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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:47 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:47 -0700 |
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diff --git a/10600-h/10600-h.htm b/10600-h/10600-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f1d344 --- /dev/null +++ b/10600-h/10600-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,24061 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Voyages and Travels Vol I</title> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {background: #ffffcc; margin:10%; text-align:justify} +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {color:green; text-align:center} +blockquote {font-size: .9em} +p.poem {text-align:center} +p.external {font-weight: bold} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10600 ***</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<h1> + GENERAL PLAN OF KERR'S COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. +</h1> + +<h3>(Taken from Volume 18.)</h3> +<br /> +<br /> + +<center> +PART I. +</center> +<p> +Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of Alfred +King of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry of Portugal, at +the commencement of the fifteenth century. +</p> +<center> +PART II. +</center> +<p> +General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of Don +Henry in 1412, to that of George III. in 1760. +</p> +<center> +PART III. +</center> +<p> +General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III., +which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geography +of the globe has been nearly perfected. +</p> +<center> +PART IV. +</center> +<p> +Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and +Commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present period. +</p> + + + + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> + + + +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0002"> +VOLUME I. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0003"> +VOLUME II. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0004"> +VOLUME III. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0005"> +VOLUME IV. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0006"> +VOLUME V. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0007"> +VOLUME VI. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0008"> +VOLUME VII. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0009"> +VOLUME VIII. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0010"> +VOLUME IX. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0011"> +VOLUME X. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0012"> +VOLUME XI. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0013"> +VOLUME XII. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0014"> +VOLUME XIII. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0015"> +VOLUME XIV. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0016"> +VOLUME XV. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0017"> +VOLUME XVI. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#h2H_4_0018"> +VOLUME XVII. +</a></p> + +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr> +<br /> + + +<h2> + TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES. +</h2> + + +<a name="h2H_4_0002" id="h2H_4_0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<br /> +<br /> + + +<h2> + VOLUME I. +</h2> +<p> +Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians. +</p> +<p> +Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic. +</p> +<p> +Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J.R. Forster. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic. +</p> +<p> +—— of Sighelm to India. +</p> +<p> +Travels of John Erigena to Athens. +</p> +<p> +Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred. +</p> +<p> +Travels of Andrew Leucander. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem. +</p> +<p> +—— of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople. +</p> +<p> +Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem. +</p> +<p> +—— of Ingulphus. +</p> +<p> +Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth century. +</p> +<p> +Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001. +</p> +<p> +Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth century. +</p> +<p> +—— of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth century. +</p> +<p> +—— of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243. +</p> +<p> +Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary. +</p> +<p> +Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. in 1246. +</p> +<p> +—— of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253. +</p> +<p> +—— of Haitho, in 1254. +</p> +<p> +—— of Marco Polo into China, &c. from 1260 to 1295. +</p> +<p> +—— of Oderic, in 1318. +</p> +<p> +—— of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322. +</p> +<p> +Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355. +</p> +<p> +Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380. +</p> +<p> +Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394. +</p> +<p> +—— of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419. +</p> +<p> +Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431. +</p> +<p> +Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in 1436. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0003" id="h2H_4_0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME II. +</h2> +<p> +Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between 1097 and +1107. +</p> +<p> +Discovery of Madeira. +</p> +<p> +Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands. +</p> +<p> +Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, from 1412 to +1505. +</p> +<p> +Discoveries of the world, from their commencement to 1555, +by Antonio Galvano. +</p> +<p> +Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6. +</p> +<p> +Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of Africa, +during the life of Don Henry. +</p> +<p> +Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de Cintra, to the +coast of Africa, from 1455. +</p> +<p> +Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, from the +death of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in +1486. +</p> +<p> +History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, between +1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla. +</p> +<p> +Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, respecting the +discovery of the route by sea to India, &c. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0004" id="h2H_4_0004"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME III. +</h2> +<p> +History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early conquests in +the New World. +</p> +<p> +Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don Ferdinand +Columbus. +</p> +<p> +—— written by Antonio de Herrera. +</p> +<p> +An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, written +by himself. +</p> +<p> +Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, from the +death of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes against Mexico. +</p> +<p> +History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, by +Captain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0005" id="h2H_4_0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME IV. +</h2> +<p> +History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus Zarate. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0006" id="h2H_4_0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME V. +</h2> +<p> +Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the Commentaries of +Garcilosso de la Vega. +</p> +<p> +History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various sources. +</p> +<p> +Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that country by +the Spaniards,—from the General History of America, by Herrera. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0007" id="h2H_4_0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME VI. +</h2> +<p> +Early English Voyages of discovery to America. +</p> +<p> +Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and Canada, in +1534-5. +</p> +<p> +Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the +East; with some account of the early Voyages of other European nations to +India. +</p> +<p> +Discoveries, &c. &c. from 1505 to 1539. +</p> +<p> +A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from Suez to +India, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer in the Turkish +service on that occasion. +</p> +<p> +Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in 1540; +written by Don Juan de Castro. +</p> +<p> +Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in India, from +1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's Asia. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0008" id="h2H_4_0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME VII. +</h2> +<p> +Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by Ludovico +Verthema, in 1503-8. +</p> +<p> +—— in India, &c. by Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81. +</p> +<p> +Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham. +</p> +<p> +Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and Antonio Anes +Pinteado. +</p> +<p> +—— in 1554, by Captain John Lok. +</p> +<p> +—— in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. +</p> +<p> +Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. +</p> +<p> +Third, in 1558. +</p> +<p> +Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter. +</p> +<p> +Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker. +</p> +<p> +—— in 1564, by Captain David Carlet. +</p> +<p> +—— and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George Fenner. +</p> +<p> +Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by himself. +</p> +<p> +Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth to +Morocco, in 1585; by himself. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh. +</p> +<p> +Supplement to the foregoing. +</p> +<p> +Second Voyage of ditto in 1590. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and Gambia, in +1591. +</p> +<p> +Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas Stevens. +</p> +<p> +Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch. +</p> +<p> +Supplement to ditto. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0009" id="h2H_4_0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME VIII. +</h2> +<p> +Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river to +Bagdat and Basorah, in 1583. +</p> +<p> +Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret. +</p> +<p> +First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. Raymond and +James Lancaster. +</p> +<p> +Supplement to ditto, by John May. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596. +</p> +<p> +—— of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598. +</p> +<p> +—— of William Adams to Japan, in 1598. +</p> +<p> +—— of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604. +</p> +<p> +First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under Captain James +Lancaster. +</p> +<p> +Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to 1605. +</p> +<p> +Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry Middleton. +</p> +<p> +Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William Keeling. +</p> +<p> +Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions of the +Great Mogul. +</p> +<p> +Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the Moluccas. +</p> +<p> +Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander Sharpey. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles. +</p> +<p> +Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David Middleton. +</p> +<p> +Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry Middleton. +</p> +<p> +Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton. +</p> +<p> +Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony Hippou. +</p> +<p> +Notices of the same, by Peter Floris. +</p> +<p> +Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John Saris. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0010" id="h2H_4_0010"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME IX. +</h2> +<p> +Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward Marlow. +</p> +<p> +Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best. +</p> +<p> +Observations made on the foregoing by different persons. +</p> +<p> +Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon. +</p> +<p> +Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher Newport. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614. +</p> +<p> +Supplement to ditto. +</p> +<p> +Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to Ispahan, in +1615-16. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615. +</p> +<p> +Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes. +</p> +<p> +Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. to the Emperor of +Hindoostan. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry. +</p> +<p> +Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great Mogul. +</p> +<p> +Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18. +</p> +<p> +Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under Captain +Pring. +</p> +<p> +Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618. +</p> +<p> +Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620. +</p> +<p> +War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and Persians, in +1622. +</p> +<p> +Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623. +</p> +<p> +Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, by Dr. +James Cunningham. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0011" id="h2H_4_0011"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME X. +</h2> +<p> +Historical account of early circumnavigations; +of Magellan, in 1519-22. +of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80. +of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8. +of Van Noort, in 1598-1601. +of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17. +of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17. +of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6. +of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, in +1683-91. +in 1703-6, by William Funnell. +in 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney. +in 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton. +in 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0012" id="h2H_4_0012"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XI. +</h2> +<p> +Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein. +</p> +<p> +—— in 1740-4, by Lord Anson. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0013" id="h2H_4_0013"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XII. +</h2> +<p> +Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6. +</p> +<p> +Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8. +</p> +<p> +Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9. +</p> +<p> +Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0014" id="h2H_4_0014"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XIII. +</h2> +<p> +Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded.. +</p> +<p> +Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0015" id="h2H_4_0015"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XIV. +</h2> +<p> +Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0016" id="h2H_4_0016"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XV. +</h2> +<p> +Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded. +</p> +<p> +Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0017" id="h2H_4_0017"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XVI. +</h2> +<p> +Captain Cook's third Voyage continued. +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0018" id="h2H_4_0018"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + VOLUME XVII. +</h2> +<p> +Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded. +</p> +<p> +Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c.; written by himself. +</p> +<p> +Bulkeley's narrative of the same. +</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr> +<br /> +<br /> + + + + +<p><a name="home"></a></p> + +<h2>A</h2> + +<h2>GENERAL</h2> + +<h2>HISTORY AND COLLECTION</h2> + +<h2>OF</h2> + +<h1>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS,</h1> + +<h2>ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER:</h2> + +<h2>FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS</h2> + +<h2>OF NAVIGATION, DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE,</h2> + +<h2>BY SEA AND LAND,</h2> + +<h2>FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<h2>BY</h2> + +<h2>ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S. EDIN.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<h2>ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS.</h2> + +<h2>VOL. I.</h2> + +<h3>WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH:</h3> + +<h3>AND T. CADELL, LONDON.</h3> + +<h3>MDCCCXXIV.</h3> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<h4><a href="#contents"><b>Go to Contents of Volume +I</b></a></h4> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<p>TO HIS EXCELLENCY,<br> +THE HONOURABLE SIR ALEXANDER COCHRANE, K.B.<br> +VICE-ADMIRAL OF THE WHITE,<br> +LATE COMMANDER IN CHIEF<br> +OF HIS MAJESTY'S NAVAL FORCES ON THE LEEWARD ISLAND STATION,<br> +NOW GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE ISLAND OF GUADALOUPE, &C. &C. +&C.</p> + +<p>Dear Sir,</p> + +<p>Unused to the adulatory language of dedications, I am well +aware that any such mode of address would offend your delicacy. +While, therefore, I gratify my own feelings by inscribing this +work with your valued name, I only use the freedom to assure your +Excellency, that I have the honour to be, with the warmest +sentiments of respectful esteem and sincere regard,</p> + +<p>Dear Sir,</p> + +<p>Your affectionate friend, and gratefully devoted servant,</p> + +<p>ROBERT KERR.</p> + +<p>Edinburgh, 1st March 1811.</p> + +<p><a name="preface"></a></p> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<p>In this enlightened age, when every department of science and +literature is making rapid progress, and knowledge of every kind +excites uncommon interest, and is widely diffused, this attempt +to call the attention of the public to a Systematic Arrangement +of Voyages and Travels, from the earliest period of authentic +history to the present time, ought scarcely to require any +apology. Yet, on appearing before the tribunal of public opinion, +every author who has not cherished an unreasonable estimate of +his own qualifications, must necessarily be impressed with +considerable anxiety respecting the probable reception of his +work; and may be expected to offer some account of the plan and +motives of what he proposes to lay before the public.</p> + +<p>The present work is the first of the kind that has ever been +attempted in Scotland: and though, as already avowed in the +Prospectus, the Editor has no wish to detract from the merits of +similar publications, it might appear an overstrained instance of +false delicacy to decline a statement of the circumstances which, +he presumes to hope, will give some prospect of the work being +received with attention and indulgence, perhaps with favour. It +certainly is the <i>only</i> General History and Collection of +Voyages and Travels that has been hitherto attempted in the +English language, upon any arrangement that merits the +appellation of a <i>systematic plan</i>. And hence, should the +plan adopted be found only comparatively good, in so far the +system of arrangement must be pronounced the best that has been +as yet devised. If this be conceded, and the fact is too obvious +to require extended proof or minute elucidation, the Editor shall +not feel mortified even if his arrangement may be considerably +improved hereafter.</p> + +<p>The only work on the subject that has the smallest pretensions +to system, and that is fanciful, involved, irregular, abrupt, and +obscure, is PURCHAS HIS PILGRIMS. Even admitting the plan of that +work to be in itself excellent; although it may be a <i>General +History</i>, so far as it extends, it certainly is in no respect +a <i>Complete Collection</i> of Voyages and Travels. In a very +large proportion of that curious work, it is the <i>author</i> +who speaks to the reader, and not the <i>traveller</i>. In the +present work, wherever that could possibly be accomplished, it +has uniformly been the anxious desire of the Editor that the +voyagers and travellers should tell their own story: In that +department of his labour, his only object has been to assume the +character of <i>interpreter</i> between them and the readers, by +translating foreign or antiquated language into modern English. +Sometimes, indeed, where no record remains of particular voyages +and travels, as written by the persons who performed them, the +Editor has necessarily had recourse to their historians. But, on +every such occasion, the most ancient and most authentic +accessible sources have been anxiously sought after and employed. +In every extensive work, it is of the utmost consequence that its +various parts should be arranged upon a comprehensive and +perspicuously systematic plan. This has been accordingly aimed at +with the utmost solicitude in the present undertaking; and the +order of its arrangement was adopted after much deliberation, and +from a very attentive consideration of every general work of the +same nature that could be procured. If, therefore, the systematic +order on which it is conducted shall appear well adapted to the +subject, after an attentive perusal and candid investigation, the +Editor confidently hopes that his labours may bear a fair +comparison with any similar publication that has yet been brought +forward.</p> + +<p>In the short Prospectus of this work, formerly submitted to +the public, a very general enunciation only, of the heads of the +intended plan, was attempted; as that was then deemed sufficient +to convey a distinct idea of the nature, arrangement, and +distribution of the proposed work. Unavoidable circumstances +still necessarily preclude the possibility, or the propriety +rather, of attempting to give a more full and complete +developement of the divisions and subdivisions of the systematic +arrangement which is to be pursued, and which circumstances may +require some elucidation.</p> + +<p>An extensive and minutely arranged plan was carefully devised +and extended by the Editor, before one word of the work was +written or compiled, after an attentive examination of every +accessible former collection; That plan has been since anxiously +reconsidered, corrected, altered, and extended, in the progress +of the work, as additional materials occurred: yet the Editor +considers that the final and public adoption of his plan, in a +positively fixed and pledged systematic form, any farther than +has been already conveyed in the Prospectus, would have the +effect to preclude the availment of those new views of the +subject which are continually afforded by additional materials, +in every progressive step of preparation for the press. The +number of books of voyages and travels, as well general as +particular, is extremely great; and, even if the whole were at +once before the Editor, it would too much distract his attention +from the division or department in which he is engaged for the +time, to attempt studying and abstracting every subdivision at +once. The grand divisions, however, which have been already +indicated in the Prospectus, and the general principles of the +plan, which are there explained, are intended to be adhered to; +as no reasons have been discovered, after the most attentive +consideration, for any deviation from that carefully adopted +arrangement, the heads of which are here repeated.</p> + +<p><a name="planofwork"></a></p> + +<h2>GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK.</h2> + +<p>PART I.</p> + +<p><i>Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from +the era of Alfred, King of England, in the ninth century to that +of Don Henry of Portugal at the commencement of the fourteenth +century</i>.</p> + +<p>PART II.</p> + +<p><i>General Voyages and Travels chiefly of Discovery; from the +era of Don Henry, in</i> 1412, <i>to that of George III. in</i> +1760.</p> + +<p>PART III.</p> + +<p><i>Particular Voyages and Travels arranged in systematic +order, Geographical and Chronological.</i></p> + +<p>Note.--This part will be divided into five books, +comprehending, I. Europe.--II. Asia.--III. Africa.--IV. +America.--V. Australia and Polynesia; or the prodigious multitude +of islands in the, great: Pacific Ocean. And all these will be +further subdivided into particular chapters or sections +correspondent to the geographical arrangements of these several +portions of the globe.</p> + +<p>PART IV.</p> + +<p><i>General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of +George III. which were conducted upon scientific principles, and +by which the Geography of the globe has been nearly +perfected</i>.</p> + +<p>PART V.</p> + +<p><i>Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation +Discovery and Commerce by sea and land, from the earliest times +to the present period</i>.</p> + +<p>In the deliberate construction of this systematic plan, it has +been a leading object of anxious consideration, to reduce the +extensive and interesting materials of which the work is composed +under a clear, intelligible, and comprehensive arrangement, so +combined in a geographical and chronological series, that each +successive division and subdivision, throughout the whole work, +may prepare the mind of the reader for that which is to follow, +and may assist the memory in the recollection of what has gone +before. By these means, an attentive perusal of this work must +necessarily be of material usefulness, in fixing distinct and +just ideas of geography, history, and chronology in the minds of +its readers; besides the important information and rational +amusement which it will afford, by the frequent description of +manners, customs, laws, governments, and many other +circumstances, of all the countries and nations of the world.</p> + +<p>In determining upon an era for the commencement of this work, +the Editor was naturally led, from a consideration of the +accidental discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in the +<i>ninth</i> century, as coincident with the reign of the great +ALFRED, who ascended the throne of England in 872, to adopt that +period as the beginning of the series, both because the +commencement of modern maritime discovery took place during the +reign of a British sovereign, and because we derive the earliest +written accounts of any of these discoveries from the pen of that +excellent prince. It is true that the first accidental discovery +of Iceland appears to have been made in 861, eleven years before +the accession of Alfred to the throne; yet, as the actual +colonization of that island did not take place till the year 878, +the seventh of his glorious reign, we have been induced to +distinguish the actual commencement of maritime discovery by the +modern European nations as coinciding with his era.</p> + +<p>From that time, till the year 1412, when Don Henry, Prince of +Portugal, first began to prosecute a consecutive series of +maritime discoveries along the western coast of Africa, during +which a long inactive period of 551 years had elapsed, the only +maritime incident connected with our subject, was the accidental +re-discovery of the Canary or Fortunate Islands, by a nameless +Frenchman, about the year 1330, though they were not attempted to +be taken possession of till 1400. This long interval, between the +eras of King Alfred and Don Henry, constitutes the <i>first</i> +Part, or grand division of our work, in the course of which, a +considerable number of adventurous travellers penetrated into the +almost unknown regions of Tartary and the East, and considerable +notices of the empire of China, and even of Japan, and of the +coast and islands of India and north-eastern Africa, were +communicated to the Europeans by the Polos and others.</p> + +<p>In separating Part IV. from Part II. the General Voyages and +Travels of Discovery which have been undertaken during the long +and busy reign of our present venerable Sovereign, from those of +a similar nature which succeeded the discovery of the new world, +and of the route by sea to India, the Editor only pays a just +tribute to the enlightened spirit of the age, under the +munificent and enlightened patronage of the beloved Monarch of a +free and happy people. Those former voyages of Part II. were +mostly undertaken from mere interested views of direct or +expected commercial benefit; while these of the era of George +III. originated in the grand principles of endeavouring to extend +the bounds of science and human happiness.</p> + +<p>Perhaps it may occur to some readers, that PART V. the last in +order of the general heads of our plan, ought to have formed PART +I. as partaking of the nature of an introduction to the subject, +and forming a summary of the whole work. Upon even a very slight +consideration, however, it must be obvious, that it is impossible +to compose that proposed deduction in any adequate manner, until +the whole mass of selected materials is possessed by the Editor, +and definitively arranged. It may likewise be known to many, that +introductions and prefaces, though usually placed at the +beginning of books, are uniformly and necessarily last composed, +and usually last printed, except in new editions.</p> + +<p>A great variety of Collections of Voyages and Travels have +been published at different periods, many of which are +inaccessible from their scarcity, or from being in foreign +languages: And such great numbers of Voyages and Travels to +particular regions and countries have been printed, as to be +Altogether unattainable by the generality of readers. Every +thing, however, which could contribute to the perfection of this +work has been collected, or will be carefully procured during its +progress; and no pains or expense shall be withheld which, can +contribute to render it as complete and comprehensive as +possible. In the employment of the vast variety and extent of +excellent materials, great care shall be taken to insert every +useful and curious information, reduced, where necessary, to +modern language; and nothing shall be omitted which is conducive +to valuable information and rational amusement.</p> + +<p>In our approach towards the present times, the multitude of +particular Voyages and Travels increases prodigiously; and, in +employing these, it becomes peculiarly necessary to make a +selection of the best in every period, and especially of those +best adapted for conveying just ideas of each geographical +division and subdivision of the world; while those of less merit, +but which contain useful notices of the regions and countries of +which they treat, shall be carefully epitomized in illustration +of the different subjects. Without the employment of discriminate +selection and occasional abridgement, this work must have +extended to an inconvenient and consequently expensive size, or +must have been left unfinished and abrupt in some of its parts: +<i>But abridgement shall be very seldom employed and never +without acknowledgment</i>. Indeed, the grand object of the +present work is to bring together a more complete and entire +collection of Voyages and Travels, than has hitherto appeared in +any language.</p> + +<p>From the nature of the plan, it is utterly impossible to +ascertain, with any precision, the exact length to which it may +extend; but, so far as can be judged of at present, it is not +expected to exceed eighteen or twenty volumes. Throughout the +whole work, a series of Maps and Charts will be inserted in their +proper places, carefully selected and constructed for the purpose +of illustrating the various Voyages and Travels. At the close of +the whole, a complete Index will be given to the entire series of +volumes, so arranged as to form a regular <i>Gazetteer</i> of the +whole world. In every article which has been adopted into this +work, the original and accessory sources of all the materials +shall be distinctly indicated. Notes of explanation will be +given, wherever necessary; and, as many of these are drawn from +various sources, the names of the authors from whom they are +adopted shall always be acknowledged: Such notes as are marked by +the letter E. are by the Editor of the work.</p> + +<p>Owing to the indispensable nature of this work, it makes no +positive claim to the character of an original composition, in +the strict acceptation of that term; and he, therefore, who has +undertaken the care of its collection and arrangement, assumes no +higher title than that of <i>Editor</i>. In the discharge of that +duty, however, the labour which he has necessarily bestowed, +though always pleasing, has often been considerable, and +sometimes arduous; and he trusts that the plan of the work, which +is altogether original, will be found appropriately adapted to +the end in view, and that the execution may appear not inadequate +to the high importance of the subject. Without imputation of +arrogance, he may be permitted to assert, that he has exerted the +most unremitting attention and industry, in the collection, +selection, and preparation of the several portions of the whole +work, and in the arrangement and distribution of its parts. He +has the satisfaction to add, that all his efforts have been +seconded with the utmost readiness and liberality by the +<i>Proprietor</i> of the work, who has spared no trouble, and +withheld no expense, in procuring and supplying the necessary +materials.</p> + +<p>It is with much grateful satisfaction, that the Editor has to +acknowledge his high obligations to the Curators and Librarians +of the Edinburgh public libraries, belonging to the Faculty of +Advocates, the University, and the Writers to his Majesty's +Signet, for the communication of many valuable and scarce +materials. Nor ought he to withhold his tribute of gratitude, on +this occasion, from the liberal spirit of a private individual, +the Reverend Henry White of Lichfield, who has most obligingly +offered the use of his valuable Collection of Voyages and +Travels, and other curious and scarce works connected with the +subject, for assisting towards the perfection of this +publication.</p> + +<p>Having thus briefly announced the nature, plan, and object of +the present work, of which this <i>first</i> Volume is now before +the public, it only remains to say, that the Editor and +Proprietor, each in his particular department, are resolved to +exert their utmost endeavours, that nothing may be omitted which +can contribute to render the work deserving of public approbation +and extensive patronage.</p> + +<p><a name="contents"></a></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.</h2> + +<p><a href="#preface"><b>PREFACE.</b></a></p> + +<p><a href="#planofwork"><b>GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK.</b></a></p> + +<p><a href="#part1"><b>PART I.</b></a></p> + +<p>Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the Era of Alfred, King +of England, in the Ninth Century, to the Era of Don Henry, Prince +of Portugal, at the commencement of the Fifteenth Century.</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-1"><b><i>CHAPTER I.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Discoveries in the time of Alfred, King of England, in the +Ninth Century of the Christian Era.</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-1">Section I.</a></p> + +<p>Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians, in the Ninth +Century</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-2">Section II.</a></p> + +<p>Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the +Ninth Century</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-3">Section III.</a></p> + +<p>Remarks on the situation of Sciringes-heal and Haethum, by J. +R. Forster</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-4">Section IV.</a></p> + +<p>Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic, as related to King +Alfred</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-4a">Section IV.</a> [1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] By error of the press, Sect, IV. has been +numerically repeated.</blockquote> + +<p>Voyage of Sighelm to India, in the reign of Alfred, King +of</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-5">Section V.</a></p> + +<p>Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth-Century</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-6">Section VI.</a></p> + +<p>Geography of the known World, in the Ninth Century, as +described by King Alfred</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-7">Section VII.</a></p> + +<p>VII. Travels of Andrew Leucander, in the Eleventh Century</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-8">Section VIII.</a></p> + +<p>Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem, in 1052</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-9">Section IX.</a></p> + +<p>Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople, +about 1056</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-10">Section X.</a></p> + +<p>Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem, in 1058</p> + +<p><a href="#section1-11">Section XI.</a></p> + +<p>Pilgrimage of Ingulphus to Jerusalem, in 1064</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-2"><b><i>CHAPTER II.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders, in the +Ninth Century</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-3"><b><i>CHAPTER III.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Early Discovery of Winland, or America, by the Icelanders, +about the year 1001</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-4"><b><i>CHAPTER IV.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the Ninth +Century</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-5"><b><i>CHAPTER V.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the Twelfth +Century</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-6"><b><i>CHAPTER VI.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-7"><b><i>CHAPTER VII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-8"><b><i>CHAPTER VIII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of John de Piano Carpini, in 1246</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-9"><b><i>CHAPTER IX.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of W. de Rubruquis, about 1253</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-10"><b><i>CHAPTER X.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in 1254</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-11"><b><i>CHAPTER XI.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Marco Polo into China and the East; from A.D. 1260 +to 1295</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-12"><b><i>CHAPTER XII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Oderic of Portenau, in 1318</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-13"><b><i>CHAPTER XIII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-14"><b><i>CHAPTER XIV.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in 1355</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-15"><b><i>CHAPTER XV.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-16"><b><i>CHAPTER XVI.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Schildtberger, in 1394</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-17"><b><i>CHAPTER XVII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in 1419</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-18"><b><i>CHAPTER XVIII.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431</p> + +<p><a href="#chapter1-19"><b><i>CHAPTER XIX.</i></b></a></p> + +<p>Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, in 1436</p> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<p>(Transcriber's note: The following errata have been applied to +the text.)</p> + +<p>ERRATA.</p> + +<p>Page 8, line 26, <i>for</i> insulated <i>read</i> +inhabited</p> + +<p>51, 21, <i>for</i> phenomena <i>read</i> phenomenon</p> + +<p>62, 41, <i>after</i> each <i>insert</i> of the</p> + +<p>118 33, <i>after</i> thirteenth <i>insert</i> century</p> + +<p>165, note 7, <i>for</i> Keander <i>read</i> Theander.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<p><a name="part1"></a></p> + +<h1>PART I.</h1> + +<h2>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE ERA OF ALFRED, +KING OF ENGLAND, IN THE NINTH CENTURY; TO THE ERA OF DON HENRY, +PRINCE OF PORTUGAL, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE FIFTEENTH +CENTURY.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<h2><a name="chapter1-1">CHAPTER I.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Discoveries in the time of Alfred King of +England, in the ninth century of the Christian era.</i></b></p> + +<h3><a name="introduction1">INTRODUCTION.</a></h3> + +<p>In the midst of the profound ignorance and barbarism which +overspread the nations of Western Europe, after the dissolution +of the Roman empire in the West, a transient ray of knowledge and +good government was elicited by the singular genius of the great +Alfred, a hero, legislator, and philosopher, among a people +nearly barbarous. Not satisfied with having delivered his +oppressed and nearly ruined kingdom from the ravages of the +almost savage Danes and Nordmen, and the little less injurious +state of anarchy and disorganization into which the weakness of +the vaunted Anglo-Saxon system of government had plunged England, +he for a time restored the wholesome dominion of the laws, and +even endeavoured to illuminate his ignorant people by the +introduction of useful learning. In the prosecution of these +patriotic views, and for his own amusement and instruction, +besides other literary performances, he made a translation of the +historical work of Orosius into his native Anglo-Saxon dialect; +into which he interwove the relations of Ohthere and Wulfstan, of +which hereafter, and such other information as he could collect +respecting the three grand divisions of the world then known; +insomuch, that his account of Europe especially differs very +materially from that of Orosius, of which he only professed to +make a translation.</p> + +<p>Although Alfred only mounted the throne of England in 872, it +has been deemed proper to commence the series of this work with +the discovery of Iceland by the Nordmen or Norwegians, about the +year 861, as intimately connected with the era which has been +deliberately chosen as the best landmark of our proposed +systematic History and Collection of Voyages and Travels. That +entirely accidental incident is the earliest geographical +discovery made by the modern nations, of which any authentic +record now remains, and was almost the only instance of the kind +which occurred, from the commencement of the decline of the Roman +power, soon after the Christian era, for nearly fourteen +centuries. And as the colonization of Iceland did not begin till +A.D. 878, the insertion of this circumstance in the present +place, can hardly be considered as at all deviating from the most +rigid principles of our plan.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-1">SECTION I.