of its prose-writers and the genius of its poets. In +South China the people are fond of calling themselves "sons of Tang." +The house of Sung, A.D. 970-1127, shows a galaxy of philosophers and +scholars, whose expositions and speculations are accepted as the +standard of orthodoxy. More acute reasoners it would be difficult to +find in any country; and in the line of erudition they have never been +surpassed.</p> + +<p>It is reported that in 643 the Emperor Theodosius sent an envoy to +China with presents of rubies and emeralds. Nestorian missionaries also +presented themselves at court. The Emperor received them with respect, +heard them recite the articles of their creed, and ordered a temple to +be erected for them at his capital. This was in the palmy period of the +Tangs, when the frontiers of the Empire had been pushed to the borders +of the Caspian Sea.</p> + +<p>If China in part or in whole was sometimes conquered by Tartars, it is +only fair to state that the greatest of the native sovereigns more than +once reduced the extramural Tartars to subjection. Between the two races +there existed an almost unceasing conflict, which had the effect of +civilizing the one and of preventing the other from lapsing +into lethargy.</p> + +<p>About B.C. 100, Su Wu, one of China's famous diplomatists, was sent on +an embassy to the Grand Khan of Tartary. An ode, which he addressed to +his wife on the eve of his perilous expedition, speaks alike for the +domestic affections of the Chinese and for their ancient +literary culture.</p> + + "Twin trees whose boughs together twine,<br> + Two birds that guard one nest,<br> + We'll soon be far asunder torn<br> + As sunrise from the west.<br> + + "Hearts knit in childhood's innocence,<br> + Long bound in Hymen's ties,<br> + One goes to distant battlefields,<br> + One sits at home and sighs.<br> + + "Like carrier dove, though seas divide,<br> + I'll seek my lonely mate;<br> + But if afar I find a grave,<br> + You'll mourn my hapless fate.<br> + + "To us the future's all unknown;<br> + In memory seek relief.<br> + Come, touch the chords you know so well,<br> + And let them soothe our grief."<br> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>II.</h2> + +<p>INTERCOURSE BY SEA.</p> + +<p>In 1388 the Mongols were expelled. The Christian bishopric was swept +away, and left no trace; but a book of the younger Polo, describing the +wealth of China, gave rise to marvellous results. Together with the +magnetic needle, which originated in China, it led to centuries of +effort to open a way by sea to that far-off fairyland. It was from Marco +Polo that Columbus derived his inspiration to seek a short road to the +far East by steering to the West,--finding a new world athwart his +pathway. It was the same needle, if not the same book, that impelled +Vasco da Gama to push his way across the Indian Ocean, after the Cape of +Good Hope had been doubled by Bartholomew Diaz. A century later the same +book led Henry Hudson to search for some inlet or strait that might +open a way to China, when, instead of it, he discovered the port of +New York.</p> + +<p>The mariner's compass, which wrought this revolution on the map of the +world, is only one of many discoveries made by the ancient Chinese, +which, unfruitful in their native land, have, after a change of climate, +transformed the face of the globe.</p> + +<p>The polarity of the loadstone was observed in China over a thousand +years before the Christian era. One of their emperors, it is said, +provided certain foreign ambassadors with "south-pointing chariots," so +that they might not go astray on their way home. To this day the +magnetic needle in China continues to be called by a name which means +that it points to the south. It heads a long list of contraries in the +notions of the Chinese as compared with our own, such, for example, as +beginning to read at the back of a book; placing the seat of honor on +the left hand; keeping to the left in passing on the street, with many +others, so numerous as to suggest that the same law that placed their +feet opposite to ours must have turned their heads the other way. To the +Chinese the "south-pointing needle" continued to be a mere plaything to +be seen every day in the sedan chair of a mandarin, or in wheeled +vehicles. If employed on the water, it was only used in +coasting voyages.</p> + +<p>So with gunpowder, of which the Arabs were transmitters, not inventors. +In other lands it revolutionized the art of war, clothing their people +with irresistible might, while in its native home it remained +undeveloped and served chiefly for fireworks. Have we not seen, even in +this our day, the rank and file of the Chinese army equipped with bows +and arrows? The few who were provided with firearms, for want of +gunlocks, had to set them off by a slow-match of burning tow; and +cannon, meant to guard the mouth of the Peiho, were trained on the +channel and fixed on immovable frames.</p> + +<p>The art of printing was known in China five centuries before it made its +way to Europe. The Confucian classics having been engraved on stone to +secure them from being again burned up, as they had been by the builder +of the great wall, the rubbings taken from those stones were printing. +It required nothing but the substitution of wood for stone and of +<i>relievo</i> for <i>intaglio</i> to give that art the form it now has. The +smallest scrap of printed paper in the lining of a tea chest, or wrapped +about a roll of silk, would suffice to suggest the whole art to a mind +like that of Gutenberg. In China it never emerged from the state of wood +engraving. The "Peking Gazette," the oldest newspaper in the world, is +printed on divisible types, but they are of wood, not metal, more than +one attempt to introduce metallic types having proved unsuccessful, for +the want of that happy alloy known as type-metal. It is from us that +they have learned the art of casting type, especially that splendid +achievement, the making of stereotype plates, and, later, electrotype +plates, by the aid of electricity and acid solutions. Chemistry, from +which this beautiful art takes its rise, carries us back to China, for +it was there that alchemy had its birth, as I have elsewhere shown.<a name="FNanchor4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> + +<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4">[4]</a> "The Lore of Cathay." New York: Fleming R. Revell Co., p. +41. + +<p>Man's first desire is long life; his second, to be rich. The Taoist +philosophy commenced with the former before the Christian era, but it +was not long in finding its way to the latter. A powerful impulse was +thus given to research in the three departments of science,--chemistry, +botany, and geography. As in the case of gunpowder, the Arabs +transmitted these discoveries to the West, and along with them the +Chinese doctrine as to the twofold objects of alchemic studies,--the +elixir of life and the philosopher's stone.</p> + +<p>From this double root sprang the chemistry of the West, which in no mean +sense has fulfilled its promise by prolonging life and enriching +mankind. In all these the West has performed the part of a nursing +mother, but she has brought the nursling back full grown, and prepared +to repay its obligation to its true parent by effective service.</p> + +<p>Portuguese merchants made their way to Canton early in the sixteenth +century, but it was not till the latter part of the century that +Catholic missionaries entered on their grand crusade. In 1601 the Jesuit +pioneer Matteo Ricci and his associates, impelled by religion and armed +with science, presented themselves at the court of Peking. The Chinese +had been able to reckon the length of the year with remarkable accuracy +two thousand years before the time of Christ, but their science had made +no headway. The missionaries found their calendar in a state of +confusion, vanquished the native astronomers in fair competition, and +were formally installed as keepers of the Imperial Observatory; and +these missionaries supervised the casting of the bronze instruments +which have since been taken to Berlin.</p> + +<p>This honor they retained even after the fall of the native dynasty that +patronized them. When the Manchus effected their conquest in 1644, not +only were the Jesuit missionaries left in charge of the observatory, but +the heir apparent was placed under their instruction. Coming to the +throne in 1662, under the now illustrious title of <i>Kanghi</i>, the young +prince showed himself a generous patron as he had previously been a +respectful pupil. He was apparently not averse to the idea of his +people's adopting Christianity as their national religion, and allowed +the missionaries a free hand to plant churches throughout the vast +interior. Rarely if ever has so fine an opportunity offered for making +an easy conquest of a pagan empire. It was lost through the jealousy of +contending societies, and especially through the blunder of an +infallible Pope. The Dominicans denounced the Jesuits for tolerating the +practice of pagan rites, such as the worship of ancestors, and for +employing for God the name of a pagan deity. The name which they then +objected to was Shang-ti, Supreme Ruler, a venerable designation for the +Supreme Power found in the earliest of the Chinese canonical books, and +at this day accepted by a large proportion of Protestant missionaries.</p> + +<p>The question as to its fitness was referred to the Emperor, who decided +in favor of the Jesuits. It was then brought before the Papal See, +condemned as idolatrous, and Tien Chu, the Lord of Heaven, adopted in +its stead. That Shang-ti, however pure in origin, had come to be applied +to a whole class of deities was perfectly true, but the name proposed in +its stead was not free from a taint of idolatry,--Tien Chu, Lord of +Heaven, being one of eight divinities, and worshipped along with Ti Chu, +Lord of Earth, Hai Chu, Lord of the Sea, etc.</p> + +<p>The manner in which his opinions had been set aside by the Pope had no +doubt a repelling influence on the mind of the Emperor, so that if he +had ever felt inclined to embrace Christianity, he drew back in his +later years. Not only so, but he left behind him a series of Maxims in +which he censures the foreign creed and warns his people against it. +These Maxims were ordered to be read in public by mandarins, and they +continue to be recited and expounded as a sort of religious ritual. Is +it surprising that this lost opportunity was followed by a century and a +half of open persecution? That most of the churches survived, not only +attests the zeal with which the Faith had been propagated, it throws a +pleasing light on the force of the Chinese character. At the dawn of our +new epoch, there were still some half a million converts,--with here and +there a foreign Father hiding in their midst.</p> + +<p>In bringing about this change of policy there was indeed another +influence at work. Had not the Emperor of China heard some rumors of +what was going on in the dominion of his cousin, the Great Mogul--how +the French were dispossessing the Portuguese; and how the English later +on succeeded in expelling the French? How could they doubt that a large +community of native Christians would act as an auxiliary to any foreign +invader? A suspicion of this kind had in fact sprung up under the +preceding dynasty. In consequence of it not a single seaport except +Macao was opened to foreign trade; and when foreigners went to Canton, +they were lodged in a suburb and not allowed to penetrate within the +walls of the provincial capital. Such misgivings as to the designs of +foreigners we find strikingly expressed in a book of that period called +"Strange Stories of an Idle Student."</p> + +<p>One story is as follows: When Red-Haired Barbarians first appeared on +our coast they were not allowed to come ashore. They begged, however, to +be permitted to spread a carpet on which to dry their goods, and this +being granted, they took the carpet by its corners and stretched it so +that it covered several acres. On this, they debarked in great force +and, drawing their swords, took possession of the surrounding country.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>III.</h2> + +<p>THE OPIUM WAR.</p> + +<p>The first great event that woke China from her dream of solitary +grandeur was the war with England, which broke out in 1839 and was +closed three years later by the Treaty of Nanking. It was not, however, +all that was needed to effect that object. It made the giant rub her +eyes and give a reluctant assent to terms imposed by superior force. But +many a rude lesson was still required before she came to perceive her +true position, as on the lower side of an inclined plane. To bring her +to this discovery four more foreign wars were to follow before the end +of the century, culminating in a siege in Peking and massacres +throughout the northern provinces which may be looked on as the fifth +act in a long and bloody tragedy.</p> + +<p>In the last three wars Li Hung Chang was a prominent actor. In the +first two he took no part. Yet was it the shock which they gave to the +empire that drove him from a life of literary seclusion to do battle in +a more public arena.</p> + +<p>The Opium War of 1839 is not improperly so designated, but nothing is +more erroneous than to infer that it was waged by England for the +purpose of forcing the product of her Indian poppy fields on the markets +of China. Opium was the occasion, not the cause. The cause, if we are to +put it in a single word, was the overbearing arrogance of an Oriental +despotism, which refused to recognize any equal in the family +of nations.</p> + +<p>In the Straits settlements and in the seaports of India, Chinese +merchants had been brought under sway of the bewitching narcotic. It +found its way to their southern seaports, and without being recognized +as an article of commerce, the trade expanded with startling rapidity. +The Emperor, Tao Kwang, one of the most humane of rulers, resolved to +take measures for the suppression of the vice. He had come to the throne +in 1820; and there is a story that he was moved to action by the +untimely fate of his eldest son, who had fallen a victim to the +seductive poison.</p> + +<p>Commissioner Lin, whom he selected to carry out his prohibitory policy, +was a fit instrument for such a master, equally virtuous in his aims +and equally tyrannical in his mode of proceeding. Arriving at Canton, +his first object was to get possession of the forbidden drug, which was +stored on ships outside the harbor. This he thought to accomplish by +surrounding the whole foreign community by soldiers and threatening them +with death if the opium was not promptly surrendered. While its owners +or their agents hesitated, Captain Elliot, the British Superintendent of +Trade, came up from Macao, and demanded to share the duress of his +nationals. He then called on them to deliver up the drug to him to be +used in the service of the Queen for the ransom of the lives of her +subjects, assuring them that they would be reimbursed from the public +treasury. No fewer than twenty-one thousand chests, valued at nine +million dollars, were brought in from the opium ships and formally +handed over to Commissioner Lin. The foreign community was set free, and +the drug destroyed by being mixed with quicklime.</p> + +<p>War was made to punish this outrage on the rights of the foreign +community, and to exact indemnity for the seizure of their property. +Canton was not captured, but held to ransom, and the haughty Viceroy +sent into exile. Other cities were taken and held; and, in 1842, a +treaty of peace was signed at Nanking by which five ports were opened to +foreign trade. The embargo on opium was not withdrawn; but the defeat of +the Chinese resulted in a virtual immunity from seizure together with a +growth of the traffic, such as to justify the ill-odored name which that +war still bears in history.</p> + +<p>Treaties with other powers followed in quick succession. On demand of +the French Minister, the Emperor recalled his prohibitory decrees +against Christianity and issued an Edict of Toleration. If the opening +of the ports gave a stimulus to trade, the decree of toleration opened a +door for missionary enterprise. As yet, however, neither merchant nor +missionary was allowed to penetrate into the interior; while the capital +and the whole of the northern seacoast remained inaccessible. This was +obviously a state of things that could not be permanent; yet fifteen +years were to pass before another war came to settle the terms of +intercourse on a broader basis.</p> + +<p>When the war broke out, Li Hung Chang was seventeen years of age, living +at Hofei in Anhui. As there were then no newspapers in China it may be +doubted whether he heard of it until a British squadron sailed up to +Nanking and extorted a treaty at the cannon's mouth. Li was rudely +startled by the appearance of a new force, to which there was no +allusion in any of his ancient books. Along with the sailing-ships there +were two or three small steamers. It struck the Chinese with +astonishment to see them make head against wind and tide. <i>Shin Chuan</i>, +"ships of the gods," is the name they gave those mysterious vessels. +Little could Li foresee the part he was destined to take in creating a +steam navy for China.</p> + +<p>Descended from a long line of scholars, he was supposed to be born to +the pursuit of letters. He did, in fact, devote himself to study with +unflagging zeal, because he had as yet no temptation to turn aside. Was +there not, moreover, an open door before his face inviting him to win +for himself the honors of a mandarinate? In his native town he placed +his foot on the first step of the ladder by gaining the degree of A.B., +or, in Chinese, "Budding Genius." At the provincial capital he next +carried off the laurel of the second degree, which is worth more than +our A.M., not merely because it is not conferred in course, but because +it falls to the lot of only one in a hundred among some thousands of +competitors. These provincial tournaments occur but once in three years; +and the successful candidates proceed to Peking to compete for the third +degree, or D.C.L.,--<i>Tsin-shi</i>, or, "Fit for Office." Here the chances +amount to three per cent.</p> + +<p>Li's fortunes were again propitious, and in company with two or three +hundred new-made doctors, he was summoned to the palace to contend in +presence of the emperor for the honor of a seat in the Imperial +Academy,--the Hanlin, or "Forest of Pencils." Here also he met with +success, but he was not among the first three whose names are marked by +the vermilion pen of majesty, each of whom sheds lustre on his native +province. The highest of the three is called Chuang Yuen, "Head of the +List" or "Prince of Letters." In the 'fifties it fell to a native of +Ningpo, where I then lived. His good luck was announced to his wife by +the magistrate in person, who conducted her to the six gates, at each of +which she scattered a handful of rice, as an omen of good fortune. In +the 'sixties, when I had removed to Peking, this honor was for the first +time conferred on a Manchu, a son of the General Saishanga. His daughter +was deemed a fit consort for the heir to the throne, wearing for a short +time the tiara of empress, and committing suicide on the death of +her lord.</p> + +<p>In the two previous contests, handwriting goes for nothing, but in this +it is not without weight, as the avowed object is to select scribes for +the service of the throne. On those occasions extent of erudition and +originality of thought are the qualities most esteemed; but this time +the order of merit is decided by superficial elegance of style, and by +facility in the composition of verse.</p> + +<p>However defective the standard of learning, this long course of +competition, extending over ten or fifteen years, has the effect of +bringing before the throne a body of men each of whom is the survivor of +a hundred contests. No country can boast a better system for the +selection of talent, and the government guards it with jealous care. I +have known more than one examiner put to death for tampering with this +ballot-box of the Empire. For ages it has provided the state with able +officers; nor is its least merit that of converting a dangerous +demagogue into a quiet student.</p> + +<p>While waiting for an appointment, Li heard with dismay that Nanking had +been taken by a body of rebels, and that his native province was in +danger of being overrun by them. A new career opened before him,--one +that led more directly to the highest offices within the gift of the +sovereign. Asking a commission in the army, he was assigned to a +position on the staff of Tsengkofan, father of the Marquis Tseng, who +was afterwards Minister to England.</p> + +<p>This rebellion, among the strangest of strange things, now claims our +attention.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>IV.</h2> + +<p>THE TAIPING REBELLION.</p> + +<p>In April, 1853, the news reached us that Nanking had fallen into the +hands of a body of rebels who, by a curious irony, called themselves +Taipings, "Soldiers of Peace."</p> + +<p>They were Chinese, not Manchus, and their leaders were all from the +extreme south. Starting near Canton, they had proclaimed as their +object the expulsion of the Tartars. Overrunning Kwangsi and Hunan, they +had got possession of Hankow and the two adjacent cities,--a centre of +wealth which may be compared to the three cities that form our Greater +New York. Everywhere they put to flight the government forces; but they +did not choose to stop anywhere short of the ancient capital of the +Mings. Seizing some thousands of junks, they filled them with the +plunder of that rich mart, and sweeping down the river, carried by +assault every city on its banks until they reached Nanking. Its +resistance was quickly overcome; and putting to death the entire +garrison of twenty-five thousand Manchus, they announced their intention +to make it the capital of their empire, as Hung Wu had done when he +drove out the Mongols and restored freedom to the Chinese race.</p> + +<p>In a few months they despatched an expedition to expel the Manchus from +Peking. But that proved a more difficult task than they expected. Before +the detachment had arrived at Tientsin, it was met on the Grand Canal by +a strong force under Sengkolinsin, the Mongol prince. Obliged to winter +on the way, it was divided and cut off in detail; this defeat making it +evident to all the world that the Manchu domination might still hope for +a considerable lease of life. The blood and rapine which everywhere +marked their pathway alienated the sympathy of foreigners from the +Soldiers of Peace. Nor did the new power at Nanking manifest the least +anxiety to obtain foreign aid, feeling assured of ultimate triumph. Yet, +indifferent as they were to the co-operation of foreigners, the Taipings +proclaimed themselves Christians, and appeared to aim their blows no +less at lifeless idols than at living enemies. Shangti, the Supreme +Ruler, the God of the ancient sages, was the object of their worship. +They found his name in the Christian Bibles, and they published the +Bible as the source of their new faith. Their faith amounted to a +frenzy, giving them courage in battle, but not imparting the +self-control essential to Christian morality. Filling their coffers with +spoil, they stocked their harems with the wives and daughters of their +enemies. If their lives had been more decent, they might have had a +better chance to secure the favor of those powerful nations which had +now become the arbiters of destiny in China.</p> + +<p>The leader of the movement was a Cantonese by the name of Hung Siu +Chuen. A copy of the Bible having fallen into his hands, he applied to a +Baptist missionary for instruction. How much he learned may be inferred +from the fact that he gave his followers a new form of baptism, +requiring them to wash the bosom as a sign for cleansing the heart. He +had ecstatic visions, and preached a crusade against idolatry and the +Manchus. The ease with which the Manchus had been beaten by the British +in 1842 had revealed their weakness, and the new faith supplied the +rebels with a fresh source of power. They mixed the teachings of the +Gospel with new revelations as freely as Mohammed did in propagating the +religion of the Koran. The chief called himself the younger brother of +Jesus Christ. His prime minister assumed the title of the Holy Ghost; +and his counsels were given out as decrees from Heaven. All this had an +air of blasphemy that shocked the sensibilities of foreigners, and +compelled them to stand aloof or to support the Manchus.</p> + +<p>The native authorities were permitted to engage foreign ships and seamen +to operate against the rebels, who sustained a siege in Nanking almost +as long as the siege of Troy. From Shanghai, Suchau, and other cities +the Taipings were driven out by the aid of foreigners, chiefly led by +Ward and Gordon, the former an American, the latter a Briton. General +Ward was never under the command of Li Hung Chang; but to him more than +to any other foreigner belongs the honor of turning the tide of the +Taiping Rebellion. A soldier of fortune, he offered to throw his sword +into the government scale if it were paid for with many times its weight +in gold. Gathering a nondescript force of various nationalities, he +recaptured the city of Sungkiang, and followed this up by such a series +of successes that his little troop came to be known as the +"Ever-victorious Army." Falling before the walls of Tseki, he was +interred with pomp at the scene of his first victory, where a temple was +erected to his memory, and he is now reckoned among the "Joss" of the +Chinese Empire. His force was taken into Li's pay.</p> + +<p>General Gordon (the same who fell at Khartoum) acted under the direction +of Li Hung Chang; and his chief exploit was the recovery of Suchau. +Unable to resist his artillery, the rebel chiefs offered to capitulate. +They were assured by him that their lives would be spared. To this Li +Hung Chang consented, and the stronghold was at once surrendered. +Regardless of his plighted faith, Li caused the five leaders to be +beheaded, an act of treachery which filled Gordon with such fury that he +went from camp to camp, looking for Li, determined to put a bullet in +his head. Li, however, avoided a meeting until Gordon's wrath had time +to subside, and that treacherous act laid the foundation of his future +fortunes. He was made governor of the province, and for forty years he +rose in power and influence.</p> + +<p>Not only was this terrible rebellion which laid waste the fairest +provinces a sequel to the first war with England, it was prolonged and +aggravated by a second war which broke out in 1857. In 1863, the last +stronghold of the rebels was recaptured, and the rebellion finally +suppressed, after twelve years of dismal carnage. In bringing about this +result, no names are more conspicuous than those of Li Hung Chang and +General Gordon, whose sobriquet of "Chinese Gordon" ever afterwards +characterized him. Li's good fortune served him well in this war. Having +won the favor of the Court, he was in command of the forces of eastern +Kiangsu, and all the brilliant successes of Ward and Gordon were +credited to him. He was not only made governor of the province, but also +created an Earl in perpetuity.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>V.</h2> + +<p>THE "ARROW" WAR; THE TREATIES.</p> + +<p>Never did a smaller spark ignite a greater conflagration. In 1856 a +native junk named the "Arrow," sailing under a British flag, was seized +for piracy, her flag hauled down and her crew thrown into prison at +Canton. On demand of Sir John Bowring, Governor of Hong Kong, they were +handed over to Consul Parkes (later Sir Harry); but he refused to +receive them because they were not accompanied by a suitable apology. +The haughty Viceroy Yeh put them all to death, provoking reprisals on +the part of the British, resulting in the occupation of Canton and the +capture of Peking after three campaigns to the north.</p> + +<p>In this war England had France for ally; as the two powers had been +associated in that hugest of blunders, the Crimean War. Nor was the +alliance a less blunder on this occasion. Napoleon's excuse for +participation was the murder of a missionary in Kwangsi; but his real +motive was a desire to checkmate Great Britain, and prevent the conquest +of new territory. In the Opium War she had stopped at Nanking, leaving +the pride of China unhumbled, and the state of relations so unstable +that another war was required to place them on a better footing. +England, with unselfish generosity, invited the co-operation of Russia +and the United States. Either power might have found as good a pretext +for hostile action as that of France; but they chose to maintain an +attitude of neutrality, offering only such moral support as might enable +them to gather up the apples after the others had shaken the tree. In +1857 Canton was taken and held by the allies. The next spring the envoys +of the four powers, each with a considerable naval force, proceeded to +the mouth of the Peiho, the gateway to a capital as secluded and +exclusive as that of the Grand Lama. The forts made a show of +resistance, but they were put to silence in less than half an hour; and +negotiations which had been opened by the neutrals were resumed +at Tientsin.</p> + +<p>Dr. S. Wells Williams was Chinese secretary to the United States +minister, Mr. William B. Reed; and I acted as interpreter for the spoken +language. An article in favor of Christian missions occasioned some +delay; and Mr. Reed, who was vain and shallow, said to us, "Now, +gentlemen, hurry up with your missionary article for I intend to sign my +treaty on the 18th of June [Waterloo day] with or without that clause." +Fancy a mind that could think of a treaty obtained by British guns as +entitling him to be associated with Wellington! Yet Mr. Reed had the +effrontery to say that he "expected us to make the missionary societies +duly sensible of their obligations" to him. That twenty-ninth article +was the gem of the treaty; and it had the honor of being copied into +that of Lord Elgin, which was signed eight days later.</p> + +<p>High-minded, philanthropic, and upright, Lord Elgin made a mistake which +led to a renewal of the war. He refused to place Tientsin on the list of +open ports, because, as he said, "Foreign powers would make use of it to +overawe the Chinese capital,"--just as if overawing was not a matter of +prime necessity. He hastened away to India to aid in suppressing the +Sepoy mutiny, eventually becoming viceroy after another campaign in +China. His brother, Sir F. Bruce, succeeded him as minister in China; +and twelve months later (July, 1859) the ministers of the four powers +were again at the mouth of the Peiho on their way to Peking for the +exchange of ratified copies of the several treaties. The United States +minister was John E. Ward, a noble-hearted son of Georgia, and the chief +of our little squadron was the gallant old Commodore Tatnall.</p> + +<p>We were not a little surprised to see the demolished forts completely +rebuilt, and frowning defiance. We were told by officers who came down +to the shore that no vessel would be allowed to pass; but that the way +to Peking was open to us <i>via</i> Peitang, a small port to the north.</p> + +<p>To this Mr. Ward made no objection, but the British, who had so recently +held the keys of the capital, were indignant to be met by such a rebuff. +They steamed ahead between the forts, leaving the Chinese to take the +consequences. All at once the long line of batteries opened fire. One or +two gunboats were sunk; two or three were stranded. A storming party was +repulsed, and Admiral Hope, who was dangerously wounded, begged our +American commodore to give him a lift by towing up a flotilla of barges +filled with a reserve force. "Blood is thicker than water," exclaimed +Tatnall, in tones that have echoed round the globe, and Ward making no +objection, he threw neutrality to the winds, and proceeded to tow up the +barges. Our little steamer was commanded by Lieutenant Barker, now +Admiral Barker of the New York Navy Yard.</p> + +<p>Even this failed to retrieve the day, the tide having fallen too low for +a successful landing. For the British admiral nothing remained but to +withdraw his shattered forces, and prepare for another campaign. For the +United States minister a dazzling prospect now presented itself,--that +of intervening to prevent the renewal of war. From Peitang we proceeded +by land two days. Then we continued our voyage for five days by boat on +the Upper Peiho.</p> + +<p>At Peking, calling on the genial old Kweiliang, who had signed the +treaty in 1858, Mr. Ward was astonished at his change of tone. "You wish +to see the Emperor. That goes as a matter of course; but his Majesty +knows you helped the British, and he requires that you go on your knees +before the throne in token of repentance." "Tell him," said Mr. Ward to +me, "that I go on my knees only to God and woman." "Is not the Emperor +the same as God?" replied the old courtier, taking no notice of a +tribute to woman that was unintelligible to an Oriental mind. "You need +not really touch the ground with your knees," he continued; "but merely +make a show of kneeling. There will be eunuchs at hand to lift you up, +saying 'Don't kneel! Don't kneel!'" The eunuchs, as Mr. Ward well knew, +would be more likely to push us to our knees than to lift us up; and he +wisely decided to decline the honor of an audience on such terms.</p> + +<p>Displeased by his obstinacy, the Emperor ordered him to quit the capital +without delay, and exchange ratifications at the sea-coast. A report was +long current in Peking that foreigners have no joints in their knees; +hence their reluctance to kneel. Thus vanished for Mr. Ward the +alluring prospect of winning for himself and his country the beatitude +of the peacemaker.</p> + +<p>The summer of 1860 saw the Peiho forts taken, and an allied force of +thirty thousand men advancing on Peking. The court fled to Tartary, and +the summer palace was laid in ashes to punish the violation of a flag of +truce, the bearers of which were bound hand and foot, and left to perish +within its walls. For three days the smoke of its burning, carried by a +northwest wind, hung like a pall over the devoted city, whose +inhabitants were so terrified that they opened the gates half an hour +before the time set for bombardment. No soldiers were admitted, but the +demands of the Allies were all acceded to, and supplementary treaties +signed within the walls by Lord Elgin and Baron Gros. Peking was opened +to foreign residence. The French succeeded in opening the whole country +to the labors of missionaries. Legations were established at the +capital, and a new era of peace and prosperity dawned on the +distracted empire.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>VI.</h2> + +<p>THE WAR WITH FRANCE.</p> + +<p>If the opening of Peking required a prolonged struggle, it was followed +by a quarter-century of pacific intercourse. China had at her helm a +number of wise statesmen,--such as Prince Kung and Wensiang. The +Inspectorate of Customs begun under Mr. Lay took shape under the skilful +management of Sir Robert Hart, and from that day to this it has proved +to be a fruitful nursery of reforms, political and social.</p> + +<p>Not only were students sent abroad for education at the instance and +under the leadership of Yung Wing, but a school for interpreters was +opened in the capital, which, through the influence of Sir Robert Hart, +was expanded into the well-known Imperial College. On his nomination the +present writer was called to the head of it, and Wensiang proposed to +convert it into a great national university by making it obligatory on +the members of the Hanlin Academy, the Emperor's "Forest of Pencils," to +come there for a course of instruction in science and international law. +Against this daring innovation, Wojin, a Manchu tutor of the Emperor, +protested, declaring that it would be humiliating to China to have her +choicest scholars sit at the feet of foreign professors. The scheme fell +through, but before many years the Emperor himself had taken up the +study of the English language, and two of our students were selected to +be his instructors. One of them is at this present time (1902) Chinese +minister at the Court of St. James. Several of our students have had +diplomatic missions, and one, after serving as minister abroad, is now a +leading member of the Board of Foreign Affairs in Peking. A press +opened in connection with the college printed numerous text-books on +international law, political economy, physics, and mathematics, +translated by the president, professors, and students.</p> + +<p>America was fortunate in the choice of the first minister whom she sent +to reside at Peking. This was Anson Burlingame, who, after doing much to +encourage the Chinese in the direction of progress, was by them made the +head of the first embassy which they sent to foreign nations. His +success in other countries was largely due to the sympathy with which he +had been received in the United States by Secretary Seward, and to the +advice and recommendations with which he was provided by that great +statesman. So deep an interest did Mr. Seward take in China that he went +in person to study its condition before the close of his career. In his +visit to Peking he was accompanied by his nephew, George F. Seward, who +was United States Consul at Shanghai. The latter has since that date +worthily represented our country as minister at Peking; but it may be +doubted whether in that high position he ever performed an international +service equal in importance to one performed during his consulship, for +which he has recently received the cross of the Legion of Honor. In +laying out their new concession at Shanghai, the French had excited the +hostility of the people by digging up and levelling down many of those +graves that occupied so much space outside of the city walls, and where +the Chinese who worshipped their ancestors were to be seen every day +burning paper and heaping up the earth. A furious mob fell on the French +police, chased them from the field, and menaced the French settlement +with knife and firebrand. The consuls were appealed to for aid, but no +one responded except Mr. Seward, who headed a strong force from one of +our men-of-war, dispersed the mob, and secured the safety of the foreign +settlement. But for his timely intervention who knows that the French +consulate would not have been reduced to ashes? If the consulate had +been burned down, a war would have been inevitable, with a chain of +consequences that baffles the imagination.