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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + + + + +Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume XI + +Author: John Lord + +Release Date: January 8, 2004 [eBook #10644] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: iso-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME +XI*** + + +E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +LORD'S LECTURES + +BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME XI + +AMERICAN FOUNDERS. + +BY JOHN LORD, LL.D., + +AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE," +ETC., ETC. + + + + + + + +PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. + +Dr. Lord's volume on "American Statesmen" was written some years after +the issue of his volume on "Warriors and Statesmen," which was Volume IV +of his original series of five volumes. The wide popular acceptance of +the five volumes encouraged him to extend the series by including, and +rewriting for the purpose, others of his great range of lectures. The +volume called "Warriors and Statesmen" (now otherwise distributed) +included a number of lectures which in this new edition have been +arranged in more natural grouping. Among them were the lectures on +Hamilton and Webster. It has been deemed wise to bring these into closer +relation with their contemporaries, and thus Hamilton is now placed in +this volume, among the other "American Founders," and Webster in the +volume on "American Leaders." + +Of the "Founders" there is one of whom Dr. Lord did not treat, yet whose +services--especially in the popular confirmation of the Constitution by +the various States, and notably in its fundamental interpretation by the +United States Supreme Court--rank as vitally important. John Marshall, +as Chief Justice of that Court, raised it to a lofty height in the +judicial world, and by his various decisions established the +Constitution in its unique position as applicable to all manner of +political and commercial questions--the world's marvel of combined +firmness and elasticity. To quote Winthrop, as cited by Dr. Lord, it is +"like one of those rocking-stones reared by the Druids, which the finger +of a child may vibrate to its centre, yet which the might of an army +cannot move from its place." + +So important was Marshall's work, and so potent is the influence of the +United States Supreme Court, that no apology is needed for introducing +into this volume on our "Founders" a chapter dealing with that great +theme by Professor John Bassett Moore, recently Assistant Secretary of +State; later, Counsel for the Peace Commission at Paris; and now +occupying the chair of International Law and Diplomacy in the School of +Political Science, Columbia University, New York City. + +NEW YORK, September, 1902. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. + +THE AMERICAN IDEA. + +Basis of American institutions +Their origin +The Declaration of Independence +Duties rather than rights enjoined in Hebrew Scriptures +Roman laws in reference to rights +Rousseau and the "Contrat Social" +Calvinism and liberty +Holland and the Puritans +The English Constitution +The Anglo-Saxon Laws +The Guild system +Teutonic passion for personal independence +English Puritans +Puritan settlers in New England +Puritans and Dutch settlers compared +Traits of the Pilgrim Fathers +New England town-meetings +Love of learning among the Puritan colonists +Confederation of towns +Colonial governors +Self-government; use of fire-arms +Parish ministers +Religious freedom +Growth of the colonies +The conquest of Canada +Colonial discontents +Desire for political independence +Oppressive English legislation +Denial of the right of taxation +James Otis and Samuel Adams +The Stamp Act +Boston Port Bill +British troops in Boston +The Battle of Lexington +Liberty under law + + +BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. + +DIPLOMACY. + +Birth of Franklin +His early days +Leaves the printer's trade +Goes to Philadelphia +Visit to England +Returns to Philadelphia +Prints a newspaper +Establishes the "Junto" +Marries Deborah Reid +Establishes a library +"Poor Richard" +Clerk of the General Assembly +Business prosperity +Retirement from business +Scientific investigations +Founds the University of Pennsylvania +Scientific inventions +Franklin's materialism +Appointed postmaster-general +The Penns +The Quakers +Franklin sent as colonial agent to London +Difficulties and annoyances +Acquaintances and friends +Returns to America +Elected member of the Assembly +English taxation of the colonies +English coercion +Franklin again sent to England +At the bar of the House of Commons +Repeal of the Stamp Act +Franklin appointed agent for Massachusetts +The Hutchinson letters +Franklin a member of the Continental Congress +Sent as envoy to France +His tact and wisdom +Unbounded popularity in France +Embarrassments in raising money +The recall of Silas Deane +Franklin's useful career as diplomatist +Associated with John Jay and John Adams +The treaty of peace +Franklin returns to America +His bodily infirmities +Happy domestic life +Chosen member of the Constitutional Convention +Sickness; death; services +Deeds and fame + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON. + +THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. + +Washington's origin and family +His early life +Personal traits +Friendship with Lord Fairfax +Washington as surveyor +Aide to General Braddock +Member of the House of Burgesses +Marriage, and life at Mount Vernon +Member of the Continental Congress +General-in-chief of the American armies +His peculiarities as general +At Cambridge +Organization of the army +Defence of Boston +British evacuation of Boston +Washington in New York +Retreat from New York +In New Jersey +Forlorn condition of the army +Arrival at the Delaware +Fabian Policy +The battle of Trenton +Intrenchment at Morristown +Expulsion of the British from New Jersey +The gloomy winter of 1777 +Washington defends Philadelphia +Battle of Germantown +Surrender of Burgoyne +Intrigues of Gates +Baron Steuben +Winter at Valley Forge +British evacuation of Philadelphia +Battle of Monmouth +Washington at White Plains +Benedict Arnold +Military operations at the South +General Greene +Lord Cornwallis +His surrender at Yorktown +Close of the war +Washington at Mount Vernon +Elected president +Alexander Hamilton +John Jay +Washington as president +Establishment of United States Bank +Rivalries and dissensions between Hamilton and Jefferson +French intrigues +Jay treaty +Citizen Genet +Washington's administrations +Retirement of Washington +Death, character, and services + + +ALEXANDER HAMILTON. + +AMERICAN CONSTITUTION. + +Hamilton's youth +Education +Precocity of intellect +State of political parties on the breaking out of the Revolutionary War +Their principles +Their great men +Hamilton leaves college for the army +Selected by Washington as his aide-de-camp at the age of nineteen +His early services to Washington +Suggestions to members of Congress +Trials and difficulties of the patriots +Demoralization of the country +Hamilton in active military service +Leaves the army; marries; studies law +Opening of his legal career +His peculiarities as a lawyer +Contrasted with Aaron Burr +Hamilton enters political life +Sees the necessity of a constitution +Convention at Annapolis +Convention at Philadelphia +The remarkable statesmen assembled +Discussion of the Convention +Great questions at issue +Constitution framed +Influence of Hamilton in its formation +Its ratification by the States +"The Federalist" +Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury +His transcendent financial genius +Restores the national credit +His various political services as statesman +The father of American industry +Protection +Federalists and Republicans +Hamilton's political influence after his retirement +Resumes the law +His quarrel with Burr +His duel +His death +Burr's character and crime +Hamilton's services +His lasting influence + + +JOHN ADAMS. + +CONSTRUCTIVE STATESMANSHIP. + +The Adams family +Youth and education of John Adams +New England in the eighteenth century +Adams as orator +As lawyer +The Stamp Act +The "Boston Massacre" +Effects of English taxation +Destruction of tea at Boston +Adams sent to Congress +His efforts to secure national independence +Criticisms of the Congress +Battles of Lexington and Concord +Adams moves Washington's appointment as general-in-chief +Sent to France +Adams as diplomatist +His jealousy of Franklin +Adams in England +As vice-president +Aristocratic sympathies +As president +Formation of political parties +The Federalists; the Republicans +Adams compared with Jefferson +Discontent of Adams +Strained relations between France and the United States +The Alien and Sedition laws +Decline of the Federal party +Adams's tenacity of office +His services to the State +Adams in retirement + + +THOMAS JEFFERSON. + +POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY. + +Thomas Jefferson +Birth and early education +Law studies +Liberal principles +Practises law +Successful, but no orator +Enters the House of Burgesses +Marries a rich widow +Builds "Monticello" +Member of the Continental Congress +Drafts the Declaration of Independence +Enters the State Legislature +Governor of Virginia +Appointed minister to France +Hails the French Revolution +Services as a diplomatist +Secretary of state +Rivalry with Hamilton +Love of peace +Founds the Democratic party +Contrasted with Hamilton +Becomes vice-president +Inaugurated as president +Policy as president +The purchase of Louisiana +Aaron Burr +His brilliant career and treasonable schemes +Arrest and trial +Subsequent reverses +The Non-importation Act +Strained relations between France and the United States +English aggressions +The peace policy of Jefferson +The embargo +Triumph of the Democratic party +Results of universal suffrage +Private life of Jefferson +Retirement to Monticello +Vast correspondence; hospitality +Fame as a writer +Friend of religious liberty and popular education +Founds the University of Virginia +His great services + + +JOHN MARSHALL. + +BY JOHN BASSETT MOORE. + +THE SUPREME COURT. + +The States of the American Union after the Revolution, for a time a +loose confederation, retaining for the most part powers of independent +governments. + +The Constitution (1787-89) sought to remedy this and other defects. + +One Supreme Court created, in which was vested the judicial power of the +United States. + +John Marshall, in order the fourth Chief Justice (1801-35), takes +pre-eminent part in the development of the judicial power. + +Earns the title of "Expounder of the Constitution". + +Birth (1755) and parentage. + +His active service in the Revolutionary War. + +Admitted to the bar (1780) and begins practice (1781). + +A member of the Virginia Legislature. + +Supporter of Washington's administrations, and leader of Federal party. + +United States Envoy to France (1797-98). + +Member of Congress from Virginia (1799-1800), and supporter of President +Adams's administration. + +Secretary of State in Adams's Cabinet (1800-01). + +Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. + +His many important decisions on constitutional questions. + +Maintains power of the Supreme Court to decide upon the +constitutionality of Acts of Congress. + +Asserts power of Federal Government to incorporate banks, with freedom +from State control and taxation. + +Maintains also its power to regulate commerce, free from State +hindrance or obstruction. + +His constitutional opinion, authoritative and unshaken. + +His decisions on questions of International Law. + +Decides the status of a captured American vessel visiting her native +port as a foreign man-of-war. + +Sound decision respecting prize cases. + +His views and rulings respecting confiscation of persons and property in +time of war. + +Personal characteristics and legal acumen. + +Weight and influence of the Supreme Court of the United States. + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +VOLUME XI. + +Surrender of General Cornwallis at Yorktown. +_After the painting by Ch. Ed. Armand Dumaresq_ + +Puritans Going to Church +_After the painting by G. H. Boughton_. + +Benjamin Franklin +_After the painting by Baron Jos. Sifrède Duplessis_. + +Franklin's Experiments with Electricity +_After the painting by Karl Storch_. + +The Fight of the Bonhomme Richard and Serapis +_After the painting by J. O. Davidson_. + +George Washington +_After the painting by Gilbert Stuart_ + +Washington's Home at Mt. Vernon +_From a photograph_. + +Alexander Hamilton +_After the painting by Gilbert Stuart_. + +Duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr +_After the painting by J. Mund_. + +John Adams +_After the painting by Gilbert Stuart_. + +Patrick Henry's Speech in the House of Burgesses +_After the painting by Rothermel_. + +Thomas Jefferson +_After the painting by Gilbert Stuart_. + +John Marshall +_From an engraving after the painting by Inman_. + + + + + + +PRELIMINARY CHAPTER + + +THE AMERICAN IDEA. + +1600-1775. + + +In a survey of American Institutions there seem to be three fundamental +principles on which they are based: first, that all men are naturally +equal in rights; second, that a people cannot be taxed without their own +consent; and third, that they may delegate their power of +self-government to representatives chosen by themselves. + +The remote origin of these principles it is difficult to trace. Some +suppose that they are innate, appealing to consciousness,--concerning +which there can be no dispute or argument. Others suppose that they +exist only so far as men can assert and use them, whether granted by +rulers or seized by society. Some find that they arose among our +Teutonic ancestors in their German forests, while still others go back +to Jewish, Grecian, and Roman history for their origin. Wherever they +originated, their practical enforcement has been a slow and unequal +growth among various peoples, and it is always the evident result of an +evolution, or development of civilization. + +In the preamble to the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson +asserts that "all men are created equal," and that among their +indisputable rights are "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." +Nobody disputes this; and yet, looking critically into the matter, it +seems strange that, despite Jefferson's own strong anti-slavery +sentiments, his associates should have excluded the colored race from +the common benefits of humanity, unless the negroes in their plantations +were not men at all, only things or chattels. The American people went +through a great war and spent thousands of millions of dollars to +maintain the indissoluble union of their States; but the events of that +war and the civil reconstruction forced the demonstration that African +slaves have the same inalienable rights for recognition before the law +as the free descendants of the English and the Dutch. The statement of +the Declaration has been formally made good; and yet, whence came it? + +If we go back to the New Testament, the great Charter of Christendom, in +search of rights, we are much puzzled to find them definitely declared +anywhere; but we find, instead, duties enjoined with great clearness +and made universally binding. It is only by a series of deductions, +especially from Saint Paul's epistles, that we infer the right of +Christian liberty, with no other check than conscience,--the being made +free by the gospel of Christ, emancipated from superstition and +tyrannies of opinion; yet Paul says not a word about the manumission of +slaves, as a right to which they are justly entitled, any more than he +urges rebellion against a constituted civil government because it is a +despotism. The burden of his political injunctions is submission to +authority, exhortations to patience under the load of evils and +tribulations which so many have to bear without hope of relief. + +In the earlier Jewish jurisprudence we find laws in relation to property +which recognize natural justice as clearly as does the jurisprudence of +Rome; but revolt and rebellion against bad rulers or kings, although apt +to take place, were nowhere enjoined, unless royal command should +militate against the sovereignty of God,--the only ultimate authority. +By the Hebrew writers, bad rulers are viewed as a misfortune to the +people ruled, which they must learn to bear, hoping for better times, +trusting in Providence for relief, rather than trying to remove by +violence. It is He who raises up deliverers in His good time, to reign +in justice and equity. If anything can be learned from the Hebrew +Scriptures in reference to rights, it is the injunction to obey God +rather than man, in matters where conscience is concerned; and this +again merges into duty, but is susceptible of vast applications to +conduct as controlled by individual opinion. + +Under Roman rule native rights fare no better. Paul could appeal from +Jewish tyrants to Caesar in accordance with his rights as a Roman +citizen; but his Roman citizenship had nothing to do with any inborn +rights as a man. Paul could appeal to Caesar as a Roman citizen. For +what? For protection, for the enjoyment of certain legal privileges +which the Empire had conferred upon Roman citizenship, not for any +rights which he could claim as a human being. If the Roman laws +recognized any rights, it was those which the State had given, not those +which are innate and inalienable, and which the State could not justly +take away. I apprehend that even in the Greek and Roman republics no +civil rights could be claimed except those conferred upon men as +citizens rather than as human beings. Slaves certainly had no rights, +and they composed half the population of the old Roman world. Rights +were derived from decrees or laws, not from human consciousness. + +Where then did Jefferson get his ideas as to the equal rights to which +men were born? Doubtless from the French philosophers of the eighteenth +century, especially from Rousseau, who, despite his shortcomings as a +man, was one of the most original thinkers that his century produced, +and one of the most influential in shaping the opinions of civilized +Europe. In his "Contrat Social" Rousseau appealed to consciousness, +rather than to authorities or the laws of nations. He took his stand on +the principles of eternal justice in all he wrote as to civil liberties, +and hence he kindled an immense enthusiasm for liberty as an +inalienable right. + +But Rousseau came from Switzerland, where the passion for personal +independence was greater than in any other part of Europe,--a passion +perhaps inherited from the old Teutonic nations in their forests, on +which Tacitus dilates, next to their veneration for woman the most +interesting trait among the Germanic barbarians. No Eastern nation, +except the ancient Persians, had these traits. The law of liberty is an +Occidental rather than an Oriental peculiarity, and arose among the +Aryans in their European settlements. Moreover, Rousseau lived in a city +where John Calvin had taught the principles of religious liberty which +afterwards took root in Holland, England, Scotland, and France, and +created the Puritans and Huguenots. The central idea of Calvinism is the +right to worship God according to the dictates of conscience, +enlightened by the Bible. Rousseau was no Calvinist, but the principles +of religious and civil liberty are so closely connected that he may have +caught their spirit at Geneva, in spite of his hideous immorality and +his cynical unbelief. Yet even Calvin's magnificent career in defence of +the right of conscience to rebel against authority, which laid the solid +foundation of theology and church discipline on which Protestantism was +built up, arrived at such a pitch of arbitrary autocracy as to show +that, if liberty be "human" and "native," authority is no less so. + +Whether, then, liberty is a privilege granted to a few, or a right to +which all people are justly entitled, it is bootless to discuss; but its +development among civilized nations is a worthy object of +historical inquiry. + +A late writer, Douglas Campbell, with some plausibility and considerable +learning, traces to the Dutch republic most that is valuable in American +institutions, such as town-meetings, representative government, +restriction of taxation by the people, free schools, toleration of +religious worship, and equal laws. No doubt the influence of Holland in +the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in stimulating free inquiry, +religious toleration, and self-government, as well as learning, +commerce, manufactures, and the arts, was considerable, not only on the +Puritan settlers of New England, but perhaps on England itself. No +doubt the English Puritans who fled to Holland during the persecutions +of Archbishop Laud learned much from a people whose religious oracle was +Calvin, and whose great hero was William the Silent. Mr. Motley, in the +most brilliant and perhaps the most learned history ever written by an +American, has made a revelation of a nation heretofore supposed to be +dull, money-loving, and uninteresting. Too high praise cannot be given +to those brave and industrious people who redeemed their morasses from +the sea, who grew rich and powerful without the natural advantages of +soil and climate, who fought for eighty years against the whole power of +Spain, who nobly secured their independence against overwhelming forces, +who increased steadily in population and wealth when obliged to open +their dikes upon their cultivated fields, who established universities +and institutions of learning when almost driven to despair, and who +became the richest people in Europe, whitening the ocean with their +ships, establishing banks and colonies, creating a new style of +painting, and teaching immortal lessons in government when they occupied +a country but little larger than Wales. Civilization is as proud of such +a country as Holland as of Greece itself. + +With all this, I still believe that it is to England we must go for the +origin of what we are most proud of in our institutions, much as the +Dutch have taught us for which we ought to be grateful, and much as we +may owe to French sceptics and Swiss religionists. This belief is +confirmed by a book I have just read by Hannis Taylor on the "Origin and +Growth of the English Constitution." It is not an artistic history, by +any means, but one in which the author has brought out the recent +investigations of Edward Freeman, John Richard Green, Bishop Stubbs, +Professor Gneist of Berlin, and others, who with consummate learning +have gone to the roots of things,--some of whom, indeed, are dry +writers, regardless of style, disdainful of any thing but facts, which +they have treated with true scholastic minuteness. It appears from these +historians, as quoted by Taylor, and from other authorities to which the +earlier writers on English history had no access, that the germs of our +free institutions existed among the Anglo-Saxons, and were developed to +a considerable extent among their Norman conquerors in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries, when barons extorted charters from kings in +their necessities, and when the common people of Saxon origin secured +valuable rights and liberties, which they afterwards lost under the +Tudor and Stuart princes. I need not go into a detail of these. It is +certain that in the reign of Edward I. (1274-1307), himself a most +accomplished and liberal civil ruler, the English House of Commons had +become very powerful, and had secured in Parliament the right of +originating money bills, and the control of every form of taxation,--on +the principle that the people could not be taxed without their own +consent. To this principle kings gave their assent, reluctantly indeed, +and made use of all their statecraft to avoid compliance with it, in +spite of their charters and their royal oaths. But it was a political +idea which held possession of the minds of the people from the reign of +Edward I. to that of Henry IV. During this period all citizens had the +right of suffrage in their boroughs and towns, in the election of +certain magistrates. They were indeed mostly controlled by the lord of +the manor and by the parish priest, but liberty was not utterly +extinguished in England, even by Norman kings and nobles; it existed to +a greater degree than in any continental State out of Italy. It cannot +be doubted that there was a constitutional government in England as +early as in the time of Edward I., and that the power of kings was even +then checked by parliamentary laws. + +In Freeman's "Norman Conquest," it appears that the old English town, or +borough, is purely of Teutonic origin. In this, local self-government is +distinctly recognized, although it subsequently was controlled by the +parish priest and the lord of the manor under the influence of the +papacy and feudalism; in other words, the ancient jurisdiction of the +tun-mõt--or town-meeting--survived in the parish vestry and the manorial +court. The guild system, according to Kendall, had its origin in England +at a very early date, and a great influence was exercised on popular +liberty by the meetings of the various guilds, composed, as they were, +of small freemen. The guild law became the law of the town, with the +right to elect its magistrates. "The old reeve or bailiff was supplanted +by mayor and aldermen, and the practice of sending the reeve and four +men as the representatives of the township to the shire-moot widened +into the practice of sending four discreet men as representatives of the +county to confer with the king in his great council touching the affairs +of the kingdom." "In 1376," says Taylor, "the Commons, intent upon +correcting the evil practices of the sheriff, petitioned that the +knights of the shire might be chosen by common election of the better +folk of the shires, and not nominated by the sheriff; and Edward III. +assented to the request." + +I will not dwell further on the origin and maintenance of free +institutions in England while Continental States were oppressed by all +the miseries of royalty and feudalism. But beyond all the charters and +laws which modern criticism had raked out from buried or forgotten +records, there is something in the character of the English yeoman which +even better explains what is most noticeable in the settlement of the +American Colonies, especially in New England. The restless passion for +personal independence, the patience, the energy, the enterprise, even +the narrowness and bigotry which marked the English middle classes in +all the crises of their history, stand out in bold relief in the +character of the New England settlers. All their traits are not +interesting, but they are English, and represent the peculiarities of +the Anglo-Saxons, rather than of the Normans. In England, they produced +a Latimer rather than a Cranmer,--a Cromwell rather than a Stanley. The +Saxon yeomanry at the time of Chaucer were not aristocratic, but +democratic. They had an intense hatred of Norman arrogance and +aggression. Their home life was dull, but virtuous. They cared but +little for the sports of the chase, compared with the love which the +Norman aristocracy always had for such pleasures. It was among them that +two hundred years later the reformed doctrines of Calvin took the +deepest hold, since these were indissolubly blended with civil liberty. +There was something in the blood of the English Puritans which fitted +them to be the settlers of a new country, independent of cravings for +religious liberty. In their new homes in the cheerless climate of New +England we see traits which did not characterize the Dutch settlers of +New York; we find no patroons, no ambition to be great landed +proprietors, no desire to live like country squires, as in Virginia. +They were more restless and enterprising than their Dutch neighbors, and +with greater public spirit in dangers. They loved the discussion of +abstract questions which it was difficult to settle. They produced a +greater number of orators and speculative divines in proportion to their +wealth and number than the Dutch, who were phlegmatic and fond of ease +and comfort, and did not like to be disturbed by the discussion of +novelties. They had more of the spirit of progress than the colonists of +New York. There was a quiet growth among them of those ideas which +favored political independence, while also there was more intolerance, +both social and religious. They hanged witches and persecuted the +Quakers. They kept Sunday with more rigor than the Dutch, and were less +fond of social festivities. They were not so genial and frank in their +social gatherings, although fonder of excitement. + +Among all the new settlers, however, both English and Dutch, we see one +element in common,--devotion to the cause of liberty and hatred of +oppression and wrong, learned from the weavers of Ghent as well as from +the burghers of Exeter and Bristol. + +In another respect the Dutch and English resembled each other: they +were equally fond of the sea, and of commercial adventures, and hence +were noted fishermen as well as thrifty merchants. And they equally +respected learning, and gave to all their children the rudiments of +education. At the time the great Puritan movement began, the English +were chiefly agriculturists and the Dutch were merchants and +manufacturers. Wool was exported from England to purchase the cloth into +which it was woven. There were sixty thousand weavers in Ghent alone, +and the towns and cities of Flanders and Holland were richer and more +beautiful than those of England. + +It will be remembered that New York (Nieuw Amsterdam) was settled by the +Dutch in 1613, and Jamestown, Virginia, by the Elizabethan colonies in +1607. So that both of these colonies antedated the coming of the +Pilgrims to Massachusetts in 1620. It is true that most of the histories +of the United States have been written by men of New England origin, and +that therefore by natural predilection they have made more of the New +England influence than of the other elements among the Colonies. Yet +this is not altogether the result of prejudice; for, despite the +splendid roll of soldiers and statesmen from the Middle and Southern +sections of the country who bore so large a share in the critical events +of the transition era of the Revolution, it remains that the brunt of +resistance to tyranny fell first and heaviest on New England, and that +the principal influences that prepared the general sentiment of revolt, +union, war, and independence proceeded from those colonies. + +The Puritan exodus from England, chiefly from the eastern counties, +first to Holland, and then to New England, was at its height during the +persecutions of Archbishop Laud in the reign of Charles I. The +Pilgrims--as the small company of Separatists were called who followed +their Puritanism to the extent of breaking entirely away from the +Church, and who left Holland for America--came to barren shores, after +having learned many things from the Dutch. Their pilgrimage was taken, +not with the view of improving their fortunes, like the more +aristocratic settlers of Virginia, but to develop their peculiar ideas. +It must be borne in mind that the civilization they brought with them +was a growth from Teutonic ancestry,--an evolution from Saxon times, +although it is difficult to trace the successive developments during the +Norman rule. The Pilgrims brought with them to America an intense love +of liberty, and consequently an equally intense hatred of arbitrary +taxation. Their enjoyment of religious rights was surpassed only by +their aversion to Episcopacy. They were a plain and simple people, who +abhorred the vices of the patrician class at home; but they loved +learning, and sought to extend knowledge, as the bulwark of free +institutions. The Puritans who followed them within ten years and +settled Massachusetts Bay and Salem, were direct from England. They were +not Separatists, like the Pilgrims, but Presbyterians; they hated +Episcopacy, but would have had Church and State united under +Presbyterianism. They were intolerant, as against Roger Williams and the +"witches," and at first perpetrated cruelties like those from which they +themselves had fled. But something in the free air of the big continent +developed the spirit of liberty among them until they, too, like the +Pilgrims, became Independents and Separatists,--and so, +Congregationalists rather than Presbyterians. + +The first thing we note among these New Englanders was their +town-meetings, derived from the ancient folk-mote, in which they elected +their magistrates, and imposed upon themselves the necessary taxes for +schools, highways, and officers of the law. They formed self-governed +communities, who selected for rulers their ablest and fittest men, +marked for their integrity and intelligence,--grave, austere, unselfish, +and incorruptible. Money was of little account in comparison with +character. The earliest settlers were the picked and chosen men of the +yeomanry of England, and generally thrifty and prosperous. Their leaders +had had high social positions in their English homes, and their +ministers were chiefly graduates of the universities, some of whom were +fine scholars in both Hebrew and Greek, had been settled in important +parishes, and would have attained high ecclesiastical rank had they not +been nonconformists,--opposed to the ritual, rather than the theological +tenets of the English Church as established by Elizabeth. Of course they +were Calvinists, more rigid even than their brethren in Geneva. The +Bible was to them the ultimate standard of authority--civil and +religious. The only restriction on suffrage was its being conditioned on +church-membership. They aspired, probably from Calvinistic influence, +but aspired in vain, to establish a theocracy, borrowed somewhat from +that of the Jews. I do not agree with Mr. John Fiske, in his able and +interesting history of the "Beginnings of New England," that "the +Puritan appealed to reason;" I think that the Bible was their ultimate +authority in all matters pertaining to religion. As to civil government, +the reason may have had a great place in their institutions; but these +grew up from their surroundings rather than from study or the experience +of the past. There was more originality in them than it is customary to +suppose. They were the development of Old England life in New England, +but grew in many respects away from the parent stock. + +The next thing of mark among the Colonists was their love of learning; +all children were taught to read and write. They had been settled at +Plymouth, Salem, and Boston less than twenty years when they established +Harvard College, chiefly for the education of ministers, who took the +highest social rank in the Colonies, and were the most influential +people. Lawyers and physicians were not so well educated. As for +lawyers, there was but little need of them, since disputes were mostly +settled either by the ministers or the selectmen of the towns, who were +the most able and respectable men of the community. What the theocratic +Puritans desired the most was educated ministers and schoolmasters. In +1641 a school was established in Hartford, Connecticut, which was free +to the poor. By 1642 every township in Massachusetts had a schoolmaster, +and in 1665 every one embracing fifty families a common school. If the +town had over one hundred families it had a grammar school, in which +Latin was taught. It is probable, however, that the idea of popular +education originated with the Dutch. Elizabeth and her ministers did not +believe in the education of the masses, of which we read but little +until the 19th century. As early as 1582 the Estates of Friesland +decreed that the inhabitants of towns and villages should provide good +and able Reformed schoolmasters, so that when the English +nonconformists dwelt in Leyden in 1609 the school, according to Motley, +had become the common property of the people. + +The next thing we note among the Colonists of New England is the +confederation of towns and their representation in the Legislature, or +the General Court. This was formed to settle questions of common +interest, to facilitate commerce, to establish a judicial system, to +devise means for protection against hostile Indians, to raise taxes to +support the common government. The Legislature, composed of delegates +chosen by the towns, exercised most of the rights of sovereignty, +especially in the direction of military affairs and the collection +of revenue. + +The governors were chosen by the people in secret ballot, until the +liberal charter granted by Charles I. was revoked, and a royal governor +was placed over the four confederated Colonies of Massachusetts, +Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. This confederation was not a +federal union, but simply a league for mutual defence against the +Indians. Each Colony managed its own internal affairs, without +interference from England, until 1684. + +Down to this time the Colonies had been too insignificant to attract +much notice in England, and hence were left to develop their +institutions in their own way, according to the circumstances which +controlled them, and the dangers with which they were surrounded. One +thing is clear: the infant Colonies governed themselves, and elected +their own magistrates, from the governor to the selectmen; and this was +true as well of the Middle and Southern as of the Eastern Colonies. Even +in Virginia quite as large a proportion of the people took part in +elections as in Massachusetts. It is difficult to find any similar +instance of uncontrolled self-government, either in Holland or England +at any period of their history. Either the king, or the Parliament, or +the lord of the manor, or the parish priest controlled appointments or +interfered with them, and even when the people directly selected their +magistrates, suffrage was not universal, as it gradually came to be in +the Colonies, with slight restrictions,--one of the features of the +development of American institutions. + +Another thing we notice among the Colonies, which had no inconsiderable +influence on their growth, was the use of fire-arms among all the +people, to defend themselves from hostile Indians. Every man had his +musket and powder-flask; and there were several periods when it was not +safe even to go to church unarmed. Thus were the new settlers inured to +danger and self-defence, and bloody contests with their savage foes. +They grew up practically soldiers, and formed a firm material for an +effective militia, able to face regular troops and even engage in +effective operations, as seen afterwards in the conquest of Louisburg by +Sir William Pepperell, a Kittery merchant. But for the universal use of +fire-arms, either for war or game, it is doubtful if the Colonies could +have won their independence. And it is interesting to notice that, while +the free carrying of weapons, in these later days at least, is apt to +result in rough lawlessness, as in our frontier regions, among the +serious and law-abiding Colonists of those early times it was not so. +This was probably due both to their strict religious obligations and to +the presence of their wives and children. + +The unrestricted selection of parish ministers by the people was no +slight cause of New England growth, and was also a peculiar custom or +institution not seen in the mother country, where appointment to +parishes was chiefly in the hands of the aristocracy or the crown. +Either the king, or the lord chancellor, or the universities, or the +nobility, or the county squires had the gift of the "livings," often +bestowed on ignorant or worldly or inefficient men, the younger sons of +men of rank, who made no mark, and were incapable of instruction or +indifferent to their duties. In New England the minister of the parish +was elected by the church members or congregation, and if he could not +edify his hearers by his sermons, or if his character did not command +respect, his occupation was gone, or his salary was not paid. In +consequence the ministers were generally gifted men, well educated, and +in sympathy with the people. Who can estimate the influence of such +religious teachers on everything that pertained to New England life and +growth,--on morals, on education, on religious and civil institutions! + +Although we have traced the early characteristics of the New England +Colonists, especially because it was in New England first and chiefly +that the spirit of resistance to English oppression grew to a sentiment +for independence, it is not to be overlooked that the essential elements +of self-controlling manhood were common throughout all the Colonies. And +everywhere it seems to have grown out of the germ of a devotion to +religious freedom, developed on a secluded continent, where men were +shut in by the sea on the one hand, and perils from the fierce +aborigines on the other. The Puritans of New England, the Hollanders of +New York, Penn's Quaker colony in Pennsylvania, the Huguenots of South +Carolina, the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of North Carolina, Virginia, +Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, were all of Calvinistic training +and came from European persecutions. All were rigidly Puritanical in +their social and Sabbatarian observances. Even the Episcopalians of +Virginia, where a larger Norman-English stock was settled, with +infusions of French-Huguenot blood, and where slavery bred more men of +wealth and broader social distinctions, were sternly religious in their +laws, although far more lax and pleasure-loving in their customs. +Everywhere, this new life of Englishmen in a new land developed their +self-reliance, their power of work, their skill in arms, their habit of +common association for common purposes, and their keen, intelligent +knowledge of political conditions, with a tenacious grip on their rights +as Englishmen. + +In the enjoyment, then, of unknown civil and religious liberties, of +equal laws, and a mild government, the Colonies rapidly grew, in spite +of Indian wars. In New England they had also to combat a hard soil and a +cold climate. Their equals in rugged strength, in domestic virtues, in +religious veneration were not to be seen on the face of the whole earth. +They may have been intolerant, narrow-minded, brusque and rough in +manners, and with little love or appreciation of art; they may have been +opinionated and self-sufficient: but they were loyal to duties and to +their "Invisible King." Above all things, they were tenacious of their +rights, and scrupled no sacrifices to secure them, and to perpetuate +them among their children. + +It is not my object to describe the history of the Puritans, after they +had made a firm settlement in the primeval forests, down to the +Revolutionary War, but only to glance at the institutions they created +or adopted, which have extended more or less over all parts of North +America, and laid the foundation for a magnificent empire. + +At the close of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, which ended in the +conquest of Canada from the French by the combined forces of England and +her American subjects, the population of the Colonies--in New England +and the Middle and Southern sections--was not far from two millions. +Success in war and some development in wealth naturally engendered +self-confidence. I apprehend that the secret and unavowed consciousness +of power, creating the desire to be a nation rather than a mere colony +dependent on Great Britain,--or, if colonies, yet free and untrammelled +by the home government,--had as much to do with the struggle for +independence as the discussion of rights, at least among the leaders of +the people, both clerical and lay. The feeling that they were not +represented in Parliament was not of much account, for more than three +quarters of the English at home had no representation at all. To be +represented in Parliament was utterly impracticable, and everybody knew +it. But when arbitrary measures were adopted by the English government, +in defiance of charters, the popular orators made a good point in +magnifying the injustice of "taxation without representation." + +The Colonies had been marvellously prospered, and if not rich they were +powerful, and were spreading toward the indefinite and unexplored West. +The Seven Years' War had developed their military capacity. It was New +England troops which had taken Louisburg. The charm of British +invincibility had been broken by Braddock's defeat. The Americans had +learned self-reliance in their wars with the Indians, and had nearly +exterminated them along the coast without British aid. The Colonists +three thousand miles away from England had begun to feel their +importance, and to realize the difficulty of their conquest by any +forces that England could command. The self-exaggeration common to all +new countries was universal. Few as the people were, compared with the +population of the mother country, their imagination was boundless. They +felt, if they did not clearly foresee, their inevitable future. The +North American continent was theirs by actual settlement and long habits +of self-government, and they were determined to keep it. Why should they +be dependent on a country that crippled their commerce, that stifled +their manufactures, that regulated their fisheries, that appointed their +governors, and regarded them with selfish ends,--as a people to be +taxed in order that English merchants and manufacturers should be +enriched? They did not feel weak or dependent; what new settlers in the +Western wilds ever felt that they could not take care of their farms and +their flocks and everything which they owned? + +Doubtless such sentiments animated far-reaching men, to whom liberty was +so sweet, and power so enchanting. They could not openly avow them +without danger of arrest, until resistance was organized. They contented +themselves with making the most of oppressive English legislation, to +stimulate the people to discontent and rebellion. Ambition was hidden +under the burden of taxation which was to make them slaves. Although +among the leaders there was great veneration for English tradition and +law, the love they professed for England was rather an ideal sentiment +than an actual feeling, except among aristocrats and men of rank. + +Nor was it natural that the Colonists, especially the Puritans, should +cherish much real affection for a country that had persecuted them and +driven them away. They felt that not so much Old England as New England +was their home, in which new sentiments had been born, and new +aspirations had been cultivated. It was very seldom that a colonist +visited England at all, and except among the recent comers their +English relatives were for the most part unknown. Loyalty to the king +was gradually supplanted by devotion to the institutions which they had +adopted, or themselves created. In a certain sense they admitted that +they were still subject to Great Britain, but one hundred and fifty +years of self-government had nearly destroyed this feeling of +allegiance, especially when they were aroused to deny the right of the +English government to tax them without their own consent. + +With the denial of the right of taxation by England naturally came +resistance. + +The first line of opposition arose under a new attempt of England to +enforce the Sugar Act, which was passed to prevent the American +importation of sugar and molasses from the West Indies, in exchange for +lumber and agricultural products. It had been suffered to fall into +abeyance; but suddenly in 1761 the government issued Writs of Assistance +or search-warrants, authorizing customs officers to enter private stores +and dwellings to find imported goods, not necessarily known but when +even suspected to be there. This was first brought to bear in +Massachusetts, where the Colonists spiritedly refused to submit, and +took the matter into the courts. James Otis, a young Boston lawyer, was +advocate for the Admiralty, but, resigning his commission, he appeared +on behalf of the people, and his fiery eloquence aroused the Colonists +to a high pitch of revolutionary resolve. John Adams, who heard the +speech, declared, "Then and there American independence was born." +Independency however, was not yet in most men's minds, but the spirit of +resistance to arbitrary acts of the sovereign was unmistakably aroused. +In 1763 a no less memorable contest arose in Virginia, when the king +refused to sanction a law of the colonial legislature imposing a tax +which the clergy were unwilling to submit to. This too was tested in the +courts, and a young lawyer named Patrick Henry defended so eloquently +the right of Virginia to make her own laws in spite of the king, that +his passionate oratory inflamed all that colony with the same +"treasonable" spirit. + +But the centre of resistance was in Boston, where in 1765 the people +were incited to enthusiasm by the eloquence of James Otis and Samuel +Adams, in reference to still another restrictive tax, the Stamp Act, +which could not be enforced, except by overwhelming military forces, and +was wisely repealed by Parliament. This was followed by the imposition +of duties on wine, oil, fruits, glass, paper, lead, colors and +especially tea, an indirect taxation, but equally obnoxious; increasing +popular excitement, the sending of troops, collision between the +soldiers and the people in 1770, and in 1773 the rebellious act of the +famous "Tea Party," when citizens in the guise of Indians emptied the +chests of tea on board merchantmen into Boston harbor. Soon after, the +Boston Port Bill was passed, which shut up American commerce and created +immense irritation. Then were sent to the rebellious city regiments of +British troops to enforce the acts of Parliament; and finally the troops +were, at the people's expense, quartered in the town, which was treated +as a conquered city. + +In view of these disturbances and hostile acts, the first Continental +Congress of the different colonies met in Philadelphia, September, 1774, +and issued a petition to the king, an address to the people of Great +Britain, and an address to the Colonies, thus making a last effort for +conciliation. The British Government, obstinately refusing to listen to +its own wisest counsellors, replied with restraining acts, forbidding +participation in the fisheries and other remunerative sea-work. +Moreover, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion; in +consequence of which the whole province prepared for war. At the same +time the colonial legislatures promptly approved and agreed to sustain +the acts of the Continental Congress. Nor did they neglect to appoint +committees of safety for calling out minute men and committees of +supplies for arming and provisioning them. General Gage, the British +military commander in Massachusetts, attempted to destroy the +collection of ammunition and stores at Concord, and in consequence, on +April 19, 1775, the battle of Lexington was fought, followed in June by +that of Bunker Hill. + +Thus began the American Revolution, which ended in the independence of +the thirteen Colonies and their federal union as States under a common +constitution. + +As the empire of the Union expanded, as power grew, as opportunities +increased, so did obstructions arise and complications multiply. But +what I have called "the American idea"--which I conceive to be _Liberty +under Law_--has proved equal to all emergencies. The marvellous success +with which American institutions have provided for the development of +the Anglo-Saxon idea of individual independence, without endangering the +common weal and rule, has been largely due to the arising of great and +wise administrators of the public will. + +It is to a consideration of some of the chief of these notable men who +have guided the fortunes of the American people from the Revolutionary +period to the close of the Civil War, that I invite the attention of the +reader in the next two volumes. Those who have not materially modified +the condition of public affairs I omit to discuss at large, eminent as +have been their talents and services. Consequently I pass by the +administrations of all the presidents since Jefferson, except those of +Jackson and Lincoln, the former having made a new departure in national +policy, and the latter having brought to a conclusion a great war. I +consider that Franklin, Hamilton, Clay, Webster, and Calhoun did more +than any of the presidents, except those I have mentioned, to affect the +destinies of the country, and therefore I could not omit them. + +There will necessarily be some repetitions of fact in discussing the +relations of different men to the same group of events, but this has +been so far as possible avoided. And since my aim is the portrayal of +character and influence, rather than the narration of historical annals, +I have omitted vast numbers of interesting details, selecting only those +of salient and vital importance. + + + +BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. + + +1706-1790. + +DIPLOMACY. + +At the commencement of the Revolutionary War, the most prominent and +influential man in the colonies was perhaps Benjamin Franklin, then +sixty-nine years of age. Certainly it cannot be doubted that he was one +of the most illustrious founders of the American Republic. Among the +great statesmen of the period, his fame is second only to that of +Washington. + +I will not dwell on his early life, since that part of his history is +better known than that of any other of our great men, from the charming +autobiography which he began to write but never cared to finish. He was +born in Boston, January 17, 1706, the youngest but two of seventeen +children. His father was a narrow-minded English Puritan, but +respectable and conscientious,--a tallow-chandler by trade; and his +ancestors for several generations had been blacksmiths in the little +village of Ecton in Northamptonshire, England. He was a precocious boy, +not over-promising from a moral and religious point of view, but +inordinately fond of reading such books as were accessible, especially +those of a sceptical character. He had no sympathy with the theological +doctrines then in vogue in his native town. At eight years of age he was +sent to a grammar school, and at ten he was taken from it to assist his +father in soap-boiling; but, showing a repugnance to this sort of +business, he was apprenticed to his brother James at the age of twelve, +to learn the art, or trade, of a printer. At fifteen we find him writing +anonymously, for his brother's newspaper which had just been started, an +article which gave offence to the provincial government, and led to a +quarrel with his brother, who, it seems, was harsh and tyrannical. + +Boston at this time was a flourishing town of probably about ten +thousand or twelve thousand people, governed practically by the +Calvinistic ministers, and composed chiefly of merchants, fishermen, and +ship-carpenters, yet all tolerably versed in the rudiments of education +and in theological speculations. The young Benjamin, having no liking +for the opinions, manners, and customs of this strait-laced town, or for +his cold and overbearing brother, concluded in his seventeenth year to +run away from his apprenticeship. He found himself in a few days in New +York, without money, or friends, or employment. The printers' trade was +not so flourishing in the Dutch capital as in the Yankee one he had +left, and he wandered on to Philadelphia, the largest town in the +colonies, whose inhabitants were chiefly Quakers,--thrifty, prosperous, +tolerant, and kind-hearted. Fortunately, there were several +printing-presses in this settlement; and after a while, through the +kindness of a stranger,--who took an interest in him and pitied his +forlorn condition, wandering up and down Market Street, poorly +dressed, and with a halfpenny roll in his hand, or who was attracted +by his bright and honest face, frank manners, and expressive +utterances,--Franklin got work, with small wages. His industry and +ability soon enabled him to make a better appearance, and attract +friends by his uncommon social qualities. + +It does not appear that Franklin was particularly frugal as a young man. +He spent his money lavishly in convivial entertainments, of which he was +the life, among his humble companions, a favorite not only with them, +but with all the girls whose acquaintance he made. So remarkable was he +for wit, good nature, and intelligence that at the age of eighteen he +attracted the notice of the governor of the province, who promised to +set him up in business, and encouraged him to go England to purchase +types and a printing-press. But before he sailed, having earned money +enough to buy a fine suit of clothes and a watch, he visited his old +home, and paraded his success with indiscreet ostentation, much to the +disgust of his brother to whom he had been apprenticed. + +On the young man's return to Philadelphia, the governor, Sir William +Keith, gave him letters to some influential people in England, with +promises of pecuniary aid, which, however, he never kept; so that when +Franklin arrived in London he found himself without money or friends. +But he was not discouraged. He soon found employment as a printer and +retrieved his fortunes, leading a gay life, and spending