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in the Ninth +Century</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Fragm. Vet. Islandic. ap. Langebeck, II. +31.--Forster, Hist. of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. +50.</blockquote> + +<p>It were foreign to our present object to attempt any +delineation of the piratical, and even frequently conquering +expeditions of the various nations of Scandinavia, who, under the +names of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans, so long +harassed the fragments of the Roman empire. About the year 861, +one Naddod, a Nordman or Norwegian vikingr, or chief of a band of +freebooters, who, during a voyage to the Faro islands, was thrown +by a storm upon the eastern coast of an unknown country, +considerably beyond the ordinary course of navigation, to which +he gave the significant name of Snio-land, or Snow-land, from the +immense quantities of snow which every where covered its numerous +lofty mountains, even in the height of summer, and filled its +many valleys during a long and dreary winter. As Naddod gave a +rather favourable account of his discovery on his return to +Norway, one Gardar Suafarson, of Swedish origin, who was settled +in Norway, determined upon making an expedition to Snow-land in +864; and having circumnavigated the whole extent of this new +discovery, he named it from himself, Gardars-holm, or +Gardars-island.</p> + +<p>Gardar employed so long a time in this expedition, that, not +deeming it safe to navigate the northern ocean during the storms +of winter, he remained on the island until the ensuing spring, +when he sailed for Norway. He there reported, that though the +island was entirely covered with wood, it was, in other respects, +a fine country. From the favourable nature of this report, one +Flocke, the son of Vigvardar, who had acquired great reputation +among the Nordmen or Normans, as an experienced and intrepid +vikingr or pirate, resolved to visit the newly-discovered island. +Flocke likewise wintered in the northern part of the island, +where he met with immense quantities of drift ice, from which +circumstance he chose to give it the name of Iceland, which it +still bears. He was by no means pleased with the country, +influenced, no doubt, by the unfavourable impression he had +imbibed by spending a long protracted winter on the dreary +northern shore, amid almost ever-during arctic ice, and +surrounded by the most unpromising sterility; and though some of +his companions represented the land as pleasing and fertile, the +desire of visiting Iceland seems, for some time, to have lain +dormant among the adventurous Norwegian navigators; probably +because neither fame nor riches could be acquired, either by +traffic or depredation, in a country which was utterly destitute +of inhabitants.</p> + +<p>At length, in 874, two friends, Ingolf and Lief, repaired to +Iceland, and were so much satisfied with its appearance, that +they formed a resolution of attempting to make a settlement in +the country; induced, doubtless, by a desire to withdraw from the +continual wars and revolutions which then harassed the north of +Europe, and to escape from the thraldom which the incipient +monarchies of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, were then imposing +upon the independent chiefs or vikingr of the Normans. In +pursuance of this determination, Ingolf transported some people +to Iceland, about the year 878, with several cattle, and all +kinds of implements, to enable him to commence a colony. At this +period his friend Lief was absent in the English wars; but went +soon afterwards into Iceland, to which he carried the booty which +he had acquired in England.</p> + +<p>The first discoverers of Iceland are said to have found some +Irish books, bells, and croziers on the coast; whence it has been +imagined, that some people from Ireland had resided there +previous to its discovery and settlement by the Normans. But it +seems a more probable supposition, to account for these articles +having been seen, that a party of Norman pirates or vikingr, who +had previously landed in Ireland, or perhaps on Icolmkil, and had +carried away the plunder of some abbey or monastery, had been +driven to Iceland by a storm, and wrecked upon the coast, where +these articles might have been washed on shore: Or they may have +attributed the storm, by which they were driven so far beyond +their knowledge, to the anger of the God of the Christians, for +their sacrilegious robbery of a holy institution, and may have +left these articles behind, in hopes of propitiating a more +favourable termination to their voyage. The first settlers found +extensive forests in the valleys of Iceland; and we know, from +authentic documents, that corn was formerly cultivated with +decent success in that northern region; whereas, in the present +day, not a tree is to be found in the whole island, except some +stunted birches, and very low bushes or underwood, in the most +sheltered situations, and no corn will now ripen, even in the +most favourable years. But the roots and stumps of large firs are +still to be seen in various parts; and the injurious alteration +of its climate is known to have been occasioned by the straits +between <i>old</i> Greenland and Iceland having been many years +choked up with ice, which the short summers of that high latitude +are not sufficiently powerful to dissolve.</p> + +<p>About the present period, Harold Harfagr, or the fair-haired, +one of the petty sovereigns or vikingr of Norway, began to +subjugate the other chieftains of the country under his paramount +authority, and was so successful as to establish the Norwegian +monarchy in 875. Gorm, likewise, about the same time, united the +petty states of Jutland and the Danish islands into one kingdom, +as Ingiald Illrode had done long before in Sweden. Such +independent spirits as found themselves dissatisfied with this +new order of affairs, found a sure asylum in Iceland; and the +emigrations to this new country became so numerous, that Harold +at length deemed it expedient to impose a tax of half a mark of +silver, equal to five pounds of our modern money, on every one of +his subjects who were desirous of going to settle in that +island.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-2">SECTION II.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the +Ninth Century.</i>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, by Alfred the +Great, translated by Daines Barrington, p. 9.--Langebeck, Script. +Dan. II. 106-118.-- Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. +53.</blockquote> + +<p>Some of the Norwegian chieftains, who were dissatisfied with +the usurpation of supreme authority by Harold, took refuge in +England, where Alfred had recently settled many of the vanquished +Danes and Nordmen in the northern part of his dominions, which +had been almost entirely depopulated and laid waste, by their +long-continued and destructive ravages. Among these was one +Ohthere, who had made himself famous by his voyages to unknown +parts of the north, and who was invited to court by Alfred, to +give an account of the discoveries and observations he had made +during his unusual expeditions. This person had been a chief of +some note in his own country, and dwelt at a place which he +called Halgoland, supposed by some to have been in Numadalen, +while others say in Nordland, the most northerly p province of +Norway proper. In the succeeding paragraph, he is said to have +dwelt opposite to the <i>West Sea,</i> and as Alfred only uses +the word sea to denote a confined expanse or narrow channel, +while he calls the ocean Garsecg, it seems highly probable, that, +by the West Sea, the <i>west ford</i> was intended,--a channel or +strait which divides the Luffoden islands from the coast of +Nordland, which would clearly place the residence of Ohthere in +this northern province. The account which he gave of his voyages +to his royal patron, is as follows.</p> + +<p>Ohthere told his lord King Alfred, that lie lived to the north +of all the Nordmen or Norwegians; and that he dwelt in that land +to the northward, opposite to the west sea; and that all the land +to the north of that sea is waste and uninhabited except in a few +places, to which the Finans[2] or Fins repair in winter for +hunting and fowling, and for fishing in the summer. Being +desirous to ascertain how far this country extended towards the +north, and whether there were any inhabitants beyond these +wastes, he proceeded by sea due north from his own habitation, +leaving the desert land all the way on the starboard or +right-hand, and the wide sea on the larboard or left-hand of his +course. After three days sail, he was as far north as the +whale-hunters ever go[3]; and then proceeded in his course due +north for other three days, when he found the land, instead of +stretching due north, as hitherto[4], to trend from thence +towards the east. Whether the sea there lies within the land, he +knew not[5], as he only waited for a west wind, and then sailed +near that land eastwards, as far as he could, in four days; as he +found the direction of the coast then to change to due south, he +waited for a north wind, and then sailed due south as far as be +could in five days.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Ohthere here calls the inhabitants of the desert +Fins, and it would appear that the Laplanders are actually Fins, +or Finlanders; the name of Laps or Laplanders being of modern +origin, and the Danes and Norwegians still call this country +Finmark.--Forst</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] In former translations of Alfred, this passage is +rendered as follows: "He was within three days sail of being as +far north as the whale-hunters ever go." This expression is vague +and ambiguous, and rather means that the residence from whence he +set out was within three days sail, &c.; whereas the next +member of the same sentence distinctly indicates a preceding +three days sail, as in the adopted translation.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] This is not quite accurate, as the coast of +Norway, in the course of Ohthere, stretches N.N.E. He was now +arrived at the North Cape, whence the coast towards the White Sea +trends E. and by N.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] This doubt, of whether the sea lies within the +land or not, probably refers to the numerous inlets or fiords +along the whole coast of Norway and Finmark, and may mean, that +he did not examine whether the land might not be parcelled out +into innumerable islands.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In this land he found a large river, at the mouth of which he +lay to, as he could not proceed much farther, on account of the +inhabitants being hostile. All the land on one side of this river +was inhabited, and tolerably well cultivated, but he had not met +with any inhabitants till now, since he left his own country; the +whole land on his right being a desert, and without inhabitants, +except the fishers, fowlers, and hunters, before-mentioned, who +were all Fins; and the open sea lay on his left hand during his +whole voyage. The Beormas [6], indeed, had well peopled their +country, for which reason he did not venture to enter upon it; +and the land of the Terfenna [7], which he had passed hitherto, +was all a desert, with the exception of the hunters and fishers +already mentioned.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] The Beormas are the Biarmians or Permians of the +northern writers; and Perm or Permia is still mentioned among the +numerous titles of the emperors of Russia.--Forat.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] The Terfennas are mentioned as different from the +Scrite-fennas. These were distinguished by Guido, the geographer +of Ravenna, in the seventh century, into Rerefinni and +Scritifinni. The latter lived entirely by hunting, and wore +snow-shoes in winter, called Schrit. The former subsisted on +their herds of rein-deer, and perhaps ought to have been +therefore called Rene-finni. The name in the text ought perhaps +to have been Rhane-fenna, as he tells us they had rein-deer, and +employed decoy deer to catch the wild. Perhaps Fer-fenna, from +their travelling in sledges; from farra, to travel in a +carriage.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>The Beormas told him many particulars about their land, and of +the neighbouring countries; but he could not rely on their +accounts, as he had no opportunity of seeing with his own eyes, +but it seemed to him that the Beormas and Fins spoke the same +language [8]. Ohthere stated, that his motive for this +expedition, besides some little curiosity to explore these +countries, which were unknown to his countrymen, was principally +in pursuit of horse-whales [9], which are valuable, because their +tusks are excellent ivory, some of which he brought to the king, +and because their hides serve for making into ropes for ships. +This species of the whale is much smaller than the other kind, +being seldom more than seven ells in length; while the other +species is often forty-eight ells long, and sometimes even fifty. +In this country was the best whale-fishing that Ohthere had ever +seen, the whales being so numerous, that he was one of six who +killed threescore in three days[10].</p> + +<blockquote>[8] It is highly probable, from this remark, in which +Ohthere could not be mistaken, as it will appear in the sequel +that he must have been perfectly well acquainted with the Fins, +that the Biarmians were a branch of the great Finnish stock. The +principal difference seems to have been, that the Fins continued +to be wandering hunters and herdsmen, while the Beormas or +Biarmians had advanced to the state of fixed cultivators of the +soil. They had likewise an idol called Jomala, which is still the +name of one of the deities of the +Finlanders.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] The morse is here named horse-whale by king +Alfred, with infinitely greater propriety than the appellation of +sea-horse, which long prevailed in our language. The tusks of +this animal are still considered as excellent ivory, and are +peculiarly valuable for the construction of false teeth; and +leather made from the hide is still used in Russia for +coach-harness, but stretches more when wet than any other +leather.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] It would appear, from the vast number killed, +that this successful fishing must refer to the morse or +horse-whale, not to the ordinary large whale.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Ohthere was a very rich man in those things which are +considered as valuable in his country, and possessed, at the time +when he came to the king, six hundred tame deer, none of which he +had bought; besides which, he had six decoy deer, which are much +in request among the Fins, as by means of them, they are enabled +to catch wild deer. Yet, though one of the richest men in these +parts, he had only twenty head of cattle, twenty sheep, and +twenty swine; and what little land he had in tillage was ploughed +by horses. The principal wealth of the Norman chiefs in that +country consisted in tribute exacted from the Fins; being paid in +skins of wild beasts, feathers, whalebone, cables and ropes for +ships, made from the hides of whales or seals. Every one pays in +proportion to his substance: the wealthiest paying the skins of +fifteen martins, five rein-deer skins, and one bear-skin, a coat +or cloak made of bear-skin or otters skins, and two cables or +ship ropes of sixty ells long each, one of which is made of whale +hide, and the other from the skins of seals.</p> + +<p>According to the description given to the king by Ohthere, +Northmanna-land, or Norway, is very long and narrow, all the land +which is fit for pasture or tillage being on the seacoast, which +is very rocky in some places. To the east of this, and parallel +to the cultivated land, there are wild and huge mountains and +moors, which are inhabited by the Fins. The cultivated land is +broadest in the south[11], where it is sixty miles broad, and in +some places more; about the middle of the country, it is perhaps +thirty miles broad, or somewhat more; and where it is narrowest +in the north, it is hardly more than three miles from the sea to +the moors. In some places, the moors are so extensive that a man +can hardly travel across them in a fortnight, and in other places +perhaps in six days.</p> + +<blockquote>[11] In the original, the broad and comparatively +fertile part of Norway is said to be in the <i>east</i>: the +correction adopted in the text is obvious and +necessary.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Opposite to the south part of this country is Sueoland[12], or +Sweden, on the other side of the moors, and opposite to its +northern part is Cwenland. The Cwens sometimes pass the moors and +mountains to invade and plunder the country of the Normans; who +likewise sometimes retaliate, by crossing over to spoil their +land. In these moors, there are some very large <i>meres</i> or +lakes of fresh water, and the Cwenas[13] sometimes carry their +small light ships over land into these lakes, and employ them to +facilitate their depredations on the Nordmen. Ohthere says, that +the shire or district which he inhabited is called Halgoland, and +that there were no inhabitants beyond him to the north. There is +likewise a port in the southern land, which is called +Sciringes-heal[14], which no one could reach in a month's +sailing, even with a fair wind, at least if he lay to at night. +During this voyage, the navigator must sail near the land, or +make a coasting voyage along the coast of Norway towards the +south, having <i>Iraland</i>[15], and the islands which are +between that country and Norway, on his right hand; for this +country continues all the way on the left hand of the navigator, +from Halgoland to Sciringes-heal. As he proceeds again to the +northward, a great sea to the south of Sciringes-heal runs up +into this land, and that sea is so wide, that a person cannot see +across it. Gotland[16] is opposite on the other side, or +right-hand; and afterwards the sea of Sillende[17] lies many +miles up in that country.</p> + +<blockquote>[12] In former translations, this passage is: +"opposite to this land, <i>to</i> the south, is Sueoland." The +alteration in the text removes the ambiguity--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Cwenland and the Cwenas appear to refer to +Lapmark, and its inhabitants, the +Finlanders.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] See Sect. iii. p. 12, in which this place is +supposed by Mr J. R. Forster to have been where Stockholm now +is.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] Iraland obviously here means Scotland, with the +Faro, Shetland, and Orkney islands.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] This is plainly the isle of +Gothland.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] Apparently the Baltic proper is here called the +sea of Sillende, and may have been named from the isle of +Zeeland. Yet in this passage it seems to refer to the gulf of +Bothnia, as running far up into the country.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Ohthere farther says, that he sailed in five days from +Sciringes-heal to that port which is called Haethum [18], which +lies between Winedum, Seaxun, and Anglen, and makes part of Dene. +When he sailed to this place from Sciringes-heal, Dene, or +Denmark, was on his left, and on his right was a wide sea for +three days; as were also on his right, two days before he came to +Haethum, Gotland, Sillende, and many other islands, which were +inhabited by the Angles before they came to Britain; and during +these two days, the islands belonging to Denmark were on his left +hand.</p> + +<blockquote>[18] See Sect. iii. p. 14, in which Forster +endeavours to fix this place at Aarhuus in Jutland.</blockquote> + +<h3><a name="section1-3">SECTION III.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Remarks by J. M. Forster, respecting the situation of +Sciringes-heal and Haethum</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. 67.</blockquote> + +<p>The name of this place, Sciringes-heal, has given a great deal +of trouble to former commentators on Alfred; viz. Sir John +Spelman, Bussaeus, Somner, John Philip Murray, and Langebeck, who +have all chosen spots totally different, in which to place +Sciringes-heal. Spelman, and others, look for this place near +Dantzic, where, in their opinion, the Scyres formerly resided. +But, first, the spot where the Scyres lived, is by no means +satisfactorily determined; and, next, it is evident that Ohthere +went continually along the coast from Halgoland to +Sciringes-heal, and that this coast was on his left-hand during +the whole course of his navigation. The late Mr Murray placed +Sciringes-heal at Skanor, in the southern extremity of Sweden; +but I cannot think that this place could be five days sail from +Haethum in Jutland, as it is expressly declared to have been by +Ohthere. Langebeck is for carrying Sciringes-heal to Konga-hella, +on the Guatelf, near Marstrand; and insists, that the name, in +Alfred's account of the voyage, ought to have been written +Cyninges-heal instead of Sciringes-heal. If the word had only +once occurred, I might have allowed Langebeck to be right; but we +meet with it five times in the space of a few lines, and always +without the slightest variation in orthography. 2dly, The voyage +from Halgoland to Konga-hella is not of sufficient extent to have +employed a month in the passage. 3dly, Konga-hella is too near +Jutland to have required five days for the voyage between it and +Haethum.</p> + +<p>Having demonstrated the insufficiency of these conjectures, we +shall now endeavour to point out where Sciringes-heal was really +situated. Paul Warenfried, in his Historia Longobardorum, Lib. i, +cap. 7. and 10. makes mention of a district, named Scorunga, in +which the Winili, or Lombards resided, for some time before they +removed to Mairinga and from thence, farther on to Gotland, +Anthabet, Bethaib, and Purgendaid. This Scorunga was not far from +Gotland, and consequently in Sweden; and seems to have been the +district in which Sciringes-heal was situated. Add to this, that +Ohthere, after having described Sueoland, or Sweden, as being to +the southwards of his habitation, immediately says, "there is a +port in this southern land which is called Sciringes-heal." By +this, he seems plainly to indicate, that this place certainly was +in Sweden; and all this will appear, still more evidently, if we +carefully follow the course of the voyage which he describes. +First of all, he has Scotland, called Iraland, evidently by +mistake, and the Orkney and Shetland islands, which lie between +Scotland and Halgoland, on his right hand; and the continent is +continually on his left hand, all the way, until he arrive at +Sciringes- heal. But farther, a large bay stretches to the +northward, deep into the country, along the coast of which he had +been continually sailing; and this bay commences quite to the +southward of Sciringes-heal, and is so broad that a man cannot +see across, and Gotland is directly opposite to this bay[2]. But +the sea, which extended from Zeeland to this spot, goes many +hundred miles up into the country to the eastwards.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] It appears to me, that the description given by +Ohthere, implies, that Gotland was directly opposite to +Sciringes-heal, or to the east. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>From Sciringes-heal, Ohthere could sail in five days to +Haethum, which lies between the Wends Saxons and Angles. Now, by +this voyage, we are enabled to determine, with still greater +exactness, the situation of this place which we are searching +for. In order to get to Haethum, he left Gotland on the right[3], +and soon afterwards Zeeland likewise, together with the other +islands which had been the habitation of the Angles before they +went to England, while those which belonged to Denmark were on +his left for two days. Sciringes-heal, therefore, is consequently +in Sweden, at the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, which runs up +into the land northwards, just on that spot where the Baltic, +after having passed Zeeland, spreads into a wide gulf, extending +several hundred miles into the land. Just in this place I find +the Svia-Sciaeren, or Swedish Scares, a cluster of little +islands, surrounded by rocks. Heal, in the northern languages, +signifies a port, as in such places a ship might be kept in +safety. Sciringes-heal, therefore, was "the harbour of the +Scares," and was probably at the entrance of the gulf of Bothnia, +and consequently where Stockholm now is; and the tract of land +where these Scares lay, towards the sea, was the Scarunga of Paul +Warenfried.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Not surely on going southwards, but after he had +again turned to the northwards, after doubling the southern point +of Sweden.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The port of Hasthum has occasioned much difficulty to the +commentators, as well as that of Sciringes-heal; but all have +agreed that it must be Sleswic, as this latter is called Haitha +by Ethelwerd the Anglo-Saxon. A Norwegian poet gives it the name +of Heythabae, others call it Heydaboe, and Adam of Bremen +Heidaba; and this, in their opinion, is precisely the same with +Haethum. It appears to me, however, that the difference between +the words Haethaby and Hasthum, are by no means so +inconsiderable. And I think the situation of Sleswic does not at +all accord with the descriptions which are given of Haethum by +Ohthere and Wulfstan. Indeed, if Sleswic be Haethum, I must +confess, that I cannot in the least comprehend the course of the +voyages of these ancient navigators. Ohthere tells us, that in +sailing from Sciringes-heal to Haethum, he had Denmark to the +left, and the open sea, for the space of three days, to the +right; but that, for two days before he reached Haethum, he had +Gotland and Zeeland to the right, and the islands which belong to +Denmark to the left. If he had gone to Sleswic, he must have +found all the Danish islands on his right hand, and not one +besides Femeren on his left. This being considered, I ask how it +is possible, consistent with his own description of the voyage, +that the situation of Sleswic can be made to correspond with +Haethum? As, in the district of Aarhuus in Jutland, there is an +extensive track of land called Alheide, which is in fact a heath, +I shall take the liberty to suppose, that the town, in the ninth +century, lay higher up towards Al-heide, or All-heath; for the +town of Aar-huus is new, and its name signifies in English +Oar-house. The old town, therefore, may have been called +Al-haethum, or Haethum; so, that if Ohthere set out from +Stockholm for this place, Gotland was on his right hand[4], and +so was Zealand. And as he sailed between Zealand and Funen, or +Fyen, all the Danish islands were on his left hand, and he had +the wide sea, that is, the Schager-rack, and Cattegat to the +right. Farther, when Wulfsten went from Haethum, or Aarhuus to +Truso, he had Weonothland, that is Funen, Fionia, or Fyen to his +right; and to the left were, Langeland, Laeland, Falster, and +Sconeg; together with Bornholm, Bleking, Moehre, Oeland, and +Gotland. But Wendenland remained on his right, all the way to the +mouth of the Vistula.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] This is certainly true during the latter part of +his voyage, after turning round the south end of Sweden, and +standing again to the northward, between Zealand and Fyen; but in +coasting down the shore of Sweden to the south, he must have left +Gotland to the left,--E.</blockquote> + +<h3><a name="section1-4">SECTION IV.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Voyage of Wulfstan in the Baltic as related to +Alfred</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Alfred's Orosius, by Barrington, p. 16. +Langebeck, Scrip. Dan. II. 118- 123. Wulfstan appears to have +been a Dane, who had probably become acquainted with Ohthere, +during his maritime expeditions, and had gone with him to reside +in England.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Wulfstan said that he sailed from Haethum to Truso[2] in seven +days and nights, the ship being under sail all the time. +Weonothland[3] was on his right; but Langaland, Laeland, Falster, +and Sconeg, were on the left, all of which belong to +Dene-mearkan[4]. Burgendaland[5] also, which has a king of its +own, was on the left. After leaving Burgendaland, the islands of +Becinga-eg, Meore, Eowland, and Gotland, were on the left, all of +which belong to Sueon[6], and Weonodland[7] was all the way on +the right to the mouth of the Wisle[8]. This is a very large +river, and near it Witland[9], and Weonodland are situated; the +former of which belongs to Estum, and the Wisle does not run +through Weonodland, but through Estmere[10], which lake is +fifteen miles broad. Then runs the Ilfing[11] from the eastwards +into Est-mere, on the banks of which is Truso. The Ilfing flows +from Est-land into the Est-mere from the east, and the Wisle +through Weonodland from the south. The Ilfing, having joined the +Wisle, takes its name, and runs to the west of Estmere, and +northward into the sea, where it is called Wisle-mouth[12].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] There is a lake still called Truso or Drausen, +between Elbing and Prussian Holland, from which, probably, the +town here mentioned, which stood on the Frisch-haf, took its +name.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] It is necessary to distinguish accurately between +Weonothland, which is probably Fuehnen, Funen, or Fionio, now +called Fyen; and Weonodland or Winodland, afterwards +Wendenland.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Denmark obviously, called simply Dene, in the +voyages of Ohthere.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Probably Bornholm.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Called Sueoland in the voyages of Ohthere, is +assuredly Sweden, to which all these islands belong. Becinga-eg, +is certainly Bleking; the <i>l</i> being omitted in +transcription, called an island by mistake. Meore is indisputably +the upper and lower Moehre in Smoland; Eowland is Oeland; and +Gotland is doubtless the modern isle of that name. +--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Weonodland, or Winodland, extends to the mouth of +the Vistula; and is obviously a peculiar and independent country, +totally different from Weonothland, belonging to +Denmark.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] Wisle, or Wisla, is the Sclavonian orthography +for the Vistula, called Weichsel by the Germans, and Weissel by +the Prussians.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Witland is a district of Samland in Prussia. It +had this name of Witland at the time of the crusades of the +Germans against Prussia. The word Wit-land, is a translation of +the native term Baltikka, or the white land, now applied to the +Baltic Sea.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Est-mere, a lake of fresh water, into which the +Elbing and Vistula empty themselves; now called Frisch-haf, or +the fresh water sea. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] This is undoubtedly the Elbing which flows from +lake Drausen, or Truso, and joins, by one of its branches, that +arm of the Vistula which is called Neugat or +Nogat.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] The Ilfing, or Elbing, comes out of Esthonia, +yet not from the east, as here said by Alfred, but from the +south; except, indeed, he mean that arm of the Elbing which runs +into the Nogat, or eastern arm of the Vistula. But the Vistula +comes out of Wendenland, called Weonodland in the text, from the +south; and the two rivers discharge themselves into the +Frisch-haf, which stretches from west to north, or in a +north-east direction; and at Pilau, goes northwards into the sea. +It is certainly possible that this entrance may have been +formerly called Wisle-mund, or the mouth of the Vistula, as well +as the western mouth of that river.--Forst. + +<p>This concession is not necessary to the truth of Wulfstan and +Alfred. There is a cross branch from Elbing, which joins the +Nogat and Vistula proper; and which is probably meant in the +text, where the Ilfing and Wisle, united, are said to run to the +west of Est-mere, or the haf, and then north, into the sea at +Wisle-mund.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Est-land is a large track of country, having many towns, in +each of which there is a king. It produces a great quantity of +honey, and has abundance of fish. The kings, and other rich men, +drink mares milk, while the poor people and slaves use only +mead[13]. They have many contests among themselves; and the +people of Estum brew no ale, as they have mead in profusion[14]. +There is also a particular custom observed by this nation; that, +when any one dies, the body remains unburnt, with the relations +and friends, for a month or two; and the bodies of kings and +nobles remain longer, according to their respective wealth, +sometimes for half a year, during all which time it is kept in +the house, and drinking and sports continue until the body is +consumed[15]. When the body is carried to the funeral pile, the +substance of the deceased, which yet remains, after the sports +and drinking bouts, is divided into five or six heaps, or more, +according to its value. These heaps are placed at the distance of +a mile from each other; the largest heap at the greatest distance +from the town, and the lesser heaps gradually diminishing, so +that the smallest heap is nearest to the town where the dead body +lies. Then all are summoned who have fleet horses, within the +distance of five or six miles around, and they all strive for the +substance of the dead person. He who has the swiftest horse, +gains the most distant and largest heap, and the others, in just +proportion, till the whole is won; then every one takes away his +share, as his own property: and owing to this custom, swift +horses are in great request, and extremely dear. When the wealth +of the deceased has been thus exhausted, the body is taken from +the house and burnt, together with the dead man's weapons and +clothes; and generally, they expend the whole wealth of the +deceased, by keeping the body so long in the house before it is +burnt, and by these heaps which are carried off by strangers. It +is the custom with the Estum to burn the bodies of all the +inhabitants; and if any one can find a single bone unconsumed, it +is a cause of great offence. These people, also, have the means +of producing a very severe cold; by which, the dead body +continues so long above ground without putrefying; and by means +of which, if any one sets a vessel of ale or water in the place, +they contrive that the liquor shall be frozen either in winter or +summer[16].</p> + +<blockquote>[13] This circumstance is singular; yet may be +explained from the custom of the Tartars. The mares milk, drank +by the kings and rich men, was certainly prepared into cosmos, or +kumyss, the favourite beverage of the great; while mead, a much +inferior liquor in their estimation, was left to the lower +orders.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] Mead was called Medo in Anglo-Saxon, in +Lithuanian Middus, in Polish Miod, in Russian Méd, in +German Meth, in old English Metheglin: perhaps all these are from +the Greek verb [Greek: methuo], to intoxicate. Alfred naturally +observes, that these drinking-bouts produced many frays; and +notices the reason of the Estum or Esthonians brewing no ale, +because they had abundance of mead.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] In a treaty between the Teutonic knights, and +the newly converted Prussians, the latter engaged never to burn +their dead, nor to bury them with their horses, arms, clothes, +and valuables.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] This power of producing cold in summer, so much +admired by Wulfstan and Alfred, was probably the effect of a good +ice-cellar, which every Prussian of condition had in, or near his +house.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<h3><a name="section1-4a">SECTION IV.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Voyage of Sighelm and Athelstan to India, in the reign of +Alfred King of England, in 883</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Harris, I. 873. Hakluyt, V. II. 38.</blockquote> + +<p>Though containing no important information, it were +unpardonable in an English collection of voyages and travels, to +omit the scanty notice which remains on record, respecting a +voyage by two Englishmen to India, at so early a period. All that +is said of this singular incident in the Saxon Chronicle, is[2], +"In the year 883, Alfred sent Sighelm and Athelstan to Rome, and +likewise <i>to the shrine</i> of Saints Thomas and Bartholomew, +in India, with the alms which he had vowed." [Bartholomew was the +messenger of Christ in India, the extremity of the whole +earth.]--The words printed in <i>Italics</i> are added in +translating, by the present editor, to complete the obvious +sense. Those within brackets, are contained in one MS. Codex of +the Saxon Chronicle, in addition to what was considered the most +authentic text by Bishop Gibson, and are obviously a note or +commentary, afterwards adopted into the text in +transcription.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Chron. Sax. Ed. Gibson, p. 86.</blockquote> + +<p>This short, yet clear declaration, of the actual voyage, has +been extended by succeeding writers, who attribute the whole +merit to Sighelm, omitting all mention of Athelstan, his +co-adjutor in the holy mission. The first member of the +subsequent paraphrase of the Saxon Chronicle, by Harris, though +unauthorized, is yet necessarily true, as Alfred could not have +sent messengers to a shrine, of which he did not know the +existence. For the success of the voyage, the safe return, the +promotion of Sighelm, and his bequest, the original record gives +no authority, although that is the obvious foundation of the +story, to which Aserus has no allusion in his life of Alfred.</p> + +<p>"In the year 883, Alfred, King of England, hearing that there +existed a Christian church in the Indies, dedicated to the memory +of St Thomas and St Bartholomew, dispatched one Sighelm, or +Sithelm, a favourite ecclesiastic of his court, to carry his +royal alms to that distant shrine. Sighelm successfully executed +the honourable commission with which he had been entrusted, and +returned in safety into England. After his return, he was +promoted to the bishoprick of Sherburn, or Shireburn, in +Dorsetshire; and it is recorded, that he left at his decease, in +the treasury of that church, sundry spices and jewels, which he +had brought with him from the Indies."</p> + +<p>Of this voyage, William of Malmsbury makes twice mention; once +in the fourth chapter of his second book, De Gestis Regum +Anglorum; and secondly, in the second book of his work; entitled, +De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum; and in the chapter devoted to the +Bishops of Shireburn, Salisbury, and Winchester, both of which +are here added, although the only authority for the story is +contained in what has been already given from the Saxon +Chronicle[3].</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Hakluyt, II. 88.</blockquote> + +<p>"King Alfred being addicted to giving of alms, confirmed the +privileges which his father had granted to the churches, and sent +many gifts beyond seas, to Rome, and to St Thomas in India. His +messenger in this business was Sighelm, bishop of Sherburn, who, +with great prosperity, which is much to be wondered at in this +age, penetrated into India; whence he brought on his return, +splendid exotic gems, and aromatic liquors, of which the soil of +that region is prolific."</p> + +<p>"Sighelm having gone beyond seas, charged with alms from the +king, even penetrated, with wonderful prosperity, to Saint Thomas +in India, a thing much to be admired in this age; and brought +thence, on his return, certain foreign kinds of precious stones +which abound in that region; some of which are yet to be seen in +the monuments of his church."</p> + +<p>In the foregoing accounts of the voyage of Sighelm, from the +first notice in the Saxon Chronicle, through the additions of +Malmsbury, and the amplified paraphrase by Harris, we have an +instance of the manner in which ingenious men permit themselves +to blend their own imaginations with original record, superadding +utterly groundless circumstances, and fancied conceptions, to the +plain historical facts. Thus a motely rhetorical tissue of real +incident and downright fable is imposed upon the world, which +each successive author continually improves into deeper +falsehood. We have here likewise an instance of the way in which +ancient manuscripts, first illustrated by commentaries, became +interpolated, by successive transcribers adopting those +illustrations into the text; and how many fabricators of story, +first misled by these additaments, and afterwards misleading the +public through a vain desire of producing a morsel of eloquence, +although continually quoting original and contemporary +authorities, have acquired the undeserved fame of excellent +historians, while a multitude of the incidents, which they +relate, have no foundations whatever in the truth of record. He +only, who has diligently and faithfully laboured through original +records, and contemporary writers, honestly endeavouring to +compose the authentic history of an interesting period, and has +carefully compared, in his progress, the flippant worse than +inaccuracies of writers he has been taught to consider as +masterly historians, can form an adequate estimate of the +enormity and frequency of this tendency to romance. The immediate +subject of these observations is slight and trivial; but the evil +itself is wide-spread and important, and deserves severe +reprehension, as many portions of our national history have been +strangely disfigured by such indefensible practices.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-5">SECTION V.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth +Century</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 38.</blockquote> + +<p>John Erigena, of the British Nation, descended from noble +progenitors, and born in the town of St. Davids in Wales; while +the English were oppressed by the cruel wars and ravages of the +Danes, and the whole land was in confusion, undertook a long +journey to Athens, and there spent many years in the study of the +Grecian, Chaldean, and Arabian literature. He there frequented +all the places and schools of the philosophers, and even visited +the oracle of the sun, which Esculapius had constructed for +himself. Having accomplished the object of his travels, he +returned through Italy and France; where, for his extraordinary +learning, he was much favoured by Charles the Bald, and +afterwards by Lewis the Stammerer. He translated into Latin, in +858, the books of Dionysius the Areopagite, concerning the +Heavenly Hierarchy, then sent from Constantinople. Going +afterwards into Britain, he became preceptor to Alfred, King of +England, and his children; and, at the request of that prince, he +employed his leisure in translating the Morals of Aristotle, and +his book called the Secret of Secrets, or of the Right Government +of Princes, into Chaldaic, Arabic, and Latin; certainly a most +exquisite undertaking. At last, being in the abbey of Malmsbury, +where he had gone for his recreation, in the year 884, and +reading to certain evil-disposed disciples, they put him to +death.