</p> + +<p>In 1871 a horrid atrocity was perpetrated by Chinese at Tientsin which +certainly would have led to war with France if Napoleon III. had not at +that very time been engaged in mortal combat with Germany. The populace +were made to believe that the sisters at the French hospital had been +seen extracting the eyeballs from their patients to use in the +manufacture of magical drugs. They were set upon by a maddened +multitude, a score or more of them slaughtered, and the buildings where +they had cared for the sick and suffering turned to a heap of ruins. +Count Rocheschouart, instead of reserving the case to be settled at a +later day, thought best to accept from the Chinese government an +apology, with an ample sum in the way of pecuniary compensation. That +grewsome superstition has led to bloodshed in more than one part +of China.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1885 I was called one day from the Western Hills to the +Tsungli-Yamen, or Foreign Office, on business of great urgency. On +arriving, I was informed that the Chinese gunboats in the river Min had +been sunk by the French the day before; that they had also destroyed the +Arsenal at the mouth of the river. "This," said the Secretary, "means +war, and we desire to know how non-combatants belonging to the enemy and +resident in our country are to be treated according to the rules of +International Law." While I was copying out the principles and +precedents bearing on the subject, the same Secretary begged me to +hasten my report, "because," said he, "the Grand Council is waiting for +it to embody in an Imperial Decree." True enough, the next day a decree +from the throne announced the outbreak of war; but it added that +non-combatants belonging to the enemy would not be molested. Two of our +professors were Frenchmen, and they were both permitted to continue in +charge of their classes without molestation.</p> + +<p>Hostilities were brought to a happy conclusion by the agency of Sir +Robert Hart. One of his customs cruisers employed in the light-house +service having been seized by the French, Mr. Campbell was sent to Paris +to see the French President and petition for its release. Learning that +President Grévy would welcome the restoration of peace, and ascertaining +what conditions would be acceptable, Sir Robert laid them before the +Chinese government, putting an end to a conflict which, if suffered to +go on, might have ruined the interests of more than one country. In this +war and in those peace negotiations the conduct of the Chinese was +worthy of a civilized nation. Yet the result of their experience was to +make them more ready to appeal to arms in cases of difficulty.</p> + +<p>Li's connection with this war was very real, though not conspicuous. +Changpeilun, director of the arsenal at Foochow, was his son-in-law. Not +only was Li disposed to aid him in taking revenge, he was himself +building a great arsenal in the north; and it was, no doubt, owing to +efficient succor from this quarter that Formosa was able to hold out +against the forces of the French.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>VII.</h2> + +<p>WAR WITH JAPAN.</p> + +<p>Both in its inception and in its tragic ending the notable conflict with +Japan connects itself with the name of Li Hung Chang. The Island Empire +on the East had long been known to the Chinese, though until our times +no regular intercourse subsisted between the two countries. It is +recorded that a fleet freighted with youth and maidens was despatched +thither by the builder of the Great Wall to seek in those islands of the +blest for the herb of immortality; but none of them returned. It was to +be a colony, and the flowery robe by which its object is veiled is not +sufficient to hide the real aim of that ambitious potentate. Yet, +through that expedition and subsequent emigrations, a pacific conquest +was effected which does honor to both nations, planting in those islands +the learning of China, and blending with their native traditions the +essential teachings of her ancient sages.</p> + +<p>For centuries prior to our age of treaties, non-intercourse had been +enforced on both sides,--the Japanese confining their Chinese neighbors, +as they did the Dutch, to a little islet in the port of Nagasaki; and +China seeing nothing of Japan except an occasional descent of Japanese +pirates on her exposed sea-coast.</p> + +<p>To America belongs the honor of opening that opulent archipelago to the +commerce of the world. Our shipwrecked sailors having been harshly +treated by those islanders, a squadron was sent under Commodore Perry to +Yeddo (now Tokio) in 1855, to punish them if necessary and to provide +against future outrages. With rare moderation he merely handed in a +statement of his terms and sailed away to Loochoo to give them time for +reflection. Returning six months later, instead of the glove of combat +he was received with the hand of friendship, and a treaty was signed +which provided for the opening of three ports and the residence of an +American chargé d'affaires. In the autumn of 1859 it was my privilege to +visit Yeddo in company with Mr. Ward and Commodore Tatnall. We were +entertained by Townsend Harris and shown the sights of the city of the +Shoguns when it was still clothed in its mediaeval costume. The long +swaddling-garb of the natives had a semi-savage aspect, and the abject +servility with which their todzies (interpreters) prostrated themselves +before their officers excited a feeling of contempt.</p> + +<p>Like the mayors of the palace in mediaeval France, the Shoguns or +generals had relegated the Mikado to a single city of the interior; +while for six hundred years they had usurped the power of the Empire, +practically presenting the spectacle of two Emperors, one "spiritual" +(or nominal), one "temporal" (or real). Little did we imagine that +within five years the Shoguns would be swept away, and the Mikado +restored to more than his ancient power. The conflagration was kindled +by a spark from our engines. The feudal nobles, of whom there were four +hundred and fifty, each a prince within his own narrow limits, were +indignant that the Shogun had opened his ports to those aggressive +foreigners of the West. Raising a cry of "Kill the foreigners!" they +overturned the Shoguns and restored the Mikado. Their fury, however, +subsided when they found that the foreigner was too strong to be +expelled. A few more years saw them patriotically surrendering their +feudal powers in order to make the central government strong enough to +face the world. About the same time our Western costume was adopted, and +along with it the parliamentary system of Great Britain and the school +system of America. Some foreigners were shallow enough to laugh at them +when they saw those little soldiers in Western uniform; and the Chinese +despised them more than ever for abandoning the dress of their +forefathers.</p> + +<p>To protect themselves at once against China and Russia, the Japanese +felt that the independence of Corea was to them indispensable. The King +had been a feudal subject to China since the days of King Solomon; and +when at the instance of Japan he assumed the title of Emperor, the +Chinese resolved to punish him for such insolence. This was in 1894. The +Japanese took up arms in his defence; and though they had some hard +fighting, they soon made it evident that nothing but a treaty of peace +could keep them out of Peking.</p> + +<p>Li Hung Chang, who had long been Viceroy at Tientsin and who had built +a northern arsenal and remodelled the Chinese army, had to confess +himself beaten. For him it was a bitter pill to be sent as a suppliant +to the Court of the Mikado. That China was beaten was not his fault. Yet +he was held responsible by his own government and departed on that +humiliating mission as if with a rope about his neck. Fortunately for +him, during his mission in Japan an assassin lodged a bullet in his +head, and the desire of Japan to undo the effect of that shameful act +made negotiation an easy task, converting his defeat into a sort of +triumph. Happily, too, he enjoyed the counsel and assistance of J.W. +Foster, formerly United States Secretary of State. Formosa, one of the +brightest jewels in the Chinese crown, had to be handed over to Japan, +and lower Manchuria would have gone with it, had not Russia, supported +by Austria and Germany, compelled the Japanese to withdraw their claims.</p> + +<p>The next turn of the kaleidoscope shows us China seeking to follow the +example of Japan in throwing off the trammels of antiquated usage. In +1898, when the tide of reform was in full swing, the Marquis Ito of +Japan paid a visit to Peking, and as president of the University, I had +the honor of being asked to meet him along with Li Hung Chang at a +dinner given by Huyufen, mayor of the city, and the grand secretary, +Sunkianai. It was a lesson intended for them when he told us how, on +his returning from England in the old feudal days, his prince asked him +if anything needed to be reformed in Japan. "Everything," he replied. +The lesson was lost on the three Chinese statesmen, progressive though +they were, for China was then on the eve of a violent reaction which +threatened ruin instead of progress.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>VIII.</h2> + +<p>WAR WITH THE WORLD.</p> + +<p>The last summer of the century saw the forts at the mouth of the Peiho +captured for the third time since the beginning of 1858. It was the +opening scene in the last act of a long drama, and more imposing than +any that had gone before, not in the number of assailants nor in the +obstinacy of resistance, but in the fact that instead of one or two +nations as hitherto, all the powers of the modern world were now +combined to batter down the barriers of Chinese conservatism. Getting +possession of Tientsin, not without hard fighting, they advanced on +Peking under eight national flags, against the "eight banners" of the +Manchu tribes.</p> + +<p>What was the mainspring of this tragic movement? What unforeseen +occurrence had effected a union of powers whose usual attitude is mutual +jealousy or secret hostility? In a word, it was <i>humanity</i>. Spurning +petty questions of policy, they combined their forces to extinguish a +conflagration kindled by pride and superstition, which menaced the lives +of all foreigners in North China.</p> + +<p>In 1898, when the Emperor had entered on a career of progress, the +Empress Dowager was appealed to by a number of her old servants to save +the Empire from a young Phaeton, who was driving so fast as to be in +danger of setting the world on fire. Coming out of her luxurious +retreat, ten miles from the city, where she had never ceased to keep an +eye on the course of affairs, she again took possession of the throne +and compelled her adopted son to ask her to "teach him how to govern." +This was the <i>coup d'état</i>. In her earlier years she had not been +opposed to progress, but now that she had returned to power at the +instance of a conservative party, she entered upon a course of reaction +which made a collision with foreign powers all but inevitable. She had +been justly provoked by their repeated aggressions. Germany had seized a +port in Shantung in consequence of the murder of two missionaries. +Russia at once clapped her bear's paw on Port Arthur. Great Britain set +the lion's foot on Weihaiwei; and France demanded Kwang Chan Bay, all +"to maintain the balance of power." Exasperated beyond endurance, the +Empress gave notice that any further demands of the sort would be met by +force of arms.</p> + +<p>The governor of Shantung appointed by her was a Manchu by the name of +Yuhien, who more than any other man is to be held responsible for the +outbreak of hostilities. He it was who called the Boxers from their +hiding-places and supplied them with arms, convinced apparently of the +reality of their claim to be invulnerable. For a hundred years they had +existed as a secret society under a ban of prohibition. Now, however, +they had made amends by killing German missionaries, and he hoped by +their aid to expel the Germans from Shantung. On complaint of the German +Minister he was recalled; but, decorated by the hands of the Empress +Dowager, he was transferred to Shansi, where later on he slaughtered all +the missionaries in that province.</p> + +<p>In Shantung he was succeeded by Yuen Shikai, a statesmanlike official, +who soon compelled the Boxers to seek another arena for their +operations. Instead of creeping back to their original hiding-place they +crossed the boundary and directed their march toward Peking,--on the way +not merely laying waste the villages of native Christians, but tearing +up the railway and killing foreigners indiscriminately. They had made a +convert of Prince Tuan, father of the heir apparent. He it was who +encouraged their advance, believing that he might make use of them to +help his son to the throne. Their numbers were swelled by multitudes who +fancied that they would suffer irreparable personal loss through the +introduction of railways and modern labor-saving machinery; and China +can charge the losses of the last war to those misguided crowds.</p> + +<p>Fortunately several companies of marines, amounting to four hundred and +fifty men, arrived in Peking the day before the destruction of the +track. The legations were threatened, churches were burnt down, native +Christians put to death, and fires set to numerous shops simply because +they contained foreign goods. Then it was that the foreign admirals +captured the forts, in order to bring relief to our foreign community. +That step the Chinese Foreign Office pronounced an act of war, and +ordered the legations and all other foreigners to quit the capital. The +ministers remonstrated, knowing that on the way we could not escape +being butchered by Boxers. On the 20th of June, the German Minister was +killed on his way to the Foreign Office. The legations and other +foreigners at once took refuge in the British legation, previously +agreed on as the best place to make a defence. Professor James was +killed while crossing a bridge near the legation. That night we were +fired on from all sides, and for eight weeks we were exposed to a daily +fusillade from an enemy that counted more on reducing us by starvation +than on carrying our defences by storm.</p> + +<p>About midnight on August 13, we heard firing at the gates of the city, +and knew that our deliverers were near. The next day, scaling the walls +or battering down the gates, they forced their way into the city and +effected our rescue. The day following, the Roman Catholic Cathedral was +relieved,--the defence of which forms the brightest page in the history +of the siege, and in the afternoon we held a solemn service of +thanksgiving. The palaces were found vacant, the Empress Dowager having +fled with her entire court. She was the same Empress who had fled from +the British and French forty years before.</p> + +<p>She was not pursued, because Prince Ching came forward to meet the +foreign ministers, and he and Li Hung Chang were appointed to arrange +terms of peace. Li was Viceroy at Canton. Had he been in his old +viceroyalty at Tientsin, this Boxer war could not have occurred. That +its fury was limited to the northern belt of provinces was owing to the +wisdom of Chang<a name="FNanchor5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> and Liu, the great satraps of Central China who +engaged to keep their provinces in order, if not attacked by foreigners.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor5">[5]</a> Chang is regarded as the ablest of China's viceroys. He +published, prior to the <i>coup d'état</i>, a notable book, in which he +argues that China's only hope is in the adoption of the sciences and +arts of the West. + +<p>I called on the old statesman in the summer of 1901, after the last of +the treaties was signed. He seemed to feel that his work was finished, +but he still had energy enough to write a preface for my translation of +Hall's "International Law," and before the end of another month his +long life of restless activity had come to a close at the age of +seventy-nine. By posthumous decree, he was made a Marquis.</p> + +<p>In the autumn the court returned to Peking, the way having been opened +by Li's negotiations. Thanks to the lessons of adversity, the Dowager +has been led to favor the cause of progress. Not only has she re-enacted +the educational reforms proposed by the Emperor, but she has gone a step +farther, and ordered that instead of mere literary finish, a knowledge +of arts and sciences shall be required in examinations for the +Civil Service.</p> + +<p>The following words I wrote in an obituary notice, a few days after Li's +death:--</p> + +<p>"For over twenty years Earl Li has been a conspicuous patron of +educational reform. The University and other schools at Tientsin were +founded by him; and he had a large share in founding the Imperial +University in Peking. During the last twenty years I have had the honor +of being on intimate terms with him. Five years ago he wrote a preface +for a book of mine on Christian Psychology,--showing a freedom from +prejudice very rare among Chinese officials.</p> + +<p>"Another preface which he wrote for me is noteworthy from the fact that +it is one of the last papers that came from his prolific pencil. Having +finished a translation of 'Hall's International Law' (begun before the +siege), I showed it to Li Hung Chang not two weeks ago. The old man took +a deep interest in it, and returned it with a preface in which he says +'I am now near eighty; Dr. Martin is over seventy. We are old and soon +to pass away; but we both hope that coming generations will be guided by +the principles of this book.'</p> + +<p>"With all his faults--those of his time and country--Li Hung Chang was a +true patriot. For him it was a fitting task to place the keystone in the +arch that commemorates China's peace with the world."</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="DAVID_LIVINGSTONE."></a>DAVID LIVINGSTONE.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1813-1873.</p> + +<p>AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT.</p> + +<p>BY CYRUS C. ADAMS.</p> +<br> + +<p>Africa is the most ancient and the most recent conquest of the human +race. As far as the light of history can be projected into the past, we +see Egypt among the first and foremost on the threshold of civilization. +The continent discovered last and opened last to the enterprises of the +world is still Africa. Why is it that we see there both the dawn of +civilization and the tardiest development of human progress?</p> + +<p>The reasons are not far to seek. The physical conformation of no other +continent is so unfavorable for exploration and development. Africa's +straight coastlines, affording little shelter to the primitive ships of +early mariners, repelled the enterprising Phoenicians and other +seafarers in their eager search for new lands worth colonizing. Nor was +it easy for explorers to penetrate into the interior. In its surface +Africa has been compared to an inverted saucer,--the high plateaus +occupying most of the interior descending to the sea by short, abrupt, +and steep slopes, so that the wide and peaceful rivers of the plateaus +are lashed into foam as they approach the ocean by many series of rapids +and cataracts.</p> + +<p>In all the other continents rivers have been the lines of least +resistance to the advance of man. Civilization has developed first along +the great rivers. The valleys were first settled, and up these valleys +man carried his industries and commerce far inland. Thus the Euphrates +and Tigris of Mesopotamia, the Ganges and Indus of India, and the Hoang +and Yangtse of China, were the creators of history; but this is true in +Africa only of the Nile. All the other rivers have been impediments +instead of helpful factors in the formidable task of exploration and +development.</p> + +<p>The trying climate, also, gave Africa odious repute and delayed for +centuries the study and utilization of the continent. When the British +expedition under Captain Tuckey attempted to ascend the Congo, in 1816, +to see if it were really the lower part of the Niger River, as had been +conjectured, nearly all of its members perished miserably among the +rapids less than two hundred miles from the sea. Such tragedies as this +paralyzed enterprise in Africa until white men learned that the climate +was not so deadly, after all, if they adhered to the manner of life, the +hygienic rules, that should be observed in that tropical expanse.</p> + +<p>In all the other continents, also, explorers have had the advantage of +domestic animals to carry their food and camp equipment; but in large +parts of tropical Africa the horse, ox, and mule cannot live. The bite +of the little tsetse fly kills them. Its sting is hardly so annoying as +that of the mosquito, but near the base of its proboscis is a little bag +containing the fatal poison. Camels have been loaded near Zanzibar for +the journey to Tanganyika, but they did not live to reach the great +lake. The "ship of the desert" can never be utilized in the humid +regions of tropical Africa.</p> + +<p>The elephant is found from sea to sea, but he has not proved to be so +amenable to domestication as his Asian brother. He may yet be reduced to +useful servitude. The efforts in this direction in the German and French +colonies are somewhat encouraging, though in 1901 only six elephants had +thus far been broken to work and were daily used as beasts of burden. +Explorers of tropical Africa have always been compelled to rely upon +human porterage, the most expensive and unsatisfactory form of +transportation, with the result that nearly all the great lines of +exploration have been extended through the continent at enormous cost.</p> + +<p>So most other parts of the world were occupied, colonized, civilized, +before Africa was explored. A continent one-fourth larger than our own +was for centuries neglected and despised. "Nothing good can come out of +Africa" became proverbial. Seventy years ago Africa, away from the +coasts and the Nile, was almost a blank upon our maps, save for fanciful +details that are ludicrously grotesque in the light of our present +knowledge (1902).</p> + +<p>Then dawned the era of David Livingstone. Sixty-two years ago this +humble Scotchman went to South Africa as a missionary. It was not long +before he became imbued with the idea that missionary service could not +be projected on broad, economic, and effective lines till the field was +known. The explorer, he said, must precede the teacher and the merchant. +We can work best for Christianity and civilization after we learn what +the people are and know the nature of their environment. This was the +thought that took him into the unknown; that inspired him with +unflagging courage and zeal throughout twenty years of weary plodding in +the African wilderness among hundreds of tribes who never before had +seen a white man. And all the years he was studying the country and +winning the love of its people, his faith in Africa, in its abounding +resources worth the world's seeking, in the capacity of its people for +development, steadily grew till it became the all-pervading impulse of +his life. Livingstone's faith converted the world to the belief that, +after all, there was good in Africa.</p> + +<p>"I shall never forget," said Stanley, one day in New York, "the time +when I stood with Livingstone on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, and he +raised his trembling hand above his head, leaned towards me as he looked +me in the eye, and said in a voice broken with emotion: 'The day is +coming when the whole world will know that Africa is worth reclaiming, +and that its people may be brought out of barbarism. The world needs +Africa; and teachers, merchants, railroads, and every influence of +civilization will be spread through this continent to fit it for the +place in human interests that belongs to it.' I thought then that +Livingstone was an enthusiast and a visionary; but long ago I learned to +believe that every word he said was true."</p> + +<p>Europe and America were thrilled by the simple narrative of those +twenty-two thousand miles of wanderings that brought into the light of +day millions of human beings who had been as much unknown to us as +though they inhabited Mars. Livingstone did not live to know it, but it +was he who kindled the great African Movement,--an outburst of zeal for +geographic discovery and economic development such as was never +seen before.</p> + +<p>Thirteen years ago (1889) a Frenchman named De Bissy completed the +largest map yet made of Africa. In the preparation of this great work, +which occupied much of his time for eight years, he used as his sources +of information nearly eighteen hundred route and other maps, nearly all +of which were the result of the work of explorers in the preceding +quarter of a century. All that we know of the geography of over +three-fourths of Africa is the work of the past half-century since +Livingstone made his first journey in 1849; and we know far more of +inner Africa to-day than was known of inner North America three hundred +years after Columbus discovered the western world. A little over a +century ago, our great-grandfathers were reading in their school +geographies that North America had no conspicuous mountains except the +Alleghanies; and these mountains and the Andes of South America were +believed to be one and the same chain, interrupted by the Gulf of +Mexico. Many men not yet bent with years can remember when the interior +of Africa was a white space on the maps; but it is not possible to-day +to make such a geographical blunder as we have mentioned, about any part +of Africa.</p> + +<p>It is because of the work he did in those twenty years, sowing all the +while the seeds from which sprang the great African Movement, that "the +gentle master of African exploration" is acclaimed to-day as one of the +world's great men, and that his body rests in Westminster Abbey among +the illustrious dead of Britain.</p> + +<p>The son of a worthy weaver in Blantyre, Scotland, Livingstone's early +life was that of a poor boy, working in a spinning-mill, quiet, sober, +affectionate, and faithful in every relation of life. Moved at last by +the thirst for knowledge that has distinguished many a humble Scotch +boy, he entered the University at Glasgow, studying during the winter +months and spending the summers at his trade in the factory, fitting +himself all the while for the conquests he little dreamed he was to +achieve over difficulties almost insurmountable. A classmate spoke of +him as a pale, thin, retiring young man, but frank and most +kind-hearted, ready for any good and useful work, even for chopping the +University fuel and grinding wheat for the bread. In 1838, when he was +twenty-five years old, he went to London to be examined as a candidate +for the African missionary service. Two years later he was sent to South +Africa, where for eight or nine years he labored among the natives +earnestly and unostentatiously north of the place now famous as the site +of the Kimberley diamond mines. It was here that he became intimately +acquainted with the celebrated missionary, Robert Moffatt, whose +daughter he married. His devoted wife accompanied him in some of his +later travels, but long before he finished his work her body was laid to +rest under the shade of a tree that for years was pointed out to all +visitors to the Lower Zambesi.</p> + +<p>In 1849, began the series of explorations that continued till his +death. "The end of geographical discovery is the beginning of missionary +enterprise," he wrote. Burning with zeal to reveal Africa to the world, +Livingstone never forgot the main aim of his life,--to open ways for the +planting of mission stations among all the scores of tribes he visited. +"I hope God will in mercy permit me to establish the Gospel somewhere in +this region," he wrote from the land of the Barotse, on the Upper +Zambesi. Does he now look down from his eternal home upon that very land +whose churches and schools are the fruition of the labors of French +Protestants; whose king, in London to attend the coronation of Edward +VII., said he wanted more teachers and more men to train his people to +build houses and work iron? He prayed that he might live to see "the +double influence of the spirit of commerce and Christianity employed to +stay the bitter fountain of African misery." The glowing zeal of the +Christian philanthropist and the untiring ardor of the born explorer +were perfectly blended in the spirit of the great pioneer of modern +African discovery.</p> + +<p>Livingstone's routes through Africa would extend about seven times +between New York City and San Francisco; and in his almost endless +marches over plain, through jungle, across mountains and wide rivers, +the natives met him almost without exception in a generous and +hospitable spirit. Love was the secret of his success. He won his way by +kindness. Give the barbarous African time to see that you wish him well, +that you would do him good in ways he knows are helpful, and his +affection is evoked.</p> + +<p>It was said that the British could never establish their rule over the +great Wabemba tribe, southwest of Tanganyika, without a military +campaign. In 1894, two humble Catholic fathers entered Lobemba, walked +straight to the chief town, and were told that if they did not leave the +country in one day they would be killed. As the stern message was +delivered, they saw an old woman on the ground in great pain from a +severe wound. The news soon spread that these unwelcome strangers had +washed and dressed the wound, and made the old woman comfortable. "These +people love men," was the word that passed from lip to lip, as the sick +and suffering came out from the town to be treated, while thousands of +natives looked on. At nightfall the white men were told they might +remain another day; they ministered for eleven days to those who needed +help, and were then invited to remain the rest of their lives. The +mission stations of the White Fathers are to-day scattered all over +Lobemba; the country is open in every corner to the whites, and in 1899 +British rule was established. The victory was won, not with guns, but +by gentle, helpful kindness.</p> + +<p>Livingstone never believed that the sympathies of our common humanity +are extinct even in the bosom of a savage. Enfolded in the panoply of +Christian kindness, he passed unscathed among the most warlike tribes. +No memory of wrong or pain rankled in the heart of any man, woman, or +child he ever met. He is known to-day as "the good old man" wherever his +path led him in those twenty years.</p> + +<p>When explorers began to study the healthful highlands of the Akikuyu +tribe in East Africa a few years ago, the natives rushed to arms. "Keep +away from us," they said. "One of your white men came through the land, +stealing food from our gardens, and killing all who said he ought to pay +us for our vegetables. We want nothing to do with thieves and murderers +like you."</p> + +<p>But no vengeance fell on the head of any white traveller who ever +followed in the footsteps of Livingstone. Those explorers have achieved +most who adhered to his example of unfailing kindness, mercy, and +justice. The brutal German, whose crimes made the Akikuyu hostile to all +whites, marked his path with blood from the Indian Ocean to Victoria +Nyanza. Serpa Pinto, renowned for the scientific value of his work, +aroused condemnation and disgust because he fought his way through many +tribes, among whom Livingstone and Arnot had wandered almost alone and +in perfect safety. Fortunately, there have not been many explorers +militant. The brilliant discoveries of Grenfell, Delcommune, Lemaire, +and others, who are in the first rank of African pioneers, were made +without harming a native.</p> + +<p>Let us glance at a few of Livingstone's discoveries and form our own +conclusions as to whether his sublime faith in the future of Africa has +thus far been justified by events. In the depths of the wilderness he +discovered the large lake, Mweru, through which the Upper Congo flows. +Though white influences have reached that remote region only within the +past two or three years, a little steamboat now plies those waters. A +photograph of Mpweto, one of the white settlements on the lake, shows +the commodious quarters of the Europeans, two long lines of cabins in +which the native workmen live, and well-tilled gardens extending for a +half-mile along the shore. Livingstone brought to light the coal fields +of the Zambesi, the only coal yet known in tropical Africa. While these +lines are being written, the British of Rhodesia are preparing to open +mines along these deposits. He told the world of the Victoria Falls of +the Zambesi, the largest known, a mile wide and twice as high as +Niagara. The installation of an electrical plant at this great source of +power is now in progress, and it is hoped within three years to +transmit electrically all the power required to work the large copper +mines in the north, the coal fields in the east, and to move trains on +the Cape to Cairo Railroad for a distance of three hundred miles. The +recent improvements in long-distance transmission of power encourages +the belief that the Victoria Falls may some day possess large industrial +utility for a wide region around them. Coffee plantations on the hills +overlooking the long expanse of Nyassa, the splendid freshwater sea +which Livingstone revealed in its setting of mountains, are selling +their superior product in London at a high price. The town of Blantyre, +among the Nyassa highlands which Livingstone first described, has a +newspaper, telegraphic and cable communication with all the world, and +industrial schools in which the manual arts are taught to hundreds of +natives. Here is the large brick church, now famous, built by native +craftsmen, who before Livingstone's time had never seen a white man, and +lived in a state of barbarism; an edifice that would adorn the suburbs +of any American city, and of which the explorer, Joseph Thomson, said: +"It is the most wonderful sight I have seen in Africa." The natives made +the brick, burned the lime, sawed and hewed the timbers, and erected the +building to the driving of the last nail. They had the capacity, and it +was evoked by the genius of one of the most remarkable men in Africa, +Missionary Scott of Blantyre. Steamboats are afloat on five of the six +important seas of the great lake region of Central Africa; on two of the +three which Livingstone discovered. Only a beginning has been made, for +the field stretches from ocean to ocean; but the man who, in 1873--the +year of Livingstone's death,--should have predicted one-half of the +achievement of the present generation would have been laughed at as a +crack-brained visionary.</p> + +<p>Even the surface of Africa is changing, and the truth of Livingstone is +not always the truth of to-day. In his first journey, in which he braved +the perils of the South African thirst lands, he reached the broad and +placid expanse of Lake Ngami, covering an area of three hundred square +miles. In the gradual desiccation of that region, the lake has now +entirely disappeared. Its place is wholly occupied by a partly marshy +plain covered with reeds, and no vestige of water surface is to be seen. +He found the little Lake Dilolo so exactly balanced on a flat plain +between two great river systems that one stream from the lake flowed +north to the Congo and another south to the Zambesi; but for years past +there has been no connection between the lake and the Congo. He sought +in vain, like many explorers after him, for the outlet to Lake +Tanganyika. The mystery was not solved till, more than twenty years +after, Burton discovered the lake; the solution came when the explorer +Thomson and Missionary Hore found the waters of Tanganyika pouring in a +perfect torrent down the valley of the Lukuga to the Congo. The +explanation of the strange phenomenon is that for a series of years the +evaporation exceeds the water receipts, the level of the lake steadily +falls, and the valley of the Lukuga becomes choked with grass; then a +period follows when the water receipts exceed the evaporation, and the +waters rise, burst through the barriers of vegetation in the Lukuga, and +are carried to the Congo once more.</p> + +<p>It was his second and third journeys that established Livingstone's fame +as a great explorer. In those journeys (1853-56) his routes were from +the Upper Zambesi to Loanda in Portuguese West Africa, and then from +Loanda to the mouth of the Zambesi, nearly twelve thousand miles of +travel. The third journey was the first crossing of the continent; and +while traversing the wide savannas of the uplands and revealing the +Zambesi, the fourth largest river of Africa, from source to delta, he +was able to verify one of the most brilliant generalizations ever made +by a geologist. Sir Roderick Murchison, President of the Royal +Geographical Society, in 1852, deducing his conclusions from the very +fragmentary and imperfect knowledge of Africa then extant, evolved his +striking hypothesis as to the physical conformation of the continent, +which has been briefly mentioned above and is the accepted fact of +to-day. Livingstone was able to prove the accuracy of this hypothesis, +and he dedicated his "Missionary Travels" to its distinguished author.</p> + +<p>The Makalolo chief, Sekeletu, on the Zambesi River, supplied Livingstone +with men, ivory, and trading commissions, that helped the humble and +unknown white man, lacking all financial resources except his slender +salary, to make the two great journeys which kindled the world's +interest and led to the wonderful achievements of our generation. In +this noteworthy incident we see the human agencies through which Africa +will attain the full stature allotted to her. The Caucasian and the +Negro each has his onerous part in the work of bringing the civilized +world and Africa into touch and accord.