his money, as +fast as he earned it, at theatres and in social enjoyments with boon +companions of doubtful respectability. Disgusted with London, or +disappointed in his expectations, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 as +a mercantile clerk for a Mr. Durham, who shortly after died; and +Franklin resumed his old employment with his former employer, Keimer, +the printer. + +On his long voyage home he had had time for reflection, and resolved to +turn over a new leaf, and become more frugal and respectable. He would +not give up his social pleasures, but would stick to his business, and +employ his leisure time in profitable reading. This, Mr. Parton calls +his "regeneration." Others might view it as the completion of "sowing +his wild oats." He certainly made himself very useful to the old +visionary Keimer, who printed banknotes for New Jersey, by making +improvements on the copper plate; but he soon left this employment and +set up for himself, in partnership with another young man. + +The young printers started fairly, and hired the lower part of a house +in Market Street, most of which they sublet. Their first job brought +them but five shillings. Soon after, they were employed to print a +voluminous history of the Quakers, at a very small profit; but the work +was so well done that it led to a great increase of business. + +The idea then occurred to Franklin to print a newspaper, there being but +one in the colony, and that miserably dull. His old employer Keimer, +hearing of his purpose accidentally, stole the march on him, and started +a newspaper on his own account, but was soon obliged to sell out to +Franklin and Meredith, not being able to manage the undertaking. "The +Pennsylvania Gazette" proved a great success, and was remarkable for its +brilliant and original articles, which brought the editor, then but +twenty-three years old, into immediate notice. He had become frugal and +industrious, but had not as yet renounced his hilarious habits, and +could scarcely be called moral, for about this time a son was born to +him of a woman whose name was never publicly known. This son was +educated by Franklin, and became in later years the royal governor of +New Jersey. + +Franklin was unfortunate in his business partner, who fell into drinking +habits, so that he was obliged to dissolve the partnership. In +connection with his printing-office, he opened a small stationer's-shop, +and sold blanks, paper, ink, and pedler's wares. His business increased +so much that he took an apprentice, and hired a journeyman from London. +He now gave up fishing and shooting, and convivial habits, and devoted +himself to money-making; but not exclusively, since at this time he +organized a club of twelve members, called the "Junto,"--a sort of +debating and reading society. This club contrived to purchase about +fifty books, which were lent round, and formed the nucleus of a +circulating library, which grew into the famous Franklin Library, one of +the prominent institutions of Philadelphia. In 1730, at the age of +twenty-four, he married Deborah Reid, a pretty, kind-hearted, and frugal +woman, with whom he lived happily for forty-four years. She was a true +helpmeet, who stitched his pamphlets, folded his newspapers, waited on +customers at the shop, and nursed and tended his illegitimate child. + +After his marriage Franklin gave up what bad habits he had acquired, +though he never lost his enjoyment of society. He was what used to be +called "a good liver," and took but little exercise, thus laying the +foundation for gout, a disease which tormented him in the decline of +life. He also somewhat amended his religious creed, and avowed his +belief in a superintending Providence and his own moral accountability +to God, discharging conscientiously the duties to be logically deduced +from these beliefs,--submission to the Divine will, and kindly acts to +his neighbors. He was benevolent, sincere, and just in his dealings, +abhorring deceit, flattery, falsehood, injustice, and all dishonesty. + +From this time Franklin rapidly gained in public esteem for his +integrity, his sagacity, and his unrivalled good sense. His humor, wit, +and conversational ability caused his society to be universally sought. +He was a good judge of books for his infant library, and he took a great +interest in everything connected with education. He was the life of his +literary club, and made reading fashionable among the Quakers, who +composed the leading citizens of the town,--a people tolerant but +narrow, frugal but appreciative of things good to eat, kind-hearted but +not remarkable for generosity, except to the poor of their own +denomination, law-abiding but not progressive, modest and unassuming but +conscious and conceited, as most self-educated people are. It is a +wonder that a self-educated man like Franklin was so broad and liberal +in all his views,--an impersonation of good nature and catholicity, ever +open to new convictions, and respectful of opinions he did not share, +provoking mirth and jollity, yet never disturbing the placidity of a +social gathering by irritating sarcasm. + +Franklin's newspaper gave him prodigious influence, both social and +political, in the infancy of journalism. It was universally admitted to +be the best in the country. Its circulation rapidly increased, and it +was well managed financially. James Parton tells us that Franklin +"originated the modern system of business advertising." His essays, +or articles, as we now call them, had great point, vivacity, and +wit, and soon became famous; they thus prepared the way for his +almanac,--originally entitled "Richard Saunders," and selling for +five-pence. The sayings of "Poor Richard" in this little publication +combined more wisdom and good sense in a brief compass than any other +book published in America during the eighteenth century. It reached the +firesides of almost every hamlet in the colonies. The New England +divines thought them deficient in spirituality, rather worldly in their +form, and useful only in helping people to get on in their daily +pursuits. But the eighteenth century was not a spiritual age, in +comparison with the age which preceded it, either in Europe or America. +The acute and exhaustive treatises of the seventeenth century on God, on +"fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute," on the foundation of +morals, on consciousness as a guide in metaphysical speculation, had +lost much of their prestige, if Jonathan Edwards' immortal deductions +may be considered an exception. Prosperity and wars and adventures had +made men material, and political themes had more charm than theological +discussion. Pascal had given place to Hobbes and Voltaire, and Hooker to +Paley. In such a state of society, "Poor Richard," inculcating thrift +and economy, in English as plain and lucid as that of Cobbett +half-a-century later, had an immense popularity. For twenty-five years, +it annually made its way into nearly every household in the land. Such a +proverbial philosophy as "Honesty is the best policy," "Necessity never +made a good bargain," "Fish and visitors smell in three days," "God +heals, and the doctors take the fees," "Keep your eyes open before +marriage, and half-shut afterwards," "To bear other people's +afflictions, every one has courage enough and to spare,"--savored of a +blended irony and cynicism exceedingly attractive to men of the world +and wise old women, even in New England parishes, whatever Calvinistic +ministers might say of the "higher life." The sale of the almanac was +greater than that of the "Pilgrim's Progress," and the wealth of +Franklin stood out in marked contrast with the poverty of Bunyan a +century before. + +The business enterprise of the gifted publisher at this time was a most +noticeable thing. He began to import books from England and to print +anything that had money in it,--from political tracts to popular poems, +from the sermons of Wesley to the essays of Cicero. He made no mistakes +as to the popular taste. He became rich because he was sagacious, and an +oracle because he was rich as well as because he was wise. Everybody +asked his advice, and his replies were alike courteous and witty, +although sometimes ironical. "Friend Franklin," said a noted Quaker +lawyer, "thou knowest everything,--canst thou tell me how I am to +preserve my small beer in the back yard? for I find that my neighbors +are tapping it for me." "Put a barrel of Madeira beside it," replied +the sage. + +In 1736 Franklin was elected clerk of the General Assembly,--a position +which brought more business than honor or emolument. It secured his +acquaintance with prominent men, many of whom became his friends; for it +was one of his gifts to win hearts. It also made him acquainted with +public affairs. Its chief advantage, however, was that it gave him the +public printing. His appointment in 1737 as postmaster in Philadelphia +served much the same purposes. With increase of business, the result of +industry and good work, and of influence based on character, he was, +when but thirty years old, one of the most prominent citizens of +Philadelphia. His success as a business man was settled. He had the best +printing jobs in Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware. No +one could compete with him successfully. He inspired confidence while he +enlarged his friendships, to which he was never indifferent. Whatever he +touched turned to gold. His almanac was a mine of wealth; the sermons he +printed, and the school-books he manufactured, sold equally well. With +constantly increasing prosperity, he kept a level head, and lived with +simplicity over his shop,--most business men lived over their shops, in +both England and America at that period. He got up early in the morning, +worked nine or ten hours a day, spent his evenings in reading and study, +and went to bed at ten, finding time to keep up his Latin, and to +acquire French, Spanish, and Italian, to make social visits, and play +chess, of which game he was extravagantly fond till he was eighty years +old. His income, from business and investments, was not far from ten +thousand dollars a year,--a large sum in those days, when there was not +a millionaire in the whole country, except perhaps among the Virginia +planters. Franklin was not ambitious to acquire a large fortune; he +only desired a competency on which he might withdraw to the pursuit of +higher ends than printing books. He had the profound conviction that +great attainments in science or literature required easy and independent +circumstances. It is indeed possible for genius to surmount any +obstacles, but how few men have reached fame as philosophers or +historians or even poets without leisure and freedom from pecuniary +cares! I cannot recall a great history that has been written by a poor +man in any age or country, unless he had a pension, or office of some +kind, involving duties more or less nominal, which gave him both leisure +and his daily bread,--like Hume as a librarian in Edinburgh, or Neander +as a professor in Berlin. + +Franklin, after twenty years of assiduous business and fortunate +investments, was able to retire on an income of about four thousand +dollars a year, which in those times was a comfortable independence +anywhere. He retired with the universal respect of the community both as +a business man and a man of culture. Thus far his career was not +extraordinary, not differing much from that of thousands of others in +the mercantile history of this country, or any other country. By +industry, sagacity, and thrift he had simply surmounted the necessity of +work, and had so improved his leisure hours by reading and study as to +be on an intellectual equality with anybody in the most populous and +wealthy city in the country. Had he died before 1747 his name probably +would not have descended to our times. He would have had only a local +reputation as a philanthropical, intelligent, and successful business +man, a printer by trade, who could both write and talk well, but was not +able to make a better speech on a public occasion than many others who +had no pretension to fame. + +But a new career was opened to Franklin with the attainment of leisure +and independence,--the career of a scientific investigator. The subject +which most interested him was electricity, just then exciting great +interest in Europe. In 1746 he attended in Boston a lecture on +electricity by Dr. Spence, of Scotland, which induced him to make +experiments himself, the result of which was to demonstrate to his mind +the identity of the electrical current with lightning. What the new, +mysterious power was, of course he could not tell, nor could any one +else. All he knew was that sparks, under certain conditions, were +emitted from clothing, furs, amber, jet, glass, sealing-wax, and other +substances when excited by friction, and that the power thus producing +the electric sparks would repel and attract. That amber, when rubbed, +possesses the property of attracting and repelling light bodies was +known to Thales and Pliny, and subsequent philosophers discovered that +other substances also were capable of electrical excitation. In process +of time Otto Guericke added to these simple discoveries that of electric +light, still further established by Isaac Newton, with his glass globe. +A Dutch philosopher at Leyden, having observed that excited electrics +soon lost their electricity in the open air, especially when the air was +full of moisture, conceived the idea that the electricity of bodies +might be retained by surrounding them with bodies which did not conduct +it; and in 1745 the Leyden jar was invented, which led to the knowledge +that the force of electricity could be extended through an indefinite +circuit. The French savants conveyed the electric current through a +circuit of twelve thousand feet. + +It belonged to Franklin, however, to raise the knowledge of electricity +to the dignity of a science. By a series of experiments, extending from +1747 to 1760, he established the fact that electricity is not created by +friction, but merely collected from its state of diffusion through other +matter to which it has been attracted. He showed further that all the +phenomena produced by electricity had their counterparts in lightning. +As it was obvious that thunder clouds contained an immense quantity of +the electrical element, he devised a means to draw it from the clouds by +rods erected on elevated buildings. As this was not sufficiently +demonstrative he succeeded at length in drawing the lightning from the +clouds by means of a kite and silken string, so as to ignite spirits and +other combustible substances by an electric spark similar to those from +a Leyden jar. To utilize his discovery of the identity of lightning with +electricity he erected lightning-rods to protect buildings, that is, to +convey the lightning from the overhanging clouds through conductors to +the ground. The importance of these lightning-rods was doubtless +exaggerated. It is now thought by high scientific authorities that tall +trees around a house are safer conductors in a thunder storm than +metallic rods; but his invention was universally prized most highly for +more than one hundred years, and his various further experiments and +researches raised his fame as a philosopher throughout Europe. His house +was a museum of electrical apparatus, and he became the foremost +electrician in the world. His essays on the subject were collected and +printed abroad, and translated into several languages, and among the +scientists and philosophers of Europe he was the best known American of +his time; while at home both Harvard and Yale Colleges conferred on this +self-educated printers-apprentice the degree of Master of Arts. + +The inquiring mind of Franklin did not rest with experiments in the +heavens. As a wealthy and independent citizen of Philadelphia he +interested himself in all matters of public improvement. He founded a +philosophical society to spread useful knowledge of all kinds. He laid +the foundation of what is now the University of Pennsylvania, and +secured a charter from George II.; but he had little sympathy with the +teaching of dead languages, attaching much more importance to the +knowledge of French and Spanish than of Latin and Greek. We see in all +his public improvements the utilitarian spirit which has marked the +genius of this country, but a spirit directed into philanthropic +channels. Hence he secured funds to build a hospital, which has grown +into one of the largest in the United States. He established the first +fire company in Philadelphia, as well as the first fire insurance +company; he induced the citizens of Philadelphia to pave and sweep their +streets, which were almost impassable in rainy weather; he reorganized +the night-watch of the town; he improved the street-lighting; he was the +trustee of a society to aid German immigrants; he started a volunteer +military organization for defence of the State against the Indians; he +made a new fertilizer for the use of farmers; he invented the open +"Franklin stove" to save heat and remedy the intolerable smoky chimneys +which the large flues of the time made very common; he introduced into +Pennsylvania the culture of the vine; in short, he was always on the +alert to improve the material condition of the people. Nor did he +neglect their intellectual improvement, inciting them to the formation +of debating societies, and founding libraries. His intent, however, was +avowedly utilitarian, to "supply the vulgar wants of mankind," which he +placed above any form of spiritual philosophy,--inculcating always the +worldly expediency of good character and the poor economy of vice. +Herein he agreed with Macaulay's idea of progress as brought out in his +essay on Lord Bacon. He never soared beyond this theory in his views of +life and duty. The Puritanic idea of spiritual loftiness he never +reached and never appreciated. + +But it was not as a public-spirited citizen, nor as a successful man of +business, nor even as a scientific investigator, that Franklin earned +his permanent fame. In each of these respects he has been surpassed by +men of whom little is known. These activities might have elevated him +into notice and distinction, but would not have made him an immortal +benefactor to his country. It was his services as a diplomatist and a +political oracle, united with his patriotism and wisdom, that gave to +him his extraordinary prominence in American history. + +It should be remarked, however, that before his diplomatic career began, +Franklin had become exceptionally familiar with the affairs of the +Colonies. We have already noted his appointment as postmaster of +Philadelphia in 1737. This experience led to his employment by the +Postmaster-General of the Colonies in regulating the accounts of that +widely extended department, and to Franklin's appointment in 1753 to the +head of it, which greatly increased his specific knowledge of men and +affairs throughout the whole land. Besides this, he had gained some +political experience as a member of the provincial General Assembly, of +which he had been clerk for twenty years, and thus was well acquainted +with public men and measures. The Assembly consisted of only forty +members, who were in constant antagonism with the governor, James +Hamilton, whom the Penns, the Proprietaries of the province, had +appointed to look after their interests. This official was a +narrow-minded, intriguing Englishman, while the sons of William Penn +themselves were selfish and grasping men, living in England, far distant +from their possessions, and regarding themselves simply as English +landlords of a vast estate. Under the royal charter granted by Charles +II. to William Penn, his heirs exacted £30,000 yearly from the farmers +as rent for their lands,--more than they could afford to pay. But when, +in 1756, at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, French and Indian +hostilities put the whole province in jeopardy, and it became necessary +for the Provincial Legislature to tax the whole population for the +common defence, the governor thought that the estates of the +Proprietaries should be exempted from this just tax. Hence a collision +between the legislature and the governor. + +The Quakers themselves, in accordance with their peace principles, were +opposed to any war tax, but Franklin induced the Assembly to raise sixty +thousand pounds to support the war, then conducted by General Braddock, +while he himself secured a large number of wagons for the use of the +army across the wilderness. + +Meanwhile the Assembly was involved in fresh disputes with the governor. +Although the Assembly taxed the Proprietaries but a small proportion for +the defence of their own possessions, the governor was unwilling to pay +even this small amount; which so disgusted Franklin that he lost his +usual placidity and poured out such a volley of angry remonstrances that +the governor resigned. His successor fared no better with the angry +legislature, and it became necessary to send some one to England to lay +the grievances of the Colonists before the government, and to obtain +relief from Parliament. + +The fittest man for this business was Franklin, and he was sent as agent +of the Province of Pennsylvania to London, the Assembly granting fifteen +hundred pounds to pay his expenses, which, with his own private income, +enabled him to live in good style in London and set up a carriage. He +held no high diplomatic rank as yet, but was simply an accredited +business agent of the Province, which position, however, secured to him +an entrance into society to a limited extent, and many valuable +acquaintances. The brothers Penn, with whom his business was chiefly +concerned, were cold and haughty, and evaded the matter in dispute with +miserable quibbles. Franklin then resolved to appeal to the Lords of +Trade, who had the management of the American colonial affairs, and also +to the King's Privy Council. + +This was in 1757, when William Pitt was at the height of his power and +fame, cold, reserved, proud, but intensely patriotic, before whom even +George III. was ill at ease, while his associates in the Cabinet were +simply his clerks, and servilely bent before his imperious will. To this +great man Franklin had failed to gain access, not so much from the +minister's disdain of the colonial agent, as from his engrossing cares +and duties. He had no time, indeed, for anybody, not even the peers of +the realm,--no time for pleasure or relaxation,--being devoted entirely +to public interests of the greatest magnitude; for on his shoulders +rested the government of the kingdom. What was the paltry dispute of a +few hundred pounds in a distant colony to the Prime Minister of +England! All that Franklin could secure was an interview with the great +man's secretaries, and they did little to help him. + +But the time of the active-minded American was not wasted. He wrote for +the newspapers; he prosecuted his scientific inquiries; he became +intimate with many eminent men, chiefly scientists,--members of the +Royal Society like Priestley and Price, professors of political economy +like Adam Smith, historians like Hume and Robertson, original thinkers +like Burke, liberal-minded lawyers like Pratt. It does not seem that he +knew Dr. Johnson, and probably he did not care to make the acquaintance +of that overbearing Tory and literary dogmatist, who had little sympathy +with American troubles. Indeed his political associates among the great +were few, unless they were patrons of science, who appreciated his +attainments in a field comparatively new. Among these men he seems to +have been much respected, and his merits secured an honorary degree from +St. Andrew's. His eminent social qualities favored his introduction into +a society more cultivated than fashionable, and he was known as a +scientific rather than a political celebrity. + +His mission, then, was up-hill work. The Penns stood upon their +prerogatives, and the Lords of the Committee for Plantations were +unfriendly or dilatory. It was nearly three years before they gave +their decision, and this was adverse to the Pennsylvania Assembly. The +Privy Council, however, to whom the persistent agent appealed, composed +of the great dignitaries of the realm, decided that the proprietary +estates of the Penns should contribute their proportion of the public +revenue. On this decision, Franklin, feeling that he had accomplished +all that was possible, returned home in 1762, little more than a year +after the accession of George III. Through the kindness of Lord Bute, +the king's favorite, Franklin also secured the appointment of his son to +the government of New Jersey. This appointment created some scandal, and +the Penns rolled up their eyes, not at the nepotism of Franklin, but +because he had procured the advancement of his illegitimate son. + +Franklin, during his absence of more than five years, had been regularly +re-elected a member of the Assembly, and he was received on his return +with every possible public and private attention. He had hoped now for +leisure to pursue his scientific investigations, and had accordingly +taken a new and larger house. But before long new political troubles +arose between the governor of Pennsylvania and the legislature, and what +was still more ominous, troubles in New England respecting the taxation +of the Colonies by the British government, at the head of which was +Grenville, an able man but not far-sighted, who in March, 1764, +announced his intention of introducing into Parliament the bill known as +the Stamp Act. + +To this famous bill there was not great opposition, since a large +majority of the House of Commons believed in the right of taxing the +Colonies. Lord Camden, a great lawyer, took different views. Burke and +Pitt admitted the right of taxation, but thought its enforcement +inexpedient, as likely to alienate the Colonies and make them enemies +instead of loyal subjects. + +At this crisis appeared in America a group of orators who at once +aroused and intensified the prevailing discontents by their inflammatory +speeches, in much the same manner that Wendell Phillips and Wm. Lloyd +Garrison, seventy years later, aroused public sentiment in reference to +slavery. James Otis, the lawyer from Barnstable on the shores of Cape +Cod, who had opposed the Writs of Assistance, "led the van of these +patriots,--an impassioned orator, incapable of cold calculation, now +foaming with rage, and then desponding, not steadfast in conduct, yet by +flashes of sagacity lighting the people along their perilous ways, +combining legal learning with speculative opinion." He eloquently +maintained that "there is no foundation for distinction between external +and internal taxes; that the imposition of taxes in the Colonies whether +on trade, on land, or houses, or floating property, is absolutely +irreconcilable with the rights of the Colonists as British subjects or +as men, and that Acts of Parliament against the fundamental principles +of the British Constitution are void." + +More influential, and more consistent than Otis, was Samuel Adams, a +lawyer of Boston, a member of the Massachusetts Assembly, at that time +about forty years of age, a political agitator, a Puritan of the +strictest creed, poor and indifferent to money, an incarnation of zeal +for liberty, a believer in original, inherent rights which no Parliament +can nullify,--a man of the keenest political sagacity in management, and +of almost unlimited influence in Massachusetts from his long and notable +services in town-meeting, Colonial Assembly, as writer in the journals +of the day, and actor in every public crisis. Eleven years younger than +he, was his cousin John Adams, a lawyer in Quincy, the leading +politician of the colony, able and ambitious, patriotic and honest, but +irascible and jealous, of whom I shall have more to say hereafter. Of +about the same age as John Adams was Patrick Henry, of Virginia, a born +orator, but of limited education. He espoused the American cause with +extraordinary zeal, and as in the matter of the Virginia tax law, was +vehement in opposition to the Stamp Act, as an unconstitutional statute, +which the Colonies were not bound to obey. Christopher Gadsden, of So. +Carolina, too, was early among the prominent orators who incited +opposition to the Stamp Act and other oppressive measures. + +These men were the great pioneers of American Independence, by their +ceaseless agitation of popular rights, and violent opposition to English +schemes of taxation. They were not, indeed, the equals of Franklin, then +the agent of Pennsylvania in London. They had not his catholicity, his +breadth of knowledge, his reputation, or his genius; but they were +nevertheless foremost among American political orators, and had great +local influence. + +The first overt act of hostility on the part of the English government +in coercing the Colonies was to send to Boston, the seat of +disaffection, a large body of soldiers. In 1768 there were four +regiments of British troops in Boston, doubtless with the view of +intimidation, and to enforce the collection of duties. + +The English did not overrate the bravery of their troops or the +abilities of their generals, but they did underrate the difficulties in +conquering a population scattered over a vast extent of territory. They +did not take into consideration the protecting power of nature, the +impenetrable forests to be traversed, the mighty rivers to be crossed, +the mountains to be climbed, and the coasts to be controlled. Nor did +they comprehend the universal spirit of resistance in a vast country, +and the power of sudden growth in a passion for national independence. +They might take cities and occupy strong fortifications, but the great +mass of the people were safe on their inland farms and in their +untrodden forests. The Americans may not have been unconquerable, but +English troops were not numerous enough to overwhelm them in their +scattered settlements. It would not pay to send army after army to be +lost in swamps or drowned in rivers or ambushed and destroyed +in forests. + +It was in the earlier stages of the revolt against taxation, in the +autumn of 1764, that Benjamin Franklin was again sent to England to +represent the province of Pennsylvania in the difficulties which hung as +a dark cloud over the whole land. He had done well as a financial agent; +he might do still better as a diplomatist, since he was patient, +prudent, sagacious, intelligent, and accustomed to society, besides +having extraordinary knowledge of all phases of American affairs. And he +probably was sincere in his desire for reconciliation with the +mother-country, which he still deemed possible. He was no political +enthusiast like Samuel Adams, desirous of cutting loose entirely from +England, but a wise and sensible man, who was willing to wait for +inevitable developments; intensely patriotic, but armed with the weapons +of reason, and trusting in these alone until reconciliation should +become impossible. + +As soon as Franklin arrived in England he set about his difficult task +to reason with infatuated ministers, and with all influential persons so +far as he had opportunity. But such were the prevailing prejudices +against the Colonists, and such was the bitterness of men in power that +he was not courteously treated. He was even grossly insulted before the +Privy Council by the Solicitor-General, Wedderburn,--one of those +browbeating lawyers so common in England one hundred years ago, who made +up in insolence what was lacking in legal ability. Grenville, the +premier, was civil but stubborn, and attempted to show that there was no +difference between the external, indirect taxation by duties on +importations, and the direct, internal taxation proposed by the Stamp +Act,--both being alike justifiable. + +In March, 1765, the bill was passed by an immense majority. Then blazed +forth indignation from every part of America, and the resolute Colonists +set themselves to nullify the tax laws by refraining from all taxable +transactions. + +Franklin, undismayed, sedulously went about working for a repeal of the +odious stamp law, and at length got a hearing at the bar of the House of +Commons, where he was extensively and exhaustively examined upon +American affairs. In this famous examination he won respect for the +lucidity of his statements and his conciliatory address. It soon became +evident that the Stamp Act could not be enforced. No one could be +compelled to buy stamps or pay tariff taxes if he preferred to withdraw +from all business transactions, wear homespun, do without British +manufactures, and even refrain from eating lamb that flocks of sheep +might be increased and the wool used for homespun cloth. + +It was in March, 1766, that Franklin, after many months of shrewd, wise, +and extraordinarily skilful work with tongue and pen and social +influence, had the satisfaction of seeing the Stamp Act repealed by +Parliament and the bill signed by the unwilling king. Although he was at +all possible disadvantage, as being merely the insignificant agent of +distant and despised Colonists, his influence in the matter cannot be +exaggerated. He made powerful friends and allies, and never failed to +supply them with ample ammunition with which to fight their own +political battles in which his cause was involved. + +On the repeal of the Stamp Act, Grenville was compelled to resign, and +his place was taken by Lord North, an amiable but narrow-minded man, +utterly incapable of settling the pending difficulties. Lord Shelburne, +a friend of the Colonies, of which he had the charge, was superseded by +Lord Hillsborough, an Irish peer of great obstinacy, who treated +Franklin very roughly, and of whom the king himself soon tired. Lord +Dartmouth, who succeeded him, might have arranged the difficulties had +he not been hampered by the king, who was inflexibly bent on taxation in +some form, and on pursuing impolitic measures, against the exhortations +of Chatham, Barré, Conway, Camden, and other far-reading statesmen, who +foresaw what the end would be. + +Meantime, in 1770, Franklin was appointed agent also for Massachusetts +Bay, and about the same time for New Jersey and Georgia. Schemes for +colonial taxation were rife, and, although the Stamp Act had been +withdrawn as impracticable, the principle involved was not given up by +the English government nor accepted by the American people. Franklin was +kept busy. + +In 1773 Franklin was further impeded in his negotiations by mischievous +letters which Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts had written to the +Colonial office. This governor was an able man, a New Englander by +birth, but an inveterate Tory, always at issue with the legislature, +whose acts he had the power to veto. Indiscreetly, rather than +maliciously, he represented the prevailing discontents in the worst +light, and considerably increased the irritation of the English +government. Franklin in some way got possession of these inflammatory +letters, and transmitted a copy to a leading member of the +Massachusetts General Court, as a matter of information, but with the +understanding that it should be kept secret. It leaked out however, of +course, and the letters were printed. A storm of indignation in +Massachusetts resulted in a petition for the removal of Governor +Hutchinson and Lieutenant-Governor Oliver, which was sent by the House +of Representatives to Franklin for presentation to the government; +while, on the other hand, a torrent of obloquy overwhelmed the +diplomatist in England, who was thought to have stolen the letters, +although there was no evidence to convict him. + +Franklin's situation in London now became uncomfortable; he was deprived +of his office of deputy Postmaster-General of the Colonies, which he had +held since 1753, was virtually discredited, and generally snubbed. His +presentation of the petition afforded an opportunity for his being +publicly insulted at the hearing appointed before the Committee for +Plantation Affairs, while the press denounced him as a fomenter of +sedition. His work in England was done, and although he remained there +some time longer, on the chance of still being of possible use, he +gladly availed himself of an opportunity, early in 1775, to return to +America. Before his departure, however, Lord Chatham had come to his +rescue when he was one day attacked with bitterness in the House of +Lords, and pronounced upon him this splendid eulogium: "If," said the +great statesman, "I were prime minister and had the care of settling +this momentous business, I should not be ashamed to call to my +assistance a person so well acquainted with American affairs,--one whom +all Europe ranks with our Boyles and Newtons, as an honor, not to the +English nation only, but to human nature itself." + +From this time, 1775, no one accused Franklin of partiality to England. +He was wounded and disgusted, and he now clearly saw that there could be +no reconciliation between the mother-country and the Colonies,--that +differences could be settled only by the last appeal of nations. The +English government took the same view, and resorted to coercion, little +dreaming of the difficulties of the task. This is not the place to +rehearse those coercive measures, or to describe the burst of patriotic +enthusiasm which swept over the Colonies to meet the issue by the sword. +We must occupy ourselves with Franklin. + +On his return to Philadelphia, at the age of sixty-nine, he was most +cordially welcomed. His many labors were fully appreciated, and he was +immediately chosen a member of the second Continental Congress, which +met on the 10th of May, 1775. He was put on the most important +committees, and elected Postmaster-General. He was also selected as one +of the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence. It does not +appear that he was one of the foremost speakers. He was no orator, but +his influence was greater than that of any other one man in the +Congress. He entered heart and soul into the life-and-death struggle +which drew upon it the eyes of the whole civilized world. He was +tireless in committee work; he made long journeys on the business of the +Congress,--to Montreal, to Boston, to New York; he spent the summer of +1776 as chairman of the first Constitutional Convention of the State of +Pennsylvania: on every hand his resources were in demand and were +lavishly given. + +It was universally felt at the beginning of the struggle that unless the +Colonies should receive material aid from France, the issue of the +conflict with the greatest naval and military power in Europe could not +succeed. Congress had no money, no credit, and but scanty military +stores. The Continental troops were poorly armed, clothed, and fed. +Franklin's cool head, his knowledge, his sagacity, his wisdom, and his +patriotism marked him out as the fittest man to present the cause in +Europe, and in September, 1776, he was sent to France as an envoy to +negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce between France and the United +States. With him were joined Arthur Lee and Silas Deane, the latter +having been sent some months previously in a less formal way, to secure +the loan of money, ammunition, and troops. + +It is not to be supposed that the French monarchy had any deep sympathy +with the Americans in their struggle for independence. Only a few years +had elapsed since the Colonies had fought with England against France, +to her intense humiliation. Canada had been by their help wrenched from +her hands. But France hated England, and was jealous of her powers, and +would do anything to cripple that traditionary enemy. Secret and +mysterious overtures had been made to Congress which led it to hope for +assistance. And yet the government of France could do nothing openly, +for fear of giving umbrage to her rival, since the two powers were at +peace, and both were weary of hostilities. Both were equally exhausted +by the Seven Years' War. Moreover, the king, Louis XV., sought above all +things repose and pleasure. It was a most unpropitious time for the +Colonies to seek for aid, when the policy of the French government was +pacific, and when Turgot was obliged to exert his financial genius to +the utmost to keep the machine of government in running order. + +Under these circumstances the greatest prudence, circumspection, and +tact were required of a financial and diplomatic agent sent to squeeze +money from the French treasury. If aid were granted at all it must be +done covertly, without exciting even the suspicions of the English +emissaries at Paris. But hatred of England prevailed over the desire of +peace, and money was promised. There were then in France many +distinguished men who sympathized with the American cause, while the +young king himself seems to have had no decided opinions about +the matter. + +The philosophy of Rousseau had permeated even aristocratic circles. +There was a charm in the dogma that all men were "created equal." It +pleased sentimental philosophers and sympathetic women. I wonder why the +king, then absolute, did not see its logical consequences. Surely there +were rumblings in the political atmosphere to which he could not be +deaf, and yet with inconceivable apathy and levity the blinded monarch +pursued his pleasures, and remarked to his courtiers that the storm +would not burst in his time: _Après moi, le déluge_. + +Turgot, the ablest man in France, would have stood aloof; but Turgot had +been dismissed, and the Count de Vergennes was at the helm, a man whose +ruling passion was hatred of England. If he could help the Colonies he +would, provided he could do it secretly. So he made use of a fortunate +adventurer, originally a watchmaker, by the name of Beaumarchais who set +up for a merchant, through whom supplies were sent to America,--all +paid for, however, out of the royal exchequer. The name, even, of this +supposed mercantile house was fictitious. A million of livres were +transmitted through this firm to America, apparently for business +purposes, Silas Deane of Connecticut, the first agent of the Americans, +alone being acquainted with the secret. He could not keep it, however, +but imparted it to a friend, who was a British spy. In consequence, most +of the ships of Hortalez & Co., loaded with military stores, were locked +up by technical governmental formalities in French ports, while the +American vessels bearing tobacco and indigo in exchange also failed to +appear. The firm was in danger of bankruptcy, while Lord Stormont, the +British ambassador, complained to Vergennes of the shipment of +contraband goods,--an offence against the law of nations. + +Amid the embarrassments which Deane had brought about by his +indiscretion, Franklin arrived at Paris; but he wisely left Deane to +disentangle the affairs of the supposed mercantile house, until this +unfortunate agent was recalled by Congress,--a broken-down man, who soon +after died in England, poor and dishonored. Deane had also embarrassed +Franklin, and still more the military authorities at home, by the +indiscriminate letters of commendation he gave to impecunious and +incapable German and French officers as being qualified to serve in the +American army. + +Probably no American ever was hailed in Paris with more _éclat_ than +Benjamin Franklin. His scientific discoveries, his cause invested with +romantic interest, his courtly manners, his agreeable conversation, and +his reputation for wisdom and wit, made him an immediate favorite among +all classes with whom he came in contact. He was universally regarded as +the apostle of liberty and the impersonation of philosophy. Not wishing +to be too conspicuous, and dreading interruptions to his time, he took +up his residence at Passy, a suburb of Paris, where he lived most +comfortably, keeping a carriage and entertaining at dinner numerous +guests. He had a beautiful garden, in which he delighted to show his +experiments to distinguished people. His face always wore a placid and +benignant expression. He had no enemies, and many friends. His society +was particularly sought by fashionable ladies and eminent savants. While +affable and courteous, he was not given to flattery. He was plain and +straightforward in all he said and did, thus presenting a striking +contrast to diplomatists generally. Indeed, he was a universal favorite, +which John Adams, when he came to be associated with him, could not +understand. Adams was sent to France in 1778 to replace Silas Deane, and +while there was always jealous of Franklin's ascendency in society and +in the management of American affairs. He even complained that the elder +envoy was extravagant in his mode of living. In truth, Franklin alone +had the ear of the Count de Vergennes, through whom all American +business was transacted, which exceedingly nettled the intense, +confident, and industrious Adams, whose vanity was excessive. + +I need not dwell on the embarrassments of Franklin in raising money for +the American cause. There was no general confidence in its success among +European bankers or statesman. The French government feared to +compromise itself. Many of the remittances already sent had been +intercepted by British cruisers. The English minister at Paris stormed +and threatened. The news from America was almost appalling, for the +British troops had driven Washington from New York and Long Island, and +he appeared to be scarcely more than a fugitive in New Jersey, with only +three or four thousand half-starved and half-frozen followers. A force +of ten thousand men had been recently ordered to America under General +Burgoyne. Almost discouraged, the envoys applied for loans to the Dutch +bankers and to Spain, but without success. + +It was not until December, 1777, when the news arrived in France of the +surrender of General Burgoyne and his army to the Americans at +Saratoga, New York, in October, that Franklin had any encouragement. +Not until it was seen that the conquest of America was hopeless did the +French government really come to the aid of the struggling cause, and +then privately. Spain joined with France in offers of assistance; but as +she had immense treasures on the ocean liable to capture, the matter was +to be kept secret. When secrecy was no longer possible a commercial +treaty was made between the United States and the allies, February 6, +1778, but was not signed until Arthur Lee, of Virginia, one of the +commissioners, had made a good deal of mischief by his captious +opposition to Franklin, whom he envied and hated. The treaty becoming +known to the English government in a few days, Lord North, who saw +breakers ahead, was now anxious for conciliation with America. It was +too late. There could be no conciliation short of the acknowledgment of +American independence, and a renewal of war between France and England +became certain. If the conquest of the United States had been +improbable, it now had become impossible, with both France and Spain as +their allies. But the English government, with stubborn malignity, +persevered in the hopeless warfare. + +After the recall of Silas Deane, the business of the embassy devolved +chiefly on Franklin, who, indeed, within a year was appointed sole +minister, Adams and Lee being relieved. Besides his continuous and +exhausting labors in procuring money for Congress at home, and for +nearly all of its representatives abroad, Franklin was always effecting +some good thing for his country. He especially commended to the American +authorities the Marquis de La Fayette, then a mere youth, who had +offered to give his personal services to the conflict for liberty. This +generous and enthusiastic nobleman was a great accession to the American +cause, from both a political and a military point of view, and always +retained the friendship and confidence of Washington. Franklin rendered +important services in securing the amelioration of the condition of +American prisoners in England, who theretofore had been treated with +great brutality; after years of patient and untiring effort, he so well +succeeded that they were now honorably exchanged according to the rules +of war. Among the episodes of this period largely due to Franklin's +sagacity and monetary aid, was the gallant career of John Paul Jones, a +Scotchman by birth, who had entered the American navy as lieutenant, and +in one short cruise had taken sixteen British prizes,--the first man to +hoist the "Stars and Stripes" on a national vessel. He was also the +first to humble the pride of England in its sorest point, since, with +unparalleled audacity, he had successfully penetrated to the harbor of +the town in which he was born. The "Bon Homme Richard," a large frigate +of forty guns, of which, by the aid of Franklin, Jones secured the +command, and which he named in honor of "Poor Richard" of the almanac, +made his name famous throughout both Europe and America. + +The turning-point of the American War was the surrender of Burgoyne, +which brought money and men and open aid from France; the decisive event +was the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, October 19, 1781, to Washington, +commanding the allied French and American forces, with the aid of the +French fleet. Although the war was still continued in a half-hearted +way, the Cornwallis disaster convinced England of its hopelessness, and +led to negotiations for peace. In these the diplomatic talents of +Franklin eclipsed his financial abilities. And this was the more +remarkable, since he was not trained in the diplomatic school, where +dissimulation was the leading peculiarity. He gained his points by +frank, straightforward lucidity of statement, and marvellous astuteness, +combined with an imperturbable command of his temper. The trained +diplomatists of Europe, with their casuistry and lies, found in him +their match. + +The subjects to be discussed and settled, however, were so vital and +important that Congress associated with Franklin, John Adams, minister +at the Hague, and John Jay, then accredited to Madrid. Nothing could be +more complicated than the negotiations between the representatives of +the different powers. First, there was a compact between the United +States and their allies that peace should not be concluded without their +common consent, and each power had some selfish aim in view. Then, +England and France each sought a separate treaty. In England itself were +divided counsels: Fox had France to look after, and Shelburne the United +States; and these rival English statesmen were not on good terms with +each other. In the solution of the many questions that arose, John Jay +displayed masterly ability. He would take nothing for granted, while +Franklin reposed the utmost confidence in the Count de Vergennes. Jay +soon discovered that the French minister had other interests at heart +than those of America alone,--that he had an eye on a large slice of the +territories of the United States,--that he wanted some substantial +advantage for the ships and men he had furnished. He wanted no spoils, +for there were no spoils to divide, but he wanted unexplored territories +extending to the Mississippi, which Jay had no idea of granting. There +were other points to which Franklin attached but little importance, but +which were really essential in the eye of Jay. Among other things the +agent of England, a Mr. Oswald,--a man of high character and courteous +bearing,--was empowered to treat with the "Thirteen Colonies," to which +Franklin, eager for peace, saw no objection; but Jay declined to sign +the preliminaries of peace unless the independence and sovereignty of +the "United States" were distinctly acknowledged. At this stage of +negotiations John Adams, honest but impetuous and irritable, hastened +from The Hague to take part in the negotiations. He sided with Jay, and +Franklin had to yield, which he did gracefully, probably attaching but +small importance to the matter in question. What mattered it whether the +triumphant belligerents were called "Colonies" or "States" so long as +they were free? To astute lawyers like Jay and Adams, however, the +recognition of the successfully rebellious Colonies as sovereign States +was a main point in issue. + +From that time, as Franklin suffered from a severe illness, Jay was the +life of the negotiations, and the credit is generally given to him for +the treaty which followed, and which was hurried through hastily for +fear that a change in the British ministry would hazard its success. It +came near alienating France, however, since it had been distinctly +understood that peace should not be made without the consent of all the +contracting powers, and this treaty was made with England alone. +Franklin, in the transaction, was the more honest, and Jay the +more astute. + +Strictly speaking, all these three commissioners rendered important +services in their various ways. Franklin's urbanity and frankness, and +the high esteem in which he was held both in France and in England, made +easy the opening of the negotiations, and he gained a special point in +avoiding any agreement of indemnity to American royalists who had +suffered in person or property during the war, while he maintained +pleasant relations with France when Vergennes was pursuing his selfish +policy to prevent the United States from becoming too strong, and when +he became indignant that the treaty had been concluded with England +irrespective of France. Jay, with keen sagacity, fathomed the schemes of +the French minister, and persistently refused to sign a treaty of peace +unless it was satisfactory and promised to be permanent and mutually +advantageous. Adams was especially acquainted with the fisheries +question and its great importance to New England; and he insisted on the +right of Americans to fish on the banks of Newfoundland. All three +persisted in the free navigation of the Mississippi, which it was the +object of Spain to prevent. Great Britain, Spain, and France would have +enclosed the United States by territories of their own, and would have +made odious commercial restrictions. By the firmness and sagacity of +these three diplomatists the United States finally secured all they +wanted and more than they expected. The preliminary articles were signed +November 30, 1782, and the final treaties of peace between England, +France, and the United States on September 3, 1783. + +These negotiations at last having been happily concluded, Franklin +wished to return home, but he remained, at the request of Congress, to +arrange commercial treaties with the various European nations. +Reluctantly at last his request to be relieved was granted, and he left +France in July, 1785. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to the position. +"You replace Dr. Franklin," said the Count de Vergennes to the new +plenipotentiary. "I succeed him," replied Jefferson; "no one can +replace him." + +Franklin would have been the happiest man in Europe at the conclusion of +peace negotiations, but for his increasing bodily infirmities, +especially the gout, from which at times he suffered excruciating +agonies. He was a universal favorite, admired and honored as one of the +most illustrious men living. His house in Paris was the scene of +perpetual hospitalities. Among his visitors were the younger Pitt, +Wilberforce, Romilly, and a host of other celebrities, French and +English, especially eminent scientific men. He was then seventy-eight +years of age, but retained all the vivacity of youth. His conversation +is said to have been as enchanting as it was instructive. His wit and +humor never ceased to flow. His pregnant sentences were received as +oracles. He was a member of the French Academy and attended most of its +meetings. He was a regular correspondent of the most learned societies +of Europe. + +When the time came for him to return home he was too ill to take leave +of the king, or even of the minister of foreign affairs. But Louis XVI, +ordered one of the royal litters to convey the venerable sufferer to the +coast, as he could not bear the motion of a carriage. In his litter, +swung between two mules, Franklin slowly made his way to Havre, and +thence proceeded to Southampton to embark for America. The long voyage +agreed with him, and he arrived in Philadelphia in September, in +improved health, after an absence of nine years. No one would have +thought him old except in his walk, his feet being tender and swollen +with the gout. His voice was still firm, his cheeks were ruddy, his eyes +bright, and his spirits high. + +Settled in his fine house in Market Street, surrounded by his +grandchildren, and idolatrous neighbors and friends, he was a rare +exception to the rule that a prophet is not without honor save in his +own country. He had fortune, friends, fame, and a numerous family who +never disgraced his name. Of all the great actors in the stormy times in +which he lived, he was one of the most fortunate. He had both genius +and character which the civilized world appreciated, and so prudent had +been his early business life and his later investments, that he left a +fortune of about one hundred and fifty thousand dollars,--a great sum to +accumulate in his times. + +The last important service rendered by Franklin to his country was as a +member of the memorable convention which gave the Constitution to the +American nation in 1787. Of this assembly, in which sat Washington, +Hamilton, Madison, Dickinson, Livingstone, Ellsworth, Sherman, and other +great men, Franklin was the Nestor, in wisdom as well as years. He was +too feeble to take a conspicuous part in the discussions, but his +opinions and counsel had great weight whenever he spoke, for his +judgment was never clearer than when he had passed fourscore years. The +battle of words had to be fought by younger and more vigorous men, of +whom, perhaps, Madison was the most prominent. At no time of his life, +however, was Franklin a great speaker, except in conversation, but his +mind was vigorous to the end. + +This fortunate man lived to see the complete triumph of the cause to +which he had devoted his public life. He lived also to see the beginning +of the French Revolution, to which his writings had contributed. He +lived to see the amazing prosperity of his country when compared with +its condition under royal governors. One of his last labors was to write +an elaborate address in favor of negro emancipation, and as president of +an abolition society to send a petition to Congress to suppress the +slave-trade. A few weeks before his death he replied to a letter of +President Stiles of Yale College setting forth his theological belief. +Had he been more orthodox, he would have been more extolled by those men +who controlled the religious opinions of his age. + +Franklin died placidly on the 17th of April, 1790, in the eighty-fifth +year of his age, and his body was followed to the grave by most of the +prominent citizens of Philadelphia in the presence of twenty thousand +spectators. James Madison pronounced his eulogy in Congress, and +Mirabeau in the French National Assembly, while the most eminent +literary men in both Europe and America published elaborate essays on +his deeds and fame, recognizing the extent of his knowledge, the breadth +of his wisdom, his benevolence, his patriotism, and his moral worth. He +modestly claimed to be only a printer, but who, among the great lights +of his age, with the exception of Washington, has left a nobler record? + +AUTHORITIES. + +Mr. James Parton has, I think, written the most interesting and +exhaustive life of Franklin, although it is not artistic and is full of +unimportant digressions. Sparks has collected most of his writings, +which are rather dull reading. The autobiography of Franklin was never +finished,--a unique writing, as frank as the "Confessions" of Rousseau. +A good biography is the one by Morse, in the series of "American +Statesmen" which he is editing. Not a very complimentary view of +Franklin is taken by McMaster, in the series of "American Men of +Letters." See also Bancroft's "United States." + + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + +1732-1799 + +THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION + +One might shrink from writing on such a subject as General Washington +were it not desirable to keep his memory and deeds perpetually fresh in +the minds of the people of this great country, of which he is called the +Father,--doubtless the most august name in our history, and one of the +grandest in the history of the world. + +Washington was not, like Franklin, of humble origin; neither can he +strictly be classed with those aristocrats who inherited vast landed +estates in Virginia during the eighteenth century, and who were +ambitious of keeping up the style of living common to wealthy country +gentlemen in England at that time. And yet the biographers of Washington +trace his family to the knights and squires who held manors by grant of +kings and nobles of England, centuries ago. About the middle of the +seventeenth century John and Lawrence Washington, two brothers, of a +younger branch of the family, both Cavaliers who had adhered to the +fortunes of Charles I., emigrated to Virginia, and purchased extensive +estates in Westmoreland County, between the Potomac and the Rappahannock +rivers. The grandson of one of these brothers was the father of our +hero, and was the owner of a moderate plantation on Bridges Creek, from +which he removed, shortly after the birth of his son, George, in 1732, +to an estate in Stafford County, opposite Fredericksburg. + +It was here that the early years of Washington were passed, in sports +and pleasures peculiar to the sons of planters. His education was not +entirely neglected, but beyond reading, writing, and arithmetic, his +youthful attainments were small. In general knowledge he was far behind +the sons of wealthy farmers in New England at that time,--certainly far +behind Franklin when a mere apprentice to a printer. But he wrote a +fair, neat, legible hand, and kept accounts with accuracy. His +half-brother Lawrence had married a relative of Lord Fairfax, who had +settled in Virginia on the restoration of Charles II. Lawrence was also +the owner of the estate of Mount Vernon, on the Potomac,--the wealthiest +member of his family, and a prominent member of the Virginia House of +Burgesses. Through this fortunate brother, George became intimate with +the best families in Virginia. His associates were gentlemen of +position, with whom he hunted and feasted, and with whose sisters he +danced, it is said, with uncommon grace. + +In person, young Washington was tall,--over six feet and two +inches,--his manners easy and dignified, his countenance urbane and +intelligent, his health perfect, his habits temperate, his morals +irreproachable, and his sentiments lofty. He was a model in all athletic +exercises and all manly sports,--strong, muscular, and inured to +exposure and fatigue. He was quick and impetuous in temper, a tendency +which he early learned to control. He was sullied with none of the vices +then so common with the sons of planters, and his character extorted +admiration and esteem. + +Such a young man of course became a favorite in society. His most marked +peculiarities were good sense and the faculty of seeing things as they +are without exaggeration. He was truthful, practical, straight-forward, +and conscientious, with an uncommon insight into men, and a power of +inspiring confidence. I do not read that he was brilliant in +conversation, although he had a keen relish for the charms of society, +or that he was in any sense learned or original. He had not the +qualities to shine as an orator, or a lawyer, or a literary man; neither +in any of the learned professions would he have sunk below mediocrity, +being industrious, clear-headed, sagacious, and able to avail himself +of the labors and merits of others. As his letters show, he became a +thoroughly well-informed man. In surveying, farming, stock-raising, and +military matters he read the best authorities, often sending to London +for them. He steadily fitted himself for his life as a country gentleman +of Virginia, and doubtless aspired to sit in the House of Burgesses. He +never claimed to be a genius, and was always modest and unassuming, with +all his self-respect and natural dignity. + +In the middle of the eighteenth century the cultivation of tobacco, to +which the wealth and enterprise of Virginia were directed, was not as +lucrative as it had been, and among the planters, aristocratic as they +were in sentiments and habits, there were many who found it difficult to +make two ends meet, and some, however disdainful of manual labor, were +compelled to be as economical and saving as New England farmers. Their +sons found it necessary to enter the learned professions or become men +of business, since they could not all own plantations. Washington, whose +family was neither rich nor poor, prepared himself for the work of a +surveyor, for which he was admirably fitted, by his hardihood, +enterprise, and industry. + +Lord Fairfax, who had become greatly interested in the youth and had +made him a frequent companion, giving him the inestimable advantage of +familiar intercourse with a thoroughbred gentleman of varied +accomplishments, in 1748 sent this sixteen-year-old lad to survey his +vast estates in the unexplored lands at the base of the Alleghany +Mountains. During this rough expedition young Washington was exposed to +the hostilities of unfriendly Indians and the fatigues and hardships of +the primeval wilderness; but his work was thoroughly and accurately +performed, and his courage, boldness, and fidelity attracted the notice +of men of influence and rank. Through the influence of his friend Lord +Fairfax he was appointed a public surveyor, and for three years he +steadfastly pursued this laborious profession. + +A voyage to Barbadoes in 1751 cultivated his habits of clear +observation, and in 1752 his brother's death imposed on him the +responsibility of the estates and the daughter left to his care by his +brother Lawrence. + +Young Washington had already, through the influence of his brother, been +appointed major and adjutant-general of one of the military districts of +Virginia. The depredations of the French and Indians on the border had +grown into dangerous aggression, and in 1753 Major Washington was sent +as a commissioner through the wilderness to the French headquarters in +Ohio, to remonstrate. His admirable conduct on this occasion resulted in +his appointment as lieutenant-colonel of the Virginia regiment of six +companies sent to the Ohio frontier; and in this campaign Washington +gained new laurels, surprising and defeating the French. His native and +acquired powers and his varied experience in Indian warfare now marked +him out as a suitable aide to the British General Braddock, who, early +in 1755, arrived with two regiments of English soldiers to operate +against the French and Indians. This was the beginning of the memorable +Seven Years' War. + +Washington was now a young man of twenty-three, full of manly vigor and +the spirit of adventure, brave as a lion,--a natural fighter, but +prudent and far-seeing. He fortunately and almost alone escaped being +wounded in the disastrous campaign which the British general lost +through his own obstinacy and self-confidence, by taking no advice from +those used to Indian warfare. Braddock insisted upon fighting foes +concealed behind trees, as if he were in the open field. After the +English general's inglorious defeat and death, Washington continued in +active service as commander of the Virginia forces for two years, until +toil, exposure, and hardship produced an illness which compelled him to +withdraw for several months from active service. When at the close of +the war he returned to private life, Colonel Washington had won a name +as the most efficient commander in the whole conflict, displaying +marvellous resources in the constant perils to which he was exposed. +Among his exploits was the capture of Port Duquesne, now Pittsburgh, in +1758, which terminated the French domination of the Ohio, and opened up +Western Pennsylvania to enterprising immigrants. For his rare services +this young man of twenty-six received the thanks of the House of +Burgesses, of which he had been elected a member at the close of the +war. When he entered that body to take his place, the welcome extended +to him was so overwhelming that he stood silent and abashed. But the +venerable Speaker of the House exclaimed, "Sit down, Mr. Washington; +your modesty equals your valor, and that surpasses the power of any +language I possess." + +Meanwhile, Mount Vernon, a domain which extended ten miles along the +Potomac River, fell into Washington's possession by the death of his +brother Lawrence's daughter, which made him one of the richest planters +in Virginia. And his fortunes were still further advanced by his +marriage in 1759 with the richest woman in the region, Martha, the widow +of Daniel Parke Custis. This lady esteemed his character as much as +Kadijah revered Mohammed, to say nothing of her admiration for his manly +beauty and military renown. His style of life as the lord of Mount +Vernon was almost baronial. He had a chariot and four, with black +postilions in livery, for the use of his wife, while he himself always +appeared on horseback, the finest rider in Virginia. His house was +filled with aristocratic visitors. He had his stud of the highest breed, +his fox hounds, and all the luxuries of a prosperous country gentleman. +His kitchens, his smoke-houses, his stables, his stewards, his +tobacco-sheds, his fields of wheat and corn, his hundred cows, his vast +poultry-yards, his barges, all indicated great wealth, and that generous +hospitality which is now a tradition. His time was passed in overseeing +his large estate, and in out-of-door sports, following the hounds or +fishing, exchanging visits with prominent Virginia families, amusing +himself with card-playing, dancing, and the social frivolities of the +day. But he neglected no serious affairs; his farm, his stock, the sale +of his produce, were all admirably conducted and on a plane of widely +recognized honor and integrity. He took great interest in the State at +large, explored on foot the Dismal Swamp and projected its draining, +made several expeditions up the Potomac and over the mountains, laying +out routes for new roads to the Ohio country, gained much influence in +the House of Burgesses, and was among the foremost in discussing +privately and publicly the relations of the Colonies with the +Mother Country. + +Thus nine years were passed, in luxury, in friendship, and in the +pleasures of a happy, useful life. What a contrast this life was to +that of Samuel Adams in Boston at the same time,--a man too poor to keep +a single servant, or to appear in a decent suit of clothes, yet all the +while the leader of the Massachusetts bar and legislature and the most +brilliant orator in the land! + +When the Stamp Act was passed by the infatuated Parliament of Great +Britain, Washington was probably the richest man in the country, but as +patriotic as Patrick Henry. He deprecated a resort to arms, and desired +a reconciliation with England, but was ready to abandon his luxurious +life, and buckle on his sword in defence of American liberties. As a +member of the first general Congress, although no orator, his voice was +heard in favor of freedom at any loss or hazard. He was chairman of the +Committee on Military Affairs, and did much to organize the defensive +operations set on foot. When the battle of Lexington was fought, and it +became clear that only the sword could settle the difficulties, +Washington, at the nomination of John Adams in the Second Congress, was +unanimously chosen commander-in-chief of the American armies. With frank +acknowledgment of a doubt whether his abilities and experience were +equal to the great trust, and yet without reluctance, he accepted the +high and responsible command, pledging the exertion of all his powers, +under Providence, to lead the country through its trials and +difficulties. He declined all pay for his services, asking only that +Congress would discharge his expenses, of which he would "keep an exact +account." And this he did, to the penny. + +Doubtless, no man in the Colonies was better fitted for this exalted +post. His wealth, his military experience, his social position, his +political influence, and his stainless character, exciting veneration +without envy, marked out Washington as the leader of the American +forces. On the whole, he was the foremost man in all the land for the +work to be done. In his youth he had been dashing, adventurous, and +courageous almost to rashness; but when the vast responsibilities of +general-in-chief in a life-and-death struggle weighed upon his mind his +character seemed to be modified, and he became cautious, reticent, +prudent, distant, and exceedingly dignified. He allowed no familiarity +from the most beloved of his friends and the most faithful of his +generals. He stood out apart from men, cold and reserved in manner, +though capable of the warmest affections. He seemed conscious of his +mission and its obligations, resolved to act from the severest sense of +duty, fearless of praise or blame, though not indifferent to either. He +had no jealousy of his subordinates. He selected, so far as he was +allowed by Congress, the best men for their particular duties, and with +almost unerring instinct. So far as he had confidants, they were +Greene, the ablest of his generals, and Hamilton, the wisest of his +counsellors,--ostensibly his aide-de-camp, but in reality his private +secretary, the officer to whom all great men in high position are +obliged to confide their political secrets. + +Washington was "the embodiment of both virtue and power" in the eyes of +his countrymen, who gave him their confidence, and never took it back in +the darkest days of their calamities. On the whole, in spite of calumny +and envy, no benefactor was ever more fully trusted,--supremely +fortunate even amid gloom and public duties. This confidence he strove +to merit, as his highest reward. + +Such was Washington when, at the age of forty-three, he arrived at +Cambridge in Massachusetts, to take command of the American army, a few +days after the battle of Bunker Hill, on the 17th June, 1775. + +Although the English had been final victors at Bunker Hill, the American +militia, behind their intrenchments, under Prescott, had repulsed twice +their number of the best soldiers of Europe, and retired at last only +for want of ammunition. Washington was far from being discouraged by the +defeat. His question and comment show his feeling: "Did the militia +fight? Then the liberties of the country are safe." It was his first aim +to expel the enemy from Boston, where they were practically surrounded +by the hastily collected militia of New England, full of enthusiasm and +confidence in the triumph of their cause. But these forces had been +injudiciously placed; they were not properly intrenched; they were +imperfectly supplied with arms, ammunition, military stores, uniforms, +and everything necessary for an army. There was no commissary +department, nor was any department provided with adequate resources. The +soldiers were inexperienced, raw sons of farmers and mechanics, led by +officers who knew but little of scientific warfare, and numbered less +than fifteen thousand effective men. They were undisciplined and full of +sectional jealousies, electing, for the most part, their own officers, +who were too dependent upon their favor to enforce discipline. + +Washington's first task, therefore, was to bring order out of confusion; +to change the disposition of the forces; to have their positions +adequately fortified; to effect military discipline, and subordination +of men to their officers; to cultivate a large and general patriotism, +which should override all distinctions between the Colonies. This work +went on rapidly; but the lack of supplies became distressing. At the +close of July the men had but nine rounds of ammunition each, and more +was nowhere to be procured. It was necessary to send messengers into +almost every town to beg for powder, and there were few mills in the +country to manufacture it. + +As the winter approached a new trouble appeared. The brief enlistment +terms of many of the men were expiring, and, wearied and discouraged, +without proper food or clothing, these men withdrew from the army, and +the regiments rapidly decreased in numbers. Recruiting and re-enlisting +in the face of such conditions became almost impossible; yet +Washington's steady persistence, his letters to Congress, his masterly +hold on the siege of the British in Boston, his appeals for men and +ammunition, were actually successful. His army was kept up by new and +renewed material. Privateers, sent out by him upon the sea, secured +valuable supplies. Henry Knox, a Boston bookseller, whom he had made +colonel of artillery and despatched to New York and Ticonderoga, +returned to the camps with heavy cannon and ammunition. + +The right wing of the American army was stationed at Roxbury, under +General Artemas Ward, and the left wing, under Major-General Charles Lee +and Brigadier-Generals Greene and Sullivan, at Prospect Hill. The +headquarters of Washington were in the centre, at Cambridge, with +Generals Putnam and Heath. Lee was not allied with the great Virginia +family of that name. He was an Englishman by birth, somewhat of a +military adventurer. Conceited, vain, and disobedient, he afterwards +came near wrecking the cause which he had ambitiously embraced. Ward was +a native of Massachusetts, a worthy man, but not distinguished for +military capacity. Putnam was a gallant hero, taken from the plough, but +more fitted to head small expeditions than for patient labor in siege +operations, or for commanding a great body of troops. + +Meanwhile the British troops, some fifteen thousand veterans, had +remained inactive in Boston, under Sir William Howe, who had succeeded +Gage, unwilling or unable to disperse the militia who surrounded them, +or to prevent the fortification of point after point about the city by +the Americans. It became difficult to get provisions. The land side was +cut off by the American forces, and the supply-ships from the sea were +often wrecked or captured by Washington's privateers. At length the +British began to think of evacuating Boston and going to a more +important point, since they had ships and the control of the harbor. No +progress had been made thus far in the conquest of New England, for it +was thought unwise to penetrate into the interior with the forces at +command, against the army of Washington with a devoted population to +furnish him provisions. Howe could undoubtedly have held the New England +capital, but it was not a great strategic point. What was it to occupy +a city at the extreme end of the continent, when the British government +expected to hear that the whole country was overrun? At last Washington +felt strong enough to use his eight months' preparations for a sudden +blow. He seized the heights commanding the city and his intention became +evident. The active movements of the Americans towards an attack +precipitated Howe's half-formed plan for evacuating the city, and in a +single day he and his army sailed away, on March 17, 1776. + +Washington made no effort to prevent the embarkation of the British +troops, since it freed New England, not again to be the theatre of +military operations during the war. It was something to deliver the most +populous part of the country from English domination and drive a +superior army out of Massachusetts. The wonder is that the disciplined +troops under the British generals, with guns and ammunition and ships, +should not have dispersed in a few weeks the foes they affected to +despise. But Washington had fought the long battle of patience and +sagacity until he was ready to strike. Then by one bold, sudden move he +held the enemy at his mercy. Howe was out-generalled, and the American +remained master of the field. Washington had accomplished his errand in +New England. He received the thanks of the Congress, and with his +little army proceeded to New York, where matters urgently demanded +attention. + +To my mind the most encouraging part of the Revolutionary struggle, +until the surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, was that period of eight +months when the British were cooped up in Boston, surrounded by the +Americans, who had plenty of provisions even if they were deficient in +military stores; when the Yankees were stimulated to enthusiasm by every +influence which could be brought to bear upon them by their families, at +no great distance from the seat of war, and when no great calamity had +as yet overtaken them. + +But here everything like success for two years disappeared, and a gloomy +cloud hung over the land, portentous of disasters and dismay. Evils +thickened, entirely unexpected, which brought out what was greatest in +the character and genius of Washington; for he now was the mainstay of +hope. The first patriotic gush of enthusiasm had passed away. War, under +the most favorable circumstances, is no play; but under great +difficulties, has a dismal and rugged look before which delusions +rapidly disappear. England was preparing new and much larger forces. She +was vexed, but not discouraged, having unlimited resources for +war,--money, credit, and military experience. She proceeded to hire the +services of seventeen thousand Hessian and other German troops. All +Europe looked upon the contest as hopeless on the part of a scattered +population, without credit, or money, or military stores, or a settled +army, or experienced generals, or a central power. Washington saw on +every hand dissensions, jealousies, abortive attempts to raise men, a +Congress without power and without prestige, State legislatures +inefficient and timid, desertions without number and without redress, +men returning to their farms either disgusted or feeling that there was +no longer a pressing need of their services. + +There were, moreover, jealousies among his generals, and suppressed +hostility to him, as an aristocrat, a slaveholder, and an Episcopalian. + +As soon as Boston was evacuated General Howe sailed for Halifax, to meet +his brother, Admiral Howe, with reinforcements for New York. Washington +divined his purpose and made all haste. When he reached New York, on the +13th of April, he found even greater difficulties to contend with than +had annoyed him in Boston: raw troops, undisciplined and undrilled, a +hostile Tory population, conspiracies to take his life, sectional +jealousies,--and always a divided Congress, and the want of experienced +generals. There was nothing of that inspiring enthusiasm which animated +the New England farmers after the battle of Bunker Hill. + +Washington held New York, and the British fleet were masters of the Bay. +He might have withdrawn his forces in safety, but so important a place +could not be abandoned without a struggle. Therefore, although he had +but eight thousand effective men, he fortified as well as he could the +heights on Manhattan Island, to the north, and on Long Island, to the +south and east, and held his place. + +Meantime Washington was laboring to strengthen his army, to suppress the +mischievous powers of the Tories, to procure the establishment by +Congress of a War Office and some permanent army organization, to quiet +jealousies among his troops, and to provide for their wants. In June, +Sir William Howe arrived in New York harbor and landed forces on Staten +Island, his brother the admiral being not far behind. News of disaster +from a bold but futile expedition to Canada in the North, and of the +coming from the South of Sir Henry Clinton, beaten off from Charleston, +made the clouds thicken, when on July 2 the Congress resolved that +"these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and +independent States," and on July 4 adopted the formal Declaration of +Independence,--an immense relief to the heart and mind of Washington, +and one which he joyfully proclaimed to his army. + +Even then, however, and although his forces had been reinforced to +fifteen thousand serviceable troops and five thousand of raw militia, +there was reason to fear that the British, with their thirty-five +thousand men and strong naval force, would surround and capture the +whole American array. At last they did outflank the American forces on +Long Island, and, pouring in upon them a vastly superior force, defeated +them with great slaughter. + +While the British waited at night for their ships to come up, Washington +with admirable quickness seized the single chance of escape, and under +cover of a fog withdrew his nine thousand men from Long Island and +landed them in New York once more. + +This retreat of Washington, when he was to all appearances in the power +of the English generals, was masterly. In two short weeks thereafter the +British had sent ships and troops up both the Hudson and East rivers, +and New York was no longer tenable to Washington. He made his way up the +Harlem River, where he was joined by Putnam, who also had contrived to +escape with four thousand men, and strongly intrenched himself at +King's Bridge. + +Washington waited a few days at Harlem Plains planning a descent on Long +Island, and resolved on making a desperate stand. Meanwhile Howe, in his +ships, passed the forts on the Hudson and landed at Throg's Neck, on +the Sound, with a view of attacking the American intrenchments in the +rear and cutting them off from New England. A brief delay on Howe's part +enabled Washington to withdraw to a still stronger position on the +hills; whereupon Howe retired to Dobbs' Ferry, unable to entrap with his +larger forces the wary Washington, but having now the complete command +of the lower Hudson, + +There were, however, two strong fortresses on the Hudson which Congress +was anxious to retain at any cost, a few miles above New York,--Fort +Washington, on Manhattan Island, and Fort Lee, on the New Jersey side of +the river. These forts Howe resolved to capture. The commander-in-chief +was in favor of evacuating them, but Greene, who commanded at Fort +Washington, thought he was strong enough to defend it. He made a noble +defence, but was overwhelmed by vastly superior forces and was compelled +to surrender it, with more than two thousand men. And, as Lord +Cornwallis with six thousand men then crossed the Hudson, Washington +rapidly retreated into New Jersey with a dispirited army, that included +the little garrison of Fort Lee which had escaped in safety; and even +this small army was fast becoming smaller, from expiring enlistments and +other causes. General Lee, with a considerable division at North Castle, +N.J., was ordered to rejoin his commander, but, apparently from +ambition for independent command, disobeyed the order. From that moment +Washington distrusted Lee, who henceforth was his _bête noir_, who +foiled his plans and was jealous of his ascendency. Lee's obstinacy was +punished by his being overtaken and captured by the enemy. + +Then followed a most gloomy period. We see Washington, with only the +shadow of an army, compelled to retreat southward in New Jersey, hotly +pursued by the well-equipped British,--almost a fugitive, like David +fleeing from the hand of Saul. He dared not risk an engagement against +greatly superior forces in pursuit, triumphant and confident of success, +while his followers were half-clad, without shoes, hungry, homesick, and +forlorn. So confident was Howe of crushing the only army opposed to him, +that he neglected opportunities and made mistakes. At last the remnant +of Lee's troops, commanded by Sullivan and Gates, joined Washington; but +even with this reinforcement, giving him barely three thousand men, he +could not face the enemy, more than double the number of his +inexperienced soldiers. The only thing to do was to put the Delaware +between himself and Howe's army. But it was already winter, and the +Delaware was full of ice. Cornwallis, a general of great ability, felt +sure that the dispirited men who still adhered to Washington could not +possibly escape him; so he lingered in his march,--a fatal confidence, +for, when he arrived at the Delaware, Washington was already safely +encamped on the opposite bank; nor could he pursue, since all the boats +on the river for seventy miles were either destroyed or in the hands of +Washington. This successful retreat from the Hudson over the Delaware +was another exhibition of high military qualities,--caution, quick +perception, and prompt action. + +Washington had now the nucleus of an army and could not be dislodged by +the enemy, whose force was only about double his own. Howe was +apparently satisfied with driving the American forces out of New Jersey, +and, retaining his hold at certain points, sent the bulk of his army +back to New York. + +The aim of Washington was now to expel the British troops from New +Jersey. It was almost a forlorn hope, but he never despaired. His +condition was not more hopeless than that of William the Silent when he +encountered the overwhelming armies of Spain. Always beaten, the heroic +Prince of Orange still held out when Holland was completely overrun. But +the United States were not overrun. New England was practically safe, +although the British held Newport; and all the country south of the +Delaware was free from them. The perplexities and discouragements of +Washington were great indeed, while he stubbornly held the field with a +beggarly makeshift for an army and sturdily continued his appeals to +Congress and to the country for men, arms, and clothing; yet only New +York City and New Jersey were really in the possession of the enemy. It +was one thing for England to occupy a few cities, and quite another to +conquer a continent; hence Congress and the leaders of the rebellion +never lost hope. So long as there were men left in peaceable possession +of their farms from Maine to Georgia, and these men accustomed to +fire-arms and resolved on freedom, there was no real cause of despair. +The perplexing and discouraging things were that the men preferred the +safety and comfort of their homes to the dangers and hardships of the +camp, and that there was no money in the treasury to pay the troops, nor +credit on which to raise it. Hence desertions, raggedness, discontent, +suffering; but not despair,--even in the breast of Washington, who +realized the difficulties as none else did. Men would not enlist unless +they were paid and fed, clothed and properly armed. Had there been an +overwhelming danger they probably would have rallied, as the Dutch did +when they opened their dikes, or as the Greeks rallied in their late +Revolution, when fortress after fortress fell into the hands of the +Turks, and as the American militia did in successive localities +threatened by the British,--notably in New Hampshire, Vermont, and New +York, when they swarmed about Burgoyne and captured him at Saratoga. But +this was by no means the same as enlisting for a long period in a +general army. + +I mention these things, not to discredit the bravery and patriotism of +the Revolutionary soldiers. They made noble sacrifices and they fought +gallantly, but they did not rise above local patriotism and sustain the +Continental cause. Yet at no time, even when Washington with his small +army was flying before Cornwallis across New Jersey, were there grounds +of despair. There were discouragements, difficulties, and vexations; and +these could be traced chiefly to the want of a strong central +government. The government was divided against itself, without money or +credit,--in short, a mere advisory board of civilians, half the time +opposed to the plans of the commander-in-chief. But when Washington had +been driven beyond the Delaware, when Philadelphia, where Congress was +sitting, was in danger, then dictatorial powers were virtually conferred +on Washington,--"the most unlimited authority" was the phrase used,--and +he had scope to act as he saw fit. + +Washington was, it is true, at times accused of incompetency, and +traitors slandered him, but Congress stood by him and the country had +confidence in him; as well it might, since, while he had not gained +great victories, and even perhaps had made military mistakes, he had +delivered Boston, had rescued the remnant of his army from the clutches +of Howe and Cornwallis, and had devoted himself by day and night to +labors which should never have been demanded of him, in keeping Congress +up to the mark, as well as in his arduous duties in the field,--evincing +great prudence, sagacity, watchfulness, and energy. He had proved +himself at least to be a Fabius, if he was not a Hannibal. But a +Hannibal is not possible without an army, and a steady-handed Fabius was +the need of the times. The Caesars of the world are few, and most of +them have been unfaithful to their trust, but no one doubted the +integrity and patriotism of Washington. Rival generals may have disliked +his austere dignity and proud self-consciousness, but the people and the +soldiers adored him; and while his general policy was, and had to be, a +defensive one, everybody knew that he would fight if he had any hope of +success. No one in the army was braver than he, as proved not only by +his early warfare against the French and Indians, but also by his whole +career after he was selected for the chief command, whenever a fair +fighting opportunity was presented, as seen in the following instance. + +With his small army on the right bank of the Delaware, toilsomely +increased to about four thousand men, he now meditated offensive +operations against the unsuspecting British, who had but just chased him +out of New Jersey. Accordingly, with unexpected audacity, on Christmas +night he recrossed the Delaware, marched nine miles and attacked the +British troops posted at Trenton. It was not a formal battle, but a +raid, and proved successful. The enemy, amazed, retreated; then with +fresh reinforcements they turned upon Washington; he evaded them, and on +January 3, 1777, made a fierce attack on their lines at Princeton, +attended with the same success, utterly routing the British. These were +small victories, but they encouraged the troops, aroused the New Jersey +men to enthusiasm, and alarmed Cornwallis, who retreated northward to +New Brunswick, to save his military stores. In a few days the English +retained only that town, Amboy, and Paulus Hook, in all New Jersey. Thus +in three weeks, in the midst of winter, Washington had won two fights, +taken two thousand prisoners, and was as strong as he was before he +crossed the Hudson,--and the winter of 1777 opened with hope in the +Revolutionary ranks. + +Washington then intrenched himself at Morristown and watched the forces +of the English generals; and for six months nothing of consequence was +done by either side. It became evident that Washington could not be +conquered except by large reinforcements to the army of Howe. Another +campaign was a necessity, to the disgust and humiliation of the British +government and the wrath of George III. The Declaration of Independence, +thus far, had not proved mere rhetoric. + +The expulsion of the British troops from New Jersey by inferior forces +was regarded in Europe as a great achievement, and enabled Franklin at +Paris to secure substantial but at first secret aid from the French +Government. National independence now seemed to be a probability, and +perhaps a certainty. It was undoubtedly a great encouragement to the +struggling States. The more foresighted of British statesmen saw now the +hopelessness of a conflict which had lasted nearly two years, and in +which nothing more substantial had been gained by the English generals +than the occupation of New York and a few towns on the coast, while the +Americans had gained military experience and considerable prestige. The +whole civilized world pronounced Washington to be both a hero and +a patriot. + +But the English government, with singular obstinacy, under the lash of +George III., resolved to make renewed efforts, to send to America all +the forces which could be raised, at a vast expense, and to plan a +campaign which should bring the rebels to obedience. The plan was to +send an army by way of Canada to take the fortresses on Lake Champlain, +and then to descend the Hudson, and co-operate with Howe in cutting off +New England from the rest of the country; in fact, dividing the land in +twain,--a plan seemingly feasible. It would be possible to conquer each +section, east and south of New York, in detail, with victorious and +overwhelming forces. This was the great danger that menaced the States +and caused the deepest solicitude. + +So soon as the designs of the British government were known, it became +the aim and duty of the commander-in-chief to guard against them. The +military preparations of Congress were utterly inadequate for the +crisis, in spite of the constant and urgent expostulations of +Washington. There was, as yet, 110 regular army, and the militia +shamefully deserted. There was even a prejudice against a standing army, +and the militia of every State were jealous of the militia of other +States. Congress passed resolutions, and a large force was created on +paper. Popular enthusiasm was passing away in the absence of immediate +dangers; so that, despite the glorious success in New Jersey, the winter +of 1777 was passed gloomily, and in the spring new perils arose. But for +the negligence of General Howe, the well-planned British expedition from +the North might have succeeded. It was under the command of an able and +experienced veteran, General Burgoyne. There was apparently nothing to +prevent the junction of the forces of Howe and Burgoyne but the fortress +of West Point, which commanded the Hudson River. To oppose this movement +Benedict Arnold--"the bravest of the brave," as he was called, like +Marshal Ney--was selected, assisted by General Schuyler, a high-minded +gentleman and patriot, but as a soldier more respectable than able, and +Horatio Gates, a soldier of fortune, who was jealous of Washington, and +who, like Lee, made great pretensions,--both Englishmen by birth. The +spring and summer resulted in many reverses in the North, where Schuyler +was unable to cope with Burgoyne; and had Howe promptly co-operated, +that campaign would have been a great triumph for the British. + +It was the object of Howe to deceive Washington, if possible, and hence +he sent a large part of his army on board the fleet at New York, under +the command of Cornwallis, as if Boston were his destination. He +intended, however, to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the "rebel +Congress," with his main force, while other troops were to co-operate +with Burgoyne. Washington, divining the intentions of Howe, with his +ragged army crossed the Delaware once more, at the end of July, this +time to protect Philadelphia, leaving Arnold and Schuyler to watch +Burgoyne, and Putnam to defend the Hudson. When, late in August, Howe +landed his forces below Philadelphia, Washington made up his mind to +risk a battle, and chose a good position on the heights near the +Brandywine; but in the engagement of September 11 was defeated, through +the negligence of Sullivan to guard the fords above against the +overwhelming forces of Cornwallis, who was in immediate command. Still, +he rallied his army with the view of fighting again. The battle of +Germantown, October 4, resulted in American defeat and the occupation by +the British of Philadelphia,--a place desirable only for comfortable +winter quarters. When Franklin heard of it he coolly remarked that the +British had not taken Philadelphia, but Philadelphia had taken them, +since seventeen thousand veterans were here kept out of the field, when +they were needed most on the banks of the Hudson, to join Burgoyne, now +on his way to Lake Champlain. + +This diversion of the main army of Howe to occupy Philadelphia was the +great British blunder of the war. It enabled the Vermont and New +Hampshire militia to throw obstacles in the march of Burgoyne, who +became entangled in the forests of northern New York, with his flank and +rear exposed to the sharpshooters of the enemy, fully alive to the +dangers which menaced them. Sluggish as they were, and averse to +enlistment, the New England troops always rallied when pressing +necessity stared them in the face, and fought with tenacious courage. +Although Burgoyne had taken Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, as was to be +expected, he was, after a most trying campaign, at last surrounded at +Saratoga, and on October 17 was compelled to surrender to the militia he +despised. It was not the generalship of the American commander which led +to this crushing disaster, but the obstacles of nature, utilized by the +hardy American volunteers. Gates, who had superseded Schuyler in the +command of the Northern department, claimed the chief merit of the +capture of the British army, nearly ten thousand strong; but this claim +is now generally disputed, and the success of the campaign is ascribed +to Arnold, while that of the final fighting and success is given to +Arnold together with Morgan and his Virginia riflemen, whom Washington +had sent from his own small force. + +The moral and political effect of the surrender of Burgoyne was greater +than the military result. The independence of the United States was now +assured, not only in the minds of American statesmen, but to European +intelligence. The French Government then openly came out with its +promised aid, and money was more easily raised. + +The influence of Washington in securing the capture of Burgoyne was +indirect, although the general plan of campaign and the arousing of the +Northern militia had been outlined by him to General Schuyler. He had +his hands full in watching Howe's forces at Philadelphia. His defeat at +Germantown, the result of accident which he could not prevent, compelled +him to retreat to Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill, about nine miles from +Philadelphia. There he took up his quarters in the winter of 1777-78. +The sufferings of the army in that distressing winter are among the +best-known events of the whole war. At Valley Forge the trials of +Washington culminated. His army was reduced to three thousand men, +incapable of offensive operations, without suitable clothing, food, +or shelter, + +"As the poor soldiers," says Fiske, in his brilliant history, "marched +on the 17th of December to their winter quarters, the route could be +traced on the snow by the blood which oozed from bare, frost-bitten +feet. For want of blankets many were fain to sit up all night by fires. +Cold and hunger daily added to the sick list, and men died for want of +straw to put between them and the frozen ground." + +Gates, instead of marching to the relief of Washington before +Philadelphia, as he was ordered, kept his victorious troops idle at +Saratoga; and it was only by the extraordinary tact of Alexander +Hamilton, the youthful aide, secretary, and counsellor of Washington, +who had been sent North for the purpose, that the return of Morgan with +his Virginia riflemen was secured. Congress was shaken by the intrigues +of Gates, who sought to supplant the commander-in-chief, and who had won +to his support both Morgan and Richard Henry Lee. + +At this crisis, Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer who had served under +Frederic the Great, arrived at the headquarters of Washington. Some say +that he was a mere martinet, but he was exceedingly useful in drilling +the American troops, working from morning till night, both patient and +laborious. From that time Washington had regular troops, on which he +could rely, few in number, but loyal and true. La Fayette also was +present in his camp, chivalrous and magnanimous, rendering efficient +aid; and there too was Nathaniel Greene of Rhode Island, who had made +but one great mistake in his military career, the most able of +Washington's generals. With the aid of these trusted lieutenants, +Washington was able to keep his little army together, as the nucleus of +a greater one, and wait for opportunities, for he loved to fight when he +saw a chance of success. + +And now it may be said that the desertions which had crippled +Washington, the reluctance to enlist on the part of the farmers, and the +tardy response to his calls for money, probably were owing to the +general sense of security after the surrender of Burgoyne. It was felt +that the cause of liberty was already won. With this feeling men were +slow to enlist when they were not sure of their pay, and it was at this +period that money was most difficult to be raised. Had there been a +strong central government, and not a mere league of States, some Moses +would have "smitten the rock of finance," as Hamilton subsequently did, +and Chase in the war of the Southern Rebellion, and abundant streams +would have gushed forth in the shape of national bonds, certain to be +redeemed, sooner or later, in solid gold and silver, and which could +have been readily negotiated by the leading bankers of the world. The +real difficulty with which Congress and Washington had to contend was a +financial one. There were men enough to enlist in the army if they had +been promptly paid. Yet, on the other hand, England, with ample means +and lavish promises, was able to induce only about three thousand Tories +out of all the American population to enlist in her armies in America +during the whole war. + +By patience unparalleled and efforts unceasing, Washington slowly +wrought upon Congress to sustain him in building up a "Continental" +army, in place of the shifting bodies of militia. With Steuben as +inspector-general and Greene as quartermaster, the new levies as they +came in were disciplined and equipped; and in spite of the conspiracies +and cabals formed against him by ambitious subordinates,--which enlisted +the aid of many influential men even in Congress, but which came to +nought before the solid character and steady front of the man who was +really carrying the whole war upon his own shoulders,--Washington +emerged from the frightful winter at Valley Forge and entered the spring +of 1778 with greater resources at his command than he had ever +had before. + +In January, 1778, France acknowledged the independence of the United +States of America and entered into treaty with them. In the spring Sir +William Howe resigned, and Sir Henry Clinton succeeded him in command. +After wintering in Philadelphia, the British commander discovered that +he could do nothing with his troops shut up in a luxurious city, while +Washington was watching him in a strongly intrenched position a few +miles distant, and with constantly increasing forces now trained to war; +and moreover, a French fleet with reinforcements was now looked for. So +he evacuated the Quaker City on the 18th of June, 1778, and began his +march to New York, followed by Washington with an army now equal to his +own. On the 28th of June Cornwallis was encamped near Monmouth, N.J., +where was fought the most brilliant battle of the war, which Washington +nearly lost, nevertheless, by the disobedience of Lee, his second in +command, at a critical moment. Boiling with rage, the commander-in-chief +rode up to Lee and demanded why he had disobeyed orders. Then, it is +said, with a tremendous oath he sent the marplot to the rear, and Lee's +military career ignominiously ended. Four years after, this military +adventurer, who had given so much trouble, died in a mean tavern in +Philadelphia, disgraced, unpitied, and forlorn. + +The battle of Monmouth did not prevent the orderly retreat of the +British to New York, when Washington resumed his old post at White +Plains, east of the Hudson in Westchester County, whence he had some +hopes of moving on New York, with the aid of the French fleet under the +Count d'Estaing. But the big French ships could not cross the bar, so +the fleet sailed for Newport with a view of recapturing that town and +repossessing Rhode Island. Washington sent Greene and La Fayette thither +with reinforcements for Sullivan, who was in command. The enterprise +failed from an unexpected storm in November, which compelled the French +admiral to sail to Boston to refit, after which he proceeded to the West +Indies. It would appear that the French, thus far, sought to embarrass +the English rather than to assist the Americans. The only good that +resulted from the appearance of D'Estaing at Newport was the withdrawal +of the British troops to New York. + +It is singular that the positions of the opposing armies were very much +as they had been two years before. The headquarters of Washington were +at White Plains, on the Hudson, and those of Clinton at New York, +commanding the harbor and the neighboring heights. Neither army was +strong enough for offensive operations with any reasonable hope of +success, and the commanding generals seem to have acted on the maxim +that "discretion is the better part of valor." Both armies had been +strongly reinforced, and the opposing generals did little else than +fortify their positions and watch each other. A year passed in virtual +inaction on both sides, except that the British carried on a series of +devastating predatory raids in New England along the coast of Long +Island Sound, in New York State (with the savage aid of the Indians), in +New Jersey, and in the South,--there making a more formal movement and +seizing the coast of Georgia and South Carolina. No battles of any +account were fought. There was some skirmishing, but no important +military movements were made on either side. Washington, in December, +1778, removed his headquarters to Middlebrook, N.J., his forces being +distributed in a series of camps from the Delaware north and east to +Rhode Island. The winter he passed in patient vigilance; he wrote +expostulating letters to Congress, and even went personally to +Philadelphia to labor with its members. Meanwhile Clinton was taking his +ease, to the disgust of the British government. + +There was a cavilling, criticising spirit among the different parties in +America; for there were many who did not comprehend the situation, and +who were disappointed that nothing decisive was done. Washington was +infinitely annoyed at the stream of detraction which flowed from +discontented officers, and civilians in power, but held his soul in +patience, rarely taking any notice of the innumerable slanders and +hostile insinuations. He held together his army, now chiefly composed of +veterans, and nearly as numerous as the troops of the enemy. One thing +he saw clearly,--that the maintenance of an army in the field, held +together by discipline, was of more importance, from a military point of +view, than the occupation of a large city or annoying raids of +destruction. While he was well intrenched in a strong position, and +therefore safe, the British had the command of the Hudson, and +ships-of-war could ascend the river unmolested as far as West Point, +which was still held by the Americans and was impregnable. Outside of +New York the British did not possess a strong fortress in the country, +at least in the interior, except on Lake Champlain,--not one in New +England. West Point, therefore, was a great eyesore to the English +generals and admirals. Its possession would be of incalculable advantage +in case any expedition was sent to the North. + +And the enemy came very near getting possession of this important +fortress, not by force, but by treachery. Benedict Arnold, disappointed +in his military prospects, alienated from his cause, overwhelmed with +debts, and utterly discontented and demoralized, had asked to be ordered +from Philadelphia and put in command of West Point. He was sent there in +August, 1780. He was a capable and brave man; he had the confidence of +Washington, in spite of his defects of character, and moreover he had +rendered important services. In an evil hour he lost his head and +listened to the voice of the tempter, and having succeeded in getting +himself put in charge of the stronghold of the Hudson, he secretly +negotiated with Clinton for its surrender. + +Everybody is familiar with the details of that infamy, which is +inexplicable on any other ground than partial insanity. No matter what +may be said in extenuation, Arnold committed the greatest crime known to +civilized nations. He contrived to escape the just doom which awaited +him, and, from having become traitor, even proceeded to enter the active +service of the enemy and to raise his hand against the country which, +but for these crimes, would have held him in honorable remembrance. The +heart of English-speaking nations has ever been moved to compassion for +the unfortunate fate of the messenger who conducted the treasonable +correspondence between Arnold and Clinton,--one of the most accomplished +officers in the British army, Major André. No influence--not even his +deeply moved sympathy--could induce Washington to interfere with the +decision of the court-martial that André should be hanged as a spy, so +dangerous did the commander deem the attempted treachery. The English +have erected to the unfortunate officer a monument in Westminster Abbey. + +The contemplated surrender of West Point to the enemy suggests the +demoralization which the war had already produced, and which was +deplored by no one more bitterly than by Washington himself. "If I were +called upon," he writes, "to draw a picture of the times and of men, +from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I should in one word say +that idleness, dissipation, and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold +of most of them; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst +for riches seem to have got the better of every other consideration...; +that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great business of the +day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, an accumulating debt, +ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit ... are but +secondary considerations." + +All war produces naturally and logically this demoralization, especially +in countries under a republican government. Profanity, drunkenness, and +general recklessness as to money matters were everywhere prevailing +vices; and this demoralization was, in the eyes of Washington, more to +be dreaded than any external dangers that had thus far caused alarm and +distress. "I have," wrote he, "seen without despondency even for a +moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have +beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought +her liberties were in such imminent danger as at present." + +"He had faced," says Henry Cabot Lodge, in his interesting life of +Washington, "the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the +difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that +never failed. But the spectacle of wide-spread popular demoralization, +of selfish scramble for plunder, and of feeble administration at the +centre of government, weighed upon him heavily." And all this at the +period of the French alliance, which it was thought would soon end the +war. Indeed, hostilities were practically over at the North, and hence +the public lassitude. Nearly two years had passed without an +important battle. + +When Clinton saw that no hope remained of subduing the Americans, the +British government should have made peace and recognized the +independence of the States. But the obstinacy of the king of England was +phenomenal, and his ministers were infatuated. They could not reconcile +themselves to the greatness of their loss. Their hatred of the rebels +was too bitter for reason to conquer. Hitherto the contest had not been +bloody nor cruel. Few atrocities had been committed, except by the +rancorous Tories, who slaughtered and burned without pity, and by the +Indians who were paid by the British government. Prisoners, on the +whole, had been humanely treated by both the contending armies, although +the British prison-ships of New York and their "thousand martyrs" have +left a dark shadow on the annals of the time. Neither in Boston nor New +York nor Philadelphia had the inhabitants uttered loud complaints +against the soldiers who had successively occupied their houses, and who +had lived as comfortably and peaceably as soldiers in English garrison +towns. Some villages had been burned, but few people had been +massacred. More inhumanity was exhibited by both Greeks and Turks in the +Greek Revolution in one month than by the forces engaged during the +whole American war. The prime minister of England, Lord North, was the +most amiable and gentle of men. The brothers Howe would fain have +carried the olive-branch in one hand while they bore arms in the other. +It seemed to be the policy of England to do nothing which would inflame +animosities, and prevent the speedy restoration of peace. Spies of +course were hanged, and traitors were shot, in accordance with the +uniform rules of war. I do not read of a bloodthirsty English general in +the whole course of the war, like those Russian generals who overwhelmed +the Poles; nor did the English generals seem to be really in earnest, or +they would have been bolder in their operations, and would not have been +contented to be shut up for two years in New York when they were +not besieged. + +At length Clinton saw he must do something to satisfy the government at +home, and the government felt that a severer policy should be introduced +into warlike operations. Clinton perceived that he could not penetrate +into New England, even if he could occupy the maritime cities. He could +not ascend the Hudson. He could not retain New Jersey. But the South was +open to his armies, and had not been seriously invaded. + +As Washington personally was not engaged in the military operations at +the South, I can make only a passing allusion to them. It is not my +object to write a history of the war, but merely to sketch it so far as +Washington was directly concerned. The South was left, in the main, to +defend itself against the raids which the British generals made in its +defenceless territories, and these were destructive and cruel. But Gates +was sent to cope with Cornwallis and Tarleton. Washington himself could +not leave his position near New York, as he had to watch Clinton, defend +the Hudson, and make journeys to Philadelphia to urge Congress to more +vigorous measures. Congress, however, was helpless and the State +governments were inactive. + +In the meantime, early in May, 1780, Charleston, S.C., was abandoned to +the enemy,--General Lincoln, who commanded, finding it indefensible. In +September the news came North of the battle of Camden and the defeat of +Gates, who showed an incompetency equal to his self-sufficiency, and +Congress was obliged to remove him. Through Washington's influence, in +December, 1780, Greene was appointed to succeed him; had the chief's +advice been followed earlier he would have been sent originally instead +of Gates. Greene turned the tide, and began those masterly operations +which led to the final expulsion of the English from the South, and, +under the guiding mind and firm hand of Washington, to the surrender of +Cornwallis. + +On January 17, 1781, Morgan won a brilliant victory at Cowpens, S.C., +which seriously embarrassed Cornwallis; and then succeeded a vigorous +campaign between Cornwallis and Greene for several months, over the +Carolinas and the borders of Virginia. The losses of the British were so +great, even when they had the advantage, that Cornwallis turned his face +to the North, with a view of transferring the seat of war to Chesapeake +Bay. Washington then sent all the troops he could spare to Virginia, +under La Fayette. He was further aided by the French fleet, under De +Grasse, whom he persuaded to sail to the Chesapeake. La Fayette here did +good service, following closely the retreating army. Clinton failed to +reinforce Cornwallis, some say from jealousy, so that the latter felt +obliged to fortify himself at Yorktown. Washington, who had been +planning an attack on New York, now continued his apparent preparations, +to deceive Clinton, but crossed the Hudson on the 23d of August, to +co-operate with the French fleet and three thousand French troops in +Virginia, to support La Fayette. He rapidly moved his available force by +swift marches across New Jersey to Elkton, Maryland, at the head of +Chesapeake Bay. The Northern troops were brought down the Chesapeake in +transports, gathered by great exertions, and on September 28 landed at +Williamsburg, on the Yorktown Peninsula. Cornwallis was now hemmed in by +the combined French and American armies. Had he possessed the control of +the sea he might have escaped, but as the fleet commanded the Chesapeake +this was impossible. He had well fortified himself, however, and on the +5th of October the siege of Yorktown began, followed on the 14th by an +assault. On the 19th of October, 1781, Cornwallis was compelled to +surrender, with seven thousand troops. The besieging army numbered about +five thousand French and eleven thousand Americans. The success of +Washington was owing to the rapidity of his movements, and the influence +which, with La Fayette, he brought to bear for the retention at this +critical time and place of the fleet of the Count de Grasse, who was +disposed to sail to the West Indies, as D'Estaing had done the year +before. Washington's keen perception of the military situation, +energetic promptness of action, and his diplomatic tact and address in +this whole affair were remarkable. + +The surrender of Cornwallis virtually closed the war. The swift +concentration of forces from North and South was due to Washington's +foresight and splendid energy, while its success was mainly due to the +French, without whose aid the campaign could not have been concluded. + +The moral and political effect of this "crowning mercy" was prodigious. +In England it broke up the ministry of Lord North, and made the English +nation eager for peace, although it was a year or two before hostilities +ceased, and it was not until September 3, 1783, that the treaty was +signed which Franklin, Adams, and Jay had so adroitly negotiated. The +English king would have continued the contest against all hope, +encouraged by the possession of New York and Charleston, but his +personal government practically ceased with the acknowledgment of +American independence. + +The trials of Washington, however, did not end with the great victory at +Yorktown. There was a serious mutiny in the army which required all his +tact to quell, arising from the neglect of Congress to pay the troops. +There was greater looseness of morals throughout the country than has +been generally dreamed of. I apprehend that farmers and mechanics were +more profane, and drank, _per capita_, more cider and rum for twenty +years succeeding the war than at any other period in our history. It was +then that it was intimated to Washington, in a letter from his friend +Colonel Louis Nicola, that the state of the country and the impotence of +Congress made it desirable that he should seize the government, and, +supported by the army, turn all the confusion into order,--which +probably would have been easy for him to do, and which would have been +justified by most historical writers. But Washington repelled the idea +with indignation, both for himself and the army; and not only on this +occasion but on others when disaffection was rife, he utilized his own +popularity to arouse anew the loyalty of the sorely tried patriots, his +companions in arms. Many are the precedents of usurpation on the part of +successful generals, and few indeed are those who have voluntarily +abdicated power from lofty and patriotic motives. It was this virtual +abdication which made so profound an impression on the European +world,--even more profound than was created by the military skill which +Washington displayed in the long war of seven years. It was a rare +instance of magnanimity and absence of ambition which was not without +its influence on the destinies of America, making it almost impossible +for any future general to retain power after his work was done, and +setting a proud and unique example of the superiority of moral +excellence over genius and power. + +Washington is venerated not so much for his military genius and success +in bringing the war to a triumphant conclusion, as for his patriotism +and disinterestedness, since such moral worth as his is much rarer and +more extraordinary than military fame. Fortunately, his devotion to the +ultimate welfare of the country, universally conceded, was supreme +wisdom on his part, not only for the land he loved but for himself, and +has given him a name which is above every other name in the history of +modern times. He was tested, and he turned from the temptation with +abhorrence. He might, and he might not, have succeeded in retaining +supreme power,--the culmination of human ambition; but he neither sought +nor desired it. It was reward enough for him to have the consciousness +of virtue, and enjoy the gratitude of his countrymen. + +Washington at last persuaded Congress to do justice to the officers and +men who had sacrificed so much for their country's independence; in +spite of the probability of peace, he was tireless in continuing +preparations for effective war. He was of great service to Congress in +arranging for the disbandment of the army after the preliminary treaty +of peace in March, 1783, and guided by wise counsel the earlier +legislation affecting civil matters in the States and on the frontiers. +The general army was disbanded November 3; on November 25 the British +evacuated New York and the American authorities took possession; on +December 4 Washington bade farewell to his assembled officers, and on +the 23d he resigned his commission to Congress,--a patriotic and +memorable scene. And then he turned to the placidities of domestic life +in his home at Mount Vernon. + +But this life and this home, so dear to his heart, it was not long +permitted him to enjoy. On the formation and adoption of the Federal +Constitution, in 1789, he was unanimously chosen to be the first +president of the United States. + +In a preceding lecture I have already presented the brilliant +constellation of statesmen who assembled at Philadelphia to construct +the fabric of American liberties. Washington was one of them, but this +great work was not even largely his. On June 8, 1783, he had addressed a +letter to the governors of all the States, concerning the essential +elements of the well-being of the United States, which showed the early, +careful, and sound thought he had given to the matter of what he termed +"an indissoluable union of the States under one Federal head." But he +was not a great talker, or a great writer, or a pre-eminently great +political genius. He was a general and administrator rather than an +original constructive statesman whose work involved a profound knowledge +of law and history. No one man could have done that work; it was the +result of the collected wisdom and experience of the nation,--of the +deliberations of the foremost intellects from the different +States,--such men as Hamilton, Madison, Wilson, Rutledge, Dickinson, +Ellsworth, and others. Jefferson and Adams were absent on diplomatic +missions. Franklin was old and gouty. Even Washington did little more +than preside over the convention; but he stimulated its members, with +imposing dignity and the constant exercise of his pre-eminent personal +influence, to union and conciliation. + +So I turn to consider the administrations of President Washington, the +policy of which, in the main, was the rule of the succeeding +presidents,--of Adams and "the Virginia dynasty." + +The cabinet which he selected was able and illustrious; especially so +were its brightest stars,--Jefferson as Secretary of State, and Hamilton +as Secretary of the Treasury, to whose opinions the President generally +yielded. It was unfortunate that these two great men liked each other so +little, and were so jealous of each other's ascendency. But their +political ideas diverged in many important points. Hamilton was the +champion of Federalism, and Jefferson of States' Rights; the one, +politically, was an aristocrat, and the other, though born on a +plantation, was a democrat. Washington had to use all his tact to keep +these statesmen from an open rupture. Their mutual hostility saddened +and perplexed him. He had selected them as the best men for their +respective posts, and in this had made no mistake; but their opposing +opinions prevented that cabinet unity so essential in government, and +possibly crippled Washington himself. This great country has produced no +administration comprising four greater men than President Washington, +the general who had led its armies in a desperate war; Vice-President +John Adams, the orator who most eloquently defined national rights; +Jefferson, the diplomatist who managed foreign relations on the basis of +perpetual peace; and Hamilton, the financier who "struck the rock from +which flowed the abundant streams of national credit." General Knox, +Secretary of War, had not the intellectual calibre of Hamilton and +Jefferson, but had proved himself an able soldier and was devoted to his +chief. Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, was a leading lawyer in +Virginia, and belonged to one of its prominent families. + +Outside the cabinet, the judiciary had to be filled, and Washington made +choice of John Jay as chief-justice of the Supreme Court,--a most +admirable appointment,--and associated with him the great lawyers, +Wilson of Pennsylvania, Cushing of Massachusetts, Blair of Virginia, +Iredell of North Carolina, and Rutledge of South Carolina,--all of whom +were distinguished, and all selected for their abilities, without regard +to their political opinions. + +It is singular that, as this country has advanced in culture and +population, the men who have occupied the highest positions have been +inferior in genius and fame,--selected, not because they were great, but +because they were "available," that is, because they had few enemies, +and were supposed to be willing to become the tools of ambitious and +scheming politicians, intriguing for party interests and greedy for the +spoils of office. Fortunately, or providentially, some of these men +have disappointed those who elevated them, and have unexpectedly +developed in office both uncommon executive power and still rarer +integrity,--reminding us of those popes who have reigned more like foxes +and lions than like the asses that before their elevation sometimes they +were thought to be. + +Trifling as it may seem, the first measure of the new government +pertained to the etiquette to be observed at receptions, dinners, etc., +in which there was more pomp and ceremony than at the present time. +Washington himself made a greater public display, with his chariot and +four, than any succeeding president. His receptions were stately. The +President stood with dignity, clad in his velvet coat, never shaking +hands with any one, however high his rank. He walked between the rows of +visitors, pretty much as Napoleon did at the Tuileries, saying a few +words to each; but people of station were more stately and aristocratic +in those times than at the present day, even in New England towns. +Washington himself was an old-school gentleman of the most formal sort, +and, although benevolent in aspect and kindly in manner, was more +tenacious of his dignity than great men usually are. This had been +notable throughout the war. His most intimate friends and daily +associates, his most prominent and trusted generals, patriotic but +hot-headed complainants, turbulent malcontents,--all alike found him +courteous and considerate, yet hedged about with an impassive dignity +that no one ever dared to violate. A superb horseman, a powerful and +active swordsman, an unfailing marksman with rifle or pistol, he never +made a display of these qualities; but there are many anecdotes of such +prowess in sudden emergencies as caused him to be idolized by his +companions in arms, while yet their manifestations of feeling were +repressed by the veneration imposed upon all by his lofty +personal dignity. + +Thus also as President. It was no new access of official pomposity, but +the man's natural bearing, that maintained a lofty reserve at these +public receptions. Possibly, too, he may have felt the necessity of +maintaining the prerogative of the Federal head of all these +independent, but now united, States. Hence, on his visit to Boston, soon +after his inauguration, he was offended with John Hancock, then +governor of Massachusetts, for neglecting to call on him, as etiquette +certainly demanded. The pompous, overrated old merchant, rich and +luxurious, though a genuine patriot, perhaps thought that Washington +would first call on him, as governor of the State; perhaps he was +withheld from his official duty by an attack of the gout; but at last he +saw the necessity, and was borne on men's shoulders into the presence of +the President. + +In considering the vital points in the administration of Washington the +reader will not expect to find any of the spirited and exciting elements +of the Revolutionary period. The organization and ordering of +governmental policies is not romantic, but hard, patient, persevering +work. All questions were yet unsettled,--at least in domestic matters, +such as finance, tariffs, and revenue. One thing is clear enough, that +the national debt and the State debts and the foreign debt altogether +amounted to about seventy-five million dollars, the interest on which +was unpaid by reason of a depleted treasury and want of credit, which +produced great financial embarrassments. Then there were grave Indian +hostilities demanding a large military force to suppress them, and there +was no money to pay the troops. And when Congress finally agreed, in the +face of great opposition, to adopt the plans of Hamilton and raise a +revenue by excise on distilled spirits, manufactured chiefly in +Pennsylvania, there was a rebellion among the stubborn and warlike +Scotch-Irish, who were the principal distillers of whiskey, which +required the whole force of the government to put down. + +In the matter of revenue, involving the most important of all the +problems to be solved, Washington adopted the views of Hamilton, and +contented himself with recommending them to Congress,--a body utterly +inexperienced, and ignorant of the principles of political economy. +Nothing was so unpopular as taxation in any form, and yet without it the +government could not be carried on. The Southern States wanted an +unrestricted commerce, amounting to "free trade," that they might get +all manufactured articles at the smallest possible price; and these came +chiefly from abroad. All import duties were an abomination to them, and +yet without these a national revenue could not be raised. It is true +that Washington had recommended the encouragement of domestic +manufactures, the dependence of country on foreigners for nearly all +supplies having been one of the chief difficulties of the war, but the +great idea of "protection" had not become a mooted point in national +legislation. + +Hamilton had further proposed a bank, but this also met with great +opposition in Congress among the anti-Federalists and the partisans of +Jefferson, fearful and jealous of a moneyed power. In the end the +measures which Hamilton suggested were generally adopted, and the good +results were beginning to be seen, but the financial position of the +country for several years after the formation of the Federal government +was embarrassing, if not alarming. + +Again, there was no national capital, and Congress, which had begun its +labors in New York, could not agree upon the site, which was finally +adopted only by a sort of compromise,--the South accepting the financial +scheme of Hamilton if the capital should be located in Southern +territory. All the great national issues pertaining to domestic +legislation were in embryo, and no settled policy was possible amid so +many sectional jealousies. + +It was no small task for Washington to steer the ship of state among +these breakers. No other man in the nation could have done so well as +he, for he was conciliatory and patient, ever ready to listen to reason +and get light from any quarter, modest in his recommendations, knowing +well that his training had not been in the schools of political economy. +His good sense and sterling character enabled him to surmount the +difficulties of his situation, which was anything but a bed of roses. + +In the infancy of the republic the foreign relations of the government +were deemed more important and excited more interest than internal +affairs, and in the management of foreign affairs Jefferson displayed +great abilities, which Washington appreciated as much as he did the +financial genius of Hamilton. In one thing the President and his +Secretary of State were in full accord,--in keeping aloof from the +labyrinth of European politics, and maintaining friendly intercourse +with all nations. With a peace policy only would commerce thrive and +industries be developed, Both Washington and Jefferson were broad-minded +enough to see the future greatness of the country, and embraced the most +liberal views. Hence the foreign envoys were quietly given to understand +that the members of the American government were to be treated with the +respect due to the representatives of a free and constantly expanding +country, which in time would be as powerful as either England or France. + +It was seen, moreover, that both France and England would take every +possible advantage of the new republic, and would seek to retain a +foothold in the unexplored territories of the Northwest, as well as to +gain all they could in commercial transactions. England especially +sought to hamper our trade with the West India Islands, and treated our +envoys with insolence and coldness. The French sought to entangle the +United States in their own revolution, with which most Americans +sympathized until its atrocities filled them with horror and disgust. +The English impressed American seamen into their naval service without a +shadow of justice or good faith. + +In 1795 Jay succeeded in making a treaty with the English government, +which was ratified because it was the best he could get, not because it +was all that he wished. It bore hard on the cities of the Atlantic coast +that had commercial dealings with the West India Islands, and led to +popular discontent, and bitter animosity towards England, finally +culminating in the war of 1812. The French were equally irritating, and +unreasonable in their expectations. The Directory in 1793 sent an +arrogant and insulting envoy to the seat of government "Citizen Genet," +as he was called, tried to engage the United States in the French war +against England. Although Washington promptly proclaimed neutrality as +the American policy, Genet gave no end of trouble and vexation. This +upstart paid no attention to the laws, no respect to the constituted +authorities, insulted governors and cabinet-ministers alike, insisted on +dealing with Congress directly instead of through the Secretary of +State, issued letters of marque for privateers against English commerce, +and defied the government. He did all that he could to embroil the +country in war with Great Britain; and there was a marked division of +sentiment among the people,--the new Democratic-Republican societies, +in imitation of the French Jacobin clubs, being potent disseminators of +democratic doctrine and sympathy with the French uprising against +despotism. The forbearance of Washington, in suffering the irascible and +boastful Genet to ride rough-shod over his own cabinet, was +extraordinary. In ordinary times the man would have been summarily +expelled from the country. At last his insults could no longer be +endured and his recall was demanded; but he did not return to France, +and, strange to say, settled down as a peaceful citizen in New York. The +lenient treatment of this insulting foreigner arose from the reluctance +of Washington to loosen the ties which bound the country to France, and +from gratitude for the services she had rendered in the war, whatever +may have been the motives that had influenced that government to yield +assistance. + +Washington, who had consented in 1794 to serve a second term as +president, now began to weary of the cares of office. The quarrel +between Hamilton and Jefferson, leading to the formation of the two +great political parties which, under different names, have since divided +the nation; the whiskey rebellion in Pennsylvania, which required the +whole strength of the government to subdue; the Indian atrocities in the +Northwest, resulting in the unfortunate expedition of St. Clair; the +opposition to the financial schemes of the Secretary of the Treasury to +restore the credit of the country; and the still greater popular +disaffection toward Jay's treaty with Great Britain,--these and other +annoyances made him long for the quiet life of Mount Vernon; and he +would have resigned the presidency in disgust but for patriotic motives +and the urgent remonstrances of his cabinet. Faithful to his trust, he +patiently labored on. If his administration was not dashingly brilliant, +any more than his career as a general, he was beset with difficulties +and discouragements which no man could have surmounted more gloriously +than he: and when his eight years of service had expired he had the +satisfaction to see that the country was at peace with all the world; +that his policy of non-interference with European politics was +appreciated; that no more dangers were to be feared from the Indians; +that the country was being opened for settlers westward to the Ohio +River; that the navigation of the Mississippi was free to the Gulf of +Mexico; that canals and internal improvements were binding together the +different States and introducing general prosperity; that financial +difficulties had vanished; and that the independence and assured growth +of the nation was no longer a matter of doubt in any European State. + +Nothing could induce Washington to serve beyond his second term. He +could easily have been again elected, if he wished, but he longed for +rest and the pursuits of agricultural life. So he wrote his Farewell +Address to the American people, exhorting them to union and harmony,--a +document filled with noble sentiments for the meditation of all future +generations. Like all his other writings, it is pregnant with moral +wisdom and elevated patriotism, and in language is clear, forcible, and +to the point. He did not aim to advance new ideas or brilliant theories, +but rather to enforce old and important truths which would reach the +heart as well as satisfy the head. The burden of his song in this, and +in all his letters and messages and proclamations, is union and devotion +to public interests, unswayed by passion or prejudice. + +On the 3d of March, 1797, the President gave his farewell dinner to the +most distinguished men of the time, and as soon as possible after the +inauguration of his successor, John Adams, he set out for his plantation +on the banks of the Potomac, where he spent his remaining days in +dignity and quiet hospitalities, amid universal regrets that his public +career was ended. + +Even in his retirement, when there seemed to be imminent danger of war +with France, soon after his return to his home, he was ready to buckle +on his sword once more; but the troubles were not so serious as had +been feared, and soon blew over. They had arisen from the venality and +rapacity of Talleyrand, French minister of Foreign affairs, who demanded +a bribe from the American commissioners of two-and-a-half millions as +the price of his friendly services in securing favorable settlements. +Their scornful reply, and the prompt preparations in America for war, +brought the Directory to terms. When the crisis was past Washington +resumed the care of his large estates, which had become dilapidated +during the fifteen years of his public life. His retreat was invaded by +great numbers, who wished to see so illustrious a man, but no one was +turned away from his hospitable mansion. + +In December, 1799, Washington caught cold from imprudent exposure, and +died on the 14th day of the month after a short illness,--not what we +should call a very old man. His life might probably have been saved but +that, according to the universal custom, he was bled, which took away +his vital forces. On the 16th of December he was buried quietly and +without parade in the family vault at Mount Vernon, and the whole nation +mourned for him as the Israelites mourned for Samuel of old, whom he +closely resembled in character and services. + +It would be useless to dwell upon the traits of character which made +George Washington a national benefactor and a national idol. But one +inquiry is often made, when he is seriously discussed,--whether or no he +may be regarded as a man of genius. It is difficult to define genius, +which seems to me to be either an abnormal development of particular +faculties of mind, or an inspired insight into elemental truths so +original and profound that its discoveries pass for revelations. Such +genius as this is remarkably rare, I can recall but one statesman in our +history who had extraordinary creative power, and this was Hamilton. In +the history of modern times we scarcely can enumerate more than a dozen +statesmen, a dozen generals, and the same number of poets, philosophers, +theologians, historians, and artists who have had this creative power +and this divine insight. Washington did not belong to that class of +intellects. But he had what is as rare as transcendent genius,--he had a +transcendent character, united with a marvellous balance of intellectual +qualities, each in itself of a high grade, which gave him almost +unerring judgment and remarkable influence over other minds, securing +veneration. As a man he had his faults, but they were so few and so +small that they seem to be but spots upon a sun. These have been +forgotten; and as the ages roll on mankind will see naught but the +lustre of his virtues and the greatness of his services. + +AUTHORITIES. + +The best and latest work on Washington is that of the Hon. Henry Cabot +Lodge, and leaves little more to be said; Marshall's Washington has long +been a standard; Botta's History of the Revolutionary War; Bancroft's +United States; McMaster's History of the American People. In connection +read the standard lives of Franklin, John Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson, +Jay, Marshall, La Fayette, and Greene, with Washington's writings. John +Fiske has written an admirable book on Washington's military career; +indeed his historical series on the early history of America and the +United States are both brilliant and trustworthy. Of the numerous +orations on Washington, perhaps the best is that of Edward Everett. + + + +ALEXANDER HAMILTON. + + +A. D. 1757-1804. + +THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION. + +There is one man in the political history of the United States whom +Daniel Webster regarded as his intellectual superior. And this man was +Alexander Hamilton; not so great a lawyer or orator as Webster, not so +broad and experienced a statesman, but a more original genius, who gave +shape to existing political institutions. And he rendered transcendent +services at a great crisis of American history, and died, with no +decline of popularity, in the prime of his life, like Canning in +England, with a brilliant future before him. He was one of those fixed +stars which will forever blaze in the firmament of American lights, like +Franklin, Washington, and Jefferson; and the more his works are +critically examined, the brighter does his genius appear. No matter how +great this country is destined to be,--no matter what illustrious +statesmen are destined to arise, and work in a larger sphere with the +eyes of the world upon them,--Alexander Hamilton will be remembered and +will be famous for laying one of the corner-stones in the foundation of +the American structure. + +He was not born on American soil, but on the small West India Island of +Nevis. His father was a broken-down Scotch merchant, and his mother was +a bright and gifted French lady, of Huguenot descent. The Scotch and +French blood blended, is a good mixture in a country made up of all the +European nations. But Hamilton, if not an American by birth, was +American in his education and sympathies and surroundings, and +ultimately married into a distinguished American family of Dutch +descent. At the age of twelve he was placed in the counting-house of a +wealthy American merchant, where his marked ability made him friends, +and he was sent to the United States to be educated. As a boy he was +precocious, like Cicero and Bacon; and the boy was father of the man, +since politics formed one of his earliest studies. Such a precocious +politician was he while a student in King's College, now Columbia, in +New York, that at the age of seventeen he entered into all the +controversies of the day, and wrote essays which, replying to pamphlets +attacking Congress over the signature of "A Westchester Farmer," were +attributed to John Jay and Governor Livingston. As a college boy he took +part in public political discussions on those great questions which +employed the genius of Burke, and occupied the attention of the leading +men of America. + +This was at the period when the colonies had not actually rebelled, but +when they meditated resistance,--during the years between 1773 and 1776, +when the whole country was agitated by political tracts, indignation +meetings, patriotic sermons, and preparations for military struggle. +Hitherto the colonies had not been oppressed; they had most of the +rights and privileges they desired; but they feared that their +liberties--so precious to them, and which they had virtually enjoyed +from their earliest settlements--were in danger of being wrested away. +And their fears were succeeded by indignation when the Coercion Act was +passed by the English parliament, and when it was resolved to tax them +without their consent, and without a representation of their interests. +Nor did they desire war, nor even, at first, entire separation from the +Mother Country; but they were ready to accept war rather than to submit +to injustice, or any curtailment of their liberties. They had always +enjoyed self-government in such vital matters as schools, municipal and +local laws, taxes, colonial judges, and unrestricted town-meetings. +These privileges the Americans resolved at all hazard to keep: some, +because they had been accustomed to them all their days; others, from +the abstract idea of freedom which Rousseau had inculcated with so much +eloquence, which fascinated such men as Franklin and Jefferson; and +others again, from the deep conviction that the colonies were strong +enough to cope successfully with any forces that England could then +command, should coercion be attempted,--to which latter class +Washington, Pinckney, and Jay belonged; men of aristocratic sympathies, +but intensely American. It was no democratic struggle to enlarge the +franchise, and realize Rousseau's idea of fraternity and equality,--an +idea of blended socialism, infidelity, and discontent,--which united the +colonies in resistance; but a broad, noble, patriotic desire, first, to +conserve the rights of free English colonists, and finally to make +America independent of all foreign forces, combined with a lofty faith +in their own resources for success, however desperate the struggle +might be. + +All parties now wanted independence, to possess a country of their own, +free of English shackles. They got tired of signing petitions, of being +mere colonists. So they sent delegates to Philadelphia to deliberate on +their difficulties and aspirations; and on July 4, 1776, these delegates +issued the Declaration of Independence, penned by Jefferson, one of the +noblest documents ever written by the hand of man, the Magna Charta of +American liberties, in which are asserted the great rights of +mankind,--that all men have the right to seek happiness in their own +way, and are entitled to the fruit of their labors; and that the people +are the source of power, and belong to themselves, and not to kings, or +nobles, or priests. + +In signing this document the Revolutionary patriots knew that it meant +war; and soon the struggle came,--one of the inevitable and foreordained +events of history,--when Hamilton was still a college student. He was +eighteen when the battle of Lexington was fought; and he lost no time in +joining the volunteers. Dearborn and Stark from New Hampshire, Putnam +and Arnold from Connecticut, and Greene from Rhode Island, all now +resolved on independence, "liberty or death." Hamilton left his college +walls to join a volunteer regiment of artillery, of which he soon became +captain, from his knowledge of military science which he had been +studying in anticipation of the contest. In this capacity he was engaged +in the battle of White Plains, the passage of the Raritan, and the +battles at Princeton and Trenton. + +When the army encamped at Morristown, in the gloomy winter of 1776-1777, +his great abilities having been detected by the commander-in-chief, he +was placed upon Washington's staff, as aide-de-camp with the rank of +lieutenant-colonel,--a great honor for a boy of nineteen. Yet he was not +thus honored and promoted on account of remarkable military abilities, +although, had he continued in active service, he would probably have +distinguished himself as a general, for he had courage, energy, and +decision; but he was selected by Washington on account of his marvellous +intellectual powers. So, half-aide and half-secretary, he became at once +the confidential adviser of the General, and was employed by him not +only in his multitudinous correspondence, but in difficult negotiations, +and in those delicate duties which required discretion and tact. He had +those qualities which secured confidence,--integrity, diligence, +fidelity, and a premature wisdom. He had brains and all those resources +which would make him useful to his country. Many there were who could +fight as well as he, but there were few who had those high qualities on +which the success of a campaign depended. Thus he was sent to the camp +of General Gates at Albany to demand the division of his forces and the +reinforcement of the commander-in-chief, which Gates was very unwilling +to accede to, for the capture of Burgoyne had turned his head. He was +then the most popular officer of the army, and even aspired to the chief +command. So he was inclined to evade the orders of his superior, under +the plea of military necessity. It required great tact in a young man to +persuade an ambitious general to diminish his own authority; but +Hamilton was successful in his mission, and won the admiration of +Washington for his adroit management. He was also very useful in the +most critical period of the war in ferreting out conspiracies, cabala, +and intrigues; for such there were, even against Washington, whose +transcendent wisdom and patriotism were not then appreciated as they +were afterwards. + +The military services of Hamilton were concealed from the common eye, +and lay chiefly in his sage counsels; for, young as he was, he had more +intellect and sagacity than any man in the army. It was Hamilton who +urged decisive measures in that campaign which was nearly blasted by the +egotism and disobedience of Lee. It was Hamilton who was sent to the +French admiral to devise a co-operation of forces, and to the +headquarters of the English to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. +It was Hamilton who dissuaded Washington from seizing the person of Sir +Harry Clinton, the English commander in New York, when he had the +opportunity. "Have you considered the consequences of seizing the +General?" said the aide. "What would these be?" inquired Washington. +"Why," replied Hamilton, "we should lose more than we should gain; since +we perfectly understand his plans, and by taking them off, we should +make way for an abler man, whose dispositions we have yet to learn." +Such was the astuteness which Hamilton early displayed, so that he +really rendered great military services, without commanding on +the field. + +When quite a young man he was incidentally of great use in suggesting +to influential members of Congress certain financial measures which were +the germ of that fiscal policy which afterwards made him immortal as +Secretary of the Treasury; for it was in finance that his genius shone +out with the brightest lustre. It was while he was the aid and secretary +of Washington that he also unfolded, in a letter to Judge Duane, those +principles of government which were afterwards developed in "The +Federalist." He had "already formed comprehensive opinions on the +situation and wants of the infant States, and had wrought out for +himself a political system far in advance of the conceptions of his +contemporaries." It was by his opinions on the necessities and wants of +the country, and the way to meet them, that his extraordinary genius was +not only seen, but was made useful to those in power. His brain was too +active and prolific to be confined to the details of military service; +he entered into a discussion of all those great questions which formed +the early constitutional history of the United States,--all the more +remarkable because he was so young. In fact he never was a boy; he was a +man before he was seventeen. His ability was surpassed only by his +precocity. No man saw the evils of the day so clearly as he, or +suggested such wise remedies as he did when he was in the family of +Washington. + +We are apt to suppose that it was all plain sailing after the colonies +had declared their independence, and their armies were marshalled under +the greatest man--certainly the wisest and best--in the history of +America and of the eighteenth century. But the difficulties were +appalling even to the stoutest heart. In less than two years after the +battle of Bunker Hill popular enthusiasm had almost fled, although the +leaders never lost hope of ultimate success. The characters of the +leading generals were maligned, even that of the general-in-chief; trade +and all industries were paralyzed; the credit of the States was at the +lowest ebb; there were universal discontents; there were unforeseen +difficulties which had never been anticipated; Congress was nearly +powerless, a sort of advisory board rather than a legislature; the +States were jealous of Congress and of each other; there was a general +demoralization; there was really no central power strong enough to +enforce the most excellent measures; the people were poor; demagogues +sowed suspicion and distrust; labor was difficult to procure; the +agricultural population was decimated; there was no commerce; people +lived on salted meats, dried fish, baked beans, and brown bread; all +foreign commodities were fabulously dear; there was universal hardship +and distress; and all these evils were endured amid foreign contempt and +political disintegration,--a sort of moral chaos difficult to conceive. +It was amid these evils that our Revolutionary fathers toiled and +suffered. It was against these that Hamilton brought his great genius +to bear. + +At the age of twenty-three, after having been four years in the family +of Washington as his adviser rather than subordinate, Hamilton, +doubtless ambitious, and perhaps elated by a sense of his own +importance, testily took offence at a hasty rebuke on the part of the +General and resigned his situation. Loath was Washington to part with +such a man from his household. But Hamilton was determined, and tardily +he obtained a battalion, with the brevet rank of general, and +distinguished himself in those engagements which preceded the capture of +Lord Cornwallis; and on the surrender of this general,--feeling that the +war was virtually ended,--he withdrew altogether from the army, and +began the study of law at Albany. He had already married the daughter of +General Schuyler, and thus formed an alliance with a powerful family. +After six months of study he was admitted to the Bar, and soon removed +to New York, which then contained but twenty-five thousand inhabitants. + +His legal career was opened, like that of Cicero and Erskine, by a +difficult case which attracted great attention and brought him into +notice. In this case he rendered a political service as well as earned a +legal fame. An action was brought by a poor woman, impoverished by the +war, against a wealthy British merchant, to recover damages for the use +of a house he enjoyed when the city was occupied by the enemy. The +action was founded on a recent statute of the State of New York, which +authorized proceedings for trespass by persons who had been driven from +their homes by the invasion of the British. The plaintiff therefore had +the laws of New York on her side, as well as popular sympathies; and her +claim was ably supported by the attorney-general. But it involved a +grave constitutional question, and conflicted with the articles of peace +which the Confederation had made with England; for in the treaty with +Great Britain an amnesty had been agreed to for all acts done during the +war by military orders. The interests of the plaintiff were overlooked +in the great question whether the authority of Congress and the law of +nations, or the law of a State legislature, should have the ascendency. +In other words, Congress and the State of New York were in conflict as +to which should be paramount,--the law of Congress, or the law of a +sovereign State,--in a matter which affected a national treaty. If the +treaty were violated, new complications would arise with England, and +the authority of Congress be treated with contempt. Hamilton grappled +with the subject in the most comprehensive manner,--like a statesman +rather than a lawyer,--made a magnificent argument in favor of the +general government, and gained his case; although it would seem that +natural justice was in favor of the poor woman, deprived of the use of +her house by a wealthy alien, during the war. He rendered a service to +centralized authority, to the power of Congress. It was the incipient +contest between Federal and State authority. It was enlightened reason +and patriotism gaining a victory over popular passions, over the +assumptions of a State. It defined the respective rights of a State and +of the Nation collectively. It was one of those cases which settled the +great constitutional question that the authority of the Nation was +greater than that of any State which composed it, in matters where +Congress had a recognized jurisdiction. + +It was about this time that Hamilton was brought in legal conflict with +another young man of great abilities, ambition, and popularity; and this +man was Aaron Burr, a grandson of Jonathan Edwards. Like Hamilton, he +had gained great distinction in the war, and was one of the rising young +men of the country. He was superior to Hamilton in personal popularity +and bewitching conversation; his equal in grace of manner, in forensic +eloquence and legal reputation, but his inferior in comprehensive +intellect and force of character. Hamilton dwelt in the region of great +ideas and principles; Burr loved to resort to legal technicalities, +sophistries, and the dexterous use of dialectical weapons. In arguing a +case he would descend to every form of annoyance and interruption, by +quibbles, notices, and appeals. Both lawyers were rapid, logical, +compact, and eloquent. Both seized the strong points of a case, like +Mason and Webster. Hamilton was earnest and profound, and soared to +elemental principles. Burr was acute, adroit, and appealed to passions. +Both admired each other's talents and crossed each other's +tracks,--rivals at the Bar and in political aspirations. The legal +career of both was eclipsed by their political labors. The lawyer, in +Hamilton's case, was lost in the statesman, and in Burr's in the +politician. And how wide the distinction between a statesman and a +politician! To be a great statesman a man must be conversant with +history, finance, and science; he must know everything, like Gladstone, +and he must have at heart the great interests of a nation; he must be a +man of experience and wisdom and reason; he must be both enlightened and +patriotic, merging his own personal ambition in the good of his +country,--an oracle and sage whose utterances are received with +attention and respect. To be a statesman demands the highest maturity of +reason, far-reaching views, and the power of taking in the interests of +a whole country rather than of a section. But to be a successful +politician a man may be ignorant, narrow, and selfish; most probably he +will be artful, dissembling, going in for the winning side, shaking +hands with everybody, profuse in promises, bland, affable, ready to do +anything for anybody, and seeking the interests and flattering the +prejudices of his own constituency, indifferent to the great questions +on which the welfare of a nation rests, if only his own private +interests be advanced. All politicians are not so small and +contemptible; many are honest, as far as they can see, but can see only +petty details, and not broad effects. Mere politicians,--observe, I +qualify what I say,--_mere_ politicians resemble statesmen, +intellectually, as pedants resemble scholars of large culture, +comprehensive intellects, and varied knowledge; they will consider a +date, or a name, or a comma, of more importance than the great universe, +which no one can ever fully and accurately explore. + +I have given but a short notice of Hamilton as a lawyer, because his +services as a statesman are of so much greater importance, especially to +the student of history. His sphere became greatly enlarged when he +entered into those public questions on which the political destiny of a +nation rests. He was called to give a direction to the policy of the +young government that had arisen out of the storms of revolution,--a +policy which must be carried out when the nation should become powerful +and draw upon itself the eyes of the civilized world. "Just as the twig +is bent, the tree's inclined." It was the privilege and glory of +Hamilton to be one of the most influential of all the men of his day in +bending the twig which has now become so great a tree. We can see his +hand in the distinctive features of our Constitution, and especially in +that financial policy which extricated the nation from the poverty and +embarrassments bequeathed by the war, and which, on the whole, has been +the policy of the Government from his day to ours. Greater statesmen may +arise than he, but no future statesman will ever be able to shape a +national policy as he has done. He is one of the great fathers of the +Republic, and was as efficient in founding a government and a financial +policy, as Saint Augustine was in giving shape to the doctrines of the +Church in his age, and in mediaeval ages. Hamilton was therefore a +benefactor to the State, as Augustine was to the Church. + +But before Hamilton could be of signal service to the country as an +organizer and legislator, it was necessary to have a national government +which the country would accept, and which would be lasting and +efficient. There was a political chaos for years after the war. Congress +had no generally recognized authority; it was merely a board of +delegates, whose decisions were disregarded, representing a league of +States, not an independent authority. There was no chief executive +officer, no court of national judges, no defined legislature. We were a +league of emancipated colonies drifting into anarchy. There was really +no central government; only an autonomy of States like the ancient +Grecian republics, and the lesser States were jealous of the greater. +The great questions pertaining to slavery were unsettled,--how far it +should extend, and how far it could be interfered with. We had ships and +commerce, but no commercial treaties with other nations. We imported +goods and merchandise, but there were no laws of tariff or of revenue. +If one State came into collision with another State, there was no +tribunal to settle the difficulty. No particular industries were +protected. Of all things the most needed was a national government +superior to State governments, taking into its own hands exclusively the +army and navy, tariffs, revenues, the post-office, the regulation of +commerce, and intercourse with foreign States. Oh, what times those +were! What need of statesmanship and patriotism and wisdom! I have +alluded to various evils of the day. I will not repeat them. Why, our +condition at the end of the War of the Rebellion, when we had a national +debt of three thousand millions, and general derangement and +demoralization, was an Elysium compared with that of our fathers at the +close of the Revolutionary War,--no central power, no constitution, no +government, with poverty, agricultural distress, and uncertainty, and +the prostration of all business; no national credit, no national +éclat,--a mass of rude, unconnected, and anarchic forces threatening to +engulf us in worse evils than those from which we had fled. + +The thinking and sober men of the country were at last aroused, and the +conviction became general that the Confederacy was unable to cope with +the difficulties which arose on every side. So, through the influence of +Hamilton, a convention of five States assembled at Annapolis to provide +a remedy for the public evils. But it did not fully represent the varied +opinions and interests of the whole country. All it could do was to +prepare the way for a general convention of States; and twelve States +sent delegates to Philadelphia, who met in the year 1787. The great +public career of Hamilton began as a delegate from the State of New York +to this illustrious assembly. He was not the most distinguished member, +for he was still a young man; nor the most popular, for he had too much +respect for the British constitution, and was too aristocratic in his +sympathies, and perhaps in his manners, to be a favorite. But he was +probably the ablest man of the convention, the most original and +creative in his genius, the most comprehensive and far-seeing in his +views,--a man who inspired confidence and respect for his integrity and +patriotism, combining intellectual with moral force. He would have been +a great man in any age or country, or in any legislative assembly,--a +man who had great influence over superior minds, as he had over that of +Washington, whose confidence he had from first to last. + +I am inclined to think that no such an assembly of statesmen has since +been seen in this country as that which met to give a constitution to +the American Republic. Of course, I cannot enumerate all the +distinguished men. They were all distinguished,--men of experience, +patriotism, and enlightened minds. There were fifty-four of these +illustrious men,--the picked men of the land, of whom the nation was +proud. Franklin, now in his eightieth year, was the Nestor of the +assembly, covered with honors from home and abroad for his science and +his political experience and sagacity,--a man who received more +flattering attentions in France than any American who ever visited it; +one of the great savants of the age, dignified, affable, courteous, whom +everybody admired and honored. Washington, too, was there,--the Ulysses +of the war, brave in battle and wise in council, of transcendent dignity +of character, whose influence was patriarchal, the synonym of moral +greatness, to be revered through all ages and countries; a truly +immortal man whose fame has been steadily increasing. Adams, Jefferson, +and Jay, three very great lights, were absent on missions to Europe; +but Rufus King, Roger Sherman, Oliver Ellsworth, Livingston, Dickinson, +Rutledge, Randolph, Pinckney, Madison, were men of great ability and +reputation, independent in their views, but all disposed to unite in the +common good. Some had been delegates to the Stamp Act Congress of 1765; +some, members of the Continental