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-6">SECTION VI.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Geography of the Known World, in the Ninth Century as +described by King Alfred</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Anglo-Saxon version from Orosius, by AElfred the +Great, with an English translation, by Daines Barrington, 8vo. +London, 1773. Discoveries in the North, 54.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Though not strictly conformable to our plan, as being neither +a journey or voyage, it yet seemed incumbent to present our +readers with this curious British production of the great Alfred +King of England, which gives a singular record of the +geographical knowledge of the world in the ninth century. It was +originally written by Orosius, a Spanish Christian, who +flourished in the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth +century, and who published a kind of History of the World, down +to A. D. 416, which remained in good repute among the learned +till about an hundred years ago, but is now much neglected. Near +a thousand years ago, the work of Orosius was translated into +Anglo-Saxon, by Alfred King of England, but, with great freedom +and much licence, often using his author merely as a foundation +for a paraphrase; omitting most of the introductory chapters to +each book, sometimes leaving out considerable passages, and often +inserting new matter. This is peculiarly the case with the first +chapter of the first book, containing the whole of the geography, +and which is all that has any reference to the nature of our +work.</p> + +<p>The Honourable Daines Barrington, who published the +Anglo-Saxon version, with an English translation, informs us that +the original MS. is in the Cotton Library, <i>Tiberius</i> I., +and is supposed to have been written in the ninth or tenth +century; but that, in making his translation, he used a +transcript, made by Mr Elstob, occasionally collated with the +Cotton MS. and with some other transcripts. But, before +publishing a work of such curiosity and interest, he ought to +have made sure of possessing a perfect copy, by the most +scrupulous comparison of his transcript with the original MS.</p> + +<p>In the following republication of the geographical chapter, +much care has been taken to correct errors, chiefly in regard to +direction, as east, west, north, and south, are often used +interchangeably in the translation by Mr Barrington. Most of the +notes are from that edition, or from J.R. Forster, who reprinted +so much of this chapter as referred to northern geography, and +who appears to have studied that part of the subject with great +care.</p> + +<p>As a specimen of the Anglo-Saxon, or the language of England +near a thousand years ago, we have given the first sentence of +this geographical chapter in the ordinary Roman letters, with a +literal translation.</p> + +<p><i>Anglo-Saxon</i>.</p> + +<p>Ure yldran calne thysne ymbhwyrft thyses middangeardes, cwaeth +Orosius, swa swa Oceanus ymbligeth utan, wone man garsecg hatath, +on threo todaeldon.</p> + +<p><i>Literal Translation</i></p> + +<p>Our elders have divided all of this middle-earth, quoth +Orosius, which Oceanus surrounds, which men calleth +<i>garsecg</i> into three deals.</p> + +<p><i>Geography of Alfred</i>.</p> + +<p>§ 1. According to Orosius, our ancestors divided the +whole world which is surrounded by the ocean, which we call +<i>garsecg</i>[2], into three parts, and they named these +divisions Asia, Europe, and Africa; though some authors only +admit of two parts, Asia and Europe. Asia is bounded to the +southward, northward, and eastward by the ocean, and thus divides +all our part of this earth from that which is to the east. On the +north, Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais or Don; and in +the south, after passing the Mediterranean[3] sea, Asia and +Africa join to the westward of Alexandria[4].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This word is always employed by Alfred to denote +the ocean, while smaller portions are uniformly called <i>sae</i> +in the singular, <i>saes</i> in the plural.--Barr</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Called Wenadel sea in the Anglo-Saxon original; +probably because it had been crossed by the Vandals or Wends, in +going from Spain to the conquest of Africa.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] In the translation by Barrington, this sentence +is quite unintelligible. "All to the northward is Asia, and to +the southward Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais; then +south of this same river (along the Mediterranean, and west of +Alexandria) Europe and Asia join."--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 2. Europe begins, as I have said before, at the Tanais, +which has its source in the northern parts of the Riphean +mountains[5], which are near the Sarmatic[6] ocean; and this +river then runs directly south, on the west side of Alexander's +temples, to the nation of the Russians[7], where it runs into the +fen called Maeotis, and thence it issues eastwards with a great +stream, near the town called Theodosia, into the Euxine. Then +becoming narrow for a considerable track, it passes by +Constantinople, and thence into the Wendel sea, or Mediterranean. +The south-west end of Europe is in Ispania or Spain, where it is +bounded by the ocean; but the Mediterranean almost closes at the +<i>islands</i> called Gades, where stand the pillars of Hercules. +To the westward of this same Mediterranean is +<i>Scotland</i>[8].</p> + +<blockquote>[5] Riffing, in the Anglo-Saxon.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Sermondisc in the Anglo-Saxon, Sarmaticus in +Orosius.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Rochouasco in Anglo-Saxon, Roxolani in +Orosius.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] Certainly here put for Ireland.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 3. Asia and Africa are divided by Alexandria, a city of +Egypt; and that country is bounded on the west by the river Nile, +and then by Ethiopia to the south, which reaches quite to the +southern ocean. The northern boundary of Africa is the +Mediterranean sea all the way westwards, to where it is divided +from the ocean by the pillars of Hercules; and the true western +boundaries of Africa are the mountains called Atlas and the +Fortunate Islands. Having thus shortly mentioned the three +divisions of this earth, I shall now state how those are bounded +by land and water.</p> + +<p>§ 4. Opposite to the middle of the eastern part of Asia, +the river Ganges empties itself into the sea, whilst the Indian +ocean is to the southwards, in which is the port of +Caligardamana. To the south-east of that port is the island of +Deprobane[9]. To the north of the mouths of the Ganges, where +mount Caucasus ends, is the port of Samera; and to the north of +this port are the mouths of the river called Corogorre, in the +ocean called Sericus. Now, these are the boundaries of India: +Mount Caucasus is to the north, the river Indus to the west, the +Red Sea[10] to the south, and the ocean to the east. In this land +of India there are forty-four nations, besides the island of +Taprobana or Ceylon, in which there are ten <i>boroughs</i>; and +also many others which are situated on the banks of the Indus, +and lie all to the westward of India. Betwixt this river Indus, +and another to the west called Tigris, both of which empty +themselves into the Red Sea[11], are the countries of Orocassia, +Parthia, Asilia, Pasitha, and Media, though some writers call the +whole of this land Media or Assyria[12]. The fields are much +parched by the sun[13], and the roads are very hard and stony. +The northern boundary of this land is Mount Caucasus, and the +southern is the Red Sea. In this land there are two great rivers, +the Hystaspes and Arbis, and twenty-two nations, though the whole +has the general name of Parthia. To the westwards, Babilonia, +Chaldea, and Mesopotamia are between the rivers Tigris and +Euphrates. Within this country there are twenty-eight nations, +the northern boundary being Mount Caucasus, and the Red Sea to +the south. Along the Red Sea, and at its northern angle, are +Arabia, Sabaea, and Eudomane, or Idumea. Beyond the river +Euphrates, quite westward to the Mediterranean, and northward to +Mount Taurus, even into Armenia, and southward to near Egypt, are +many countries, namely Comagene, Phenicia, Damascena, Coelle, +Moab, Ammon, Idumea, Judea, Palestine, and Sarracene, all of +which are comprehended under the general name of Syria. To the +north of Syria are the hills called Taurus, and to the north of +these are Capadocia and Armenia, the former being to the westward +of the latter; and to the westward of Capadocia is the country +called the lesser Asia. To the north of Capadocia is the plain +called Temisere, and betwixt Capadocia and lesser Asia are +Cilicia and Isauria. Lesser Asia is entirely surrounded by salt +water, except to the eastward; having the Euxine on the north, +the Propontis and Hellespont on the west, and the Mediterranean +on the south. In it is the high mountain of Olympus.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Taprobana, Serendib, or Ceylon.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] By the Red Sea must be here meant that which +extends between the peninsula of India and Africa, called the +Erithrean Sea in the Periplus of Nearchus.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] The Persian gulf is here assumed as a part of +the Red Sea.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] He is here obviously enumerating the divisions +of the latter Persian empire. Orocassia is certainly the +Arachosia of the ancients; Asilia and Pasitha may be Assyria and +proper Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] The Saxon word is <i>beorhta</i> or bright, +which I have ventured to translate <i>parched by the sun</i>, as +this signification agrees well with the +context.--Barr.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 5. To the northward of <i>hither</i> Egypt is +Palestine, to the eastwards the land of the Sarracens, to the +west is Libia, and to the south the mountain called Climax. The +head of the Nile is near the <i>cliffs</i> of the Red Sea, though +some say it is in the western part of Africa, near Mount Atlas, +whence it flows over a large track of land, till it sinks; after +which, it proceeds in its course, till it becomes a great sea, or +wide river[14]. The spot where the river takes its rise is called +by some Nuchal, and by others Dara. Hence, for some distance from +the wider part, <i>before</i>[l5] it rises from the sand, it runs +westward to Ethiopia, where it is called Jon, till it reaches the +eastern part, where it becomes a wide river[16], and then it +sinks again into the earth; after which it appears again opposite +to the cliffs of the Red Sea, as I mentioned before, and from +this place it is called the Nile. Then running from thence +westwards, it divides its stream round an island called +Meroe[17]; then running to the northward, it empties itself into +the Mediterranean. There, in the winter season, the current at +its mouth is opposed by the north winds, so that the river is +spread all over the land of Egypt;[l8] and by the rich earth +which it deposits, it fertilizes the whole country. The +<i>farther</i> Egypt lies along the southern part of the Red Sea, +and to the east is the ocean. To the west is the <i>hither</i> +Egypt, and in the two Egypts there are twenty-four nations.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] The true Niger, running from the westwards till +it loses itself in the sands of Wangara, seems here alluded to; +and the Bahr el Abiad, or Western Nile, is supposed to be its +continuation, rising again out of the sand.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] This ought certainly to be <i>after</i>, and +seems to allude to the Bahr el Abiad.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] Literally <i>a great +sea</i>.--Barr.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] This is a mistake, as it only takes a wide turn +to the west in Dongola, around what has been falsely called the +Isle of Meroe. The cliffs of the Red Sea seem to imply the +mountains of Nubia, and the wide sea may be the lake of +Dembea.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] A strange attempt to account for the regular +overflow of the Nile.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 6. Having before given an account of the north part of +Asia, I shall now speak of its southern parts. I have before +mentioned that Mount Caucasus is to the north of India, beginning +eastwards on the ocean, and running due west, till it join the +Armenian mountains, which the inhabitants call Parcoatrae, from +which the Euphrates takes its rise; and from the Parcoatrian +mountains mount Taurus runs due west, quite to Cilicia. To the +north of these mountains, quite to the ocean which environs the +north east end of the earth, where the river Bore empties itself +into the ocean, and from thence westwards to the Caspian sea, +which extends to Mount Caucasus, all the land is called Old +Scythia, or Hircania. In this country there are forty-three +nations, all situate at great distances from each other, on +account of the barrenness of the soil[19]. Then to the westward +of the Caspian unto the Tanais or Don, and the Palus Maeotis, +thence south to Mount Taurus[20], and north to the ocean, is all +Scythia, and is divided among thirty-two nations. The country on +the east side of the Tanais is inhabited by a nation called the +Alboari in the Latin tongue, which we now call Liobene. Thus have +I shortly stated the boundaries of Asia, and shall now state +those of Europe, as far as we are informed concerning them.</p> + +<blockquote>[19] This account of the boundaries of Old Scythia is +extremely vague. It seems to imply an eastern boundary by an +imaginary river Bore, that the Caspian is the western, the +northern ocean on the north, and Mount Caucasus on the +south.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[20] In the translation by Barrington, this portion +of Scythia is strangely said to extend south to the +Mediterranean; the interpolation surely of some ignorant +transcriber, who perhaps changed the Euxine or Caspian sea into +the Mediterranean.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 7. From the Tanais westwards to the Rhine, which takes +its rise in the Alps, and runs northward, till it falls into that +branch of the ocean which surrounds Bryttannia, and southward +from the Tanais to the Donua or Danube, whose source is near that +of the Rhine, and which runs to the northward of Greece, till it +empties itself into the Euxine[21], and north even to that part +of the ocean which is called the <i>Cwen</i> sea[22], there are +many nations; and the whole of this extensive country is called +Germany. Hence to the north of the source of the Danube, and to +the east of the Rhine are the people called eastern Franks[23]. +To the south of them are the <i>Swaepas</i>[24]. On the opposite +banks of the Danube, and to the south and east, are the people +called <i>Baegth-ware</i>[25], in that part which is called +<i>Regnes-burh</i>[26]. Due east from them are the Beme[27]. To +the north-east the Thyringas[28]. To the north of these are the +Old Seaxan[29]. To the north-west of these are the Frysan[30]; +and to the west of <i>Old</i> Saxony is the mouth of the +<i>Aelfe</i> or Elbe, as also <i>Frysan</i> or Friesland. Prom +hence to the north-west is that land which is called +<i>Angle</i>, with <i>Sellinde</i>, and some other parts of +Dene[31]. To the north is <i>Apdrede</i>[32], and to the +north-east the <i>Wolds</i>[33], which are called AEfeldan[34]. +From hence eastwards is Wineda-land[35], otherwise called +Sysyle[36]. To the south-west, at some distance, is the +Macroaro[37], and these have to the west the Thyringas and +Behemas, as also part of the Baegthware, all of whom have been +already mentioned. And to the south, on the other side of the +Donua or Danube, is the country called Carendrae[38].</p> + +<blockquote>[21] Called by mistake, or erroneous transcription, +Wendel sea, or Mediterranean in the text and +translation.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[22] The Cwen sea is the White sea, or sea of +Archangel. The Kwen or Cwen nation, was that now called +Finlanders, from whom that sea received this ancient +appellation.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[23] East Francan in the original. The eastern Franks +dwelt in that part of Germany between the Rhine and the Sala, in +the north reaching to the Ruhre and Cassel, and in the south, +almost to the Necker; according to Eginhard, inhabiting from +Saxony to the Danube. They were called east Franks to distinguish +them from that other part of the nation which inhabited ancient +Gaul, and Franconia continues to preserve their +name.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[24] Swaepas, or Suevae, who formed part of the +Allemanic confederacy, and afterwards gave their name of Swabes +to an extensive nation, in whose bounds modern Swabia is still +situated.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[25] The Bavarians, who were the remnant of the Boii +or Baeghten, who escaped from the exterminating sword of the +Suevi.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[26] This may have been the province in which +Regens-bergh or Ratisbon is still situated.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[27] These were undoubtedly the Bohemians, called +afterwards Behemas by our royal geographer. They had their +appellation from Boier-heim, or the dwelling place of the Boii, +who were exterminated by the Suevi. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[28] The Thuringians, at one time so powerful, that +their king was able to engage in war against the king of the +Franks. Thuringia is still a well known district in +Germany.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[29] The Old Saxons inhabited the country still +called Old Sassen, or Old Saxony, Halsatia in Latin, which has +degenerated into Holstein. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[30] These Frysae were afterwards confined by +Charlemain to the country between the Weser and Elbe, to which +they gave the name of Friesland. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[31] That is to the north-east of Old Saxony, where +the Angles, confederates of the Saxon conquerors of Britain, and +who gave their name to the English nation, and England or +Angle-land, formerly resided. But they likewise appear to have +occupied some of the islands in the Baltic. Sillend is certainly +the Danish island of Zeeland. Dene is Denmark in its most limited +sense.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[32] These are the Obotrites, a Venedic nation, +settled in Mecklenburgh, who are called, a little farther on, the +<i>Afdrede</i>. They were not, however, to the north-east of Old +Saxony, but rather to the eastwards. Perhaps the copyist inserted +north instead of east, or rather we ought to read thus: "To the +north-east is Apdrede, and to the north the +Wolds."--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[33] The word here translated <i>Wolds</i> on the +authority of Daines Barrington, is in the original, <i>Wylte</i>; +but whether it refers to the <i>wild</i> or barren state of the +country, or the name of a people, it is difficult to say. There +were a people named Wilzi in those parts, but J. R. Forster is +disposed to believe, that Alfred refers here to the Wends or +Vandals, who lived on the Havel, and were called Hevelli. But if +they are meant, we must correct the text from north-east to +south-east, for such is the situation of Havel-land, with respect +to Old Saxony.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[34] AEfeldan are, as King Alfred calls them, Wolds +or Wilds; as there still are in the middle of Jutland, large high +moors, covered only with heath.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[35] Wineda-land, the land of the Wends, Vandals, or +Wendian Scalvi in Mecklenburg and Pomerania; so called from +<i>Wanda</i> or <i>Woda</i>, signifying the sea or water. They +were likewise called Pomeranians for the same reason, from <i>po +moriu</i>, or the people by the sea side. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[36] In this Alfred seems to have committed a +mistake, or to have made too great a leap. There is a Syssel, +however, in the country of the Wends, on the Baltic, which +connects them with the Moravians, or rather with the Delamensan, +of whom mention is made afterwards.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[37] The Moravians, so called from the river Morava, +at that time a powerful kingdom, governed by Swatopluk, and of +much greater extent than modern Moravia.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[38] Carendre must be Carinthia, or the country of +the Carenders or Centani, which then included Austria and +Styria.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 8. Southwards, towards and along the mountains which +are called the Alps, are the boundaries of the Baegthware and of +the Swaefas already mentioned; and then to the eastwards of the +Carendrae country, and beyond the Waste[39], is Pulgara-land or +Bulgaria[40]. To the east is Greca-land[41] or Greece; and to the +east of the Moroaro or Moravians, is Wisle-land[42]; and to the +east of that is Datia, though it formerly belonged to the +Gottan[43] or Goths. To the north-east of the Moroara or +Moravians, are the Delamensen[44]. East of the Delamensen are the +Horithi[45]; and north of the Delamensen are the Surpe[46]; to +the west also are the Syssele[47]. To the north of the Horithi is +Maegtha-land[48], and north of Maegtha-land is Sermende[49], +quite to the Riffin[50], or the Riphean mountains.</p> + +<blockquote>[39] Barrington has erroneously translated this, "to +the eastward of Carendre country, and beyond the <i>west</i> part +is Bulgaria." But in the original Anglo-Saxon, it is <i>beyond +the wastes</i>, or desert, which had been occasioned by the +devastations of Charlemain in the country of the +Avari.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[40] This is the extensive kingdom of Bulgaria of +these times, comprising modern Bulgaria and Wallachia, with part +of Moldavia and Bessarabia. The Bulgarians were probably a +Turkish tribe, dwelling beyond the Wolga, in the country now +called Casan, deriving their name from Bolgar, their +capital.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>Forster ought to have added, that the latter country was long +called <i>greater</i> Bulgaria, and the former, or the +Pulgara-land of the text, <i>lesser</i> Bulgaria.--E. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[41] The Greek empire of +Constantinople.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[42] The country on the Wisle or Vistula, being great +and little Poland. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[43] These for some time inhabited Dacia, and, being +famous in history, Alfred was willing at least to mention one of +their residences. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[44] The Delamensen, or Daleminzen of the middle age +writers, sometimes called Dalmatians by mistake, or to shew their +erudition, were situated near Lommatsch, or around Meissen or +Misnia, on both sides of the Elbe.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[45] These must have been a Scalvonian people or +tribe, now unknown, and perhaps inhabited near Gorlitz, or near +Quarlitz, not far from great Glogau--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[46] The Sorbi, Sirbi, and Serbii, of old writers, +are the Sorbian Sclavons; and the modern Wends or Vandals of +Lusatia, still call themselves Sserbs or +Ssorbs.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[47] These must have been another tribe of Sclavons +about Seuselig, to the westward of the Sorbs of lower +Lusatia.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[48] Perhaps the duchy of Mazovia, called Magaw or +Mazaw-land in ancient writers. Or perhaps it is wrong spelt for +<i>Wastaland</i> or the Waste.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[49] Sermende is the mutilated and disguised name of +Sarmatia, which did not exist under that name in the time of +Alfred, but which he inserted on the authority of his original +author Orosius.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[50] A mere corruption of the montes Riphaei or +Riphean mountains of Orosius; and Alfred seems here to have got +beyond his knowledge, copying merely from +Orosius.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 9. To the south-west of Dene or Denmark, formerly +mentioned, is that arm of the ocean which surrounds Brittania, +and to the north is that arm which is called the +<i>Ostsea</i>[51] or East sea; to the east and north are the +north Dene[52], or North Danes, both on the continent and on the +islands. To the east are the Afdrede[53]. To the south is the +mouth of the AElfe or Elbe, and some part of <i>Old +Seaxna</i>[54] or Old Saxony. The North Dene have to the north +that arm of the sea which is called the East sea, and to the east +is the nation of the Osti[55], and the Afdrede, or Obotrites, to +the south. The Osti have to the north of them that same arm of +the sea, or the Baltic, and so have the Winedas and the +Burgendas[56]. Still more to the south is Haefeldan[57]. The +Burgendas have this same arm of the sea to the west, and the +Sweon[58] to the north. To the east are the Sermende, to the +south the Surfe[59]. The Sweons have to the south the arm of the +sea called <i>Ost</i>, and to the north, over the wastes, is +Cwenland[60], to the north-west are the Scride-finnas[61], and +the North-men[62] are to the west[63].</p> + +<blockquote>[51] The Ost sea of Alfred comprehends what are now +called the Scaggerrack, Catte-gatt, the Sound, the two Belts, and +the Baltic, which our mariners still call the East +Sea.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[52] That is, both inhabiting North Jutland and the +islands of Funen, Zeeland, Langland, Laland, and +Falster.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[53] Formerly called Apdrede, and explained to be the +Obotrites.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[54] Alluding, doubtless, to the country from whence +the Saxons who inhabited England had come of +old.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[55] This is the same nation called Estum in the +voyage of Wulfstan, who lived east of the mouth of the Wisle or +Vistula, along the Baltic, and who are mentioned by Tacitus under +the name of Estii. When the Hanseatic league existed, they were +called Osterlings or Easterlings, or Ost-men, and their country +Est-land, Ostland, or Eastland, which still adheres to the +northernmost part of Livonia, now called +Est-land.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[56] The Burgendas certainly inhabited the island of +Born-holm, called from them Borgenda-holm, or island of the +Borgendas, gradually corrupted to Borgend-holm, Bergen-holm, +Born-holm. In the voyage of Wulfstan they are plainly described +as occupying this situation.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[57] Called formerly AEfelden, a nation who lived on +the Havel, and were, therefore, named Hevelli or Haeveldi, and +were a Wendick or Vandal tribe.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[58] These are the Sviones of Tacitus. Jornandes +calls them Swethans, and they are certainly the ancestors of the +Swedes.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[59] This short passage in the original Anglo-Saxon +is entirely omitted by Barrington. Though Forster has inserted +these Surfe in his map, somewhere about the duchy of Magdeburg, +he gives no explanation or illustration of them in his numerous +and learned notes on our royal geographer.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[60] Already explained to be Finland on the White +sea.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[61] This is the same nation with the Finnas or +Laplanders, mentioned in the voyage of Ohthere, so named because +using <i>scriden</i>, schreiten, or snowshoes. The Finnas or +Laplanders were distinguished by the geographer of Ravenna into +Scerde-fenos, and Rede-fenos, the Scride-finnas, and Ter-finnas +of Alfred. So late as 1556, Richard Johnson, Hakluyt, ed. 1809. +I. 316. mentions the Scrick-finnes as a wild people near +Wardhus.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[62] The North-men or Normans, are the Norwegians or +inhabitants of Nor-land, Nord-land, or +North-mana-land.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[63] At this place Alfred introduces the voyages of +Ohthere and Wulfstan, already given separately, in Sect. ii. and +iii, of this chapter.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 10. We shall now speak of Greca-land or Greece, which +lies south of the Danube. The Proponditis, or sea called +Propontis, is <i>eastward</i> of Constantinople; to the north of +that city, an arm of the sea issues from the Euxine, and flows +<i>westwards</i>; to the <i>north-west</i> the mouths of the +Danube empty themselves into the south-east part of the +Euxine[64]. To the south and west of these mouths are the Maesi, +a Greek nation; to the west are the Traci or Thracians, and to +the east the Macedonians. To the south, on the southern arm of +the Egean sea, are Athens and Corinth, and to the south-west of +Corinth is Achaia, near the Mediterranean. All these countries +are inhabited by the Greeks. To the west of Achaia is Dalmatia, +along the Mediterranean; and on the north side of that sea, to +the north of Dalmatia, is Bulgaria and Istria. To the south of +Istria is the Adriatic, to the west the Alps, and to the north, +that desert which is between Carendan[65] and Bulgaria.</p> + +<blockquote>[64] Either the original or the translation is here +erroneous; it ought to run thus: "The Propontis is +<i>westward</i> of Constantinople; to the north-east of that +city, the arm of the sea issues from the Euxine, and flows +<i>south-west</i>; to the <i>north</i> the mouths of the Danube +empty themselves into the <i>north-west</i> parts of the +Euxine."--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[65] Carinthia. The desert has been formerly +mentioned as occasioned by the almost utter extirpation of the +Avari by Charlemain, and was afterwards occupied by the +Madschiari or Magiars, the ancestors of the present +Hungarians.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 11. Italy is of a great length from the north-west to +the south-east and is surrounded by the Mediterranean on every +side, except the north-west. At that end of it are the Alps, +which begin from the Mediterranean, in the Narbonese country, and +end in Dalmatia, to the east of the Adriatic sea. Opposite to the +Alps, <i>on the north</i>, is Gallia-belgica, near which is the +river Rhine, which discharges itself into the Britanisca sea, and +to the north, on the other side of this sea, is Brittannia[66]. +The land to the west of <i>Ligore</i>, Liguria, is AEquitania; to +the south of which is some part of Narbonense, to the south-west +is Spain. To the south of Narbonense is the Mediterranean, where +the Rhone empties itself into that sea, to the north of the +Profent[67] sea. Opposite to the wastes is the <i>nearer</i>[68] +part of Spain, to the northwest Aquitania, and the Wascan[69] to +the north. The Profent[67] sea hath to the north the Alps, to the +south the Mediterranean, to the north-east the Burgundians, and +to the West the Wascans or Gascons.</p> + +<blockquote>[66] Very considerable freedoms have been taken with +this sentence; as in Barrington's translation it is quite +unintelligible.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[67] Profent and Profent sea, from the Provincia +Gallica, now Provence. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[68] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of +Orosius.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[69] Gascony, called Wascan in the Teutonic or Saxon +orthography and pronunciation. Thus the Saxons changed Gauls to +Wales, and the Gauls changed War-men into Guer-men, hence our +modern English, Germans. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 12. Spain is triangular, being surrounded by the sea on +three sides. The boundary to the south-west is opposite to the +island of Gades, Cadiz; that to the east is opposite to the +Narbonense, and the third, to the north- west, is opposite to +Brigantia, a town of Gallia, as also to Scotland[70], over an arm +of the sea, and opposite to the mouth of the Scene or Seine. As +for that division of Spain which is <i>farthest</i>[71] from us, +it has to the west the ocean, and the Mediterranean to the north, +the south, and the east. This division of Spain has to the north +Aquitania, to the north-east Narbonense, and to the south the +Mediterranean.</p> + +<blockquote>[70] Scotland is here assuredly used to denote +Ireland.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[71] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of +Orosius.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 13. The island of Brittannia extends 800 miles in +length to the north-east, and is 200 miles broad. To the south of +it, on the other side of an arm of the sea, is Gallia-belgica. To +the west of it, on the other side of another arm of the sea, is +Ibernia or Ireland, and to the north Orcadus[72]. Igbernia, +Ibernia, Hibernia, or Ireland, <i>which we call Scotland</i>, is +surrounded on every side by the ocean; and because it is nearer +the setting sun, the weather is milder than it is in Britain. To +the north-west of Igbernia is the utmost land called +<i>Thila</i>[73], which is known to few, on account of its very +great distance.</p> + +<blockquote>[72] Alfred includes the whole island, now called +Great Britain, under one denomination of Brittannia, taking no +notice whatever of any of its divisions. Orcadus is +unquestionably Orcades, or the islands of Orkney and +Shetland.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[73] The Thila or Thule of Alfred, from its direction +in respect of Ireland, and its great distance, is obviously +Iceland.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 14. Having mentioned the boundaries of Europe, I now +proceed to state those of Africa. Our ancestors considered this +as a third part of the world; not indeed that it contains so much +land as the others, because the Mediterranean cuts it, as it +were, in two, breaking in more upon the south part than on the +north[74]. And because the heat is more intense in the south, +than the cold in the north, and because every <i>wight</i> +thrives better in cold than in heat, therefore is Africa inferior +to Europe, both in the number of its people, and in the extent of +its land[75]. The eastern part of Africa, as I said before, +begins in the west of Egypt, at the river Nile, and the most +eastern country of this continent is Lybia. Ciramacia[76] is to +the west of lower Egypt, having the Mediterranean on the north, +Libia Ethiopica to the south, and Syrtes Major to the west. To +the east of Libia Ethiopica is the farther Egypt, and the sea +called Ethiopicum[77]. To the west of Rogathitus[78] is the +nation called Tribulitania[79], and the nation called Syrtes +Minores, to the north of whom is that part of the Mediterranean +called the Hadriatic. To the west again of Bizantium, quite to +the salt <i>mere</i> of the Arzuges[80]; this nation has to the +east the Syrtes Majores, with the land of Rogathite; and to the +south the Natabres, Geothulas, and Garamantes[81], quite to the +sea of Bizantium. The sea ports of these nations are Adrumetis +and Zuges, and their largest town is Catharina. The country of +Numidia has to the east the Syrtes Minores and the salt +<i>mere</i> formerly mentioned, to the north the Mediterranean, +to the west Mauritania, and to the south the hills of Uzera, and +the mountains which extend to Ethiopia, one way, and the +Mauritanian sea on the other side. To the east is Numidia, to the +north the Mediterranean, to the west the river Malvarius, to the +south Astryx, near the mountains which divide the fruitful +country from the wild and barren sands which lie southwards +towards the Mauritanian sea, by others called the Tingitanean. To +the east is the river Malon[82], to the north the hills of +Abbenas and Calpri. Another mountain also closes the end of the +Mediterranean sea, between the two hills to the west, where stand +the pillars of Ercoles or Hercules. To the west again is Mount +Atlas, quite to the sea; to the south the hills called AEsperos, +and to the south again the nation called Ausolum[83], which +inhabits quite to the sea.</p> + +<blockquote>[74] This seems to have some obscure reference to an +idea, that the sea had disjoined Europe and Africa. But the sense +is extremely perplexed and even unintelligible.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[75] It must be noticed, that Alfred was unacquainted +with any more of Africa than its northern coast, along the +Mediterranean, which explains this erroneous idea of its size +being inferior to Europe.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[76] Syrenaica.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[77] The Red Sea, or Ethiopic Gulf. In this part of +the geography of Alfred, his translator has left the sense often +obscure or contradictory, especially in the directions, which, in +this version, have been attempted to be corrected. This may have +been owing to errors in the Anglo-Saxon MS. which Barrington +professes to have translated literally, and he disclaims any +responsibility for the errors of his author.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[78] Probably some corruption of Syrtes Majores, or +of Syrenaica.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[79] Tripolitana, now Tripoli.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[80] I can make nothing of this salt lake of the +Arzuges, unless it be the lake of Lawdeah, between Tunis and +Tripoli. The Getulians and Garamantes are well known ancient +inhabitants of the interior of northern Africa; the Natabres are +unknown.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[81] The Garamantes are a well known people of the +interior of Africa, in ancient geography; of the Natabres I can +make nothing; the Geothulas are evidently the +Getulians.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[82] Probably the same called just before the +Malvarius, and now the Malul. But the geographical description of +Africa by Alfred, is so desultory and unarranged as to defy +criticism.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[83] Alfred may possibly have heard of the +Monselmines who inhabit the north-western extremity of the +Sahara, or great African desert, and extend to the +Atlantic.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>§ 15. Having thus stated the boundaries of Africa, we +shall now speak of the islands in the Mediterranean: Cyprus lies +opposite to Cilicia, and Isauria on that arm of the sea called +Mesicos, being 170 miles long, and 122 miles broad. The island of +Crete is opposite to the sea called Artatium, northwest is the +sea of Crete, and west is the Sicilian or Adriatic sea. It is 100 +miles long, and 150 miles broad. There are fifty-three of the +islands called the Cyclades. To the east of them is the Risca +Sea, to the south the Cretisca or Cretan, to the north the Egisca +or Egean, and to the west the Adriatic. The island of Sicily is +triangular, and at each end there are towns. The northern is +Petores[84], near which is the town of Messina; the south angle +is Lilitem[85], near which is a town of the same name. The island +is 157 miles long from east to west, and 70 broad to the +eastward. To the north-east is that part of the Mediterranean +called the Adriatic, to the south the Apiscan sea, to the west +the Tyrrhene sea, and to the north the [86] sea, all of which are +narrow and liable to storms. Opposite to Italy, a small arm of +the sea divides Sardinia from Corsica, which strait is twenty-two +miles broad. To the east of it is that part of the Mediterranean +called the Tyrrhenian sea, into which the river Tiber empties +itself. To the south is the sea which lies opposite to Numidia. +To the west the Balearic islands, and to the north Corsica. The +island of Corsica lies directly west from the city of Rome. To +the south of Corsica is Sardinia, and Tuscany is to the north. It +is sixteen miles long, and nine broad[87]. Africa is to the south +of the Balearic islands, Gades to the west, and Spain to the +north. Thus I have shortly described the situation of the islands +in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<blockquote>[84] Faro.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[85] Lillibeum.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[86] The name of this sea is omitted in the +MS.--Barr.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[87] These measures are incorrigibly erroneous, or +must have been transposed from some other place, having no +possible reference to Corsica.--E.</blockquote> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> + +<p>Note.--The subsequent sections of this chapter, although not +of much importance in themselves, and some of them possessing +rather doubtful authenticity, are inserted in this place on the +authority of Hakluyt. In an English general collection of voyages +and travels, it would have been improper to have omitted these +early specimens, some of which are considerably interesting and +curious. In some measure these sections do not strictly belong to +the present chapter, as limited to the reign of Alfred, and the +ninth century; but as they contain isolated circumstances, which +do not otherwise properly arrange themselves into the order of +our plan, they may be considered as forming a kind of appendix to +the era of Alfred. The number of these might have been +considerably increased from different sources, chiefly from +Hakluyt, who collected them from the ancient historians; but as +they contain hardly any information, except historical, which +does not enter into our plan, the selection here given has been +deemed quite sufficient for this work.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-7">SECTION VII.</a></h3> + +<p><i>The Travels of Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, in the +Eleventh Century</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 39.