</p> + +<p>When Livingstone went home, after his third journey, his +fellow-countrymen crowded to see and hear the explorer, who had added +more facts to geographical knowledge than any other man of his time. +They saw a person of middle age, plainly and rather carelessly dressed, +whose deep-furrowed and well-tanned face indicated a man of quick and +keen discernment, strong impulses, inflexible resolution, and habitual +self-command. They heard a speaker whose command of his mother tongue +was imperfect, and who apologized for his broken, hesitating speech by +saying that he had not spoken the English language for nearly sixteen +years. In no public place did he ever allude to his personal sufferings, +though fever had brought him to death's door and the years had been +crowded with the most harrowing cares. The work he had done and would +carry on to the end, the new Africa he alone could describe, the faith +that had grown and strengthened in every week of his long pilgrimage +that the world needed Africa, its resources and peoples, were the burden +of every utterance. The great London meeting where he first appeared +took practical measures to support him in the work he had begun unaided; +and one of the resolutions adopted, declaring that "the important +discoveries of Dr. Livingstone will tend hereafter greatly to advance +the interest of civilization, commerce, and freedom among the numerous +tribes and nations of that vast continent," was prophetic of all the +best fruits of the colossal work that has been done to the present time.</p> + +<p>During his two years at home, Livingstone wrote his "Missionary +Travels." He returned to England once more (1864-65), when he published +"A Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi," and in 1866 went back to +Africa to resume the explorations which ended only with his death. +Between 1849 and 1873 he was four years in Europe and twenty years in +the field, eating native food, sleeping in straw huts (in one of which +he died), lost to view for many years at a time because he had no means +of communication with the coasts. It was this fact that led to Stanley's +successful search for Livingstone in 1871. Perhaps no other explorer +ever gave so many years to continuous field-work. In this respect he far +surpassed the record of any other of the African pioneers.</p> + +<p>The discoveries in his last journeys, covering the periods from 1858 to +1864, and from 1866 to 1873, were as brilliant and fruitful as his +earlier work, but not so astonishing, because his first years were given +to revealing the broader aspects of Africa and its tribes, while his +later labors were devoted to more detailed research in a smaller field. +This region, about as large as Mexico and Central America, extends north +and south, from Tanganyika to the Zambesi, and covers the wide region of +the Congo sources between Nyassa and Lake Bangweolo. The greatest +results were the discovery of Lake Nyassa and the Shire River, now the +water route into East Central Africa; Lakes Bangweolo and Mwero; and the +mapping of the eastern part of the sources of the Upper Congo, which +Livingstone believed to the day of his death were the ultimate fountains +of the Nile. Livingstone's "Last Journeys" was published from the +manuscript which his faithful servants brought to the seacoast with the +mortal remains of their gentle master.</p> + +<p>Not far from the south coast of Bangweolo stands a wooden construction +to which is affixed a bronze tablet bearing the simple inscription, +"Livingstone died here. Ilala, May 1, 1873." It has taken the place of +the tree under which he died, and where his heart, which had been so +true to Africa, was buried. As the tree was nearly dead, the section +bearing the rude inscription cut by one of his servants was carefully +removed and is now in London.</p> + +<p>Livingstone's geographical delineations were remarkably accurate, +considering the inadequate surveying instruments with which he worked. +Dr. Ravenstein, one of the greatest authorities on African cartography, +has said: "I should be loath to reject Livingstone's work simply because +the ground which he was the first to explore has since his death been +gone over by another explorer." It would be marvellous, however, if in +the course of twenty years of exploration he had not made some blunders. +His map of Lake Bangweolo, for example, was very inaccurate. The Lokinga +Mountains, which he mapped to the south of the lake, have not been found +by later explorers. These imperfections resulted from the fact that his +map of Bangweolo and its neighborhood was largely based upon native +information. He knew that his map was inadequate, and as soon as he was +able to travel he returned to Bangweolo to complete his survey. He was +making straight for the true outlet of the lake, and was within +thirty-five miles of it when one morning his servants found him in his +lowly straw hut, dead on his knees. If Livingstone had lived a few weeks +longer and been able to travel, he and not Giraud would have given us +the true map of Bangweolo.</p> + +<p>As a whole, Livingstone's work in geography, anthropology, and natural +history, stands the test of time. No river in Africa has yet been laid +down with greater accuracy than the Zambesi as delineated by +this explorer.</p> + +<p>The success of Livingstone was both brilliant and unsullied. The apostle +and the pioneer of Africa, he went on his way without fear, without +egotism, without desire of reward. He proved that the white man may +travel safely through many years in Africa. He observed richness of soil +and abundance of natural products, the guarantees of commerce. He +foretold the truth that the African tribes would be brought into the +community of nations. The logical result of the work he began and +carried so far was the downfall of the African slave-trade, which he +denounced as "the open sore of the world." What eulogy is too great for +such a work and such a man?</p> + +<p>In 1898, twenty-one journeys had been made by explorers from sea to sea. +Livingstone completed the first journey, from Loanda to the mouth of the +Zambesi, in one year, seven months, and twenty-two days. Nineteen years +elapsed before Central Africa was crossed again, when Cameron gave two +years and nearly eight months to the journey. It took Stanley two years +and eight months to cross Africa, when he solved the great mystery, the +course of the Congo; and when he went to the relief of Emin Pasha, in +1887, he was almost exactly the same time on the road. When Trivier +crossed from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, in 1888-89, in nine days +less than a year, the event was held as a remarkably rapid performance. +A little later the journey was made by several travellers in from twelve +to fifteen months. In 1898, the Englishman, Mr. Lloyd, crossed from Lake +Victoria to the mouth of the Congo in three months, about thirteen +hundred miles of the journey being by Congo steamboat and railroad. In +1902, the journey from the Indian Ocean to Lake Victoria is made by rail +in two and one-half days,--a journey that occupied Speke for nine, and +Stanley for eight months. With the present facilities, the continent may +be crossed by way of the lake region and the Congo in about three +months. The era of long and weary foot-marches has nearly ended; now +succeeds travel by steam.</p> + +<p>No influence has been so potent in improving the art of the explorer, or +in raising the standard of the work required of him, as the enormous +interest that for thirty years past has centred in African exploration. +The larger part of the best achievements of the explorers of the present +generation in scientific investigation, and in an approach to scientific +map-making, are found in tropical Africa. Many of the hundreds of the +route surveys are not unworthy to be compared with those of Pogge and +Wissmann, when they laid down on their map every cultural and +topographic feature for two miles on both sides of their route, from +Angola to the Upper Congo. The extreme care with which some of the best +explorers have performed their tasks is illustrated by the remarkable +achievement of the late Dr. Junker along the Mobangi River. After years +of service, his scientific equipment had become practically worthless. +He started on his four-hundred-mile journey down the river through the +jungle, with absolutely no instrument except a compass to aid him in +determining his positions. Endeavoring, by the most scrupulous care, to +make up as far as possible for his lack of scientific outfit, he trudged +through the grass, compass in hand, counting every step. Every fifteen +minutes he jotted in his notebook the distance and the mean direction +travelled. At night he used these accumulated data to lay down on his +route map the journey of the day. For many weeks he kept up this trying +routine till he reached his furthest west, and again till he had +returned to his starting-point, whose latitude and longitude he had +previously determined. When he returned to Europe, Dr. Hassenstein and +he made a map from the data Junker had collected, and fixed the position +of his furthest west. This position was found later by the astronomical +observations of Lieutenant Le Marinel to be less than two miles out +of the way.</p> + +<p>One of the latest to win a large prize in African discovery is Dr. A. +Donaldson Smith, a young physician of Philadelphia, in the northeastern +region known as Somaliland and Gallaland. His method may be mentioned +here as an illustration of the kind of work that geographers now +require. Before he began his explorations, he took a thorough course in +the use of surveying instruments and the methods of accurately laying +down his positions and making a route map. Many a cartographer, burning +with desire to draw a good map of a newly explored region, has been +driven to despair by the inadequacy of the route surveys in his hands. +Not a few of these surveys have been unworthy of reproduction in the +books of the explorers who made them, and the best that could be done +was to generalize their information on maps of comparatively small +scale. But Donaldson Smith's route-maps appear in his book on the +comparatively large scale of 1:1,000,000 (about sixteen statute miles to +the inch), and they are worthy of that treatment, for his surveys and +observations for geographical positions were recorded in such a way +that their value might be easily ascertained by any one familiar with +such computations. His route-maps have been found to be admirable +map-making material; thus, he has not only traversed a new region of +great extent, but has given in his map ample materials which may be +employed by any atlas-maker in the production of good maps of all the +territory that came under his observation. When Sir Clements Markham +presented to Dr. Smith the Patrons' Medal of the Royal Geographical +Society, he said: "You have not, like an ordinary explorer, made a +common route survey, but you have made a scientific survey, a +triangulation frequently checked by astronomical observations with +theodolite and chronometer."</p> + +<p>Most African explorers have been painstaking, conscientious workers, +eager in their quest for the truth, desirous to report nothing but the +truth, and treating the lowly and ignorant they have met as men, with +sensibilities like their own, capable of gratitude for a kindness and +keenly sensitive to an outrage. The world has recognized and applauded +such heroes of discovery,--the men who faced hardship and peril, +enduring and sacrificing much that knowledge might grow; who had to +conquer not only unkind Nature, but to overcome the ignorant violence of +man. And not a few of the leaders in this work have carried it out with +a degree of tactfulness, humanity, gentleness, and kindliness of spirit +amounting to genius. Some of them spent months in disguise, collecting +facts of the highest scientific value among fanatical Mohammedans who +would have killed them if they had known their secret. Such men were +Burton in Harrar, Dr. Lenz in Timbuctoo, and De Foucauld and Harris in +Morocco, who, in stained skins and borrowed costumes, personated +merchants and devotees and doctors and Jews; and most of whom have +enriched the literature of discovery with valuable books. Men also such +as Dr. Junker, who, rich as he was, left his home to spend eight years +alone among the savages of the Welle Makua basin in Central Africa, +living on their food and in their huts that he might minutely study the +people in their country; or Grenfell, who has travelled far more widely +in the Congo basin than Stanley or any of his followers except +Delcommune, and revealed to the world more river systems and unknown +peoples than they, and who, in his long career as an explorer, never +fired a shot upon a native, though his life was often threatened. These +men, and others like them, have exemplified the manysidedness of human +resources against a great variety of peril and obstacle, as no other +explorers in any other part of the world have had an opportunity to do +in equal measure. Their work, with its environment of almost +overwhelming difficulty, should be known to our youth as most forceful +illustrations of what good men may dare and do in good causes and in a +worthy manner.</p> + +<p>There have been some exceptions to this rule. A few men have been less +anxious to perform useful service than to figure in the newspapers and +pose before their public. One day a man stood on the north shore of +Victoria Nyanza, and looking south he saw land. When he returned to +London he published a sensational book, in which he said it was +ridiculous for Speke to assert that he had discovered a lake as large as +Scotland, one of the greatest lakes in the world. "Why," said the +writer, "I have stood on the north shore of the Victoria Nyanza and +looked south and seen the southern shore. Lake Victoria is only an +insignificant sheet of water, after all the talk of its being second +only to Lake Superior."</p> + +<p>What he really saw was the chain of the Sesse Islands extending far out +into the lake. His book was scarcely off the press when the letters +describing Stanley's boat journeys around the shores of Victoria Nyanza +began to be published in London and New York; and the foolish fellow was +compelled to recall all the copies of his book that had not passed +beyond his reach, and eliminate the statements that made him so +ridiculous. Fortunately, there are not many explorers of this stripe.</p> + +<p>All who watched the progress of African discovery were constantly +reminded that geographical progress is usually made only by slow and +painful steps. They saw an explorer emerge from the unknown with his +notebooks and route maps replete with most interesting facts for the +student and the cartographer. Then another explorer would enter the same +region, discover facts that had escaped the notice of the pioneer, +correct blunders his predecessor had made and perpetrate blunders of his +own; so explorer followed explorer, each adding something to +geographical knowledge, each correcting earlier misconceptions, till the +total product, well sifted by critical geographers, gave the world a +fair idea of the region explored; but not the best attainable idea, for +scientific knowledge of a region comes only with its detailed +exploration by trained observers, equipped with the best appliances for +use in their special fields of research. This is the advanced stage of +geographical study, which is now being reached in many parts of Africa. +It was Livingstone's task, in 1859, to inform us that there was a great +Lake Nyassa. It was Rhoades's task, in 1897-1901, to make a careful and +accurate survey of its coast-lines, and to sound its depths, so that we +now have an excellent idea of the conformation of the lake bottom. +Between Livingstone and Rhoades came many explorers, each adding +important facts to our knowledge of this great sheet of water nearly +twice as large as New Jersey.</p> + +<p>As each explorer came from the wilds, our maps were corrected to conform +with the new information he supplied; and if we should examine the maps +of Africa in school geographies, atlases, and wall maps, from the time +of Livingstone to the present day, we should see that, as relates to +nearly every part of Africa, they have been in a continual state of +transition.</p> + +<p>For years our only map of Victoria Nyanza was that which Speke made on +his second journey to the lake, in 1860-62; but Speke saw the great lake +only at one point on its south shore, and along its northwest and north +central coasts. His map, being based very largely upon native +information, was in many respects most incomplete and erroneous.</p> + +<p>Then came Stanley's survey of the lake, made in a boat journey around +its coasts, and for years his map supplanted that of Speke. But he was +not able to follow the shore-line in all its intricate details. His +mapping was a great advance upon that of Speke, but it was necessarily +rough and imperfect. He missed entirely the deep indentation of Baumann +Gulf and the southwestern prolongation of the lake, surveyed by Father +Schynse, in 1891. Stanley's map, modified by the partial surveys of +various explorers, is still our mapping of the lake; but if the reader +will watch the maps for the next year or so, he will doubtless observe +important changes in the contours of Victoria Nyanza; for all the maps, +from Speke to those of 1902, will be placed on the shelf to serve only +as the historical record of the good, honest work which a number of +explorers have done. Commander Whitehouse has recently spent thirteen +months surveying with infinite pains these coasts and islands. "I seem +to see," writes Stanley of this important service, "the sailor, with his +small crew and his little steel boat, wandering from point to point, +crossing and recrossing, going from some island to some headland, taking +his bearings from that headland back again to the island, and to some +point far away."</p> + +<p>Commander Whitehouse has made a new delineation of the entire 2,200 +miles of coasts, and the results of his survey will be used in making +all the maps of the lake. His map in turn will undoubtedly be replaced +some day by detailed topographic surveys of the best quality, such as +the British already contemplate making of that entire region.</p> + +<p>A wall map recently in use in one of the public schools of New York City +was a curious example of ignorant compilation. It exhibited the Victoria +Nyanza of Speke, the Bangweolo of Livingstone, and the Upper Congo of +Stanley, all obsolete for practical purposes years before this map was +printed. Most of our home map-makers were very slow in availing +themselves of the rich materials constantly supplied for the maps by the +army of explorers in Africa. But the most alert cartographers, +particularly between 1880 and 1895, could not keep their maps abreast +of the news of discovery as it came to Europe. More men and energy and +money were utilized in those fifteen years of African discovery than in +the first century and a half of American exploration. The route or +mother-maps, some covering a wide extent of country, others devoted to a +small area, or a short line of travel, were going to Europe for the +improvement of atlas sheets by nearly every steamer. Father Schynse's +chart of the southwest extension of Victoria Nyanza had hardly been +utilized in European map-houses before it was replaced by Dr. Baumann's +more accurate survey. Mr. Wauters of Belgium withdrew his large map of +the Congo Basin from the printer four times, in order to include fresh +information before it was finally issued to the public.</p> + +<p>This process is still going on, though more slowly. The mapping we see +of Lake Tanganyika, one of the longest lakes in the world, has been in +use for seventeen years since missionary Hore made his boat journey of +one thousand miles around its coasts, but the new map of the Moore +expedition now being introduced gives the main axis of the lake a more +northeast and southwest direction. The Hore map has met the fate that +usually overtakes the early surveys of every region. It rendered good +service as long as it was the best map; but the Moore expedition had +first-rate appliances for computing longitudes, and as Captain Hore +lacked these, it is not strange that his map has been found to be +defective.</p> + +<p>The world has been treated to many geographical surprises in the course +of this incessant transformation of the map of the continent. Many of us +may remember in our school geographies, the particular blackness and +prominence of the Kong Mountains, extending for two hundred miles +parallel with the Gulf of Guinea. They were accepted on the authority of +Mungo Park, Caillié, and Bowditch, all reputable explorers who had not +seen the mountains, but believed from native information that they +existed. The French explorer, Binger, in 1887 sought in vain for them. +Later explorers have been unable to find them. They are, in fact, a +myth, and will be remembered chiefly as a conspicuous instance of +geographic delusion. It had long been supposed that the navigation of +the Niger River, the third largest river in Africa, was permanently +impaired by the Bussa Rapids, about one hundred miles in length, where +Mungo Park was wrecked and drowned. But Major Toutée, a few years ago, +when assailed by hostile natives, made a safe journey with his boats +through the rapids; and Captain Lenfant, in 1901, carried 500,000 pounds +of supplies up the river and through the rapids to the French stations +between Bussa and Timbuktu. He had a small, flat-bottomed steamboat and +a number of little boats propelled by fifty black paddlers. He says +that by the land route he would have required 12,000 porters, and they +would have been one hundred and thirty days on the road.</p> + +<p>It was believed that a land portage would always be necessary between +the sea and the Zambesi, above the delta, till 1889, when Mr. Rankin +discovered the Chinde branch of the delta, so broad and so deep that +ocean vessels may ascend it and exchange freight with the river craft.</p> + +<p>It has been found that more water pours into the ocean through the +Congo's mouth, which is six miles wide, than from all the other rivers +in Africa together. It is second among the world's rivers, and the dark +detritus it carries to the Atlantic has been distinctly traced on the +ocean bed for six hundred miles from the land. Some geographers still +believed thirty years ago that all the waters of its upper basin might +be tributary to the Nile. Map-makers have been kept very busy recording +discoveries on the Congo. About one hundred explorers, some of them +missionaries and many employees of the Congo Free State, have mapped the +whole basin along its water-courses, and discovered the ultimate source +of its main stream. Our ideas of the hydrography of this great basin +have been revolutionized since Stanley, second only to Livingstone among +the great African explorers, in 1877 revealed the course of the +main river.</p> + +<p>On his map, for example, he showed the southern tributaries as probably +flowing nearly due north; but all except one of these rivers rise in the +east and flow far to the west. When Wissmann was sent to the Upper +Kassai to follow it to the Congo, he was greatly surprised to find +himself floating westward week after week. When he reached the Congo a +steamboat was waiting for him at Equatorville, two hundred miles further +up the river, where he was expected to emerge. Schweinfurth believed the +Welle Makua flowed north to Lake Chad on the edge of the Sahara; +seventeen years later, after six or seven explorers had tried to solve +the problem, the river was found to be the upper part of the Mobangi +tributary of the Congo, larger than any rivers of Europe, excepting the +Volga and Danube. While Stanley was for five years planting his stations +on the Congo, he knew nothing of this great tributary, 1,500 miles long, +whose mouth was hidden by a cluster of islands which his steamers +repeatedly passed. Missionary Grenfell, on his little steamer, was +ascending the Congo one day, when accidentally he got into the mouth of +the Mobangi and went on for one hundred miles before he discovered that +he had left the main river. Few explorers have unwittingly stumbled upon +so rich a geographical prize.</p> + +<p>While exploratory enterprises have been centred largely in tropical +Africa, no part of the continent has been neglected. We now know that +large areas of the Sahara are underlaid by waters which need only be +brought to the surface to cover the desert around them with verdure; +that most of the rain falling on the south slopes of the Atlas Mountains +sinks into the earth to impermeable strata of rock, along which it makes +its way far out into the desert; that where the surface is depressed so +that these waters come near to it, there are wells for the refreshment +of the camel caravans, and oases, blooming islands of green, in the +sterile wastes; and that artesian wells bring inexhaustible supplies of +water within reach, so that millions of date palms have been planted +along the northern edge of the desert in southern Algiers and Tunis, +making these regions the largest sources of the world's supply of dates.</p> + +<p>It has also been discovered why there are very large areas of dry or +desert lands in Africa. The Sahara and the southwest of Africa are +deserts because the prevailing winds, the carriers of moisture, blow +towards the sea instead of away from it, and consequently are always +dry. The winds from the Indian Ocean crossing the highlands of Abyssinia +are wrung nearly dry while passing the mountains, and so Somaliland and +the lowlands to the south of Abyssinia are parched.</p> + +<p>It has been found that the most of South Africa stands so high above the +sea that the influences of a temperate climate are projected far +towards the Equator; so that many white men, women, and children are +living and thriving on farms in Mashonaland, seven degrees of latitude +nearer the equator than the south end of Florida. This fact will +profoundly influence the development of South Africa. It is to be the +home of millions of the white race, the seat of a highly civilized +empire, whose business relations with the rest of the world will be to +the advantage of every trading nation. The presence of these millions of +toilers will vitally affect the work of developing tropical Africa which +is now absorbing such enormous treasure and energy; for South Africa is +to be brought by railroads to the very doors of the tropical zone.</p> + +<p>It is hoped that such facts as these, even though very briefly stated, +may convey broadly a correct impression of the magnitude of African +exploration, since its revival about the time that Livingstone died. It +is impossible in brief space to signalize the good work that many of the +most conspicuous pioneers have done. The world rendered tardy tribute to +the notable achievements of some of them. When Rebmann discovered +Kilimanjaro, not far from the equator, and told of the snows that crown +the loftiest of African summits, it was decided by British geographers +that Rebmann's snow was probably an imaginary aspect. The snow was +there, and plenty of it, but Rebmann died before justice was done to +his faithful labors. When Paul du Chaillu described the Obongo dwarfs of +West Africa, his narrative was discredited; but four or five groups of +dwarfs, probably numbering many thousands, are now known to be scattered +from the lower border of Abyssinia to the Kalahara desert in the far +south. The ancients had heard of the dwarfs, but the geographers of the +eighteenth century expunged from the maps of Africa about all that the +geographers of Greece and Rome, as well as those of later times, placed +on them; and the nineteenth century was slow in crediting the early +investigators even with statements that were wholly or approximately +accurate.</p> + +<p>A curious history is connected with the discovery of the northeastern +group of pygmies, a little south of Abyssinia. No white man had ever +seen them, but about fifteen years ago Dr. Henry Schlichter, of the +British Museum, collected all the information which natives had given to +missionaries, traders, and explorers of the existence of these little +people some hundreds of miles from the sea. Sifting all this evidence, +he concluded that these dwarfs really existed, and that they lived in a +region which he marked on the map north of Lake Stefanie. Donaldson +Smith had not heard of Schlichter's paper, and knew nothing of these +dwarfs, but he found them in 1895 in the region which Schlichter had +indicated as their probable habitat.</p> + +<p>The broadest generalization with regard to the African tribes is that +which separates most of the peoples south of the Sahara Desert into two +great groups,--the Negro tribes, whose habitat may be roughly indicated +as extending between the Atlantic and Gallaland in East Africa, with the +Sahara as their northern, and the latitude of the Cameroons as their +southern, boundaries; and the Bantu tribes, occupying nearly all of +Africa south of the Negroes. The distinction between these two great +groups is not based upon special differences as to physical structure, +mental characteristics, habits, or development, but depends solely upon +philological considerations, the languages of the Negroes and the Bantus +forming two distinct groups. Most of the slaves who were brought to our +country were Negroes, while most of those transported to Latin America +were from the Bantu tribes.</p> + +<p>One fact that stood out above all others in the study of the African +natives, was the remarkable prevalence of cannibalism in the Congo +basin. In all his wanderings, Livingstone met only one cannibal +tribe,--the Manyema living between Tanganyika and the Upper Congo; but +though they are not found near the sources of the river, nor near its +mouth, they occupy about one-half of the Congo basin. They are regarded +with fear and abhorrence by all tribes not addicted to the practice. +They number several millions. Instead of being the most debased of +human creatures, many of them, in physical strength and courage, in +their iron work, carving, weaving, and other arts, are among the most +advanced of African tribes. The larger part of the natives in the +service of the Congo Free State are from the cannibal tribes. The laws +now impose severe penalties for acts of cannibalism, and the evil is +decreasing as the influence of the state is extended over wider areas. A +few isolated tribes along the Gulf of Guinea are also cannibals.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that the helpful influences of the Caucasian in every +part of Africa so far outweigh his harmful influences that the latter +are but a drop in the bucket in comparison. It is most unfortunate that +a certain admixture of blundering, severity, brutality, and wickedness +seems inseparable from the development of all the newer parts of the +world. The demoralizing drink traffic, the scandalous injustice and +cruelty of some of the agents of civilized governments, are not to be +belittled or condoned. But there is also a very bright side to the story +of the white occupancy of Africa.</p> + +<p>The family of a deceased chief in Central Africa recently preserved his +body unburied for fourteen months, in the hope that they might prevail +upon the British Government to permit the sacrifice of women and slaves +on his grave, that he might have companions of his own household in the +other world. He was buried at last, without shedding a drop of blood. +Human sacrifices are now punishable with death throughout a large part +of barbarous Africa, and the terrible evil is being abated as fast as +the influence of the European governments is extended over new regions. +The practice of the arts of fetichism, a kind of chicanery, most +injurious in its effects upon the superstitious natives, is now +punishable throughout the Congo Free State and British Rhodesia. Arab +slave-dealers no longer raid the Congo plains and forests for slaves, +killing seven persons for every one they lead into captivity. +Slave-raiding has been utterly wiped out in all parts of Africa, except +in portions of the Sudan and other districts over which white rule has +not yet been asserted. The Arabs of the Congo, who went there from East +Africa solely that they might grow rich in the slave trade, are now +settled quietly on their rice and banana plantations. The sale of strong +drink has been restricted by international agreement to the coast +regions, where the traffic has long existed, and its evils are somewhat +mitigated there by the regulations now enforced. Fifty thousand Congo +natives who would not carry a pound of freight for Stanley in 1880, are +now in the service of the white enterprises, many of them working, not +for barter goods, but for coin. Many of the missionary fields are +thriving, and wonderful results have been achieved in some of them. In +Uganda, where Stanley in 1875 saw King Mtesa impaling his victims, there +are now ninety thousand natives professing Christianity, three hundred +and twenty churches, and many thousands of children in the schools. +Fifty thousand of the people can read. Between 1880 and 1882 Stanley +carried three little steamboats around 235 miles of rapids to the Upper +Congo. Eighty steamers are now afloat there, plying on nearly 8,000 +miles of rivers, and connected with the sea by a railroad that has paid +dividends from the day it was opened. At the end of 1890 there were only +5,813 miles of railroad in Africa. About 15,000 miles are now in +operation, and the end of this decade is certain to see 25,000 miles of +railroads. Trains are running from Cairo to Khartum, the seat of the +Mahdist tyranny, in the centre of a vast region which, until recently, +had been closed for many years to all the world.</p> + +<p>These wonderful results are the fruits of the partition of Africa among +the European states. With the exception of some waste regions in the +Libyan desert, which no one has claimed, Morocco, Abyssinia, and +Liberia, every square mile of African territory has been divided among +European powers, either as colonies or as spheres of influence. The +scramble of twenty years for African lands is at an end, there now being +no valuable areas that are not covered by the existing agreements. It +is no mere love of humanity that has impelled the European countries to +divide these regions among themselves. We can scarcely realize the +intensity of the struggle for existence in many of the overcrowded parts +of Europe. Their factories are enormously productive, but their people +will suffer for food unless they can export manufactures. The crying +need for new markets, for new sources of raw material, drove these +states into Africa. And we should be glad, for Africa's sake, that they +have gone there, even though the desire to make money is one of the most +powerful incentives.</p> + +<p>It is under the protective aegis of these governments that explorers are +settling down in smaller areas to see what may be found between the +explored water-courses, to study the continent in detail, to give to our +knowledge of Africa the scientific quality now required. The greatest +geographical work there in recent years is the extension of a line of +stations across tropical Africa by Commander Lemaire, each position +astronomically fixed by the most careful methods, constituting a +base-line east and west through Africa to which the scientific mapping +of a very large area will be referred.</p> + +<p>The day of the minuter study of the whole continent has now dawned, and +we are witnessing a most notable work. All the colonial powers, and the +Germans most conspicuously, are studying the economic questions relating +to their African possessions. The suitability of climates for +colonists, the essential rules of hygiene, the development of +agriculture, labor supplies, transportation and commercial facilities, +and many other problems are receiving the most careful attention. +Experiment stations are maintained in the colonies and colonial schools +at home, to fit young men for service in the field. The Germans have +already proved that cotton and tobacco are certain to become profitable +export crops.</p> + +<p>The mine-owners of the Witwatersrand, on which Johannesburg stands, have +begun a movement which they hope will result in the immigration of +100,000 white laborers to the mining field. We may look for remarkable +development in South Africa, whose promise is larger than that of any +other part of the continent. Whatever may be said of some of the methods +by which the British have enlarged their empire, their rule has blessed +the barbarous peoples whose countries they have absorbed. The task of +improving the few millions of blacks in South Africa, and of developing +the large and in some respects wonderful resources of that region, will +be greatly assisted by the incoming of hundreds of thousands of +Europeans, bringing with them the arts and other blessings of +civilization. The future of none of the newer parts of the world is +brighter with the hope of great development than the region between the +Zambesi and the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>In order to observe intelligently the progress of South Africa in +coming years, the limitations as well as the advantages of the country +must be kept in view. More than half of it, including the entire western +half, is deficient in rainfall and can never be the home of a dense +white population. Some mining will develop on those broad, dry plains +and sandy wastes; some agriculture where irrigation is possible; and +great wool-growing wherever thrive the nutritious grasses on which +13,000,000 sheep, scattered over the Karroo of Cape Colony, and +4,000,000 in the little Orange Free State, were grazing before the +recent war. Wool-growing will always be the greatest grazing industry, +though cattle and horses are raised in large numbers, and the fine, soft +hair of the Angora goat is second only to wool in export importance.