Congress of 1774; some, signers of the +Declaration of Independence. There were no political partisans then, as +we now understand the word, for the division lines of parties were not +then drawn. All were animated with the desire of conciliation and union. +All felt the necessity of concessions. They differed in their opinions +as to State rights, representation, and slavery. Some were more +democratic, and some more aristocratic than the majority, but all were +united in maintaining the independence of the country and in distrust of +monarchies. + +It is impossible within my narrow limits to describe the deliberations +of these patriots, until their work was consummated in the glorious +Constitution which is our marvel and our pride. The discussions first +turned on the respective powers to be exercised by the executive, +judicial, and legislative branches of the proposed central government, +and the duration of the terms of service. Hamilton's views favored a +more efficient executive than was popular with the States or delegates; +but it cannot be doubted that his powerful arguments, and clear +enunciation of fundamental principles of government had great weight +with men more eager for truth than victory. There were animated +discussions as to the ratio of representation, and the equality of +States, which gave rise to the political parties which first divided the +nation, and which were allied with those serious questions pertaining to +State rights which gave rise, in part, to our late war. But the root of +the dissensions, and the subject of most animated debates, was +slavery,--that awful curse and difficult question, which was not settled +until the sword finally cut that Gordian knot. But so far as compromises +could settle the question, they were made in the spirit of +patriotism,--not on principles of abstract justice, but of expediency +and common-sense. It was evident from the first that there could be no +federal, united government, no nation, only a league of States, unless +compromises were made in reference to slavery, whose evils were as +apparent then as they were afterwards. For the sake of nationality and +union and peace, slavery was tolerated by the Constitution. To some this +may appear to have been a grave error, but to the makers of the +Constitution it seemed to be a less evil to tolerate slavery than have +no Constitution at all, which would unite all the States. Harmony and +national unity seemed to be the paramount consideration. + +So a compromise was made. We are apt to forget how great institutions +are often based on compromise,--not a mean and craven sentiment, as some +think, but a spirit of conciliation and magnanimity, without which there +can be no union or stability. Take the English Church, which has +survived the revolutions of human thought for three centuries, which has +been a great bulwark against infidelity, and has proved itself to be +dear to the heart of the nation, and the source of boundless blessings +and proud recollections,--it was a compromise, half-way indeed between +Rome and Geneva, but nevertheless a great and beneficent organization on +the whole. Take the English constitution itself, one of the grandest +triumphs of human reason and experience,--it was only gradually formed +by a series of bloodless concessions. Take the Roman constitution, under +which the whole civilized world was brought into allegiance,--it was a +series of concessions granted by the aristocratic classes. Most +revolutions and wars end in compromise after the means of fighting are +expended. Most governments are based on expediency rather than abstract +principles. The actions of governments are necessarily expedients,--the +wisest policy in view of all the circumstances. Even such an +uncompromising logician as Saint Paul accepted some customs which we +think were antagonistic to the spirit of his general doctrines. He was a +great temperance man, but recommended a little wine to Timothy for the +stomach's sake. And Moses, too, the great founder of the Jewish polity, +permitted polygamy because of the hardness of men's hearts. So the +fathers of the Constitution preferred a constitution with slavery to no +constitution at all. Had each of those illustrious men persisted in his +own views, we should have had only an autonomy of States instead of the +glorious Union, which in spite of storms stands unshaken to-day. + +I cannot dwell on those protracted debates, which lasted four months, or +on the minor questions which demanded attention,--all centering in the +great question whether the government should be federative or national. +But the ablest debater of the convention was Hamilton, and his speeches +were impressive and convincing. He endeavored to impress upon the minds +of the members that liberty was found neither in the rule of a few +aristocrats, nor in extreme democracy; that democracies had proved more +short-lived than aristocracies, as illustrated in Greece, Rome, and +England. He showed that extreme democracies, especially in cities, would +be governed by demagogues; that universal suffrage was a dangerous +experiment when the people had neither intelligence nor virtue; that no +government could last which was not just and enlightened; that all +governments should be administered by men of experience and integrity; +that any central government should have complete control over commerce, +tariffs, revenues, post-offices, patents, foreign relations, the army +and navy, peace or war; and that in all these functions of national +interest the central government should be independent of State +legislatures, so that the State and National legislatures should not +clash. Many of his views were not adopted, but it is remarkable that the +subsequent changes and modifications of the Constitution have been in +the direction of his policy; that wars and great necessities have +gradually brought about what he advocated with so much calmness and +wisdom. Guizot asserts that "he must ever be classed among the men who +have best understood the vital principles and elemental conditions of +government; and that there is not in the Constitution of the United +States an element of order, or force, or duration which he did not +powerfully contribute to secure." This is the tribute of that great and +learned statesman and historian to the genius and services of Hamilton. +What an exalted praise! To be the maker of a constitution requires the +highest maturity of reason. It was the peculiar glory of Moses,--the +ablest man ever born among the Jews, and the greatest benefactor his +nation ever had. How much prouder the fame of a beneficent and +enlightened legislator than that of a conqueror! The code which Napoleon +gave to France partially rescues his name from the infamy that his +injuries inflicted on mankind. Who are the greatest men of the present +day, and the most beneficent? Such men as Gladstone and Bright, who are +seeking by wise legislation to remove or meliorate the evils of +centuries of injustice. Who have earned the proudest national fame in +the history of America since the Constitution was made? Such men as +Webster, Clay, Seward, Sumner, who devoted their genius to the +elucidation of fundamental principles of government and political +economy. The sphere of a great lawyer may bring more personal gains, but +it is comparatively narrow to that of a legislator who originates +important measures for the relief or prosperity of a whole country. + +The Constitution when completed was not altogether such as Hamilton +would have made, but he accepted it cordially as the best which could be +had. It was not perfect, but probably the best ever devised by human +genius, with its checks and balances, "like one of those rocking-stones +reared by the Druids," as Winthrop beautifully said, "which the finger +of a child may vibrate to its centre, yet which the might of an army +cannot move from its place." + +The next thing to be done was to secure its ratification by the several +States,--a more difficult thing than at first sight would be supposed; +for the State legislatures were mainly composed of mere politicians, +without experience or broad views, and animated by popular passions. So +the States were tardy in accepting it, especially the larger ones, like +Virginia, New York, and Massachusetts. And it may reasonably be doubted +whether it would have been accepted at all, had it not been for the able +papers which Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wrote and published in a leading +New York paper,--essays which go under the name of "The Federalist," +long a text-book in our colleges, and which is the best interpreter of +the Constitution itself. It is everywhere quoted; and if those able +papers may have been surpassed in eloquence by some of the speeches of +our political orators, they have never been equalled in calm reasoning. +They appealed to the intelligence of the age,--an age which loved to +read Butler's "Analogy," and Edwards "On the Will;" an age not yet +engrossed in business and pleasure, when people had time to ponder on +what is profound and lofty; an age not so brilliant as our own in +mechanical inventions and scientific researches, but more contemplative, +and more impressible by grand sentiments. I do not say that the former +times were better than these, as old men have talked for two thousand +years, for those times were hard, and the struggles of life were +great,--without facilities of travel, without luxuries, without even +comforts, as they seem to us; but there was doubtless then a loftier +spiritual life, and fewer distractions in the pursuit of solid +knowledge; people then could live in the country all the year round +without complaint, or that restless craving for novelties which +demoralizes and undermines the moral health. Hamilton wrote sixty-three +of the eighty-five (more than half) of these celebrated papers which had +a great influence on public opinion,--clear, logical, concise, masterly +in statement, and in the elucidation of fundamental principles of +government. Probably no series of political essays has done so much to +mould the opinions of American statesmen as those of "The +Federalist,"--a thesaurus of political wisdom, as much admired in Europe +as in America. It was translated into most of the European languages, +and in France placed side by side with Montesquieu's "Spirit of Laws" in +genius and ability. It was not written for money or fame, but from +patriotism, to enlighten the minds of the people, and prepare them for +the reception of the Constitution. + +In this great work Hamilton rendered a mighty service to his country. +Nothing but the conclusive arguments which he made, assisted by Jay and +Madison, aroused the people fully to a sense of the danger attending an +imperfect union of States. By the efforts of Hamilton outside the +convention, more even than in the convention, the Constitution was +finally adopted,--first by Delaware and last by Rhode Island, in 1790, +and then only by one majority in the legislature. So difficult was the +work of construction. We forget the obstacles and the anxieties and +labors of our early statesmen, in the enjoyment of our present +liberties. + +But the public services of Hamilton do not end here. To him +pre-eminently belongs the glory of restoring or creating our national +credit, and relieving universal financial embarrassments. The +Constitution was the work of many men. Our financial system was the work +of one, who worked alone, as Michael Angelo worked on the ceiling of the +Sistine Chapel. + +When Washington became President, he at once made choice of Hamilton as +his Secretary of the Treasury, at the recommendation of Robert Morris, +_the_ financier of the Revolution, who not only acknowledged his own +obligations to him, but declared that he was the only man in the United +States who could settle the difficulty about the public debt. In +finance, Hamilton, it is generally conceded, had an original and +creative genius. "He smote the rock of the national resources," said +Webster, "and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the +dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang upon its feet. The +fabled birth of Minerva from the brain of Jupiter was hardly more sudden +than the financial system of the United States as it burst from the +conception of Alexander Hamilton." + +When he assumed the office of Secretary of the Treasury there were five +forms of public indebtedness for which he was required to provide,--the +foreign debt; debts of the Government to States; the army debt; the debt +for supplies in the various departments during the war; and the old +Continental issues. There was no question about the foreign debt. The +assumption of the State debts incurred for the war was identical with +the debts of the Union, since they were incurred for the same object. In +fact, all the various obligations had to be discharged, and there was +neither money nor credit. Hamilton proposed a foreign loan, to be raised +in Europe; but the old financiers had sought foreign loans and failed. +How was the new Congress likely to succeed any better? Only by creating +confidence; making it certain that the interest of the loan would be +paid, and paid in specie. In other words, they were to raise a revenue +to pay this interest. This simple thing the old Congress had not thought +of, or had neglected, or found impracticable. And how should the +required revenue be raised? Direct taxation was odious and unreliable. +Hamilton would raise it by duties on imports. But how was an +impoverished country to raise money to pay the duties when there was no +money? How was the dead corpse to be revived? He would develop the +various industries of the nation, all in their infancy, by protecting +them, so that the merchants and the manufacturers could compete with +foreigners; so that foreign goods could be brought to our seaports in +our own ships, and our own raw materials exchanged for articles we could +not produce ourselves, and be subject to duties,--chiefly on articles of +luxury, which some were rich enough to pay for. And he would offer +inducements for foreigners to settle in the country, by the sale of +public lands at a nominal sum,--men who had a little money, and not +absolute paupers; men who could part with their superfluities for either +goods manufactured or imported, and especially for some things they must +have, on which light duties would be imposed, like tea and coffee; and +heavy duties for things which the rich would have, like broadcloths, +wines, brandies, silks, and carpets. Thus a revenue could be raised more +than sufficient to pay the interest on the debt. He made this so clear +by his luminous statements, going into all details, that confidence +gradually was established both as to our ability and also our honesty; +and money flowed in easily and plentifully from Europe, since foreigners +felt certain that the interest on their loans would be paid. + +Thus in all his demonstrations he appealed to common-sense, not +theories. He took into consideration the necessities of his own country, +not the interests of other countries. He would legislate for America, +not universal humanity. The one great national necessity was protection, +and this he made as clear as the light of the sun. "One of our errors," +said he, "is that of judging things by abstract calculations, which +though geometrically true, are practically false." It was clear that the +Government must have a revenue, and that revenue could only be raised by +direct or indirect taxation; and he preferred, under the circumstances +of the country, indirect taxes, which the people did not feel, and were +not compelled to pay unless they liked; for the poor were not compelled +to buy foreign imports, but if they bought them they must pay a tax to +government. And he based his calculations that people could afford to +purchase foreign articles, of necessity and luxury, on the enormous +resources of the country,--then undeveloped, indeed, but which would be +developed by increasing settlements, increasing industries, and +increasing exports; and his predictions were soon fulfilled. In a few +years the debt disappeared altogether, or was felt to be no burden. The +country grew rich as its industries were developed; and its industries +were developed by protection. + +I will not enter upon that unsettled question of political economy. +There are two sides to it. What is adapted to the circumstances of one +country may not be adapted to another; what will do for England may not +do practically for Russia; and what may be adapted to the condition of a +country at one period may not be adapted at another period. When a +country has the monopoly of a certain manufacture, then that country +can dispense with protection. Before manufactures were developed in +England by the aid of steam and improved machinery, the principles of +free-trade would not have been adopted by the nation. The landed +interests of Great Britain required no protection forty years ago, since +there was wheat enough raised in the country to supply demands. So the +landed aristocracy accepted free-trade, because their interests were not +jeopardized, and the interests of the manufacturers were greatly +promoted. Now that the landed interests are in jeopardy from a +diminished rental, they must either be protected, or the lands must be +cut up into small patches and farms, as they are in France. Farmers must +raise fruit and vegetables instead of wheat. + +When Hamilton proposed protection for our infant manufactures, they +never could have grown unless they had been assisted; we should have +been utterly dependent on Europe. That is just what Europe would have +liked. But he did not legislate for Europe, but for America. He +considered its necessities, not abstract theories, nor even the +interests of other nations. How hypocritical the cant in England about +free-trade! There never was free-trade in that country, except in +reference to some things it must have, and some things it could +monopolize. Why did Parliament retain the duty on tobacco and wines and +other things? Because England must have a revenue. Hamilton did the +same. He would raise a revenue, just as Great Britain raises a revenue +to-day, in spite of free-trade, by taxing certain imports. And if the +manufactures of England to-day should be in danger of being swamped by +foreign successful competition, the Government would change its policy, +and protect the manufactures. Better protect them than allow them to +perish, even at the expense of national pride. + +But the manufactures of this country at the close of the Revolutionary +War were too insignificant to expect much immediate advantage from +protection. It was Hamilton's policy chiefly to raise a revenue, and to +raise it by duties on imports, as the simplest and easiest and surest +way, when people were poor and money was scarce. Had he lived in these +days, he might have modified his views, and raised revenue in other +ways. But he labored for his time and circumstances. He took into +consideration the best way to raise a revenue for his day; for this he +must have, somehow or other, to secure confidence and credit. He was +most eminently practical. He hated visionary ideas and abstract +theories; he had no faith in them at all. You can push any theory, any +abstract truth even, into absurdity, as the theologians of the Middle +Ages carried out their doctrines to their logical sequence. You cannot +settle the complicated relations of governments by deductions. At best +you can only approximate to the truth by induction, by a due +consideration of conflicting questions and issues and interests. + +The next important measure of Hamilton was the recommendation of a +National Bank, in order to facilitate the collection of the revenue. +Here he encountered great opposition. Many politicians of the school of +Jefferson were jealous of moneyed institutions, but Hamilton succeeded +in having a hank established though not with so large a capital as +he desired. + +It need not he told that the various debates in Congress on the funding +of the national debt, on tariffs, on the bank, and other financial +measures, led to the formation of two great political parties, which +divided the nation for more than twenty years,--parties of which +Hamilton and Jefferson were the respective leaders. Madison now left the +support of Hamilton, and joined hands with the party of Jefferson, which +took the name of Republican, or Democratic-Republican. The Federal +party, which Hamilton headed, had the support of Washington, Adams, Jay, +Pinckney, and Morris. It was composed of the most memorable names of the +Revolution and, it may be added, of the more wealthy, learned, and +conservative classes: some would stigmatize it as being the most +aristocratic. The colleges, the courts of law, and the fashionable +churches were generally presided over by Federalists. Old gentlemen of +social position and stable religious opinions belonged to this party. +But ambitious young men, chafing under the restraints of consecrated +respectability, popular politicians, or as we might almost say the +demagogues, the progressive and restless people and liberal thinkers +enamored of French philosophy and theories and abstractions, were +inclined to be Republicans. There were exceptions, of course. I only +speak in a general way; nor would I give the impression that there were +not many distinguished, able, and patriotic men enlisted in the party of +Jefferson, especially in the Southern States, in Pennsylvania, and New +York. Jefferson himself was, next to Hamilton, the ablest statesman of +the country,--upright, sincere, patriotic, contemplative; simple in +taste, yet aristocratic in habits; a writer rather than an orator, +ignorant of finance, but versed in history and general knowledge, +devoted to State rights, and bitterly opposed to a strong central power. +He hated titles, trappings of rank and of distinction, ostentatious +dress, shoe-buckles, hair-powder, pig-tails, and everything English, +while he loved France and the philosophy of liberal thinkers; not a +religious man, but an honest and true man. And when he became President, +on the breaking up of the Federal party, partly from the indiscretions +of Adams and the intrigues of Burr, and hostility to the intellectual +supremacy of Hamilton,--who was never truly popular, any more than +Webster and Burke were, since intellectual arrogance and superiority +are offensive to fortunate or ambitious nobodies,--Jefferson's prudence +and modesty kept him from meddling with the funded debt and from +entangling alliances with the nation he admired. Jefferson was not +sweeping in his removals from office, although he unfortunately +inaugurated that fatal policy consummated by Jackson, which has since +been the policy of the Government,--that spoils belong to victors. This +policy has done more to demoralize the politics of the country than all +other causes combined; yet it is now the aim of patriotic and +enlightened men to destroy its power and re-introduce that of Washington +and Hamilton, and of all nations of political experience. The +civil-service reform is now one of the main questions and issues of +American legislation; but so bitterly is it opposed by venal politicians +that I fear it cannot be made fully operative until the country demands +it as imperatively as the English did the passage of their Reform Bill. +However, it has gained so much popular strength that both of the +prominent political parties of the present time profess to favor it, and +promise to make it effective. + +It would be interesting to describe the animosities of the Federal and +Republican parties, which have since never been equalled in bitterness +and rancor and fierceness, but I have not time. I am old enough to +remember them, until they passed away with the administration of +General Jackson, when other questions arose. With the struggle for +ascendency between these political parties, the public services of +Hamilton closed. He resumed the practice of the law in New York, even +before the close of Washington's administration. He became the leader of +the Bar, without making a fortune; for in those times lawyers did not +know how to charge, any more than city doctors. I doubt if his income as +a lawyer ever reached $10,000 a year; but he lived well, as most lawyers +do, even if they die poor. His house was the centre of hospitalities, +and thither resorted the best society of the city, as well as +distinguished people from all parts of the country. + +Nor did his political influence decline after he had parted with power. +He was a rare exception to most public men after their official life is +ended; and nothing so peculiarly marks a great man as the continuance of +influence with the absence of power; for influence and power are +distinct. Influence, in fact, never passes away, but power is ephemeral. +Theologians, poets, philosophers, great writers, have influence and no +power; railroad kings and bank presidents have power but not necessarily +influence. Saint Augustine, in a little African town, had more influence +than the bishop of Rome. Rousseau had no power, but he created the +French Revolution. Socrates revolutionized Greek philosophy, but had +not power enough to save his life from unjust accusations. What an +influence a great editor wields in these times, yet how little power he +has, unless he owns the journal he directs! What an influence was +enjoyed by a wise and able clergyman in New England one hundred years +ago, and which was impossible without force of character and great +wisdom! Hamilton had wisdom and force of character, and therefore had +great influence with his party after he retired from office. Most of our +public men retire to utter obscurity when they have lost office, but +Hamilton was as prominent in private life as in his official duties. He +was the oracle of his party, a great political sage, whose utterances +had the moral force of law. He never lost the leadership of his party, +even when he retired from public life. His political influence lasted +till he died. He had no rewards to give, no office to fill, but he still +ruled like a chieftain. It was he who defeated by his quiet influence +the political aspirations of Burr, when Burr was the most popular man in +the country,--a great wire-puller, a prince of politicians, a great +organizer of political forces, like Van Buren and Thurlow Weed,--whose +eloquent conversation and fascinating manner few men could resist, to +say nothing of women. But for Hamilton, he would in all probability have +been President of the United States, at a time when individual genius +and ability might not unreasonably aspire to that high office. He was +the rival of Jefferson, and lost the election by only one vote, after +the equality of candidates had thrown the election into the House of +Representatives. Hamilton did not like Jefferson, but he preferred +Jefferson to Burr, since he knew that the country would be safe under +his guidance, and would not be safe with so unscrupulous a man as Burr. +He distrusted and disliked Burr; not because he was his rival at the +Bar,--for great rival lawyers may personally be good friends, like +Brougham and Lyndhurst, like Mason and Webster,--but because his +political integrity was not to be trusted; because he was a selfish and +scheming politician, bent on personal advancement rather than the public +good. And this hostility was returned with an unrelenting and savage +fierceness, which culminated in deadly wrath when Burr found that +Hamilton's influence prevented his election as Governor of New +York,--which office, it seems, he preferred to the Vice-presidency, +which had dignity but no power. Burr wanted power rather than influence. +In his bitter disappointment and remorseless rage, nothing would satisfy +him but the blood of Hamilton. He picked a quarrel, and would accept +neither apology nor reconciliation; he wanted revenge. + +Hamilton knew he could not escape Burr's vengeance; that he must fight +the fatal duel, in obedience to that "code of honor" which had +tyrannically bound gentlemen since the feudal ages, though unknown to +Pagan Greece and Rome. There was no law or custom which would have +warranted a challenge from Aeschines to Demosthenes, when the former was +defeated in the forensic and oratorical contest and sent into +banishment. But the necessity for Hamilton to fight his antagonist was +such as he had not the moral power to resist, and that few other men in +his circumstances would have resisted. In the eyes of public men there +was no honorable way of escape. Life or death turned on his skill with +the pistol; and he knew that Burr, here, was his superior. So he made +his will, settled his affairs, and offered up his precious life; not to +his country, not to a great cause, not for great ideas and interests, +but to avoid the stigma of society,--a martyr to a feudal +conventionality. Such a man ought not to have fought; he should have +been above a wicked social law. But why expect perfection? Who has not +infirmities, defects, and weaknesses? How few are beyond their age in +its ideas; how few can resist the pressure of social despotism! Hamilton +erred by our highest standard, but not when judged by the circumstances +that surrounded him. The greatest living American died really by an +assassin's hand, since the murderer was animated with revenge and +hatred. The greatest of our statesmen passed away in a miserable duel; +yet ever to be venerated for his services and respected for his general +character, for his integrity, patriotism, every gentlemanly +quality,--brave, generous, frank, dignified, sincere, and affectionate +in his domestic relations. + +His death, on the 11th of July, 1804, at the early age of +forty-seven,--the age when Bacon was made Lord Chancellor, the age when +most public men are just beginning to achieve fame,--was justly and +universally regarded as a murder; not by the hand of a fanatic or +lunatic, but by the deliberately malicious hand of the Vice-President of +the United States, and a most accomplished man. It was a cold, intended, +and atrocious murder, which the pulpit and the press equally denounced +in most unmeasured terms of reprobation, and with mingled grief and +wrath. It created so profound an impression on the public mind that +duelling as a custom could no longer stand so severe a rebuke, and it +practically passed away,--at least at the North. + +And public indignation pursued the murderer, though occupying the second +highest political office in the country. He paid no insignificant +penalty for his crime. He never anticipated such a retribution. He was +obliged to flee; he became an exile and a wanderer in foreign +lands,--poor, isolated, shunned. He was doomed to eternal ignominy; he +never recovered even political power and influence; he did not receive +even adequate patronage as a lawyer. He never again reigned in society, +though he never lost his fascination as a talker. He was a ruined man, +in spite of services and talents and social advantages; and no +whitewashing can ever change the verdict of good men in this country. +Aaron Burr fell,--like Lucifer, like a star from heaven,--and never can +rise again in the esteem of his countrymen; no time can wipe away his +disgrace. His is a blasted name, like that of Benedict Arnold. And here +let me say, that great men, although they do not commit crimes, cannot +escape the penalty of even defects and vices that some consider venial. +No position however lofty, no services however great, no talents however +brilliant, will enable a man to secure lasting popularity and influence +when respect for his moral character is undermined; ultimately he will +fall. He may have defects, he may have offensive peculiarities, and +retain position and respect, for everybody has faults; but if his moral +character is bad, nothing can keep him long on the elevation to which he +has climbed,--no political friendships, no remembrance of services and +deeds. If such a man as Bacon fell from his high estate for taking +bribes,--although bribery was a common vice among the public characters +of his day,--how could Burr escape ignominy for the murder of the +greatest statesman of his age? + +Yet Hamilton lives, although the victim of his rival. He lives in the +nation's heart, which cannot forget his matchless services. He is still +the admiration of our greatest statesmen; he is revered, as Webster is, +by jurists and enlightened patriots. _No_ statesman superior to him has +lived in this great country. He was a man who lived in the pursuit of +truth, and in the realm of great ideas; who hated sophistries and lies, +and sought to base government on experience and wisdom. + + "Great were the boons which this pure patriot gave, + Doomed by his rival to an early grave; + A nation's tears upon that grave were shed. + Oh, could the nation by his truths be led! + Then of a land, enriched from sea to sea, + Would other realms its earnest following be, + And the lost ages of the world restore + Those golden ages which the bards adore." + +AUTHORITIES. + +Hamilton's Works; Life of Alexander Hamilton, by J. T. Morse, Jr.; Life +and Times of Hamilton, by S. M. Smucker; W. Coleman's Collection of +Facts on the Death of Hamilton; J. G. Baldwin's Party Leaders; Dawson's +Correspondence with Jay; Bancroft's History of the United States; +Parton's Life and Times of Aaron Burr; Eulogies, by H. G. Otis and Dr. +Nott; The Federalist; Lives of Contemporaneous Statesmen; Sparks's Life +of Washington. + + + +JOHN ADAMS. + + +1735-1826. + +CONSTRUCTIVE STATESMANSHIP. + +The Adams family--on the whole the most illustrious in New England, if +we take into view the ability, the patriotism, and the high offices +which it has held from the Revolutionary period--cannot be called of +patrician descent, neither can it viewed as peculiarly plebeian. The +founder was a small farmer in the town of Braintree, of the +Massachusetts Colony, as far back as 1636, whose whole property did not +amount to £100. His immediate descendants were famous and sturdy +Puritans, characterized by their thrift and force of character. + +The father of John Adams, who died in 1761, had an estate amounting to +nearly £1,500, and could afford to give a college education at Harvard +to his eldest son, John, who was graduated in 1755, at the age of +twenty, with the reputation of being a good scholar, but by no means +distinguished in his class of twenty-four members. He cared more for +rural sports than for books. Following the custom of farmers' sons, on +leaving college he kept a school at Worcester before he began his +professional studies. His parents wished him to become a minister, but +he had no taste for theology, and selected the profession of law. + +At that period there were few eminent lawyers in New England, nor was +there much need of them, their main business being the collection of +debts. They were scarcely politicians, since few political questions +were agitated outside of parish disputes. Nor had lawyers opportunities +of making fortunes when there were no merchant-princes, no grinding +monopolies or large corporations, and no great interest outside of +agricultural life; when riches were about equally distributed among +farmers, mechanics, sailors, and small traders. Young men contemplating +a profession generally studied privately with those who were prominent +in their respective callings for two or three years after leaving +college, and were easily admitted to the bar, or obtained a license to +preach, with little expectation of ever becoming rich except by +parsimonious saving. + +With our modern views, life in Colonial times naturally seems to have +been dull and monotonous, with few amusements and almost no travel, no +art, not many luxuries, and the utter absence of what are called +"modern improvements." But if life at that time is more closely +scrutinized we find in it all the elements of ordinary pleasure,--the +same family ties, the same "loves and wassellings," the same convivial +circles, the same aspirations for distinction, as in more favored +civilizations. If luxuries were limited, people lived in comfortable +houses, sat around their big wood-fires, kept up at small cost, and had +all the necessities of life,--warm clothing, even if spun and woven and +dyed at home, linen in abundance, fresh meat at most seasons of the +year, with the unstinted products of the farm at all seasons, and even +tea and coffee, wines and spirits, at moderate cost; so that the New +Englanders of the eighteenth century could look back with complacency +and gratitude on the days when the Pilgrim Fathers first landed and +settled in the dreary wilderness, feeling that the "lines had fallen to +them in pleasant places," and yet be unmindful that even the original +settlers, with all their discomforts and dangers and privations, enjoyed +that inward peace and lofty spiritual life in comparison with which all +material luxuries are transient and worthless. It is only the divine +certitudes, which can exist under any external circumstances, that are +of much account in our estimate of human happiness, and it is these +which ordinarily escape the attention of historians when they paint the +condition of society. Our admiration and our pity are alike wasted when +we turn our eyes to the outward condition of our rural ancestors, so +long as we have reason to believe that their souls were jubilant with +the benedictions of Heaven; and this joy of theirs is especially +noticeable when they are surrounded with perils and hardships. + +Such was the state of society when John Adams appeared on the political +stage. There were but few rich men in New England,--like John Hancock +and John Langdon, both merchants,--and not many who were very poor. The +population consisted generally of well-to-do farmers, shopkeepers, +mechanics, and fishermen, with a sprinkling of lawyers and doctors and +ministers, most of whom were compelled to practise the severest economy, +and all of whom were tolerably educated and familiar with the principles +on which their rights and liberties rested. Usually they were +law-abiding, liberty-loving citizens, with a profound veneration for +religious institutions, and contentment with their lot. There was no +hankering for privileges or luxuries which were never enjoyed, and of +which they never heard. As we read the histories of cities or states, in +antiquity or in modern times, we are struck with their similarity, in +all ages and countries, in everything which pertains to domestic +pleasures, to religious life, to ordinary passions and interests, and +the joys and sorrows of the soul. Homer and Horace, Chaucer and +Shakespeare, dwell on the same things, and appeal to the same +sentiments. + +So John Adams the orator worked on the same material, substantially, +that our orators and statesmen do at the present day, and that all +future orators will work upon to the end of time,--on the passions, the +interests, and the aspirations which are eternally the same, unless kept +down by grinding despotism or besotted ignorance, as in Egypt or +mediaeval Europe, and even then the voice of humanity finds entrance to +the heart and soul. "All men," said Rousseau, "are born equal;" and both +Adams and Jefferson built up their system of government upon this +equality of rights, if not of condition, and defended it by an appeal to +human consciousness,--the same in all ages and countries. In regard to +these elemental rights we are no more enlightened now than our fathers +were a hundred years ago, except as they were involved in the question +of negro slavery. When, therefore, Adams began his career as a political +orator, it was of no consequence whether men were rich or poor, or +whether the country was advanced or backward in material civilization. +He spoke to the heart and the soul of man, as Garrison and Sumner and +Lincoln spoke on other issues, but involving the same established +principles. + +Little could John Adams have divined his own future influence and fame +when, as a boy on his father's farm in Braintree, he toiled in rural and +commonplace drudgeries, or when he was an undistinguished student at +Harvard or a schoolmaster in a country village. It was not until +political agitations aroused the public mind that a new field was open +to him, congenial to his genius. + +Still, even when he boarded with his father, a sturdy Puritan, at the +time he began the practice of the law at the age of twenty-three, he had +his aspirations. Writes he in his diary, "Chores, chat, tobacco, apples, +tea, steal away my time, but I am resolved to translate Justinian;" and +yet on his first legal writ he made a failure for lack of concentrated +effort. "My thoughts," he said, "are roving from girls to friends, from +friends to court, and from court to Greece and Rome,"--showing that +enthusiastic, versatile temperament which then and afterwards +characterized him. + +Not long after that, he had given up Justinian. "You may get more by +studying town-meetings and training-days," he writes. "Popularity is the +way to gain and figure." These extracts give no indication of +legal ambition. + +But in 1761 the political horizon was overcast. There were difficulties +with Great Britain. James Otis had made a great speech, which Adams +heard, on what were called "writs of assistance," giving power to the +English officers of customs in the Colony to enter houses and stores to +search for smuggled goods. This remarkable speech made a deep impression +on the young lawyer, and kindled fires which were never extinguished. He +saw injustice, and a violation of the rights of English subjects, as all +the Colonists acknowledged themselves to be, and he revolted from +injustice and tyranny. This was the turning-point of his life; he became +a patriot and politician. This, however, was without neglecting his law +business, which soon grew upon his hands, for he could make a speech and +address juries. Eloquence was his gift. He was a born orator, like +Patrick Henry. + +In 1765 Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which produced great agitation +in New England, and Adams was fired with the prevailing indignation. His +whole soul went forth in angry protest. He argued its injustice before +Governor Bernard, who, however, was resolved to execute it as the law. +Adams was equally resolved to prevent its execution, and appealed to the +people in burning words of wrath. Chief-Justice Hutchinson sided with +the Governor, and prevented the opening of the courts and all business +transactions without stamps. This decision crippled business, and there +was great distress on account of it; but Adams cared less for the +injury to people's pockets than for the violation of rights,--_taxation +without representation;_ and in his voice and that of other impassioned +orators this phrase became the key-note of the Revolution. + +English taxation of the Colonies was not oppressive, but was felt to be +unjust and unconstitutional,--an entering-wedge to future exactions, to +which the people were resolved not to submit. They had no idea of +separation from England, but, like John Hampden, they would resist an +unlawful tax, no matter what the consequences. Fortunately, these +consequences were not then foreseen. The opposition of the Colonies to +taxation without their own consent was a pure outburst of that spirit of +liberty which was born in German forests, and in England grew into Magna +Charta, and ripened into the English Revolution. It was a turbulent +popular protest. That was all, at first, and John Adams fanned the +discontent, with his cousin, Samuel Adams, a greater agitator even than +he, resembling Wendell Phillips in his acrimony, boldness, and power of +denunciation. The country was aroused from end to end. The "Sons of +Liberty" societies of Massachusetts spread to Maryland; the Virginians +boldly passed declarations of rights; the merchants of New York, +Philadelphia, and Boston resolved to import no English goods; and nine +of the Colonies sent delegates to a protesting Convention in New York. +In 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed because it could not be enforced; but +Parliament refused to concede its right of taxation, and there was a +prospect of more trouble. + +John Adams soon passed to the front rank of the patriotic party in +Massachusetts. He was eloquent and he was honest. His popularity in +Massachusetts Bay was nearly equal to that of Patrick Henry in Virginia, +who was even more vehement. The Tories looked upon Adams pretty much as +the descendants of the old Federalists looked upon William Lloyd +Garrison when he began the anti-slavery agitation,--as a dangerous man, +a fanatical reformer. The presence of such a leader was now needed in +Boston, and in 1768 Adams removed to that excitable town, which was +always ready to adopt progressive views. Soon after, two British +regiments landed in the town, and occupied the public buildings with the +view of overawing and restraining the citizens, especially in the +enforcement of customs duties on certain imported articles. This was a +new and worse outrage, but no collision took place between the troops +and the people till the memorable "Boston Massacre" on the 5th of March, +1770, when several people were killed and wounded, which increased the +popular indignation. It now looked as if the English government +intended to treat the Bostonians as rebels, to coerce them by armed men, +to frighten them into submission to all its unwise measures. What a +fortunate thing was that infatuation on the part of English ministers! +The independence of the Colonies might have been delayed for +half-a-century but for the stupidity and obstinacy of George III and +his advisers. + +By this time John Adams began to see the logical issue of English +persistency in taxation. He saw that it would lead to war, and he +trembled in view of the tremendous consequences of a war with the +mother-country, from which the Colonies had not yet sought a separation. + +Adams was now not only in the front rank of the patriotic party, a +leader of the people, but had reached eminence as a lawyer. He was at +the head of the Massachusetts bar. In addition he had become a member of +the legislature, second to no one in influence. But his arduous labors +told upon his health, and he removed to Braintree, where he lived for +some months, riding into Boston every day. With restored health from +out-door exercise, he returned again to Boston in 1772, purchased a +house in Queen Street, opposite the court-house, and renewed his law +business, now grown so large that he resigned his seat in the +legislature. Politics, however, absorbed his soul, and stirring times +were at hand. + +In every seaport--Charleston, Annapolis, Philadelphia, New York, +Boston--the people were refusing to receive the newly-taxed tea. On the +17th of December, 1773, three shiploads of tea were destroyed in Boston +harbor by a number of men dressed as Indians. Adams approved of this +bold and defiant act, sure to complicate the relations with Great +Britain. In his heart Adams now desired this, as tending to bring about +the independence of the Colonies. He believed that the Americans, after +ten years of agitation, were strong enough to fight; he wanted no +further conciliation. But he did not as yet openly declare his views. In +1774 General Gage was placed at the head of the British military force +in Boston, and the port was closed. The legislature, overawed by the +troops, removed to Salem, and then chose five men as delegates to the +General Congress about to assemble in Philadelphia. John Adams was one +of these delegates, and associated with him were Samuel Adams, Thomas +Cushing, James Bowdoin, and Robert Treat Paine. + +All historians unite in their praises of this memorable assembly, as +composed of the picked men of the country. At the meeting of this +Congress began the career of John Adams as a statesman. Until then he +had been a mere politician, but honest, bold, and talented, in abilities +second to no one in the country, ranking alone with Jefferson in +general influence,--certainly the foremost man in Massachusetts. + +But it was the vehemence of his patriotism and his inspiring eloquence +which brought Adams to the front, rather than his legal reputation. He +was not universally admired or loved. He had no tact. His temper was +irascible, jealous, and impatient; his manners were cold, like those of +all his descendants, and his vanity was inordinate. Every biographer has +admitted his egotism, and jealousy even of Franklin and Washington. +Everybody had confidence in his honesty, his integrity, his private +virtues, his abilities, and patriotism. These exalted traits were no +more doubted than the same in Washington. But if he had more brain-power +than Washington he had not that great leader's prudence, nor good sense, +nor patience, nor self-command, nor unerring instinct in judging men and +power of guiding them. + +One reason, perhaps, why Adams was not so conciliatory as Jefferson was +inclined to be toward England was that he had gone too far to be +pardoned. He was the most outspoken and violent of all the early leaders +of rebellion except his cousin, Samuel Adams. He was detested by royal +governors and the English government. But his ardent temperament and his +profound convictions furnish a better reason for his course. All the +popular leaders were of course alive to the probable personal +consequences if their cause should not succeed; but fear of personal +consequences was the feeblest of their motives in persistent efforts for +independence. They were inspired by a loftier sentiment than that, even +an exalted patriotism. It burned in every speech they made, and in every +conversation in which they took part. If they had not the spirit of +martyrdom, they had the spirit of self-devotion to a noble cause. They +saw clearly enough the sacrifices they would be required to make, and +the calamities which would overwhelm the land. But these were nothing to +the triumph of their cause. Of this final triumph none of the great +leaders of the Revolution doubted. They felt the impossibility of +subduing a nation determined to be free, by such forces as England could +send across the ocean. Battles might be lost, like those of William the +Silent, but if the Dutch could overflow their dikes, the Americans, as a +last resort, could seek shelter in their forests. The Americans were +surely not behind the Dutch in the capacity of suffering, although to my +mind their cause was not so precious as that of the Hollanders, who had +not only to fight against overwhelming forces, but to preserve religious +as well as civil liberties. The Dutch fought for religion and +self-preservation; the Americans, to resist a tax which nearly all +England thought it had a right to impose, and which was by no means +burdensome,--a mooted question in the highest courts of law; at bottom, +however, it was not so much to resist a tax as to gain national +independence that the Americans fought. It was the Anglo-Saxon love of +self-government. + +And who could blame them for resisting foreign claims to the boundless +territories and undeveloped resources of the great country in which they +had settled forever? The real motive of the enlightened statesmen of the +day was to make the Colonies free from English legislation, English +armies, and English governors, that they might develop their +civilization in their own way. The people whom they led may have justly +feared the suppression of their rights and liberties; but far-sighted +statesmen had also other ends in view, not to be talked about in +town-meetings or even legislative halls. As Abraham of old cast his +inspired vision down the vista of ages and saw his seed multiplying like +the sands of the sea, and all the countries and nations of the world +gradually blest by the fulfilment of the promise made to him, so the +founders of our republic looked beyond the transient sufferings and +miseries of a conflict with their mother-country, to the unbounded +resources which were sure to be developed on every river and in every +valley of the vast wilderness yet to be explored, and to the teeming +populations which were to arise and to be blessed by the enjoyment of +those precious privileges and rights for which they were about to take +up the sword. They may not have anticipated so rapid a progress in +agriculture, in wealth, in manufactures, in science, in literature and +art, as has taken place within one hundred years, to the astonishment +and admiration of all mankind; but they saw that American progress would +be steady, incalculable, immeasurable, unchecked and ever advancing, +until their infant country should number more favored people than any +nation which history records, unconquerable by any foreign power, and +never to pass away except through the prevalence of such vices as +destroyed the old Roman world. + +With this encouragement, statesmen like Franklin, Washington, Adams, +Jefferson, Hamilton, were ready to risk everything and make any +sacrifice to bring about the triumph of their cause,--a cause infinitely +greater than that which was advocated by Pitt, or fought for by +Wellington. Their eyes rested on the future of America, and the great +men who were yet to be born. They well could say, in the language of an +orator more eloquent than any of them, as he stood on Plymouth Rock +in 1820:-- + +"Advance, then, ye future generations! We would hail you, as you rise in +your long succession to fill the places which we now fill.... We bid you +welcome to the healthy skies and the verdant fields of New England. We +greet your accession to the great inheritance which we have enjoyed. We +welcome you to the blessings of good government and religious liberty. +We welcome you to the treasures of science, and the delights of +learning. We welcome you to the transcendent sweets of domestic life, to +the happiness of kindred, and parents, and children. We welcome you to +the immeasurable blessings of rational existence, the immortal hope of +Christianity, and the light of everlasting truth!" + +John Adams, whose worth and services Daniel Webster, six years after +uttering those words, pointed out in Fanueil Hall when the old statesman +died, was probably the most influential member of the Continental +Congress, after Washington, since he was its greatest orator and its +most impassioned character. He led the Assembly, as Henry Clay +afterwards led the Senate, and Canning led the House of Commons, by that +inspired logic which few could resist. Jefferson spoke of him as "the +colossus of debate." It is the fashion in these prosaic times to +undervalue congressional and parliamentary eloquence, as a vain +oratorical display; but it is this which has given power to the greatest +leaders of mankind in all free governments,--as illustrated by the +career of such men as Demosthenes, Pericles, Cicero, Chatham, Fox, +Mirabeau, Webster, and Clay; and it is rarely called out except in great +national crises, amid the storms of passion and agitating ideas. +Jefferson affected to sneer at it, as exhibited by Patrick Henry; but +take away eloquence from his own writings and they would be commonplace. +All productions of the human intellect are soon forgotten unless infused +with sentiments which reach the heart, or excite attention by vividness +of description, or the brilliancy which comes from art or imagination or +passion. Who reads a prosaic novel, or a history of dry details, if ever +so accurate? How few can listen with interest to a speech of statistical +information, if ever so useful,--unless illuminated by the oratorical +genius of a Gladstone! True eloquence is a gift, as rare as poetry; an +inspiration allied with genius; an electrical power without which few +people can be roused, either to reflection or action. This electrical +power both the Adamses had, as remarkably as Whitefield or Beecher. No +one can tell exactly what it is, whether it is physical, or spiritual, +or intellectual; but certain it is that a speaker will not be listened +to without it, either in a legislative hall, or in the pulpit, or on the +platform. And hence eloquence, wherever displayed, is really a great +power, and will remain so to the end of time. + +At the first session of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, in +1774, although it was composed of the foremost men in the country, very +little was done, except to recommend to the different provinces the +non-importation of British goods, with a view of forcing England into +conciliatory measures; at which British statesmen laughed. The only +result of this self-denying ordinance was to compel people to wear +homespun and forego tea and coffee and other luxuries, while little was +gained, except to excite the apprehension of English merchants. Yet this +was no small affair in America, for we infer from the letters of John +Adams to his wife that the habits of the wealthy citizens of +Philadelphia were even then luxurious, much more so than in Boston. We +read of a dinner given to Adams and other delegates by a young Quaker +lawyer, at which were served ducks, hams, chickens, beef, pig, tarts, +cream, custards, jellies, trifles, floating islands, beer, porter, +punch, wine, and a long list of other things. All such indulgences, and +many others, the earnest men and women of that day undertook cheerfully +to deny themselves. + +Adams returned these civilities by dining a party on salt fish,--perhaps +as a rebuke to the costly