</blockquote> + +<p>Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, as his Latinized name is +explained by Leland the antiquary, was an English monk, and third +abbot of the monastery of Ramsay, who was much addicted to the +study of the liberal sciences, devoting incredible exertions, +both by day and night, to their cultivation, in which he profited +exceedingly. Having a most ardent desire to visit those places +where Christ our Saviour had perfected all the mysteries of our +redemption, of which he only knew the names in the course of +studying the Scriptures, he went from England to the holy city of +Jerusalem, where he visited all the places which had been +illustrated by the miracles, preaching, and passion of Christ; +and on his return to the monastery he was elected abbot. He +flourished in the year of our redemption, 1020, under Canute the +Dane.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-8">SECTION VIII.</a></h3> + +<p><i>The Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem in 1052</i>[1].</p> + +<p>Swanus or Sweno, one of the sons of Earl Godwin, being of a +perverse disposition, and faithless to the king, often quarrelled +with his father and his brother Harold; and, becoming a pirate, +he disgraced the virtues of his ancestors, by his robberies on +the seas. At length, being guilty of the murder of his kinsman +Bruno, and, as some report, of his own brother, he made a +pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and on his return towards England, he +was intercepted by the Saracens, by whom he was slain.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 39. Malmsb. Lib. II. ch. +xiii.</blockquote> + +<h3><a name="section1-9">SECTION IX.</a></h3> + +<p><i>A Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to +Constantinople and the East, about the year 1056</i>[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Hakluyt, II, 40. Malmsb II. xiii.</blockquote> + +<p>Upon the holy festival of Easter, King Edward the Confessor, +wearing his royal crown, sat at dinner in his palace of +Westminster, surrounded by many of his nobles. While others, +after the long abstinence of the lent season, refreshed +themselves with dainty viands, on which they fed with much +earnestness, he, raising his mind above earthly enjoyments, and +meditating on divine things, broke out into excessive laughter, +to the great astonishment of his guests. But no one presuming to +inquire into the cause of his mirth, all kept silence till dinner +was ended. After dinner, when the king had retired to his +bed-chamber, to divest himself of his robes, three of his nobles, +Earl Harold, an abbot, and a bishop, who were more familiar with +him than any of the other courtiers, followed him into the +chamber, and boldly asked the reason of his mirth, as it had +appeared strange to the whole court that his majesty should break +out into unseemly laughter on so solemn a day, while all others +were silent. "I saw," said he, "most wonderful things, and +therefore did I not laugh without cause." And they, as is +customary with all men, became therefore the more anxious to +learn the occasion of his mirth, and humbly beseeched him to +impart the reason to them. After musing for some time, he at +length informed them, that seven sleepers had rested during two +hundred years on Mount Ceelius, lying always hitherto on their +right sides; but that, in the very moment of his laughter, they +had turned themselves over to their left sides, in which posture +they should continue asleep for other seventy-four years, being a +dire omen of future misery to mankind. For all those things which +our Saviour had foretold to his disciples, that were to be +fulfilled about the end of the world, should come to pass within +those seventy-four years. That nation should rise up against +nation, and kingdom against kingdom; and there would be in many +places earthquakes, pestilence, and famine, and terrible +apparitions in the heavens, and great signs, with great +alterations of dominion; wars of the infidels against the +Christians, and victories gained by the Christians over the +unbelievers. And, as they wondered at these things, the king +explained to them the passion of the seven sleepers, with the +shape and proportion of each of their bodies, which wonderful +things no man had hitherto committed to writing; and all this in +so plain and distinct a manner, as if he had always dwelt along +with them.</p> + +<p>In consequence of this discourse, the earl sent a knight, the +bishop a clerk, and the abbot a monk, as ambassadors to Maniches +the emperor of Constantinople, carrying letters and presents from +the king. The emperor received them very graciously; and after a +friendly entertainment, sent them to the bishop of Ephesus with +letters, which they name sacred, commanding him to admit the +English ambassadors to see the seven sleepers. And it came to +pass, that the prophetic vision of King Edward was approved by +all the Greeks, who protested that they were assured by their +fathers, that the seven sleepers had always before that time +reposed on their right sides; but, upon the entry of the +Englishmen into the cave where they lay, their bodies confirmed +the truth of the foreign vision and prophecy to their countrymen. +Neither were the calamities long delayed, which had been foretold +by the king. For the Agareni, Arabians, and Turks, enemies of the +people of Christ, invading the country of the Christians, spoiled +and destroyed many cities of Syria, Lycia, and the lesser and +greater Asias, and, among the rest, depopulated Ephesus, and even +the holy city of Jerusalem.</p> + +<h3><a name="section1-10">SECTION X.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Pilgrimage of Alured, Bishop of Worcester, to Jerusalem, +in</i> 1058[1].</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 1058, Alured, bishop of Worcester, +dedicated, with much solemnity, to the honour of St Peter, the +prince of the apostles, a church which he had built and endowed +in the city of Gloucester; and afterwards having received the +royal licence, he ordained Wolstan, a monk of Worcester, to be +abbot of this new church. He then left the bishoprick which had +been committed to his government, resigning the same to Herman, +and, crossing the seas, travelled in pilgrimage through Hungary +and other countries, to Jerusalem.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. R. Hoveden, fo, 255. line +l5.</blockquote> + +<h3><a name="section1-11">SECTION XI.</a></h3> + +<p><i>Pilgrimage of Ingulphus Abbot of Croyland, to Jerusalem, in +1064</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. Ingulph. Ab. Croyl. apud +finem.</blockquote> + +<p>I, Ingulphus, an humble minister of St Guthlae, in his +monastery of Croyland, born of English parents, in the most +beautiful city of London, was, in, my early youth, placed for my +education first at Westminster, and afterwards prosecuted my +studies at Oxford. Having excelled many of my fellow students in +learning Aristotle, I entered upon the study of the first and +second rhetoric of Tully. As I grew up towards manhood, I +disdained the low estate of my parents, and quitting the dwelling +of my father, I much affected to visit the courts of kings, +delighting in fine garments and costly attire, And behold +William, now our renewed sovereign, then only Earl of Normandy, +came, with a splendid retinue to London, to confer with King +Edward his kinsman. Intruding myself into his company, I +proffered my services for the performance of any speedy or +important affairs; and accordingly having executed many +commissions with good success, I became known to and much beloved +by the illustrious earl, and sailed with him to Normandy. Being +there appointed his secretary, I governed his court at my +pleasure, though envied by several, abasing whom I thought fit, +and preferring others at my will. But, prompted by youthful +pride, I began even to be wearied of this place, in which I was +advanced so far beyond my birth; and, with an inconstant and +over-ambitious mind, I vehemently aspired, on all occasions, to +climb to higher elevation.</p> + +<p>About this time there spread a report through Normandy, that +several archbishops of the empire, and some even of the secular +princes, were desirous, for the salvation of their souls, to go +in pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to pay their devotions at the +Holy Sepulchre. Upon this, several of us, who were of the +household of our lord, the earl, both gentlemen and clerks, of +whom I was the principal person, having received permission from +the earl, addressed ourselves for the voyage; and, being together +thirty horsemen or more, in company, we went into Germany, and +joined ourselves to the Archbishop of Mentz. The whole being +assembled, the company of this archbishop amounted to seven +thousand persons, all properly provided for the expedition; and +we travelled prosperously through many provinces, arriving at +length at the city of Constantinople. We there did reverence to +the Emperor Alexius, visited the church, of Sancta Sophia, and +devoutly kissed many sacred relics.</p> + +<p>Departing from Constantinople, we travelled through Lycia, +where we fell into the hands of Arabian thieves; and after we had +been robbed of infinite sums of money, and had lost many of our +people, we escaped with extreme peril of our lives, and at length +entered joyfully into the most anxiously wished-for city of +Jerusalem. We were there received by the most reverend, aged, and +holy patriarch Sophronius, with a great melody of cymbals by +torch-light, and were conveyed in solemn procession, by a great +company of Syrians and Latins, to the church of the Most Holy +Sepulchre of our blessed Saviour. Here, how many prayers we +uttered, what abundance of tears we shed, what deep sighs we +breathed forth, is only known to our Lord Jesus Christ. From the +most glorious sepulchre of Christ, we were conducted to visit the +other sacred monuments of the holy city; and saw, with weeping +eyes, a great number of holy churches and oratories, which Achius +the Soldan of Egypt had lately destroyed. And, having deeply +bewailed all the ruins of that most holy city, both within and +without its walls, and having bestowed money for the re-edifying +of some of these, we expressed the most ardent desire to go forth +into the country, that we might wash ourselves in the sacred +river Jordan, and that we might visit and kiss all the holy +footsteps of the blessed Redeemer. But the Arabian robbers, who +lurked in every part of the country, would not suffer us to +travel far from the city, on account of their numbers and savage +manners.</p> + +<p>About the spring of the year, there arrived a fleet of ships +from, Genoa, at the port of Joppa; and when the Christian +merchants had exchanged all their commodities in the towns upon +the coast, and had likewise visited the holy places, we all +embarked. After being tossed about upon the seas by many storms +and tempests, we landed at Brundusium; whence, with a prosperous +journey, we travelled through Apulia to Rome, where we visited +the habitations of the holy apostles St Peter and St Paul, and +performed our devotions at various monuments of the holy, martyrs +in different parts of the city. From thence, the archbishops and +other princes of the empire Journeyed towards the right hand for +Germany, while we declined to the left hand into France, taking +our leaves of each other with indescribable courtesey and kindly +greeting. And at length, of thirty horsemen of us who went from +Normandy fat and lusty, scarce twenty poor pilgrims returned, all +on foot, and reduced almost to skeletons with fatigue and +hardships.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-2">CHAPTER II.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Original Discovery of Greenland by the +Icelanders.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. 79.</blockquote> + +<p>Although the discoveries contained in this and the next +subsequent chapter were certainty preceded, in point of time, by +the voyages of the two Mahomedans, in Chap. IV. and the insertion +of these two chapters, II. and III. in this place may therefore +be considered as a deviation from the chronological order of our +plan; it seemed proper and even necessary, that they should be +both introduced here, as presenting an unbroken series of the +discoveries of the Norwegians, and as fully authorized by the +geographical principles of our arrangement.</p> + +<p>Among the many petty sovereigns, vikingr or chieftans of +Norway, who had been reduced to subjection by Harold Harfagr, or +the fair-haired, was one named Thorer. Thorwald, the relative of +this person, had lived at the court of Earl Hayne, whence he had +been obliged to fly, on account of having committed a murder, and +went to Iceland, where he settled a considerable track of country +with a new colony. Eric-raude, or red-head, the son of Thorwald, +was long persecuted by a powerful neighbour named Eyolf Saur, +because Eric had killed some of Eyolf's servants; and at length +Eric killed Eyolf likewise. For this and other crimes he was +condemned to go into banishment for three years; and knowing that +a man named Gunbiorn had previously discovered certain banks to +the west of Iceland, named from him Gunbiorn's Schieran, or +Gunbar banks, and likewise a country of considerable extent still +farther to the westwards, he determined on making a voyage of +discovery to that country. Setting sail therefore from Iceland, +he soon fell in with a point of land called Hirjalfs-ness; and +continuing his voyage to the south-west he entered a large inlet, +to which he gave the name of Erics-sound, and passed the winter +on a pleasant island in that neighbourhood. In the following year +he explored the continent; and returning to Iceland in the third +year, he represented his new discovery in the fairest light, +bestowing lavish praises on the rich meadows, fine woods, and +plentiful fisheries of the country, which he called Greenland, +that he might induce a considerable number of people to join with +him in colonizing this new country. Accordingly, there set out +for this place twenty-five vessels, carrying people of both +sexes, household furniture, implements of all kinds, and cattle +for breeding, of which only fourteen vessels arrived in safety. +These first colonists were soon followed by many more, both from +Iceland and Norway; and in a few years their number is said to +have increased so much, as to occupy both the eastern and western +coasts of Greenland.</p> + +<p>This is the ordinary and best authenticated account of the +discovery and settlement of <i>Old</i> Greenland, which rests on +the credit of the great northern historian, Snorro Sturleson, +judge of Iceland, who wrote in the year 1215. Yet others assert +that Greenland had been known long before, and ground their +assertion on letters-patent from the Emperor Lewis the Pious in +834, and a bull of Gregory IV. in 835, in which permission is +given to Archbishop Ansgar to convert the Sueones, Danes, +Sclavonians; and it is added, the Norwaehers, Farriers, +Greenlanders, Halsingalanders, Icelanders, and Scridevinds. Even +allowing both charter and bull to be genuine, it is probable that +the copy which has come down to our time is interpolated, and +that for Gronlandon and Islandon, we ought to read Quenlandon and +Hitlandon, meaning the Finlanders and Hitlanders: Quenland being +the old name of Finland, and Hitland or Hialtaland the Norwegian +name of the Shetland islands. It is even not improbable that all +the names in these ancient deeds after the Sueones, Danes, and +Sclavonians, had been interpolated in a later period; as St +Rembert, the immediate successor of Ansgar, and who wrote his +life, only mentions the Sueones, Danes, and Sclavonians, together +with other nations in the north; and even Adam of Bremen only +mentions these three, and other neighbouring and surrounding +nations[2]. Hence the authority of St Rembert and Snorro +Sturleson remains firm and unshaken, in spite of these falsified +copies of the papal bull and imperial patent; and we may rest +assured that Iceland was not discovered before 861, nor inhabited +before 874; and that Greenland could hardly have been discovered +previous to 982, or 983, and was not inhabited before 985 or +986.--<i>>Forst</i>.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Vit. S. Anscharii, ap. Langeb. Script. Dan. I. +451. Ad. Brem. Hist. Eccles. Lib. I. cap. 17.</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-3">CHAPTER III.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Early Discovery of Winland by the +Icelanders, about A.D. 1001.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Hist. of Disc. in the North, 82.</blockquote> + +<p>The passion which the Nordmen or Normans had always manifested +for maritime expeditions, still prevailed among them in the cold +and inhospitable regions of Iceland and Greenland. An Icelander, +named Herjolf, was accustomed to make a trading voyage every year +to different countries, in which latterly he was accompanied by +his son, Biorn. About the year 1001, their ships were separated +by a storm, and Biorn learned on his arrival in Norway that his +father had sailed for Greenland, to which place he resolved to +follow his father; but another storm drove him a great way to the +south-west of his intended course, and he fell in with an +extensive flat country covered all over with thick woods; and +just as he set out on his return, he discovered an island on the +coast. He made no stay at either of these places; but the wind +being now fallen, he made all the haste he could to return by a +north-east course to Greenland, where he reported the discovery +which he had made.</p> + +<p>Lief, the son of Eric-raude, who inherited from his father an +inordinate desire of distinguishing himself by making discoveries +and planting colonies, immediately fitted out a vessel carrying +thirty-five men; and taking Biorn along with him, set sail in +quest of this newly discovered country. The first land discovered +in this voyage was barren and rocky, on which account Lief gave +it the name of Helleland, or Rockland. Proceeding farther, they +came to a low coast having a sandy soil, which was overgrown with +wood, for which reason it was called Mark-land, or the +Woody-land. Two days after this they again saw land, having an +island lying opposite to its northern coast; and on the mainland +they discovered the mouth of a river, up which they sailed. The +bushes on the banks of this river bore sweet berries; the +temperature of the air was mild, the soil fertile[2], and the +river abounded in fish, particularly in excellent salmon. +Continuing to sail up the river, they came to a lake, out of +which the river took its rise; and here they passed the winter. +In the shortest day of winter, the sun remained eight hours above +the horizon; and consequently the longest day, exclusive of the +dawn and twilight, must have been sixteen hours. From this +circumstance it follows, that the place in which they were was in +about 49° of north latitude; and as they arrived by a +south-westerly course from Old Greenland, after having cleared +Cape Farewell, it must either have been the river Gander or the +Bay of Exploits, in the island now called Newfoundland. It could +not be on the northern coast of the Gulf of St Lawrence; as in +that case, they must have navigated through the straits of +Belleisle, which could not have escaped their notice. In this +place they erected several huts for their accommodation during +winter; and they one day found in the thickets a German named +Tyrker, one of their own people, who had wandered among the woods +and been missing for some time. While absent, he had subsisted +upon wild grapes, from which he told them that in his country +they used to make wine; and from this circumstance Lief called +the country <i>Winland det gode</i>, or Wine-land the +good[3].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Every quality must be judged of by comparison; +and, contrasted with the inhospitable regions of Iceland and +Greenland, in lat. 65°, this country, which was as far south +as even beyond the south of England, must have appeared +admirable.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] It is true that grapes grow wild in Canada which +are very good to eat, yet no one has ever been able to make good +wine from their juice. Whether these wild grapes are found in +Newfoundland I know not. The species of vines which grow in North +America, are named by Linnaeus, Vitis labrusca, vulpina, and +arborea.--Forst. + +<p>The propriety of the names imposed by the Norwegians on their +new discoveries is admirable. Iceland, Greenland, Helleland, +Markland, Winland, and many others; which are perfectly +philosophical, excellently systematic, and infinitely preferable +to the modern clumsy appellations, New Britain, New France, New +England, New Holland, Sandwich Islands, Society islands, and a +multitude of much worse names.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the following spring they returned to Greenland; and +Thorwald, Lief's maternal grandfather, made a trip with the same +crew that had attended his grandson, in order to make farther +advances in this new discovery; and it is not at all to be +wondered at, if people of every rank were eager to discover a +better habitation than the miserable coast of Greenland, and the +little less dreary island of Iceland. In this voyage the coast of +the newly discovered land was examined towards the west, or +rather the north-west. Next summer Lief sailed again to Winland, +and explored the coast to the east or south-east. The coast was +so much covered with wood and beset with islands, that they could +not perceive a human creature, or animals of any kind. In the +third summer they examined the islands on the coast of Winland, +and so damaged their ship that they found it necessary to build a +new one, laying up their old vessel on a promontory, to which +they gave the name of Kiaeler-ness. In their new vessel they +proceeded to examine the eastern or south-eastern shore of +Winland, and in their progress they fell in with three boats +covered with hides, having three men in each. These they seized, +but one man found means to escape from them, and they wantonly +butchered all the rest. Soon after this they were attacked by a +great number of the natives, armed with bows and arrows, from +which they screened themselves in their ship with a fence of +planks; and they defended themselves with so much spirit that +their enemies were forced to retire, after giving them battle for +an hour. Thorwald received a severe wound from an arrow in this +skirmish, of which he died; and over his grave, on a cape or +promontory, two crosses were erected at his request; from which +the cape was called Krossa-ness, or Cross Point.</p> + +<p>To the natives of Winland, the Icelanders gave the name of +Skraellinger, signifying cuttings or dwarfs, on account of their +being of very low stature. These were probably the ancestors of +the present Eskimaux, who are the same people with the +Greenlanders, and are called Eskimantsik in the language of the +Abenaki, on account of their eating raw fish; in the same manner +as the Russians, in their official state papers, call the +Samojeds Sirojed'zi, because they also eat raw and frozen fish +and flesh.</p> + +<p>In the same year Thorstein, the third son of Eric-raude, set +sail for Winland, taking with him his wife, Gudridthe daughter of +Thorbern, with his children and servants, amounting in all to +twenty-five persons; but they were forced by a storm on the +western coast of Greenland, where they were obliged to spend the +winter, and where Thorstein died, with a large proportion of his +retinue, probably of the scurvy. Next spring Gudrid took the dead +body of her husband home; and Thorfin, surnamed Kallsefner, an +Icelander of some consequence, descended from King +Regner-Lodbrok, married the widow of Thorstein, from which he +considered himself entitled to the possession of the newly +discovered country. He accordingly sailed for Winland with a vast +quantity of household furniture, implements of all kinds, and +several cattle, and accompanied by sixty-five men and five women, +with whom he began to establish a regular colony. He was +immediately visited by the Skraellingers, who bartered with him, +giving the most valuable furs for such wares as the Icelanders +had to give in exchange. The natives would willingly have +purchased the weapons of the Icelanders, but this was expressly +and judiciously forbidden by Thorfin. Yet one of them found means +to steal a battle-ax, of which he immediately made a trial on one +of his countrymen, whom he killed with one blow; on which a third +person seized the mischievous weapon and threw it into the sea. +During a stay of three years, Thorfin acquired a large stock of +rich furs and other merchandize, with which he returned to +Greenland; and at length removing to Iceland, he purchased an +estate in the northern part of Syssel, and built a very elegant +house which he called Glaumba. After his death, his widow Gudrid +made a pilgrimage to Rome, whence she returned, and ended her +days in a nunnery in Iceland, which was built for her by her son +Snorro, who was born in Winland.</p> + +<p>Sometime afterwards, Finbog and Helgo, two Icelanders, fitted +out two ships, carrying thirty men, with which they made a voyage +to Winland. In this expedition they were accompanied by Freidis, +the daughter of Eric-raude; but by the turbulence of her +disposition, she occasioned many divisions and quarrels in the +infant colony, in one of which Finbog and Helgo were both killed, +together with thirty of their followers. Upon this Freidis +returned to Greenland, where she lived for some time universally +detested and despised, and died in the utmost misery. The +remaining colonists were dispersed, and nothing farther that can +be depended on remains on record concerning them. Even the +Icelandic colony in Greenland has disappeared, and the eastern +coast, on which especially it was settled, has become long +inaccessible, in consequence of the immense accumulation of ice +in the straits between it and Iceland. To this it may be added, +that, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, a prodigious +number of people were carried off in Norway and Iceland by a +disease or pestilence called the <i>Black Death</i>; probably the +scurvy in its worst state, occasioned by a succession of +inclement seasons and extreme scarcity, impelling the famished +people to satisfy the craving of hunger upon unwholesome food. +Deprived of all assistance from Iceland and Norway, the colonists +of Greenland and Winland were in all probability extirpated by +the continual hostilities of the Skraellingers, or Eskimaux; and +the fabulous idea of any remnant of those in Winland having still +an existence in the interior of Newfoundland, is entirely +unworthy of any consideration.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-4">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of two Mahomedans in India and +China, in the Ninth Century.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Translation from Renaudot, 8vo. Lond. 1733. See +likewise Harris, I. 522.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>This curious remnant of antiquity was translated from the +Arabic, and published in 1718, by Eusebius Renaudot, a learned +Member of the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscriptions +and Belles Lettres. It is not known by whom the travels were +actually performed, neither can their exact date be ascertained, +as the commencement of the MS. which was translated by Renaudot +was imperfect; but it appears to have been written in the 237th +year of the Hegira, or in the year 851 of the Christian era. +Though entitled the travels of <i>two</i> Mahomedans, the travels +seem to have been mostly performed by one person only; the latter +portion being chiefly a commentary upon the former, and appears +to have been the work of one Abu Zeid al Hasan of Siraf, and to +have been written about the 803d year of the Hegira, or A.D. 915. +In this commentary, indeed, some report is given of the travels +of another Mahomedan into China. The MS. employed by Renaudot +belonged to the library of the Count de Seignelay, and appears to +have been written in the year 619 of the Hegira, or A.D. 1173. +The great value of this work is, that it contains the very +earliest account of China, penned above four hundred years +earlier than the travels of Marco Polo, who was esteemed the +first author on the subject before this publication appeared.</p> + +<p>There are many curious and remarkable passages in these +travels, which convey information respecting customs and events +that are nowhere else to be found; and though some of these carry +a fabulous appearance, the greatest part of them have been +confirmed and justified by the best writers in succeeding ages. +The first portion, or the actual narrative, begins abruptly, on +account of some portion of the original manuscript being lost, +which would probably have given the name and country of the +author, and the date and occasion of his voyage.</p> + +<p>In the accompanying commentary by Abu Zeid, we are informed +that the date of the narrative was of the Hegira 237, A.D. 851, +which circumstance was probably contained in the missing part of +the manuscript; but though written then, it is probable that the +first journey of the author was undertaken at least twenty years +before that date, or in 831, as he observes, that he made a +second journey into the same countries sixteen years afterwards, +and we may allow four years for the time spent in the two +journies, and the intervening space, besides the delay of +composition after his last return. Though not mentioned, it is +probable his travels were undertaken for the purpose of trade, as +we can hardly suppose him to have twice visited those distant +countries merely for the satisfaction of curiosity.</p> + +<p>With regard to the second treatise or commentary, it seems +probable, that when the affairs of China became better known, +some prince or person of distinction had desired Abu Zeid to +examine the former relation, and to inform him how far the facts +of the original work were confirmed by succeeding accounts. The +date of the commentary is not certainly ascertainable; yet it +appears, that Eben Wahab travelled into China A.H. 285. A.D. 898, +and that Abu Zeid had conversed with this man after his return, +and had received from him the facts which are inserted in his +discourse, which therefore is probably only sixty or seventy +years posterior to the actual treatise of the nameless +traveller.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>Original Account of India and China, by a Mahomedan +Traveller of the Ninth Century</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>third</i> of the seas we have to mention is that of +Herkend[1]. Between this sea and that of Delarowi there are many +islands, said to be in number 1900, which divide those two seas +from each other[2], and are governed by a queen[3]. Among these +islands they find ambergris in lumps of extraordinary bigness, +and also in smaller pieces, which resemble plants torn up. This +amber is produced at the bottom of the sea, in the same manner as +plants are produced upon the earth; and when the sea is +tempestuous, it is torn up from the bottom by the violence of the +waves, and washed to the shore in the form of a mushroom or +truffle. These islands are full of that species of palm tree +which bears the cocoa nuts, and they are from one to four leagues +distant from each other, all inhabited. The wealth of the +inhabitants consists in shells, of which even the royal treasury +is full. The workmen in these islands are exceedingly expert, and +make shirts and vests, or tunics, all of one piece, of the fibres +of the cocoa nut. Of the same tree they build ships and houses, +and they are skilful in all other workmanships. Their shells they +have from the sea at certain times, when they rise up to the +surface, and the inhabitants throw branches of the cocoa nut tree +into the water, to which the shells stick. These shells they call +Kaptaje.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This is probably the sea about the Maldives, +which, according to the eastern geographers, divides that part of +the Indian Ocean from the sea of Delarowi, or the Magnus Sinus of +the ancients. The eastern writers often speak of the Seven Seas, +which seems rather a proverbial phrase, than a geographical +definition. These are the seas of China, India, Persia, Kolzoum, +or the Red Sea, of Rum or Greece, which is the Mediterranean, +Alehozar or the Caspian, Pont or the Euxine. The sea of India is +often called the Green Sea, and the Persian Gulf the sea of +Bassora. The Ocean is called Bahr Mahit.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Male-dive signifies, in the Malabar language, a +thousand isles.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The subsequent accounts of these islands do not +justify this particular sentence, if the author meant that they +were always governed by a queen. It might be so in this time by +accident, and one queen might have succeeded another, as Queen +Elizabeth did Queen Mary.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>Beyond these islands, and in the sea of Herkend, is +Serendib[4] or Ceylon, the chief of all these islands, which are +called Dobijat. It is entirely surrounded by the sea, and on its +coast they fish for pearls. In this country there is a mountain +called Rahun, to the top of which Adam is said to have ascended, +where he left the print of his foot, seventy cubits long, on a +rock, and they say his other foot stood in the sea at the same +time. About this mountain there are mines of rubies, opals, and +amethysts. This island is of great extent, and has two kings; and +it produces aloes wood, gold, precious stones, and pearls, which +last are fished for on the coast; and there are also found a kind +of large shells, which are used for trumpets, and much esteemed. +In the same sea, towards Serendib, there are other islands, not +so many in number as those formerly mentioned, but of vast +extent, and unknown. One of these is called Ramni, which is +divided among a number of princes, and in it is found plenty of +gold. The inhabitants have cocoa nut trees, which supply them +with food, and with which also they paint their bodies, and oil +themselves. The custom of the country is, that no man can marry +till he has killed an enemy, and brought off his head. If he has +killed two he claims two wives, and if he has slain fifty he may +have fifty wives. This custom proceeds from the number of enemies +with which they are surrounded, so that he who kills the greatest +number is the most considered. These islands of Ramni abound with +elephants, red-wood, and trees called Chairzan, and the +inhabitants eat human flesh.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] This is the Taprobana of the ancients, and has +received many names. In Cosmas Indicopleustes, it is called +Sielendiba, which is merely a Grecian corruption of Sielea-dive, +or Sielen island; whence the modern name of +Ceylon.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>These islands separate the sea of Herkend from the sea of +Shelabet, and beyond them are others called Najabalus, which are +pretty well peopled, both men and women going naked, except that +the women wear aprons made of leaves. When shipping goes among +these islands, the inhabitants come off in boats, bringing with +them ambergris and cocoa nuts, which they barter for iron; for, +being free from the inconveniencies either of extreme heat or +cold they want no clothing. Beyond these two islands is the sea +of Andaman. The people on this coast eat human flesh quite raw; +their complexion is black, with frizzled hair, their countenance +and eyes frightful, their feet very large, almost a cubit in +length, and they go quite naked. They have no sort of barks or +other vessels, or they would seize and devour all the passengers +they could lay their hands upon. When ships have been kept back +by contrary winds, and are obliged to anchor on this barbarous +coast, for procuring water, they commonly lose some of their +men.</p> + +<p>Beyond this there is an inhabited mountainous island, which is +said to contain mines of silver; but as it does not lie in the +usual track of shipping, many have searched for it in vain, +though remarkable for a very lofty mountain called Kashenai. A +ship, sailing in its latitude, once got sight of this mountain, +and steered for the coast, where some people were sent on shore +to cut wood: The men kindled a fire, from which there ran out +some melted silver, on which they concluded that there must have +been a silver mine in the place, and they shipped a considerable +quantity of the earth or ore; but they encountered a terrible +storm on their voyage back, and were forced to throw all their +ore overboard to lighten the vessel. Since that time the mountain +has been several times carefully sought for, but no one has ever +been able to find it again. There are many such islands in those +seas, more in number than can be reckoned; some inaccessible by +seamen, and some unknown to them.</p> + +<p>It often happens in these seas that a whitish cloud suddenly +appears over-head, which lets down a long thin tongue or spout, +quite to the surface of the water, which is then turned swiftly +round as if by a whirlwind, and if a vessel happens to be in the +way, she is immediately swallowed up in the vortex. At length +this cloud mounts up again and discharges itself in prodigious +rain; but it is not known whether this water is sucked up by the +cloud, or how this phenomenon comes to pass. All these seas are +subject to prodigious storms, which make them boil up like water +over a fire; at which times the waves dash the ships against the +islands with unspeakable violence, to their utter destruction; +and even fish; of all sizes are thrown dead on shore, against the +rocks, by the extreme agitation of the sea. The wind which +commonly blows upon the sea of Herkend is from a different +quarter, or from the N.W.; but this sea is likewise subject to as +violent agitations as those just mentioned, and there ambergris +is torn up from the bottom, particularly where it is very deep; +and the deeper the sea so much the more valuable is the ambergris +which it produces. It is likewise observed, that when this sea is +tossed by tempestuous winds it sparkles like fire; and it is +infested with a certain kind of fish called Lockham, which +frequently preys upon men[5].</p> + +<blockquote>[5] This is probably the shark, which is common on +all the coasts of India. There was a portion of the MS. wanting +at this place; wherein the author treated of the trade to China +as it was carried on in his time, and of the causes which had +brought it into a declining condition. --Renaud.</blockquote> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> + +<p>Among other circumstances, the fires which frequently happen +at Canfu are not the least remarkable. Canfu is the port of all +the ships of the Arabs who trade to China, and fires are there +very frequent, because all the houses are of wood or of split +canes; besides, ships are often lost in going and coming, or they +are plundered, or obliged to make too long a stay in harbours, or +to sell their goods out of the country subject to the Arabs, and +there to make up their cargoes. In short, ships are under a +necessity of wasting much time in refitting, and many other +causes of delay. Soliman[6] the merchant, writes, that at Canfu, +which is a principal staple of merchants, there is a Mahomedan +judge appointed by the emperor of China, who is authorized to +judge in every cause which arises among the Mahomedans who resort +to these parts. Upon festival days he performs the public +services of religion to the Mahomedans, and pronounces the usual +sermon or <i>Kotbat</i>, which he concludes with the usual form +of prayers for the sultan of the Moslems. The merchants of Irak +or Persia, who trade to Canfu, are no way dissatisfied with the +conduct of this judge in the administration of his office, +because his decisions are just and equitable, and conformable to +the Koran.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Perhaps some account of this Soliman might be +contained in the lost pages: But the circumstance of a Mahomedan +judge or consul at Canfu is a circumstance worthy of notice, and +shews that the Mahomedans had carried on a regular and settled +trade with China for a considerable time, and were in high +estimation in that country.--Renaud.</blockquote> + +<p>Respecting the places whence ships depart and those they touch +at, many persons affirm that the navigation is performed in the +following order: Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargoes +at Siraff[7], where also they ship their goods which come from +Basra, Oman, and other ports; and this is done because there are +frequent storms and many shallows in those seas. From Basra to +Siraff is an hundred and twenty leagues; and when ships have +loaded at this latter place they take in water there also. From +thence they sail to a place called Mascat, in the extremity of +the province of Oman, which is about two hundred leagues from +Siraff. On the east coast of this sea, between Siraff and Mascat, +is a place called Nasir Bani al Sasack, and an island called Ebn +Kahowan, and in this sea there are rocks called Oman, and a +narrow strait called Dordur between two rocks, through which +ships often venture to pass, but the Chinese snips dare not. +There are also two rocks called Kossir and Howare, which scarce +appear above the water's edge. After they are clear of these +rocks, they steer to a place called Shitu Oman, and take in water +at Muscat, which is drawn up from wells, and are here also +supplied with cattle from the province of Oman. From Mascat the +ships take their departure for India, and first touch at +Kaucammali, which is a month's sail from Mascat with a fair wind. +This is a frontier place, and the chief arsenal in the province +of that name; and here the Chinese ships put in and are in +safety, and procure fresh water. The Chinese ships pay here a +thousand drams for duties, whereas others pay only from one dinar +to ten. From thence they begin to enter the sea of Herkend, and +having sailed through it, they touch at a place called Lajabalus, +where the inhabitants do not understand Arabic, or any other +language in use among merchants. They wear no clothes, are white, +and weak in their feet. It is said their women are not to be +seen, and that the men leave the island in canoes, hollowed out +of one piece, to go in quest of them, and carry them cocoa nuts, +mousa, and palm wine. This last liquor is white, and when drank +fresh is sweet like honey, and has the taste of cocoa nut milk; +if kept some time, it becomes as strong as wine, but after some +days changes to vinegar. These people give this wine, and the +small quantities of amber which is thrown up on their coasts, for +bits of iron, the bargains being made by signs; but they are +extremely alert, and are very apt to carry off iron from the +merchants without making any return.