</p> + +<p>A narrow strip of fine farm lands across the south end of Africa, +another along the southern border of the former Boer republics, and a +large area among the highlands of Mashonaland, far towards the equator, +produce nearly all the crops of the temperate zones. It is not yet +certain, however, that South Africa will ever raise enough wheat for a +great white population. On the northern slopes of the hills, east and +northeast of Cape Town, are thousands of acres of grapes. Cape Colony is +becoming one of the important wine countries; and in February and March, +large quantities of grapes, peaches, nectarines, and plums are placed +in cool rooms on steamships and sent fresh to British markets almost +before English fruit trees are in bloom.</p> + +<p>East of the grape region is an area peculiarly adapted for the +cultivation of tobacco; and east of the tobacco district, north of the +coastal belt of wheat in a region of sandy scrub, the bush country, are +the ostrich farms, in the hands mainly of men of considerable capital, +who supply nearly all the feathers derived from the domesticated +ostrich. The plumes are sometimes worth as much as $200 a pound, the +ordinary feathers bringing from $5 to $7 a pound. Natal is unique in two +of its agricultural industries, being the only colony that is producing +tea and important quantities of cane sugar.</p> + +<p>But gold, widely scattered over the country on the interior plateau, +exceeds in value all the other exports together. The world never saw +such a development of gold mining in a small area as has occurred on the +Witwatersrand, where Johannesburg stands. The Witwatersrand (White River +Slope) is a slight elevation, the water parting between rivers, about +one and a half miles wide and 125 miles long. On twenty-five miles of +the rand, at and near Johannesburg, more gold was produced in the year +before the Boer war than was yielded by any other country in the world, +The other rich mining regions of the Transvaal and other parts of South +Africa have been completely dwarfed by the wonderful product of the +rand. The surveys in Matabeleland and Mashonaland show gold-bearing +areas 5,000 square miles in extent, which as yet have practically no +development. The mining companies on the rand and elsewhere are now +preparing for far larger operations than ever before.</p> + +<p>The Kimberley diamond mines, turning out more than $20,000,000 worth of +rough stones a year, supply nearly all the diamonds of commerce. Two +other diamond centres in the Orange River Colony have scarcely been +touched, and diamonds are found on the Limpopo River and in other +regions where no mining has been undertaken. The minerals of South +Africa, including iron and coal, bid fair to be for many years the +largest sources of wealth; and in wool, hides, mohair, fresh fruits, and +some other products, South Africa may rival other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>There are no good natural harbors except Delagoa Bay in Portuguese East +Africa, but by great expenditure the harbors of Cape Town, Port +Elizabeth, East London, and Durban have been adapted for great commerce. +Many persons mistakenly regard Cape Town as the chief commercial centre +of South Africa. It is so only in respect of the export of gold and +diamonds. As it is not centrally situated for business with the +interior, more of the things that South Africa sells to and buys from +the rest of the world, excepting gold and diamonds, pass through Port +Elizabeth than through any other port. Here is centred the largest +wholesale trade.</p> + +<p>What South Africa needs is more railroads and more white labor. +Manufacturing industries on an important scale are yet to come, for as +yet the white population is too sparse to develop anything but the +natural products of the country.</p> + +<p>The broad summing up of the future work in Africa is that the native +will be taught to help himself. The destiny of the continent depends +largely upon his development, for great parts of Africa may never be +adapted to become the home of many white men. The most powerful motives, +philanthropic and selfish, incite and will sustain the work of helping +these millions to rise to a higher plane of humanity. This work, now +well begun, is the great task which in the present century will call for +all the knowledge, patience, humanity, and justice that may be brought +to bear upon the problem of reclaiming Africa.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>Livingstone's "Missionary Travels," "A Narrative of an Expedition to the +Zambesi," and "Last Journeys;" Blaikie's "Livingstone's Personal Life;" +Stanley's "How I found Livingstone."</p> + +<p>Stanley's "Through the Dark Continent," "The Congo and the Founding of +its Free State," "In Darkest Africa;" Schweinfurth's "The Heart of +Africa;" Burton's "The Lake Regions of Central Africa;" Speke's "Journal +of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile;" Thomson's "To the Central +African Lakes and Back;" Barth's "Travels and Discoveries in Central +Africa;" Theal's "Compendium of South African History;" Greswell's +"Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi"; Noble's "The Redemption of +Africa" (A History of African Missions).</p> + +<p>No comprehensive compendium of the history of African exploration has +yet been written. Our knowledge of the geography, peoples and resources +of Africa is treated with considerable detail in a number of works such +as Reclus's "Africa" (in "The Earth and Its Inhabitants") and Sievers's +"Afrika" (German). A very large part of the exploratory enterprises in +Africa have not been described in books, but only in the reports of the +explorers, printed with their original maps in the publications of many +geographical and missionary societies.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="SIR_AUSTEN_HENRY_LAYARD."></a>SIR AUSTEN HENRY LAYARD.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1817-1894.</p> + +<p>MODERN ARCHAEOLOGY.</p> + +<p>BY WILLIAM HAYES WARD, D.D., LL.D.</p> +<br> + +<p>It was twenty-three long centuries ago that a Greek soldier of fortune, +who had the honor to be also a disciple of Socrates, was leading ten +thousand mercenaries back to their native land after their famous +failure to set the Younger Cyrus on the throne of Persia. Clearchus and +the other generals had been treacherously murdered. Dispirited, almost +hopeless, on their way to the longed-for Black Sea, in anticipation of +the perilous and tedious journey, past wild mountains and wilder Kurds, +they toiled up the valley of the Tigris River. Of one incident of their +journey their historian and leader makes no record. They reached the +spot where now stands the city of Mosul. On the bank of the river their +eyes fell on a bare and lofty hill. They did not know, they never +suspected,--Xenophon wrote no word of it,--that under that hill lay +buried the ruins of one of the mightiest conquering cities that had ever +ruled the world. From the palaces of that hill, Ninus and Semiramis and +Sardanapalus had led their conquering armies, all now covered +with silence.</p> + +<p>Two centuries earlier, in 606 B.C., there had occurred one of the most +tremendous catastrophes recorded in all the grim annals of war. After a +thousand years of primacy in the East, but twenty years after the death +of Sardanapalus (the Greek name of Asshurbanapal), who had carried his +armies to Egypt and had made his capital the centre of the world's +culture and magnificence, as it was of its cruel and hated power, +Nineveh was captured, buried, and utterly desolated by a horde of savage +Scythians from the mountains of the north and east, such people as we +now call the Kurds. Its palaces had no lofty Greek columns to stand for +memorials, as at Palmyra or Persepolis; and when the outer casings of +brick and alabaster were cracked away, and the ashes of the upper +stories and the clay of the inner constructions, soaked by the rains, +covered the ruins of temple and palace, nothing was left to mark the +site but the grass-covered hill. No wonder that the learned scholar of +Socrates saw nothing, knew nothing of the city, most glorious and most +detested of all the cities of the earth. But in its day the overthrow of +Nineveh and the destruction of the Assyrian Empire had been the most +terrible event in the world's history. How the Hebrew prophets gloated +over it! "Where now is the den of the lions, and the feeding-place of +the young lions, where the lion and the lioness walked, the lion's +whelp, and none made them afraid? Wo to the bloody city; it is all full +of lies and rapine; the prey departeth not. The noise of the whip, and +the noise of the rattling of wheels, and prancing horses, and bounding +chariots, the horsemen mounting, and the flashing sword, and the +glittering spear, and a multitude of slain, and a great heap of corpses, +and there is no end of the bodies. There is no assuaging of the hurt; +thy wound is grievous; all that hear the report of thee clap their hands +over thee: for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually?" +And another prophet had uttered the curse: "The pelican and the +porcupine shall lodge in the capitals thereof; their voice shall sound +in the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds; for he hath laid +bare the cedar-work. This is the joyous city that dwelt carelessly, that +said in her heart, 'I am, and there is none besides me!' How is she +become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in! Every one that +passeth by her shall hiss, and wag his hand."</p> + +<p>Thus fell Nineveh, amid the universal rejoicing of the nations, and +thus, seventy years later, fell Babylon also, which, in the short +interval, Nebuchadnezzar had made more magnificent than even Nineveh had +been, beautified for its capture by Cyrus. But before Babylon was the +capital of Chaldea, or Nineveh the capital of Assyria, the city of Calah +had been the seat of its kings, and a mighty mound--they call it Nimroud +now--"as high as St. Paul's steeple," old travellers loved to say--marks +the place on the east bank of the Tigris, twenty miles south of Nineveh; +and, before Calah, Assyria had an earlier capital forty miles still +nearer the Babylonian border, at Asshur, now Kalah-Shergat, on the west +of the Tigris; and each capital had its palaces and records, and all are +now equally buried in clay and utter oblivion. And before the Babylon of +Nebuchadnezzar, and long centuries before Nineveh or Calah or Asshur, +there had been mighty kingdoms in Babylonia, of which the world had +quite forgot the names, only vague rumors remaining in song or legend of +Nimrod and Chedorlaomer and Ur of the Chaldees,--only what was preserved +in the dimmest records of the Hebrew Scriptures. Empires were lost, +buried in chiliads of forgetfulness; would they ever be recovered?</p> + +<p>And how much else was lost, what kingdoms, what empires buried before +Hebrew or Greek history began to take notice of the world outside and +put them in books, no one knew, no one knows even yet, although so much +has been found. The fame of Egypt was never quite forgotten, nor all its +history, for Egypt was the world's granary, and closely accessible to +the ships of Corinth and Rome; and Egypt never lost her civilization in +all her long succession of enslavement. But what memory had been kept of +the Ionia and Greece of the days before Homer? What of the early +civilization of Cyprus and Crete? Only the name of Minos, a judge in +Hell. What of Persia and Elam? Were they uninhabited before the times of +Xerxes and Cyrus? And who were these kings, Cyrus and Xerxes, whose +names burst upon us with dim light out of a black antiquity? Even they +were but shadows on a screen, just seen and disappearing. What kings and +kingdoms came before them and passed away? Has history no record? Not a +word. Only black vacuity has been left behind them. And there was that +other empire of the East, that of the Hittites, which we now know ruled +Asia Minor and Syria and contested the rule of the world with Assyria +and Egypt centuries before Agamemnon and Achilles, but so utterly buried +and forgotten that not a line of its history was left, not even enough +to let the sharpest scholar ask a question or suspect that it ever built +capitals and fought victories and produced a civilization the harvest of +which we still enjoy. Nothing was left of them but their names in a +Hebrew list of tribes,--"Amorites and Jebusites and Hivites and +Hittites."</p> + +<p>Yet all these lost tribes, nay, lost nations, had left their records +behind them, only they were buried under ground and out of sight. What +a travesty it is on history and civilization, what an impeachment of the +glory of these later Christian centuries, that the lands which these old +empires crowded with a busy population should now be among the most +desolate and inaccessible on the face of the earth! There we see the +curse of the Moslem religion, and still more of the Turkish government. +Wherever the Turk has carried the sword and the Koran, there is blight +and death. Only as soldiers and scholars of Europe have forced their way +into these seats of ancient empires has it been possible to ask and +learn what is buried beneath their gray desolation.</p> + +<p>The man who did more than any other to awaken the interest of the world +in the search for forgotten empires was Sir Henry Layard, the excavator +of Nineveh. But before his day another man had startled the world with +what we may call the discovery of Egypt. That man was Napoleon +Bonaparte, the man whose sword was a ploughshare turning up the fallow +fields of Europe, and sowing strange crops of tyranny and liberty, and +whose ambition it was to set up a new throne in the land of the Pharaohs +and Ptolemies. The mighty ruins of Karnak and the imperishable pyramids +filled him with amazement, and he set the scholars of France at work to +publish in massive folios the wonders of that most ancient land. Then +was found the Rosetta Stone, with its inscription in two +languages,--Greek, which any scholar could read, and the Egyptian +hieroglyphics, which no living man could read. But here was the key. The +words <i>Ptolemy</i> and <i>Cleopatra</i> were in the Greek text, and it was not +hard to find what were the combinations of characters that stood for +these words in the Egyptian. The letters <i>p, t</i>, and <i>l</i> were in both +names. The hieroglyphic signs found in both names must be these three +letters. That beginning gave all the other signs in both words, and the +rest of the alphabet soon followed. Justly great is the fame of the +Frenchman Champollion, who has the honor of having first deciphered and +read this lost language, and opened to us the secret treasures of its +history and religion.</p> + +<p>But with the exploration of Egypt the scholarship of the world was +satisfied for fifty years. No one seemed to think to ask what might be +hid under the soil of nearer Palestine and Syria and Asia Minor; much +less did they seek to uncover the buried capitals of Assyria and +Babylonia. Scholarship was devoted to books, to old manuscripts in +convent libraries, to recovering what the wise men of Greece and Rome +had written, and trying to wrest new facts out of their blundering old +compilations of ancient history. It did not occur to them that a hundred +kings and ten thousand merchants and priests might have left the stories +of their conquests or contracts or liturgies, unrotted in the wet soil, +imperishably preserved to be the record of commerce and empires as old +and as great as those of Egypt, but far deeper covered with oblivion. +But there they were, kept safe for twenty, thirty, fifty centuries, +until the man should come whose mission it was to find them.</p> + +<p>More than one such man came in the middle of the last century, but one +man is pre-eminent, and typical of all the rest, Sir Austen Henry +Layard. Before him one Frenchman, M. Paul Emile Botta, had made a fine +dash on a palace city a dozen miles north of Nineveh, and had opened +wonders such as the world had never seen before. But the man whose +energy was fullest of impulse, whose enthusiasm compelled British +Ambassadors and Ministers and Parliaments to do his bidding, who aroused +the world to the importance of the exploration and disinterment of the +monuments of Babylonia and Assyria, was the Englishman Layard.</p> + +<p>He had a youthful passion for adventure, and slender means to gratify +it. I wish you could see him as he is pictured in the volume which gives +the story of his early adventures, before he had settled on his lifework +of exploration. There he stands clad in his Bakhtiyari costume, the +dress of a mountain tribe in Persia which asserted its independence of +Teheran. It is a well-knit frame, fit to endure hardships. He stands +holding the tall matchlock, the curved scimetar by his side, and the +long pistol and the dagger in his belt. Above the yellow shoes and +parti-woven stockings a red silk robe falls to his ankles, and over that +a green silk garment reaches to his knees, and yet over that a shorter +and richly embroidered coat, with open sleeves, is held close about the +body by a wide silken sash woven in the brightest of red and gold, and +holding the weapons attached to his waist. On his head is a low flat +cap, visorless in front, but with a broad bow in place of a feather, all +striped with the richest embroidery, and with a wide tassel of the same +material falling far down his back. But the face, with its short beard +dyed dark with henna, and its blue eyes, is not that of a warrior, but +of a serious scholar or diplomatist. And he needed all the force of +courage and all the arts of diplomacy for the work he had to do.</p> + +<p>Layard's early training was in the line of preparation for his life's +work. Much of his boyhood was spent in Italy, where he acquired a taste +for the fine arts, and as much knowledge of them as a child could obtain +who was constantly in the society of artists and connoisseurs. At about +the age of sixteen he was sent to England to study the law, for which he +was destined by his parents. After six years in the office of a +solicitor, and in the chambers of an eminent conveyancer,--for that is +the way that lawyers were educated then,--he determined to leave +England and seek a career elsewhere. He had a relative in Ceylon, who +gave him hopes of securing a position there, and for Ceylon he started. +A friend of his, ten years older, was bound for the same destination, +both fond of adventure, and they agreed to go together, and to go as far +as they could by land instead of taking the long sea journey around the +Cape of Good Hope. Across Europe they passed to Constantinople, through +Austria, Dalmatia, Montenegro, Albania, and Bulgaria; thence across Asia +Minor to Syria and Palestine; thence to Aleppo and down the Tigris to +Baghdad. It was an extraordinary and adventurous journey, often +dangerous; but greater danger was to follow. Layard had learned some +Turkish, and now he spent the long weeks in Baghdad in the study of +Persian; his companion was quite familiar with Arabic. Before they left +England they had received good advice from Sir John MacNeill, the +British representative at the court of the Shah: "You must either travel +as important personages, with a retinue of servants and an adequate +escort, or alone, as poor men, with nothing to excite the cupidity of +the people amongst whom you will have to mix. If you cannot afford to +adopt the first course, you must take the latter." The latter they were +forced to take.</p> + +<p>Many a young man has the gift to acquire languages--almost any Oriental +can talk three or four--and the ability to rough it and live on the fare +of the people, though barbarous; and many a man has the spirit of +adventure; but this young man had one peculiar and unusual qualification +that directed him to his future career. As a child, he had read the +"Arabian Nights" with intense delight, with their stories centred about +Baghdad. Then every book of Eastern adventure, every bit of travel in +Syria, Arabia, or Persia that he could find he had eagerly devoured. It +was his day and night's longing that he might visit strange lands of +history and make explorations and discoveries. So wherever he was, he +visited every ruin and tried to copy every inscription. If his companion +would not turn aside to visit some region of renown and danger, he would +go alone and join him later. As they came down the river Tigris in their +boat, they passed the immense mound of Nimroud, and so impressed was +Layard by it that he then, scarce twenty-three years old, resolved that +some day he would search and learn what was hidden under it; but little +did he imagine what wonderful monuments he was to find there only a few +years later.</p> + +<p>Without a servant, as poor men, in a caravan of fanatical and hostile +Persian pilgrims returning from the shrines, just travellers trying to +go by land through Persia and Afghanistan to India and Ceylon, they +left Baghdad. It was a time of unusual danger, for the British Minister +had been recalled from the Persian Court, and war with England was +threatened. They were taken for spies, and sent to the presence of the +Shah, and forbidden to follow the route they had chosen and which had +been marked out for them by the Council of the Royal Geographical +Society, to report on rivers and mountains and ruins not yet explored. +They were insulted and robbed, and their lives were often in danger; but +at last they received from the Shah their firmans. Now they separated. +His companion felt that he must go by the quickest route to his +destination; but Layard had no definite date before him, and he was +anxious to perform the commissions of the Geographical Society, and so +he plunged alone into fresh dangers.</p> + +<p>But there is no space to tell the rest of the story of his adventures +among the Bakhtiyari, of his copying of inscriptions, of his return to +Baghdad and his decision to give up the plans of life in Ceylon, and of +his return from Baghdad again to Shuster and Persepolis and other +ancient cities of Persia, and his exploration of the Karun River and his +geographical paper on the subject, his opening of British trade, and his +return to Constantinople. At Mosul he found that M. Botta was planning +to explore the mounds across the Tigris that covered ancient Nineveh, +and he warmly encouraged his plans. At Constantinople he visited Sir +Stratford Canning and delivered to him despatches that had been confided +to his care, in view of a threatened war between Persia and Turkey. Here +he was kept in the service of the British Embassy, and intrusted with +important and delicate negotiations and investigations which were so +highly appreciated by Sir Stratford that he kept him as his attaché.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile M. Botta had begun his excavations of a palace of King Sargon +at Khorsabad and was sending his reports and drawings to Paris. They +were all sent by way of Constantinople, and, by M. Botta's generosity, +were all seen by Mr. Layard. So deeply was he interested in them, and so +intense was his desire to carry on excavations himself, that he secured +his release from the Embassy, and also a grant of three hundred dollars +from Sir Stratford's own purse, which, with what he could spare from his +own money, would, he hoped, suffice to begin the work, when, if anything +of value appeared, it was trusted that funds would be secured from +English friends of Oriental learning. Thus, six years after leaving +England, Mr. Layard, well equipped in knowledge of the people and in +diplomatic experience, was ready to launch on his great career, which +brought him fame and earned him the post in later years of British +Ambassador at the Porte, which Sir Stratford had held, and--what is far +greater--gave to the world the larger part of its knowledge of the lost +empires of Assyria and Babylonia.</p> + +<p>With these few hundred dollars, and contributing every penny of his own +income, in October of 1845, he left Constantinople without companion or +servant, went by steamer to Samsoun, and then as fast as post-horses +could climb or gallop over mountains and plains, he reached Mosul in +twelve days.</p> + +<p>Here at last he was fitted for his task, supplied for the accomplishment +of his passion. The Arabs say: "I had a horse, but no desert; I had a +desert, but no horse; now I have a desert and a horse, and shall I not +ride?" His boyhood, with the artists of Italy, and learning the +languages of the continent, had fitted him for his task; then his study +of all the books of Eastern travel, then half a year wandering with a +trained companion through Asia Minor and Syria, scarcely leaving untrod +one spot hallowed by tradition, or unvisited one ruin consecrated by +history, with no protection but his arms, living with the people and +learning their prejudices and customs. Then an irresistible desire had +brought him to the regions beyond the Euphrates, and the mystery of +Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea had fascinated him, so that he had +visited the land of Nimrod, seen the site of their old buried capitals, +had been the guest in the tents of Shammar and Aneyzah Arabs, and even +passed on to see the famous forty columns of Chilminar, old Persian +Persepolis, and to penetrate the mountain fastnesses where the +Bakhtiyari maintained a perilous freedom. Never was man better trained +by enthusiasm and experience for his task, and the late discoveries of +M. Botta had inflamed his desire to surpass what his French friend +had done.</p> + +<p>His plan was not to begin excavations at Nineveh, opposite Mosul, but +twenty miles south, at the great mound of Nimroud, which bore the name +of the mighty hunter Nimrod. Xenophon and his Ten Thousand had seen and +wondered at its pyramid. There he would be free from the army of +mischievous spectators that would swarm from Mosul, had he selected the +site of Nineveh, and from the constant interference of the Turkish +governor. The Pasha at Mosul was a cruel scoundrel, who was robbing and +killing the people as his whim or greed prompted, and had reduced the +tribes of the neighborhood to a state of terror. Accordingly, Mr. +Layard, who was armed with protecting letters from the British +Ambassador and the Porte, thought it wise to conceal his purpose, let it +be reported that he was going on a hunting expedition; and with a few +tools and a supply of guns and spears, on the 8th of November, 1845, +accompanied only by his cawass, the soldier attendant detailed for the +protection of travellers, a servant, and one laborer, he floated down +the Tigris, and in four hours reached the bourne of his long hopes. He +had the mound, he had the money, and now he would dig.</p> + +<p>The Arabs have strange stories of this ruin. The palace, they say, was +built by Athur, the vizier of Nimrod. There Abraham brake in pieces the +idols worshipped by the unbelievers. Nimrod was angry and waged war on +the holy patriarch. Abraham prayed to God: "Deliver me, O God, from this +man who worships stones, and boasts himself to be lord of all kings;" +and God said to him, "How shall I punish him?" and the prophet answered, +"To thee armies are as nothing, and the strength and power of men +likewise. Before the smallest of thy creatures will they perish." And +God was pleased at the faith of his servant, and he sent a gnat that +vexed Nimrod day and night, so that he built himself a room of glass in +that palace that he might dwell therein and shut out the insect. But the +gnat entered also, and passed by his ear into his brain, upon which it +fed, and increased day by day, so that the servants of Nimrod beat his +head continually with a mallet that he might have some ease from his +pain; but he died after suffering these torments four hundred years. And +after him the mound was named Nimroud.</p> + +<p>It was dark when Layard and his little company reached the place. They +found near by a few huts occupied by poor Arabs, who had been harried by +the Turkish Pasha. There they slept, or tried to sleep. But the +explorer could not sleep. Hear him:--</p> + +<p>"Hopes, long cherished, were now to be realized, or were to end in +disappointment. Visions of palaces under ground, of gigantic monsters, +of sculptured figures, and endless inscriptions, floated before me. +After forming plan after plan for removing the earth and extricating +these treasures, I fancied myself wandering in a maze of chambers from +which I could find no outlet. Then, again, all was reburied, and I was +standing on the grass-covered mound. Exhausted, I was at length sinking +into sleep, when, hearing the voice of Awad, I rose from my carpet and +joined him outside the tent. The day already dawned. The lofty cone and +broad mound of Nimroud broke like a distant mountain on the +morning sky."</p> + +<p>Awad, his host, was a little chief among the Arabs, and was engaged to +take charge of the diggers. The first morning he had six Arabs at work, +and found alabaster slabs with cuneiform inscriptions. He was now sure +he would succeed.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to give the diary of his work. To be sure, the +villanous Pasha forbade him to continue, and recalled him to Mosul, but +a new governor was sent from Constantinople, under whom he had no +difficulty. A great palace had been found, and chamber after chamber was +excavated, the walls covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. Then +came strange, gigantic lions with human heads, that had been placed by +the old Assyrian king to guard the entrances to his court. What was the +amazement of the Arabs and Turks cannot be told. First, the head was +uncovered. It stood out from the earth, placid and vast. Hear Layard +tell the story. He had been away to visit a neighboring chief:--</p> + +<p>"I was returning to the mound, when I saw two Arabs urging their mares +to the top of their speed. 'Hasten, O Bey,' exclaimed one of them, +'hasten to the diggers, for they have found Nimrod himself. By Allah! it +is wonderful, but it is true! We have seen him with our eyes! There is +no God but God!' And both joining in this pious exclamation, they +galloped back to the tent."</p> + +<p>Layard hastened to the trench, and there saw what he knew to be the head +of a gigantic lion or bull, such as Botta had uncovered at Khorsabad. It +was in admirable preservation. The expression was calm, yet majestic, +and the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of art +that was scarcely to be looked for at so early a period. Says the +explorer:--</p> + +<p>"I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and terrified at +this apparition. It required no stretch of imagination to conjure up the +most strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with age, thus rising +from the bowels of the earth, might well have belonged to one of those +fearful beings which are pictured in the traditions of the country as +appearing to mortals, slowly ascending from the regions below. 'This is +not the work of men's hands,' exclaimed Sheikh Abdurrahman, who had +galloped to the mound on the first news, 'but of those infidel giants of +whom the Prophet, peace be with him! has said that they were higher than +the tallest date-tree; this is one of the idols which Noah, peace be +with him! cursed before the flood!' In this opinion all the bystanders +concurred."</p> + +<p>The Arabs have a ready explanation for every fresh discovery. When some +years later Mr. Layard's assistant and successor in the work of +excavation, Mr. Rassam, uncovered, at Abu-habba, a remarkable bas-relief +with the figure of the seated Sun-god and three approaching worshippers, +the Arab diggers rushed to him, declaring that they had found Noah and +his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, and demanded a sheep to make +a feast.</p> + +<p>The report of the wonderful discovery of a royal palace, evidently older +than those of Nineveh, with magnificent decorations in alabaster and +cuneiform inscriptions, reached beyond Mosul to Constantinople. Sir +Stratford Canning was delighted with the result of his expedition. He +had a passion for discovery as well as diplomacy, and it is to him that +the British Museum is indebted for the priceless marbles of +Halicarnassus. He now obtained for Mr. Layard a firman, permitting him +to make what excavations he wished. Then the news reached London, and +the British Museum made a grant to support the work. All difficulties +were now removed. Conditions were even more favorable for him than they +are now. There was then no Imperial Museum in Constantinople to which +all objects found must be taken, but those that dug had the right to +carry off their prizes to London or Paris.</p> + +<p>To tell the story of the further excavations is unnecessary. It is all +given in Layard's two splendid volumes, "Nineveh and its Remains," and +"Babylon and Nineveh;" and the bas-reliefs, statues, bronzes, ivories, +and inscriptions are magnificently reproduced in great folio volumes. +From Nimroud he went back to Mosul, and there opened the two mounds +opposite of Kuyunjik and Neby-Yunus, the site of old Nineveh. There more +palaces and friezes were found of other kings. Then he went back to +London, closing his successful campaign, more profitable if not more +glorious than those of war, and published the story of his work. Its +effect was marvellous. No such popular book of travels had ever +appeared; for it was a story of adventure, and also of strange +discovery. Mr. Layard had not suspected that he had the literary gift, +but he had it in rare measure. He had gained an inner view of the heart +of tribes, Moslem and Christian and semi-pagan, by his sympathy with +them and his knowledge of their tongues. He had lived in their tents and +huts. He had saved them from persecution by Turkish governors. Their +gratitude to him was beyond words, and he told their story with +affection and enthusiasm. Then his discoveries were in the lands made +historic not only by the campaigns of Xenophon and Alexander, but made +almost sacred by the Bible history. These were the lands whence came the +armies that fought with Israel. These were the kings whose wars are told +in the Jewish records; and the annals of these kings were found in their +palaces, and they gave full accounts of wars of which the Bible had +given the outline. Piety and learning joined to give extraordinary +interest to these discoveries and to this report of them. Mr. Layard +found himself famous, and the monuments he was bringing to the British +Museum were, and still are, the most extraordinary and fascinating in +all its corridors.</p> + +<p>Of course, a new grant was made in behalf of the British Museum, and of +course he went back to continue and extend his researches. Now he wished +to go further south, beyond Nimroud to Kalah Shergat, the yet earlier +capital of Assyria; and yet further to Babylon, that he might see and +test the multitude of mounds of ancient Chaldea, the real land of +Nimrod, the seat of Eden, and the Tower of Babel, far more ancient than +any one of the three capitals of Assyria. While he did scarce more than +to visit and report on the Babylonian mounds, his diggings in Nineveh +itself were of vast importance, for there he found the library of +Asshurbanabal, on clay tablets, which has given us our chief knowledge +of the literature and learning of the ancient East. In 1852 he returned +to England to publish his "Monuments of Nineveh," and left the further +exploration to his able lieutenant, Mr. Rassam, and to a noble +succession of explorers who should follow, and to a no less noble line +of scholars who should interpret the inscriptions and recover the +history of the nations; so that we now know more exactly the history of +Babylonian and Assyrian kings, and from more authentic records, and more +completely the social condition and business life of the countries, than +we do the history of Greece, or the life of the Greeks even of the time +of Pericles, and that, too, for a period of three thousand years.</p> + +<p>To illustrate this fact, let us take the black obelisk of Shalmaneser +II., found by Layard at Nimroud. It is a column of basalt seven feet +high and about two feet wide at the base, from which it narrows +slightly, until near the top it is reduced by three steps. On the four +sides is engraved in five rows of bas-reliefs, twenty in all, the +pictured history of the royal conquests, the submission of kings, and +the presentation of tribute. Above and below, and between, in two +hundred and ten lines, was cut an inscription which explained the +figures, and gave a full historical and, of course, contemporary and +official account of the glorious events of the royal reign. Not a line +was defaced; at the British Museum it can be seen to-day as perfect as +when engraved twenty-seven centuries ago. Other monuments of Shalmaneser +have been found. One is a great monolith with a portrait of the king in +all his fine array, and with one hundred and fifty-six lines of text. +Another is a series of splendid bronze plates that covered great wooden +gates, on which, in repoussé work, were pictures of the royal victories, +and inscriptions explaining them. The Bible tells us of the rivalries +and jealousies of Ahab and Jehu, kings of Israel, and Benhadad and +Hazael, kings of Damascus. How surprising it is to find here not only +the story of the successive campaigns of Shalmaneser against these same +kings, the number of their chariots and soldiers, but to see pictured +before us the tribute sent by Jehu. We learn that Shalmaneser reigned +from 859 to 825 B.C., and we have the record of all his successive +campaigns, the first twenty-six of which he led in person. There is not +another country of which, before the invention of printing, we have so +minute a history; and all had been lost, except the mention of a name or +two, whether historical or legendary we hardly knew, until Layard and +his fellow-explorers opened the mounds of Assyria.</p> + +<p>But enough for Layard. He is only one, though the principal one, of all +the explorers of the buried records of the empires of the Tigris and +Euphrates. And Babylonia and Assyria are not the only countries that +history required us to explore. Greece and its neighboring states and +islands have not even yet been fairly investigated. Much of Asia Minor +is still a virgin field. Syria and Palestine have hardly been scratched +with the spade. More has been done in Egypt, but more yet is to be done. +And when we go into the further east of Persia and Old Elam, not to +speak of the yet farther east of Central Asia, now just beginning to +yield strange treasures to daring travellers, and ancient India and +China,--how ancient we know not at all,--there is field for centuries of +further research. For we must go back past empires and kingdoms and +tribal conditions to the very beginning of the human race on the earth, +even if so it be, to the first <i>Pithecanthropus</i> which men of science +tell us was the link which connected <i>Homo sapiens</i> with the race of +primitive simians. And all this, it may well be, is preserved in +undecaying records just a few feet under the ground, if one only knew +where to dig for it; nay, we now know where to dig for the most and best +of it, and we only await the Stratford Cannings, who will give the +money, and the Austen Layards, who have the enthusiasm for the work.