entertainments with which he was surfeited, +and which seemed to him unseasonable in "times that tried men's souls." +But when have Philadelphia Quakers disdained what is called good living? + +Adams, at first delighted with the superior men he met, before long was +impatient with the deliberations of the Congress, and severely +criticised the delegates. "Every man," wrote he, "upon every occasion +must show his oratory, his criticism, and his political abilities. The +consequence of this is that business is drawn and spun out to an +immeasurable length. I believe, if it was moved and seconded that we +should come to a resolution that three and two make five, we should be +entertained with logic and rhetoric, law, history, politics, and +mathematics; and then--we should pass the resolution unanimously in the +affirmative. These great wits, these subtle critics, these refined +geniuses, these learned lawyers, these wise statesmen, are so fond of +showing their parts and powers as to make their consultations very +tedious. Young Ned Rutledge is a perfect bob-o-lincoln,--a swallow, a +sparrow, a peacock; excessively vain, excessively weak, and excessively +variable and unsteady, jejune, inane, and puerile." Sharp words these! +This session of Congress resulted in little else than the interchange of +opinions between Northern and Southern statesmen. It was a mere advisory +body, useful, however, in preparing the way for a union of the Colonies +in the coming contest. It evidently did not "mean business," and +"business" was what Adams wanted, rather than a vain display of +abilities without any practical purpose. + +The second session of the Congress was not much more satisfactory. It +did, however, issue a Declaration of Rights, a protest against a +standing army in the Colonies, a recommendation of commercial +non-intercourse with Great Britain, and, as a conciliatory measure, a +petition to the king, together with elaborate addresses to the people of +Canada, of Great Britain, and of the Colonies. All this talk was of +value as putting on record the reasonableness of the American position: +but practically it accomplished nothing, for, even during the session, +the political and military commotion in Massachusetts increased; the +patriotic stir of defence was evident all over the country; and in +April, 1775, before the second Continental Congress assembled (May 10) +Concord and Lexington had fired the mine, and America rushed to arms. +The other members were not as eager for war as Adams was. John Dickinson +of Pennsylvania--wealthy, educated moderate, conservative--was for +sending another petition to England, which utterly disgusted Adams, who +now had faith only in ball-cartridges, and all friendly intercourse +ended between the countries. But Dickinson's views prevailed by a small +majority, which chafed and hampered Adams, whose earnest preference was +for the most vigorous measures. He would seize all the officers of the +Crown; he would declare the Colonies free and independent at once; he +would frankly tell Great Britain that they were determined to seek +alliances with France and Spain if the war should be continued; he +would organize an army and appoint its generals. The Massachusetts +militia were already besieging the British in Boston; the war had +actually begun. Hence he moved in Congress the appointment of Colonel +George Washington, of Virginia, as commander-in-chief,--much to the +mortification of John Hancock, president of the Congress, whose vanity +led him to believe that he himself was the most fitting man for that +important post. + +In moving for this appointment, Adams ran some risk that it would not be +agreeable to New England people, who knew very little of Washington +aside from his having been a military man, and one generally esteemed; +but Adams was willing to run the risk in order to precipitate the +contest which he knew to be inevitable. He knew further that if Congress +would but, as he phrased it, "adopt the army before Boston" and appoint +Colonel Washington commander of it, the appointment would cement the +union of the Colonies,--his supreme desire. New England and Virginia +were thus leagued in one, and that by the action of all the Colonies in +Congress assembled. + +Although Mr. Adams had been elected chief-justice of Massachusetts, as +its ablest lawyer, he could not be spared from the labors of Congress. +He was placed on the most important committees, among others on one to +prepare a resolution in favor of instructing the Colonies to favor +State governments, and, later on, the one to draft the Declaration of +Independence, with Jefferson, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston. The +special task was assigned to Jefferson, not only because he was able +with his pen, but because Adams was too outspoken, too imprudent, and +too violent to be trusted in framing such a document. Nothing could curb +his tongue. He severely criticised most every member of Congress, if not +openly, at least in his confidential letters; while in his public +efforts with tongue and pen he showed more power than discretion. + +At that time Thomas Paine appeared in America as a political writer, and +his florid pamphlet on "Common Sense" was much applauded by the people. +Adams's opinion of this irreligious republican is not favorable: "That +part of 'Common Sense' which relates to independence is clearly written, +but I am bold enough to say there is not a fact nor a reason stated in +it which has not been frequently urged in Congress," while "his +arguments from the Old Testament to prove the unlawfulness of monarchy +are ridiculous." + +The most noteworthy thing connected with Adams's career of four years in +Congress was his industry. During that time he served on at least one +hundred committees, and was always at the front in debating measures of +consequence. Perhaps his most memorable service was the share he had in +drawing the Articles of Confederation, although he left Philadelphia +before his signature could be attached. This instrument had great effect +in Europe, since the States proclaimed union as well as independence. It +was thenceforward easier for the States to borrow money, although the +Confederation was loose-jointed and essentially temporary; nationality +was not established until the Constitution was adopted. Adams not only +guided the earliest attempts at union at home, but was charged with +great labors in connection with foreign relations, while as head of the +War Board he had enough both of work and of worry to have broken down a +stronger man. Always and everywhere he was doing valuable work. + +On the mismanagement of Silas Deane, as an American envoy in Paris, it +became necessary to send an abler man in his place, and John Adams was +selected, though he was not distinguished for diplomatic tact. Nor could +his mission be called in all respects a success. He was too imprudent in +speech, and was not, like Franklin, conciliatory with the French +minister of Foreign Affairs, who took a cordial dislike to him, and even +snubbed him. But then it was Adams who penetrated the secret motives of +the Count de Vergennes in rendering aid to America, which Franklin would +not believe, or could not see. Nor were the relations of Adams very +pleasant with the veteran Franklin himself, whose merits he conceived to +be exaggerated, and of whom it is generally believed he was envious. He +was as fussy in business details as Franklin was easy and careless. He +thought that Franklin lived too luxuriously and was too fond of the +praises of women. + +In 1780 Adams transferred his residence to Amsterdam in order to secure +the recognition of independence, and to get loans from Dutch merchants; +but he did not meet with much success until the surrender of Lord +Cornwallis virtually closed the war. He then returned to Paris, in 1782, +to assist Franklin and Jay to arrange the treaty of peace with Great +Britain, and the acknowledgment of the independence of the States; and +here his steady persistency, united with the clear discernment of Jay, +obtained important concessions in reference to the fisheries, the +navigation of the Mississippi, and American commerce. + +Adams never liked France, as Franklin and Jefferson did. The French +seemed to him shallow, insincere, egotistical, and swayed by fanciful +theories. Ardent as was his love of liberty, he distrusted the French +Revolution, and had no faith in its leaders. Nor was he a zealous +republican. He saw more in the English Constitution to admire than +Americans generally did; although, while he respected English +institutions, he had small liking for Englishmen, as they had for him. +In truth, he was a born grumbler, and a censorious critic. He did not +like anybody very much, except his wife, and, beyond his domestic +circle, saw more faults than virtues in those with whom he was +associated. Even with his ardent temperament he had not those warm +friendships which marked Franklin and Jefferson. + +John Adams found his residence abroad rather irksome and unpleasant, and +he longed to return to his happy home. But his services as a diplomatist +were needed in England. No more suitable representative of the young +republic, it was thought, could be found, in spite of his impatience, +restlessness, pugnacity, imprudence, and want of self-control; for he +was intelligent, shrewd, high-spirited, and quick-sighted. The +diplomatists could not stand before his blunt directness, and he +generally carried his point by eloquence and audacity. His presence was +commanding, and he impressed everybody by his magnetism and brainpower. +So Congress, in 1785, appointed him minister to Great Britain. The King +forced himself to receive Adams graciously in his closet, but afterwards +he treated him even with rudeness; and of course the social circles of +London did the same. The minister soon found his position more +uncomfortable even than it had been in Paris. His salary, also, was too +small to support his rank like other ambassadors, and he was obliged to +economize. He represented a league rather than a nation,--a league too +poor and feeble to pay its debts, and he had to endure many insults on +that account. Nor could he understand the unfriendly spirit with which +he was received. He had hoped that England would have forgotten her +humiliation, but discovered his error when he learned that the States +were to be indirectly crushed and hampered by commercial restrictions +and open violations of the law of nations. England being still in a +state of irritation toward her former colonies, he was not treated with +becoming courtesy, and of course had no social triumphs such as Franklin +had enjoyed at Paris. Finding that he could not accomplish what he had +desired and hoped for, he became disgusted, possibly embittered, and +sent in his resignation, after a three years' residence in London, and +returned home. Altogether, his career as a diplomatist was not a great +success; his comparative failure, however, was caused rather by the +difficulties he had to surmount than by want of diplomatic skill. If he +was not as successful as had been hoped, he returned with unsullied +reputation. He had made no great mistakes, and had proved himself +honest, incorruptible, laborious, and patriotic. The country appreciated +his services, when, under the new Constitution, the consolidated Union +chose its rulers, and elevated him to the second office in the republic. + +The only great flaw in Adams as Vice-President was his strange jealousy +of Washington,--a jealousy hardly to be credited were it not for the +uniform testimony of historians. But then in public estimation he stood +second only to the "Father of his Country." He stood even higher than +Hamilton, between whom and himself there were unpleasant relations. +Indeed, Adams's dislike of both Hamilton and Jefferson was to some +extent justified by unmistakable evidences of enmity on their part. The +rivalries and jealousies among the great leaders of the revolutionary +period are a blot on our history. But patriots and heroes as those men +were, they were all human; and Adams was peculiarly so. By universal +consent he is conceded to have been a prime factor in the success of the +Revolution. He held back Congress when reconciliation was in the air; he +committed the whole country to the support of New England, and gave to +the war its indispensable condition of success,--the leadership of +Washington; he was called by Jefferson "the Colossus of debate in +carrying the Declaration of Independence" and cutting loose from +England; he was wise and strong and indefatigable in governmental +construction, as well as in maintaining the armies in the field; he +accomplished vast labors affecting both the domestic and foreign +relations of the country, and, despite his unpleasant personal qualities +of conceit and irritability, his praise was in every mouth. He could +well afford to recognize the full worth of every one of his co-laborers. +But he did not. Magnanimity was certainly not his most prominent trait. + +The duties of a vice-president hardly allow scope for great abilities. +The office is only a stepping-stone. There was little opportunity to +engage in the debates which agitated the country. The duties of +judicially presiding over the Senate are not congenial to a man of the +hot temper and ambition of Adams; and when party lines were drawn +between the Federalists and Republicans he earnestly espoused the +principles of the former. He was in no sense a democrat except in his +recognition of popular political rights. He believed in the rule of +character, as indicated by intellect and property. He had no great +sympathy with the people in their aspirations, although springing from +the people himself,--the son of a moderate farmer, no more distinguished +than ordinary farmers. He was the first one of his family to reach +eminence or wealth. The accusation against him of wishing to introduce a +king, lords, and commons was most unjust; but he was at heart an +aristocrat, as much as were Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris. And the more +his character was scrutinized after he had won distinction, the less +popular he was. His brightest days were when he was inspiring his +countrymen by his eloquence to achieve their independence. + +In office Adams did not pre-eminently shine, notwithstanding his +executive ability and business habits. It is true, the equal division of +the Senate on some very important measures, such as the power of the +President to remove from office without the consent of the Senate, the +monetary policy proposed by Hamilton, and some others, gave him the +opportunity by his casting vote to sustain the administration, and thus +decide great principles with advantage to the country. And his eight +years of comparative quiet in that position were happy and restful ones. +But Adams loved praise, flattery, and social position. He was easily +piqued, and quickly showed it. He did not pass for what he was worth, +since he was apt to show his worst side first, without tact and without +policy. But no one ever doubted his devotion to the country any more +than his abilities. Moreover, he was too fond of titles, and the +trappings of office and the insignia of rank, to be a favorite with +plain people,--not from personal vanity, great as that was in him, but +from his notions of the dignities of high office, such as he had seen +abroad. Hence he recommended to Washington the etiquette of a court, and +kept it up himself when he became president. Against this must be +placed his fondness for leaving the capital and running off to make +little visits to his farm at Quincy, Massachusetts, where he was +always happiest. + +I dwell briefly on his career as Vice-President because he had in it so +little to do. Nor was his presidency marked by great events, when, upon +the completion of Washington's second term, and the refusal of that +great man to enter upon a third, Adams was elevated in 1797 to the +highest position. The country had settled down to its normal pursuits. +There were few movements to arrest the attention of historians. + +The most important event of the time was, doubtless, the formation of +the two great political parties which divided the nation, one led by +Hamilton and the other by Jefferson. They were the natural development +of the discussion on adopting the Federal Constitution. The Federalists, +composed chiefly of the professional classes, the men of wealth and of +social position, and the old officers of the army, wanted a strong +central government, protection to infant manufactures, banks and +tariffs,--in short, whatever would contribute to the ascendency of +intellect and property; the Republicans, largely made up of small +farmers, mechanics, and laboring people, desired the extension of the +right of suffrage, the prosperity of agriculturists, and State +ascendency, and were fearful of the encroachments of the general +government upon the reserved rights of the States and the people +at large. + +But the leaders of this "people's party," men like the Clintons of the +State of New York, were sometimes as aristocratic in their social life +as the leaders of the Federalists. During the Revolutionary War the only +parties were those who aimed at national independence, and the +Royalists, or Tories, who did not wish to sever their connection with +the mother-country; but these Tories had no political influence when the +government was established under Washington. During his first term of +office there was ostensibly but one party. It was not until his second +term that there were marked divisions. Then public opinion was divided +between those who followed Hamilton, Jay, and Adams, and those who +looked up to Jefferson, and perhaps Madison, as leaders in the lines to +be pursued by the general government in reference to banks, internal +improvements, commercial tariffs, the extension of the suffrage, the +army and navy, and other subjects. + +The quarrels and animosities between these two parties in that early day +have never been exceeded in bitterness. Ministers preached political +sermons; the newspapers indulged in unrestricted abuse of public men. +The air was full of political slanders, lies, and misrepresentations. +Family ties were sundered, and old friendships were broken. The +Federalists were distrustful of the French Revolution, and, finally, +hostile to it, while the Republican-Democrats were its violent +advocates. In New York nearly every Episcopalian was a Federalist, and +in Massachusetts and Connecticut nearly every Congregational minister. +Freethinkers in religion were generally Democrats, as the party +gradually came to be called. Farmers were pretty evenly divided; but +their "hired hands" were Democrats, and so were most immigrants. + +Whatever the difference of opinion among the contending parties, +however, they were sincere and earnest, and equally patriotic. The +people selected for office those whom they deemed most capable, or those +who would be most useful to the parties representing their political +views. It never occurred to the people of either party to vote with the +view of advancing their own selfish and private interests. If it was +proposed to erect a public building, or dig a canal, or construct an +aqueduct, they would vote for or against it according to their notions +of public utility. They never dreamed of the spoils of jobbery. In other +words, the contractors and "bosses" did not say to the people, "If you +will vote for me as the superintendent of this public improvement, I +will employ you on the works, whether you are industrious and capable, +or idle and worthless." There were then no Tammany Hall politicians or +Philadelphia Republican ringsters. The spoils system was unknown. That +is an invention of later times. Politicians did not seek office with a +view of getting rich. Both Federalists and Democrats sought office to +secure either the ascendency of their party or what they deemed the +welfare of the country. + +As the Democratic leaders made appeals to a larger constituency, +consisting of the laboring classes, than the Federalists did, they +gradually gained the ascendency. Moreover, they were more united. The +Federal leaders quarrelled among themselves. Adams and Hamilton were +accused of breaking up their party. Jefferson adhered to his early +principles, and looked upon the advance of democratic power as the +logical result of the principles of the Declaration of Independence. He +had unlimited faith in the instincts and aspirations of the people, and +in their ability to rule themselves, while Adams thought that the masses +were not able to select their wisest and greatest men for rulers. The +latter would therefore restrict the suffrage to men of property and +education, while Jefferson would give it to every citizen, whether poor +or rich, learned or ignorant. + +With such conflicting views between these great undoubted patriots and +statesmen, there were increasing alienations, ripening into bitter +hostilities. If Adams was the more profound statesman, according to +old-fashioned ideas, basing government on the lessons of experience and +history, Jefferson was the more astute and far-reaching politician, +foreseeing the increasing ascendency of democratic principles. One would +suppose that Adams, born on a New England farm, and surrounded with +Puritan influences, would have had more sympathy with the people than +Jefferson, who was born on a Virginia plantation, and accustomed to +those social inequalities which slavery produces. But it seems that as +he advanced in years, in experience, and in honors, Adams became more +and more imbued with aristocratic ideas,--like Burke, whose early +career was marked for liberal and progressive views, but who became +finally the most conservative of English statesmen, and recoiled from +the logical sequence of the principles he originally advocated with such +transcendent eloquence and ability. And Adams, when he became president, +after rendering services to his country second only to those of +Washington, became saddened and embittered; and even as Burke raved over +the French Revolution, so did Adams grow morose in view of the triumphs +of the Democracy and the hopeless defeat of his party, which was +destined never again to rally except under another name, and then only +for a brief period. There was little of historic interest connected +with the administration of John Adams as President of the United States. +He held his exalted office only for one term, while his rivals were +re-elected during the twenty-four succeeding years of our national +history,--all disciples and friends of Jefferson, who followed out the +policy he had inaugurated. In general, Adams pursued the foreign policy +of Washington, which was that of peace and non-interference. In domestic +administration he made only ten removals from office, and kept up the +ceremonies which were then deemed essential to the dignity of president. + +The interest in his administration centred in the foreign relations of +the government. It need not be added that he sympathized with Burke's +"Reflections on the French Revolution,"--that immortal document which +for rhetoric and passion has never been surpassed, and also for the +brilliancy with which reverence for established institutions is upheld, +and the disgust, hatred, and scorn uttered for the excesses which marked +the godless revolutionists of the age. It is singular that so +fair-minded a biographer as Parton could see nothing but rant and +nonsense in the most philosophical political essay ever penned by man. +It only shows that a partisan cannot be an historian any more than can a +laborious collector of details, like Freeman, accurate as he may be. +Adams, like Burke, abhorred the violence of those political demagogues +who massacred their king and turned their country into a vile shambles +of blood and crime; he equally detested the military despotism which +succeeded under Napoleon Bonaparte; and the Federalists generally agreed +with him,--even the farmers of New England, whose religious instincts +and love of rational liberty were equally shocked. + +Affairs between France and the United States became then matters of +paramount importance. Adams, as minister to Paris, had perceived the +selfish designs of the Count de Vergennes, and saw that his object in +rendering aid to the new republic had been but to cripple England. And +the hollowness of French generosity was further seen when the government +of Napoleon looked with utter contempt on the United States, whose +poverty and feebleness provoked to spoliations as hard to bear as those +restrictions which England imposed on American commerce. It was the +object of Adams, in whose hands, as the highest executive officer, the +work of negotiation was placed, to remove the sources of national +grievances, and at the same time to maintain friendly relations with the +offending parties. And here he showed a degree of vigor and wisdom which +cannot be too highly commended. + +The President was patient, reasonable, and patriotic. He curbed his hot +temper, and moderated his just wrath. He averted a war, and gained all +the diplomatic advantages that were possible. He selected for envoys +both Federalists and Democrats,--the ablest men of the nation. When +Hamilton and Jefferson declined diplomatic missions in order to further +their ambitious ends at home, who of the statesmen remaining were +superior to Marshall, Pinckney, and Gerry? How noble their disdain and +lofty their independence when Talleyrand sought from them a bribe of +millions to secure his influence with the First Consul! "Millions for +defence, not a cent for tribute," are immortal words. And when +negotiations failed, and there seemed to be no alternative but war,--and +that with the incarnate genius of war, Napoleon,--Adams, pacific as was +his policy, set about most promptly to meet the exigency, and +recommended the construction of a navy, and the mustering of an army of +sixteen thousand men, and even induced Washington to take the chief +command once more in defence of American institutions. Although at first +demurring to Washington's request, he finally appointed Hamilton, his +greatest political rival, to be the second general in command,--a man +who was eager for war, and who hoped, through war, to become the leader +of the nation, as well as leader of his party. When, seeing that the +Americans would fight rather than submit to insult and injustice, the +French government made overtures for peace, the army was disbanded. But +Adams never ceased his efforts to induce Congress to take measures for +national defence in the way of construction of forts on the coast, and +the building of ships-of-war to protect commerce and the fisheries. + +In regard to the domestic matters which marked his administration the +most important was the enactment of the alien and sedition laws, now +generally regarded as Federal blunders. The historical importance of the +passage of these laws is that they contributed more than all other +things together to break up the Federal party, and throw political power +into the hands of the Republicans, as the Democrats were still called. +At that time there were over thirty thousand French exiles in the +country, generally discontented with the government. With them, liberty +meant license to do and say whatever they pleased. As they were not +naturalized, they were not citizens; and as they were not citizens, the +Federalists maintained that they could not claim the privileges which +citizens enjoyed to the full extent,--that they were in the country on +sufferance, and if they made mischief, if they fanned discontents, if +they abused the President or the members of Congress, they were liable +to punishment. It must be remembered that the government was not +settled on so firm foundations as at the present day; even Jefferson +wrought himself to believe that John Adams was aiming to make himself +king, and establish aristocratic institutions like those in England. +This assumption was indeed preposterous and ill-founded; nevertheless it +was credited by many Republicans. Moreover, the difficulties with France +seemed fraught with danger; there might be war, and these aliens might +prove public enemies. It was probably deemed by the Federalists, +governing under such dangers, to be a matter of public safety to put +these foreigners under the eyes of the Executive, as a body to be +watched, a body that might prove dangerous in the unsettled state of +the country. + +The Federalists doubtless strained the Constitution, and put +interpretations upon it which would not bear the strictest scrutiny. +They were bitterly accused of acting against the Constitution. It was +averred that everybody who settled in the country was entitled to "life, +liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," according to the doctrine taught +in the Declaration of Independence. And this was not denied by the +Federalists so long as the foreigners behaved themselves; but when they +gave vent to extreme liberal sentiments, like the French revolutionists, +and became a nuisance, it was deemed right, and a wise precaution, to +authorize the President to send them back to their own countries. + +Now it is probable that these aliens were not as dangerous as they +seemed; they were ready to become citizens when the suffrage should be +enlarged; their discontent was magnified; they were mostly excitable but +harmless people, unreasonably feared. Jefferson looked upon them as +future citizens, trusted them with his unbounded faith in democratic +institutions, and thought that the treatment of them in the Alien Laws +was unjust, impolitic, and unkind. + +The Sedition Laws were even more offensive, since under them citizens +could be fined and imprisoned if they wrote what were called "libels" on +men in power; and violent language against men in power was deemed a +libel. But all parties used violent language in that fermenting period. +It was an era of the bitterest party strife. Everybody was +misrepresented who even aimed at office. The newspapers were full of +slanders of the most eminent men, and neither Adams, nor Jefferson, nor +Hamilton, escaped unjust criminations and the malice of envenomed +tongues. All this embittered the Federalists, then in the height of +their power. In both houses of Congress the Federalists were in a +majority. The Executive, the judges, and educated men generally, were +Federalists. Men in power are apt to abuse it. + +It is easy now to see that the Alien and Sedition Laws must have been +exceedingly unpopular; but the government was not then wise enough to +see the logical issue. Jefferson and his party saw it, and made the most +of it. In their appeals to the people they inflamed their prejudices and +excited their fears. They made a most successful handle of what they +called the violation of the Constitution and the rights of man; and the +current turned. From the day that the obnoxious and probably unnecessary +laws were passed, the Federal party was doomed. It lost its hold on the +people. The dissensions and rivalries of the Federal leaders added to +their discomfiture. What they lost they never could regain. Only war +would have put them on their feet again; and Adams, with true +patriotism, while ready for necessary combat, was opposed to a foreign +war for purposes of domestic policy. + +Yet the ambitious statesman did not wish to be dethroned. He loved +office dearly, and hence he did not yield gracefully to the triumph of +the ascendent party, which grew stronger every day. And when their +victory was assured and his term of office was about to expire, he sat +up till twelve o'clock the last night of his term, signing appointments +that ought to have been left to his successors. Among these appointments +was that of John Marshall, his Secretary of State, to be Chief Justice +of the Supreme Court,--one that reflected great credit upon his +discernment, in spite of its impropriety, for Marshall's name is one of +the greatest in the annals of our judiciary. On the following morning, +before the sun had risen, the ex-president was on his way to Braintree, +not waiting even for the inauguration ceremonies that installed +Jefferson in the chair which he had left so unwillingly, and giving vent +to the bitterest feelings, alike unmanly and unreasonable. + +I have not dwelt on the minor events of his presidency, such as his +appointments to foreign missions, since these did not seriously affect +the welfare of the country. I cannot go into unimportant events and +quarrels, as in the case of his dismissal of Pickering and other members +of his Cabinet. Such matters belong to the historians, especially those +who think it necessary to say everything they can,--to give minute +details of all events. These small details, appropriate enough in works +written for specialists, are commonly dry and uninteresting; they are +wearisome to the general reader, and are properly soon forgotten, as +mere lumber which confuses rather than instructs. No historian can go +successfully into minute details unless he has the genius of Macaulay. +On this rock Freeman, with all his accuracy, was wrecked; as an +historian he can claim only a secondary place, since he had no eye to +proportion,--in short, was no artist, like Froude. He was as heavy as +most German professors, to whom one thing is as important as another. +Accuracy on minute points is desirable and necessary, but this is not +the greatest element of success in an historian. + +Some excellent writers of history think that the glory of Adams was +brightest in the period before he became president, when he was a +diplomatist,--that as president he made great mistakes, and had no +marked executive ability. I think otherwise. It seems to me that his +special claims to the gratitude of his country must include the wisdom +of his administration in averting an entangling war, and guiding the +ship of state creditably in perplexing dangers; that in most of his +acts, while filling the highest office in the gift of the people, he was +patient, patriotic, and wise. We forget the exceeding difficulties with +which he had to contend, and the virulence of his enemies. What if he +was personally vain, pompous, irritable, jealous, stubborn, and fond of +power? These traits did not swerve him from the path of duty and honor, +nor dim the lustre of his patriotism, nor make him blind to the great +interests of the country as he understood them,--the country whose +independence and organized national life he did so much to secure. All +cavils are wasted, and worse than wasted, on such a man. His fame will +shine forevermore, in undimmed lustre, to bless mankind. Small is that +critic who sees the defects, but has no eye for the splendors, of a +great career! + +There is but little more to be said of Adams after the completion of his +term of office. He retired to his farm in Quincy, a part of Braintree, +for which he had the same love that Washington had for Mount Vernon, and +Jefferson for Monticello. In the placid rest of agricultural life, and +with a comfortable independence, his later days were spent. The kindly +sentiments of his heart grew warmer with leisure, study, and friendly +intercourse with his town's-people. He even renewed a pleasant +correspondence with Jefferson. He took the most interest, naturally, in +the political career of his son, John Quincy Adams, whom he persuaded to +avoid extremes, so that it is difficult to say with which political +party he sympathized the most. _In mediis tutissimus ibis_. + +In tranquil serenity the ex-president pondered the past, and looked +forward to the future. His correspondence in the dignified retirement of +his later years is most instructive, showing great interest in education +and philanthropy. He was remarkably blessed in his family and in all his +domestic matters,--the founder of an illustrious house, eminent for four +successive generations. His wife, who died in 1818, was one of the most +remarkable women of the age,--his companion, his friend, and his +counsellor,--to whose influence the greatness of his son, John Quincy, +is in no small degree to be traced. + +Adams lived twenty-five years after his final retirement from public +life, in 1801, surrounded by his children and grandchildren, dividing +his time between his farm, his garden, and his library. He lived to see +his son president of the United States. He lived to see the complete +triumph of the institutions he had helped to establish. He enjoyed the +possession of all his faculties to the last, and his love of reading +continued unabated to the age of ninety-one, when he quietly passed +away, July 4, 1826. His last prayer was for his country, and his last +words were,--"Independence forever!" + +AUTHORITIES. + +Life of John Adams, by J.T. Morse, Jr.; Life of Alexander Hamilton, by +Lodge; Parton's Life of Jefferson; Bancroft, United States; Daniel +Webster, Oration on the Death of Adams and Jefferson; Life of John Jay, +by Jay, Flanders, and Whitelocke; Fiske's Critical Period of American +History; Sparks' Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution; +Rives' Life of Madison; Curtis's History of the Constitution; Schouler's +History of the United States; McMaster's History of the People of the +United States; Von Holst's Constitutional History; Pitkin's History of +the United States; Horner's Life of Samuel Adams, Magruder's Marshall. + + + +THOMAS JEFFERSON. + + +1743-1826. + +POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY. + +This illustrious statesman was born April 13, 1743, at "Shadwell," his +father's home, among the mountains of Central Virginia, about one +hundred and fifty miles from Williamsburg. His father, Peter Jefferson, +did not belong to the patrician class, as the great planters called +themselves, but he owned a farm of nineteen hundred acres, cultivated by +thirty slaves, and raised wheat. What aristocratic blood flowed in young +Jefferson's veins came from his mother, who was a Randolph, of fine +presence and noble character. + +At seventeen, the youth entered the College of William and Mary at +Williamsburg, after having been imperfectly fitted at a school kept by a +Mr. Maury, an Episcopal clergyman. He was a fine-looking boy, ruddy and +healthy, with no bad habits, disposed to improve his mind, which was +naturally inquisitive, and having the _entrée_ into the good society of +the college town. Williamsburg was also the seat of government for the +province, where were collected for a few months in the year the +prominent men of Virginia, as members of the House of Burgesses. In this +attractive town Jefferson spent seven years,--two in the college, +studying the classics, history, and mathematics (for which he had an +aptitude), and five in the law-office of George Wythe,--thus obtaining +as good an education as was possible in those times. He amused himself +by playing on a violin, dancing in gay society, riding fiery horses, and +going to the races. Although he was far from rich, he had as much money +as was good for him, and he turned it to good advantage,--laying the +foundation of an admirable library. He cultivated the society of the +brightest people. Among these were, John Page, afterwards governor of +Virginia; Dr. Small, the professor of mathematics at the college, +afterwards the friend of Darwin at Birmingham; Edmund Randolph, an +historic Virginian; Francis Fauquier, the lieutenant-governor of the +province, said to be a fine scholar and elegant gentleman of the French +school, who introduced into Virginia the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, +and Diderot--as well as high play at cards; George Wythe, a rising +lawyer of great abilities; John Burk,--the historian of Virginia; and +lastly, Patrick Henry,--rough, jolly, and lazy. From such associates, +all distinguished sooner or later, Jefferson learned much of society, +of life, and literature. At college, as in after-life, his forte was +writing. Jefferson never, to his dying day, could make a speech. He +could talk well in a small circle of admirers and friends, and he held +the readiest pen in America, but he had no eloquence as a speaker, +which, I think, is a gift like poetry, seldom to be acquired; and yet he +was a great admirer of eloquence, without envy and without any attempts +at imitation. A constant reader, studious, reflective, inquisitive, +liberal-minded, slightly visionary, in love with novelties and theories, +the young man grew up,--a universal favorite, both for his +accomplishments, and his almost feminine gentleness of temper, which +made him averse to anything like personal quarrels. I do not read that +he ever persistently and cordially hated and abused but one man,--the +greatest political genius this country has ever known,--and hated even +him rather from divergence of political views than from personal +resentment. + +As Jefferson had no landed property sufficiently large to warrant his +leading the life of a leisurely country gentleman,--the highest +aspiration of a Virginian aristocrat in the period of entailed +estates,--it was necessary for him to choose a profession, and only that +of a lawyer could be thought of by a free-thinking politician,--for +such he was from first to last. Indeed, politics ever have been the +native air which Southern gentlemen have breathed for more than a +century. Since political power, amid such social distinctions and +inequalities as have existed in the Southern States, necessarily has +been confined to the small class, the Southern people have always been +ruled by a few political leaders,--more influential and perhaps more +accomplished than any corresponding class at the North. Certainly they +have made more pretensions, being more independent in their +circumstances, and many of them educated abroad, as are the leaders in +South American States at the present day. The heir to ten thousand or +twenty thousand acres, with two hundred negroes, in the last century, +naturally cultivated those sentiments which were common to great landed +proprietors in England, especially pride of birth. + +It is remarkable that Jefferson, with his surroundings, should have been +so early and so far advanced in his opinions about the rights of man and +political equality; but then he was by birth only halfway between the +poor whites and the patrician planters; moreover, he was steeped in the +philosophy of Rousseau, having sentimental proclivities, and a leaning +to humanitarian theories, both political and social. + +Jefferson was admitted to the bar in 1767, after five years in Wythe's +office. He commenced his practice at a favorable time for a lawyer, in a +period of great financial embarrassments on the part of the planters, +arising from their extravagant and ostentatious way of living. They +lived on their capital rather than on their earnings, and even their +broad domains were nearly exhausted by the culture of tobacco,--the +chief staple of Virginia, which also had declined in value. It was +almost impossible for an ordinary planter to make two ends meet, no +matter how many acres he cultivated and how many slaves he possessed; +for he had inherited expensive tastes, a liking for big houses and +costly furniture and blooded horses, and he knew not where to retrench. +His pride prevented him from economy, since he was socially compelled to +keep tavern for visitors and poor relations, without compensation. +Hence, nearly all the plantations were heavily encumbered, whether great +or small. The planter disdained manual labor, however poor he might be, +and every year added to his debts. He lived in comparative idleness, +amusing himself with horse-races, hunting, and other "manly sports," +such as became country gentlemen in the "olden time." The real poverty +of Virginia was seen in the extreme difficulty of raising troops for +State or national defence in times of greatest peril. The calls of +patriotism were not unheeded by the "chivalry" of the South; but what +could patriotic gentlemen do when their estates were wasting away by +litigation and unsuccessful farming? + +It was amid such surroundings that Jefferson began his career. Although +he could not make a speech, could hardly address a jury, he had +sixty-eight cases the first year of his practice, one hundred and +fifteen the second, one hundred and ninety-eight the third. He was, +doubtless, a good lawyer, but not a remarkable one, law business not +being to his taste. When he had practised seven years in the general +court his cases had dropped to twenty-nine, but his office business had +increased so as to give him an income of £400 from his profession, and +he received as much more from his estate, which had swelled to nearly +two thousand acres. His industry, his temperance, his methodical ways, +his frugality, and his legal research, had been well rewarded. While not +a great lawyer, he must have been a studious one, for his legal learning +was a large element in his future success. At the age of thirty-one he +was a prominent citizen, a good office lawyer, and a rising man, with +the confidence and respect of every one who knew him,--and withal, +exceedingly popular from his plain manners, his modest pretensions, and +patriotic zeal. He was not then a particularly marked man, but was on +the road to distinction, since a new field was open to him,--that of +politics, for which he had undoubted genius. The distracted state of the +country, on the verge of war with Great Britain, called out his best +energies. While yet but a boy in college he became deeply interested in +the murmurings of Virginia gentlemen against English misgovernment in +the Colonies, and early became known as a vigorous thinker and writer +with republican tendencies. William Wirt wrote of him that "he was a +republican and a philanthropist from the earliest dawn of his +character." He entered upon the stormy scene of politics with remarkable +zeal, and his great abilities for this arena were rapidly developed. + +Jefferson's political career really dates from 1769, when he entered the +House of Burgesses as member for Albermarle County in the second year of +his practice as a lawyer, after a personal canvass of nearly every voter +in the county, and supplying to the voters, as was the custom, an +unlimited quantity of punch and lunch for three days. The Assembly was +composed of about one hundred members, "gentlemen" of course, among whom +was Colonel George Washington. The Speaker was Peyton Randolph, a most +courteous aristocrat, with great ability for the duties of a presiding +officer. Among other prominent members were Mr. Pendleton, Colonel +Bland, and Mr. Nicholas, leading lawyers of the province. Mr. +Jefferson, though still a young man, was put upon important committees, +for he had a good business head, and was ready with his pen. + +In 1772 Mr. Jefferson married a rich widow, who brought him forty +thousand acres and one hundred and thirty-five slaves, so that he now +took his place among the wealthy planters, although, like Washington, he +was only a yeoman by birth. With increase of fortune he built +"Monticello," on the site of "Shadwell," which had been burned. It was +on the summit of a hill five hundred feet high, about three miles from +Charlottesville; but it was only by twenty-five years' ceaseless nursing +and improvement that this mansion became the finest residence in +Virginia, with its lawns, its flower-beds, its walks, and its groves, +adorned with perhaps the finest private library in America. No wonder he +loved this enchanting abode, where he led the life of a philosopher. + +But stirring events soon called him from this retreat. A British war +vessel, in Narragansett Bay, in pursuit of a packet which had left +Newport for Providence without permission, ran aground about seventeen +miles from the latter town, and was burned by disguised Yankee citizens, +indignant at the outrages which had been perpetrated by this armed +schooner on American commerce. A reward of £500 was offered for the +discovery of the perpetrators; and the English government, pronouncing +this to be an act of high treason, passed an ordinance that the persons +implicated in the act should be transported to England for trial. This +decree struck at the root of American liberties, and aroused an +indignation which reached the Virginian legislature, then assembled at +Williamsburg. A committee was appointed to investigate the affair, +composed of Peyton Randolph, R.C. Nicholas, Richard Henry Lee, Benjamin +Harrison, Edmund Pendleton, Patrick Henry, and Thomas Jefferson,--all +now historic names,--mostly lawyers, but representatives of the +prominent families of Virginia and leaders of the Assembly. Indignant +Resolutions were offered, and copies were sent to the various Colonial +legislatures. This is the first notice of Jefferson in his +political career. + +In 1773, with Patrick Henry and some others, Jefferson originated the +Committee of Correspondence, which was the beginning of the intimate +relations in common political interest among the Colonies. In 1774 the +House of Burgesses was twice dissolved by the royal governor, and +Jefferson was a member of the convention to choose delegates to the +first Continental Congress; while in the same year he published a +"Summary View of the Rights of British America,"--a strong plea for the +right to resist English taxation. + +In 1775 we find Jefferson a member of the Colonial Convention at which +Patrick Henry, also a member, made the renowned war speech: "Give me +liberty, or give me death." Those burning words of the Virginia orator +penetrated the heart of every farmer in Massachusetts, as they did the +souls of the Southern planters. In a few months the royal government +ceased to exist in Virginia, the governor, Dunmore, having retreated to +a man-of-war, and Jefferson had become a member of the Continental +Congress at its second session in Philadelphia, with the reputation of +being one of the best political writers of the day, and an ardent +patriot with very radical opinions. + +Even then hopes had not entirely vanished of a reconciliation with Great +Britain, but before the close of the year the introduction of German +mercenaries to put down the growing insurrection satisfied everybody +that there was nothing left to the Colonies but to fight, or tamely +submit to royal tyranny. Preparations for military resistance were now +made everywhere, especially in Massachusetts, and in Virginia, where +Jefferson, who had been obliged by domestic afflictions to leave +Congress in December, was most active in raising money for defence, and +in inspiring the legislature to set up a State government. When +Jefferson again took his seat in Congress, May 13, 1776, he was put upon +the committee to draft a Declaration of Independence, composed, as +already noted, of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and +Robert R. Livingston, besides himself. To him, however, was intrusted by +the committee the labor and the honor of penning the draft, which was +adopted with trifling revision. He was always very proud of this famous +document, and it was certainly effective. Among the ordinary people of +America he is, perhaps, better known for this rather rhetorical piece of +composition than for all his other writings put together. It was one of +those happy hits of genius which make a man immortal,--owing, however, +no small measure of its fame to the historic importance of the occasion +that called it forth. It was publicly read on every Fourth-of-July +celebration for a hundred years. It embodied the sentiments of a great +people not disposed to criticism, but ready to interpret in a generous +spirit; it had, at the time, a most stimulating effect at home, and in +Europe was a revelation of the truth about the feeling in America. + +From the 4th of July, 1776, Thomas Jefferson became one of the most +prominent figures identified with American Independence, by reason of +his patriotism, his abilities, and advanced views of political +principles, though as inferior to Hamilton in original and comprehensive +genius as he was superior to him in the arts and foresight of a +political leader. He better understood the people than did his great +political rival, and more warmly sympathized with their conditions and +aspirations. He became a typical American politician, not by force of +public speaking, but by dexterity in the formation and management of a +party. Both Patrick Henry and John Adams were immeasurably more eloquent +than he, but neither touched the springs of the American heart like this +quiet, modest, peace-loving, far-sighted politician, since he, more than +any other man of the Revolutionary period, was jealous of aristocratic +power. Hamilton, Jay, Gouverneur Morris, were aristocrats who admired +the English Constitution, and would have established a more vigorous +central government. Jefferson was jealous of central power in the hands +of aristocrats. So indeed was Patrick Henry, whose outbursts of +eloquence thrilled all audiences alike,--the greatest natural orator +this country has produced, if Henry Clay may be excepted; but he was +impractical, and would not even endorse the Constitution which was +afterwards adopted, as not guarding sufficiently what were called +natural rights and the independence of the States. This ultimately led +to an alienation between these great men, and to the disparagement of +Henry by Jefferson as a lawyer and statesman, when he was the most +admired and popular man in Virginia, and "had only to say 'Let this be +law,' and it was law,--when he ruled by his magical eloquence the +majority of the Assembly, and when his edicts were registered by that +body with less opposition than that of the Grand Monarque himself from +his subservient parliaments." Had he shown any fitness for military +life, Patrick Henry would doubtless have been intrusted with an +important command; but, like Jefferson, his talents were confined to +civic affairs alone. Moreover, it is said that he was lazy and fond of +leisure, and that it was only when he was roused by powerful passions or +a great occasion that his extraordinary powers bore all before him in an +irresistible torrent, as did the eloquence of Mirabeau in the National +Convention. + +Contemplative men of studious habits and a philosophical cast of mind +are apt to underrate the genius which sways a popular assembly. Hence, +Jefferson thought Henry superficial. But in spite of the defects of his +early education, Henry's attainments were considerable, and the +profoundest lawyers, like Wirt, Nicholas, and Jay, acknowledged his +great forensic ability. Washington always held him in great esteem and +affection; and certainly had Henry been a shallow lawyer, Washington, +whose judgment of men was notably good, would not have offered him the +post of Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court,--although, as Jefferson +sneeringly said, "he knew it would be refused." + +Jefferson declined a re-election to the third Continental Congress, and +in September, 1776, retired to his farm; but only for a short time, +since in October we find him in the Virginia House of Delegates, and +chairman of the most important committees, especially that on the +revision of the laws of the State. His work in the State legislature was +more important than in Congress, since it was mainly through his +influence that entails were swept away, and even the law of +primogeniture. Instead of an aristocracy of birth and wealth, he would +build up one of virtue and talent. He also assaulted State support of +the Episcopal Church--which was in Virginia "the Established Church"--as +an engine of spiritual tyranny, and took great interest in all matters +of education, formulating a system of common schools, which, however, +was never put into practice. He was also opposed to slavery, having the +conviction that the day would come when the negroes would be +emancipated. He had before this tried to induce the Virginia law-makers +to legalize manumission, and in 1778 succeeded in having them forbid +importation of slaves. Dr. James Schouler's (1893) "Life of Jefferson" +says that the mitigation and final abolishment of slavery were among his +dearest ambitions, and adduces in illustration the failure of his plan +in 1784 for organizing the Western territories because it provided for +free States south as well as north of the Ohio River, and also his +successful efforts as President to get Congress to abolish slave +importation in 1806-7. His warnings as to what must happen if +emancipation were not in some way provided for are familiar, as +fulfilled prophecy. + +After two years at State law-making Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as +governor of Virginia, in the summer of 1779. But although his +administration was popular, it was not marked as pre-eminently able. He +had no military abilities for such a crisis in American affairs, nor +even remarkable executive talent. He was a man of thought rather than of +action. His happiest hours were spent in his library. He did not succeed +in arousing the militia when the English were already marching to the +seat of government, and when the Cherokee Indians were threatening +hostilities on the southwestern border. Nor did he escape the censure of +members of the legislature, which greatly annoyed and embittered him, so +that he seriously thought of retiring from public life. + +In 1782, on the death of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, we find him +again for a short time in Congress, which