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] It is difficult at this distance of time to +ascertain the rout laid down by this author, on account of the +changes of names. This mart of Siraff is not to be met with in +any of our maps; but it is said by the Arabian geographers to +have been in the gulf of Persia, about sixty leagues from Shiraz; +and that on its decay, the trade was transferred to +Ormuz.--Renaud.</blockquote> + +<p>From Lajabalus the ships steer for Calabar, the name of a +kingdom on the right hand beyond the Indies, which depends on the +kingdom of Zabage, <i>bar</i> signifying a coast in the language +of the country. The inhabitants are dressed in those sorts of +striped garments which the Arabs call Fauta, and they commonly +wear only one at a time, which fashion is common to people of all +ranks. At this place they take in water, which is drawn from +wells that are fed by springs, and which is preferred to that +which is procured from cisterns or tanks. Calabar is about a +month's voyage from a place called Kaukam, which is almost upon +the skirts of the sea of Herkend. In ten days after this, ships +reach Betuma, from whence, in ten days more, they come to +Kadrange. In all the islands and peninsulas of the Indies, water +is to be found by digging. In this last mentioned place there is +a very lofty mountain, which is entirely inhabited by slaves and +fugitives. From thence, in ten days, they arrive at Senef, where +is fresh water, and from whence comes the aromatic wood which we +call Hud al Senefi. Here is a king; the inhabitants are black, +and they wear two striped garments. Having watered at this place, +it is ten days passage to Sanderfulat, an island which has fresh +water. They then steer through the sea of Sanji, and so to the +gates of China; for so they call certain rocks and shallows which +form a narrow strait in that sea, through which the ships are +obliged to pass. It requires a month to sail from Sanderfulat to +China, and it takes eight whole days to steer through among the +rocks and shoals.</p> + +<p>When a ship has got through the before mentioned gates, she +goes with the flood tide into a fresh water gulf, and drops +anchor in the chief port of China, which is called Canfu[8], +where they have fresh water, both from springs and rivers, as +also in most of the other cities of China. The city is adorned +with large squares, and is supplied with every thing necessary +for defence against an enemy, and in most of the other provinces +of the empire there are cities of strength similarly fortified. +In this port the tide ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours; +but, whereas from Basra to the island of Bani Kahouan it flows +when the moon is at full, and ebbs when she rises and when she +sets; from near Bani Kahouan quite to the coast of China it is +flood tide when the moon rises, and ebb when she is at her +height; and so on the contrary, when she sets, it is flowing +water, and when she is quite hidden under the horizon, the tide +falls.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] It is probable, or rather certain, that Canton is +here meant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>They say, that in the island of Muljan, between Serendib and +Cala, on the eastern shore of the Indies, there are negroes who +go quite naked; and when they meet a stranger they hang him up by +the heels and slice him into pieces, which they eat quite raw. +These negroes, who have no king, feed chiefly on fish, mousa, +cocoa nuts, and sugar canes. It is reported, that in some parts +of this sea, there is a small kind of fish which flies above the +water, and is called the sea locust; that in another part, there +is a fish which, leaving the sea, gets up into the cocoa nut +trees, and having drained them of their juices, returns to the +sea; and it is added, that there is a fish like a lobster or +crab, which petrifies as soon as it is taken out of its element, +and that when pulverized it is a good remedy for several diseases +of the eyes. They say also, that near Zabage there is a volcanic +mountain which cannot be approached, which sends forth a thick +smoke by day, and throws out flames at night; at the foot of +which are two springs of fresh water, one hot and the other +cold.</p> + +<p>The Chinese are dressed in silk garments, both in summer and +winter, and this dress is common both to the prince and peasant. +In winter, they wear drawers of a particular make, which reach to +their feet, and of these, they put on two, three, four, five, or +more, one over the other, if they can afford it; and are very +careful to be covered quite down to their feet, because of the +damps, which are very great, and of which they are extremely +apprehensive. In summer they only wear a single garment of silk, +or some such light dress, but they have no turbans. Their common +food is rice, which they eat frequently with a broth made of meat +or fish, like that used by the Arabs, and which they pour upon +the rice. Their kings eat wheaten bread, and the flesh of all +kinds of animals, not excepting swine, and some others not used +by us. They have several sorts of fruits, as apples, lemons, +quinces, moulats, sugar canes, citruls, figs, grapes, cucumbers +of two sorts, trees, which produce a substance like meal, +walnuts, almonds, filberts, pistachios, plumbs, apricots, +services, and cocoa nuts, but no store of palms, of which they +have only a few about private houses. Their drink is a kind of +wine made of rice, having no other wine in the country, neither +is any other imported by them. They do not even know what wine +is, nor will they drink of it. They have vinegar also, and a kind +of comfit, like that called <i>Natef</i> by the Arabs and some +others.</p> + +<p>The Chinese are by no means nice in point of cleanliness, not +washing with water when they ease nature but only wiping with +paper. They do not scruple to eat of animals which have died, and +they practise many other things like the Magians[9]; and in +truth, the two religions are much similar. Their women appear +uncovered, and adorn their heads with many small ivory combs, of +which they wear sometimes a score at one time. The heads of the +men are covered by a cap, of a particular make. Thieves are put +to death as soon as caught.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Meaning the Parsees or Guebres, the +fire-worshippers of Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The Indians and Chinese agree that there are four great or +principal kings in the world, all of them allowing that the king +of the Arabs is the first and most powerful of kings, the most +wealthy, and the most excellent every way, because he is the +prince and head of a great religion, and because no other +surpasses him. The Emperor of China reckons himself next after +the king of the Arabs, after him the king of the Greeks, and +lastly the Balhara[10], or king of the Moharmi al Adon, or people +who have their ears bored. The Balhara is the most illustrious +sovereign in all the Indies, and though all the other kings in +India are masters and independent each in their own dominions, +they thus so far acknowledge his preeminence, that when he sends +ambassadors to the other princes, they are received with +extraordinary honours. This king makes magnificent presents after +the manner of the Arabs, and has vast numbers of horses and +elephants, and great treasures in money. His silver coin is what +we call Thartarian drams, being equal to one and a half of the +Arabian dram. They are coined with the die of the prince, and +bear the year of his reign, counting from the last year of the +reign of his predecessor. They compute not their years from the +era of Mahomed, like the Arabs, but only by the years of their +successive kings. Most of these princes live a long time, many of +them having reigned above fifty years; and those of the country +believe that the length of their lives and reigns is granted in +recompence of their kindness to the Arabs; for there are no +princes more heartily affectionate to the Arabs, and their +subjects profess the same kindness for us. Balhara is not a +proper name, but an appellative, common to all those kings, like +Cosroes and some others. The country under the dominion of the +prince begins on the coast of the province called Kamcam, and +reaches by land to the confines of China. He is surrounded by the +dominions of many kings, who are at war with him, yet he never +marches against them.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] It is probable that this Balhara, or king of the +people with bored ears, which plainly means the Indians, was the +Zamorin or Emperor of Calicut; who, according to the reports of +the most ancient Portuguese writers concerning India, was +acknowledged as a kind of emperor in the Indies, six hundred +years before they discovered the route to India by the Cape of +Good Hope.--Harris. + +<p>The original editor of this voyage in English, Harris, is +certainly mistaken in this point. The Balhara was the sovereign +of Southern Seindetic India; of which dominion Guzerat was the +principal province.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>One of these is the king of Harez, who has very numerous +forces, and is stronger in cavalry than all the other princes of +the Indies. He is an enemy to the Arabs, neither is there any +prince in India who has a greater aversion to the Mahomedans; +though he confesses their king to be the greatest of princes. His +dominions are on a promontory, where are much riches, many +camels, and abundance of other cattle. The inhabitants traffic +for silver, and they say there are mines of that metal on the +continent. There are no robbers in this country, nor in the rest +of the Indies. On one side of this country is that of Tafek, +which is not of very great extent. This king has the finest white +women in all the Indies; but he is awed by the kings about him, +as his army is very small. He has a great affection for the Arabs +as well as the Balhara. These kingdoms border upon the lands of a +king called Rami, who is at war with the king of Harez, and with +the Balhara likewise. This prince is not much considered, either +for the dignity of his birth or the antiquity of his kingdom; but +his forces are more numerous than those of the Balhara, and even +than those of the kings of Harez and Tafek. It is said that he +appears in the field at the head of fifty thousand elephants, and +commonly marches in the rainy season, because his elephants +cannot move at any other time, as they are unable to bear thirst. +His army is said commonly to contain from ten to fifteen thousand +tents. In this country they make cotton garments of such +extraordinary fineness and perfection, as is to be seen nowhere +else. These garments are mostly round, and are wove so extremely +fine, that they may be drawn through a moderately sized ring. +Shells are current in this country as small money; and they have +abundance of gold and silver, aloes wood, and sable skins, of +which they make their horse-furniture.</p> + +<p>In this country is the famous Karkandan, that is the +rhinoceros, or unicorn, which has but one horn on his forehead, +on which there is a round spot with the representation of a man; +the whole horn being black, except the spot in the middle which +is white. The rhinoceros is much smaller than the elephant, and +resembles the buffalo from the neck downwards, and excels all +other creatures in extraordinary strength. His leg is all one +thickness, from the shoulder to the foot, and the hoof is not +cloven. The elephant flies from the rhinoceros, whose lowing is +like that of an ox, with something of the cry of the camel. His +flesh is not forbidden, and we have eaten of it; There are great +numbers of this creature in the fens of this country, as also in +all the other provinces of India; but the horns of these are most +esteemed, having generally upon them the figures of men, +peacocks, fishes and other resemblances. The Chinese adorn their +girdles with these sorts of figures, so that some of their +girdles are worth two or three thousand pieces of gold in China, +and sometimes more, the price augmenting with the beauty of the +figures. All these things are to be purchased in the kingdom of +Rahmi, for shells, which are the current money of the +country.</p> + +<p>After this country, there is an inland state distant from the +coast, and called Kaschbin, of which the inhabitants are white, +and bore their ears. They have camels, and their country is for +the most part desert, and full of mountains. Farther on the +coast, there is a small kingdom called Hitrange, which is very +poor; but in its bay, the sea throws up great quantities of +ambergris, and they have elephants teeth and pepper; but the +inhabitants eat this last green, because of the small quantity +they gather. Beyond these, there are other kingdoms, but their +numbers and names are unknown. Among these is one named Mujet, +the inhabitants of which are white and dress after the Chinese +manner; their country is full of mountains, having white tops, +and of very great extent, in which there are great quantities of +musk; esteemed the most exquisite of any in the world. They have +continual war with all the surrounding kingdoms; The kingdom of +Mabet is beyond that of Mujet, wherein are many cities, and the +inhabitants have even a greater resemblance to the Chinese than +those of Mujet; for they have officers or eunuchs like those who +govern the cities among the Chinese. The country of Mabet borders +upon China, and is at peace with the emperor, but not subject to +him. The king of Mabet sends ambassadors every year with presents +to the emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadors and +presents to Mabet. But when the ambassadors of Mabet enter China, +they are very carefully watched, lest they should survey the +country, and form designs of conquest; which would be no +difficult matter, as their country is very extensive, and +extremely populous, and as they are only divided from China by +rocks and mountains.</p> + +<p>It is said that, in the country of China, there are above two +hundred cities having jurisdiction over others, each of which has +a governor and an eunuch or lieutenant. Canfu is one of these +cities, being the port for all shipping, and has jurisdiction +over twenty towns. A town is raised, to the dignity of a city, by +the grant of certain large trumpets. These are three or four +cubits in length, and as large about as can be grasped by both +hands, growing smaller towards the end which is fitted to the +mouth. On the outside, they are adorned with Chinese ink, and may +be heard at the distance of a mile. Each city has four gates, at +each of which five of these trumpets are stationed, which are +sounded at certain hours of the day and night. There are also ten +drums in each city, which are beaten at the same times; and this +is done as a public token of obedience to the emperor, and to +point out the hours of the day and night to the inhabitants; and +for ascertaining the time; they have sun dials, and clocks with +weights[11].</p> + +<blockquote>[11] This is a very early notice of the construction +and use of clocks, or machinery to indicate divisions of time, by +means of weights.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In China they use a great quantity of copper money, like that +named falus by the Arabians, which is the only sort of small +money, and is current all over the country, and is indeed the +only current coin. Yet their emperor has treasures like other +kings, containing abundance of gold and silver, with jewels, +pearls, silk, and vast quantities of rich stuffs of all kinds, +which are only considered as moveables or merchandize; and from +foreign commerce they derive ivory, frankincense, copper in bars, +tortoise shell, and unicorns horns, with which they adorn their +girdles. Of animals they have abundance, particularly of beasts +of burden; such as oxen, horses, asses, and camels; but they have +no Arabian horses. They have an excellent kind of earth, of which +they make a species of ware equal in fineness to glass, and +almost equally transparent. When merchants arrive at Canfu, the +Chinese seize their cargoes, which they convey to warehouses, +where the goods are detained six months, until the last merchant +ship of the season has arrived; they then detain three parts in +ten of every species of commodity, or thirty per cent as duty, +and return the rest to the merchants. Besides which, if the +emperor has a mind for any particular article, his officers have +a right of taking it in preference to any other person, paying +for it, however, to the utmost value; and they dispatch this +business with great expedition, and without the least injustice. +They commonly take the whole importation of camphor, on the +account of the emperor, and pay for it at the rate of fifty +<i>fakuges</i> per <i>man</i>, each fakuge being worth a thousand +<i>falus</i>, or pieces of copper coin. When it happens that the +emperor does not take the camphor, it sells for half as much +again.</p> + +<p>The Chinese do not bury their dead till the day twelve months +after their decease; but keep them all this time in coffins in +some part of their houses, having previously dried them by means +of quicklime. The bodies of their kings are embalmed with aloes +and camphor. They mourn during three whole years, and whoever +transgresses this law is punished with the bamboo, a chastisement +to which both men and women are subjected, and are at the same +time reproached for not shewing concern for the death of their +parents. They bury their dead in deep pits, much like those in +use among the Arabs. During all the time that the dead body is +preserved in the house, meat and drink are regularly set before +it every evening; and if they find these gone in the morning, +they imagine that the dead have consumed all; and all this time +they cease not from bewailing their loss, insomuch, that their +expences upon these occasions, in paying the last duties to their +deceased relations, are exorbitant, and often consume their +wealth and estates, to the utter ruin of the living. In former +times, they buried very rich apparel, and those expensive girdles +already mentioned, with the bodies of their kings, and others of +the blood royal; but this custom is now discontinued, because it +has happened that the bodies have been dug up from their graves +by thieves, for the sake of what was buried with them. The whole +nation, great and small, rich and poor, are taught to read and +write. The titles of their viceroys or governors, are varied +according to the dignity and rank of the cities under their +government. Those of the smaller cities are called <i>Tusing</i>, +which signifies the governor of a town. Those of the greater +cities, such as Canfu, are stiled <i>Difu</i>, and the eunuch or +lieutenant is stiled <i>Tukam</i>. These lieutenants are selected +from among the inhabitants of the cities. There is also a supreme +judge called <i>Lakshima-makvan</i>, and they have other names +for other officers, which we do not know how properly to +express.</p> + +<p>A person is never raised to the dignity of a prince, or +governor of a city, until he has attained to his fortieth year; +for then they say he has acquired experience. When one of these +princes or viceroys holds his court, in the city of his +residence, he is seated on a tribunal, in great state, and +receives the petitions or complaints of the people; having an +officer called <i>Lieu</i>, who stands behind the tribunal, and +indorses an answer upon the petition, according to the order of +the viceroy; for they null no applications but what are in +writing, and give all their decisions in the same manner. Before +parties can present their petitions to the viceroy, they must be +submitted to the proper officer for examination, who sends them +back if he discovers any error; and no person may draw up any of +those writings which are to be presented to the viceroy, except a +clerk versant in business, who must mark at the bottom that it is +written by such a man, the son of such a man: And if the clerk is +guilty of any error or mistake, he is punished with the bamboo. +The viceroy never seats himself on his tribunal until he has +eaten and drank, lest he should be mistaken in some things; and +he receives his subsistence from the public treasury of the city +over which he presides. The emperor, who is above all these +princes or petty kings, never appears in public but once in ten +months, under the idea that the people would lose their +veneration for him if he shewed himself oftener; for they hold it +as a maxim, that government can only subsist by means of force, +as the people are ignorant of the principles of justice, and that +constraint and violence are necessary to maintain among them the +majesty of empire.</p> + +<p>There are no taxes imposed upon the lands, but all the men of +the country are subject to a poll-tax in proportion to their +substance. When any failure of crops makes necessaries dear, the +king opens his store-houses to the people, and soils all sorts of +necessaries at much cheaper rates than they can be had in the +markets; by which means famine is prevented, and no dearth is of +any long continuance. The sums that are gathered by this +capitation tax are laid up in the public treasury, and I believe, +that from this tax, fifty thousand dinars are paid every day into +the null of Canfu alone, although that city is not one of the +largest. The emperor reserves to himself the revenues which arise +from the salt mines, and those which are derived from impositions +upon a certain herb called <i>Tcha</i>, which they drink with hot +water, and of which vast quantities are sold in all the cities in +China. This is produced from a shrub more bushy than the +pomegranate tree, and of a more pleasant smell, but having a kind +of a bitterish taste. The way of using this herb is to pour +boiling water upon the leaves, and the infusion cures all +diseases. Whatever sums come into the public treasury arise from +the capitation tax, the duties upon salt, and the tax upon this +leaf.</p> + +<p>In every city there is a small bell hung to the wall, +immediately over the head of the viceroy or governor, which may +be rung by a string which reaches about three miles, and crosses +the high way, on purpose that all the people may have access to +it; und whenever the string is pulled, and the bell strikes, the +person who thus demands justice is immediately commanded to be +brought into the presence, where he sets forth his case in +person. If any person inclines to travel from one part of the +country to another, he must have two passes along with him, one +from the governor, and the other from the lieutenant. The +governor's pass permits him to set out on his journey, and +specifies the name of the traveller, and of all that are in his +company, with their names and ages; for every person in China, +whether native, Arab, or other foreigner, is obliged to make a +full declaration of every thing he knows about himself. The +lieutenant's pass specifies the exact quantities of goods and +money which the traveller and his company take along with them, +and this is done for the information of the frontier places, +where both passes are regularly examined; for whenever a person +arrives at any of these places, it is entered in the register +that such a one, the son of such a one, of such a family, passed +through the place, in such a month, day, and year, and in such +company. By this means they prevent any one from carrying off the +money or effects of others, or the loss of their own goods in +case of accident; so that if any thing has been taken away +unjustly, or if the traveller should die on the road, it may be +immediately known where the things are to be found, that they may +be restored to the claimants, or to the heirs of the +deceased.</p> + +<p>The Chinese administer justice with great strictness, in all +their tribunals. When any person commences a suit against +another, he sets down his claim in writing, and the defendant +writes down his defence, which he signs, and holds between his +fingers. These two writings are delivered in at the same time; +and being examined, sentence is pronounced in writing, each of +the parties having his papers returned to him, the defendant +having his delivered first. When one party denies what the other +affirms, he is ordered to return his writing; and if the +defendant thinks he may do it safely, and delivers in his papers +a second time, those of the plaintiff are likewise called for; +and he who denies the affirmation of the other, is warned, that +if he does not make out what he denies, he shall undergo twenty +strokes of the bamboo on his buttocks, and shall pay a fine of +twenty <i>fakuges</i>, which amount to about two hundred dinars. +And the punishment of the bamboo is so severe, that the criminal +can hardly survive, and no person in all China is permitted to +inflict it upon another by his own authority, on pain of death, +and confiscation of his goods; so that no one is ever so hardy as +to expose himself to such certain danger, by which means justice +is well administered to all. No witnesses are required, neither +do they put the parties upon oath.</p> + +<p>When any person becomes bankrupt, he is immediately committed +to prison in the governor's palace, and is called upon for a +declaration of his effects. After he has remained a month in +prison, he is liberated by the governor's order, and a +proclamation is made, that such a person, the son of such a one, +has consumed the goods of such a one, and that if any person +possesses any effects, whatever belonging to the bankrupt, a full +discovery must be made within one month. If any discovery is made +of effects belonging to the bankrupt, which he had omitted to +declare, he suffers the punishment of the bamboo, and is +upbraided with having remained a month in prison, eating and +drinking, although he has wherewithal to satisfy his creditors. +He is reproached for having fraudulently procured and embezzled +the property of others, and is chastised for stripping other +people of their substance. But if, after every inquiry, the +debtor does not appear to have been guilty of any fraud, and if +it is proved to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that he has +nothing in the world, the creditors are called in, and receive a +part of their claims from the treasury of the Bagbun. This is the +ordinary title of the emperor of China, and signifies the Son of +Heaven, which we ordinarily pronounce Magbun. After this, it is +publickly forbidden to buy of or sell to the bankrupt, that he +may not again have an opportunity of defrauding his creditors, by +concealing their money or effects. If it be discovered that the +bankrupt has any money or effects in the hands of another, and +that person makes no disclosure within the time limited, the +person guilty of this concealment is bambooed to death, and the +value discovered is divided among the creditors; but the debtor +or bankrupt must never more concern himself with trade.</p> + +<p>Upon a stone ten cubits high, erected in the public squares of +all the cities, the names of all sorts of medicines, with the +exact prices of each, are engraven; and when the poor stand in +need of relief from physic, they receive, at the treasury, the +price that each medicine is rated at. In China there is no tax +upon land, but every male subject pays a rateable capitation in +proportion to his wealth and possessions. When a male child is +born, his name is immediately entered in a public register, and +when he has attained his eighteenth year he begins to pay the +poll-tax; but when once a man has reached his eightieth year, he +not only ceases to contribute, but even receives a pension from +the treasury, as a provision for old age, and in acknowledgment +of what he paid during his youth. There are schools, maintained +at the public charge, in every town, where the children of the +poor are taught to read and write. The women wear nothing on +their heads besides their hair, but the men are covered. In China +there is a certain town called <i>Tayu</i>, having a castle, +advantageously situated on a hill, and all the fortresses in the +kingdom are called by the same name. The Chinese are generally +handsome, of comely stature, and of fair complexions, and by no +means addicted to excess in wine. Their hair is blacker than that +of any other nation in the world, and the Chinese women wear it +curled.</p> + +<p>In the Indies, when one man accuses another of a capital +crime, it is usual to ask the accused if he is willing to undergo +the trial by fire, and if he consents, the ceremony is conducted +in the following manner: A piece of iron is heated red hot, and +the accused is desired to stretch out his hand, on which they put +seven leaves of a certain tree, and above these the red hot iron +is placed. In this condition he walks backwards and forwards for +some time, and then throws off the iron. Immediately after this +his hand is covered with a leathern bag, which is sealed with the +prince's signet; and if at the end of three days he appears and +declares that he has suffered no hurt, they order him to take out +his hand, and if no sign of fire is visible, he is declared +innocent of the crime laid to his charge, and the accuser is +condemned to pay a fine of a <i>man</i> of gold to the prince. +Sometimes they boil water in a caldron, till it is so hot that no +one can touch it; they then throw in an iron ring, and the +accused is commanded to thrust down his hand to bring up the +ring. I saw one who did this and received no manner of harm. In +this case, likewise, if the accused remain unhurt, the accuser +pays a fine of a <i>man</i> of gold.</p> + +<p>When a king dies in the island of Serendib, which is the last +of the islands of the Indies, his body is laid in an open +chariot, in such a posture, that his head hangs backward, almost +touching the ground, with his hair trailing on the earth; and the +chariot is followed by a woman, who sweeps the dust on the face +of the deceased, while she proclaims with a loud voice: "O man! +behold your king! He was yesterday your master, but now the +dominion which he exercised over you is at an end. He is reduced +to the state you now see, having left the world; and the arbiter +of life and death hath withdrawn his soul. Count not, therefore, +O man! upon the uncertain hopes of this life." This or a similar +proclamation is continued for three days; after which the body is +embalmed with sandal wood, camphor, and saffron, and is then +burned, and the ashes are scattered to the winds. When they burn +the body of a king, it is usual for his wives to jump into the +fire and burn along with him; but this they are not constrained +to do. The same custom of burning the bodies of the dead prevails +over all the Indies.</p> + +<p>In the Indies there are men who devote themselves to live in +the woods and mountains, professing to despise what other men +most value, abstaining from every thing but such wild herbs and +fruits as are to be found in the woods, and they affix an iron +buckle to their genitals in such a manner as to interdict all +commerce with woman. Some of these go quite naked, or have only +the skin of a leopard thrown over them, and keep perpetually +standing with their faces to the sun. I formerly saw one in that +posture; and on my return to the Indies, sixteen years +afterwards, I found him in the very same attitude, it being +astonishing that he had not lost his sight by the heat and glare +of the sun. In all these kingdoms the sovereign power resides in +the royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirs +of the family follow each other in regular succession. In like +manner, there are families of learned men, of physicians, and of +all the artificers concerned in the various arts; and none of +these are ever mixed with the family of a different profession. +The several states of the Indies are not subject to one king, but +each province has its own; though the Balhara is considered in +the Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gaming and +all manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and have +no pleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither do +they use vinegar, because it is made from wine; although this +abstinence does not proceed from any religious duty: but they +allege that a king given to wine is not worthy of being a king; +for how should a drunkard be able to manage the affairs of a +kingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between the +neighbouring states? Their wars are not usually undertaken to +possess themselves of the dominions of others, and I never heard +of any except the people bordering on the pepper country that +seized the dominions of their neighbours after victory. When a +prince masters the dominions of a neighbour, he confers the +sovereignty upon some person of the royal family of the conquered +country, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself, under +the conviction that the natives would never submit to be +otherwise governed.</p> + +<p>When any one of the princes or governors of cities in China is +guilty of a crime, he is put to death and eaten; and in general, +it may be said that the Chinese eat all those who are put to +death. When the Indians and Chinese are about to marry and the +parties are agreed, presents are interchanged, and the marriage +ceremony is solemnized amidst the noise of drums and various +sorts of instruments. The presents consist in money, and all the +relatives and friends contribute as much as they can afford. If +any man in the Indies runs away with a woman and abuses her, both +are put to death; unless it is proved that force has been used +against the woman, in which case the man only is punished. Theft +is always punished capitally, both in India and China, whether +the theft be considerable or trifling; but more particularly so +in the Indies, where, if a thief have stolen even the value of a +small piece of money, he is impaled alive. The Chinese are much +addicted to the abominable vice of pederasty, which they even +number among the strange acts they perform in honour of their +idols. The Chinese buildings are of wood, with stone and plaster, +or bricks and mortar. The Chinese and Indians are not satisfied +with one wife, but both nations marry as many as they please, or +can maintain. Rice is the common food of the Indians, who eat no +wheat; but the Chinese use both indifferently. Circumcision is +not practised either by the Chinese or Indians. The Chinese +worship idols, before whom, they fall down and make prayers, and +they have books which explain the articles of their religion. The +Indians suffer their beards to grow, but have no whiskers, and I +have seen one with a beard three cubits long; but the Chinese, +for the most part, wear no beards. Upon the death of a relation, +the Indians shave both head and face. When any man in the Indies +is thrown into prison, he is allowed neither victuals nor drink +for seven days together; and this with them answers the end of +other tortures for extorting from the criminal a confession of +his guilt. The Chinese and Indians have judges besides the +governors, who decide in causes between the subjects. Both in +India and China there are leopards and wolves, but no lions. +Highway robbers are punished with death. Both the Indians and +Chinese imagine that the idols which they worship speak to them, +and give them answers. Neither of them kill their meat by cutting +the throat, as is done by the Mahomedans, but by beating them on +the head till they die. They wash not with well water, and the +Chinese wipe themselves with paper, whereas the Indians wash +every day before eating. The Indians wash not only the mouth, but +the whole body before they eat, but this is not done by the +Chinese. The Indies is larger in extent by a half than China, and +has a great many more kingdoms, but China is more populous. It is +not usual to see palm trees either in the Indies or in China, but +they have many other sorts of trees and fruits which we have not. +The Indians have no grapes, and the Chinese have not many, but +both abound in other fruits, though the pomegranate thrives +better in India than in China.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have no sciences, and their religion and most of +their laws are derived from the Indians. They even believe that +the Indians taught them their worship of idols. Both nations +believe the Metempsycosis, though they differ in many of the +precepts and ceremonies of their religion. Physic and philosophy +are cultivated among the Indians, and the Chinese have some skill +in medicine; but that almost entirely consists in the art of +applying hot irons or cauteries. They have some smattering of +astronomy; but in this likewise the Indians surpass the Chinese. +I know not that even so much as one man of either nation has +embraced Mahomedism, or has learned to speak the Arabic language. +The Indians have few horses, and there are more in China; but the +Chinese have no elephants, and cannot endure to have them in +their country. The Indian dominions furnish a great number of +soldiers, who are not paid by their kings, but, when called out +to war, have to take the field and serve entirely at their own +expense; but the Chinese allow their soldiers much the same pay +as is done by the Arabs.</p> + +<p>China is a pleasant and fruitful country, having numerous +extensive and well fortified cities, with a more wholesome +climate and less fenny country than India, in which most of the +provinces have no cities. The air in China likewise is much +better than in India, and there are scarcely any blind persons, +or who are subject to diseases of the eyes; and similar +advantages are enjoyed by several of the provinces of India. The +rivers of both countries are large, and surpass our greatest +rivers, and much rain falls in both countries. In the ladies +there are many desert tracks, but China is inhabited and +cultivated through its whole extent. The Chinese are handsomer +than the Indians, and come nearer to the Arabs in countenance and +dress, in their manners, in the way of riding, and in their +ceremonies, wearing long garments and girdles in the manner of +belts; while the Indians wear two short vests, and both men and +women wear golden bracelets, adorned with precious stones.</p> + +<p>Beyond the kingdom of China, there is a country called +<i>Tagazgaz</i>, taking its name from a nation of Turks by which +it is inhabited, and also the country of Kakhan which borders on +the Turks. The islands of Sila are inhabited by white people, who +send presents to the Emperor of China, and who are persuaded that +if they were to neglect this the rain of heaven would not fall +upon their country. In that country there are white falcons; but +none of our people have been there to give us any particular +information concerning them.</p> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Commentary upon the foregoing Account, by Abu Zeid al Hasan +of Siraff</i>.</p> + +<p>Having very carefully examined the book I was desired to +peruse, that I might confirm what the author relates so far as he +agrees with what I have learnt concerning the affairs of +navigation, the kingdoms on the coast, and the state of the +countries of which he treats, and that I might add what I have +elsewhere collected concerning these matters: I find that this +book was composed in the year of the Hegira 237, and that the +accounts given by the author are conformable with what I have +heard from merchants who have sailed from <i>Irak</i> or Persia, +through these seas. I find also all that the author has written +to be agreeable to truth, except some few passages, in which he +has been misinformed. Speaking of the custom, of the Chinese in +setting meat before their dead, and believing that the dead had +eaten, we had been told the same thing, and once believed it; but +have since learnt, from a person of undoubted credit, that this +notion is entirely groundless, as well as that the idolaters +believe their idols speak to them. From that creditable person we +have likewise been informed, that the affairs of China wear quite +a different aspect since those days: and since much has been +related to explain why our voyages to China have been +interrupted, and how the country has been ruined, many customs +abolished, and the empire divided, I shall here declare what I +know of that revolution.</p> + +<p>The great troubles which have embroiled the affairs of this +empire, putting a stop to the justice and righteousness there +formerly practised, and interrupting the ordinary navigation from +Siraff to China, was occasioned by the revolt of an officer named +Baichu, in high employment, though not of the royal family. He +began by gathering together a number of vagabonds, and disorderly +people, whom he won to his party by his liberalities, and formed +into a considerable body of troops. With these he committed +hostilities in many parts of the country, to the great loss of +the inhabitants; and having greatly increased his army, and put +himself into a condition to attempt greater things, he began to +entertain a design of subduing the whole empire, and marched +direct for Canfu, one of the most noted cities in China, and at +that time the great port for our Arabian commerce. This city +stands upon a great river, some days sail from the sea, so that +the water there is fresh. The citizens shut their gates against +him, and he was obliged to besiege it a great while; but at +length he became master of the city, and put all the inhabitants +to the sword. There are persons fully acquainted with the affairs +of China, who assure us, that besides the Chinese who were +massacred upon this occasion, there perished one hundred and +twenty thousand Mahomedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, who +were there on account of traffic; and as the Chinese are +exceedingly nice in the registers they keep of foreigners +dwelling among them, this number may be considered as authentic. +This took place in the year of the hegira 264, or of Christ 877. +He also cut down the mulberry trees, which are carefully +cultivated by the Chinese for their leaves, on which the silk +worms are fed; and owing to this, the trade of silk has tailed, +and that manufacture, which used to be much prosecuted in all the +countries under the Arabian government, is quite at a stand.