</p> + +<p>After Layard and Rassam, after Rawlinson and Botta, George Smith took +flying trips to the site of Nineveh twice that he might gather the +remaining fragments of the great library of Asshurbanabal, and he died +in the field far from home. It was he that found among Layard's tablets +the Babylonian account of the Deluge, so much like that in the Bible. He +was the first of a second generation who, following Rawlinson and +Oppert, decipherers as well as explorers, were able to read as they +found. I can only mention the names of the Englishmen Taylor and Loftus; +of the Frenchmen, Place and De Sarzec; and, later, the Americans, +Peters, Hilprecht, and Haynes, who have so faithfully explored the +extremely archaic mound of Niffer, which I had the honor to recommend +for excavation after I had visited the mounds of Southern Babylonia in +the winter of 1884-85. And now the Germans, with scientific as well as +commercial and political purpose, with their railroad to pass down the +valley through Baghdad to the Persian Gulf, which gives them predominant +influence, have sent expeditions well equipped with scholars and +engineers to the choicest sites in Babylonia, to Warka, the ancient +Erech, and to Babylon itself; and with Teuton thoroughness they are +excavating the most famous of ancient ruins and gathering fresh +treasures of archaeological research. Nor have they left the land of the +Hittites unexplored, for Germany claims the first rights, politically, +in all Anatolia, the right of succession and possession when the Turk is +expelled, and German archaeological science is bound to be first on +that field.</p> + +<p>And now what have we found as the fruit of all this labor of +exploration? Is it worth the labor and the expense?</p> + +<p>Let us look first--it can be only a glance--at Egypt, for Egypt was the +land first and most persistently explored. The French Government for +scores of years has been at work there. Germans and Italians have +explored the ruins; two English societies have for years kept +expeditions in the field; and just now a Californian university sends an +American Egyptologist to uncover the tombs and read the hieroglyphs of +the kings. Not only are the figured monuments of Egypt published in +princely folios, but its records have been translated and its lost +history recovered to the world's knowledge. Instead of the bare +"Pharaoh" of the Bible, a common designation for all the kings, and in +place of a bare list of names and dynasties copied from Manetho, and so +altered and corrupted in the copying as to be neither Greek nor +Egyptian, we have, on scarab, or gravestone, or pyramid, or +rock-sepulchre wall, in his own spelling, the name of almost every king +from the latest time of the Ptolemies back to the first king of the +first dynasty, five thousand--or was it six thousand?--years before +Christ. And not their names only, but the very pictures of their wars. +We see how they went up the Nile and fought the blacks of Abyssinia, and +brought back the spoils of Punt We see them sending their squadrons +into Syrian Asia, and waging a dubious battle with the Hittites before +the walls of Hamath, where Rameses in his lion-guarded chariot performs +prodigies of valor, and from which he returns not only to paint on +sacred walls the picture of his victory, but also to inscribe a copy of +the treaty of peace with the Hittite king, the earliest treaty in the +preserved annals of diplomacy. Well wrought that Rameses the Great for +eternal fame in the sixty years of his reign, fifteen centuries before +the birth of our Lord. But what fame had been his, had not explorers and +excavators and scholars dug and found and copied and translated what the +sands had covered for centuries? And to-day the curious traveller stops +in sight of the pyramids on the banks of the Nile, and enters the Bulaq +Museum, and there he sees set up before him the very mummy of Rameses +himself and of a dozen other royal personages, rifled from their tombs +and displayed for your amazement and mine. There is the very +Pharaoh--you can see his features, you can touch his coffin--who chased +the Children of Israel out of Egypt. There are the household implements, +the furniture of their homes, the jewelry their queens wore,--queens who +were also sisters of the kings, as Sarah was the sister of Abraham.</p> + +<p>Or would you know of some great revolution in Egypt? These decipherers +of the inscriptions will tell you how the Shepherd Kings overthrew the +native dynasty, coming with their armies from Asia long before Rameses, +and changed religion and customs; under whom Jacob and his sons found +hospitable welcome, until their hated race was expelled by a stronger +native dynasty that knew not Joseph. Or they will tell you of the royal +reformer Khuenaten, son of a famous Eastern mother, a queen from the +banks of the Euphrates. Taught by her, perhaps, a purer religion, he +attempted to replace the worship of Egypt's bestial gods by the worship +of the one only great God, whose symbol was the sun. But the priestly +clan was too strong for him, and the succeeding Pharaohs destroyed his +records and chiselled out his name where it had been cut in stone that +no memory of his sacrilege might be preserved. A royal Moses there could +not be. The worshipper of one God, whether king or son of Pharaoh's +daughter, could bring no reformation to Egypt.</p> + +<p>Or would you learn how Egypt ruled its subject territory? You can read +the correspondence of a dozen local Egyptian governors in Palestine and +Syria in the century before Moses led the Hebrew slaves out of Egypt. +There is the letter of the King of Jerusalem, where Melchizedek reigned +in the times of Abraham; and they tell of rebellions against the fading +power of Egypt, and of the fear of the advancing Hittites. The earliest +kings, those that built the pyramids, appear before us real in their +personality, emerging out of misty legend or myth, and, earlier still, +even the prehistoric races that antedated the very beginning of +civilization. Whence came that first dynasty? Who invented writing? Were +they autochthons? Hardly. These are questions left for further explorers +to answer. Probably those first messengers of civilization came from the +East, perhaps from Arabia, perhaps from Babylonia, or perhaps the first +Babylonians and Egyptians formed a common stock somewhere near the mouth +of the Euphrates. Perhaps the Bible is right in saying that the first +seat of civilized man was in Eden, and that the Euphrates was the chief +river of Paradise. Or was it from Arabia, the immemorial home of the +Semitic tribes, that land of sand and mountain and fertile valley, land +of changeless culture and tradition, so near the centres of +civilization, and yet still the most inaccessible, the least known +portion of the inhabited earth,--was it from Arabia that the wiser, +stronger multitude came that first overran the valleys of both the Nile +and the Euphrates, bringing to Egypt and Chaldea arts and letters? We do +not know. Some future explorer must teach us. But the German Glaser has +within these few years brought back from hazardous journeys a multitude +of inscriptions that tell of kingdoms that fringed its southern coast +and extended we know not how far into the interior in those early days +when one of the queens of Sheba brought presents to Solomon, and when, +earlier still, we are told there were dukes of Edom before there was any +king in Israel. They say that a railroad is to be built to Mecca; Arabia +is not to be always a closed land, neighbor as it is to Egypt. We shall +know one of these days whether, as scholars suspect, out of Arabia and +across the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, where, at the southern end of the +Red Sea, Africa almost touches Asia, there came that mighty flood of +more forceful men, bred in the deserts and hills, who, passing down the +Nile, first brought history to Egypt; and whether it was this same +Semitic people, as scholars suspect again, that spread resistlessly +eastward to the Euphrates valley, and did an equal service in conquering +and assimilating the black aborigines of these swamps and lagoons. The +spade will tell us.</p> + +<p>Or was it still further east, in the highlands of Persia, that men first +learned how to write and record history? We cannot go back so far in the +history of Babylonia--Professor Hilprecht dares to carry us seven +thousand years before Christ--that we do not find its kings fighting +against Elam. And only in the last decade of the Nineteenth century the +Frenchman De Morgan has made marvellous discoveries in the Elamite +lands. What a noble passion those Frenchmen have for discovery! For +Egypt did not Napoleon provide the most elephantine books of monuments +and records that printing-presses have yet issued? And from that time to +this have not Frenchmen held the primacy in excavations until, even +while England holds and rules Egypt, she leaves, by special convention, +the care of its monuments and their exploration to French savants? And +before Layard removed a basketful of the earth that covered the palace +of Shalmaneser at Nimroud, had not the Frenchman Botta disclosed the +friezes and sphinxes of Sargon at Khorsabad; and in these late years is +it not the Frenchman De Sarzec who has brought from Telloh to the Louvre +the statues of Chaldean kings that lived almost five thousand years ago? +And so to France was given the right, for the honor and enrichment of +the Louvre, to explore Persia; and De Morgan went to Susa, to Shushan, +the palace of Xerxes and Darius, of Ahasuerus and Esther, in search of +what was far earlier than they, for another Frenchman and his wife, M. +and Mme. Dieulafoy, had already excavated the noble palace of these +Persian kings. Far below the palace of Xerxes he has found vastly +earlier remains. There is the column set up, if we can believe the +Assyriologists who trust the chronology of Nabonidus, the last king of +Babylon,--and it is not incredible,--three thousand eight hundred years +before Christ, by Naram-Sin, a Babylonian king, to commemorate one of +his raids into the land of what were perhaps his stronger enemies. It +is a noble composition, with archaic writing, and a stately figure of +the king climbing the mountains and slaying his enemies; it shows an art +that might well have developed into the best that Greece has produced. +But De Morgan has only begun to scratch the surface of the mounds of +Elam, and a multitude of scholars believe that out of Elam came the +first civilization of Chaldea. We shall find out yet; for the record is +in the earth, and only waits the man who will dig it out, and then the +man who will read it.</p> + +<p>We are tempted to go further east and recall that in India, the land +where Alexander made his most distant conquests, a multitude of English +scholars have been searching the ruins of old temples for the earliest +memorials of the worship of Buddha. Just now they have found his +birthplace and precious relics. But that takes us too far afield, and +would tempt us to further excursions in Burmah and China. We must come +back to Western Asia and the shores of Europe.</p> + +<p>As has been indicated, the greatest puzzle of ancient history is that of +the Hittite empire, which seems to have ruled all Asia Minor at some +uncertain time, and to have extended over Syria and Palestine. No sooner +had the greatest Egyptian kings, Thothmes and Rameses, ventured their +armies into Asia, perhaps in vengeance on the incursions of Ionian +pirates, perhaps in requital of the tyrannies of the hated Shepherd +Kings, than they learned of the Hittites on the shores of the Euphrates. +Then, a century or two later, a mass of official correspondence sent by +the Kings of Palestine and Syria, dug up in Egypt, reports that the +Hittites had appeared as invaders from the north and beseeches military +aid. But the power of Egypt had waned, and the Hittites were supreme +until the Assyrians began and carried on for five centuries the +uncertain war which ended in the utter overthrow of the Hittites and all +their allies in a great battle at Carchemish. That great mound of +Carchemish needs to be thoroughly explored. Already an English +expedition has very carelessly just opened the hill and exposed, but not +fairly published, some few as fine friezes as are to be found in the +Assyrian capitals, with unread Hittite inscriptions, and a fine statue +of the Hittite Venus; but much remains to reward the student of Oriental +history and art. At Senjirli a German expedition under Von Luschan has +done more and better work, handsomely published, but this was a smaller +Syrian town, and less was to be expected; and yet here, and near by, +were found what was not expected, steles (upright slabs or pillars) with +the portraits of kings in high relief, covered over with long +inscriptions in Aramaic, the oldest and longest as yet discovered +anywhere in that language. It was a magnificent result of very moderate +labor,--Hittite friezes, Assyrian and Aramean inscriptions all in one +little mound. But for the most part we know the art and writing of the +Hittites from what we have found above ground, in their towns and +fortresses in the hills, for little digging has been done. At Pterium +was a principal sacred capital, and there, on a natural corridor of +rock, they carved a procession of gods and kings and soldiers that +excites the wonder of scholars. As I write, the announcement comes that +Professor Sayce has at last discovered the secret of the Hittite +hieroglyphs, and we may hope that very soon it will be possible to read +them. But there is vastly more of their records yet to be disinterred.</p> + +<p>And there remain the two lands most sacred and beloved in poetry and +history,--the land of Israel and the land of Homer. It is amazing that +so little search has been made to find out what is hidden under the soil +of Palestine. Scholars in plenty have walked over the top of it, and +have told all that is on the surface, but almost nothing has been done +underground, no such excavations as in Egypt or Assyria. I do not forget +that the English Palestine Exploration Fund has followed out, with +trenches and tunnels, the walls of Jerusalem, nor that one or two old +mounds have been partly explored. But what is this to the great work +that needs to be done? There has been found on the surface the Moabite +Stone, at the old capital of Dibon, a wonderful record of early kings +mentioned in the Bible. And there is the short account in the rock-cut +conduit of Siloam, of the success of the workmen in the time of +Hezekiah, who, beginning at the two ends, did the fine engineering feat +of having their tunnels meet correctly in the solid rock. But when +Jerusalem is fully explored, and the northern capitals of Bethel and +Tirzah and Samaria, and a hundred other mounds that mark the site of +Jewish, Israelite, Philistine, and Amorite cities, we may expect +marvellous discoveries that will illumine our Holy Scriptures.</p> + +<p>And one region yet remains to be considered, the scattered coasts and +islands that owned the Greek speech, and that created the Greek +civilization. It is not the Greece of the Parthenon and Pericles that we +wish to discover, for that we fairly know; but the arts and the history +of those earlier Greeks and Trojans that Homer tells of, the age of +Agamemnon and Ulysses, of Helen and Hector and Priam, and of the yet +earlier tribes that sailed the Aegean, and settled the Mediterranean +islands, and sent their ships to the Egyptian coasts, and sought golden +fleeces on the Euxine Sea. All about the coast of Asia Minor they lived, +while that Hittite power was ruling the interior; and, intermixed with +Phoenician trading-posts, they held the great islands of Crete and +Cyprus and the shores of Sicily and Italy. What shall we call them? Were +they Dorians, or Heraclidae, Achaeans or Pelasgi? Were they of the same +race as the mysterious Etruscans, or shall we name them simply +Mycenaeans, as we call the art Mycenaean that ruled the islands and +coasts down to the Homeric age, and we know not how many centuries +earlier, but certainly as far back as the conquering period of the +Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty of Thothmes? Their soldiers and merchants +and their fine vases are pictured on the walls of Egypt, and their +pottery has long been studied; but we knew little of them until Dr. +Schliemann, the Greek merchant who achieved wealth in the United States, +bravely opened the great ruins of Troy, in the full patriotism of his +assurance that Homer's story of the Trojan war was history as well as +poetry. As he found one burnt and buried city under another,--for many +times was Troy destroyed,--and extended his investigations to Tiryns and +other ancient cities, one volume of splendid research followed another, +until the trader had compelled the unwilling scholar to confess that he +must dig for both history and art. To be sure, his interpretations were +quite too literal at first, but the whole world of classical scholarship +has learned from him the new method of research. Splendid have been the +results. If we are not sure which stratum represents the city of Priam, +we do learn how the people lived, and how fine was their work in silver +and gold, and how slight their knowledge of letters. Dr. Schliemann has +now a multitude of imitators. France and Germany and England and the +United States each maintain a school of archaeology in Athens, and each +conducts careful explorations. Our American School lost to the French, +for lack of money at the right time, the chance to explore Delphi, but +it has carried on careful explorations at Corinth and other places. How +wonderful was the discovery, not long ago, of a shipload of bronze and +marble statues wrecked while being transported as spoil of war from +Corinth to Rome!</p> + +<p>But the most surprising discoveries in the realm of old Greek history +and art are those that have been made in these last two or three years +in Crete. Crete was a famous centre of ancient Greek legend. Jupiter was +born and reared on Mount Ida. From another mountain summit in Crete the +gods watched the battle on the plains of Troy. There ruled Minos, who +first gave laws to men, and who at his death was sent by the gods to +judge the shades as they entered the lower world. There was the famous +Labyrinth, and there the Minotaur devoured his annual tale of maidens +until he was slain by Theseus. Was there such a real palace of Minos as +the Greek poets sung? The magnificent palace of the Cretan kings at +Cnossus has been found, by Mr. Evans, with its friezes, its spiral +ornaments, its flounce-petticoated women, its treasuries, and its +tablets written in a script so old that it cannot yet be read, but which +will be read as surely as scholarship leaves none of its riddles +unsolved. The childhood of Greece, its mighty infancy, out of which it +grew to be the creator and the example of all the world's culture, is +even now being exposed to our view, safely kept to be recovered by the +scholars of our generation.</p> + +<p>Of interest rather to the student of the curiosities of history are the +mounds and pyramids and temples built by the aborigines of America; for +these tribes have had absolutely no part in creating our dominant +civilization or developing its art. China and Japan are, at this late +day, giving something to the world's store of beauty and utility; but +the mound-builders and cliff-dwellers, the Mayas and Toltecs and Incas, +have given absolutely nothing which the world cared to accept. But this +does not argue that it is not worth while to learn what we can of the +rude civilization of the races whom we have displaced. Their arrowheads +and hatchets are in every little museum. Their mounds, sometimes shaped +like serpents or tortoises or lizards, are scattered over all the +central States, and many of them have been carefully explored with +scanty results. The cliff-dwellers have left somewhat richer remains, +more baskets and parched corn, yet nothing of artistic value. We have to +go to Mexico and Yucatan and further south to Peru, to find the +majestic capitals of the Mayas and Incas, who had really reached a fair +degree of such civilization as stone and copper, without iron, and the +beginnings of picture symbols, without letters, could provide. Humboldt +and Stephens, and Lord Kingsborough, and Squier, and Tchudi, and Charnay +have made explorations and found vast and wonderful cities, some of them +deserted and overgrown before Cortez and Pizarro took possession of the +lands for Spain and enslaved the people. Where the city of Mexico now +stands was a famous capital, from whose ruins were taken the great +Calendar stone and the double statue of the god of war and the god of +death. In Palenque and Uxmal, capitals of Yucatan, were immense palaces +and temples, with the weird ornamentation of Mayan imagination; and +equal wonders exist in the high uplands where the Incas ruled Peru. Even +their barbaric art and their unrecorded history must be recovered, to +satisfy the curiosity of the more fortunate races whose boasted +Christianity visited on them nothing better than cruel slaughter. At +least we can give them museums and publish magnificent pictures of +their ruins.</p> + +<p>So we may bless the ashes and sand that seemed to destroy and bury the +monuments of the mighty empires of the ancient world, but which have +kindly covered and preserved them, just as we put our treasures away in +some safety-vault while absent on a long journey. The fire burned the +upper wooden walls of the city, and it fell in ruins, but under those +ruins, covered by that ashes, were preserved for two thousand, three +thousand, five thousand years uninjured, the choicest sculpture and the +most precious records of ancient nations,--retained beyond the reach of +vandal hands, until scholarship had grown wise enough to ask questions +of forgotten history, and had sent Layard and Schliemann and De Sarzec +and Evans and a hundred other men to dig with their competitive spades. +But in all the long list of enthusiasts not one deserves a higher honor +or has reaped a richer harvest than Sir Henry Layard.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>Layard: "Early Adventures;" "Nineveh and its Remains;" "Nineveh and +Babylon;" "Monuments of Nineveh." Botta: "Monument de Ninive." Loftus: +"Chaldea and Susiana." Y. Place: "Ninive et Assyrie." Hilprecht: +"Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania;" "Recent +Research in Bible Lands." Perrot and Chipiez: "History of Art in +Antiquity." J.P. Peters: "Nippur." R.W. Rogers: "History of Babylonia +and Assyria." F. Lenormant: "Students' Manual of the Ancient History of +the East;" "The Beginnings of History." Maspero: "Dawn of Civilization;" +"Struggle of the Nations;" "Passing of the Empires;" "Egyptian +Archaeology;" "Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria." C.J. Ball: "Light +from the East." Egypt Exploration Fund's Publications. F.J. Bliss: +"Exploration in Jerusalem;" "A Mound of Many Cities." Schliemann: "Troy +and its Remains;" "Ilios;" "Mycenae;" "Tiryns;" "Troja." A.J. Evans: +"Cnossus;" "Cretan Pictographs." Tsountas and Manatt: "The +Mycenaean Age."</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="MICHAEL_FARADAY."></a>MICHAEL FARADAY.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1791-1867.</p> + +<p>ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.</p> + +<p>BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH.D.</p> + + + "No man is born into the world whose work<br> + Is not born with him. There is always work,<br> + And tools to work withal, for those who will."<br> + + LOWELL<br> + +<p>A man was born into the world, on the 22d of September, 1791, whose work +was born with him, and who did this work so well that he became one of +its greatest benefactors. Indeed, much of the marvellous advance made in +the electric arts and sciences, during the last half-century, can be +directly traced to this work.</p> + +<p>It was in Newington Butts, in London, England, that the man-child first +opened his eyes on the wonders of the physical world around him. To +those eyes, in after years, were given a far deeper insight into the +mysteries of nature than often falls to the lot of man. This man-child +was Michael Faraday, who has been justly styled, by those best capable +of judging him, "The Prince of Experimental Philosophers."</p> + +<p>The precocity so common in the childhood of men of genius was +apparently absent in the case of young Faraday. The growing boy played +marbles, and worried through a scant education in reading, writing, and +arithmetic, unnoticed, and most probably, for the greater part, severely +left alone, as commonly falls to the lot of nearly all boys, whether +ordinary or extraordinary. At the early age of thirteen, he was taken +from school and placed on trial as errand-boy in the book-shop of George +Ribeau, in London. After a year at this work, he was taken as an +apprentice to the bookbinding trade, by the same employer, who, on +account of his faithful services, remitted the customary premium. At +this work he spent some eight years of his life.</p> + +<p>But far be it from us even to hint at the absence of genius in the young +child. Genius is not an acquired gift. It is born in the individual. +Apart from the marvellous achievements of the man, a mere glance at the +magnificent head, with its high intellectual forehead, the firm lips, +the intelligent inquiring eyes, and the bright face, as seen in existing +pictures, assures us that they portray an unusual individuality, +incompatible with even a suspicion of belonging to an ordinary man. +Doubtless the growing child did give early promise of his future +greatness. Doubtless he was a formidable member of that terrible class +of inquiring youngsters who demand the why and the wherefore of all +around them, and refuse to accept the unsatisfactory belief of their +fathers that things "are because they are." In its self-complacency, the +busy world is too apt to fail to notice unusual abilities in +children,--abilities that perhaps too often remain undeveloped from lack +of opportunities. But whether young Faraday did or did not, at an early +age, display any unusual promise of his life-work, all his biographers +appear to agree that he could not be regarded as a precocious child.</p> + +<p>Faraday disclaimed the idea that his childhood was distinguished by any +precocity. "Do not suppose that I was a very deep thinker, or was marked +as a precocious person," says Faraday, when alluding to his early life. +"I was a very lively, imaginative person, and could believe in the +'Arabian Nights' as easily as the 'Encyclopaedia,' but facts were +important to me, and saved me. I could trust a fact and always +cross-examined an assertion. So when I questioned Mrs. Marcet's book [he +is alluding to her 'Conversations on Chemistry'], by such little +experiments as I could find means to perform, and found it true to the +facts as I could understand them, I felt that I had got hold of an +anchor in chemical knowledge, and clung fast to it."</p> + +<p>But while there may be a question as to the existence of precocity in +the young lad, there does not appear to be any reason for believing that +his unusual abilities were the result of direct heredity. His father, an +ordinary journeyman blacksmith, never exhibited any special intellectual +ability, though possibly poverty and poor health may have been +responsible for this failure. His mother, too, it appears, was of but +ordinary mentality.</p> + +<p>The environment of those early years--that is, from 1804 to 1813, while +in the book-binding business--was far from calculated to develop any +marked abilities inherent in our young philosopher. What would seem less +calculated to inspire a wish to obtain a deeper insight into the +mysteries of the physical world than the trade of book-binding, +especially in the case of a boy whose scholastic education ceased at +fourteen years and was limited to the mere rudiments of learning? But, +fortunately for the world, the inquiring spirit of the lad led him to +examine the inside of the books he bound, and thus, by familiarizing +himself with their contents, he received the inspiration that good +writing is always ready to bestow on those who properly read it. Two +books, he afterwards informs us, proved of especial benefit; namely, +"Marcet's Conversations on Chemistry," already referred to, and the +"Encyclopaedia Britannica." To the former he attributes his grounding in +chemistry, and to the latter his first ideas in electricity, in both of +which studies he excelled in after years. As we have seen, even at this +early age he followed the true plan for the physical investigator, +cross-questioned all statements, only admitting those to the dignity of +facts whose truth he had established by careful experimentation.</p> + +<p>But our future experimental philosopher has not as yet fairly started on +the beginnings of his life-work. The possibilities of the book-binding +trade were too limited to permit much real progress. A circumstance +occurred in the spring of 1812 that shaped his entire after-life. This +was the opportunity then afforded him to attend four of the last +lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, by the great Sir Humphry +Davy. Faraday took copious notes of these lectures, carefully wrote them +out, and bound them in a small quarto volume. It was this volume, which +he afterwards sent to Davy, that resulted in his receiving, on March 1, +1813, the appointment of laboratory assistant in the Royal Institution. +His pay for this work was twenty-five shillings a week, with a lodging +on the top floor of the Institute, a very fair compensation for +the times.</p> + +<p>Very congenial were the duties of the young assistant. They were to keep +clean the beloved apparatus of the lecturers, and to assist them in +their demonstrations. The new world thus opened was full of bright +promise. He keenly felt the deficiencies of his early education, and +did his best to extend his learning, so that he might be able to make +the most of his opportunities. But what he perhaps appreciated the most +was the inspiration he received from the great teacher Davy, who was +then Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Laboratory of the Royal +Institution; for Faraday assisted at Davy's lectures, and in an humble +way even aided his investigations, sharing the dangers arising from the +explosion of the unstable substance, chloride of nitrogen, that Davy was +then investigating. Faraday has repeatedly acknowledged the debt owed to +the inspiration of this teacher. Davy also, in later life generously +recognized, in his former assistant, a philosopher greater than himself. +As the renowned astronomer, Tycho Brahe, discovered in one of his +pupils, John Kepler, an astronomer greater than the master, and as +Bergman, the Swedish chemist, in a similar manner, discovered the +greater chemist Scheele, so when Davy, in after years, was asked what he +regarded as his greatest discovery, he briefly replied, +"Michael Faraday."</p> + +<p>The task of the scientific historian, who endeavors honestly to record +the progress of research, and to trace the influence of the work of some +individual on the times in which he lived, is by no means an easy one; +for, in scientific work one discovery frequently passes so insensibly +into another that it is often difficult to know just where one stops +and the other begins, and much difficulty constantly arises as to whom +the credit should be given, when, as is too often the case, these +discoveries are made by different individuals. It is only when some +great discovery stands alone, like a giant mountain peak against the +clear sky, that it is comparatively easy to determine the extent and +character of its influence on other discoveries, and justly to give the +credit to whom the credit is due. Such discoveries form ready points of +reference in the intellectual horizon, and mark distinct eras in the +world's progress. This is true of all work in the domain of physical +science, but it is especially true in that of electricity and magnetism, +in which Faraday was preeminent. The scope of each of these sciences is +so extended, the number of workers so great, and the applications to the +practical arts so nearly innumerable, that it is often by no means an +easy task correctly to trace their proper growth and development.</p> + +<p>Faraday's investigations covered vast fields in the domain of chemistry, +electricity, and magnetism. It is to the last two only that reference +will here be made. Faraday's life-work in electricity and magnetism +began practically in 1831, when he made his immortal discovery of the +direct production of electricity from magnetism. His best work in +electricity and magnetism was accomplished between 1831 and 1856, +extending, therefore, over a period of some twenty-five years, although +it is not denied that good work was done since 1856. Consequently, it +was at so comparatively recent a date that most of Faraday's work was +done that some of the world's distinguished electricians yet live who +began their studies during the latter years of Faraday's life. The +difficulties of tracing, at least to some extent, the influence that +Faraday's masterly investigations have had on the present condition of +the electrical arts and sciences will, therefore, be considerably +lessened.</p> + +<p>The extent of Faraday's researches and discoveries in magnetism and +electricity was so great that it will be impossible, in the necessarily +limited space of a brief biographical sketch, to notice any but the more +prominent. Nor will any attempt be made, except where the nature of the +research or discovery appears to render it advisable, to follow any +strict chronological order; for, our inquiry here is not so much +directed to a mere matter of history as to the influence which the +investigation or discovery exerted on the life and civilization of the +age in which we live.</p> + +<p>There is a single discovery of Faraday that stands out sharply amidst +all his other discoveries, great as they were, and is so important in +its far-reaching results that it alone would have stamped him as a +philosophical investigator of the highest merits, had he never done +anything else. This was his discovery of the means for developing +electricity directly from magnetism. It was made on the 29th of August, +1831, and should be regarded as inspired by the great discovery made by +Oersted in 1820, of the relations existing between the voltaic pile and +electro-magnetism. It was in the same year that Ampere had conducted +that memorable investigation as to the mutual attractions and repulsions +between circuits through which electric currents are flowing, which +resulted in a theory of electro-magnetism, and finally led to the +production of the electro-magnet itself. Ampere had shown that a coil of +wire, or helix, through which an electric current is passing, acted +practically as a magnet, and Arago had magnetized an iron bar by placing +it within such a helix.</p> + +<p>In common with the other scientific men of his time, Faraday believed +that since the flow of an electric current invariably produced +magnetism, so magnetism should, in its turn, be capable of producing +electricity. Many investigators before Faraday's time had endeavored to +solve this problem, but it was reserved to Faraday alone to be +successful. Since success in this investigation resulted from some +experiments he made while endeavoring to obtain inductive action on a +quiescent circuit from a neighboring circuit through which an electric +current was flowing, we will first briefly examine this experiment. All +his experiments in this direction were at first unsuccessful. He passed +an electric current through a circuit, which was located close to +another circuit containing a galvanometer,--a device for showing the +presence of an electric current and measuring its strength,--but failed +to obtain any result. He looked for such results only when the current +had been fully established in the active circuit. Undismayed by failure, +he reasoned that probably effects were present, but that they were too +small to be observed owing to the feeble inducing current employed. He +therefore increased the strength of the current in the active wire; but +still with no results.</p> + +<p>Again and again he interrogates nature, but unsuccessfully. At last he +notices that there is a slight movement of the galvanometer needle at +the moment of making and breaking the circuit. Carefully repeating his +experiments in the light of this observation, he discovers the important +fact that it is only at the moment a current is increasing or decreasing +in strength--at the moment of making or breaking a circuit--that the +active circuit is capable of producing a current in a neighboring +inactive circuit by induction. This was an important discovery, and in +the light of his after-knowledge was correctly regarded as a solution of +the production of electricity from magnetism.</p> + +<p>Observing that the galvanometer needle momentarily swings in one +direction on making the circuit, and in the opposite direction on +breaking it, he establishes the fact that the current induced on making +flows in the opposite direction to the inducing current, and that +induced on breaking flows in the same direction as the inducing current.