appointed him in 1784, as +additional agent to France with Franklin and Adams to negotiate +commercial treaties. On the return of Franklin he was accredited sole +minister to France, to succeed that great diplomatist. He remained in +France five years, much enamoured with French society, as was Franklin, +in spite of his republican sentiments. He hailed, with all the transport +his calm nature would allow, the French Revolution, and was ever after a +warm friend to France until the Genet affair, when his eyes were +partially opened to French intrigues and French arrogance. But the +principles which the early apostles of revolution advocated were always +near his heart. These he never repudiated. It was only the excesses of +the Revolution which filled him with distrust. + +In regard to the Revolution on the whole, he took issue with Adams, +Hamilton, Jay, and Morris, and with the sober judgment of the New +England patriots. England he detested from first to last, and could see +no good in her institutions, whether social, political, or religious. He +hated the Established Church even more than royalty, as the nurse of +both superstition and spiritual tyranny. Even the Dissenters were not +liberal enough for him. He would have abolished if he could, all +religious denominations and organizations. Above all things he despised +the etiquette and pomp of the English Court, as relics of mediaeval +feudalism. To him there was nothing sacred in the person or majesty of a +king, who might be an idiot or a tyrant. He somewhere remarks that in +all Europe not one king in twenty has ordinary intelligence. + +With such views, he was a favorite with the savants of the French +Revolution, as much because they were semi-infidels as because they were +opposed to feudal institutions. The great points of diplomacy had +already been settled by Franklin, and he had not much to do in France, +although his talents as a diplomatist were exceptional, owing to his +coolness, his sagacity, his learning, and his genial nature. There was +nothing austere about him, as there was in Adams. His manners, though +simple, were courteous and gentlemanly. He was diligent in business, and +was accessible to everybody. No American was more likely to successfully +follow Franklin than he, from his desire to avoid broils, and the +pacific turn of his mind. In this respect he was much better fitted to +deal with the Count de Vergennes than was John Adams, whose suspicious +and impetuous temper was always getting him into trouble, not merely +with the French government, but with his associates. + +And yet Adams doubtless penetrated the ulterior designs of France with +more sagacity than either Franklin or Jefferson. They now appear, from +the concurrent views of historians, to have been to cripple England +rather than to help America. It cannot be denied that the French +government rendered timely and essential aid to the United States in +their struggle with Great Britain, for which Americans should be +grateful, whatever motives may have actuated it. Possibly Franklin, a +perfect man of the world as well as an adroit diplomatist, saw that the +French Government was not entirely disinterested; but he wisely held his +tongue, and gave no offence, feeling that half a loaf was better than no +loaf at all; but Adams could not hold his tongue for any length of time, +and gave vent to his feelings; so that in his mission he was continually +snubbed, and contrived to get himself hated both by Vergennes and +Franklin. "He split his beetle when he should have splitted the log." He +was honest and upright to an extraordinary degree; but a diplomatist +should have tact, discretion, and prudence. Nor is it necessary that he +should lie. Jefferson, like Franklin, had tact and discretion. It really +mattered nothing in the final result, even if Vergennes had in view only +the interests of France; it is enough that he did assist the Americans +to some extent. Adams was a grumbler, and looked at the motives of the +act rather than the act itself, and was disposed to forget the +obligation altogether, because it was conferred from other views than +pure generosity. Moreover, it is gratefully remembered that many persons +in France, like La Fayette, were generous and magnanimous toward +Americans, through genuine sympathy with a people struggling +for liberty. + +In reference to the service that Jefferson rendered to his country as +minister to France we notice his persistent efforts to suppress the +piracy of the Barbary States on the Mediterranean. Although he loved +peace he preferred to wage an aggressive war on these pirates rather +than to submit to their insults and robberies, as most of the European +States did by giving them tribute. But the new American Confederation +was too weak financially to support his views, and the piracy and +tribute continued until Captain Decatur bombarded Tripoli and chastised +Algiers, during Jefferson's presidency, 1803-4. As minister, Jefferson +also attempted to remove the shackles on American trade; which, however, +did not meet the approval of the Morrises and other protectionists and +monopolists in the tobacco trade. + +But it was by his unofficial labors at this time that Jefferson +benefited his country more than by his official acts as a negotiator. +These labors were great, and took up most of his time; they included +sending information to his countrymen of all that was going on of +importance in the realms of science, art, and literature, giving advice +and assistance to the unfortunate, sending seeds and machines and new +inventions to America, and acquainting himself with all improvements in +agriculture, especially in the culture of rice. He travelled extensively +in most of the countries of Europe, always with his eyes open to learn +something useful; one result of which was to deepen his disgust with the +institutions of the Old World, and increase his admiration for those of +his own country. He doubtless attached too much importance to the +political systems of Europe in producing the degradation he saw among +the various peoples, even as he too impulsively considered republicanism +the source of all good in governments. He was on pleasant terms with the +different diplomatic corps, and lived in the easy and profuse style of +Virginia planters,--giving few grand dinners, but dispensing a generous +hospitality to French visitors as well as to all Americans who called on +him. The letters he wrote were innumerable. No public man ever left to +posterity more of the results of his observations and thought. +Interesting himself in everything and everybody, and freely +communicating his ideas in correspondence, he had a wide influence while +living, and his ideas have been suggestive and fruitful to thoughtful +students of the public interest ever since. + +After five years' residence in France, he returned home, a much more +intelligent and cultivated man than when he arrived in Paris, which +never lost its charm for him, in spite of its political convulsions, its +irreligion, and its social inequality. He came back to Monticello as on +a visit only, expecting to return to his post. But another destiny +awaited him. Washington required his services in the first Cabinet as +Secretary of State for foreign affairs,--a part for which his diplomatic +career had admirably qualified him, as well as his general abilities. + +The seat of government was then at New York, and Jefferson occupied a +house in Maiden Lane, while Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, +lived in Pine street. Jefferson's salary was $3,500 a year, five hundred +more than Hamilton received; but it is not to be supposed that either +lived on his official income. The population of the city was then but +thirty-five thousand, and only a few families--at the head of which were +the Schuylers, the Livingstons, the Van Rensselaers, and the +Morrises--constituted what is called "Society," which was much more +ceremonious than at the present day, and more exclusive. All the great +officers of the new government were aristocratic and stately, even +inaccessible, except Jefferson; and many of the fashions, titles, and +ceremonies of European courts were kept up. The factotum of the +President signed himself as "Steward of the Household," while Washington +himself rode to church in a coach and six, attended by outriders. Great +functionaries were called "Most Honorable," and their wives were +addressed as "Lady" So-and-So. The most confidential ministers dared +not assume any familiarity with the President. He was not addressed as +"Mr. President," but as "Your Excellency," and even that title was too +democratic for the taste of John Adams, who thought it lowered the +president to the level of a governor of Bermuda, or one of his own +secretaries. + +Only four men constituted the Cabinet of Washington; but the public +business was inconsiderable compared with these times, and Jefferson in +the State Department had only four clerks under him. Still, he was a +very busy man, as many questions of importance had to be settled. "We +are in a wilderness without a footstep to guide us," wrote Madison to +Jefferson in reference to Congress. And it applied to the executive +government as well as to Congress. Neither the Executive nor the +Legislature had precedents to guide them, and everything was in a +tangle; there was scarcely any money in the country, and still less in +the treasury. Even the President, one of the richest men in the country, +if not the richest, had to raise money at two per cent a month to enable +his "steward of the household" to pay his grocer's bills,--and all the +members of his Cabinet had to sacrifice their private interests in +accepting their new positions. + +The head of a department was not so great a personage, in reality, as at +the present day, and yet very few men were capable of performing the +duties of their position. Probably Alexander Hamilton was the only man +in the country then fit to be Secretary of the Treasury, and Jefferson +the only man available to be Secretary of State, since Adams was in the +vice-presidential chair; and these two men Washington was obliged to +retain, in spite of their mutual hostilities and total disagreement on +almost every subject presented to their consideration. In nothing were +the patience, the patriotism, and the magnanimity of Washington more +apparent than in his treatment of these two rival statesmen, perpetually +striving to conciliate them, hopelessly attempting to mix oil with +water,--the one an aristocratic financier, who saw national prosperity +in banks and money and central power; the other a democratic land-owner, +who looked upon agriculture as the highest interest, and universal +suffrage as the only safe policy for a republic. Between the theories of +these rivals, Washington had to steer the ship of state, originating +nothing himself, yet singularly clear in his judgment both of men and +measures. He was governed equally by the advice of both, since they +worked in different spheres, and were not rivals in the sense that Burr +and Jefferson were,--that is, leaders in the same party and competitors +for the same office. + +In regard to the labors and services of Jefferson in the Department of +State, he was cautious, conciliatory, and peace-loving, "neither a +fanatic nor an enthusiast," enlightened by twenty-five years of +discussion on the principles of law and government, and a practical +business man. It required all his tact to prevent entangling foreign +alliances, and getting into hot water with both France and England; for +neither power had any respect for the new commonwealth, and each seemed +inclined to take all the advantage it could of American weakness and +inexperience. They were constantly guilty of such offences as the +impressment of our seamen, paper blockades, haughty dictation, and +insolent treatment of our envoys, having an eye all the while to the +future dismemberment of the States, and the rich slices of territory +both were likely to acquire in the South and West. At that time there +was no navy, no army to speak of, and no surplus revenue. There were +irritating questions to be settled with England about boundaries, and +the occupation of military posts which she had agreed to evacuate. There +were British intrigues with Indians in the interior to make disturbance, +while on the borders the fur-trade and fisheries were unsettled. There +were debts to be paid from American to English merchants, which were +disputed, and treaties to be made, involving all the unsettled +principles of political economy, as insoluble apparently to-day as they +were one hundred years ago. There were unjust restrictions on American +commerce of the most irritating nature, for American vessels were still +excluded from West India ports, and only such products were admitted as +could not be dispensed with. Such articles as whale oil, salt fish, salt +provisions, and grain itself, could not be exported to any town in +England. In France a new spirit seemed to animate the government against +America, a disposition to seize everything that was possible, and to +dictate in matters with which they had no concern,--even in relation to +our own internal affairs, as in the instructions furnished to Genet, +whose unscrupulous audacity and meddling intrigues at last exhausted the +patience of both Washington and Jefferson. + +But the most important thing that happened, of historical interest, when +Jefferson was Secretary of State, was the origination of the Republican, +or Democratic party, as it was afterwards called, in opposition to the +Federal party, led by Hamilton, Jay, and Gouverneur Morris, Of this new +party Jefferson was the undisputed founder and life. He fancied he saw +in the measures of the Federal leaders a systematic attempt to +assimilate American institutions, as far as possible, to those of Great +Britain. He looked upon Hamilton as a royalist at heart, and upon his +bank, with other financial arrangements, only as an engine to control +votes and centralize power at the expense of the States. He entered +into the arena of controversial politics, wrote for the newspapers, +appealed to democratic passions, and set in motion a net-work of party +machinery to influence the votes of the people, foreseeing the future +triumph of his principles. He pulled political wires with as much +adroitness and effect as Van Buren in after-times, so that the statesman +was lost in the politician. + +But Jefferson was not a vulgar, a selfish, or a scheming politician. +Though ambitious for the presidency, in his heart he preferred the quiet +of Monticello to any elevation to which the people could raise him. What +he desired supremely was the triumph of democratic principles, since he +saw in this triumph the welfare of the country,--the interests of the +many against the ascendency of the few,--the real reign of the people, +instead of the reign of an aristocracy of money or birth. Believing that +the people knew, or ought to know, their own interests, he was willing +to intrust them with unlimited political power. The Federalist leaders +saw in the ascendency of the people the triumphs of demagogy, the +ignoring of experience in government, the reign of passions, +unenlightened measures leading to financial and political ruin, and +would therefore restrict the privilege, or, as some would say, the +right, of suffrage. + +In such a war of principles the most bitter animosities were to be +expected, and there has never been a time when such fierce party +contests disgraced the country as at the close of Washington's +administration, if we except the animosities attending the election of +General Jackson. It was really a war between aristocrats and plebeians, +as in ancient Rome; and, as at Rome, every succeeding battle ended in +the increase of power among the democracy. At the close of the +administration of President Adams the Federal party was destroyed +forever. It is useless to speculate as to which party was in the right. +Probably both parties were right in some things, and wrong in others. +The worth of a strong government in critical times has been proved by +the wholesome action of such an autocrat as Jackson in the Nullification +troubles with South Carolina, and the successful maintenance of the +Union by the power-assuming Congress during the Rebellion; while +Jackson's autocracy in general, and the centralizing tendency of +Congressional legislation since 1865, are instances of the complications +likely to arise from too strong a government in a country where the +people are the final source of power. The value of universal +suffrage--the logical result of Jefferson's views of government--is +still an open question, especially in cities. But whether good or bad in +its ultimate results, the victory was decisive on the part of the +democracy, whose main principle of "popular sovereignty" has become the +established law of the land, and will probably continue to rule as long +as American institutions last. + +The questions since opened have been in regard to slavery,--in ways +which Jefferson never dreamed of,--the comparative power of the North +and South, matters of finance, tariffs, and internal improvements, +involving the deepest problems of political economy, education, and +constitutional law; and as time moves on, new questions will arise to +puzzle the profoundest intellects; but the question of the ascendency of +the people is settled beyond all human calculations. And it is in this +matter especially that Jefferson left his mark on the institutions of +his country,--as the champion of democracy, rather than as the champion +of the abstract rights of man which he and Patrick Henry and Samuel +Adams had asserted, in opposition to the tyranny of Great Britain in her +treatment of the Colonies. And here he went beyond Puritan New England, +which sought the ascendency of the wisest and the best, when the +aristocracy of intellect and virtue should bear sway instead of the +unenlightened masses. Historians talk about the aristocracy of the +Southern planters, but this was an offshoot of the aristocracy of +feudalism,--the dominion of favored classes over the enslaved, the poor, +and the miserable. New England aristocracy was the rule of the wisest +and the best, extending to the remotest hamlets, in which the people +discussed the elemental principles of Magna Charta and the liberties of +Saxon yeomen. This was the aristocracy which had for its defenders such +men as the Adamses, the Shermans, and the Langdons,--something new in +the history of governments and empires, which was really subverted by +the doctrines of Rousseau and the leaders of the French Revolution, whom +Jefferson admired and followed. + +Jefferson, however, practically believed in the aristocracy of mind, and +gave his preference to men of learning and refinement, rather than men +of wealth and rank. He was a democrat only in the recognition of the +people as the source of future political power, and hence in the belief +of the ultimate triumph of the Democratic party, which it was his work +to organize and lead. Foreseeing how dangerous the triumph of a vulgar +and ignorant mob would be, he tried to provide for educating the people, +on the same principle that we would to-day educate the colored race. The +great hobby of his life was education. He thus spent the best part of +his latter years in founding and directing the University of Virginia, +including a plan for popular education as well. To all schemes of +education he lent a willing ear; but it was the last thing which +aristocratic Southern planters desired,--the elevation of the poor +whites, or political equality. Though a planter, Jefferson was more in +sympathy with New England ideas, as to the intellectual improvement of +the people and its relation to universal suffrage, than with the +Southern gentlemen with whom he associated. Hamilton did not so much +care for the education of the people as he did for the ascendency of +those who were already educated, especially if wealthy. Property, in his +eyes, had great consideration, as with all the influential magnates of +the North. Jefferson thought more of men than of their surroundings, and +thus became popular with ordinary people in a lower stratum of social +life. Hamilton was popular only with the rich, the learned, and the +powerful, and stood no chance in the race with Jefferson for popular +favor, wherever universal suffrage was established, any more than did +John Adams, whose ideas concerning social distinctions, and the +ascendency of learning and virtue in matters of government, were +decidedly aristocratic. + +It is hard to say whether Jefferson or Hamilton was the wiser in his +political theories, nor is it certain which was the more astute and +far-reaching in his calculations as to the future ascendency of +political parties. Down to the Civil War the Democrats had things +largely their own way; since then, the Republican party--lineal +descendant of the Federals, through the Whigs--have borne sway until +within very recent years, when there has developed a strong reaction +against the centralizing tendency compacted by the rallying of the +people about the government to resist disunion in 1860-65. + +Jefferson became Vice-President on the final retirement of Washington to +private life in 1797, when Adams was made President. The vice-presidency +was a position of dignity rather than of power, and not so much desired +by ambitious men as the office of governor in a great State. What took +place of importance in the political field during the presidency of +Adams has already been treated. As Vice-President, Jefferson had but +little to do officially, but he was as busy as ever with his pen, and in +pulling political wires,--especially in doing all he could to obstruct +legislation along the lines laid down by the Federal leaders. Of course, +like other leaders, he was aiming at the presidency, and I think he was +the only man in our history who ever reached this high office by +persistent personal efforts to secure it. Burr failed, in spite of his +great abilities, as well as Hamilton, Calhoun, Clay, Benton, Webster, +Douglas, Seward, and Blaine. All the later presidents have been men who +when nominated as candidates for the presidency were comparatively +unknown and unimportant in the eyes of the nation,--selected not for +abilities, but as the most "available" candidates; although some of them +proved to be men of greater talent and fitness than was generally +supposed. The people accepted them, but did not select them, any more +than Saul and David were chosen by the people of Israel. Political +leaders selected them for party purposes, and rather because they were +unknown than because they were known; while greater men, who had the +national eye upon them for services and abilities, had created too many +enemies, secret or open, for successful competition. An English member +of Parliament, of transcendent talent, if superior to all other members +for eloquence, wisdom, and tact, is pretty certain of climbing to the +premiership, like Canning, Peel, Disraeli, and Gladstone. Probably no +American, for a long time to come, can reasonably hope to reach the +presidency because he has ambitiously and persistently labored for it, +whatever may be his merits or services. In a country of wide extent like +the United States, where the representatives of the people and the +States in Congress are the real rulers, perhaps this is well. + +But even Jefferson did not inordinately seek or desire the presidency. +The office quite as earnestly sought him, as the most popular man in the +country, who had proved himself to be a man of great abilities in the +various positions he had previously filled, and as honest as he was +patriotic. He had few personal enemies. His enemies were the leaders of +the Federal party, if we except Aaron Burr, in whose honesty few +believed. The lies which the bitter and hostile Federalists told about +Jefferson were lost on the great majority of the people, who believed +in him. + +Jefferson was inaugurated as president in 1801, and selected an able +Cabinet, with his friend and disciple James Madison as Secretary of +State, and Albert Gallatin, an experienced financier, a Swiss by birth, +as Secretary of the Treasury. He at once made important changes in all +matters of etiquette and forms, introducing greater simplicity, +abolishing levees, titles, and state ceremonials, and making himself +more accessible to the people. His hospitality was greater than that of +any preceding or succeeding president. He lived in the White House more +like a Virginian planter than a great public functionary, wearing plain +clothes, and receiving foreign ministers without the usual formalities, +much to their chagrin. He also prevailed on Congress to reduce the army +and navy, retaining a force only large enough to maintain law and order. +He set the example of removing important officers hostile to his +administration, although he did not make sweeping changes, as did +General Jackson afterward, on the avowed ground that "spoils belong to +victors,"--thus increasing the bitterness of partisanship. + +The most important act of Jefferson's administration was the purchase +of Louisiana from France for fifteen millions of dollars. Bonaparte had +intended, after that great territory had been ceded to him by Spain, to +make a military colony at New Orleans, and thus control the Mississippi +and its branches; but as he wanted money, and as his ambition centred in +European conquests, he was easily won over by the American diplomatists +to forego the possession of that territory, the importance of which he +probably did not appreciate, and it became a part of the United States. +James Monroe and Robert Livingston closed the bargain with the First +Consul, and were promptly sustained by the administration, although they +had really exceeded their instructions. Bonaparte is reported to have +said of this transaction: "This accession of territory strengthens +forever the power of the United States. I have given to England a +maritime rival that will sooner or later humble her pride." + +By this purchase, which Jefferson had much at heart, the United States +secured, not only millions of square miles of territory, but the control +of the Gulf of Mexico. This fortunate acquisition prevented those +entangling disputes and hostilities which would have taken place whether +Spain or France owned Louisiana. Doubtless, Jefferson laid himself open +to censure from the Federalists for assuming unconstitutional powers in +this purchase; but the greatness of the service more than balanced the +irregularity, and the ridicule and abuse from his political enemies fell +harmless. No one can question that his prompt action, whether +technically legal or illegal, was both wise and necessary; it +practically gave to the United States the undisputed possession of the +vast territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. +Moreover, the President's enlightened encouragement of the explorations +of Lewis and Clarke's expedition across the Rocky Mountains to the +Pacific Ocean, led to the ultimate occupancy of California and the west +coast itself. + +The next event of national interest connected with the administration of +Jefferson in his long term of eight years (for he was re-elected +president, and began his second term in 1805), was the enterprise of +Aaron Burr, with a view of establishing a monarchy in Mexico. It was +fortunately defeated, and the disappointed and ambitious politician +narrowly escaped being convicted of high treason. He was saved only by +the unaccountable intrigues of the Federalists at a time of intense +party warfare. Jefferson would have punished this unscrupulous intriguer +if he could; but Burr was defended by counsel of extraordinary +ability,--chiefly Federalist lawyers, at the head of whom was Luther +Martin of Maryland, probably the best lawyer in the country, +notwithstanding his dissipated habits. Martin was one of those few +drinking men whose brains are not clouded by liquor. He could argue a +case after having drunk brandy enough to intoxicate any ordinary man, +and be the brighter for it. Burr also brought to bear the resources of +his own extraordinary intellect, by way of quiet suggestions to +his counsel. + +This remarkable man was born at Newark, N.J., in 1756, and was the son +of the Rev. Aaron Burr, president of Princeton College. He was a +grandson of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, the most original and +powerful metaphysical intellect known to the religious history of this +country, who confirmed Calvinism as the creed of New England Puritans. +The young Burr, on the death of his father and grandfather, inherited +what was then considered as a fortune, and was graduated at Princeton in +1772, with no enviable reputation, being noted for his idleness and +habits bordering on dissipation. He was a handsome and sprightly young +man of sixteen, a favorite with women of all ages. He made choice of the +profession of law, and commenced the study under Tappan Reeve of +Elizabethtown. After the battle of Bunker Hill he entered the army at +Boston, but, tired of inactivity, joined Arnold's expedition to Quebec, +where he distinguished himself by his bravery. Ill-health compelled him +to leave the army after four years service,--the youngest colonel in the +army. He was no admirer of Washington, regarding him as "a farmer and +Indian-fighter rather than a soldier." He favored the cabal against him, +headed by Gates and Conway. Washington, while ready to acknowledge +Burr's military abilities, always distrusted him, and withheld from him +the rank of brigadier. + +On leaving the army, at the age of twenty-three, Burr resumed his +studies of the law, and was admitted to the Albany bar after brief +preparation. Conscious of his talents, he soon after settled in New +York, and enjoyed a lucrative practice, the rival of Alexander Hamilton, +being employed with him on all important cases. He had married, in 1782, +the widow of an English officer, a Mrs. Provost, a lady older than +he,--with uncommon accomplishments. In 1784 he was chosen a member of +the New York Legislature, and was on intimate terms with the Clintons, +the Livingstons, the Van Rennselaers, and the Schuylers. In 1789 he was +made Attorney-General of the State during the administration of Governor +George Clinton. His popularity was as great as were his talents, and in +1791 he was elected to the United States Senate over General Philip +Schuyler, and became the leader of the Republican party, with increasing +popularity and influence. In 1796 he was a presidential candidate, and +in 1800, being again a candidate for the presidency, he received +seventy-three votes in the House of Representatives,--the same number +that were cast for Jefferson. He would, doubtless, have been elected +president but for the efforts of Hamilton, who threw his influence in +favor of Jefferson, Democrat as he was, as the safer man of the two. +Burr never forgave his rival at the bar for this, and henceforward the +deepest enmity rankled in his soul for the great Federalist leader. + +As Vice-President, Burr was marked for his political intrigues, and +incurred the distrust if not the hostility of Jefferson, who neglected +Burr's friends and bestowed political favors on his enemies. Disgusted +with the inactivity to which his office doomed him, Burr pulled every +wire to be elected governor of New York; but the opposition of the great +Democratic families caused his defeat, which was soon followed by his +assassination of Hamilton, called a duel. Universal execration for this +hideous crime drove him for a time from New York, although he was still +Vice-President. But his political career was ended, although his +ambition was undiminished. + +Then, seeing that his influence in the Eastern and Middle States was +hopelessly lost, Burr looked for a theatre of new cabals, and turned his +eyes to the West, opened to public view by the purchase of Louisiana. +In the preparation of his plans he went first to New Orleans, then a +French settlement, where he was lionized, returning by way of Nashville, +Frankfort, Lexington, and St. Louis. At the latter post he found General +Wilkinson, to whom he communicated his scheme of founding an empire in +the West,--a most desperate undertaking. On an island of the Ohio, near +Marietta, he visited its owner, called Blennerhasset, a restless and +worthless Irishman, whom he induced to follow his fortunes. + +The adventurers contracted for fifteen boats and enlisted quite a number +of people to descend the Mississippi and make New Orleans their +rallying-point, supposing that the Western population were dissatisfied +with the government and were ready to secede and establish a new +republic, or empire, to include Mexico; also relying on the aid of +General Wilkinson at St. Louis. But they miscalculated: Wilkinson was +true to his colors; the people whom they had seduced gradually dropped +off; the territorial magistrates became suspicious and alarmed, and the +governor of the Territory communicated his fears to the President, who +at once issued a proclamation to arrest the supposed conspirators, who +had fled when their enterprise had failed. + +Burr was seized near Natchez, and was tried for conspiracy; but the +trial came to nothing. He contrived to escape in the night, but was +again arrested in Alabama, and sent to Richmond to be tried for treason. +As has been said, he was acquitted, by a jury of which John Randolph was +foreman, with the sympathy of all the women, of whom he was a favorite +to the day of his death. The trial lasted six months, and Jefferson did +all he could to convict him, with the assistance of William Wirt, just +rising into notice. + +Although acquitted, Burr was a ruined man. His day of receptions and +popularity was over. His sad but splendid career came to an inglorious +close. Feeling unsafe in his own country, he wandered abroad, at times +treated with great distinction wherever he went, but always arousing +suspicions. He was obliged to leave England, and wandered as a fugitive +from country to country, without money or real friends. At Paris and +London he suffered extreme poverty, although admired in society. At last +he returned to New York, utterly destitute, and resumed the practice of +the law, but was without social position and generally avoided. He +succeeded in 1832 in winning the hand of a wealthy widow, but he spent +her money so freely that she left him. After the separation he supported +himself with great difficulty, but retained his elegant manner and +fascinating conversation, until he died in the house of a lady friend in +1836, and was buried at Princeton by the side of his father and +grandfather. + +Our history narrates no fall from an exalted position more melancholy, +or more richly deserved, than his. Without being dissipated, he was a +bad and unprincipled man from the start. He might have been the pride of +his country, like Hamilton and Jefferson, being the equal of both in +abilities, and at one time in popularity. The school-books have given to +him and to Benedict Arnold an infamous immortality, comparing the one +with Cain, and the other with Judas Iscariot. + +The most important measure connected with Jefferson's long +administration was the Non-importation Act, commonly called the Embargo. +It proved in the end a mistake, and shed no glory on the fame of the +President; and yet it perhaps prevented a war, or at least delayed it. + +The peace of 1783 and the acknowledgment of American independence did +not restore friendly relations between England and the United States. It +was not in human nature that a proud and powerful state like England +should see the disruption of her empire and her fairest foreign +possession torn from her without embittered feelings, leading to acts +which could not be justified by international law or by enlightened +reason. Accordingly, the government of Great Britain treated the +American envoys with rudeness, insolence, and contempt, much to their +chagrin and the indignation of Americans generally. It also adopted +measures exceedingly injurious to American commerce. France and England +being at war, the Americans, as neutrals, secured most of the carrying +trade, to the disgust of British merchants; and, declaring mutual +blockade, both French and English cruisers began to capture American +trading-ships, the English being especially outrageous in their doings. +Said Jefferson, in his annual message in 1805: "Our coasts have been +infested and our harbors watched by private armed vessels. They have +captured in the very entrance of our harbors, as well as on the high +seas, not only the vessels of our friends coming to trade with us, but +our own also. They have carried them off under pretence of legal +adjudication; but not daring to approach a court of justice, they have +plundered and sunk them by the way, or in obscure places where no +evidence could arise against them, maltreated the crews, and abandoned +them in boats in the open sea, or on desert shores without food or +covering." In view of these things, the President recommended the +building of gunboats and the reorganization of the militia, and called +attention to materials in the navy-yards for constructing battleships. +The English even went further and set up a claim to the right of search; +sailors were taken from American ships to be impressed into their naval +service, on the plea--generally unfounded--that they were British +subjects and deserters. At last British audacity went so far as to +attack an American frigate at Hampton Roads, and carry away four alleged +British sailors, three of whom were American born. The English doctrine +that no man could expatriate himself was not allowed by America, where +immigrants and new citizens were always welcome; but in the case of +native Americans there could be no question as to their citizenship. +This outrage aroused indignation from one end of the country to the +other, and a large party clamored for war. + +But the policy of Jefferson was pacific. He abhorred war, and entered +into negotiations, which came to nothing. Nor, to his mind, was the +country prepared for war. We had neither army nor navy to speak of. It +was plain that we should be beaten on the land and on the sea. Much as +he hated England, he preferred to temporize, and build a few +gunboats,--which everybody laughed at. + +Nor did the French government behave much better than the English. It +looked upon the United States as an unsettled and weak country, to be +robbed with impunity. At last, driven from the high seas, the Americans +could rely only on the coasting-trade. "One half the mercantile world +was sealed up by the British, and the other half by the French." + +Jefferson now appealed to Congress, and the result was the +Non-importation Act, or Embargo, forbidding Americans to trade with +France and England. This policy was intended as a pressure on English +merchants. But it was a half-measure and did not affect British +legislation, which had for its object the utter annihilation of American +commerce. Neither France nor England was hurt seriously by the Embargo, +while our ships lay rotting at the wharves, and our merchants found that +their occupation was gone. The New England merchants were discouraged +and discontented. It was not they who wished to see their ships shut up +by a doubtful policy. They would have preferred to run risks rather than +be idle. But Jefferson paid no heed to their grumblings, feeling that he +was exhibiting to foreign powers unusual forbearance. It is singular +that he persevered in a policy that nearly the whole body of merchants +censured and regarded as a failure; but he did, and Congress was +subservient to his decrees. No succeeding president ever had the +influence over Congress that he had. He was almost a dictator. He found +opposition only among the Federalists, whose power was gone forever. + +At last, when the farmers and planters joined with the shipping +interests in complaining of the Embargo, Jefferson was persuaded that it +was a failure, and three days before his administration closed it was +repealed by Congress. But even this measure did not hurt the party +which he had marshalled with such transcendent tact; for his friend and +disciple, James Madison, was elected to succeed him in 1809. + +The Embargo had had one result: it deferred the war with Great Britain +to the next administration. That conflict of 1812-15 was not a glorious +war for America except on the ocean. It was not entered upon by the +British with any hope of the conquest of the country, but to do all the +harm they could to the people who had achieved their independence. On +the part of the United States it was simply a choice between insult, +insolence, and injury on the one hand, and on the other the expenditure +of money and loss of life, which would bear as hard on England as on the +United States. Both parties at last wearied of a contest which promised +no permanent settlement of interests or principles. The Federalists +deprecated it from the beginning. The Republican-Democracy sustained it +from the instinct of national honor. Probably it could not have been +avoided without the surrender of national dignity. It was the last of +our wars with Great Britain. Future difficulties will doubtless be +settled by arbitration, or not settled at all, in spite of mutual +ill-will. England and America cannot afford to fight. Our late Civil War +demonstrated this,--when, with all the ill-feeling between the two +nations, war was averted. The interests of trade may mollify and soften +international jealousies, but only forbearance and the cultivation of +mutual and common interests can eradicate the sentiments of +mutual dislike. + +However, it was not the Embargo, nor the meditated treason of Aaron +Burr, nor the purchase of Louisiana, important as these were, which +gives chief interest to the eight years of Jefferson's administration, +and made it a political epoch. It was the firm growth and establishment +of the Democratic party, of which Jefferson was the father and leader, +as Hamilton was the great chieftain of the Federalist. With the +accession of Jefferson to power, a new policy was inaugurated, which +from his day has been the policy of the government, except in great +financial emergencies when men of brain have had the direction of public +affairs. Democratic leaders like Jackson and Van Buren, representing the +passions or interests or prejudices of the masses, it would seem, have +been generally unfortunate enough to lead the country into financial +difficulties, because they have conformed to the unenlightened instincts +of the people rather than to the opinions of the enlightened few,--great +merchants, capitalists, and statesmen, that is, men of experience and +ability. And when these men of brain have extricated the country from +the financial distress which men inexperienced in finance and ignorant +of the principles of political economy have brought about, the +democratic leaders have regained their political ascendency, since they +appealed, more than their antagonists, to those watchwords so dear to +the American heart, the abolition of monopolies, unequal taxation, the +exaltation of the laboring classes,--whatever promises to aggrandize the +nation in a material point of view, or professes to bring about the +reign of "liberty, fraternity, and equality," and the abolition of +social distinctions. + +It cannot be doubted that the policy of Jefferson, while it appealed to +the rights and interests of "working-men," of men who labor with their +hands rather than by their brains, has favored the reign of +demagogues,--the great curse of American institutions. Who now rule the +cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Cincinnati, and Chicago? Is it +not those who, in cities at least, have made self-government--the great +principle for which Jefferson contended--almost an impossibility? This +great statesman was sufficiently astute to predict the rule of the +majority for generations to come, but I doubt if he anticipated the +character of the men to whom the majority would delegate their power. +Here he was not so sagacious as his great political rivals. I believe +that if he could have foreseen what a miserable set the politicians +would generally turn out to be,--with their venality, their +unscrupulousness, their vile flatteries of the people, their system of +spoils, their indifference to the higher interests of the nation,--his +faith in democracy as a form of government would have been essentially +shaken. He himself was no demagogue. His error was in not foreseeing the +logical sequence of those abstract theories which made up his political +religion,--the religion of humanity, such as the French philosophers had +taught him. But his theories pleased the people, and he himself was +personally popular,--the most so of all our statesmen, not excepting +Henry Clay, who made many enemies. + +Jefferson's manners were simple, his dress was plain, he was accessible +to everybody, he was boundless in his hospitalities, he cared little for +money, his opinions were liberal and progressive, he avoided quarrels, +he had but few prejudices, he was kind and generous to the poor and +unfortunate, he exalted agricultural life, he hated artificial splendor, +and all shams and lies. In his morals he was irreproachable, unlike +Hamilton and Burr; he never made himself ridiculous, like John Adams, by +egotism, vanity, and jealousy; he was the most domestic of men, +worshipped by his family and admired by his guests; always ready to +communicate knowledge, strong in his convictions, perpetually writing +his sincere sentiments and beliefs in letters to his friends,--as +upright and honest a man as ever filled a public station, and finally +retiring to private life with the respect of the whole nation, over +which he continued to exercise influence after he had parted with power. +And when he found himself poor and embarrassed in consequence of his +unwise hospitality, he sold his library, the best in the country, to pay +his debts, as well as the most valuable part of his estate, yet keeping +up his cheerfulness and serenity of temper, and rejoicing in the general +prosperity,--which was produced by the ever-expanding energies and +resources of a great country, rather than by the political theories +which he advocated with so much ability. + +On his final retirement to Monticello, in 1809, after forty-four years +of continuous public service, Jefferson devoted himself chiefly to the +care of his estate, which had been much neglected during his +presidential career. To his surprise he found himself in debt, having +lived beyond his income while president. But he did not essentially +change his manner of living, which was generous, though neither +luxurious nor ostentatious. He had stalls for thirty-six horses, and +sometimes as many as fifty guests at dinner. There was no tavern near +him which had so much company. He complains that an ox would all be +eaten in two days, while a load of hay would disappear in a night, Fond +as he was of company, he would not allow his guests to rob him of the +hours he devoted to work, either in his library or on his grounds. His +correspondence was enormous,--he received sixteen hundred and seven +letters in one year, and answered most of them. After his death there +were copies of sixteen thousand letters which he had written. His +industry was marvellous; even in retirement he was always writing or +reading or doing something. He was, perhaps, excessively fond of his +garden, of his flowers, of his groves, and his walks. Music was, as he +himself said, "the favorite passion of his soul." His house was the +largest in Virginia, and this was filled with works of art, and the +presents he had received. But his financial difficulties increased from +year to year. He was too fond of experiments and fancy improvements to +be practically successful as a farmer. + +One of his granddaughters thus writes of him: "I cannot describe the +feelings of veneration, admiration, and love that existed in my heart +for him. I looked upon him as a being too great and good for my +comprehension. I never heard him utter a harsh word to any one of us. On +winter evenings, as we all sat round the fire, he taught us games, and +would play them with us. He reproved without wounding us, and commended +without making us vain. His nature was so eminently sympathetic that +with those he loved he could enter into their feelings, anticipate +their wishes, gratify their tastes, and surround them with an atmosphere +of affection." + +Thus did he live in his plain but beautiful house, in sight of the Blue +Ridge, with Charlottesville and the university at his feet. He rode +daily for ten miles until he was eighty-two. He died July 4, 1826, full +of honors, and everywhere funeral orations were delivered to his memory, +the best of which was by Daniel Webster in Boston. + +Among his papers was found the inscription which he wished to have +engraved on his tomb: "Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, Author of the +Declaration of American Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for +Religious Freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia." He does +not allude to his honors or his offices,--not a word about his +diplomatic career, or of his stations as governor of Virginia, Secretary +of State, or President of the United States. But the three things he +does name enshrine the best convictions of his life and the substance of +his labors in behalf of his country,--political independence, religious +freedom, and popular education. + +The fame of Jefferson as author of the Declaration of Independence is +more than supported by his writings at different times which bear on +American freedom and the rights of man. It is as a writer on political +liberty that he is most distinguished. He was not an orator or +speech-maker. He worked in his library among his books, meditating on +the great principles which he enforced with so much lucidity and power. +It was for his skill with the pen that he was selected to draft the +immortal charter of American freedom, which endeared him to the hearts +of the people, and which no doubt contributed largely to cement the +States together in their resistance to Great Britain. + +His reference to the statute of Virginia in favor of religious freedom +illustrates another of his leading sentiments, to which he clung with +undeviating tenacity during his whole career. He may have been a +freethinker like Franklin, but he did not make war on the religious +beliefs of mankind; he only desired that everybody should be free to +adopt such religious principles as were dear to him, without hindrance +or molestation. He was before his age in liberality of mind, and he +ought not to be stigmatized as an infidel for his wise toleration. +Although his views were far from orthodox, they did not, after all, +greatly differ from those of John Adams himself and the men of that day +who were enamoured with the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau. At that time +even the most influential of the clergy, especially in New England, were +Arminians in their religious creed. The eighteenth century was not a +profound or religious epoch. It was an age of war and political +agitations,--a drinking, swearing, licentious, godless age among the +leaders of society, and of ignorance, prejudice, and pharisaic +formalities among the people. Jefferson's own purity and uprightness of +life amid the laxity of the times is an unquestionable evidence of the +elevation of his character and the sincerity of his moral and +religious beliefs. + +The third great object of Jefferson's life was to promote popular +education as an essential condition to the safety of the republic. While +he advocated unbounded liberty, he knew well enough that it would +degenerate into license unless the people were well-informed. But what +interested him the most was the University of Virginia, in whose behalf +he spent the best part of his declining years. He gave money freely +himself, and induced the legislature to endow it liberally. He +superintended the construction of the buildings, which alone cost +$300,000; he selected the professors, prescribed the course of study, +was chairman of the board of trustees, and looked after the interests of +the institution. He thought more of those branches of knowledge which +tended to liberalize the mind than of Latin and Greek. He gave a +practical direction to the studies of the young men, allowing them to +select such branches as were congenial to them and would fit them for a +useful life. He would have no president, but gave the management of all +details to the professors, who were equal in rank. He appealed to the +highest motives among the students, and recognized them as gentlemen +rather than boys, allowing no espionage. He was rigorous in the +examinations of the students, and no one could obtain a degree unless it +were deserved. While he did not exclude religion from the college, +morning prayers being held every day, attendance upon religious services +was not obligatory. Every Sunday some clergyman from the town or +neighborhood preached a sermon, which was generally well attended. Few +colleges in this country have been more successful or more ably +conducted, and the excellence of instruction drew students from every +quarter of the South. Before the war there were nearly seven hundred +students, and I never saw a more enthusiastic set of young men, or a set +who desired knowledge for the sake of knowledge more enthusiastically +than did those in the University of Virginia. + +Although it is universally admitted that Jefferson had a broad, +original, and powerful intellect, that he stamped his mind on the +institutions of his country, that to no one except Washington is the +country more indebted, yet I fail to see that he was transcendently +great in anything. He was a good lawyer, a wise legislator, an able +diplomatist, a clear writer, and an excellent president; but in none of +the spheres he occupied did he reach the most exalted height. As a +lawyer he was surpassed by Adams, Burr, and Marshall; as an orator he +was nothing at all; as a writer he was not equal to Hamilton and Madison +in profundity and power; as a diplomatist he was far below Franklin and +even Jay in tact, in patience, and in skill; as a governor he was timid +and vacillating; while as a president he is not to be compared with +Washington for dignity, for wisdom, for consistency, or executive +ability. Yet, on the whole, he has left a great name for giving shape to +the institutions of his country, and for intense patriotism. Pre-eminent +in no single direction, he was in the main the greatest political genius +that has been elevated to the presidential chair; but perhaps greater as +a politician than as a statesman in the sense that Pitt, Canning, and +Peel were statesmen. He was not made for active life; he was rather a +philosopher, wielding power by his pen, casting his searching glance +into everything, and leading men by his amiability, his sympathetic +nature, his force of character, and his enlightened mind. The question +might arise whether Jefferson's greatness was owing to force of +circumstances, or to an original, creative intellect, like that of +Franklin or Alexander Hamilton. But for the Revolution he might never +have been heard of outside his native State. This, however, might be +said of most of the men who have figured in American history,--possibly +of Washington himself. The great rulers of the world seem to be raised +up by Almighty Power, through peculiar training, to a peculiar fitness +for the accomplishment of certain ends which they themselves did not +foresee,--men like Abraham Lincoln, who was not that sort of man whom +Henry Clay or Daniel Webster would probably have selected for the +guidance of this mighty nation in the greatest crisis of its history. + +AUTHORITIES. + +The Life of Jefferson by Parton is the most interesting that I have read +and the fullest, but not artistic. He introduces much superfluous matter +that had better be left out. As for the other Lives of Jefferson, that +by Morse is the best; that of Schouler is of especial interest as to +Jefferson's attitude toward slavery and popular education. Randall has +written an interesting sketch. For the rest, I would recommend the same +authorities as on John Adams in the previous chapter. + + + +JOHN MARSHALL + + +1755-1835 + +THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT + +BY JOHN BASSETT MOORE, LL.D + +While the Revolution had severed the tie which bound the colonies to the +mother country and had established the independence of the United +States, the task of organizing and consolidating the new nation yet +remained to be performed. The Articles of Confederation, though designed +to form a "perpetual union between the States," constituted in reality +but a loose association under which the various commonwealths retained +for the most part the powers of independent governments. In the treaty +of peace with Great Britain of 1782-83, strong national ground was +taken; but the general government was unable to secure the execution of +its stipulations. The public debts remained unpaid, for want of power to +levy taxes. Commerce between the States as well as with foreign nations +was discouraged and rendered precarious by variant and obstructive local +regulations. Nor did