</p> + +<p>Having sacked and destroyed Canfu, he possessed himself of +many other cities, which he demolished, having first slain most +of the inhabitants, in the hope that he might involve all the +members of the royal family in this general massacre, that no one +might remain to dispute with him for the empire. He then advanced +to Cumdan[1], the capital city, whence the emperor was obliged to +make a precipitate retreat to the city of Hamdu, on the frontiers +towards Thibet. Puffed up with these great successes, Baichu made +himself master of almost the whole country, there being no one +able to dispute his authority. At length the emperor wrote to the +king of the Tagazgaz in Turkestan, with whom he was in some +degree allied by marriage, imploring his assistance to subdue the +rebellion. The king of the Tagazgaz dispatched his son, at the +head of a very numerous army, into China, and after a long and +arduous contest, and many battles, Baichu was utterly defeated, +and it was never known afterwards what became of him; some +believing that he fell in the last battle, while others supposed +that he ended his days in a different manner. The emperor of +China now returned to his capital, much weakened and dispirited +in consequence of the embezzlement of his treasures, and the loss +of the best of his officers and troops, and the horrible +devastations, calamities, and losses which his empire had +sustained; yet he made himself master of all the provinces which +had revolted from his authority. He would not, however, lay his +hands upon the goods of his subjects, notwithstanding the +exhausted state of his finances, but satisfied himself with what +was still left in his coffers, and the small remains of the +public money that was to be found, requiring nothing from his +subjects, but what they were willing to give, and only demanding +obedience to the laws and to his authority, considering that they +had been already severely oppressed in consequence of the +rebellion. Thus, China became like the empire of Alexander, after +the defeat and death of Darius, when he divided the provinces +among his chiefs, who became so many kings. For now, each of the +Chinese princes, or viceroys, joined themselves into petty +alliances, making wars among themselves without the authority of +the emperor; and when the stronger had subdued the weaker, and +acquired possession of his province, the subjects of the +vanquished prince were unmercifully wasted and plundered, and +even barbarously devoured: a cruel practice allowed by the laws +of their religion, which even permit human flesh to be exposed to +public sale in the markets. There arose from all these confusions +many unjust dealings with the merchants; and there was no +grievance so intolerable, or treatment so bad, but what was +exercised upon the Arab merchants, and captains of ships, +extorting from them what was altogether uncustomary, seizing upon +their effects, and behaving towards them quite contrary to all +the ancient usages; so that our merchants were forced to return +in crowds to Siraff and Oman[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] From the description of this place afterwards, in +the travels of Ebn Wahab, in this article, it appears to have +been Nankin.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The chronology of the Chinese history is attended +with extreme difficulty. According to Du Halde: In the reign of +the emperor <i>Hi Tseng</i>, the 18th of the <i>Tsong</i> +dynasty, the empire fell into great confusion, in consequence of +heavy taxations, and a great famine occasioned by the inundation +of the rivers, and the ravages of locusts. These things caused +many insurrections, and a rebel, named <i>Hoan Tsia</i> put +himself at the head of the malcontents, and drove the emperor +from the imperial city. But he was afterwards defeated, and the +emperor restored. It must be owned that there are about twenty +years difference between the time of the rebellion mentioned in +the text, and the date of the great revolt, as assigned by Du +Halde; but whether the mistake lies in the Arabian manuscript, or +in the difficulties of Chinese chronology, I cannot take upon me +to determine; yet both stories probably relate to the same event. +--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>The punishment of married persons, convicted of adultery, as +well as for the crimes of homicide and theft, is as follows: The +hands are bound fast together, and forced backwards over the +head, till they rest on the neck. The right foot is then fastened +to the right hand, and the left foot to the left hand, and all +drawn tight together behind the back, so that the criminal is +incapable to stir; and by this torture the neck is dislocated, +the joints of the arms start from their sockets, and the thigh +bones are disjointed;--in short, the tortured wretch would soon +expire without any farther process; yet, in that state, he is +beaten by bamboos till at the last gasp, and is then abandoned to +the people, who devour the body.</p> + +<p>There are women in China who refuse to marry, and prefer to +live a dissolute life of perpetual debauchery. A woman who has +made this election, presents herself in full audience before the +commanding officer of a city, declares her aversion to marriage, +and desires to be enrolled among the public women. Her name is +then inserted in the register, with the name of her family, the +place of her abode, the number and description of her jewels, and +the particulars of her dress. She has then a string put round her +neck, to which is appended a copper ring, marked with the king's +signet, and she receives a writing, certifying that she is +received into the list of prostitutes, and by which she is +entitled to a pension from the public treasury of so many +<i>falus</i> yearly, and in which the punishment of death is +denounced against any man who should take her to wife. Every +year, regulations are published respecting these women, and such +as have grown old in the service are struck off the list. In the +evening, these women walk abroad in dresses of different colours, +unveiled, and prostitute themselves to all strangers who love +debauchery; but the Chinese themselves send for them to their +houses, whence they do not depart till next morning.</p> + +<p>The Chinese coin no money, except the small pieces of copper +like those we <i>falus</i>, nor will they allow gold and silver +to be coined into specie, like our dinars and drams; for they +allege that a thief may carry off ten thousand pieces of gold +from the house of an Arab, and almost as many of silver, without +being much burthened, and so ruin the man who suffers the loss; +but in the house of a Chinese, he can only carry off ten thousand +<i>falus</i> at the most, which do not make above ten meticals or +gold dinars in value. These pieces of copper are alloyed with +some other metal, and are about the size of a dram, or the piece +of silver called <i>bagli</i>, having a large hole in the middle +to string them by. A thousand of them are worth a metical or gold +dinar; and they string them by thousands, with a knot +distinguishing the hundreds. All their payments, whether for +land, furniture, merchandize, or any thing else, are made in this +money, of which there are some pieces at Siraff, inscribed with +Chinese characters. The city of Canfu is built of wood and canes +interwoven, just like our lattice-work of split canes, the whole +washed over with a kind of varnish made of hempseed, which +becomes as white as milk, having a wonderfully fine gloss. There +are no stairs in their houses, which are all of one storey, and +all their valuables are placed in chests upon wheels, which in +case of fire can easily be drawn from place to place, without any +hinderance from stairs.</p> + +<p>The inferior officers of the cities, and those commonly who +have the direction of the customs and of the treasury, are almost +all eunuchs, some of whom have been captured on the frontiers and +made so, while others are so treated by their fathers, and sent +as presents to the emperors. These officers are at the head of +the principal affairs of state, and have the management of the +emperor's private affairs, and of the treasury; and those, +particularly, who are sent to Canfu, are selected from this +class. It is customary for them, and for the viceroys or +governors of the cities, to appear abroad from time to time in +solemn procession. On these occasions, they are preceded by men +who carry great pieces of wood, like those used in the Levant +instead of bells by the Christians, on which they make a noise +which is heard at a great distance, upon which every person gets +out of the way of the prince or eunuch. Even if a man is at his +door, he goes in, and keeps his door shut till the great +personage has gone by. Thus, not a soul is in the way, and this +is enjoined that they may strike a dread into the people, and be +held in veneration; and the people are not allowed to see them +often, lest they should grow so familiar as to speak to them.. +All these officers wear very magnificent dresses of silk, so fine +that none such is brought into the country of the Arabs, as the +Chinese hold it at a very high price. One of our chief merchants, +a man of perfect credibility, waited upon an eunuch who had been +sent to Canfu, to purchase some goods from the country of the +Arabs. The eunuch had upon his breast a short and beautiful silk +vest, which was under another silk vest, and seemed to have two +other vests over that again; and perceiving that the Arab eyed +him very steadfastly, he asked him the cause; and being told that +he admired the beauty of the little vest under his other +garments, the eunuch laughed, and holding out his sleeve to him, +desired him to count how many vests he had above that which he so +much admired. He did so, and found five, one over the other, and +the little rich vest undermost. These garments are all wove of +raw silk, which has never been washed or fulled; and those worn +by the princes or governors are still richer, and more +exquisitely, wrought.</p> + +<p>The Chinese surpass all nations in all arts, and particularly +in painting, and they perform such perfect work, as others can +but faintly imitate. When an artificer has finished a piece, he +carries it to the prince's palace to demand the reward which he +thinks he deserves, for the beauty of his performance; and the +custom is for the prince to order the work to be left at the gate +of the palace for a whole year, and if in that time no person +finds a just fault in the piece, the artificer is rewarded, and +admitted into the body of artists; but if any fault is +discovered, the piece is rejected, and the workman sent off +without reward. It happened once, that one of these artists +painted an ear of corn, with a bird perched upon it, and his +performance was very much admired. This piece, stood exposed to +public view as usual, and one day a crooked fellow going past, +found fault with the picture, and was immediately conducted to +the prince or governor, who sent for the painter that he might +hear his piece criticized. Being asked what fault he had to find, +he answered, that every one knew that a bird never settles on an +ear of corn, but it must bend under the weight; whereas this +painter had represented the ear of corn bolt upright, though +loaded with a bird. The objection was held just, and the painter +was dismissed without reward. By such means, they excite their +workmen to aim at perfection, and to be exceedingly nice and +circumspect in what they undertake, and to apply their whole +genius to any thing that has to go through their hands.</p> + +<p>There dwelt at Basra one Ebn Wahab, of the tribe of Koreish, +descended from Hebar, the son of Al Asud, who quitted Basra when +it was sacked, and came to Siraff, where he saw a ship preparing +to sail for China[3]. The humour took him to embark in this ship +for China, and he had the curiosity to visit the emperor's court. +Leaving Canfu, he went to Cumdan, after a journey of two months, +and remained a long while at the court, where he presented +several petitions to the emperor, setting forth, that he was of +the family of the prophet of the Arabs. After a considerable +interval, the emperor ordered him to be lodged in a house +appointed for the purpose, and to be supplied with every thing he +might need. The emperor then wrote to the governor of Canfu, to +inquire carefully among the Arabian merchants respecting this +man's pretensions; and receiving a full confirmation of his +extraction, received him to an audience, and made him rich +presents, with which he returned to Irak.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] According to Abulpharagius, one Abu Said revolted +against the Khaliff Al Mohated, in the year of the hegira, 285, +A.D. 893, and laid waste Bassora. This date agrees with the story +of Ebn Wahab in the text. --Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>When, we saw him, this man was much advanced in years, but had +his senses perfectly. He told us that the emperor asked him many +questions respecting the Arabs, and particularly how they had +destroyed the kingdom of the Persians. Ebn Wahab answered, that +they had done it by the assistance of God, and because the +Persians were immersed in idolatry, adoring the sun, moon, and +stars, instead of the Almighty. The emperor said, that they had +conquered the most illustrious kingdom of the earth, the best +cultivated, the most populous, the most pregnant of fine wits, +and of the highest fame. The emperor then asked Ebn Wahab what +account the Arabs made of the other kings of the earth; to which +he answered that he knew them not. Then the emperor caused the +interpreter to say, we admit but five great kings. He who is +master of Irak has the kingdom of widest extent, which is +surrounded by the territories of other kings, and we find him +called King of Kings. After him is the emperor of China, who is +styled King of Mankind, for no king has more absolute authority +over his subjects, and no people can be more dutiful and +submissive than his subjects. Next is the king of the Turks, +whose kingdom borders on China, and who is styled the King of +Lions. Next is the king of the Elephants, who is king of the +Indies, whom we call King of Wisdom. Last of all is the King of +Greece, whom we call King of Men, as there are no men of better +manners, or comlier appearance, on the face of the earth, than +his subjects.</p> + +<p>Ebn Wahab was then asked if he knew his lord and master the +prophet Mohammed, and if he had seen him? How could that be, said +Wahab, seeing that he is with God? Being then asked what manner +of person he was; he answered that he was very handsome. Then a +great box was brought, out of which another box was taken, and +the interpreter was desired to shew him his lord and master. Ebn +Wahab, upon looking in, saw the images of the prophets and the +emperor observing him to move his lips, desired him to be asked +the reason; on which he said he was praying inwardly in honour of +the prophets. Being asked how he knew them, he said by the +representation of their histories; as for instance, one was Noah +and his ark, who were saved from the flood with those who were +with them. The emperor laughed, and said he was right in regard +to Noah, but denied the universal deluge; which, though it had +covered part of the earth, did not reach China or the Indies. On +Wahab observing that the next was Moses, with his rod, and the +children of Israel; the emperor agreed that their country was of +small extent, and that Moses had extirpated the ancient +inhabitants. Wahab then pointed out Jesus upon the ass, +accompanied by his apostles. To this the emperor said, that he +had been a short time upon earth, all his transactions having +very little exceeded the space of thirty months. On seeing the +image of Mohammed riding on a camel, and his companions about +him, with Arabian shoes and leathern girdles, Wahab wept; and +being asked the reason, he answered, it was on seeing his prophet +and lord, who was his cousin also. The emperor then asked +concerning the age of the world; and Wahab answered, that +opinions varied on the subject, as some reckoned it to be six +thousand years old, while some would not allow so many, and +others extended it to a greater antiquity. Being asked why he had +deserted his own king, to whom he was so near in blood; he gave +information of the revolutions which had happened at Basra, which +had forced him to fly to Siraff; where, hearing of the glory of +the emperor of China, and the abundance of every thing in his +empire, he had been impelled by curiosity to visit it; but that +he intended soon to return to the kingdom of his cousin, where he +should make a faithful report of the magnificence of China, the +vast extent of its provinces, and of the kind usage he had met +with. This seemed to please the emperor, who made him rich +presents, and ordered him to be conducted to Canfu on post +horses[4]. He wrote also to the governor of that city, commanding +him to be treated with honour; and to the governors of the +provinces through which he had to pass, to shew him every +civility. He was treated handsomely during the remainder of his +stay in China, plentifully supplied with all necessaries, and +honoured with many presents[5].</p> + +<blockquote>[4] From this circumstance, it appears probable that +the great canal of China was not then +constructed.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Some circumstances in this very interesting +detail have been a little curtailed. If Abu Zaid had been a man +of talents, he might surely have acquired and transmitted more +useful information from this traveller; who indeed seems to have +been a poor drivelling zelot.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From the information of Ebn Wahab, we learn that Cumdan, where +the emperor of China keeps his court, is a very large and +extremely populous city, divided into two parts by a very long +and broad street. That the emperor, his chief ministers, the +supreme judge, the eunuchs, the soldiery, and all belonging to +the imperial household, dwelt in that part of the city which is +on the right hand eastward; and that the people were not admitted +into that part of the city, which is watered by canals from +different rivers, the borders of which are, planted with trees, +and adorned by magnificent palaces. That portion of the city on +the left hand, westwards from the great street, is inhabited by +the ordinary kind of people, and the merchants, where also are +great squares and markets for all the necessaries of life. At +day-break every morning, the officers of the royal household, +with the inferior servants, purveyors, and the domestics of the +grandees of the court, come into that division of the city, some +on horseback, and others on foot, to the public markets, and the +shops of those who deal in all sorts of goods, where they buy +whatever they want, and do not return again till their occasions +call them back next morning. The city is very pleasantly situate +in the midst of a most fertile soil, watered by several rivers, +and hardly deficient in any thing except palm trees, which grow +not there.</p> + +<p>In our time a discovery has been made, of a circumstance quite +new and unknown to our ancestors. No one ever imagined that the +great sea which extends from the Indies to China had any +communication with the sea of Syria. Yet we have heard, that in +the sea of Rum, or the Mediterranean, there was found the wreck +of an Arabian ship, which had been shattered by a tempest, in +which all her men had perished. Her remains were driven by the +wind and weather into the sea of the Chozars, and thence by the +canal of the Mediterranean sea, and were at last thrown upon the +coast of Syria. Hence it is evident, that the sea surrounds all +the country of China and Sila or Cila, the uttermost parts of +Turkestan, and the country of the Chozars, and that it +communicates by the strait with that which washes the coast of +Syria. This is proved by the structure of the wreck; of which the +planks were not nailed or bolted, like all those built in the +Mediterranean, or on the coast of Syria, but joined together in +an extraordinary manner, as if sewed, and none but the ships of +Siraff are so fastened. We have also heard it reported, that +ambergris has been found on the coast of Syria, which seems hard +to believe, and was unknown to former times. If this be true, it +is impossible that amber should have been thrown up on the sea of +Syria, but by the sea of Aden and Kolsum, which has communication +with the seas where amber is found. And as God has put a +separation between these seas, it must have necessarily been, +that this amber was driven from the Indian Seas into the others, +in the same direction with the vessel of Siraff[6].</p> + +<blockquote>[6] There is a vast deal of error in this long +paragraph. It certainly was impossible to ascertain the route or +voyage of the wreck, which was <i>said</i> to have been cast away +on the coast of Syria. If it could have been ascertained to have +come from the sea of the Chozars, or the Euxine, by the canal of +Constantinople, and the Egean, into the gulf of Syria, and +actually was utterly different from the build of the +Mediterranean, it may or must have been Russian. If it certainly +was built at Siraff, some adventurous Arabian crew must have +doubled the south of Africa from the east, and perished when they +had well nigh immortalized their fame, by opening up the passage +by sea from Europe to India: And as the Arabian Moslems very soon +navigated to Zanguebar, Hinzuan, and Madagascar, where their +colonies still remain, this list is not impossible, though very +unlikely. The ambergris may have proceeded from a sick cachalot +that had wandered into the Mediterranean. + +<p>The north-east passage around the north of Asia and Europe, +which is adduced by the commentator, in Harris's Collection, is +now thoroughly known to be impracticable.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The province of Zapage is opposite to China, and distant from +thence a month's sail or less, if the wind be fair. The king of +this country is styled Mehrage, and his dominions are said to be +900 leagues in circumference, besides which, he commands over +many islands which lie around; so that, altogether, this kingdom +is above 1000 leagues in extent. One of these islands is called +<i>Serbeza</i>, which is said to be 400 leagues in compass; +another is called <i>Rhami</i>, which is 800 leagues round, and +produces red-wood, camphor, and many other commodities. In the +same kingdom is the island of <i>Cala</i>, which is the mid +passage between China and the country of the Arabs. This island +is 80 leagues in circumference, and to it they bring all sorts of +merchandize, as aloes wood of several kinds, camphor, sandal +wood, ivory, the wood called <i>cabahi</i>, ebony, red-wood, all +sorts of spice, and many others; and at present the trade is +carried on between this island and that of Oman. The Mehrage is +sovereign over all these islands; and that of Zapage, in which he +resides, is extremely fertile, and so populous, that the towns +almost touch each other, no part of the land being uncultivated. +The palace of the king or Mehrage, stands on a river as broad as +the Tigris at Bagdat or Bassora; but the sea intercepts its +course, and drives its waters back with the tide; yet during the +ebb the fresh water flows out a good way into the sea. The river +water is let into a small pond, close to the king's palace, and +every morning the master of the household brings an ingot of +gold, wrought in a particular manner, and throws it into the +pond, in presence of the king. When the king dies, his successor +causes all these ingots, which have been accumulating during the +reign of his predecessor, to be taken out; and the sums arising +from this great quantity of gold are distributed among the royal +household, in certain proportions, according to their respective +ranks, and the surplus is given to the poor.</p> + +<p>Komar is the country whence the aloes wood, which we call Hud +al Komari, is brought; and it is a very populous kingdom, of +which the inhabitants are very courageous. In this country, the +boundless commerce with women is forbidden, and indeed it has no +wine. The kingdoms of Zapage and Komar are about ten or twenty +days easy sail from each other, and the kingdoms were in peace +with other when the following event is said, in their ancient +histories, to have occurred. The young and high-spirited king of +Komar was one day in his palace, which looks upon a river much +like the Euphrates, at the entrance, and is only a day's journey +from the sea. One day, in a discourse with his prime minister, +the conversation turned upon the glory and population of the +kingdom of the Mehrage, and the multitude of its dependent +islands, when the king of Komar expressed a wish to see the head +of the Mehrage of Zapage on a dish before him. The minister +endeavoured to dissuade him from so unjust and rash an attempt; +but the king afterwards proposed the same exploit to the other +officers of his court. Intelligence of this project was conveyed +to the Mehrage, who was a wise and active prince, of consummate +experience, and in the flower of his age; and who immediately +ordered a thousand small ships to be fitted out, with all +necessary arms and provisions, and manned with as many of his +best troops as they were able to transport; carefully concealing +the purpose of this armament, but giving out that he meant to +visit the different islands under his authority, and even caused +letters to be written to the tributary kings of these islands to +prepare for his reception. When every thing was in readiness, he +sailed over to the kingdom of Komar, the king of which, and all +his courtiers, were a set of effeminate creatures, who did +nothing all day long but view their faces in mirrors, and pick +their teeth. The Mehrage landed his troops without delay, and +immediately invested the palace, in which the king was made +prisoner, all his attendants having fled without fighting. Then +the Mehrage caused proclamation to be made, granting entire +security of life and property to all the inhabitants of the +country; and seating himself on the throne, caused the captive +king and the prime minister to be brought into his presence. +Addressing himself to the fallen monarch, he demanded his reasons +for entertaining a project so unjust, and beyond his power to +execute, and what were his ultimate intentions if he had +succeeded. To this the king of Komar made no answer; and the +Mehrage ordered his head to be struck off. To the minister, the +Mehrage made many compliments, for the good advice he had given +his master, and ordered him to place the person who best deserved +to succeed upon the vacant throne; and then departed to his own +dominions, without doing the smallest violence or injury to the +kingdom of Komar. The news of this action being reported to the +kings of China and the Indies, added greatly to their respect for +the Mehrage; and from that time, it has been the custom for the +kings of Komar to prostrate themselves every morning towards the +country of Zapage, in honour of the Mehrage[7].</p> + +<blockquote>[7] It is difficult to say anything certain of the +countries to which this story relates; which may have been some +of the islands now called Philipines, or perhaps some of the +islands in the straits of Sunda. --Harris. + +<p>Such is the opinion of the editor of Harris's Collection. But +I am disposed, especially from the rivers mentioned, to consider +Zapage as Pegu; and that Malacca, Sumatra, and Java, were the +dependent islands; and particularly, that Malacca, as the great +mart of early trade, though actually no island, was the Cala of +Abu Zeid. Siam, or Cambodia may have been the kingdom of +Komar.--E.</p></blockquote> + +<p>All the kings of China and the Indies believe in the +metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, as an article of +their religion, of which the following story, related by a person +of credibility, is a singular instance. One of these princes +having viewed himself in a mirror, after recovering from the +small-pox, and noticing how dreadfully his face was disfigured, +observed, that no person had ever remained in his body after such +a change, and as the soul passes instantly into another body, he +was determined to separate Ha soul from its present frightful +body, that he might pass into another. Wherefore he commanded his +nephew to mount the throne, and calling for a sharp and keen +scymitar, ordered his own head to be cut off, that his soul might +be set free, to inhabit a new body. His orders were complied +with, and his body was burnt, according to the custom of the +country.</p> + +<p>Until the late revolution had reduced them to their present +state of anarchy, the Chinese were wonderfully regular and exact +in every thing relative to government; of which the following +incident affords a striking example. A merchant of Chorassan, who +had dealt largely in Irak, and who embarked from thence for +China, with a quantity of goods, had a dispute at Canfu with an +eunuch, who was sent to purchase some ivory, and other goods for +the emperor, and at length the dispute ran so high, that the +merchant refused to sell him his goods. This eunuch was keeper of +the imperial treasury, and presumed so much on the favour and +confidence which he enjoyed with his master, that he took his +choice of all the goods he wanted from the merchant by force, +regardless of every thing that the merchant could say. The +merchant went privately from Canfu to Cumdan, the residence of +the emperor, which is two months journey; and immediately went to +the string of the bell, mentioned in the former section, which he +pulled. According to the custom of the country, he was conveyed +to a place at the distance of ten days journey, where he was +committed to prison for two months; after which he was brought +before the viceroy of the province, who represented to him, that +he had involved himself in a situation which would tend to his +utter ruin, and even the loss of his life, if he did not speak +out the real truth: Because there were ministers and governors +appointed to distribute justice to all strangers, who were ready +to see him righted; and if the nature of the wrongs, which he had +to represent, did not appear such as to entitle him to this +application to the emperor, he would assuredly be put to death, +as a warning to others not to follow his example. The viceroy, +therefore, advised him to withdraw his appeal, and to return +immediately to Canfu. The rule on such occasions was, that, if +the party should endeavour to recede after this exhortation, he +would have received fifty blows of a bamboo, and have been +immediately sent out of the country: but if he persisted in his +appeal, he was immediately admitted to an audience of the +emperor. The merchant strenuously persisted in his demand for +justice, and was at length admitted to the presence of the +emperor, to whom he related the injustice of the eunuch, in +taking away his goods by force. Upon this, the merchant was +thrown, into prison, and the emperor ordered his prime minister +to write to the governor of Canfu, to make strict inquiry into +the complaints which he had exhibited against the eunuch, and to +make a faithful report of all the circumstances; and he, at the +same time, gave similar orders to three other principal officers, +to make the same inquiry, all separate and unknown to each +other.</p> + +<p>These officers, who are called of the right, of the left, and +of the centre, according to their ranks, have the command of the +imperial forces, under the prime minister; they are entrusted +with the guard of the emperors person: and when, he takes the +field, on any military enterprise, or on any other account, these +officers are stationed near him, each according to his rank. All +of these made accordingly the strictest inquiries into the +allegations of the merchant, and all separately gave in their +reports, assuring the emperor that these complaints were just and +well-founded: and these were followed and confirmed by many other +informations. The eunuch was in consequence deprived of his +office of treasurer, find all his effects were confiscated; on +which occasion the emperor addressed him as follows; "Death ought +to have been your doom, for giving occasion of complaint against +me to this man, who hath come from Chorassan, which is on the +borders of my empire. He hath been in the country of the, Arabs, +whence he came into the kingdoms of the Indies, and thence into +my empire, seeking his advantage by trade; and you would have +occasioned him to return across all these regions, saying to all +the people in his way, that he had been abused and stripped of +his substance in China. In consideration of your former services, +and the rank you have held in my household, I grant your life; +but as you have not discharged your duty in regard to the living, +I will confer upon you the charge of the dead." The eunuch was +accordingly sent to take the custody of the imperial tombs, and +to remain there for the remainder of his life.</p> + +<p>Before the late commotions, the good order observed in the +administration of justice, and the majesty of their tribunals, +were very admirable. To fill these, the Chinese chose men who +were perfectly versant in the laws; men of sincerity, and zealous +in the cause of justice, who were not to be biassed by the +interference of the great, and who always administered the laws +with impartiality, neither oppressing the poor, nor accepting +bribes from the rich. When any one was to be promoted to the +office of principal judge, he was previously sent to all the +chief cities of the empire, to remain a month or two in each, +inquiring minutely into the various customs and affairs of the +people, and informing himself of all such persons as were worthy +of being credited in their testimony, that his judgment might be +regulated in the future discharge of his high office by this +preliminary knowledge. After going through all the cities in this +manner, and making some stay in those which are most +considerable, he repaired to the imperial court, and was invested +with the dignity of supreme judge. To him the nomination of all +the other judges was confided, after acquainting the emperor with +the names of all who, in his estimation, were most worthy of +exercising jurisdiction in the various cities and provinces. +Every day, the supreme judge causes proclamation to be made, that +of any man has been wronged by the viceroy or governor, or by any +of his relations or officers, or any other person, he shall +receive ample justice. A viceroy or governor is never degraded, +except by letters issued from the council, or divan of kings, and +this is done only for some flagrant malversation, or for the +refusal or delay of justice. The posts of judicature being +conferred upon none but men of probity and justice, good order is +efectually maintained.</p> + +<p>The province of Chorassan is almost on the borders of China. +From China to Sogd is about two months journey, through +impracticable deserts of sand, where there is no water; for which +reason the Chorassanians can make no irruptions into China. The +most westerly province of China is <i>Medu</i>, which borders on +Thibet, and the two nations are often at war. A person who had +been in China, informed us, that he had seen a man at Canfu, who +had traveled from <i>Samare</i>, all the way on foot, through all +the cities in China, with a vessel of musk on his back for sale; +which he might easily do, as the part of Thibet, which produces +musk, is contiguous to China. The Chinese carry off as many of +the animals which produce musk as they can procure; but the musk +of Thibet is far better than that of China, because the animal +feeds on aromatic plants in the mountains of Thibet, while in +China it has to subsist upon the ordinary pastures; and because +the inhabitants of Thibet preserve their cods of musk in its +natural state of purity, while the Chinese adulterate all that +gets into their hands; for which reason the musk of Thibet is in +great request among the Arabs. The most exquisite of all the +sorts of musk, is that which the musk animals leave behind them, +in rubbing themselves on the rocks of their native mountains. The +humour whence the musk is generated, falls down towards the navel +of the animal, where it gathers into tumors like grumous blood; +and when this tumor is ripe, it produces a painful itching, on +which the animal rubs himself against rocks or stones till he +bursts the tumor, and the contents run out and coagulate on the +stone; after which, the wound heals, and the humour gathers again +as before. There are men in Thibet who make it their business to +collect this species of musk, which they preserve in bladders, +and which, having ripened, naturally surpasses all others in +goodness, just as ripe fruit exceeds in flavour that which is +pulled green. There is another way of procuring musk, either by +ensnaring the animals, or shooting them with arrows; but the +hunters often cut out the bags before the musk is ripe or fully +elaborated, in which case, the musk at first has a bad scent, +till the humour thickens, after which it turns to good musk, +though this sometimes takes a long while. The musk animal is like +our roebuck, his skin and colour the same, with slender legs, and +smooth slightly bent horns; having on each side two small white +teeth, about half a finger-length, which rise about his muzzle, +not much unlike the form of the teeth of the elephant, and by +which he is distinguished from other roebucks.</p> + +<p>The letters from the emperor of China, to the viceroys, +governors, eunuchs, and lieutenants, are conveyed on post-horses, +which are distinguished by cut tails, and these are disposed at +regular stations, all over the empire, almost like the posts +among the Arabs. In China, every man, from the emperor to the +meanest of the people, makes water standing [8]; and for this +purpose, persons of dignity have gilded hollow canes, a cubit +long, to convey their water to a distance. They are of opinion, +that pains in the kidneys, strangury, and even the stone, are +occasioned by urining in a sitting posture, as the reins cannot +free themselves absolutely from evil humours, except by +evacuating in an erect position. They do not mould the heads of +new born infants into a round form as we do, as they allege that +this practice injures the brain, and impairs the senses. They +suffer their hair to grow, which is carefully combed. The nation +is divided into tribes, like those of the Arabs and some others, +and no man ever marries in his own tribe: just as the children of +Thummim among the Arabs never take a wife from that tribe. Or, +for example, a man of the tribe of Robayat marries a daughter of +the tribe Modzar, and a Modzar marries a Robayat; and they are of +opinion, that such alliances add to the dignity and power of +their children.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] This alludes to the custom of the Arabs, and +other orientals, to squat upon this occasion.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the kingdom of the Balhara, and all the other kingdoms of +the Indies, there are men who burn themselves in consequence of +their belief in the doctrine of transmigration. When a man has +come to this resolution, he asks leave of the king, which being +obtained, he goes in procession round all the public squares of +the city, and proceeds to the place appointed, where a pile of +dry wood is ready for the purpose, having many persons all round +to feed the fire, which blazes prodigiously. At last the person +comes forward, preceded by a number of instruments, and moves +round the pile in the midst of his friends and relations. During +this ceremony, some person places on his head a garland of straw, +or dry herbs, filled with burning coals, on which they pour +<i>sandrach</i>, which takes fire as strongly as naphtha; +notwithstanding of which, he continues his progress without +betraying any sense of pain, or change of countenance, though the +crown of his head be all on fire, and the stench of his burning +flesh is felt all round. At length, he comes up to the pile, and +throws himself in, where he is soon reduced to ashes. A credible +person says, he once saw an Indian burn himself; and when he came +near the pile, he drew out a cangiar, or sharp knife, with which +he ripped himself open, and pulling out the lap of his liver with +his left hand, cut off a piece of it with his cangiar, and gave +it to one of his brothers, talking all the time with the most +invincible contempt of death and torture, and at length leaped +into the fire, in his passage to hell.</p> + +<p>At the accession of some kings of the Indies, the following +ceremony is observed: A large quantity of rice is dressed and +spread out upon leaves of mousa, in presence of the king. Then +three or four hundred persons come, of their own accord, without +any constraint whatever; and after the king has eaten of the +rice, he gives some of it to all that come forwards in +succession, which they eat in his presence; and by this ceremony, +they engage to burn themselves on the day when this king dies or +is slain, and they punctually fulfil their promise.</p> + +<p>In the mountainous parts of India, there are tribes who differ +little from those we call <i>Kanisians</i> and <i>Jelidians</i> +and who are addicted to all manner of superstition and vice; +between whom, and the inhabitants of the people on the coast, +there subsists great emulation, each daring the others to imitate +them in the performance of strange superstitious tortures. There +once came a man from the mountains on this errand, who gathered a +multitude of the inhabitants of the coast to the following +strange exhibition, daring them to imitate him, or otherwise to +acknowledge themselves overcome. He sat down in a place planted +with canes, and caused a strong one to be forcibly bent down, to +which he strongly fastened the hairs of his head. "Now," said he, +"I am going to cut off my own head with this cangiar; and as soon +as it is severed from my body, let go the cane, and when my head +flies up into the air, I will laugh, and you shall hear me." But +the people of the coast had not courage to imitate him[9]. The +person who related this, did it without emotion or wonder; and in +our times, these facts are generally known, as this part of the +Indies is in the neighbourhood of the country of the Arabs, and +we hear from thence every day.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] It is presumable, that this was a mere bravado, +in the full confidence that no one would be found sufficiently +foolhardy to engage to follow the example. It is needless to say, +that the promise of laughing aloud could not have been performed; +so that any one might have safely accepted the challenge, +conditioning for the full performance of the +vaunt.