</p> + +<p>Having thus established the fact of current induction, he makes the step +of substituting magnets for active circuits; a simple step in the light +of our present knowledge, but a giant stride at that time. Remembering +that current induction, or, as he called it, voltaic current induction, +takes place only while some effect produced by the current is either +increasing or decreasing, he moves coils of insulated wire towards or +from magnet poles, or magnet poles towards or from coils of wire, and +shows that electric currents are generated in the coils while either the +coils or the magnets are in motion, but cease to be produced as soon as +the motion ceases. Moreover, these magnetically induced currents differ +in no respects from other currents,--for example, those produced by the +voltaic pile,--since, like the latter, they produce sparks, magnetize +bars of steel, or deflect the needle of a galvanometer. In this manner +Faraday solved the great problem. He had produced electricity directly +from magnetism!</p> + +<p>With, perhaps, the single exception of the discovery by Oersted, in +1820, of the invariable relation existing between an electric current +and magnetism, this discovery of Faraday may be justly regarded as the +greatest in this domain of physical science. These two master minds in +scientific research wonderfully complemented each other. Oersted showed +that an electric current is invariably attended by magnetic effects; +Faraday showed that magnetic changes are invariably attended by electric +currents. Before these discoveries, electricity and magnetism were +necessarily regarded as separate branches of physical science, and were +studied apart as separate phenomena. Now, however, they must be regarded +as co-existing phenomena. The ignorance of the scientific world had +unwittingly divorced what nature had joined together.</p> + +<p>In view of the great importance of Faraday's discovery, we shall be +justified in inquiring, though somewhat briefly, into some of the +apparatus employed in this historic research. Note its extreme +simplicity. In one of his first successful experiments he wraps a coil +of insulated wire around the soft iron bar that forms the armature or +keeper of a permanent magnet of the horse-shoe type, and connects the +ends of this coil to a galvanometer. He discovers that whenever the +armature is placed against the magnet poles, and is therefore being +rendered magnetic by contact therewith, the deflection of the needle of +the galvanometer shows that the coiled wire on the armature is traversed +by a current of electricity; that whenever the armature is removed from +the magnet poles, and is therefore losing its magnetism, the needle of +the galvanometer is again deflected, but now in the opposite direction, +showing that an electric current is again flowing through the coiled +wire on the armature, but reversed in direction. He notices, too, that +these effects take place only while changes are going on in the strength +of the magnetism in the armature, or when magnetic flux is passing +through the coils; for, the galvanometer needle comes to rest, and +remains at rest as long as the contact between the armature and the +poles remains unbroken.</p> + +<p>In another experiment he employs a simple hollow coil, or helix, of +insulated wire whose ends are connected with a galvanometer. On suddenly +thrusting one end of a straight cylindrical magnet into the axis of the +helix, the deflection of the galvanometer needle showed the presence of +an electric current in the helix. The magnet being left in the helix, +the galvanometer needle came to rest, thus showing the absence of +current. When the bar magnet was suddenly withdrawn from the helix, the +galvanometer needle was again deflected, but now in the opposite +direction, showing that the direction of the current in the helix had +been reversed.</p> + +<p>The preceding are but some of the results that Faraday obtained by +means of his experimental researches in the direct production of +electricity from magnetism. Let us now briefly examine just what he was +doing, and the means whereby he obtained electric currents from +magnetism. We will consider this question from the views of the present +time, rather than from those of Faraday, although the difference between +the two are in most respects immaterial.</p> + +<p>Faraday knew that the space or region around a magnet is permeated or +traversed by what he called magnetic curves, or lines of magnetic force. +These lines are still called "lines of magnetic force," or by some +"magnetic streamings" "magnetic flux," or simply "magnetism." They are +invisible, though their presence is readily manifested by means of iron +filings. They are present in every magnet, and although we do not know +in what direction they move, yet in order to speak definitely about +them, it is agreed to assume that they pass out of every magnet at its +north-seeking pole (or the pole which would point to the magnetic north, +were the magnet free to move as a needle), and, after having traversed +the space surrounding the magnet, reenter at its south-seeking pole, +thus completing what is called the magnetic circuit. Any space traversed +by lines of magnetic force is called a magnetic field.</p> + +<p>But it is not only a magnet that is thus surrounded by lines of +magnetic force, or by ether streamings. The same is true of any +conductor through which an electric current is flowing, and their +presence may be shown by means of iron filings. If an active +conductor--a conductor conveying an electric current, as, for example, a +copper wire--be passed vertically through a piece of card-board, or a +glass plate, iron filings dusted on the card or plate will arrange +themselves in concentric circles around the axis of the wire. It +requires an expenditure of energy both to set up and to maintain these +lines of force. It is the interaction of their lines of force that +causes the attractions and repulsions in active movable conductors. +These lines of magnetic force act on magnetic needles like other lines +of magnetic force and tend to set movable magnetic needles at right +angles to the conducting wire.</p> + +<p>The setting up of an electric current in a conducting wire is, +therefore, equivalent to the setting up of concentric magnetic whirls +around the axis of the wire, and anything that can do this will produce +an electric current. For example, if an inactive conducting wire is +moved through a magnetic field; it will have concentric circular whirls +set up around it; or, in other words, it will have a current generated +in it as a result of such motion. But to set up these whirls it is not +enough that the conducting wire be moved along the lines of force in the +field. In such a case no whirls are produced around the conductor. The +conductor must be moved so as to cut or pass through the lines of +magnetic force. Just what the mechanism is by means of which the cutting +of the lines of force by the conductor produces the circular magnetic +whirls around it, no man knows any more than he knows just what +electricity is; but this much we do know,--that to produce the circular +whirls or currents in a previously inactive conductor, the lines of +force of some already existing magnetic field must be caused to pass +through the conductor, and that the strength of the current so produced +is proportional to the number of lines of magnetic force cut in a given +time, say, per second; or, in other words, is directly proportional to +the strength of the magnetic field, and to the velocity and length of +the moving conductor.</p> + +<p>Or, briefly recapitulating: Oersted showed that an electric current, +passed through a conducting circuit, sets up concentric circular whirls +around its axis; that is, an electric current invariably produces +magnetism; Faraday showed, that if the lines of magnetic force, or +magnetism, be caused to cut or pass through an inactive conductor, +concentric circular whirls will be set up around the conductor; that is, +lines of magnetic force passed across a conductor invariably set up an +electric current in that conductor.</p> + +<p>The wonderful completeness of Faraday's researches into the production +of electricity from magnetism may be inferred from the fact that all +the forms of magneto-electric induction known to-day--namely, +self-induction, or the induction of an active circuit on itself; mutual +induction, or the induction of an active circuit on a neighboring +circuit; and electro-magnetic induction, and magneto-electric induction, +or the induction produced in conductors through which the magnetic flux +from electro and permanent magnets respectively is caused to pass--were +discovered and investigated by him. Nor were these investigations +carried on in the haphazard, blundering, groping manner that +unfortunately too often characterizes the explorer in a strange country; +on the contrary, they were singularly clear and direct, showing how +complete the mastery the great investigator had over the subject he was +studying. It is true that repeated failures frequently met him, but +despite discouragements and disappointments he continued until he had +entirely traversed the length and breadth of the unknown region he was +the first to explore.</p> + +<p>Let us now briefly examine Faraday's many remaining discoveries and +inventions. Though none of these were equal to his great discovery, yet +many were exceedingly valuable. Some were almost immediately utilized; +some waited many years for utilization; and some have never yet been +utilized. We must avoid, however, falling into the common mistake of +holding in little esteem those parts of Faraday's work that did not +immediately result either in the production of practical apparatus, or +in valuable applications in the arts and sciences, or those which have +not even yet proved fruitful. Some discoveries and devices are so far +ahead of the times in which they are produced that several lifetimes +often pass before the world is ready to utilize them. Like immature or +unripe fruit, they are apt to die an untimely death, and it sometimes +curiously happens that, several generations after their birth, a +subsequent inventor or discoverer, in honest ignorance of their prior +existence, offers them to the world as absolutely new. The times being +ripe, they pass into immediate and extended public use, so that the +later inventor is given all the credit of an original discovery, and the +true first and original inventor remains unrecognized.</p> + +<p>We will first examine Faraday's discovery of the relations existing +between light and magnetism. Though the discovery has not as yet borne +fruit in any direct practical application, yet it has proved of immense +value from a theoretical standpoint. In this investigation Faraday +proved that light-vibrations are rotated by the action of a magnetic +field. He employed the light of an ordinary Argand lamp, and polarized +it by reflection from a glass surface. He caused this polarized light to +pass through a plate of heavy glass made from a boro-silicate of lead. +Under ordinary circumstances this substance exerted no unusual action on +light, but when it was placed between the poles of a powerful +electro-magnet, and the light was passed through it in the same +direction as the magnetic flux, the plane of polarization of the light +was rotated in a certain direction.</p> + +<p>Faraday discovered that other solid substances besides glass exert a +similar action on a beam of polarized light. Even opaque solids like +iron possess this property. Kerr has proved that a beam of light passed +through an extremely thin plate of highly magnetic iron has its plane of +polarization slightly rotated. Faraday showed that the power of rotating +a beam of polarized light is also possessed by some liquids. But what is +most interesting, in both solids and liquids, is that the direction of +the rotation of the light depends on the direction in which the +magnetism is passing, and can, therefore, be changed by changing the +polarity of the electro-magnet.</p> + +<p>Faraday did not seem to thoroughly understand this phenomenon. He spoke +as if he thought the lines of magnetic force had been rendered luminous +by the light rays; for, he announced his discovery in a paper entitled, +"Magnetization of Light and the Illumination of the Lines of Magnetic +Force." Indeed, this discovery was so far ahead of the times that it was +not until a later date that the results were more fully developed, +first by Kelvin, and subsequently by Clerk Maxwell. In 1865, two years +before Faraday's death, Maxwell proposed the electro-magnetic theory of +light, showing that light is an electro-magnetic disturbance. He pointed +out that optical as well as electro-magnetic phenomena required a medium +for their propagation, and that the properties of this medium appeared +to be the same for both. Moreover, the rate at which light travels is +known by actual measurement; the rate at which electro-magnetic waves +are propagated can be calculated from electrical measurements, and these +two velocities exactly agree. Faraday's original experiment as to the +relation between light and magnetism is thus again experimentally +demonstrated; and, Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light now +resting on experimental fact, optics becomes a branch of electricity. A +curious consequence was pointed out by Maxwell as a result of his +theory; namely, that a necessary relation exists between opacity and +conductivity, since, as he showed, electro-magnetic disturbances could +not be propagated in substances which are conductors of electricity. In +other words, if light is an electro-magnetic disturbance, all conducting +substances must be opaque, and all good insulators transparent. This we +know to be the fact: metallic substances, the best of conductors, are +opaque, while glass and crystals are transparent. Even such apparent +exceptions as vulcanite, an excellent insulator, fall into the law, +since, as Graham Bell has recently shown, this substance is remarkably +transparent to certain kinds of radiant energy.</p> + +<p>In 1778, Brugmans of Leyden noticed that if a piece of bismuth was held +near either pole of a strong magnet, repulsion occurred. Other observers +noticed the same effect in the case of antimony. These facts appear to +have been unknown to Faraday, who, in 1845, by employing powerful +electro-magnets rediscovered them, and in addition showed that +practically all substances possess the power of being attracted or +repelled, when placed between the poles of sufficiently powerful +magnets. By placing slender needles of the substances experimented on +between the poles of powerful horseshoe magnets, he found that they were +all either attracted like iron, coming to rest with their greatest +length extending between the poles; or, like bismuth, were apparently +repelled by the poles, coming to rest at right angles to the position +assumed by iron. He regarded the first class of substances as attracted, +and the second class as repelled, and called them respectively +paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances. In other words, paramagnetic +substances, like iron, came to rest axially (extending from pole to +pole), and diamagnetic substances, like bismuth, equatorially (extending +transversely between the poles). He reserved the term magnetic +substances to cover the phenomena of both para and dia-magnetism. He +communicated the results of this investigation to the Royal Society in a +paper on the "Magnetic Condition of All Matter," on Dec. 18, 1845.</p> + +<p>The properties of paramagnetism and diamagnetism are not possessed by +solids only, but exist also in liquids and gases. When experimenting +with liquids, they were placed in suitable glass vessels, such as watch +crystals, supported on pole pieces properly shaped to receive them. +Under these circumstances paramagnetic liquids, such as salts of iron or +cobalt dissolved in water, underwent curious contortions in shape, the +tendency being to arrange the greater part of their mass in the +direction in which the flux passed; namely, directly between the poles. +Diamagnetic liquids, such as solutions of salts of bismuth and antimony, +in a similar manner, arranged the greater part of their mass in +positions at right angles to this direction, or equatorially.</p> + +<p>At first Faraday attributed the repulsion of diamagnetic substances to a +polarity, separate and distinct from ordinary magnetic polarity, for +which he proposed the name, diamagnetic polarity. He believed that when +a diamagnetic substance is brought near to the north pole of a magnet, a +north pole was developed in its approached end, and that therefore +repulsion occurred. He afterwards rejected this view, though it has +been subsequently adopted by Weber and Tyndall, the latter of whom +conducted an extended series of experiments on the subject. The majority +of physicists, however, at the present time, do not believe in the +existence of a diamagnetic polarity. They point out that the apparent +repulsion of diamagnetic substances is due to the fact that they are +less paramagnetic than the oxygen of the air in which they are +suspended.</p> + +<p>During this investigation Faraday observed some phenomena that led him +to a belief in the existence of another form of force, distinct from +either paramagnetic or diamagnetic force, which he called the +magne-crystallic force. He had been experimenting with some slender +needles of bismuth, suspending them horizontally between the poles of an +electro-magnet. Taking a few of these cylinders at random from a greater +number, he was much perplexed to find that they did not all come to rest +equatorially, as well-behaved bars of diamagnetic bismuth should do, +though, if subjected to the action of a single magnetic pole, they did +show this diamagnetic character by their marked repulsion. After much +experimentation, he ascribed this phenomenon to the crystalline +condition of the cylinder. By experimenting with carefully selected +groups of crystals of bismuth, he believed he could trace the cause of +the phenomenon to the action of a force which he called the +magne-crystallic force.</p> + +<p>Extended experiments carried on by Plücker on the influence of +magnetism on crystalline substances led him to believe that a close +relation exists between the ultimate forms of the particles of matter +and their magnetic behavior. This subject is as yet far from being fully +understood.</p> + +<p>There was another series of investigations made by Faraday between the +years 1831 and 1840, that has been wonderfully utilized, and may +properly be ranked among his great discoveries. We allude to his +researches on the laws which govern the chemical decomposition of +compound substances by electricity. The fact that the electric current +possesses the power of decomposing compound substances was known as +early as 1800, when Carlisle and Nicholson separated water into its +constituent elements, by the passage of a voltaic current. Davy, too, in +1806, had delivered his celebrated discourse "On Some Chemical Agencies +of Electricity," and in 1807, had announced his great discovery of the +decomposition of the fixed alkalies.</p> + +<p>Faraday showed that the amount of chemical action produced by +electricity is fixed and definite. In order to be able to measure the +amount of this action, he invented an instrument which he called a +voltameter, or a volta-electrometer. It consisted of a simple device for +measuring the amount of hydrogen and oxygen gases liberated by the +passage of an electric current through water acidulated with sulphuric +acid. He showed, by numerous experiments, that the decomposition +effected is invariably proportional to the amount of electricity +passing; that variations in the size of the electrodes, in the pressure, +or in the degree of dilution of the electrolyte, had nothing to do with +the result, and that therefore a voltameter could be employed to +determine the amount of electricity passing in a given circuit. He also +demonstrated that when a current is passed through different +electrolytes (compound substances decomposed by the passage of +electricity), the amount of the decompositions are chemically equivalent +to each other.</p> + +<p>The extent of Faraday's work in the electro-chemical field may be judged +by considering some of the terms he proposed for its phenomena, most of +which, with some trifling exceptions, are still in use. It was he who +gave the name electrolysis to decomposition by the electric current; he +also proposed to call the wires, or conductors connected with the +battery, or other electric source, the electrodes, naming that one which +was connected with the positive terminal, the anode, and that one +connected with the negative terminal, the cathode. He called the +separate atoms or groups of atoms into which bodies undergoing +electrolysis are separated, the radicals, or ions, and named the +electro-positive ions, which appear at the cathode, the kathions, and +the electro-negative radicals which appear at the anode, the anions.</p> + +<p>There were many other researches made by Faraday, such as his +experiments on disruptive electric discharges, his investigations on the +electric eel, his many researches on the phenomena both of frictional +electricity and of the voltaic pile, his investigations on the contact +and chemical theories of the voltaic pile, and those on chemical +decomposition by frictional electricity; these are but some of the mere +important of them. Those we have already discussed will, however, amply +suffice to show the value of his work. Rather than take up any others, +let us inquire what influence, if any, the various groups of discoveries +we have already discussed have exerted on the electric arts and sciences +in our present time. What practical results have attended these +discoveries? What actual, useful, commercial machines have been based on +them? What useful processes or industries have grown out of them?</p> + +<p>And, first, as to actual commercial machines. These researches not only +led to the production of dynamo-electric machines, but, in point of +fact, Faraday actually produced the first dynamo. A dynamo-electric +machine, as is well known, is a machine by means of which mechanical +energy is converted into electrical energy, by causing conductors to cut +through, or be cut through by, lines of magnetic force; or, briefly, it +is a machine by means of which electricity is readily obtained from +magnetism.</p> + +<p>Faraday's invention of the first dynamo is interesting because at the +same time he made the invention he solved a problem which up to his time +had been the despair of the ablest physicists and mathematicians. This +was the phenomenon of Arago's rotating disc. It was briefly as follows: +If a copper disc be rotated above a magnet, the needle tends to follow +the plate in its rotation; or, if a copper plate be placed at rest above +or below an oscillating magnet, it tends to check its oscillations and +bring the needle quickly to rest. Faraday investigated these phenomena +and soon discovered that a copper disc rotated below two magnet poles +had electric currents generated in it, which flowed radially through the +disc between its circumference and centre. By placing one end of a +conducting circuit on the axis of the disc, and the other end on its +circumference, he succeeded in drawing off a continuous electric current +generated from magnetism, and thus produced the first dynamo. This was +in 1831. Faraday produced many other dynamos besides this simple +disc machine.</p> + +<p>Although the disc dynamo in its original form was impracticable as a +commercial machine, yet it was not only the forerunner of the dynamo, +but was, in point of fact, the first machine ever produced that is +entitled to be called a dynamo. He generously left to those who might +come after him the opportunity to avail themselves of his wonderful +discovery. "I have rather, however," he says, "been desirous of +discovering new facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electric +induction than of exalting the force of those already obtained, being +assured that the latter would find their development hereafter." How +profoundly prophetic! Could the illustrious investigator see the +hundreds of thousands of dynamos that are to-day in all parts of the +world engaged in converting millions of horse-power of mechanical energy +into electric energy, he would appreciate how marvellously his +successors have "exalted the force" of some of the effects he had so +ably shown the world how to obtain.</p> + +<p>Faraday lived to see his infant dynamo, the first of its kind, developed +into a machine not only sufficiently powerful to maintain electric arc +lights, but also into a form sufficiently practicable to be continuously +engaged in producing such light, in one of the lighthouses on the +English coast. Holmes produced such a machine in 1862, or some years +before Faraday's death. It was installed under the care of the Trinity +House, at the Dungeness Lighthouse, in June, 1862, and continued in use +for about ten years. When this machine was shown to Faraday by its +inventor, the veteran philosopher remarked, "I gave you a baby, and you +bring me a giant."</p> + +<p>The alternating-current transformer is another gift of Faraday to the +commercial world. As is well known, this instrument is a device for +raising or lowering electric pressure. The name is derived from the fact +that the instrument is capable of taking in at one pressure the electric +energy supplied to it, and giving it out at another pressure, thus +transforming it. Faraday produced the first transformer during his +investigations on voltaic-current induction. The modern +alternating-current transformer, though differing markedly in minor +details from Faraday's primitive instrument, yet in general details is +essentially identical with it. The enormous use of both step-up and +step-down transformers--transformers which respectively induce currents +of higher and of lower electromotive forces in their secondary coils +than are passed through their primaries--shows the great practical value +of this invention. The wonderful growth of the commercial applications +of alternating currents during the past few decades would have been +impossible without the use of the alternating-current transformer.</p> + +<p>It is an interesting fact that it was not in the form of the step-down +alternating-current transformer that Faraday's discovery of +voltaic-current induction was first utilized, but in the form of a +step-up transformer, or what was then ordinarily called an induction +coil. As early as 1842, Masson and Bréguet constructed an induction +coil by means of which minute sparks could be obtained from the +secondary, in vacuo. In 1851, Ruhmkorff constructed an induction coil so +greatly improved, by the careful insulation of its secondary circuit, +that he could obtain from it torrents of long sparks in ordinary air. +The Ruhmkorff induction coil has in late years been greatly improved +both by Tesla and Elihu Thomson, who, separately and independently of +each other, have produced excellent forms of high-frequency +induction coils.</p> + +<p>Induction coils have long been in use for purposes of research, and in +later years have been employed in the production both of the Röntgen +rays used in the photography of the invisible, and the electro-magnetic +waves used in wireless telegraphy.</p> + +<p>Röntgen's discovery was published in 1895. It was rendered possible by +the prior work of Geissler and Crookes on the luminous phenomena +produced by the passage of electric discharges through high vacua in +glass tubes. Röntgen discovered that the invisible rays, or radiation, +emitted from certain parts of a high-vacuum tube, when high-tension +discharges from induction coils were passing, possessed the curious +property of traversing certain opaque substances as readily as light +does glass or water. He also discovered that these rays were capable of +exciting fluorescence in some substances,--that is, of causing them to +emit light and become luminous,--and that these rays, like the rays of +light, were capable of affecting a photographic plate. From these +properties two curious possibilities arose; namely, to see through +opaque bodies, and to photograph the invisible. Röntgen called these +rays X, or unknown rays. They are now almost invariably called by the +name of their distinguished discoverer.</p> + +<p>Let us briefly investigate how it is possible both to see and to +photograph the invisible. Shortly after Röntgen's discovery, Edison, +with that wonderful power of finding practical applications for nearly +all discoveries, had invented the fluoroscope,--a screen covered with a +peculiar chemical substance that becomes luminous when exposed to the +Röntgen rays. Suppose, now, between the rays and such a screen be +interposed a substance opaque to ordinary light, as, for example, the +human hand. The tissues of the hand, such as the flesh and the blood, +permit the rays to readily pass through them, but the bones are opaque +to the rays, and, therefore, oppose their passage; consequently, the +screen; instead of being uniformly illumined, will show shadows of the +bones, so that, to an eye examining the screen, it will seem as though +it were looking through the flesh and blood directly at the bones. In a +similar manner, if a photographic plate be employed instead of the +screen, a distinct photographic picture will be obtained.</p> + +<p>Both the fluoroscope and the photographic camera have proved an +invaluable aid to the surgeon, who can now look directly through the +human body and examine its internal organs, and so be able to locate +such foreign bodies as bullets and needles in its various parts, or make +correct diagnoses of fractures or dislocations of the bones, or even +examine the action of such organs as the liver and heart.</p> + +<p>About 1886, Hertz discovered that if a small Leyden jar is discharged +through a short and simple circuit, provided with a spark-gap of +suitable length, a series of electro-magnetic waves are set up, which, +moving through space in all directions, are capable of exciting in a +similar circuit effects that can be readily recognized, although the two +circuits are at fairly considerable distances apart. Here we have a +simple basic experiment in wireless telegraphy, which, briefly +considered, consists of means whereby oscillations or waves, set up in +free space by means of disruptive discharges, are caused to traverse +space and produce various effects in suitably constructed receptive +devices that are operated by the waves as they impinge on them.</p> + +<p>At first a doubt was expressed by eminent scientific men as to the +practicability of successfully transmitting wireless messages through +long distances, since these waves, travelling in all directions, would +soon become too attenuated to produce intelligible signals; but when it +was shown, from theoretical considerations, that these waves when +traversing great distances are practically confined to the space between +the earth's surface and the upper rarified strata of the atmosphere, the +possibility of long-distance wireless telegraphic transmission was +recognized. To increase the distance, it was only necessary either to +increase the energy of the waves at the transmitting station, or to +increase the delicacy of the receiving instruments, or both.</p> + +<p>It has been but a short time since both the scientific and the financial +worlds were astounded by the actual transmission of intelligible +wireless signals across the Atlantic, and the name of Marconi will go +down to posterity as the one who first accomplished this great feat.</p> + +<p>The principal limit to the distance of transmission lies in the delicacy +of the receiving instruments. The most sensitive are those in which a +telephone receiver forms a part of the receiving apparatus. The almost +incredibly small amount of electric energy required to produce +intelligible speech in an ordinary Bell telephone receiver nearly passes +belief. The work done in lifting such an instrument from its hook to the +ear of the listener, would, if converted into electric energy, be +sufficient to maintain an audible sound in a telephone for 240,000 +years! Even extremely attenuated waves may therefore produce audible +signals in such a receiver.</p> + +<p>The electric motor was another gift of Faraday to commercial science, +although in this case there are others who can, perhaps, justly claim to +share the honor with him. Faraday's early electric motor consisted +essentially in a device whereby a movable conductor, suspended so as to +be capable of rotation around a magnet pole, was caused to rotate by the +mutual interaction of the magnetic fields of the active conductor and +the magnet. The magnet, which consisted of a bar of hardened steel, was +fixed in a cork stopper, which completely closed the end of an upright +glass tube. A small quantity of mercury was placed in the lower end of +the tube, so as to form a liquid contact for the lower end of a movable +wire, suspended so as to be capable of rotating at its lower extremity +about the axis of the tube. On the passage of an electric current +through the wire, a continuous rotary motion was produced in it, the +direction of which depends both on the direction of the current, and on +the polarity of the end of the magnet around which the rotation occurs.</p> + +<p>The great value of the electric motor to the world is too evident to +need any proof. The number of purposes for which electric motors are now +employed is so great that the actual number of motors in daily use is +almost incredible, and every year sees this number rapidly increasing.</p> + +<p>The above are the more important machines or devices that have been +directly derived from Faraday's great investigation as to the production +of electricity from magnetism. Let us now inquire briefly as to what +useful processes or industries have been rendered possible by the +existence of these machines.</p> + +<p>Apparently one of the most marked requirements of our twentieth-century +civilization is that man shall be readily able to extend the day far +into the night. He can no longer go to sleep when the sun sets, and keep +abreast with his competitors. Of all artificial illuminants yet +employed, the arc and the incandescent electric lights are +unquestionably the best, whether from a sanitary, aesthetic, or truest +economical standpoint. Now, while it is a well-known matter of record +that both arc and incandescent lights were invented long before +Faraday's time, yet it was not until a source of electricity was +invented, superior both in economy and convenience to the voltaic +battery, that either of these lights became commercial possibilities. +Such an electric source was given to the world by Faraday through his +invention of the dynamo-electric machine, and it was not until this +machine was sufficiently developed and improved that commercial electric +lighting became possible. The energy of burning coal, through the +steam-engine, working the dynamo, is far cheaper and more efficient for +producing electricity than the consumption of metals through the +voltaic pile.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of the modesty of Faraday that when, in +after-life, he heard inventors speaking of their electric lights, he +refrained from claiming the electric light as his own, although, without +the machine he taught the world how to construct, commercial lighting +would have been an impossibility.</p> + +<p>The marvellous activity in the electric arts and sciences, which +followed as a natural result of Faraday giving to the world in the +dynamo-electric machine a cheap electric source, naturally leads to the +inquiry as to whether at a somewhat later day a yet greater revolution +may not follow the production of a still cheaper electric source. In +point of fact such a discovery is by no means an impossibility. When a +dynamo-electric machine is caused to produce an electric current by the +intervention of a steam-engine, the transformation of energy which takes +place from the energy of the coal to electric energy is an extremely +wasteful one. Could some practical method be discovered by means of +which the burning of coal liberates electric energy, instead of heat +energy, an electric source would be discovered that would far exceed in +economy the best dynamo in existence. With such a discovery what the +results would be no one can say; this much is certain, that it would, +among other things, relegate the steam-engine to the scrap-heap, and +solve the problem of aerial navigation.</p> + +<p>What is justly regarded as one of the greatest achievements of modern +times is the electrical transmission of power over comparatively great +distances. At some cheap source of energy, say, at a waterfall, a +waterwheel is employed to drive a dynamo or generator, thus converting +mechanical energy into electrical energy. This electricity is passed +over a conducting line to a distant station, where it is either directly +utilized for the purpose of lighting, heating, chemical decomposition, +etc., or indirectly utilized for the purpose of obtaining mechanical +power for driving machinery, by passing it through an electric motor. +The electric transmission of power has been successfully made in +California over a distance of some 220 miles, at a pressure on +transmission lines of 50,000 volts.</p> + +<p>The high pressures required for the economical use of transmission lines +necessitates the employment of transformers at each end of the line; +namely, step-up transformers at the transmitting end, to raise the +voltage delivered by the generators, and step-down transformers, at the +receiving end, to lower it for use in the various translating devices. +These transformers are employed in connection with alternating-current +dynamos. Faraday not only gave to the world the first electric +generator, but also the first transformer, and one of the first electric +motors, and without these gifts the electric transmission of power over +long distances, which has justly been regarded as one of the most +marvellous achievements of our age, would have been an impossibility.</p> + +<p>In high-tension circuits over which such pressures as 50,000 volts is +transmitted, no little difficulty is experienced from leakage and +consequent loss of energy. This leakage occurs both between the line +conductors and at the insulators placed on the pole lines forming the +line circuit. The insulators are made either of glass or porcelain, and +are of a peculiar form known as triple petticoat pattern. The loss on +such lines, due to leakage between wires, is greater than that which +takes place at the pole insulators, and is diminished by keeping the +circuit wires as far apart as possible.