there exist any judicial authority to which an +appeal could be taken for the enforcement of national rights and +obligations as against inconsistent State laws and adjudications. These +defects were sought to be remedied by the Constitution of the United +States. But, as in the case of all other written instruments, the +provisions of this document were open to construction. Statesmen and +lawyers divided in their interpretation of it, according to their +prepossessions for or against the creation and exercise of a strong +central authority. + +Among the organs of government created by the Constitution was "one +Supreme Court," in which, together with such inferior courts as Congress +might from time to time establish, was vested "the judicial power of the +United States." This power was declared to extend to all cases, in law +and equity, arising under the Constitution itself, the laws of the +United States, and treaties made under their authority; to all cases +affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases +of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the +United States should be a party; to controversies between two or more +States, between a State and citizens of another State, and between +citizens of different States, as well as between citizens of the same +State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a +State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or +subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and +consuls, and those in which a State should be a party, the Supreme Court +was vested with original jurisdiction, while in all the other +enumerated cases its jurisdiction was to be appellate. With the +exceptions of suits against a State by individuals, which were excluded +by the Eleventh Amendment, the judicial power of the United States +remains to-day as it was originally created. + +But at the time when the Constitution was made, the importance to which +the judicial power would attain in the political system of the United +States could not be foreseen. The form was devised, but, like the nation +itself, its full proportions remained to be developed. In that +development, so far as it has been made by the judiciary, one man was +destined to play a pre-eminent part. This man was John Marshall, under +whose hand, as James Bryce has happily said, the Constitution "seemed +not so much to rise ... to its full stature, as to be gradually unveiled +by him, till it stood revealed in the harmonious perfection of the form +which its framers had designed." For this unrivalled achievement there +has been conceded to Marshall by universal consent the title of +Expounder of the Constitution of the United States; and the general +approval with which his work is now surveyed is attested by the tribute +lately paid to his memory. The observance on the 4th of February, 1901, +by a celebration spontaneously national, of the one hundredth +anniversary of his assumption of the office of Chief Justice of the +United States, is without example in judicial annals. It is therefore a +matter of interest not only to every student of American history, but +also to every American patriot, to study his career and to acquaint +himself with that combination of traits and accidents by which his +character and course in life were determined. + +John Marshall was born Sept. 24, 1755, in Fauquier County, Virginia, at +a small village then called Germantown, but now known as Midland, a +station on the Southern Railway not far south of Manassas. His +grandfather, John Marshall, the first of the family of whom there +appears to be any record, was an emigrant from Wales. He left four sons, +the eldest of whom was Thomas Marshall, the father of the Chief Justice. +Thomas Marshall, though a man of meagre early education, possessed great +natural gifts, and rendered honorable and useful public service both as +a member of the Virginia Legislature, and as a soldier in the +Revolutionary War, in which he rose to the rank of colonel. His son, +John Marshall, was the eldest of fifteen children. Of his mother, whose +maiden name was Keith, little is known, but it has been well observed by +one of Marshall's biographers, that, as she reared her fifteen +children--seven sons and eight daughters--all to mature years, she could +have had little opportunity to make any other record for herself, and +could hardly have made a better one. + +Subsequently to his birth, Marshall's parents removed to an estate +called Oak Hill, in the western part of Fauquier County. It was here +that in 1775, when nineteen years of age, he heard the call of his +country and entered the patriot army as a lieutenant. We have of him at +this time the first personal description, written by a kinsman who was +an eye-witness of the scene, and preserved in the eulogy delivered by +Mr. Binney before the Select and Common Councils of Philadelphia on +Sept. 24, 1835. "His figure," says the writer, "I have now before me. He +was about six feet high, straight and rather slender, of dark +complexion, showing little if any rosy red, yet good health, the outline +of the face nearly a circle, and within that, eyes dark to blackness, +strong and penetrating, beaming with intelligence and good nature; an +upright forehead, rather low, was terminated in a horizontal line by a +mass of raven-black hair of unusual thickness and strength; the features +of the face were in harmony with this outline, and the temples fully +developed. The result of this combination was interesting and very +agreeable. The body and limbs indicated agility rather than strength, in +which, however, he was by no means deficient. He wore a purple or +pale-blue hunting shirt, and trousers of the same material fringed with +white. A round black hat, mounted with the buck's tail for a cockade, +crowned the figure and the man. He went through the manual exercise by +word and motion deliberately pronounced and performed, in the presence +of the company, before he required the men to imitate him, and then +proceeded to exercise them, with the most perfect temper.... After a few +lessons the company were dismissed, and informed that if they wished to +hear more about the war, and would form a circle around him, he would +tell them what he understood about it.... He addressed the company for +something like an hour.... He spoke at the close of his speech of the +Minute Battalion about to be raised, and said he was going into it and +expected to be joined by many of his hearers. He then challenged an +acquaintance to a game of quoits, and they closed the day with +foot-races and other athletic exercises, at which there was no betting. +He had walked ten miles to the muster field, and returned the same +distance on foot to his father's house at Oak Hill, where he arrived a +little after sunset." + +The patriot forces in which Marshall was enrolled were described as +minute-men, of whom it was said by John Randolph that they "were raised +in a minute, armed in a minute, marched in a minute, fought in a minute, +and vanquished in a minute." Their uniform consisted of homespun hunting +shirts, bearing the words "Liberty or Death" in large white letters on +the breast, while they wore bucks' tails in their hats and tomahawks and +scalping-knives in their belts. We are told, and may readily believe, +that their appearance inspired in the enemy not a little apprehension; +but we are also assured, and may as readily believe, that this feeling +never was justified by any act of cruelty. Their first active service +was seen in the autumn of 1775, when they marched for Norfolk, where +Lord Dunmore had established his headquarters. They saw their first +fighting at Great Bridge, where the British troops were defeated with +heavy loss. Subsequently, the Virginia forces to which Marshall belonged +joined the army of Washington in New Jersey, and he saw service not only +in that State, but also in Pennsylvania and New York, and, later in the +war, again in Virginia. In May, 1777, he was appointed a captain. He +took part in the battles of Iron Hill and Brandywine. He was also +present at Monmouth, at Paulus (or Powles) Hook, and at the capture of +Stony Point. He endured the winter's sufferings at Valley Forge, where +because of his patience, firmness, and good humor, he won the special +regard of the soldiers and his brother-officers. In the course of his +military service he often acted as judge-advocate; and he made the +acquaintance of Washington and Hamilton, with both of whom he contracted +a lasting friendship. + +As to the effect of these early experiences on the formation of his +opinions, Marshall himself has testified. "I am," said he on a certain +occasion, "disposed to ascribe my devotion to the Union, and to a +government competent to its preservation, at least as much to casual +circumstances as to judgment. I had grown up at a time ... when the +maxim, 'United we stand, divided we fall' was the maxim of every +orthodox American; and I had imbibed these sentiments so thoroughly that +they constituted a part of my being. I carried them with me into the +army, where I found myself associated with brave men from different +States who were risking life and everything valuable in a common +cause; ... and where I was confirmed in the habit of considering America +as my country and Congress as my government." + +In 1780 Marshall was admitted to the Bar, and after another term of +service in the army he began, in 1781, the practice of the law in +Fauquier County. His professional attainments must then have been +comparatively limited. His education in letters he had derived solely +from his father, who was fond of literature and possessed some of the +writings of the English masters, and from two gentlemen of classical +learning, whose tuition he enjoyed for the brief period of two years. Of +legal education he had had, according to our present standards, +exceedingly little. It is said that when about eighteen years of age he +began the study of Blackstone; but apart from this his legal education +seems to have been gained from a short course of lectures by Chancellor +Wythe, at William and Mary College, and from such reading as he was able +to indulge in during his military service. And yet, removing to Richmond +about 1783, he almost immediately rose to professional eminence. "This +extraordinary man," said William Wirt, "without the aid of fancy, +without the advantages of person, voice, attitude, gesture, or any of +the ornaments of an orator, deserves to be considered as one of the most +eloquent men in the world, if eloquence may be said to consist of the +power of seizing the attention with irresistible force, and never +permitting it to elude the grasp until the hearer has received the +conviction which the speaker intends.... He possesses one original and +almost superhuman faculty,--the faculty of developing a subject by a +single glance of his mind, and detecting at once the very point on which +every controversy depends." + +From 1782 to 1795, Marshall was repeatedly elected to the Virginia +Legislature, the last time without his knowledge and against his wishes; +and he also served one term as a member of the Executive Council of the +State; but, as his residence was for the most part at Richmond, his +public service did not seriously interrupt his career at the Bar. His +experience in State politics, however, served to deepen his conviction +of the need of an efficient and well-organized national government and +of restrictions on the power of the States. + +In the formation of the Constitution of the United States Marshall had +no hand; he was not a member of the convention by which it was framed; +but when it was submitted to the several States for their action, he +became a determined advocate of its adoption. In the Virginia +convention, which was called to act upon that question, the prospects of +a favorable decision seemed at first to be most unpromising. Among those +who opposed ratification we find the names of Henry, Mason, Grayson, and +Monroe, names which sufficiently attest that the opposition was one, not +of mere faction or obstruction, but of principle and patriotic feeling. +Henry, who had been one of the first in earlier days to sound the note +of revolution, saw in the proposed national government a portent to +popular liberties. In the office of President he perceived "the likeness +of a kingly crown." In the control of the purse and the sword, he +foresaw the extinction of freedom. In the power to make treaties, to +regulate commerce, and to adopt laws, he discerned an "ambuscade" in +which the rights of the States and of the people would be destroyed +unawares. To these alarming predictions the advocates of ratification +replied with strong and temperate reasoning, and, while Madison was +their leader, among those who won distinction in the contest stood +Marshall. He argued that the plan adopted by the Federal Convention +provided for a "regulated democracy," the only alternative to which was +despotism. He contended for the establishment of an efficient government +as the only means of assuring popular rights and the preservation of the +public faith, violations of which were constantly occurring under the +existing government. It is interesting to notice that, in replying to +the suggestion that the legislative power of the proposed government +would prove to be practically unlimited, he declared: "If they [the +United States] were to make a law not warranted by any of the powers +enumerated, it would be considered by the judges as an infringement of +the Constitution, which they are to guard against.... They would declare +it void." In the end the Convention ratified the Constitution by a +majority of ten votes, a result probably influenced by the circumstance +that it had then been accepted by nine States, and had thus by its terms +been established between the adhering commonwealths. + +After the organization of the national government Marshall consistently +supported the measures of Washington's administrations, including the +Jay treaty, and became a leader of the Federalist party, which, in spite +of Washington's great personal hold on the people, was in a minority in +Virginia. But he did not covet office. He declined the position of +Attorney-General of the United States, which was offered to him by +Washington, as well as the mission to France as successor to Monroe. In +1797, however, at the earnest solicitation of President Adams, he +accepted in a grave emergency the post of envoy-extraordinary and +minister-plenipotentiary to that country on a special mission, in which +he was associated with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, +and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts. + +Few diplomatic enterprises have had so strange a history. When the +plenipotentiaries arrived in Paris, the Directory was at the height of +its power, and Talleyrand was its minister of foreign affairs. He at +first received the envoys unofficially, but afterwards intimated to +them, through his private secretary, that they could not have a public +audience of the Directory till their negotiations were concluded. +Meanwhile, they were waited upon by various persons, who represented +that, in order to effect a settlement of the differences between the two +countries, it would be necessary to place a sum of money at the disposal +of Talleyrand as a _douceur_ for the ministers (except Merlin, the +minister of justice, who was already obtaining enough from the +condemnation of vessels), and also to make a loan of money to the +government. The plenipotentiaries, though they at first repulsed these +suggestions, at length offered to send one of their number to America to +consult the government on the subject of a loan, provided that the +Directory would in the meantime suspend proceedings against captured +American vessels. This offer was not accepted, and the American +representatives, after further conference with the French +intermediaries, stated that they considered it degrading to their +country to carry on further indirect intercourse, and that they had +determined to receive no further propositions unless the persons who +bore them had authority to treat. In April, 1798, after spending in the +French capital six months, during which they had with Talleyrand two +unofficial interviews and exchanged with him an ineffectual +correspondence, Pinckney and Marshall left Paris, Gerry, to the great +dissatisfaction of his government, remaining behind. Marshall was the +first to reach the United States. He was greeted with remarkable +demonstrations of respect and approbation; for, although his mission was +unsuccessful, he had powerfully assisted in maintaining a firm and +dignified position in the negotiations. His entrance into Philadelphia +"had the _éclat_ of a triumph." It was at a public dinner given to him +by members of both Houses of Congress that the sentiment was pronounced, +"Millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute." This sentiment has +often been ascribed to Pinckney, who is supposed to have uttered it when +approached by the unofficial agents in Paris. The correspondence shows, +however, that the words employed by Mr. Pinckney were, "No, no; not a +sixpence!" The meaning was similar, but the phrase employed at +Philadelphia is entitled to a certain immortality of its own. + +On his return to the United States, Marshall resumed the practice of +his profession; but soon afterwards, at the earnest entreaty of +Washington, he became a candidate for Congress, declining for that +purpose an appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, as +successor to Mr. Justice Wilson. He was elected after an exciting +canvass, and in December, 1799, took his seat. He immediately assumed a +leading place among the supporters of President Adams's administration, +though on one occasion he exhibited his independence of mere party +discipline by voting to repeal the obnoxious second section of the +Sedition Law. But of all the acts by which his course in Congress was +distinguished, the most important was his defence of the administration, +in the case of Jonathan Robbins, _alias_ Thomas Nash, By the +twenty-seventh article of the Jay treaty it was provided that fugitives +from justice should be delivered up for the offence of murder or +forgery. Under this stipulation Robbins, _alias_ Nash, was charged with +the commission of the crime of murder on board a British privateer on +the high seas. He was arrested on a warrant issued upon the affidavit of +the British Consul at Charleston, South Carolina. After his arrest an +application was made to Judge Bee, sitting in the United States Circuit +Court at Charleston, for a writ of _habeas corpus_. While Robbins was in +custody, the President, John Adams, addressed a note to Judge Bee, +requesting and advising him, if it should appear that the evidence +warranted it, to deliver the prisoner up to the representatives of the +British government. The examination was held by Judge Bee, and Robbins +was duly surrendered. It is an illustration of the vicissitudes of +politics that, on the strength of this incident, the cry was raised that +the President had caused the delivery up of an American citizen who had +previously been impressed into the British service. For this charge +there was no ground whatever; but it was made to serve the purposes of +the day, and was one of the causes of the popular antagonism to the +administration of John Adams. When Congress met in December, 1799, a +resolution was offered by Mr. Livingston, of New York, severely +condemning the course of the administration. Its action was defended in +the House of Representatives by Marshall on two grounds: first, that the +case was one clearly within the provisions of the treaty; and, second, +that no act having been passed by Congress for the execution of the +treaty, it was incumbent upon the President to carry it into effect by +such means as happened to be within his power. The speech which Marshall +delivered on that occasion is said to have been the only one that he +ever revised for publication. It "at once placed him," as Mr. Justice +Story has well said, "in the front rank of constitutional statesmen, +silenced opposition, and settled forever the points of national law +upon which the controversy hinged." So convincing was it that Mr. +Gallatin, who had been requested by Mr. Livingston to reply, declined to +make the attempt, declaring the argument to be unanswerable. + +In May, 1800, on the reorganization of President Adams's Cabinet, +Marshall unexpectedly received the appointment of Secretary of War. He +declined it; but the office of Secretary of State also having become +vacant, he accepted that position, which he held till the fourth of the +following March. Of his term as Secretary of State, which lasted less +than ten months, little has been said; nor was it distinguished by any +event of unusual importance, save the conclusion of the convention with +France of Sept. 30, 1800, the negotiation of which, at Paris, was +already in progress, under instructions given by his predecessor, when +he entered the Department of State. The war between France and Great +Britain, growing out of the French Revolution, was still going on. The +questions with which he was required to deal were not new; and while he +exhibited in the discussion of them his usual strength and lucidity of +argument, he had little opportunity to display a capacity for +negotiation. Only a few of his State papers have been printed, nor are +those that have been published of special importance. He gave +instructions to our minister to Great Britain, in relation to +commercial restrictions, impressments, and orders in council violative +of the law of nations; to our minister to France, in regard to the +violations of neutral rights perpetrated by that government; and to our +minister to Spain, concerning infractions of international law +committed, chiefly by French authorities, within the Spanish +jurisdiction. Of these various State papers the most notable was that +which he addressed on Sept. 20, 1800, to Rufus King, then United States +Minister at London. Reviewing in this instruction the policy which his +government had pursued, and to which it still adhered, in the conflict +between the European powers, he said:-- + +"The United States do not hold themselves in any degree responsible to +France or to Britain for their negotiations with the one or the other of +these powers; but they are ready to make amicable and reasonable +explanations with either.... It has been the object of the American +government, from the commencement of the present war, to preserve +between the belligerent powers an exact neutrality.... The aggressions, +sometimes of one and sometimes of another belligerent power, have forced +us to contemplate and prepare for war as a probable event. We have +repelled, and we will continue to repel, injuries not doubtful in their +nature and hostilities not to be misunderstood. But this is a situation +of necessity, not of choice. It is one in which we are placed, not by +our own acts, but by the acts of others, and which we [shall] change so +soon as the conduct of others will permit us to change it." + +For a month Marshall held both the office of Secretary of State and +that of Chief Justice; but at the close of John Adams' administration he +devoted himself exclusively to his judicial duties, never performing +thereafter any other public service, save that late in life he acted as +a member of the convention to revise the Constitution of Virginia. + +It is an interesting fact that, prior to his appointment as Chief +Justice, Marshall had appeared only once before the Supreme Court, and +on that occasion he was unsuccessful. This appearance was in the case of +Ware _v_. Hylton, which was a suit brought by a British creditor to +compel the payment by a citizen of Virginia of a pre-Revolutionary debt, +in conformity with the stipulations of the treaty of peace. During the +Revolutionary War various States, among which was Virginia, passed acts +of sequestration and confiscation, by which it was provided that, if the +American debtor should pay into the State treasury the amount due to his +British creditor, such payment should constitute an effectual plea in +bar to a subsequent action for the recovery of the debt. When the +representatives of the United States and Great Britain met in Paris to +negotiate for peace, the question of the confiscated debts became a +subject of controversy, especially in connection with that of the claims +of the loyalists for the confiscation of their estates. Franklin and +Jay, though they did not advocate the policy of confiscating debts, +hesitated, chiefly on the ground of a want of authority in the existing +national government to override the acts of the States. But when John +Adams arrived on the scene, the situation soon changed. By one of those +dramatic strokes of which he was a master, he ended the discussion by +suddenly declaring, in the presence of the British plenipotentiaries, +that, so far as he was concerned, he "had no notion of cheating +anybody;" that the question of paying debts and the question of +compensating the loyalists were two; and that, while he was opposed to +compensating the loyalists, he would agree to a stipulation to secure +the payment of debts. It was therefore provided, in the fourth article +of the treaty, that creditors on either side should meet with no lawful +impediment to the recovery in full sterling money of _bona fide_ debts +contracted prior to the war. This stipulation is remarkable, not only as +the embodiment of an enlightened policy, but also as perhaps the +strongest assertion to be found in the acts of that time of the power +and authority of the national government. Indeed, when the British +creditors, after the establishment of peace, sought to proceed in the +State courts, they found the treaty unavailing, since those tribunals +held themselves still to be bound by the local statutes. In order to +remove this difficulty, as well as to provide a rule for the future, +there was inserted in the Constitution of the United States the clause +expressly declaring that treaties then made, or which should be made, +under the authority of the United States, should be the supreme law of +the land, binding on the judges in every State, anything in the +Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. + +On the strength of this provision, the question of the debts was raised +again, and was finally brought before the Supreme Court. Marshall +appeared for the State of Virginia, to oppose the collection of the +debt. He based his contention on two grounds: first, that by the law of +nations the confiscation of private debts was justifiable; second, that, +as the debt had by the law of Virginia been extinguished by its payment +into the State treasury, and had thus ceased to be due, the stipulation +of the treaty was inapplicable, since there could be no creditor without +a debtor. It is not strange that this argument was unsuccessful. While +it doubtless was the best that the cause admitted of, it may perhaps +serve a useful purpose as an illustration of the right of the suitor to +have his case, no matter how weak it may be, fully and fairly presented +for adjudication. On the question of the right of confiscation the +judges differed, one holding that such a right existed, while another +denied it, two doubted, and the fifth was silent. But as to the +operation of the treaty, all but one agreed that it restored to the +original creditor his right to sue, without regard to the original +validity or invalidity of the Virginia statute. + +When Marshall took his seat upon the bench, the Supreme Court, since its +organization in 1790, had rendered only six decisions involving +constitutional questions. Of his three predecessors, Jay, Rutledge, and +Ellsworth, the second, Rutledge, after sitting one term under a recess +appointment, retired in consequence of his rejection by the Senate; and +neither Jay nor Ellsworth, though both were men of high capacity, had +found in their judicial station, the full importance of which was +unforeseen, an opportunity for the full display of their powers, either +of mind or of office. The coming of Marshall to the seat of justice +marks the beginning of an era which is not yet ended, and which must +endure so long as our system of government retains the essential +features with which it was originally endowed. With him really began the +process, peculiar to our American system, of the development of +constitutional law by means of judicial decisions, based upon the +provisions of a fundamental written instrument and designed for its +exposition and enforcement. By the masterful exercise of this momentous +jurisdiction, he profoundly affected the course of the national life and +won in the knowledge and affections of the American people a larger and +higher place than ever has been filled by any other judicial magistrate. + +From 1801 to 1835, in the thirty-four years during which he presided in +the Supreme Court, sixty-two decisions were rendered involving +constitutional questions, and in thirty-six of these the opinion of the +court was written by Marshall. In the remaining twenty-six the +preparation of the opinions was distributed among his associates, who +numbered five before 1808 and after that date six. During the whole +period of his service, his dissenting opinions numbered eight, only one +of which involved a constitutional question. Nor was the supremacy which +this record indicates confined to questions of constitutional law. The +reports of the court during Marshall's tenure fill thirty volumes, +containing 1,215 cases. In ninety-four of these no opinions were filed, +while fifteen were decided "by the court." In the remaining 1,106 cases +the opinion of the court was delivered by Marshall in 519, or +nearly one-half. + +A full review of the questions of constitutional law decided by the +Supreme Court during Marshall's term of service would involve a +comprehensive examination of the foundations on which our constitutional +system has been reared; but we may briefly refer to certain leading +cases by which fundamental principles were established. + +In one of his early opinions he discussed and decided the question +whether an Act of Congress repugnant to the Constitution is void. This +question was then by no means free from difficulty and doubt. The +framers of the Constitution took care to assure its enforcement by +judicial means against inconsistent State action, by the explicit +provision that the Constitution itself, as well as Federal statutes and +treaties, should be the "supreme law" of the land, and as such binding +upon the State judges, in spite of anything in the local laws and +constitutions. But as to the power of the courts to declare +unconstitutional a Federal statute, the instrument was silent. There is +reason to believe that this silence was not unintentional; nor would it +be difficult to cite highly respectable opinions to the effect that the +courts, viewed as a co-ordinate branch of the government, have no power +to declare invalid an Act of the Legislature, unless they possess +express constitutional authority to that effect. We have seen that +Marshall expressed in the discussions of the Virginia convention a +contrary view; but it is one thing to assert an opinion in debate and +another thing to declare it from the bench, especially in a case +involved in or related to political contests; and such a case was +Marbury _v_. Madison. + +Marbury was a citizen of the District of Columbia, who had been +appointed as a justice of the peace by John Adams, just before his +vacation of the office of President. It was one of the so-called +"midnight" appointments of President Adams, which became a subject of +heated political controversy. It was alleged that Marbury's commission +had been made out, sealed, and signed, but that Mr. Madison, who +immediately afterwards became Secretary of State, withheld it from him. +Marbury therefore applied to the Supreme Court for a writ of _mandamus_ +to compel its delivery. In the course of the judgment, which was +delivered by Marshall, opinions were expressed on certain questions the +decision of which was not essential to the determination of the case, +and into these it is unnecessary now to enter, although one of them has +been cited and acted upon as a precedent. But on one point the decision +of the court was requisite and fundamental, and that was the point of +jurisdiction. It was held that the court had no power to grant the writ, +because the Federal statute by which the jurisdiction was sought to be +conferred was repugnant to the Constitution of the United States. This +was the great question decided, and it was a decision of the first +importance, since its assertion of the final authority of the judicial +power, in the interpretation and enforcement of our written +constitutions, came to be accepted almost as an axiom of American +jurisprudence. In the course of his reasoning, Chief Justice Marshall +expressed in terms of unsurpassed clearness the principle which lay at +the root of his opinion. "It is," he declared, "emphatically the +province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is.... +If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the +operation of each.... If, then, the courts are to regard the +Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary Act of +the Legislature, the Constitution and not such ordinary Act must govern +the case to which they both apply. Those, then, who controvert the +principle that the Constitution is to be considered in court as a +paramount law, are reduced to the necessity of maintaining that courts +must close their eyes on the Constitution and see only the law. This +doctrine would subvert the very foundation of all written +constitutions." In subsequently applying this rule, Marshall affirmed +that the courts ought never to declare an Act of Congress to be void +"unless upon a clear and strong conviction of its incompatibility with +the Constitution." Nevertheless, the power has been constantly and +frequently exercised; and there can be no doubt that from its exercise +the Supreme Court of the United States derives a political importance +not possessed by any other judicial tribunal. + +While the supremacy of the Constitution was thus judicially asserted +over the acts of the national legislature, by another series of +decisions its proper supremacy over acts of the authorities of the +various States was in like manner vindicated. Of this series we may take +as an example Cohens _v_. Virginia, decided in 1828. In this case a +writ of error was obtained from the Supreme Court of the United States +to a court of the State of Virginia, in order to test the validity of a +statute of that State which was supposed to be in conflict with a law of +the United States. It was contended on the part of Virginia that the +Supreme Court could exercise no supervision over the decisions of the +State tribunals, and that the clause in the Judiciary Act of 1789 which +purported to confer such jurisdiction was invalid. In commenting upon +this argument, Chief Justice Marshall observed that if the Constitution +had provided no tribunal for the final construction of itself, or of the +laws or treaties of the nation, then the Constitution and the laws and +treaties might receive as many constructions as there were States. He +then proceeded to demonstrate that such a power of supervision existed, +maintaining that the general government, though limited as to its +objects, was supreme with respect to those objects, and that such a +right of supervision was essential to the maintenance of that supremacy. + +In 1819, he delivered in the case of McCulloch _v_. Maryland what is +generally regarded as his greatest and most carefully reasoned opinion. +The particular questions involved were those (1) of the power of the +United States to incorporate a bank, and (2) of the freedom of a bank so +incorporated from State taxation or control. The United States bank, +which Congress had rechartered in 1816, had established a branch in +Maryland. Soon afterwards the Legislature passed an Act requiring all +banks situated in the State to issue their notes on stamped paper, the +object being to strike at the branch bank by indirectly taxing it. The +case was 'argued before the Supreme Court by the most eminent lawyers of +the day, Pinkney, Webster, and Wirt appearing for the bank, and Luther +Martin, Joseph Hopkinson, and Walter Jones for the State of Maryland. +The unanimous opinion of the court was delivered by Marshall. It +asserted not only the power of the Federal government to incorporate a +bank, but also the freedom of such a bank from the taxation, control, or +obstruction of any State. While no express power of incorporation was +given by the Constitution, yet it was found to be a power necessarily +implied, since it was essential to the accomplishment of the objects of +the Union. This principle Marshall laid down in these memorable words: +"Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the +Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly +adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the +letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional." + +Of no less importance than the opinions heretofore mentioned are those +that deal with the power of the general government to regulate commerce +and to preserve it from hindrance on the part of the States. Of these +the chief example is that which was delivered in the case of Gibbons +_v_. Ogden, in 1824. By the Legislature of New York an exclusive right +had been granted to Chancellor Livingston and Robert Fulton for a term +of years to navigate the waters of the State with steam. The validity of +this statute had been maintained by the judges in New York, including +Chancellor Kent, and an injunction had been issued restraining other +persons from running steamboats between Elizabethtown, New Jersey, and +the city of New York, although they were enrolled and licensed as +coasting vessels under the laws of the United States. The Supreme Court, +speaking through Marshall, held the New York statute to be +unconstitutional. By the Constitution of the United States, Congress is +invested with power "to regulate commerce with foreign nations and +among the several States." The term "commerce" Marshall declared to +embrace all the various forms of intercourse, including navigation, and +he affirmed that "wherever commerce among the States goes, the judicial +power of the United States goes to protect it from invasion by State +legislatures." + +Mr. Justice Bradley declared that it might truly be said that "the +Constitution received its permanent and final form from judgments +rendered by the Supreme Court during the period in which Marshall was at +its head;" and that, "with a few modifications, superinduced by the +somewhat differing views on two or three points of his great successor, +and aside from the new questions growing out of the Civil War and the +recent constitutional amendments, the decisions made since Marshall's +time have been little more than the applications of principles +established by him and his venerated associates." To the rule that +Marshall's great constitutional opinions continue to be received as +authority, there are, however, a few exceptions, the chief of which is +that delivered in the Dartmouth College Case, the particular point of +which--that acts of incorporation constitute contracts which the State +legislatures can neither alter nor revoke--has been greatly limited by +later decisions, while its effect has been generally obviated by express +reservations of the right of amendment and repeal. With rare exceptions, +however, his constitutional opinions not only remain unshaken, but +continue to form the very warp and woof of the law, and "can scarcely +perish but with the memory of the Constitution itself." Nor should we, +in estimating his achievements, lose sight of the almost uncontested +ascendency which he exercised, in matters of constitutional law, over +the members of the tribunal in which he presided, in spite of what might +have been supposed to be their predilections. When constitutional +questions trench, as they often do, on the domain of statesmanship, it +is natural, especially where precedents are lacking, that judges should +divide upon them in accordance with the views of government maintained +by the political parties with which they previously acted; and after +1811, a majority of Marshall's associates on the bench held their +appointment from administrations of the party opposed to that to which +he had belonged. This circumstance, however, does not appear to have +disturbed the consistent and harmonious development of the system to +which he was devoted; and it was in the second half of his term of +service that many of the most important cases--such as McCulloch _v_. +Maryland, Cohens _v_. Virginia, and Gibbons _v_. Ogden, in which he +asserted the powers of national government--were decided. + +Nor is it alone upon his opinions on questions of constitutional law +that Marshall's fame as a judge rests. The decisions of the Supreme +Court on constitutional questions naturally attract greater popular +interest than its judgments in other matters; but we have seen that its +jurisdiction embraces a wide range of subjects. Nor is it desirable that +its sphere of action should be circumscribed in the direction of +confining it to questions that have a semi-political aspect. Indeed, it +may be believed that the safety and permanence of the court would be +best assured by extending rather than by contracting its jurisdiction in +ordinary comercial subjects. In dealing with such subjects, however, +Marshall did not achieve that pre-eminence which he acquired in the +domain of constitutional law, a fact doubtless to be accounted for by +the defects of his early legal education, since no originality of mind +can supply the place of learning in matters which depend upon reasoning +more or less technical and artificial. But in the domain of +international law, in which there was greater opportunity for elementary +reasoning, he exhibited the same traits of mind, the same breadth and +originality of thought, the same power in discovering, and the same +certainty in applying, fundamental principles that distinguished him in +the realm of constitutional discussions; and it was his lot on more than +one occasion to blaze the way in the establishment of rules of +international conduct. During the period of his judicial service, +decisions were rendered by the Supreme Court in 195 cases involving +questions of international law, or in some way affecting international +relations. In eighty of these cases the opinion of the court was +delivered by Marshall; in thirty-seven by Mr. Justice Story; in +twenty-eight by Mr. Justice Johnson; in nineteen, by Mr. Justice +Washington; in fourteen by Mr. Justice Livingston; in five, by Mr. +Justice Thompson; and in one each by Justices Baldwin, Gushing, and +Duvall. In eight the decision was rendered "by the court." In five cases +Marshall dissented. As an evidence of the respect paid to his opinions +by publicists, the fact may be pointed out that Wheaton, in the first +edition of his "Elements of International Law," makes 150 judicial +citations, of which 105 are English and 45 American, the latter being +mostly Marshall's. In the last edition he makes 214 similar citations, +of which 135 are English and 79 American, the latter being largely +Marshall's; and it is proper to add that one of the distinctive marks of +his last edition is the extensive incorporation into his text of the +words of Marshall's opinions. Out of 190 cases cited by Hall, a recent +English publicist of pre-eminent merit, 54 are American, and in more +than three-fifths of these the opinions are Marshall's. + +One of the most far-reaching of all Marshall's opinions on questions of +international law was that which he delivered in the case of the +schooner "Exchange," decided by the Supreme Court in 1812. In preparing +this opinion he was, as he declared, compelled to explore "an unbeaten +path, with few, if any, aids from precedents or written laws;" for the +status of a foreign man-of-war in a friendly port had not then been +defined, even by the publicists. The "Exchange" was an American vessel, +which had been captured and confiscated by the French under the +Rambouillet decree,--a decree which both the Executive and the Congress +of the United States had declared to constitute a violation of the law +of nations. She was afterwards converted by the French government into a +man-of-war, and commissioned under the name of the "Balaou." In this +character she entered a port of the United States, where she was +libelled by the original American owners for restitution. Seasoning by +analogy, Marshall, in a remarkably luminous opinion, held that the +vessel, as a French man-of-war, was not subject to the jurisdiction of +the ordinary tribunals; and his opinion forms the basis of the law on +the subject at the present day. + +By this decision, the rightfulness or the wrongfulness of the capture +and condemnation of the "Exchange" was left to be determined by the two +governments as a political question. In this respect Marshall +maintained, as between the different departments of government, when +dealing with questions of foreign affairs, a distinction which he +afterwards sedulously preserved, confining the jurisdiction of the +courts to judicial questions. Thus he laid it down in the clearest terms +that the recognition of national independence, or of belligerency, being +in its nature a political act, belongs to the political branch of the +government, and that in such matters the courts follow the political +branch. Referring, on another occasion, to a similar question, he said: +"In a controversy between two nations concerning national boundary, it +is scarcely possible that the courts of either side should refuse to +abide by the measures adopted by its own government.... If those +departments which are entrusted with the foreign intercourse of the +nation, which assert and maintain its interests against foreign powers +have unequivocally asserted its rights of dominion over a country of +which it is in possession, and which it claims under a treaty; if the +legislature has acted on the construction thus asserted, it is not in +its own courts that this construction is to be denied." (Foster +_v_. Neilson). + +In the case of the American Insurance Company _v_. Canter, he asserted +the right of the government to enlarge the national domain, saying: "The +Constitution confers absolutely on the government of the Union the power +of making war and of making treaties; consequently, that government +possesses the power of acquiring territory, either by conquest or by +treaty." But he held the rights of private property in such case to be +inviolate (U.S. _v_. Percheman). The most luminous exposition of +discovery as a source of title, and of the nature of Indian titles, is +to be found in one of his opinions (Johnson _v_. McIntosh). + +A fundamental doctrine of international law is that of the equality of +nations. If a clear and unequivocal expression of it be desired, it may +be found in the opinion of Marshall in the case of "The Antelope." "No +nation," he declared, "can make a law of nations. No principle is more +universally acknowledged than the perfect equality of nations. Russia +and Geneva have equal rights." And when the representatives of the +United States fifty years later sought to establish at Geneva the +liability of Great Britain for the depredations of the "Alabama" and +other Confederate cruisers fitted out in British ports in violation of +neutrality, one of the strongest authorities on which they relied was +his opinion in the case of the "Gran Para." + +In the decision of prize cases, Marshall, unlike some of his associates, +was disposed to moderate the rigor of the English doctrines, as laid +down by Sir William Scott. "I respect Sir William Scott," he declared on +a certain occasion, "as I do every truly great man; and I respect his +decisions; nor should I depart from them on light grounds; but it is +impossible to consider them attentively without perceiving that his mind +leans strongly in favor of the captors." This liberal disposition, +blended with independence of judgment, led Marshall to dissent from the +decision of the court in two well-known cases. In one of these, which is +cited by Phillimore as the "great case" of "The Venus," it was held that +the property of an American citizen domiciled in a foreign country +became, on the breaking out of war with that country, immediately +confiscable as enemy's property, even though it was shipped before he +had knowledge of the war. Marshall dissented, maintained that a mere +commercial domicile ought not to be presumed to continue longer than +the state of peace, and that the fate of the property should depend upon +the conduct of the owner after the outbreak of the war, in continuing to +reside and trade in the enemy's country or in taking prompt measures to +return to his own. In the other case--that of the "Commercen"--he sought +to disconnect the war in which Great Britain was engaged on the +continent of Europe from that which she was carrying on with the United +States, and to affirm the right of her Swedish ally to transport +supplies to the British army in the Peninsula without infringing the +duties of neutrality towards the United States. As to his opinion in the +case of "The Venus," Chancellor Kent declared that there was "no doubt +of its superior solidity and justice;" and it must be admitted that his +opinion in the case of the "Commercen," rested on strong logical +grounds, since the United States and the allies of Great Britain in the +war on the Continent never considered themselves as enemies. + +It is not, however, by any means essential to Marshall's pre-eminence as +a judge, to show that his numerous opinions are altogether free from +error or inconsistency. In one interesting series of cases, relating to +the power of a nation to enforce prohibitions of commerce by the seizure +of foreign vessels outside territorial waters, the views which he +originally expressed in favor of the existence of such a right appear to +have undergone a marked, if not radical, change, in favor of the wise +and salutary exemption of ships from visitation and search on the high +seas in time of peace (Rose _v_. Himely),--a principle which he affirmed +on more than one occasion (The Antelope). In the reasoning of another +case, though not in its result, we may perhaps discern traces of the +preconceptions formed by the advocate in the argument concerning the +British debts. This was the case of Brown _v_. United States, which +involved the question of the confiscability of the private property of +an enemy on land, by judicial proceedings, in the absence of an Act of +Congress expressly authorizing such proceedings. On the theory that war +renders all property of the enemy liable to confiscation, Mr. Justice +Story, with the concurrence of one other member of the Court, maintained +that the Act of Congress declaring war of itself gave ample authority +for the purpose. The majority held otherwise, and Marshall delivered the +opinion. Referring to the practice of nations and the writings of +publicists, he declared that, according to "the modern rule," "tangible +property belonging to an enemy and found in the country at the +commencement of war, ought not to be immediately confiscated;" that +"this rule" seemed to be "totally incompatible with the idea that war +does of itself vest the property in the belligerent government;" and, +consequently, that the declaration of war did not authorize the +confiscation. Since effect was thus given to the modern usage of +nations, it was unnecessary to declare, as he did in the course of his +opinion, that "war gives to the sovereign full right to take the persons +and confiscate the property of the enemy, wherever found," and that the +"mitigations of this rigid rule, which the humane and wise policy of +modern times has introduced into practice," though they "will more or +less affect the exercise of this right," "cannot impair the right +itself." Nor were the two declarations quite consistent. The supposition +that usage may render unlawful the exercise of a right, but cannot +impair the right itself, is at variance with sound theory. Between the +effect of usage on rights, and on the exercise of rights, the law draws +no precise distinction. A right derived from custom acquires no +immutability or immunity from the fact that the practices out of which +it grew were ancient and barbarous. We may therefore ascribe the dictum +in question to the influence of preconceptions, and turn for the true +theory of the law to an opinion of the same great judge, delivered +twenty years later, in which he denied the right of the conqueror to +confiscate private property, on the ground that it would violate "the +modern usage of nations, which has become law" (U.S. _v_. Percheman). + +United with extraordinary powers of mind, we find in Marshall the +greatest simplicity of life and character. In this union of simplicity +and strength he illustrated the characteristics of the earlier period +of our history. He has often been compared with the great judges of +other countries. He has been compared with Lord Mansfield; and although +he did not possess the extensive learning and elegant accomplishments of +that renowned jurist, the comparison is not inappropriate when we +consider their breadth of understanding and powers of reasoning; and yet +Mansfield, as a member of the House of Lords, defending the prerogatives +of the Crown and Parliament, and Marshall as an American patriot, sword +in hand, resisting in the field the assumptions of imperial power, +represent opposite conceptions. He has been compared with Lord Eldon; +and it may be that in fineness of discrimination and delicate +perceptions of equity he was excelled by that famous Lord Chancellor; +and yet no greater contrast could be afforded than that of Eldon's +uncertainty and procrastination on the bench with Marshall's bold and +masterful readiness. He has been compared with Lord Stowell, and it may +be conceded that in clearness of perception, skill in argument, and +elegance of diction, Lord Stowell has seldom if ever been surpassed. And +yet it may be said of Marshall that, in the strength and clearness of +his conceptions, in the massive force and directness of his reasoning, +and in the absolute independence and fearlessness with which he +announced his conclusions, he presents a combination of qualities which +not only does not suffer by any comparison, but which was also +peculiarly his own. + +Mr. Justice Miller once declared that the Supreme Court of the United +States was, "so far as ordinary forms of power are concerned, by far the +feeblest branch or department of the Government. It must rely," he +added, "upon the confidence and respect of the public for its just +weight and influence, and it may be confidently asserted that neither +with the people, nor with the country at large, nor with the other +branches of the government, has there ever been found wanting that +respect and confidence." The circumstance that this statement of the +learned justice, himself one of the brightest ornaments of the tribunal +of which he spoke, has been received with general assent, affords the +strongest proof that the successors of the Great Chief Justice and his +associates have in no way fallen short of the measure of their trust; +for, no matter how deeply the court may as an institution have been +planted in the affections of the people, and no matter how important it +may be to the operation of our system of government, its position and +influence could not have been preserved had its members been wanting +either in character, in conduct, or in attainments. + +AUTHORITIES. + +Chief Justice Marshall: an address by Mr. Justice Story; Eulogy on the +life and character of John Marshall, by Horace Binney; John Marshall, by +Allan B. Magruder (American Statesmen Series); The Development of the +Constitution as influenced by Chief Justice Marshall, by Henry +Hitchcock; John Marshall, by J.B. Thayer; The Supreme Court of the +United States, by W.W. Willoughby; John Marshall, by C.F. Libby; Chief +Justice Marshall, by John F. Dillon; Mr. Justice Bradley, Century +Magazine, December, 1889; and cases in the Reports of the Supreme Court +of the United States as follows: Ware _v_. Hylton, 3 Dallas, 199; +Marbury _v_. Madison, 1 Cranch, 137; Cohens _v_. Virginia, 6 Wheaton, +264; McCulloch _v_. Maryland, 4 Wheaton, 316, 421; Gibbons _v_. Ogden, 9 +Wheaton, 1; Schooner Exchange _v_. McFaddon, 7 Cranch, 116; Foster _v_. +Neilson, 2 Peters, 253; American Insurance Co. _v_. Canter, I Peters, +511; U.S. _v_. Percheman, 7 Peters, 51; Johnson v. McIntosh, 8 Wheaton, +543; The Antelope, 10 Wheaton, 66; 11 Wheaton, 413; The Gran Para, 7 +Wheaton, 471; The Venus, 8 Cranch, 253, 299; The Commercen, 1 Wheaton, +382; Church _v_. Hubbart, 2 Cranch, 187; Rose _v_. Himely, 4 Cranch, +241; Brown _v_. United States, 8 Cranch, 110. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME +XI*** + + +******* This file should be named 10644-8.txt or 10644-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/6/4/10644 + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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