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the Indies, they burn their dead; and it is customary for +men and women to desire their families to throw them into the +fire or to drown them, when they are grown old, or perceive +themselves to sink under the pressure of disease, firmly +believing that they are to return into other bodies. It has often +happened, in the isle of Serendib, where there is a mine of +precious stones in a mountain, a pearl-fishery, and other +extraordinary things, that an Indian would come into the bazar or +market-place, armed with a <i>kris</i>, and seize upon the most +wealthy merchant there present, leading him out of the market, +through a throng of people, holding the kris to his throat, while +no one dared to attempt his rescue, as the Indian was sure, in +such a case, to kill the merchant, and make away with himself; +and when he had got the merchant out of the city, the Indian +obliged him to redeem his life with a sum of money. To put an end +to such outrages, an order was issued to seize such trespassers; +but on attempting to execute this order, several merchants were +killed, both Arabs and Indians, and the order was obliged to be +repealed. In the mountains of Serendib, precious stones are found +of various colours, red, green, and yellow[10], most of which are +washed from caverns or crevices, by rains and torrents. In these +places, the king has officers to watch over the people who gather +the precious stones. In some places, these are dug out of mines, +like the ores of metals, and the rock has often to be broken to +come at the precious stones which it contains. The king of +Serendib makes laws concerning the religion and government of the +country; and there are assemblies held of doctors and learned +men, like those of <i>Hadithis</i> among the Arabs, to which the +Indians repair, and write down what they hear of the lives of +their prophets, and the expositions of their laws. In this +island, there are temples in which great sums of money are +expended on incense; and in one of these temples, there is a +great idol all of pure gold, but concerning the weight of which +travellers are not agreed. In the same island, there are great +numbers of Jews, and persons of many other sects, even +<i>Tanouis</i>, and Manichees, the kings permitting the free +exercise of every religion. At the end of the island are vallies +of great extent, extending quite to the sea, called <i>Gab +Serendib</i>, of extreme beauty, and chequered with groves and +plains, water and meads, and blessed with a wholesome air. A +sheep may be there bought for half a dram, and for the same as +much of their drink, made of palm-honey, boiled and prepared with +<i>tari</i>, or toddi, as will suffice for many persons. The +inhabitants are much addicted to gaming, particularly draughts. +Their other principal diversion is cock-fighting, their cocks +being very large, and better provided with spurs than ordinary; +and besides this, the Indians arm them with blades of iron, in +the form of cangiars or daggers. On these combats, they bet gold +and silver, lands or farms; and they game with such fury, that +debauchees, and desperate people, often stake the ends of their +fingers, when their other property is exhausted. While at play +for this extraordinary stake, they have a fire by them, on which +a small pot of walnut oil, or oil of sesamum, is kept boiling; +and when one has won a game, he chops off the end of the loser's +finger, who immediately dips the stump into the boiling oil, to +stem the blood; and some will persist so obstinately, as to have +all their fingers thus mutilated. Some even will take a burning +wick, and apply it to some member, till the scent of the burnt +flesh is felt all around, while the stoic continues to play, +without betraying the least sense of pain. Both men and women are +so exceedingly addicted to debauchery, that a foreign merchant +has been known to send even for a king's daughter, to attend him +at the fishing grounds, in quality of mistress; wherefore the +Mahomedan doctors at Siraff, strictly warn young people not to go +there.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] Rubies, emeralds, and topazes.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the Indies there are heavy rains, called <i>jasara</i>, +which last incessantly day and night, for three months every +year. The Indians prepare against these to the best of their +power, as they shut themselves up in their houses during the +whole time, all work being then performed within doors; and +during this time, they are subject to ulcers in the soles of +their feet, occasioned by the damps. Yet, these rains are of +indispensable necessity; as, when they fail, the Indians are +reduced to the utmost want, as their rice fields are watered only +by the rains. It never rains during summer. The Indians have +doctors, or devout men, named Bramins. They have poets also, who +compose poems filled with the grossest flattery to their kings +and great men. They have also astrologers, philosophers, +soothsayers, men who observe the flight of birds, and others who +pretend to the calculation of nativities, particularly at Kaduge, +a great city in the kingdom of Gozar[11]. There are certain men +called <i>Bicar</i>, who go all their lives naked, and suffer +their hair to grow till it hides their hinder parts. They also +allow their nails to grow, till they become pointed and sharp +like swords. Each has a string round his neck, to which hangs an +earthen dish, and when hungry, they go to any house, whence the +inhabitants cheerfully supply them with boiled rice. They have +many laws and religious precepts, by which they imagine that they +please God. Part of their devotion consists in building +<i>kans</i>, or inns, on the highways, for the accommodation of +travellers; where also certain pedlars, or small dealers, are +established, from whom the passengers may purchase what they +stand in need of. There are also public women, who expose +themselves to travellers. Some of these are called <i>women of +the idol</i>, the origin of which institution is this: When a +woman has laid herself under a vow, that she may have children, +if she happens to produce a handsome daughter, she carries her +child to the <i>bod</i>[12], so the idol is called. When this +girl has attained the proper age, she takes an apartment in the +temple, and waits the arrival of strangers, to whom she +prostitutes herself for a certain hire, and delivers her gains to +the priest for the support of the temple. All these things they +reckon among their meritorious deeds. Praised be God who hath +freed us from the sins which defile the people involved in +unbelief!</p> + +<blockquote>[11] Obviously Canoge, in Bengal.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Buddah, the principal god of an extensive sect, +now chiefly confined to Ceylon, and India beyond the +Ganges.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Not very far from Almansur there is a famous idol called +Multan, to which the Indians resort in pilgrimage, from the +remotest parts. Some of the pilgrims bring the odoriferous wood +called Hud ul Camruni, so called from Camrun, where there is +excellent aloes-wood. Some of this is worth 200 <i>dinars</i> the +mawn, and is commonly marked with a seal, to distinguish it from +another kind of less value. This the devotees give to the +priests, that it may be burnt before the idol, but merchants +often buy it from these priests. There are some Indians, making +profession of piety, who go in search of unknown islands, or +those newly discovered, on purpose to plant cocoa nut trees, and +to sink wells for the use of ships. There are people at Oman who +cross to these islands that produce the cocoa nut trees, of +planks made from which they build ships, sewing the planks with +yarns made from the bark of the tree. The mast is made of the +same wood, the sails are formed from the leaves, and the bark is +worked up into cordage: and having thus completed their vessel, +they load her with cocoa nuts, which they bring to Oman for +sale.</p> + +<p>The country of the Zinges, or Negroes, is of vast extent[13]. +These people commonly sow millet, which is the chief food of the +negroes. They have also sugar-canes and other trees, but their +sugar is very black. The negroes are divided among a great number +of kings, who are eternally at war with each other. Their kings +are attended by certain men called Moharamin, each of whom has a +ring in his nose, and a chain round his neck. When about to join +battle with the enemy, each of the Moharamin takes the end of his +neighbour's chain and passes it through the ring in his own nose, +by which the whole are chained together, so that no one can +possibly run away. Deputies are then sent to endeavour to make +peace, and if that is done, the chains are unfastened, and they +retire without fighting. But otherwise, when once the sword is +unsheathed, every one of these men must conquer or die on the +spot[14].</p> + +<blockquote>[13] The author makes here an abrupt transition to +the eastern coast of Africa, and calls it the country of the +Zinges; congeneric with the country of Zanguebar, and including +Azania, Ajen, and Adel, on the north; and Inhambane, Sabia, +Sofala, Mocaranga, Mozambique, and Querimba, to the south; all +known to, and frequented by the Arabs.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] This incredible story may have originated from +an ill-told account of the war bulls of the Caffres, exaggerated +into fable, after the usual manner of the Arabs, always fond of +the marvellous.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>These people have a profound veneration for the Arabs; and +when they meet any one, they fall down before him, saying, "This +man comes from the land of dates," of which they are very fond. +They have preachers among them, who harangue with wonderful +ability and perseverance. Some of these profess a religious life, +and are covered with the skins of leopards or apes. One of these +men will gather a multitude of people, to whom he will preach all +day long concerning God, or about the actions of their ancestors. +From this country they bring the leopards skins, called Zingiet, +which are very large and broad, and ornamented with red and black +spots.</p> + +<p>In this sea is the island of Socotra, whence come the best +aloes. This island is near the land of the Zinges, or Negroes, +and is likewise near Arabia; and most of its inhabitants are +Christians, which is thus accounted for: When Alexander had +subdued the empire of Persia, his preceptor, Aristotle, desired +him to search out the island of Socotra, which afforded aloes, +and without which the famous medicine Hiera[15] could not be +compounded; desiring him likewise to remove the natives and to +plant there a colony of Greeks, who might supply Syria, Greece, +and Egypt with aloes. This was done accordingly; and when God +sent Jesus Christ into the world, the Greeks of this isle +embraced the Christian faith, like the rest of their nation, and +have persevered in it to this day, like all the other inhabitants +of the islands[16].</p> + +<blockquote>[15] It is somewhat singular to find this ancient +Arabian author mentioning the first word of the famous <i>Hiera +Picra</i>, or Holy Powder; a compound stomachic purge of aloes +and spices, probably combined by the ancients with many other +ingredients, as it is by the moderns with rhubarb, though now +only given in tincture or solution with wine or spirits. The +story of Alexander rests only on its own Arabian +basis.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] Meaning, doubtless, the isles of the +Mediterranean.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the first book, no mention is made of the sea which +stretches away to the right, as ships depart from Oman and the +coast of Arabia, to launch out into the great sea: and the author +describes only the sea on the left hand, in which are +comprehended the seas of India and China. In this sea, to the +right as you leave Oman, is the country of Sihar or Shihr, where +frankincense grows, and other countries possessed by the nations +of Ad, Hamyar, Jorham, and Thabatcha, who have the Sonna, in +Arabic of very ancient date, but differing in many things from +what is in the hands of the Arabs, and containing many traditions +unknown to us. They have no villages, and live a very hard and +miserably wandering life; but their country extends almost as far +as Aden and Judda on the coast of Yaman, or Arabia the happy. +From Judda, it stretches up into the continent, as far as the +coast of Syria, and ends at Kolzum. The sea at this place is +divided by a slip of land, which God hath fixed as a line of +separation between the two seas[17]. From Kolzum the sea +stretches along the coast of the Barbarians, to the west coast, +which is opposite to Yaman, and then along the coast of Ethiopia, +from whence we have the leopard skins of Barbary[18], which are +the best of all, and the most skilfully dressed; and lastly, +along the coast of Zeilah, whence come excellent amber and +tortoiseshell.</p> + +<blockquote>[17] Referring, obviously, to the Isthmus of +Suez.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] This does not refer to the coast of Barbary in +the Mediterranean, but must mean the coast of the barbarian Arabs +or Bedouins.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When the Siraff ships arrive in the Red Sea, they go no +farther than Judda, whence their cargo is transported to Cairo, +or <i>Kahira</i> by ships of Kolsum, the pilots of which are +acquainted with the navigation of the upper end of this sea, +which is full of rocks up to the water's edge; because, also, +along the coast there are no kings[19], and scarcely any +inhabitants; and because, every night ships are obliged to put +into some place for safety, for fear of striking on the rocks, or +must ride all night at anchor, sailing only in the day-time. This +sea is likewise subject to very thick fogs, and to violent gales +of wind, and is therefore of very dangerous navigation, and +devoid of any safe or pleasant anchorage. It is not, like the +seas of India and China, whose bottom is rich with pearls and +ambergris; whose mountains are stored with gold, precious stones, +and ivory; whose coasts produce ebony, redwood, aloes, camphor, +nutmegs, cloves, sandal, and all other spices and aromatics; +where parrots and peacocks are birds of the forest, and in which +musk and civet are collected in abundance: so productive, in +short, are these shores of articles of infinite variety, and +inestimable value, that it were vain to endeavour to make any +enumeration.</p> + +<blockquote>[19] This singular expression probably signifies that +the inhabitants are without law or regular +government.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Ambergris is thrown upon this coast by the flux of the sea, +but its origin is unknown. It is found on the coast of the +Indies, but the best, which is of a bluish white, and in round +lumps, is got upon the Barbarian coast: or on the confines of the +land of the Negroes, towards Sihar and that neighbourhood. The +inhabitants of that country have camels trained for the purpose, +on which they ride along the shore in moonshine nights, and when +the camels perceive a piece of amber, he bends his knees, on +which the rider dismounts, and secures his prize. There is +another kind which swims on the surface of the sea in great +lumps, sometimes as big as the body of an ox, or somewhat less. +When a certain fish, named <i>Tal</i>, of the whale tribe, sees +these floating lumps, he swallows them, and is thereby killed; +and when the people, who are accustomed to this fishery, see a +whale floating on the surface, they know that this whale has +swallowed ambergris, and going out in their boats, they dart +their harpoons into its body, and tow it on shore, and split the +animal down the back, to get out the ambergris. What is found +about the belly of the whale is commonly spoiled by the wet, and +has an unpleasant scent; but the ambergris which is not +contaminated by the ordure in the belly of the whale, is +perfectly good[20].</p> + +<blockquote>[20] This curious account of the origin of ambergris, +was revived again about twenty-five years ago, and published in +the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, as +a new discovery. The only difference in the modern account of the +matter is, that the ambergris originates within the alimentary +canal of the whale, in consequence, probably, of some disease; +and that the lumps which are found afloat, or cast on shore, had +been extruded by these animals.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It is not unusual to employ the vertebrae of this species of +whale as stools; and it is said, there are many houses in the +village of Tain, ten leagues from Siraff, in which the lintels of +the doors are made of whale ribs. An eye-witness told me that he +went to see a whale which had been cast ashore, near Siraff, and +found the people mounting on its back by means of ladders; that +they dug pits in different parts of his body, and when the sun +had melted the grease into oil, they collected this, and sold it +to the masters of ships, who mixed it up with some other matter, +used by seamen for the purpose of serving the bottoms of their +vessels, and securing the seams of the planks, to prevent or to +stop leaks. This whale-oil sells for a great deal of money; and +the bones of the whale are sold by the druggists of Bagdat and +Bassora.</p> + +<p>The pearl oyster is at first a small thin tender substance, +resembling the leaves of the plant called <i>Anjedana</i>, and +swims on the surface of the sea, where it sticks to the sides of +ships under water. It there hardens, grows larger, and becomes +covered by a shell; after which, it becomes heavy, and falls to +the bottom of the sea, where it subsists, and grows in a way of +which we are ignorant. The included animal resembles a piece of +red flesh, or like the tongue of an animal towards the root, +having no bones, veins, or sinews. One opinion of the production +of pearls in this shell-fish is, that the oyster rises to the +surface when it rains, and, by gaping, catches the drops of rain, +which harden into pearls. The more likely opinion is, that the +pearls are generated within the body of the oyster, for most of +them are fixed, and not moveable. Such as are loose are called +<i>seed</i> pearls.</p> + +<p>An Arab came once to Bassora with a pearl of great value, +which he shewed to a merchant, and was astonished when he got so +large a sum for it as an hundred drams of silver; with which he +purchased corn to carry back to his own country. But the merchant +carried his acquisition to Bagdad, where he sold it for a large +sum of money, by which he was afterwards enabled to extend his +dealings to a great amount. The Arab gave the following account +of the way in which he had found this large pearl: Going one day +along the shore, near Saman, in the district of Bahrein[21], he +saw a fox lying dead, with something hanging at his muzzle, which +held him fast, which he discovered to be a white lucid shell, in +which he found this pearl. He concluded that the oyster had been +thrown ashore by a tempest, and lay with its shell open on the +beach, when the fox, attracted by the smell, had thrust in his +muzzle to get at the meat, on which the oyster closed its shell, +and held him fast till he died: for it is a property of the +oyster never to let go its hold, except forcibly opened, by +thrusting in an iron instrument between the shells, carefully +guarding its included pearl, as a mother preserves her child.</p> + +<blockquote>[21] Bahrein is an island in the Persian gulf, on the +Arabian shore, still celebrated for its pearl +fishery.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The kings of the Indies wear ear-rings of gold, set with +precious stones, and they wear collars of great value, adorned +with gems of various colours, chiefly green and red; yet pearls +are most esteemed, and their value surpasses that of all other +jewels, and these they hoard up in their treasuries, with their +most precious things. The grandees of their courts, their great +officers, and the military commanders, wear similar jewels in +their collars. Their dress is a kind of half vest, and they carry +parasols made of peacocks feathers to shade them from the sun, +and are surrounded by great trains of servants.</p> + +<p>Among the Indians, there are certain people who never eat two +out of the same dish or even at the same table, on account of +some religious opinion. When these come to Siraf, and are invited +by our considerable merchants, were there a hundred of them more +or less, they must each have a separate dish, without the least +communication with the rest. Their kings and principal persons +have fresh tables made for them every day, with little dishes and +plates wove of the cocoa nut leaf, out of which they eat their +victuals. And when their meal is over, the table dishes and +plates are all thrown into the water, together with the fragments +of their food; so that they must have a fresh service for every +meal.</p> + +<p>To the Indies the merchants used formerly to carry the dinars, +called sindiat, or gold coins of the <i>Sind</i>, which passed +there for three of our dinars, or even more. Thither also were +carried emeralds from Egypt, which were much used for setting in +rings.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-5">CHAPTER V.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, +through Europe, Asia, and Africa, from Spain to China, between +A.D. 1160 and 1173</i></b>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Harris, I. 545. Forster, 91.</blockquote> + +<p>This Spanish Jew was the son of Rabbi Jonas, of Tudela, a +small town in Navarre. According to the testimony of Rabbi +Abraham Zuka, a celebrated professor of astronomy at Salamanca, +it is supposed that Rabbi Benjamin travelled from 1160 to 1173. +Young Barratier, a prodigy of early literary genius, asserts that +Benjamin never made the journey at all, but patched up the whole +work from contemporary writers. There is no doubt that his work +is full of incredible tales, yet many of the anomalies it +contains, may have proceeded from mistakes of copyists; +exaggeration was the taste of the times, and other travellers who +are believed actually to have travelled, are not behind him in +the marvellous. These often relate the miracles of pretended +Christian saints, while he details the wonders performed by +Jewish Rabbis. He contains however, many curious pieces of +information, not to be found anywhere else, and it seems +necessary and proper to give a full abstract of his travels in +this place.</p> + +<p>Travelling by land to Marseilles, Benjamin embarked for Genoa, +and proceeded to Rome, from whence he went through the kingdom of +Naples to Otranto, where he crossed over to Corfu and Butrinto, +and journeyed by land through Greece to Constantinople, having +previously visited the country of Wallachia. All this takes up +the four first chapters, which are omitted in Harris. In the +fifth, he gives an account of the city and Court of +Constantinople, as follows: Constantinople is an exceedingly +great city, the capital of the Javanites[2], or the nation called +Greeks, and the principal seat of the emperor Emanuel[3], whose +commands are obeyed by twelve kings, for every one of whom there +are several palaces in Constantinople, and they have fortresses +and governments in other places of the empire, and to them the +whole land is subject. The principal of these is the Apripus, +<i>Praepositus</i>, or prime minister; the second, Mega +Dumastukitz, [Greek: Mezas Domestichos], or great chamberlain; +the third Dominot, <i>Dominos</i>, or lord: but his peculiar +office or department does not appear; the fourth Mackducus, +[Greek: Mezas Dochas], great duke or high Admiral; the fifth +Iknomus Megli, [Greek: Oichonomos mezas], or lord high steward of +the household; and the rest have names like unto these[4]. +Constantinople is eighteen miles in circuit, half of it being on +the sea, and the other half towards the continent; it stands on +two arms of the sea, into one of which the sea flows from Russia, +and into the other from Spain; and its port is frequented by many +traders, from the countries and provinces of Babylon, Senaar, +Media, Persia, Egypt, Canaan, Russia, Hungary, <i>Psianki[5], +Buria</i>, Lombardy, and Spain.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] So named as descended from Javan: the Jewish +writers affecting to employ scripture names for modern countries +and nations.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Manuel Comnenes, who reigned from 1143 to +1180.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] These names are corrupt orthographies of the +Greek titles in the Hebrew. Manuel being an emperor, Benjamin +names all his great officers kings.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Psianki may, perhaps, be Poland, and Buria +Bavaria.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The city is extremely populous, and hath none to compare with +it, except Bagdat, the mighty city of the Ismaelites[6]. In it is +the magnificent temple of St Sophia, where dwells the patriarch +of the Greeks, who do not agree in doctrine with the pope of +Rome. This temple contains as many altars as there are days in +the year, and it has a revenue beyond all estimation great, from +the offerings and riches brought continually from divers +countries, islands, forts, castles, and places, so that the +wealth of no other temple on earth can be compared to the riches +which it contains. In the middle of this temple there are pillars +of gold and silver, huge candlesticks, lanterns, lamps, and other +ornaments of these precious metals, more than can be reckoned. +Close to this temple there is a place set apart for the diversion +of the emperor, called the Hippodrome, where great spectacles are +represented yearly, on the birth-day of Jesus of Nazareth, in +which men in the habits of all the various people of the earth, +appear before the emperor and empress, with lions, bears, +leopards, and wild asses, which are made to fight together; and +in no country on earth are such princely sports to be seen.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] The Arabs, so called from their supposed +ancestor, Ismael.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Besides the palace left him by his ancestors, Manuel has built +one for himself, called Bilbernae[7], the pillars and walls of +which are overlaid with beaten gold and silver, on which all the +wars of his ancestors are represented. In this palace there is a +throne of gold and precious stones, over which a golden crown, +enriched with precious stones and pearls, is suspended on high, +the value of which is beyond computation, and its lustre so +great, that it shines, and may be seen in the night. There are +other things in this palace of such value and profusion as are +quite incredible, and immense tributes are brought yearly into +it, by which the towers are filled with scarlet and purple +garments and gold, so that the like example of sumptuous +buildings, and enormous riches, can nowhere else be found in the +world.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] Perhaps Blachernae.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It is affirmed, that the revenue of the city only, from its +markets, harbour, and tribute of merchants, amount to 20,000 +crowns daily. The Greek inhabitants of this city and country are +exceedingly rich in gold and jewels, and are sumptuously dressed +in crimson garments, intermingled with gold, or splendidly +embroidered, and are all carried on horses, as if they were the +children of kings. The country itself is very extensive, and +abounds with all sorts of fruits, and has great plenty of corn, +wine, and cattle of all kinds, and a finer country is nowhere to +be found. The people are learned also, and skilful in the +philosophy of the Greeks: but giving themselves up entirely to +luxury, they eat and drink every man under his own vine, and +under his own fig-tree. They have mercenary soldiers, hired from +all nations, whom they call Barbarians, to fight against the +soldan, king of the children of Togorma, who are commonly called +Turks; for the Grecians themselves, through sloth and luxury, +have become quite effeminate and unfit for wars, and entirely +devoted to pleasure.</p> + +<p>No Jews are permitted to dwell in the city, but are obliged to +reside in Pera, on the other side of the sea of Sophia, and are +not even allowed to come to the city, except in boats, for the +sake of commerce. In Pera there are about 2000 Jewish Rabbinists, +disciples of the wise men; among whom are Abtalion the Great, +Rabbi Abdias, Aaron Cuspus, Joseph Starginus, and Eliakim the +governor, who have the chief authority. Besides these, there are +500 Karaites[8], who are separated from the Rabbinists by a wall. +Among the Jews there are some manufacturers of silken garments, +and many very rich merchants. No Jew is permitted to ride on +horseback, except Solomon, the Egyptian, who is physician to the +Emperor, and through whose interest the Jews are comforted and +eased in their captivity, which is very grievous; for they are +much hated by the Grecians, who make no distinction between the +good and the evil among them, and insult and beat them in the +streets. They are worst used by the tanners, who pour out the +filthy water in which they have dressed their skins into the +streets before their doors. Yet, among the Jews there are some +very rich men, as I have said before; good and merciful men, who +observe the commandments, and who patiently endure the miseries +of the captivity.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] The Karaites were a sect among the Jews, who +confined their observances and religious belief to the precepts +of Moses, while the Rabbinists followed all the wild fancies of +the Talmud. An excellent account of these sects is to be found in +the Lettres Juives, or Jewish Spy, by the Marquis +d'Argens.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From Constantinople, Benjamin continued his journey to Tyre, +Jerusalem, and the Holy Land, and thence to Damascus, Balbeck, +and Palmyra, which he calls Tadmor, and in which, he says, there +then were 2000 Jews. He next gives an account of Bagdat, the +court of the caliph, and the condition of the Jews there. He +afterwards gives an account of a country which he calls Thema, +where he places a whole nation of Jews, which some have deemed an +entire forgery[9]. He next proceeds to Botzra, Balsora or +Bassora, on the Tigris, and thence to Persia, of which he gives +the following account.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Perhaps only an exaggerated account of some +Jewish independent tribe in Arabia, of which there were once a +considerable number, as particularly mentioned in the History of +Mahomet.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The river Samoura[10] is esteemed the limits of the kingdom of +Persia, and near it stands the city of the same name, in which +there are 1500 Jews. Here is the sepulchre of Esdras, the scribe +and priest, who died in this place on his return from Jerusalem +to the court of Artaxerxes. Our people have built a great +synagogue beside his tomb, and the Ismaelites, Arabians, or +Mahometans, have built a mosque close by, as they have a great +respect for Esdras and the Jews. It is four miles from hence to +Chuzestan, which is the same with the ancient city of Elam, now +almost ruined and uninhabited. At one end, surrounded by ruins, +is the castle of Susa, formerly the palace of Ahasuerus, of which +there are still some remains. In this place there are 7000 Jews +and fourteen synagogues, before one of which stands the tomb of +Daniel. The river Tigris[11] runs through this city, over which +there is a bridge. All the Jews on one side of the river are very +rich, having well filled shops, and carry on great trade, while +those on the other side are very poor, having neither market, +shops, gardens, or orchards. This caused them once to make an +insurrection, from a notion that the glory and riches of those on +the other side of the river was occasioned by their having the +sepulchre of the prophet Daniel on their side. The insurgents, +therefore, demanded to have his tomb transferred to their side, +which was vehemently opposed by the others, and war ensued +between them: But both parties growing weary of the war, it was +agreed that the coffin of Daniel should remain one year on one +side of the river, and next year on the other. This treaty was +observed for some time, but was cancelled in the sequel by +Sanigar-Shah, son to the great shah of Persia, who rules over +forty-five princes. This great king is called in Arabic Sultan +Phars Al-Chabir. His empire extends from the river Samoura to +Samarcand, the river Gozan, the province of Gisbor, including the +cities of the Medes, the mountains of Haphton, and to the +province of Thibet, in the forests of which country are found the +animals which produce musk; and the empire is four months and +four days journey in length.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] Probably the Ahwaz, as he seems to have gone +from Bassora.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] This must be an error in the author, as the +Tigris does not come near that city.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Sangiar being at Elam, saw the elders of the people +transporting the coffin of Daniel from one side of the river to +the other, attended by an immense crowd of Jews and Ismaelites; +and, being informed of the cause, gave orders that the coffin +should be suspended in a glass case, by chains of iron, from the +middle of the bridge, and that a spacious synagogue should be +erected in the same place, open to all, whether Jews or Gentiles, +who might incline to pray there; and he commanded, from reverence +for Daniel, that no fish should be taken in the river for a mile +above or below the bridge.</p> + +<p>From Elam to Robat-bar are three days journey, where dwell +20,000 Israelites, among whom are many disciples of the wise men, +some of them being very rich; but they live under the authority +of a strange prince. In two days journey more is the river Vanth, +near which dwell 4000 Jews. Four days journey farther is the +country of Molhat, full of strong mountains, the inhabitants of +which obey an elder who resides in the country of Alchesisin, and +they do not believe the doctrine of Mahomet. Among this people +there are four colleges of Jews, who go forth to war with the +inhabitants, invading the neighbouring countries, and drive away +great spoil; for they are not under the dominion of the king of +Persia. The Jews in this country are disciples of the wise men, +and obey the head of the captivity of Babylon. In five days +journey you reach Omaria, where are 25,000 Israelites, and here +begin the synagogues of the mountains of Haphton, which exceed +one hundred in number, and in this place the country of Media +begins. These Jews are of the first captivity, carried away by +Salmanazar; but they speak the Chaldean language, and among them +are the disciples of the wise men. The chief city is Omaria, and +all this country is under the dominion of Persia, to which the +inhabitants pay tribute. The tribute for males above fifteen +years old, in all the country of the Ismaelites, is one gold +<i>amir</i>, or half-a-crown of our money.</p> + +<p>About twelve years ago there arose, in the city of Omaria, a +man named David Elroi, who was the disciple of Chafdai, the head +of the captivity, and of Jacob the chief of the Levites at +Bagdat. David was very learned in the law of Moses, and in the +books of doctrine, and in all wisdom, even in the languages of +the Ismaelites, and in the books of the Magi and the enchanters; +and he took it into his head to gather together the Jews who +dwelt in the mountains of Haphton, and to make war against the +king of Persia, and to go to Jerusalem and win it by assault. For +this purpose he endeavoured to draw the Jews to his party by many +deceitful signs, affirming that he was sent from God to free them +from the yoke of the nations, and to restore them to the holy +city; and he succeeded in persuading many that he was the +Messiah[12].</p> + +<blockquote>[12] This story is told by other Jewish writers, but +with some unimportant variations; and there have been many such +pretended Messiahs, who persuaded the Jews of the east into +revolts, for which consult Basnage, Histoire des +Juifs.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>Hearing of this insurrection, the king of Persia sent for +David, who went to him without fear, and even avowed himself to +be king of the Jews, on which he was thrown into prison in the +city of Dabrestan, near the great river Gozan. After this the +king held a great council of his princes and ministers, to +consult how to put an end to this insurrection of the Jews, and +David made his appearance there, unseen of any but the king. The +king asked, "Who hath delivered thee from prison and brought thee +here?" To whom David answered, "Mine own wisdom, for I fear not +thee or any of thy servants." Then the king commanded his +servants to seize him; but they said the voice was heard by all, +but they saw not David. Then David cried out with a loud voice, +"Lo! I go my way." And he walked out, and the king followed him, +and all his servants followed the king, but they saw no one. +Coming to the bank of the river, David spread his handkerchief on +the waters, and he passed over dry, and then he was seen of all +who were present; and they endeavoured to pursue him in boats, +but all in vain; and every one marvelled, and said that no +enchanter could be compared to this man.</p> + +<p>David during that day travelled a ten days journey, and, +coming to Omaria, related all that had befallen him; and when the +people were amazed, he attributed all that had befallen him to +his knowledge of the ineffable name of Jehovah[13]. The king sent +messengers to inform the caliph of Bagdat of what had happened, +requesting that he would get David restrained from his seditious +practices, by order from the head of the captivity, and the chief +rulers of the assembly of the Jews; otherwise threatening total +destruction to all the Jews in his dominions. All the synagogues +in Persia, being in great fear, wrote to the head of the +captivity, and the assembly of elders at Bagdat, to the same +purpose; and they wrote to David, commanding him to desist from +his enterprize, under pain of being excommunicated and cut off +from among the people of Israel. But all was in vain, for David +persisted in his wicked course; till at length Zinaldin, a king +of the Togarmim, or Turks, in subjection to the king of Persia, +persuaded the father-in-law of David, by a bribe of ten thousand +pieces of gold, to kill him privately, and he thrust David +through with a sword in his bed, while asleep. Yet was not the +anger of the king of Persia pacified towards the Jews of the +mountains, until the head of the captivity went and appeased him +with mild and wise speeches, and by the gift of an hundred +talents of gold; since which time there has been peace and quiet +in the land.</p> + +<blockquote>[13] The whole secret of this miracle may be easily +explained. David escaped from prison, and told all the rest of +the story to the ignorant and credulous Jews of Omaria, from whom +the fable has been handed down to Benjamin and other believing +relaters.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From these mountains it is twelve days journey to Hamadan, the +chief city of Media, in which there are 50,000 Jews, and near one +of their synagogues are the sepulchres of Mordecai and Esther. +Dabrestan, near the river Gozan, is four days journey from +Hamadan, and 4000 Jews dwell there. From thence it is seven days +journey to Ispahan, which is a very great city and the capital of +the whole country, being twelve miles in circumference. In this +city there are about 12,000 Jews, over whom, and all the rest of +our nation who dwell in the kingdom of Persia, Shallum is +appointed to rule by the head of the captivity. Four days journey +from Ispahan is Siaphaz[14], the most ancient city of this +country, formerly Persidis, whence the whole province is named, +in which there are almost 10,000 Jews. From Siaphaz you come, in +seven days journey, to the city of Ginah, near the river Gozan, +where there are about 8000 Jews, and to this place merchants +resort of all nations and languages. Five days journey from Ginah +is the famous Samarcand, the farthest city of this kingdom, where +there are 50,000 Israelites, many of whom are wise and rich men, +and over whom Obedias is ruler. Four days journey from thence is +the city of Thibet[15], the capital of the province of that name, +in the forests of which the animals are found that produce +musk.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] Shiraz, about forty miles from which are the +ruins of Persepolis.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] The distance here is extremely corrupt, and +perhaps four months are meant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The mountains of Nisbor, which are situated near the river +Gozan, are about twenty-eight days journey from Thibet; and some +of the Jews in Persia affirm, that the four tribes of Israel, +carried away in the first captivity by Salmanazar, still inhabit +the cities of Nisbor. Their country extends twenty days journey +in length, all full of mountains, and having the river Gozan +running on one side, with many inhabited cities, towns, and +castles; and the inhabitants are entirely free, being governed by +Joseph Amrael, a Levite, and among them are many disciples of the +wise men. They sow and reap, and are at war with the children of +Chus, who dwell in the deserts[16]. These Jews are in league with +the Copheral Turks, a people who dwell in the deserts, and eat no +bread, neither do they drink any wine, but feed on the raw or +dried flesh of beasts, clean or unclean, devouring them newly +killed, while yet trembling with the warm life-blood, and +uncooked; yea, even feed on the limbs torn from beasts yet alive. +This last people seem to want noses, having only as it were two +holes in their faces through which they breathe[17].</p> + +<blockquote>[16] The ridiculous impressing of ancient scriptural +names for the geographical features of the country, and the +nations which inhabited it in his time, and his rambling +itinerary, by days journeys, without pointing out the precise +direction of the routs, render it next to impossible to +investigate the real objects of his observations with any decent +chance of success.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] This description suits the +Calmuks.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>These Copheral Turks invaded Persia about fifteen years ago, +about 1145, with a great army, and destroyed the metropolitan +city of Rei[18], and carried off vast spoil into the desert. +Enraged at this insult, the king of Persia endeavoured to pursue +them with a powerful army, that he might extirpate these +destroyers from the earth, and procured a guide who undertook to +conduct him to their dwellings, and recommended to him to take +bread and water for fifteen days along with the army, as it would +occupy that time to pass the deserts. After marching these +fifteen days, the army was without subsistence for man and beast, +and no signs could be perceived of any habitation of mankind. On +being interrogated, the guide pretended to have lost his way, and +was put to death as a traitor. After marching for thirteen days +more, in prodigious distress, during which they had to eat up all +the beasts that carried their baggage, they arrived at the +mountains of Nisbor, inhabited by the Jews, and incamped among +gardens and orchards, watered by canals drawn from the river +Gozan; and being then the season of ripe fruits, they eat what +they pleased, no one appearing to oppose them. At a distance +among the mountains, they observed some hamlets and forts, and +two scouts were sent to discover what manner of people inhabited +the mountains. After proceeding a short way, they found a well +built bridge, with a strong barrier, and a very large city at the +farther end of the bridge. They here learned, by an interpreter, +that the city belonged to an independent nation of Jews, who had +a prince of their own, and were in alliance with the Copheral +Turks.