</p> + +<p>In the early history of the art, electric transmission of power was +effected by means of direct-current generators and motors,--generators +and motors through which the current always passed in the same +direction. Such generators and motors, however, possessed inconveniences +that prevented extensive commercial transmission of power, since, as we +have seen, high pressure was necessary for efficiency in such +transmission, and the collecting-brushes and commutators employed in all +direct-current generators and motors to carry the current from the +machine or to the motor, were a constant source of trouble and danger.</p> + +<p>When the alternating-current motor first same into general use, it was +employed, in connection with the alternating-current generator, in +electric transmission systems; but such motors also possess the +inconvenience of not readily starting from a state of rest, with their +full turning power, or torque, and of therefore being unsuitable where +the motor requires to be frequently stopped or started. Had these +difficulties remained unsolved, long-distance electric transmission of +power, so successful in operation to-day, and which bids fair to be +still more successful in the near future, would have been impossible. +Fortunately, these difficulties were overcome by the genius of Nikola +Tesla, in the invention of the multiphase alternating-current motor, or +the induction motor, as it is now generally called. Although Baily, +Deprez, and Ferraris had accomplished much before Tesla's time, yet it +was practically to the investigations and discoveries made by Tesla, +between 1887 and 1891, that the induction motor of to-day is due.</p> + +<p>Another requirement of our twentieth-century civilization is rapid +transit, either urban or inter-urban, and this is afforded by various +systems of electric street railways or electric traction generally, +including electric locomotives and electric automobiles. The wonderful +growth in this direction which has been witnessed in the last few +decades would have been impossible without the electric generator and +motor, both gifts of Faraday to the world. Their application in this +direction must, therefore, go to swell the debt our civilization owes to +the labors of this great investigator.</p> + +<p>In the system of electric street-car propulsion very generally employed +to-day, a single trolley wheel is employed for taking the driving +current from an overhead conductor, suspended above the street. The +trolley wheel is supported by a trolley pole, and is maintained in good +electric contact with the trolley wire, or overhead conductor. By this +means the current passes from the wire down the conductor connected with +the trolley pole, thence through the motors placed below the body of the +car, and from them, through the track or ground-return, back to the +power station. A small portion of the current is employed for lighting +the electric lamps in the car. In some systems an underground trolley +is employed.</p> + +<p>An important device, called the series-parallel controller, is employed +in all systems of electric street-car propulsion. It consists of means +by which the starting and stopping of the car, and changes, both in its +speed and direction, are placed under the control of the motorman. A +separate controller is placed on both platforms of the car. The +series-parallel controller consists essentially of a switch by means of +which the several motors, that are employed in all street cars, can +be variously connected with each other, or with different electric +resistances, or can be successively cut out or introduced into the +circuit, so that the speed of the car can be regulated at will, as the +handle of the controller is moved by the motorman to the various notches +on the top of the controller box. As generally arranged, the speed +increases from the first notch or starting position to the last notch, +movements in the opposite direction changing connections in the opposite +order of succession, and, therefore, slowing the car. There is, however, +no definite speed corresponding to each notch, for this will vary with +the load on each car, and with the gradient upon which it may +be running.</p> + +<p>But there is another valuable gift received by the world as a result of +this great discovery of Faraday; namely, that most marvellous instrument +of modern times, the speaking telephone. This instrument was invented in +1861, by Philip Ries, and subsequently independently reinvented in 1876, +by Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell.</p> + +<p>As is well known, it is electric currents and not sound-waves that are +transmitted over a telephone circuit. The magneto-electric telephone in +its simplest form consists of a pair of instruments called respectively +the transmitter and the receiver. We talk into the transmitter and +listen at the receiver. Both transmitter and receiver consist of a +permanent magnet of hardened steel around one end of which is placed a +coil of insulated wire. In front of this coil a diaphragm, or thin +plate, of soft iron, is so supported as to be capable of freely +vibrating towards and from the magnet pole.</p> + +<p>The operation of the transmitting instrument is readily understood in +the light of Faraday's discovery. It is simply a dynamo-electric machine +driven by the voice of the speaker. As the sound-waves from the +speaker's voice strike against the diaphragm, which has become magnetic +from its nearness to the magnet pole, electric currents are generated in +the coil of wire surrounding such pole, since the to-and-fro motions +cause the lines of electro-magnetic force to pass through the wire on +the moving coil. The operation of the receiving instrument is also +readily understood. It acts as an electric motor driven by the +to-and-fro currents generated by the transmitter. As these currents are +transmitted over the wire, they pass through the coil of wire on the +receiving instrument, and reproduce therein the exact movements of the +transmitting diaphragm, since, as they strengthen or weaken the +magnetism of the pole, they cause similar motions in the diaphragm +placed before it. Consequently, one listening at the receiving diaphragm +will hear all that is uttered into the transmitting diaphragm. It was +thus, by the combination of the dynamo and motor, both of which were +given by Faraday to the world, that we have received this priceless +instrument, which has been so potent in its effects on the civilization +of the Twentieth century.</p> + +<p>The electric telegraph had its beginnings long before Faraday's time. As +early as 1847, Watson had erected a line some two miles in length, +extending over the housetops in London, and operated it by means of +discharges from an ordinary frictional electric machine. In 1774, Lesage +had erected in Geneva an electric telegraph consisting of a number of +metallic wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. These wires were +carefully insulated from each other. When a message was to be sent over +this early telegraphic line an electric discharge was passed through the +particular wire representing the letter of the alphabet to be sent; this +discharge, reaching the other end, caused a pithball to be repelled and +thus laboriously, letter by letter, the message was transmitted. How +ludicrously cumbersome was such an instrument when contrasted with the +Morse electro-magnetic telegraph of to-day, which requires but a single +wire; or with the harmonic telegraph of Gray, which permits the +simultaneous transmission of eight or more separate messages over a +single wire; or with the wonderful quadruplex telegraphic system of +Edison which permits the simultaneous transmission of four separate and +distinct messages over a single wire, two in one direction, and two in +the opposite direction at the same time; or with the still more +wonderful multiplex telegraph of Delaney, which is able to +simultaneously transmit as many as seventy-two separate messages over a +single wire, thirty-six in one direction and thirty-six in the opposite +direction. These achievements have been possible only through the +researches and discoveries of Oersted, Faraday, and hosts of other +eminent workers; for, it was the electro-magnet, rendered possible by +Oersted, together with the magnificent discoveries of Faraday, and +others since his time, that these marvellous advances in +electro-telegraphic transmission of intelligence have become +possibilities.</p> + +<p>Before completing this brief sketch of some of the effects that +Faraday's work has had on the practical arts and sciences, let us +briefly examine the generating plants that are either in operation or +construction at Niagara Falls.</p> + +<p>Some idea of the size of the Niagara Falls generating plant on the +American side may be gained from the fact that there have already been +installed eleven of the separate 5,000 horse-power generators. The +remaining capacity of the tunnel will permit of the installation of +50,000 additional horse-power, or 105,000 horse-power in all.</p> + +<p>On the Canadian side of the Falls another great plant is about to be +erected with an ultimate capacity of several hundred thousand +horse-power. Here, however, the size of the generating unit will be +double that on the American side, or 10,000 horse-power. These +generators will be wound to produce an electric pressure of 12,000 +volts, raised by means of step-up transformers to 22,000, 40,000, and +60,000 volts, according to the distance of transmission. Each of the +revolving parts of these machines will weigh 141,000 pounds. To what +gigantic proportions has the little infant dynamo of Faraday grown in +this short time since its birth!</p> + +<p>The low rates at which electric power can be sold in the immediate +neighborhood of the Niagara generating plant have naturally resulted in +an enormous growth of the electro-chemical industries, for these +industries could never otherwise develop into extended commercial +applications. Of the total output of, say, 55,000 horsepower at the +Niagara Falls generating plant, no less than 23,200 horse-power is used +in various electrolytic and electro-thermal processes in the immediate +neighborhood. Some of the more important consumers of the electric +power, named in the order of consumption, are for the manufacture of the +following products: calcium carbide, aluminium, caustic soda and +bleaching salt, carborundum, and graphite.</p> + +<p>Calcium carbide, employed in the production of acetylene gas, either for +the purposes of artificial illumination, or for the manufacture of ethyl +alcohol, is produced by subjecting a mixture of carbon and lime to the +prolonged action of heat in an electric furnace.</p> + +<p>Aluminium, the now well-known valuable metal, present in clay, bauxite, +and a variety of other mineral substances, is electrolytically deposited +from a bath of alumina obtained by dissolving bauxite either in +potassium fluoride or in cryolite. Aluminium is now coming into extended +use in the construction of long-distance electric power +transmission lines.</p> + +<p>Caustic soda and bleaching salt are produced by the electrolytic +decomposition of brine (chloride of sodium). The chlorine liberated at +the anode is employed in the manufacture of bleaching-salt, and the +sodium is liberated at a mercury cathode, with which it at once enters +into combination as an alloy. On throwing this alloy into water the +sodium is liberated as caustic soda.</p> + +<p>Carborundum, a silicide of carbon, is a valuable substance produced by +the action of the heat of an electric furnace on an intimate mixture of +carbon and sand. It has an extensive use as an abrasive for grinding and +polishing.</p> + +<p>Artificial graphite is another product produced by the long-continued +action of the heat of the electric furnace on carbon under certain +conditions.</p> + +<p>According to reports from the United States Geological Survey, the +graphite works at Niagara Falls produced in 1901, 2,500,000 lbs. of +artificial graphite, valued at $119,000. This was an increase from +860,270 lbs., valued at $69,860 for 1900, and from 162,382 lbs., valued +at $10,140, in 1897, the first year of its commercial production. In +1901, more than half of the output was in the form of graphitized +electrodes employed in the production of caustic soda and bleaching +salt, and in other electrolytic processes.</p> + +<p>The Niagara Falls power transmission system stands to-day as a +magnificent testimonial to the genius of Faraday, and as a living +monument of the varied and valuable gifts his researches have bestowed +upon mankind. For here we have not only the dynamo, motors, and +transformers that he gave freely to the world, not only the +alternating-current transformer, and the system of transmission of +power, but we even find that the principal consumers of the enormous +electric power produced are employing it in carrying on some of the many +processes in electro-chemistry, a science that he had done so much +to advance.</p> + +<p>Among some of the surprises electro-chemistry may have in store for the +world in the comparatively near future, may be a nearer approach to a +mastery of the laws which govern the combination of elementary +substances when under the influence of plant-life. If these laws ever +become so well known that man is able to form hi his laboratory the +various food products that are now formed naturally in plant organisms, +such a revolution would be wrought that the work of the agriculturist +would be largely transferred to the electro-chemist. Some little has +already been done in the direct formation of some vegetable substances, +such as camphor, the peculiar flavoring substance present in the vanilla +bean, and in many other substances. Should such discoveries ever reach +to the direct formation of some food staple, the wide-reaching +importance and significance of the discovery would be almost beyond +comprehension.</p> + +<p>But, while the direct electro-synthetic formation of food products is +yet to be accomplished on a practical scale, the problem appears to be +nearing actual solution in an indirect manner. It has been known since +the time of Cavendish, in 1785, that small quantities of nitric acid +could be formed directly from the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere +by the passage of electric sparks; but heretofore, the quantity so found +has been too small to be of any commercial value. Quite recently, +however, one of the electro-chemical companies at Niagara Falls has +succeeded in commercially solving the important problem of the fixation +of the nitrogen of the atmosphere; it being claimed that the cost of +thus producing one ton of commercial nitric acid, of a market value of +over eighty dollars, does not greatly exceed twenty dollars. Since +sodium nitrate can readily be produced by the process, and its value as +a fertilizer of wheat-fields is too well known to need comment, there +would thus, to a limited extent, be indirectly solved the +electro-chemical production of food staples.</p> + +<p>Faraday's high rank as an investigator in the domain of natural science +was fully recognized by the learned societies of his time, by admission +into their fellowships. As early as 1824, he was honored by the Royal +Society of London by election as one of its Fellows, and in 1825 he had +become a member of the Royal Institution. It is recorded of the great +philosopher that the membership in the Royal Institution was the only +one which he personally sought; all others came unsought, but they came +so rapidly from all portions of the globe that in 1844 he was a member +of no less than seventy of the leading learned societies of the world. +Ries, the German electrician, so well known in connection with his +invention of the speaking telephone, addressed Faraday as "Professor +Michael Faraday, Member of all the Academies." Besides his membership in +the learned societies, Faraday received numerous degrees from the +colleges and universities of his time. Among some of these are the +following: The University of Prague, the degree of Ph.D.; Oxford, the +degree of D.C.L.; and Cambridge, the degree of LL.D. He also received +numerous medals of honor, and was offered the Presidency of the Royal +Society, which, however, he declined, as he did also a knighthood +proffered by the government of England. Faraday died on the 25th of +August, 1867, after a long, well-spent, useful life.</p> + +<p>We have thus briefly traced some of the more important discoveries of +Michael Faraday. Many have necessarily been passed by, but what we have +given are more than sufficient to stamp him as a great philosopher and +investigator. Speaking of Faraday in this connection, Professor Tyndall +says: "Take him for all in all, I think it will be conceded that Michael +Faraday is the greatest experimental philosopher the world has ever +seen; and I will add the opinion that the progress of future research +will tend not to diminish or decrease, but to enhance and glorify, the +labors of this mighty investigator."</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>AUTHORITIES.</h2> + +<p>Experimental Researches in Electricity. By Michael Faraday. From the +Philosophical Transactions.</p> + +<p>Abstracts of the Philosophical Transactions from 1800 to 1837.</p> + +<p>Faraday's Experimental Researches in Electricity and Magnetism. 3 vols.</p> + +<p>Life and Letters of Faraday. By Dr. Bence Jones.</p> + +<p>Michael Faraday. By J.H. Gladstone.</p> + +<p>Students' Text-Book of Electricity. By Henry M. Noad. Revised by W.H. +Preece.</p> + +<p>Michael Faraday. By John Tyndall.</p> + +<p>Pioneers of Electricity. By J. Munro.</p> + +<p>Dynamo-Electric Machinery. By Silvanus P. Thompson.</p> + +<p>A Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms, and Phrases. By Edwin J. +Houston.</p> + +<p>Electricity and Magnetism. By Edwin J. Houston.</p> + +<p>Electricity One Hundred Years Ago and To-Day. By Edwin J. Houston.</p> + +<p>Magnetism; Electro-Technical Series. By Edwin J. Houston and Arthur E. +Kennelly.</p> + +<p>Electro-Dynamic Machinery. By Edwin J. Houston and A. E. Kennelly.</p> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2><a name="RUDOLF_VIRCHOW."></a>RUDOLF VIRCHOW.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<p>1821-1902.</p> + +<p>MEDICINE AND SURGERY.</p> + +<p>BY FRANK P. FOSTER, M.D.</p> +<br> + +<p>Stagnation was the state of medicine when the Nineteenth Century opened. +It was only three years before that Jenner had announced and +demonstrated the protective efficacy of vaccination against small-pox. +His teaching, in spite of the vehement cavillings of the "antis" of his +day, gained credence readily, and vaccination speedily became recognized +and was constantly resorted to, but hardly any attempt at perfecting the +practice was made until after more than fifty years had elapsed. His +discovery--or, rather, his proof of the truth of a rustic +tradition--fell like a pebble into the doldrums; the ripple soon +subsided, and nobody was encouraged to start another. At the present +time such an announcement would be promptly followed by investigations +leading up to such doctrines as that of the attenuation of viruses and +that of antitoxines. But the times were not ripe for anything of that +sort; medicine reposed on tradition, or at best gave itself only to such +plausibilities in the way of innovation as were cleverly advocated. +Physicians strove not to advance the healing art; as individuals, they +were content to rely on their manners, their tact, and their assumption +of wisdom. In short, the body medical was in a state of suspended +animation, possessed of a mere vegetative existence.</p> + +<p>The Humoral pathology, or that doctrine of the nature of disease which +ascribed all ailments to excess, deficiency, or ill "concoction" of some +one of the four humors (yellow and black bile, blood, and phlegm), had +not yet lost its hold on men's convictions, or at least not further than +to make them look upon exposure to cold and errors of diet as amply +explanatory of all diseases not plainly infectious. The medical writers +who were most revered were those who busied themselves with nosology; +that is to say, the naming and classifying of diseases. Wonderful were +the onomatological feats performed by some of these men, and most +diverse and grotesque were the data on which they founded their +classifications. To label a disease was high art; to cure it was +something that Providence might or might not allow. In the treatment of +"sthenic" acute diseases (meaning those accompanied by excitement and +high fever), blood-letting, mercury given to the point of salivation, +antimony, and opium, together with starvation (all included under the +euphemism of "lowering measures"), were the means universally resorted +to and reputed "sheet anchors." Some advance had been made from the +times when disease had been looked upon as an entity to be exorcised, +but it was still so far regarded as a material thing that it was to be +starved out.</p> + +<p>But the century was not out of its second decade when signs of an +awakening from this lethargy began to show themselves. The first steps, +naturally, were along preparatory lines, and for those we are largely +indebted to the physicists, the chemists, and the botanists. Gross +anatomy became better known, owing for the most part to more enlightened +legislation on the subject of the dissection of the human body; minute +anatomy (histology) sprang into existence as the result of improvements +of the compound microscope. Physiology took on something of the +experimental; and medication was rendered far less gross and repulsive +by the isolation of the active principles of medicinal plants. But it +was long after all this that the telling strides were taken. Up to +within the memory of many men who are now living, "peritonitis" tortured +its victims to death, said "peritonitis" being often interpreted as a +manifestation of rheumatism, for example, and no well-directed +interposition was attempted against it, whereas we now know perfectly +well that the vast majority of cases of peritonitis are due to local +septic poisoning and for the most part quite readily remediable by the +removal (with a minimum of danger) of the organ from which such +poisoning arises--almost always the vermiform appendix. "Appendicitis," +of which we hear so much nowadays, is no new disease; it is simply the +"peritonitis" that killed so many people in former times. But while no +well-informed person would now maintain that this disease was a new one, +there are many, and those, too, among the best instructed, who find it +difficult to avoid the conclusion that, if not new, it must at least be +of far more frequent occurrence than formerly. It must be borne in mind, +however, that in the great majority of instances in past years it ended +spontaneously in recovery and was forgotten.</p> + +<p>Two features of the progress in medicine in the Nineteenth Century, +negative as they may seem to have been, were undoubtedly potent in the +promotion of advance. They were the recognition of the fact that many +dangerous diseases are self-limited, and the experiment of the so-called +"expectant treatment." The result of the first of them was to teach men +to desist from futile attempts to <i>cure</i> the self-limited diseases, in +the sense of cutting them short in their course, and the "expectant +treatment" followed as a natural consequence. It was a method of +managing disease rather than attempting to cure it. There was no +interference save to promote the patient's comfort, to nourish him as +thoroughly as might be without unduly taxing his powers, and to meet +complications as they arose. It was stooping to conquer, perhaps, but it +was a policy that conduced greatly to the well-being of the sick, +improved their chances of recovery, and enabled physicians to study +disease more accurately by reason of its course not being rendered +irregular by meddlesome medication. It has never been dropped, and it +never will be, save as such directly curative agents as the antitoxines +are made available.</p> + +<p>In the early part of the century, except for gross anatomy and operative +surgery, medicine was taught almost wholly, so far as the schools were +concerned, by means of didactic lectures. The "drawing" capacity of a +professor was proportionate rather to his rhetorical powers and to the +persuasiveness with which he inculcated the views peculiar to himself +than to the amount of real information that he conveyed to the students. +Although the apprentice system--for that was what the practice of +students' attaching themselves to individual practitioners, whom they +called their preceptors, virtually amounted to--in many instances made +up more or less completely for the lack of systematic clinical teaching, +yet in the great majority of cases it amounted to little more than the +preceptor's allowing the student the use of his library and occasionally +examining into the latter's diligence and intelligence, in return for +which he, the preceptor, required an annual fee and exacted from the +student such minor services as his proficiency enabled him to render. It +is true the students "walked" the hospitals, drinking in some great +man's utterances, but they did it in droves, not a moiety of them being +able to get a good look at a patient, unless it was such a passing +glance as might tell them that the patient was jaundiced. By clinical +teaching we understand teaching, not in glittering generalities, but in +the concrete, either at the bedside, as the word <i>clinical</i> originally +implied, or at least with the patient actually present to illustrate in +his person the professor's descriptions and the success or failure of +the treatment employed. The clinic is now firmly established, and has +been for years, but it was long before this grand result was attained.</p> + +<p>Experimental methods of study gradually came into vogue, particularly in +the domain of physiology. In this sphere Dr. William Beaumont, of the +United States Army, was a pioneer. His historic experiments on Alexis +St. Martin, a soldier who had been wounded in the stomach and recovered +with a permanent opening into that organ, will ever rank among the most +important of the early experimental studies of digestion. It was not +long before Claude Bernard extended similar inquiries to the other +functions of the body, notably those of the nervous system; and since +his time there has been a long array of brilliant investigators of +physiology and of other branches of science tributary to medicine. +Experiments on living animals were almost the only means of carrying on +these researches. In the early days the animals employed were doubtless +put to a great deal of pain--perhaps in many instances to unnecessary +suffering--and an altogether laudable feeling of humanity has led good +people to band themselves together for the purpose of putting a stop to +vivisection, or at least of greatly restricting the practice and of +freeing it from all avoidable infliction of pain. These praiseworthy +efforts have in some instances been carried so far, unfortunately, as to +seriously hamper scientific investigation--investigation which has for +its object the alleviation of human suffering and the saving of human +life. We may earnestly deprecate and strive to prevent wanton +reiteration of painful experiments for purposes of demonstrating anew +that which is unquestioned, and we may resort to all possible means to +render necessary experiments free from actual pain (from the anguish of +trepidation we can seldom relieve the poor animals), but let us not +block the wheels of scientific progress.</p> + +<p>At the dawn of the Nineteenth Century, to examine a sick person's +pulse, to inspect his tongue, to observe his breathing, to interrogate +his skin by our sense of touch, and to try to make his statements and +those of his friends fit in with some tenable theory of the nature of +his ailment, were about all we could do. Possibly it was because he +realized to an uncommon degree the tremendous impediment of this narrow +limitation that Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of Homoeopathy, cut the +Gordian knot in sheer rebelliousness, and proclaimed, as he virtually +did, that a diagnosis was not necessary to the successful treatment of +disease, but that one only needed to know empirically how to subdue +symptoms, meaning mainly, if not solely, what we term "subjective" +symptoms--those of which the patient complains, as opposed to those that +we ourselves discover. But the physical examination of the sick, before +extremely meagre in its sphere and restricted in its possibilities, was +destined to expand before many years into the minute and positive +physical diagnosis of the present day.</p> + +<p>In the year 1816 a French physician, Réné Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec, +achieved undying fame by publishing to the world an account of his +labors in the application of mediate auscultation and of percussion to +the diagnosis of the diseases of the chest. It is true that no less a +personage than the "Father of Medicine," Hippocrates, is reputed to have +practised succussion as a means of diagnosis; that is, the shaking of a +patient, as one would shake a cask, to ascertain by the occurrence or +non-occurrence of a splashing sound if the person's pleural cavity was +distended partly with water and partly with air. It is probable that +Hippocrates and many others after him carried the physical examination +of the chest still further, for it is difficult to imagine, for example, +that so simple a device as that of thumping a partition to make out the +situation of a joist by the sound evoked should not early have been +applied to the human chest. But, be this as it may, to Laennec belongs +the great credit of having laid a substantial foundation for the +physical diagnosis of the present time, and, more than for laying a +foundation, for constructing a fairly complete edifice. He who should +now undertake to practise general medicine without having first made +himself proficient in the detection and interpretation of the sounds +elicited by auscultation and percussion in diseases of the heart and +lungs would foredoom himself to failure.</p> + +<p>It was not until many years later, early in the second half of the +century, that the clinical thermometer came into general use, but it +soon showed most strikingly the superiority of the "instrument of +precision" to the unaided senses of man. Who would think now of trying +to estimate the height of a fever by laying his hand on the patient's +skin, or who, even among the laity, would be satisfied with such a +procedure? "Doubtless," said the present writer in a former publication +("New York Medical Journal," Dec. 29, 1900), "the use of the thermometer +has occasionally given rise to needless alarm, but almost invariably it +may be interpreted with great certainty. Often it dispels unnecessary +anxiety as in a twinkling by its negative indication, and surely it is +to be credited with being distinctly diagnostic in those diseases of +which it has itself established the 'curve.'" By the thermometric +"curve" of a disease is understood the general visual impression made by +the graphic chart of a temperature record--the course of a zigzag line +connecting the points indicated by the various individual observations.</p> + +<p>Numerous other instruments of precision are now in constant use, among +the most wonderful of which perhaps is the ophthalmoscope, whereby we +are enabled to subject the retina and the intervening media of the eye +to minute visual examination. There is not an organ of the body that is +not now interrogated daily in the way of physical diagnosis, and we even +examine separately the secretion of each of the two kidneys. In +addition, there are multitudinous specific signs of which we were not +long ago in complete ignorance. To cite only one of these, there is +Widal's agglutination test, by which the bacteriologist can usually make +a diagnosis of typhoid fever far in advance of the time at which it +could otherwise be distinguished. The use of the Röntgen rays in +diagnosis was one of the crowning achievements of the century, and now +we seem about to enter upon a course of their successful employment in +the treatment of disease--even some forms of cancer--as well as in its +detection.</p> + +<p>Beyond the vermin that infest the skin and the hair, tapeworm, and a few +other intestinal worms, little if anything was known of morbific +parasites before the Nineteenth Century; but the labors of Van Beneden, +Küchenmeister, Cobbold, Manson, Laveran, and others have now established +the causal relationship between great numbers of animal parasites--gross +and microscopic--and certain definite morbid states. This has led to a +great increase in our knowledge of the connection between the parasites +of the lower animals and grave disease in human beings, and on this +knowledge rest many of the precautions that we are now able to take +against the spread of such disease. From the consideration of animal +parasites as the direct causes of disease, we naturally come to the +contemplation of the subject of insects as the carriers of disease. The +later years of the century have witnessed the demonstration of the fly's +agency in the transmission of malignant pustule and typhoid fever, and +that of certain mosquitoes in the conveyance of yellow fever and +malarial disease. We now know that bad air (the original meaning of the +word <i>malaria</i>) has nothing to do with fever and ague, and that swamps +are not unwholesome if they are free from infected mosquitoes. The +mosquito does not originate the malarial infection; it simply serves as +the temporary host of the micro-organism (<i>Plasmodium malarioe</i>) which +is the cause of the disease, having obtained its transient "guest" from +some human being. Consequently, marshy districts that are full of +mosquitoes are not malarious unless the mosquitoes are of the kinds +capable of lodging the plasmodium, and unless there is or has recently +been present in the neighborhood some person affected with malarial +disease. Moreover, the most virulently malarious region is a safe place +of residence for human beings, provided they protect themselves +absolutely against the bite of the mosquito. This has been strikingly +demonstrated in the case of the Roman Campagna.</p> + +<p>From the disease-producing animal parasites we come now to those that +are believed to be of vegetable nature. Under the general name of +<i>bacteria</i>, there are multitudes of micro-organisms having pathogenic +powers, each giving rise to some definite specific disease, and certain +associations of different bacteria causing particular morbid conditions. +Generations ago physicians had a glimmering of what we now term the germ +theory of disease, as was shown by their use of such expressions as +<i>materies morbi</i> and morbid poisons. Even the definite relationship of +special microscopic organisms to individual diseases was foreshadowed by +Salisbury nearly fifty years ago. But it was not until years after those +conceptions, and in no wise descended from or led up to by them, that an +intelligible and satisfactory germ theory of disease was formulated.</p> + +<p>It is to Pasteur, the immortal chemist, that we owe this theory, as well +as that of the attenuation of viruses--both of more than theoretical +import, since they have given us aseptic surgery, the power of +frequently preventing hydrophobia, the antitoxine treatment of +diphtheria, and the ability to stay the hand of Death in the form of +many a stalking pestilence. Every infectious disease is now held to be +due to its own particular micro-organism, and many diseases that were +not until recently thought to be infectious are now classed as such +because they have been proved to be caused by living germs. Conspicuous +among these diseases is pulmonary consumption. In the case of almost +every one of these diseases we have discovered the specific germ and are +able to demonstrate its presence, either by its microscopical +appearance, by its behavior on contact with certain stains, or by the +forms that cultures of it assume. The micro-organism of small-pox and +that of cancer (the existence of which is assumed) have not yet been +isolated. Some of these germs, like that of tetanus (lockjaw), gain +entrance to the system only through a wound; others, like those of +typhoid fever and cholera, are swallowed; others, like that of +pneumonia, are inhaled; still others, like that of tuberculous disease, +are either swallowed or inhaled. Some are believed to be transmissible +to the unborn child; and a few are ordinarily harmless parasites, +becoming pathogenic only when they accidentally gain access to other +parts of the system than those which constitute their natural habitat.</p> + +<p>These microscopic organisms do not by their mere presence set up +disease, unless indeed they are in such overwhelming numbers as to block +the capillary blood vessels mechanically. Some of them are carried +broadcast in the blood current, while others remain at the point of +entrance; in either case they elaborate certain products, termed +toxines, which act, either locally or through the circulation, to cause +the disease. These toxines eventually kill the micro-organisms that +produced them, quite as an animal may be smothered in its own +exhalations; or at least they would do so if the "host" survived long +enough for the completion of the process. Meantime, they have either +killed the "host" or been defeated by certain very interesting natural +processes. But before either of these occurrences has had time to take +place, fortunately, in the great majority of instances, save those of +exposure to the most deadly of infections, the vital power of the +invaded individual has coped successfully with the invaders at the very +point of attack--has repulsed the attacking party without appreciable +impairment of its own force--and no illness results. For example, +practically all of us inhale the germ of consumption repeatedly, but +most of us suffer no harm from it simply because the fluids which bathe +the surface on which the germ effects a lodgment are endowed with +properties which either kill the germ or rob it of its power for harm; +but these properties suffice only when the general health is unimpaired.</p> + +<p>In case the attack is not successfully repelled at the outset, what +happens? There begins a struggle between the invaders and what may be +called the reserves of the organism, consisting of the white blood +corpuscles, which undergo a great augmentation in number. These +corpuscles are endowed with the faculty of amoeboid movement; that is to +say, they may shoot out projections from their substance, and even +convert themselves for the time being into traps, seizing upon the +pathogenic bacteria, incarcerating them within their own mass, and +carrying them away to be thrust out of the system by organs whose +function it is to eliminate extraneous matter. These corpuscles are, +indeed, said figuratively to <i>eat</i> the malign micro-organisms, whence +they have been termed phagocytes (from [Greek: phagein], to eat, and +[Greek: kutos], a cell); also because they carry away refuse and +noxious material, they have been called "the scavengers of the system." +By means of their amoeboid movement they are enabled to worm themselves +through inconceivably minute apertures in the blood vessels, and attack +and devour peccant matter wherever it may have effected a lodgment. +These white corpuscles are also known as leucocytes, and their increase +in number when they are called upon to resist bacterial invasion is +spoken of as hyperleucocytosis. The discovery of their protective +function is to be credited to Metchnikoff, a Russian physician now +teaching in Paris. When they migrate from the blood vessels in great +numbers they finally, after having fulfilled their office as phagocytes, +degenerate into the corpuscular elements of pus, which is the creamy +liquid contained in an abscess. Their migratory power was discovered +by Cohnheim.</p> + +<p>But as a general thing the phagocytes do not succeed in making away with +all the pathogenic germs, or even with enough of them to prevent the +illness which they tend to produce. The further combat is between the +poisonous products, termed toxines, engendered by the bacteria and +certain antidotal substances, called antitoxines, newly created in the +watery portion of the blood by some wonderful provision of Nature that +is not yet well understood. Each infective disease has its special +toxine, and for the destruction of each the blood prepares its +particular antitoxine; possibly, however, some of the antitoxines may be +efficacious against more than one kind of toxine, for there are +physicians who are convinced that vaccination is a temporary preventive +of whooping-cough. But the elaboration of an antitoxine takes time, and +the result in any given case, whether in recovery or in death, seems to +be settled by the ability or inability of the vital powers of the +individual to hold out until they are relieved by the evolution of the +necessary amount of antitoxine.</p> + +<p>In the long run, provided the sick person survives, more antitoxine is +generated than is required to save life. The excess remains in the +system for a greater or lesser length of time, and this fact explains +the individual's subsequent immunity to the disease from which he has +recovered; any fresh invading force of the microbes of that disease +finds that defensive preparations have been made in advance. In the case +of some diseases this acquired immunity is usually lifelong, as in that +of small-pox; in others, of which influenza is a notable example, it is +as a rule very transitory; and there are all gradations between the two. +It is thought that this acquired immunity to some diseases may be +transmitted to the offspring, for it is quite certain that there are +many people who are from birth insusceptible to scarlet fever, no matter +what may be the extent of their exposure to that disease.</p> + +<p>The recognition of Nature's elaboration of protective antitoxines has +led to their artificial cultivation in the lower animals, and, thus +produced, they have been used with brilliant results in the prevention +and cure of at least one formidable disease, diphtheria. The immense +reduction of the mortality from this disease that has followed the +introduction of the treatment with the artificial antitoxine we owe to +Behring, of Germany, and Roux, of France. Omitting unnecessary details, +we may describe the process of obtaining diphtheria antitoxine as +follows: A certain amount of diphtheritic poison (of the bacteriological +sort, prepared by cultivating the diphtheria microbe) is injected into +the circulation of a horse--sufficient to make the horse sick, but not +enough to endanger his life. The horse's system straightway begins to +elaborate the protective antitoxine, and there results from this one +injection a sufficient amount of it to save the horse, although far too +little to make the serum of his blood potent enough for medicinal use. +Hence, after the lapse of a suitable interval, he is again injected with +diphtheritic poison, and for the second time his blood begins to +generate the antitoxine. And the process is repeated again and again, +the virulence of the poison being increased each time, until the horse's +blood is fairly reeking with antitoxine. Then blood is drawn freely from +the horse, and it is allowed to separate into clot and serum, the +latter alone being the part destined for use. This serum is tested on a +small animal that has been inoculated with a deadly dose of the +diphtheritic poison; if it saves the little creature from death, it is +assumed to be potent enough for use on human beings, and, handled with +all possible precautions against putrefaction or any contamination with +pathogenic bacteria, it is furnished to physicians, its degree of +potency being designated in "units."</p> + +<p>If in this brief article, which does not purport to be more than a +sketch of the tremendous strides made by medicine in the Nineteenth +Century, so much space has been given to the germ theory of disease, it +is because the demonstration of the truth of that theory has been +absolute, and has constituted the very marrow of almost all the medical +progress of the century that has been the outcome of continuous thought +and study as opposed to chance discovery.</p> + +<p>Such results as the germ theory has now led to in the treatment of +diphtheria it had already accomplished in the field of surgery as a +consequence of that strict asepticism which, originating with Joseph +Lister (now Lord Lister), and rapidly carried by him to a condition +verging on technical completeness, was soon taken up by surgeons all +over the world and brought wellnigh to perfection, so that the mortality +of wounds of all sorts has been tremendously reduced, and many surgical +operations are now practised frequently--indeed, whenever the occasion +for them arises--that before the days of Listerism would have been +looked upon as almost tantamount to the patient's death-warrant. More +particularly is this the case as to operations which involve opening +into the abdomen, the chest, or the cranium. So little risk now attaches +to such operations, properly performed, that the opening of the +abdominal cavity for the mere purpose of ascertaining the condition of +its contents--"exploratory laparotomy," as it is called--is a matter of +constant occurrence. Curiously enough, in some way not yet +satisfactorily explained, that procedure in itself, without anything +further being done, has in many instances resulted in decided +amelioration of a morbid condition, if not in its cure. A striking +example of this is seen in the benefit that often results in cases of +one form of "consumption of the bowels," namely, tuberculous disease of +the membrane that lines the abdominal wall and invests the abdominal +organs. This is not the only operation that does good mysteriously; that +of cutting out a bit of the iris in a form of deep-seated eye disease, +glaucoma, that tends toward complete blindness, is hardly more +explicable; neither is an incision of the capsule of the kidney for +certain forms of Bright's disease, each of which stays the progress of +the trouble in a goodly proportion of instances.</p> + +<p>Another of the great divisions of the healing art, that of midwifery, +has been enhanced quite as much as general surgery by the employment of +Listerism. The process of childbirth, although a perfectly natural one, +almost necessarily carries with it a certain amount of laceration, and, +through the wound surfaces thus produced, absorption of poisonous +material was formerly so frequent that puerperal fever figured +prominently in mortality reports. It was Oliver Wendell Holmes--a +graduate in medicine and a professor in the Harvard Medical School, +though we are accustomed to think of him only as a delightful +writer--who first declared that puerperal fever was the product of +infection from without the body, and Semmelweis demonstrated the truth +of the proposition. Holmes was a teacher of physiology, and his study of +that branch of medical science was in itself enough to convince him of +the doctrine which he inculcated.</p> + +<p>Listerism must be credited, not only with having added immensely to the +safety of the major operations of surgery, but also with having led to +great improvement of their technics by reason of the greatly increased +frequency with which it has come to be thought justifiable to practise +them; what we do again and again we are apt in the end to do well, +whereas that which we turn to only in despair and as rarely as possible, +we do clumsily and imperfectly. Listerism has been unjustly alleged by +a few to be unworthy of the appreciation in which it is held by the +great majority of medical men of all countries; simple cleanliness, it +has been urged, is quite as efficient as the full Listerian precautions. +This is begging the question, for simple cleanliness, "chemical +cleanliness," is all that Listerism purports to accomplish. The use of +antiseptics has been decried in the interest of asepticism, as if the +whole purpose of antisepticism were not to secure asepsis. Lord Lister +is entitled to the full credit of establishing the aseptic surgery of +the present day, in spite of the facts that his doctrine followed rather +than preceded his early improvements, that aseptic procedures have been +brought nearer perfection elsewhere than in his own country, and that +the whole system rests on foundations laid by Pasteur.</p> + +<p>While it is quite true that to the Listerian theory and practice are +almost wholly to be ascribed the favorable results of the major surgery +of the present day, we must not forget the immeasurable benefits to the +diseased, the injured, and the crippled that have arisen from patient +efforts and occasional brilliant intuition that have had no connection +with the germ theory of infection. Take the case of a broken leg, for +example, an injury that formerly condemned the victim to weeks and weeks +of confinement to bed, together with the suffering and danger almost +inseparable from the old methods of the long straight splint and tight +bandaging. At the present time he who has met with such a misfortune is +commonly able to be about on crutches within a few days, and his broken +bone mends while he is cultivating his appetite and indulging in +pleasant intercourse with his fellow-men. This great change has been +made possible by one device after another, invented by different men. +Josiah Crosby introduced the use of sticking-plaster for extension, +instead of the chafing bands previously employed; Gurdon Buck +substituted elastic extension by means of a weight and pulley for the +rude and arbitrary traction in vogue before; James L. Little devised the +plaster-of-Paris splint, whereby broken bones were immobilized with +hardly appreciable discomfort; and Henry B. Sands established the safety +and practicability of applying the plaster-of-Paris splint almost +immediately after the reduction ("setting") of the fracture. In the +meantime Nathan R. Smith and John T. Hodgen had demonstrated the +advantages of suspending a fractured limb from above. All these men were +Americans; surely our country has contributed powerfully to the +well-being of the subjects of fracture. Other Americans, notably Lewis +A. Sayre, have enabled sufferers with joint disease, including the +dreaded hip disease, to run about and gain health and strength, instead +of languishing in bed. Sayre, too, by his suspension treatment and the +plaster-of-Paris jacket, set the hunchback on his feet at a stage in his +disease in which before he had been forced to prolonged and painful +recumbency.</p> + +<p>Although men professing special skill in certain operations, and +doubtless possessing it, flourished in old times, and left more or less +of their impress on the surgery of the present day, for that matter, it +was not until the second half of the Nineteenth Century that regional +surgery (which is what specialism virtually amounts to) was +systematically cultivated. Now there is hardly a portion of the body to +which practitioners who make its ailments a specialty do not direct +their searching methods of examination or on which they do not practise +their ingenious devices in the way of treatment. Specialism has always +been decried by a large section of the medical profession. On the other +hand, it has been and is still overrated by the laity. The true estimate +lies between the two. The specialists have advanced surgery immensely, +but, with many honorable exceptions, they have laid too much stress on +their several specialties, making too wide a range of ailments fall +within them. As for the community at large, their shortcoming lies in +the fact that most of them would seek for a specialist in mumps in case +that painful but transitory infliction were to come upon them, and in +their underrating of the family physician.</p> + +<p>To change for a moment to a topic akin to the germ theory of disease, +the reader may be reminded that the antitoxine treatment of infectious +disease involves in almost every instance the use of some product +contained in the serum (that is to say, the watery part of the blood). +This leads to the subject of the use of natural and artificial serum in +the treatment of disease. To quote again from the article entitled, "The +Nineteenth Century in Medicine" ("New York Medical Journal," Dec. +29,1900): "It has been observed that the normal serum of certain animals +that are insusceptible to particular infectious diseases, if injected +into the human blood current or even into the subcutaneous tissue, +confers more or less of immunity against those diseases.... Artificial +serum seems to have been first employed by Edmund R. Peaslee as a benign +application to the peritonaeum in the operation of ovariotomy. His +conception of its mode of action is not very clear, but he was a very +successful ovariotomist, and we can only conjecture that he builded +better than he knew, like many another man. A few years ago much was +expected from transfusion of blood, but gradually the conviction has +forced itself upon us that it is wellnigh useless, and indeed that, on +the whole, it is worse than useless. It has virtually been abandoned.... +But experiments in transfusion have not been fruitless; they have +culminated in demonstrating the inestimable value of infusions of +'normal,' or 'physiological,' solutions of sodium chloride, and not only +of infusions, but also of peritoneal irrigation with such solutions. +Many a life has been saved by resorting to this measure, even in +apparently desperate cases."</p> + +<p>Within about a decade of the close of the century, Robert Koch, whose +discoveries and ingenious studies in bacteriology had brought him +world-wide renown, announced that he had produced a derivative of the +tubercle bacillus, which he termed tuberculin, that he thought might +prove curative of tuberculous disease. It was to be injected beneath the +skin. If the subject was really tuberculous, he would "react" by +manifesting a certain degree of fever, and repeated injections would +bring about elimination of the tuberculous deposits and thus effect a +cure. The world was carried away with such an announcement coming from +such a man, and it was thoroughly believed that at last "the great white +plague," consumption, was to be conquered. Tuberculin did, indeed, cure +certain minor forms of tuberculous disease, such as the skin affection +known as lupus, but it soon became evident that it was almost impotent +in the treatment of pulmonary consumption. It has, however, served to +enable the veterinarian to make out the existence of tuberculous disease +in cattle at an early stage of its course, and it is probable that by +the slaughter of cattle thus found to be tuberculous much infection of +human beings has been prevented.</p> + +<p>Tuberculin failed of its prime purpose, but it does seem to have marked +the initiative of a campaign against consumption which has already +proved of incalculable benefit, and bids fair to put that omnipresent +disease toward the foot of the list of causes of death. We have made +substantial advances in our knowledge of the disease, and we no longer +regard it as incurable. We have learned that it is communicable from one +person to another, but also that its communication can easily be +prevented, so that there is no reason to shrink from association with +tuberculous persons. We have learned, too, that consumption in one's +progenitors, immediate or remote, hardly makes it even probable that he +himself is doomed to suffer with it; the only tuberculous heredity that +we now recognize is that of defective ability to withstand the +infection, and even this we regard as in most instances readily +surmountable. We have learned, furthermore, that pulmonary tuberculous +disease is by no means so fatal as it was formerly esteemed, for men +whose business it is to make great numbers of post-mortem examinations, +such as coroners' physicians and hospital pathologists, assure us that +in a very large percentage of cases of death from other causes they find +indubitable signs of past tuberculous disease of the lungs which had +ceased its activity--been, in fact, cured, either spontaneously or by +medical intervention. Such intervention, it has been abundantly proved, +is altogether likely to be successful if it is of the right sort and +employed early. There is, to be sure, no cure-all. Powerful as the +climatic treatment is, it must be supplemented by measures accurately +adapted to the individual case, and failure to comprehend this fact +still leads many a phthisical person to his grave. But information is +rapidly being diffused, sanatoria for such of the tuberculous as can +take advantage of them are multiplying, and those who are shut off from +their aid are growing more and more cognizant of how they should live in +order to give themselves the best chance of recovery and save their +associates from infection. The era of consumption-cures--meaning +drugs--is past; but the disease is cured in an ever-increasing +proportion of instances, and that, too, by medical though not +medicinal measures.</p> + +<p>At almost every turn medicine has been powerfully assisted by the +sciences which should rather be termed correlative than subsidiary. +Notable among them is chemistry. The isolation of the active principles +of medicinal plants--such as morphine, quinine, strychnine, and +cocaine--has been a remarkable service rendered by chemistry to +medicine. How should we be handicapped if we still had to fight +malarial disease with the crude Peruvian bark instead of its chief +alkaloid, quinine! And how impracticable if not impossible would it be +to render the eye insensitive to pain with any extract of coca leaves, +no matter how concentrated--a purpose that we accomplish almost +instantly with cocaine! Of minor importance, perhaps, but not to be +despised, is the resulting liberation from the old slavery to bulky and +nauseous drugs. The isolation of active principles long antedated the +synthetical preparations, but the latter came at last--the marvellous +array of hypnotics, anodynes, and fever-quellers that are now at our +command, largely coal-tar products. But it is not to pure chemistry +alone that we are indebted for the elegant dosing of the present day; +progressive pharmacy, with its tablets, its coated pills, and its +capsules, has put to shame the old-time purveyor of galenicals. Right +jauntily do we now take our "soda mint" in case of slight derangement of +the stomach, happily oblivious of its vile prototype, the old rhubarb +and soda mixture. Even castor oil has been stripped of its repulsiveness +by the combinations which the soda water fountain affords.</p> + +<p>It was but a step, we can now realize, from the employment of isolated +vegetable principles to that of preparations of certain glandular organs +of the animal economy, but the doctrine of "internal secretions" had to +intervene, and its evolution took time; not till toward the close of the +century did the venerable Brown-Séquard lead up to it. We have not yet +come to "eye of newt and toe of frog," but what we have incorporated +into modern therapeutics in the way of animal products lends at least +some theoretical justification to the ancient use of the dried organs of +various animals. It is but a few years since the "ductless glands"--such +organs, as, for example, the thyreoid gland (an organ situated in the +front of the neck, a small affair in its normal state, but prominent and +even pendulous when by its permanent enlargement it comes to constitute +a goître)--were looked upon as puzzles, as structures destitute of any +known function. Some observers even affirmed that they had no function, +though the constancy of goître in cretins ought to have shown the +fallacy of this allegation in the case of the thyreoid. We do not now +need to be told that the thyreoid gland plays a very important part in +the economy, for we know that its surgical removal gives rise to a +special disease known as myxoedema, which, in addition to its physical +manifestations, is characterized by impairment of the mental powers. +Consequently, this ductless gland--a gland, that is to say, which has no +obvious canal by which it throws off any product of its activity--must +elaborate some material that is necessary to the health of the organism +and is imparted to the blood. That material, whatever it may be, is +termed an "internal secretion." Some of the internal secretions have +turned out to be of singular value medicinally. It is apparently not the +ductless glands alone that furnish internal secretions; the glands that +are provided with ducts and yield a definite and observable product +secrete also a substance (perhaps more than one) which they give up to +the blood.</p> + +<p>Prominent among the therapeutic advances of the century is the direct +reduction of the high temperature of sunstroke and certain fevers by the +use of cold. Although foreshadowed by Currie early in the century by his +use of cold affusion in the treatment of scarlet fever, it did not come +into general use until the closing decades. It is employed principally +in typhoid fever, on the theory that a condition of high fever is in +itself a source of danger quite distinct from the other injurious +effects of a febrile disease. On the other hand, the employment of high +degrees of heat has of late been shown to be a potent agency in the +treatment of certain forms of disease, notably in various affections +classed as rheumatic. Applications of very hot air, provided it is +thoroughly dry, are borne without serious discomfort, and their +employment promises to be of greater service in the conditions in which +it is resorted to than that of any other agent.</p> + +<p>A revelation in the treatment of heart disease has been effected by the +Bad Nauheim system of effervescent baths and resisted exercises. It is +not only functional disorders of the heart that are relieved, but grave +organic diseases also. Somewhat elaborate explanations of the way in +which the treatment proves beneficial have been given, but they are not +altogether satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Thus far we have dealt chiefly with those developments of medicine that +seem to have been the outgrowth of much thought and experiment, but +there was one that can hardly be viewed as other than a happy discovery, +yet it was one that was fraught with unspeakable mitigation of human +suffering, and that wrought a boundless extension of the field of +surgery. It was that of anaesthesia. The first to discover an efficient +surgical anaesthetic was Crawford W. Long, of Georgia. It has been +established that he performed several minor operations with the patient +anaesthetized with sulphuric ether, but he did not proclaim his +discovery, and so it was reserved for William T. G. Morton, of Boston +(then a dentist, but subsequently a physician), to make the first public +demonstration of the efficiency of ether as an anaesthetic, which he did +in the operating theatre of the Massachusetts General Hospital, in +Boston, in the year 1846. The news of Morton's achievement spread +broadcast, and it was at once realized that it was destined to +revolutionize surgery. It certainly has done that, and in no less +degree than was afterward accomplished by Listerism. Ether did not long +remain the only anaesthetic known; Simpson, of Edinburgh, soon +discovered that chloroform was possessed of even more decided +anaesthetic properties. The inhalation of ether is disagreeable, and it +is slow in producing the desired effect, whereas that of chloroform is +not unpleasant, and it acts more rapidly. Consequently chloroform soon +came to be generally preferred; but abundant experience has finally +shown that ether is much the safer agent of the two, and improved +methods of administration have almost entirely done away with the +objections to its use, so that now it is looked upon as the preferable +general anaesthetic. But general anaesthesia--meaning the suspension of +sensibility in the whole organism, including unconsciousness--is not +always necessary, and sometimes it is undesirable. We have now +trustworthy local anaesthetics, the chief of which is cocaine, wherewith +we are able to anaesthetize the part to be operated on without rendering +the patient unconscious, and the co-operation that a conscious patient +may be able to render is sometimes valuable. It was not alone in the +direct saving of human suffering that anaesthetics proved a boon to the +world; they have made possible an amount of experimental work on animals +in the way of vivisection that humane investigators would otherwise have +shrunk from, necessary as it has been and still is for the advancement +of the healing art.</p> + +<p>The operation of ovariotomy, first performed by Ephraim McDowell, of +Kentucky, can hardly be classed with the happy accidents; but so little +had been said about it or thought concerning it that when the news of it +reached Europe "from the wilds of America" the editor of a ponderous +English quarterly journal of medicine recorded his incredulity in the +words "<i>Credat Judoeus, non ego</i>" An ovarian tumor inevitably proves +fatal in the long run if it is not removed. In a certain percentage of +cases it is malignant and will kill whether it is removed or not, but +the general result of ovariotomy has been the saving of thousands of +women from untimely death. Bell, of Edinburgh, had imagined the +operation and had mentioned it in his lectures, but none the less to +McDowell is due the credit of demonstrating its feasibility.</p> + +<p>Medicine bore quite its full share in the mitigation of the horrors and +hardships of war that marked the Nineteenth Century. Its work was shown +in the great reduction of pestilential disease incident to camp life, in +prompt aid to the wounded, in the establishment of salubrious field and +general hospitals, and in improved methods of transportation of the sick +and wounded. Certainly the soldier on the sick list never before had +such a fair prospect of rejoining his comrades safe and sound as he +has now.</p> + +<p>In the care of the insane, too--care not only in the sense of humane +treatment, but in the systematic employment of measures for their +restoration to mental soundness--the century has been marked by notable +progress. This has been chiefly in the direction of preventing insanity, +and although mental disease is said to be on the increase, it may +undoubtedly be said with entire truth that its growing prevalence is not +in proportion to the heightened frequency of "the strenuous life." We +may confidently expect that a more pronounced mastery over diseases of +the mind will come when physicians in general are taught psychiatry +clinically, so that the beginnings of mental alienation may be +intelligently met by the family practitioner.</p> + +<p>The supreme achievement of the medicine of the Nineteenth Century +undoubtedly has been the development of its preventive feature. When we +recall the fact that but a few years ago an attack of infectious disease +was interpreted as a visitation of Providence, by a perversity that even +the triumphs of vaccination did not serve to do away with; when we +contemplate the well-ordered and well-understood measures that are now +resorted to in an ever-increasing number of communities (and resorted to +not solely on the outbreak of an epidemic, but at all times), to purify +the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink; and when we +reflect upon the greatly reduced morbidity as well as mortality of most +infectious diseases--we must realize the immense service that has been +rendered by preventive medicine. No doubt we must all die some time, and +the day is yet far remote when the only causes of death will be old age +and injury; but a decided prolongation of the average lifetime, such as +the life-insurance companies recognize, is an unquestionable gain to the +human race.</p> + +<p>A great blessing that has been brought about in great measure by medical +men has been the establishment of the profession of nursing. The work of +caring for the sick between the physician's visits is no longer, at +least in large communities and in cases of severe illness, left to +over-sympathetic and uninstructed relatives or to outsiders who traded +on mystery. An intelligent and intelligible record is now kept of all +important happenings in the sick room, remedies are administered as they +were ordered, needless alarm at something deemed by the patient to be of +ill omen is quelled, and in case of real emergency, overlooked as it +might otherwise have been, the physician is summoned to meet it. The +advent of the trained nurse marked an era in medicine.</p> + +<p>The literature of medicine has fully kept pace in volume with the +progress of the art itself, and its quality has steadily improved. To +this the great tomes of that gigantic work, the "Index-Catalogue of the +Library of the Surgeon-General's Office, United States Army," bear +solid testimony. It is a consolidated catalogue, by subjects and by +authors' names, of practically every medical book published throughout +the world and of every article in the periodical literature of medicine. +For its existence the world is indebted to Dr. John S. Billings, +formerly a surgeon of high rank in the army and now the director of the +New York Public Library, and for its continued existence to the United +States Government, and it is to be hoped that Congress will never cease +to provide adequately for its continued publication. Its completeness +and its accuracy long ago led to its being prized everywhere.</p> + +<p>There are some problems of which medicine has hardly yet entered upon +the solution. Prominent among them is that of cancer. Little as we now +know of the real nature of that disease, we know quite as much of it as +we knew but a few years ago concerning other diseases equally +destructive and far more prevalent, which, however, we have now +practically mastered. Who can say that we shall not triumph over cancer +while the Twentieth Century is still young? Our final triumph is +indubitable.</p> + +<p>The strongest individuality in the medicine of the Nineteenth Century +was without doubt that of Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (commonly written +by him simply Rudolf Virchow). Although he took no direct part in any +of the striking advances in practice that appeal to the laity, yet he +was recognized the world over, among all classes of educated and +well-informed persons, as the one beacon light of Nineteenth-Century +medicine whose glow had been the steadiest and the most enduring. This +is because of the wide range of his learning in matters not pertaining +closely to his profession. His professional brethren hold the same view, +and this is because he so well controlled himself--checked himself at +every turn by the severest application of system--that he continued for +more than half a century an anchor to hold medical thought strictly down +to fact. This was from no natural lack of volatility, for he was an +<i>Acht-und-vierziger</i> (Forty-eighter). In 1846, as a prosector in the +University of Berlin, Virchow entered with Reinhardt upon a series of +pathological investigations which at once received wide attention. In +conjunction with Reinhardt, he founded the <i>Archiv für pathologische +Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin</i><a name="FNanchor6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> (a periodical +familiarly called "Virchow's <i>Archiv</i>"), the publication of which was +begun in the year 1847. Reinhardt died in 1852, leaving the editorship +in the hands of Virchow alone, and he was still its editor up to the +time of his death, on September 5, 1902.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor6">[6]</a> Archives of Pathological Anatomy and Physiology and of +Clinical Medicine. + +<p>In consequence of his having openly proclaimed himself a Democrat in +1848, Virchow was forced to retire from the University of Berlin in the +following year. He was at once made a professor in the University of +Würzburg, whence seven years later, in 1856, as the result of the +strenuous interposition of various medical organizations, he was +recalled to Berlin, where he was made a professor and director of the +Pathological Institute. He was appointed medical privy councillor in +1874, having several years before that entered upon an active political +career and been one of the founders of the Progressive party, which he +ably represented in the Landtag and the Reichstag. In 1869 he took part +in founding the German and the Berlin Anthropological Societies, of each +of which he was several times president.</p> + +<p>Virchow investigated the most diverse subjects, as his profound studies +of Schliemann's discoveries, as well as his other archaeological +researches, show, and he was a rather prolific writer. The most +important of his early works was <i>Die Cellularpathologie</i>, the first +edition of which was published in 1858. Chance's English translation +appeared in 1860, and Picard's French version came out in 1861. It is +safe to say that no book of the century exerted a profounder influence +on medical thought than Virchow's exposition of the cellular pathology. +His next notable publication was a collection of thirty lectures on +Tumors (<i>Die krankhaften Geschwülste</i>,<a name="FNanchor7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> Berlin, 1863-67). That he was +not too absorbed in these lectures to bring his great powers to bear +upon topics of the day is shown by the fact that before their +publication was completed he brought out his work on Trichinae +(<i>Darstellung der Lehre von den Trichinen</i>, 1864). Old age found him +with industry and versatility unabated, for it was in 1892 that his +<i>Crania ethnica americana</i> appeared, and after that time he wrote a +vigorous protest against the new-fangled spelling of the German language +which he accused the schoolmasters of trying to foist on the people. +This was published in his <i>Archiv</i>. It may well be that his arguments +have not been unavailing, since it is observable that several German +publications that had adopted the new spelling have now dropped it.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor7">[7]</a> Morbid Tumors. + +<p>It must not be supposed that it was by his literary work alone, founded +though it was manifestly on his profound study, that Virchow impressed +his personality upon medicine; it was in his lectures and in his +laboratory teaching, too, that he made himself felt. In all civilized +countries there are many devoted workers in medical science who caught +their first real inspiration from Virchow.</p> + +<p>The writer once saw Virchow--only once, but it was a sight never to be +forgotten. It was at a banquet given as one of the festivities incident +to the annual meeting of the British Medical Association in London in +1873. The company was not a large one, but it included such celebrities +as Professor J. Burdon Sanderson, Sir William Jenner, Professor +Chauveau, and Professor Marey. Virchow was conspicuously the man toward +whom the eyes of all others were oftenest directed. Virchow met with the +love as well as the admiration of his contemporaries, and both +sentiments will descend to their successors, for his impress on the +records of medicine is indelible, both as an instructor and as a friend +of all real truth-seekers.</p> +<br> + +<p>AUTHORITIES.</p> + +<p>There is no full and connected account of the progress of medicine +during the Nineteenth Century, but the reader may consult with profit +the various medical biographies, also the following works: Silliman's "A +Century of Medicine and Chemistry;" Jenner's "The Practical Medicine of +To-day;" Buck's "Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences;" +Eulenburg's "Real-Encyclopädie der gesammten Heilkunde;" the "Annus +Medicus," published in the <i>Lancet</i> at the close of each year; and +Tinker's "America's Contributions to Surgery" (Bulletin of the Johns +Hopkins Hospital, Aug.-Sept., 1902).</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full"> +<pre> + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME XIV*** + +******* This file should be named 10649-h.txt or 10649-h.zip ******* + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/6/4/10649">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/6/4/10649</a> + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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