</p> + +<blockquote>[18] Once a great city in the N.W. of Irac-agemi, not +far from Cashbin. See Chardin's Travels in Persia, to be found +afterwards in this collection.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The scouts returned to the camp with this intelligence, and +the Jews, having collected their forces, offered battle on the +day following to the Persians, The king declined this, declaring +that his only object was against the Copheral Turks, and that if +the Jews attacked him he would revenge himself by putting all +their brethren in Persia to the sword; but he demanded free +passage for his army, and to be supplied with provisions for +ready money. Out of regard for their brethren in Persia, the Jews +agreed to this proposal, and the Persian army remained fifteen +days in the country of the Jews, where they were honourably +entertained. In the mean time the Jews sent intelligence of the +situation of the Persians to their confederates, and the Turks, +gathering their forces, assailed the Persians at certain passes +in the mountains, and gave them a terrible overthrow; so that the +king escaped with great difficulty into Persia, with a small +remnant of his host. On this occasion, one of the Persian +horsemen seduced a Jew, named Moses, to accompany him into +Persia, and then made him a slave. On a public exhibition of +archery in the king's presence, this man appeared to be the most +expert archer in all Persia, and being called before the king, +declared how he had been trepanned and made a slave. The king +restored him to liberty; clothed him in purple and silken +garments, and enriched him with liberal gifts; offering him great +riches, and the government of the royal household, if he would +embrace the religion of the country; and when he courteously +declined this, he was placed by the king with Rabbi Shallum, the +prince of the synagogue at Ispahan, whose daughter he afterwards +married; and this Moses related to me the whole story I have here +related.</p> + +<p>Departing from these countries, I returned to Khosistan, +through which the Tigris runs into <i>Hodu</i>, the Indian sea, +or Persian Gulf, and in its passage encompasses the island of +Nekrokis[19] near its mouth, which is six days journey in extent. +There is only one canal of fresh water in this island, and they +have no other water to drink but what is gathered during rain, +and preserved, in cisterns, for which reason the land is not +cultivated. Yet it is famous for commerce with India, and the +islands of the Indian sea; and merchants from Sennar, Arabia, and +Persia, bring thither all sorts of silk and purple manufactures, +hemp, cotton, flax, and Indian cloth, with plenty of wheat, +barley, millet, and rice. The Indian merchants bring also great +quantities of spices, and the natives act as factors and +interpreters, by which they make great gains; but in that place +there are not above 500 Jews. Sailing thence with a favourable +wind, I arrived, in ten days, at Kathipha[20], where are 5000 +Jews. In these places pearls are found, made by a wonderful +artifice of nature; for on the 24th of the month Nisan[21] a +certain dew falls into the waters, which, being sucked in by the +oysters, they sink immediately to the bottom of the sea, and +afterwards, about the middle of the month Tisri, men dive to the +bottom, and bring up great quantities of the oysters by means of +cords, from which they take out the pearls.</p> + +<blockquote>[19] This island has much puzzled commentators, some +of whom have wandered to Ormus in quest of its situation. It is +probably the flat country of Assyria, between the Tigris and +Euphrates, below Bagdat, which he may have mistaken for an +island; or it may refer to the Delta of the Tigris and Ahwas. The +extent mentioned in the text does not say whether it is to be +understood as the length or circumference of the +island.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[20] This must be at or near Bahrein, in the Persian +Gulf, famous for its pearl-fishery.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[21] Nisan, the first month of the Jewish year, +contains the latter half of our March and former half of April; +Tisri is equivalent to half of September and half of +October.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In seven days journey from thence I came to Oulam[22], which +is the entrance of the kingdom of these people, who worship the +sun, and are prone to astrology, being of the children of Chus. +They are men of a dark complexion, sincere and faithful in all +their dealings. When any strangers arrive in their haven, their +names are all set down by three secretaries, who carry their +lists to the king; afterwards they introduce the merchants to +him, and he receives all their goods under his protection, +causing them to be landed at a place where they may remain in +safety, even without a watch. There is a particular magistrate to +whom all things that happen to be lost, or casually removed, are +brought, and who returns them to the owners, on giving the marks +or description of their property; and this strict fidelity and +honest dealing is universal over all this kingdom. In this +country, from the passover to the beginning of the succeeding +year, the sun shines with such insufferable heat, that the people +remain shut up in their houses from the third hour of the day +until evening; and then lamps are lighted up in all the streets +and markets, and the people labour at their respective callings +all night. In this country pepper grows on trees, planted in the +fields belonging to every city, all the inhabitants having their +proper gardens particularly assigned and known. The shrub is +small, and produces a white seed or berry, which, after being +gathered, is first steeped in hot water, and then dried in the +sun, when it becomes black. Cinnamon and ginger are likewise +found here, and many other kinds of spices.</p> + +<blockquote>[22] From the circumstance of pepper being plenty in +this place it is probable that some part of Malabar is meant, +where he may have found a colony of Parsees. Astronomy is often +called astrology by old writers.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In this country the bodies of the dead are embalmed with +divers drugs and spices, and set up in niches in regular order, +covered over with nets; they there dry up completely without +corruption, and every one knows his ancestors for many +generations back. They worship the sun, said have many large +altars erected along the coast, about half a mile without the +city, to pay their devotions. On these altars there are +consecrated spheres, made by magic art, resembling the circle of +the sun; and when the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed, +and whirl round with a great noise[23]. In their orisons, every +person carries a censer, in which he burns incense in honour of +the sun. But among these people there are about a thousand +families of Jews, as black as the rest of the natives, yet good +honest men, and strict observers of the law of Moses, and not +entirely ignorant of the doctrines of the Talmud.</p> + +<blockquote>[23] This must have been some secret mechanical +contrivance, all wonders unknown to the ignorant being attributed +by them to magic art.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From this country I sailed, in twenty-two days, to the islands +of Cinrog, the inhabitants of which are called Dogbiim, and are +worshippers of fire, among whom 23,000 Jews are settled. The +Dogbiim have many priests to officiate in their temples, who are +the most skilful sorcerers and enchanters in the world. Before +every temple there is a large pit, in which a great fire is +kindled every day, called Alhuta, through which their children +are made to pass as a purification; into it likewise they cast +the bodies of their dead, and even some of their nobles +occasionally are so superstitious as to devote themselves to be +consumed alive in honour of the deity, in which they are +encouraged by their relations, as ensuring their eternal welfare. +On the day appointed for the performance of this vow, the devoted +person first gives an entertainment, and is then carried to the +appointed spot; if rich, on horseback, but on foot if poor, +accompanied by a multitude of his friends and others, and +immediately leaps into the midst of the burning pit, all his +friends and kindred celebrating the festival with music and +dancing, until he is entirely consumed. Three days afterwards two +of the priests go to the house of the devoted person, and command +his family to prepare for a visit from the deceased on the same +day. The priests then take certain persons along with them, as +witness of the transaction, and carry with them, to the house, a +figure resembling the deceased, which they affirm to be himself. +The widow and children, as instructed by the priests, then demand +how it fares with him in the other world: to which he answers, "I +came to my companions, who will not receive me until I have +discharged my duty to my friends and kindred." He then makes a +distribution of his effects among his children, orders all his +debts to be paid, and whatever is owing to him to be demanded. +The witnesses set down all this in writing, and then he vanishes. +By these arts of juggling and collusion, the priests govern every +thing as they please.</p> + +<p>In the space of forty days, one may travel to the frontiers of +Tzin, which is the very extremity of the east. Some hold that +this country is washed by the Nikpha, or coagulated sea, which is +liable to prodigious storms; by which, when mariners are +surprised, they are reduced to such extremity, that, not being +able to get out, they are miserably starved to death, after +expending all their provisions[24].</p> + +<blockquote>[24] Tzin is obviously China. By the Nikpha, or +coagulated sea, the sea of Tartar may be intended; concerning +which, some ill-told stories may have reached Benjamin, of +mariners having been frozen up. The situation of Cinrog it is +impossible to ascertain; but it must have been some part of +India, where voluntarily burning alive is still practised, but +only by the widows of the higher casts.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From Cinrog, it is three days journey to Gingala, where there +are above a thousand Jews. From thence, in seven days, one may +sail to Coulan, where there are none of our nation. It is twelve +days journey to Zabid, where there are some Jews; and in eight +days more, you get to the opposite coast, where there are very +high mountains, inhabited by multitudes of Israelites, who are +not under the yoke of the Gentiles, but have great cities and +strong fortresses of their own.</p> + +<p>They descend from thence in parties into the flat countries of +Abyssinia, whence they return with their plunder into the +mountains, where they are secure against pursuit. Many of these +Jews travel for the purposes of trade into Persia and +Egypt[25].</p> + +<blockquote>[25] Benjamin here obviously speaks of the Jews in +the mountains of Abyssinia, still known there under the name of +Falassa. It would appear, that the previously indicated courses +led across the peninsula of Arabia and the Red Sea; but his names +of places are unintelligible.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From thence, it is twenty days journey to Asvan[26], through +the deserts of Saba, on the Phison, which river comes from the +country of Chus, in the dominions of Shah-Abasch, or the king of +Abyssinia. Part of the inhabitants of this country live like +beasts, going entirely naked, and feeding only on the grass and +herbs that grow by the river side, and propagate with their +sisters and nearest relations, without shame or scruple. When the +people of Asvan make expeditions into these parts for the sake of +plunder, they constantly take with them bread, rice, raisins, and +figs, which they throw among the half-famished negroes, and while +they scramble for the provisions, like a parcel of dogs, the +Asvanians seize them, and carry them as prisoners into Egypt, +where they are sold as slaves. It is twelve days journey from +Asvan to Chelvan, in which there are about three hundred Jews. +From Chelvan they go, in fifty days journey, through the desert +Al Tsachra, or Zara, to Zuila or Havilah, in the land of +Gana[27]. In these deserts, there are vast mountains of sand, +which, being sometimes carried by the force of violent winds, +overwhelm whole caravans. The merchants who escape this perilous +journey, bring with them from that country, iron, copper, salt, +and all sorts of fruits and pulse, and likewise gold and precious +stones. This country is part of the land of Chus, and is to the +west of Abyssinia.</p> + +<blockquote>[26] Perhaps Asowan in upper Egypt, which is rendered +probable by the journey through the desert.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[27] Harris considered Gana to mean Guinea; but it is +probably Nigritia, or the inland country of Africa, on the Niger +or Joliba.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It is thirteen days journey from Chelvan to the city of Kous, +which is the first in the land of Egypt, and where 30,000 Jews +are settled. At the distance of five days journey is Phium, +anciently Pithom, in the neighbourhood of which city the ruins of +the structures built by our ancestors, during their captivity in +Egypt, are still to be seen[28].</p> + +<blockquote>[28] Perhaps Memphis, as he evidently alludes to the +pyramids.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Four days journey from thence is the great city of +Misraim[29], on the banks of the Nile, in which above 2000 Jews +are settled. These have two fair synagogues, one of which belongs +to the Jews of Palestine and Syria, and the other to those of +Babylon; the only difference between which sects is in the way of +dividing the law into portions. The Babylonians, every week, read +one <i>Parascha</i>, after the manner usual in Spain, so as to go +through the whole law once in every year; but the others divide +each parascha into three <i>sedarim</i>, or smaller sections, so +that they read over the whole law only once in three years. Yet +both of these join in their solemn prayers twice every year. Over +the whole Nathaniel presides, being head of the Sanhedrim, and +ruler of all the synagogues in Egypt, to which he appoints +masters and elders. He is likewise minister of the great king, +who resides in the palace of Zoan, a city in Egypt, where Ali, +the son of Abitaleb, was once commander of the faithful, and +whose subjects are considered as rebels by the other Arabs, +because they refuse obedience to the Abassidian khaliff of +Bagdat.</p> + +<blockquote>[29] Kahira, or Cairo, called also +Messir.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The royal city is surrounded with walls, but Misraim is +entirely open, having the river Nile on one side. This is a very +large city, having many large markets and public buildings, and +contains many rich Jews. The country is never troubled with rain, +ice, or snow, but is often afflicted with insufferable heat. It +is watered by the Nile, which begins to swell every year in the +month Elul, and continues swelling during that month and +Tisri[30], making the earth fruitful. The old Egyptians erected a +fine marble pillar of excellent workmanship in an island at this +place, rising twelve cubits above the ordinary surface of the +river; and when the water overflows that column, the inhabitants +are satisfied that their whole country is overspread for fifteen +days journey. If the water rise only half the height of the +pillar, they then conclude that only half the country is +overflowed. A person is stationed by the pillar, who proclaims +the height of the water every day at noon. When the water rises +to a sufficient height, it indicates a year of fertility and +plenty in Egypt; but when it does not overflow, nothing is sown, +and sterility and famine are the consequences. The people of the +country have trenches dug in their grounds, in which great +numbers of fish are caught when the river recedes, which they +either use in their families, or salt them for sale. These fish +are very fat, and supply oil for lamps. It is an old question, on +which there is great diversity of opinion, as to the cause of the +overflow of the Nile; but the Egyptians suppose, that it proceeds +from the falling of heavy rains in the land of Habash, which we +call Havilah or Abyssinia. The fields are usually sowed in the +month of September, as the Nile has then retired into its +channel. Barley is reaped in February, and wheat in March; and in +that month, grapes, cherries, and almonds are ripe; and +encumbers, gourds, pease, beans, and lentils; and various +pot-herbs, as purslain, asparagus, lettuce, corianders, succory, +coleworts, &c. The gardens and orchards are watered by means +of trenches filled from the Nile.</p> + +<blockquote>[30] Elul contains from the middle of August to the +middle of September and Tisri from that to the middle of October. +But the Nile begins to rise in the middle of June, and returns to +its usual level in October.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After passing Cairo, this great river divides into four +branches, one of which runs by Damietta, sometimes called +Caphtor. The second runs near the city of Rosir or Rosetta, not +far from Alexandria. The third passes by Asmon, a very large city +on the eastern borders of Egypt. Near these great branches, there +are many cities, castles, and towns, to which people travel +partly by land, and partly by water. No country in the world can +be compared to this for the multitude of inhabitants; and the +whole land is plain, fruitful, and stored with good things. Old +Misraim is two league distant from New Misraim, or Cairo; but the +old city is now desolate, having many ruins of walls and houses, +and not a few remains of the granaries and storehouses, built by +Joseph, are still to be seen. In the same place, there is an +artificial pillar, built by art of magic, the like of which is +not in all the land. On the outside of the city, there are the +remains of an ancient synagogue, which bears the name of our +teacher Moses, and to preserve its ruins, an old minister of the +disciples of the wise men [31], is maintained at this place, who +is styled Schech Albounetzar, or father of the watch. The ruins +of Old Misraim extend about four miles.</p> + +<blockquote>[31] Of the Rabbinists or +Talmudists.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The land of Goshen is eight leagues from Old Misraim, and in +it is Bolsir- salbis, a great city, in which there are 3000 Jews. +From hence you travel, in half a day's journey, to +Iskaal-Lein-Al-sames, anciently called Rameses, now in ruins; +where are to be seen many works of our fathers, and among these +certain huge edifices like towers, bulk of bricks. From thence, +in one day's journey, you come to Al-Bugg, where are 200 Jews; +and in another half days journey, to Manziptha, where there are +200 Jews; Ramira is four leagues distant, having 700 Jews; and +thence, in five days journey, you come to Lamkhala, where there +are 500 Jews. In two days journey more, you arrive at Alexandria, +which was sumptuously built, and strongly fortified, at the +command of Alexander the Macedonian. On the outside of the city, +there is still to be seen a great and beautiful edifice, which is +said to have been the college of Aristotle, the tutor of +Alexander, wherein were twenty schools, frequented in former +times by the learned men of the whole world, who assembled to +learn the philosophy of Aristotle, and this academy was adorned +with stately marble porticos. The city itself is excellently +built, and well paved, having many vaults and arches underneath, +some of which are a whole mile in length, leading from the gate +of Rosetta to the gate leading to the sea. The haven extends a +whole mile in length, and at this place, a very high tower was +built, called Hemegarah by the inhabitants, and Magar-Iscander by +the Arabs, which signifies the Pharos of Alexander. It is +reported that Alexander fixed a curious mirror on the top of this +tower, by means of which, all warlike ships sailing from Greece, +or out of the west into Egypt, might be seen at the distance of +five hundred leagues. But a Greek captain, who had great +knowledge of the sciences, came thither with his ship, and +ingratiated himself in the favour of the king, by presents of +gold and silver and rich silks. He likewise took great pains to +acquire the friendship of the officer who had charge of the +mirror and watch-tower, by frequently entertaining him in his +ship, and at length was permitted to go into, and stay in the +tower, as often, and as long as he pleased. One day, he gave a +magnificent entertainment to the keeper of the tower and his men, +and dosed them so plentifully with wine, that they all fell fast +asleep; on which he broke the mirror to pieces, and then sailed +away in the night. Since then, the Christians have infested the +coasts of Egypt with their ships of war, and have taken the two +large islands of Crete and Cyprus, which remain at this day under +the power of the Greeks. The Pharos is still used as a beacon for +the service of ships bound to Alexandria, and can be discerned by +day or night, from the distance of an hundred miles, as a vast +fire is kept burning there all night for the purpose.</p> + +<p>Egypt enjoys a large share of trade, and is frequented by +almost all nations; and the port of Alexandria swarms with +vessels from every part of Christendom, as from Valencia, +Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Malfi, and Sicily. Others come from +the most northern parts of Europe, and even from inland places; +as from Cracow, Cordova, Spain, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, +England, Flanders, Artois, Normandy, France, Poitou, Angiers, +Gascony, Arragon, and Navarre. There come many also from the +western empire of the Ishmaelites or Arabs, as from Andalusia, +Algarve, Africa, and even Arabia, besides what come by the Indian +ocean from Havilah or Abyssinia, and the rest of Ethiopia, not +omitting the Greeks and Turks. To this, country likewise are +brought the richest merchandizes of the Indies, and all sorts of +perfumes and spices, which are bought by the Christian merchants. +The city is extremely populous, on account of its extensive +commerce; and for the greater conveniency in the carrying on of +their dealings, every nation has its separate factory. There is, +near the sea side, a marble tomb, on which are engraven the +figures of all sorts of birds and beasts, with an inscription in +such old characters, that no one can now read them; whence it is +believed that it had belonged to some king who governed that +country before the deluge. The length of this sepulchre is +fifteen spans, and it is six spans broad[32]. To conclude, there +are about 3000 Jews in Alexandria.</p> + +<blockquote>[32] This may possibly have been the Sarcophagus +brought lately from Alexandria, and deposited in the British +museum, under the strange idea of having been the tomb of +Alexander. Benjamin seems to have known nothing about the +hieroglyphics, with which his tomb was obviously +covered.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Leaving Egypt, Benjamin made an expedition from Damietta to +Mount Sinai, and returned to Damietta, whence he sailed to +Messina in Sicily, and travelled to Palermo. Crossing into Italy, +he went by land to Rome and Lucca. He afterwards crossed the +Alps, and passed through a great part of Germany, mentioning, in +his remarks, the great multitudes of Jews who were settled in the +numerous cities of that extensive empire, insisting at large on +their wealth, and generosity, and hospitality to their distressed +brethren, and gives a particular detail of the manner in which +they were received. He informs us, that at the entertainments of +the Jews they encourage each other to persist in hoping for the +coming of their Messiah, when the tribes of Israel shall be +gathered under his command, and conducted back into their own +country. Until this long expected event shall arrive, they hold +it their duty to persevere in their obedience to the law of +Moses, to lament with tears the destruction of Jerusalem and +Zion, and to beseech the Almighty to pity them in their +affliction, and restore them at his appointed time. He asserts +that his countrymen are not only settled in all the provinces and +cities of the German empire, but through all the countries of the +north, to the very extremities of Russia; and describes that +country as so cold in winter that the inhabitants could not stir +out of doors. He tells us that France, which the Rabbins call +Tzorphat, is full of the disciples of the wise men, who study the +law day and night, and are extremely charitable to their +distressed brethren; and concludes with an earnest prayer to God, +to remember his promise to the children of Israel, to return unto +them, and to reassemble them from among all the nations, through +which, in his wrath, he has dispersed them.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of his travels[33], Benjamin mentions that +Prague in Bohemia is the beginning of Sclavonia. In speaking of +the Russian empire, he says it extends from the gates of Prague +to the gates of [Hebrew] <i>Phin,</i> a large town at the +beginning of the kingdom. In that country the animals called +[Hebrew] <i>Wairegres</i>, and [Hebrew] <i>Neblinatz</i> are +found. Interpreters disagree about the meaning of these words. +But it clearly appears that <i>Phin</i> is no other than +<i>Kiow</i>, then the capital of the Russian empire; and we +should therefore read [Hebrew:] <i>Chiw</i>: and indeed the +interpreters might easily have supposed that the word was wrong +written, from its wanting the final <i>nun</i>. Russia has always +been famous for its gray foxes or gray squirrels, which, in the +Russian language, are called [Hebrew] in the Hebrew text, +therefore, of Benjamin, we should read [Hebrew] <i>Waiwerges</i>, +which as nearly resembles the Russian word, as a Spanish Jew +could possibly write it. The name of the other animal should be +written [Hebrew] <i>Zeblinatz</i>, by which are meant Sables. +Jordanis had before this called these skins <i>Sapphilinias +pelles</i>.--<i>Forst</i>.</p> + +<blockquote>[33] This short commentary upon three words in that +part of the travels of Benjamin, which has been omitted in +Harris, is extracted from Forster, Hist of Voy. and Disc. in the +North, p. 92, and shews the extreme difficulty of any attempt to +give an accurate edition of the whole work, if that should be +thought of, as it would require critical skill not only in +Hebrew, but in the languages of the different countries to which +the travels refer.--E.</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-6">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of an Englishman into Tartary, +and thence into Poland, Hungary, and Germany, in +1243.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, I, 22.</blockquote> + +<p>This earliest remaining direct account of the Tartars, or +Mongols receiving that name, which is extremely short and +inconclusive, is recorded by Matthew Paris, in a letter from Yvo +de Narbonne to the archbishop of Bourdeaux, and is here given as +a literary curiosity.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> + +<p>Provoked by the sins of the Christians, the Lord hath become +as it were a destroying enemy, and a dreadful avenger; having +sent among us a prodigiously numerous, most barbarous, and +inhuman people, whose law is lawless, and whose wrath is furious, +even as the rod of God's anger, overrunning and utterly ruining +infinite countries, and cruelly destroying every thing where they +come with fire and sword. This present summer, that nation which +is called Tartars, leaving Hungary, which they had surprised by +treason, laid siege, with many thousand soldiers, to the town of +Newstadt, in which I then dwelt, in which there were not above +fifty men at arms, and twenty cross-bow-men, left in garrison. +All these observing from certain high places the vast army of the +enemy, and abhorring the beastly cruelty of the accomplices of +Antichrist, signified to the governor the hideous lamentations of +his Christian subjects, who, in all the adjoining provinces, were +surprised and cruelly destroyed, without any respect of rank, +fortune, age, or sex. The Tartarian chieftains, and their +brutishly savage followers, glutted themselves with the carcasses +of the inhabitants, leaving nothing for the vultures but the bare +bones; and strange to tell, the greedy and ravenous vultures +disclaimed to prey on the remains left by the Tartars. Old and +deformed women they gave for daily sustenance to their cannibals: +The young and beautiful they devoured hot, but smothered them +shrieking and lamenting under their forced and unnatural +ravishments; and cutting off the breasts of tender virgins to +present as dainties to their leaders, they fed themselves upon +their bodies.</p> + +<p>Their spies having descried from the top of a high mountain +the Duke of Austria, the King of Bohemia, the Patriarch of +Aquileia, the Duke of Carindiia, and as some say, the Earl of +Baden, approaching with a mighty power towards them, the accursed +crew immediately retired into the distressed and vanquished land +of Hungary, departing as suddenly as they had invaded, and +astonishing all men by the celerity of their motions. The prince +of Dalmatia took eight of the fugitives, one of whom was +recognized, by the Duke of Austria as an Englishman, who had been +perpetually banished from England for certain crimes. This man +had been sent twice as a messenger and interpreter from the most +tyrannical king of the Tartars to the king of Hungary, menacing +and fortelling those mischiefs which afterwards happened, unless +he would submit himself and his kingdom to the yoke of the +Tartars. Being urged by our princes to confess, the truth, this +man made such oaths and protestations, as I think might have +served to make even the devil be trusted.</p> + +<p>He reported of himself, that presently after his banishment, +being then about thirty years of age, and having lost all he +possessed at dice in the city of Acon[2] he set off from thence, +in the middle of winter, wearing nothing but a shirt of sacking, +a pair of shoes, and a hairy cap; and, being shaven like a fool, +he uttered an uncouth noise, as if he had been dumb, and wandered +about through many countries in search of food. At length, +through fatigue, and change of air and diet, he fell grievously +sick in Chaldea, insomuch that he was weary of his life. Being +compelled to remain there a long time to recover his strength, +and having some learning, he began to write down the words he +heard spoken, and in a short time made himself so much master of +the language, as to be reputed a native; and in this manner he +attained expertness in many languages. The Tartars got notice of +this man by means of their spies, and drew him by force among +them; and, having been admonished by an oracle or vision to +extend their dominion over the whole earth, they allured him by +many offers of reward, to serve them as an interpreter. He gave +the following account of the manners and superstitions of the +Tartars, of the disposition and stature of their bodies, and of +their country and manner of fighting.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Acre, in Palestine--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The Tartars are covetous, irascible, deceitful, and merciless, +beyond all men; yet, through the rigour of discipline which is +exercised by their superiors, they are restrained from brawls and +mutual strife. They esteem the ancient founders and fathers of +their tribes as Gods, in whose honour they celebrate solemn +feasts at certain fixed times; and these deities are very +numerous, though only four are considered as general gods of the +nation. They consider all things as created for their sole use, +and do not therefore think themselves cruel or unjust in wasting +and destroying the surrounding nations, whom they esteem rebels +against their legitimate authority. Their bodies, though lean, +are hardy and strong, with broad chests, and square high +shoulders, strong, well knit joints and firm sinews, thick and +large thighs, with short legs, so that, being equal to us in +stature, what they want in their legs is supplied in the upper +part of their bodies. Their faces are pale, with short flat +noses, their eyes black and inconstant, having large eyebrows, +extending down to the nose; long sharp chins, their upper jaws +low and declining, their teeth long and thin, their countenances +distorted, fierce and terrible.</p> + +<p>In ancient times their country, which is situated far beyond +Chaldea, was utterly waste and barren, from whence they have +expelled the lions, bears, and other wild beasts. Of the tanned +hides of beasts they make for themselves light but impenetrable +armour, and their backs are only slightly armed, that they may +not flee in battle. They use small but strong horses, which are +maintained with little provender. In fight they use javelins, +maces, battle-axes, and swords, but are particularly expert in +the use of bows and arrows. When engaged in battle they never +retire till they see the chief standard of their general give +back. When vanquished they ask no quarter, and in victory they +shew no compassion; and though many millions in number, they all +persist as one man, in resolving to subdue the whole world under +their dominion. They have 60,000 couriers who are sent before +upon light horses to prepare a place for the army to encamp, and +these will gallop in one night as far as our troops can march in +three days. When they invade a country, they suddenly diffuse +themselves over the whole land, surprising the people unarmed, +unprovided, and dispersed, and make such horrible slaughter and +devastation, that the king or prince of the invaded land cannot +collect a sufficient force to give them battle.</p> + +<p>Sometimes they say, they intend to go to Cologne to bring home +the three wise kings into their own country; sometimes they +propose to punish the avarice and pride of the Romans, who +formerly oppressed them; sometimes to conquer the barbarous +nations of the north; sometimes to moderate the fury of the +Germans with their own mildness; sometimes in derision they say +that they intend going in pilgrimage to the shrine of St James in +Galicia. By means of these pretences, some indiscreet governors +of provinces have entered into league with them, and have, +granted them free passage through their territories; but which +leagues they have ever violated, to the certain ruin and +destruction of these princes and their unhappy countries.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-7">CHAPTER VII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Sketch of the Revolutions in +Tartary.</i></b></p> + +<p>Our limits do not admit of any detailed account of the history +of those numerous and warlike pastoral nations, which in all ages +have occupied the vast bounds of that region, which has been +usually denominated Scythia by the ancients, and Tartary by the +moderns: yet it seems necessary to give in this place, a +comprehensive sketch of the revolutions which have so strikingly +characterized that storehouse of devastating conquerors, to +elucidate the various travels into Tartary which are contained in +this first book of our work; and in this division of our plan, we +have been chiefly guided by the masterly delineations on the same +subject, of the eloquent historian of the Decline and Fall of the +Roman Empire[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Gibbon, Dec. and Fall, IV. 355.</blockquote> + +<p>In their navigation of the Euxine, and by planting colonies on +its coasts, the Greeks became acquainted with Western Scythia, +extending from the Danube, along the northern frontiers of +Thrace, to mount Caucasus. The great extent of the ancient +Persian Empire, which reached at one period from the Danube to +the Indus, exposed its whole northern frontier to the Scythian +nations, as far to the east as the mountains of Imaus or Caf, now +called the Belur-tag. The still more eastern parts of Scythia or +Tartary were known of old to the Chinese, and stretch to the +utmost north-eastern bounds of Asia. Thus from the Danube and +Carpathian mountains, in long. 26°. E, to the promontory of +Tschuts-koi-nos, or the East Cape of Asia, in long. 190°. E. +this vast region extends in length 160 degrees of longitude, or +not less than 8000 miles. Its southern boundaries are more +difficultly ascertainable: but, except where they are pressed +northwards by the anciently civilized empire of China, these may +be assumed at a medium on the thirty-fifth degree of north +latitude; from, whence Scythia or Tartary extends in breadth to +the extremity of the frozen north.</p> + +<p>Next to the nomadic nations of Western Scythia, who +encountered and baffled the arms of Darius, King of Persia, under +the general name of Scythians, who were perhaps congeneric, or +the same with those afterwards known by the name of Goths, the +dreaded name of the Huns became known to the declining Roman +Empire. But our object does not require us to attempt to trace +the history of these nations, under their various appellations of +Huns, Topa, Geougen, Turks, Chozars, and others, till the +establishment of the vast empire of Zingis connected the history +and devastating conquests of the Tartars with the affairs of +modern Europe[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Decl. and Fall, XI. 402.</blockquote> + +<p>In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Temugin, the son +of a Mogul chief, laid the foundations of a vast empire in the +north east of Tartary or Mongolia. His father had reigned over +thirteen hordes or tribes of the Moguls, Moals, or Monguls: and +as it was not customary for these warlike tribes to submit to be +ruled over by a boy, Temugen, who at the death of his father was +only thirteen years of age, had to contend with his revolted, +subjects, and had to obey a conqueror of his own nation. In a new +attempt to recover the command over the subjects of his, father, +he was more successful: and under the new appellation of +<i>Zingis</i>, which signifies <i>most great</i>, he became the +conqueror of an empire of prodigious extent. In person, or by +means of his lieutenants, he successfully reduced the nations, +tribes, or hordes of Tartary or Scythia, from China to the Volga, +and established his undisputed authority over the whole pastoral +world. He afterwards subjugated the five northern provinces of +China, which were long imperfectly known under the name of +Kathay; and successively reduced Carisme or Transoxiana, now +great Bucharia, Chorassan, and Persia: and he died in 1227, after +having exhorted and instructed his sons to persevere in the +career of conquest, and more particularly to complete the +conquest of China.</p> + +<p>The vast empire established by Zingis, was apportioned among +his four principal sons, Toushi, Zagatai, Octai, and Tuli, who +had been respectively his great huntsman, chief judge, prime +minister, and grand general. Firmly united among themselves, and +faithful to their own and the public interest, three of these +brothers, and their families and descendants, were satisfied with +subordinate command; and Octai, by general consent of the maols, +or nobles, was proclaimed <i>Khan</i>, or emperor of the Moguls +and Tartars. Octai was succeeded by his son Gayuk; after whose +death, the empire devolved successively on his cousins Mangou or +Mangu, and Cublai, the sons of Tuli, and the grandsons of Zingis. +During the sixty-eight years of the reigns of these four +successors of Zingis, the Moguls subdued almost all Asia, and a +considerable portion of Europe. The great Khan at first +established his royal court at Kara-kum in the desert, and +followed the Tarter custom of moving about with the golden horde, +attended by numerous flocks and herds, according to the changes +of the season: but Mangu-Khan, and Cublai-Khan, established their +principal seat of empire in the new city of Pe-king, or +Khan-balu, and perfected the conquest of China, reducing Corea, +Tonkin, Cochin-china, Pegu, Bengal, and Thibet, to different +degrees of subjection, or tribute, under the direct influence of +the great Khan, and his peculiar lieutenants.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Persia was completed by Holagu, the son of +Tuli and grandson of Zingis, who of course was' brother to the +two successive emperors, Mangu and Cublai. From Persia, the +Moguls spread their ravages and conquests over Syria, Armenia, +and Anatolia, or what is now called Turkey in Asia; but Arabia +was protected by its burning deserts, and Egypt was successfully +defended by the arms of the Mamalukes, who even repelled the +Moguls from Syria.</p> + +<p>Batu, another son of Tuli, conquered Turkestan and Kipzak[3], +Astracan and Cazan, and reduced Georgia and Circassia to +dependence. Advancing from the Black Sea to Livonia on the +Baltic, Moscow and Kiow were reduced to ashes, and Russia +submitted to pay tribute. Their victorious arms penetrated into +Poland, in which they destroyed the cities of Lublin and Cracow; +and they even defeated the confederate army of the dukes of +Silesia, the Polish palatines, and the great master of the +Teutonic knights, at Lignitz, the, most western extremity of +their destructive march. From Lignitz they turned aside into +Hungary, and reduced the whole of that country to the north of +the Danube. During the winter, they crossed the Danube on the +ice. Gran, the capital of Hungary, was taken by storm, and Bela, +the unfortunate king of Hungary, had to take shelter in one of +the islands at the head of the Adriatic. So terrible was the +alarm in Europe, that the inhabitants of Sweden and the north of +Germany neglected, in 1238, to send their ships, as usual, to the +herring-fishery on the coast of England; and, as observed by +Gibbon, it is whimsical enough to learn, that the price of +herrings in the English market was lowered in consequence of the +orders of a barbarous Mogul khan, who resided on the borders of +China[4]. The tide of ruin was stemmed at Newstadt in Austria, by +the bravery of fifty knights and twenty cross-bow-men; and the +Tartars, awed by the fame of the valour and arms of the Franks, +or inhabitants of western Europe, raised the siege on the +approach of a German army, commanded by the emperor Frederic the +Second. After laying waste the kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, and +Bulgaria, the adventurous Batu slowly retreated from the Danube +to the Volga, and established his seat of command in the city and +palace of Serai, both of which he had caused to be built upon the +eastern arm of that noble river. Another of the sons of Tuli, +Shaibani-khan, led a horde of 15,000 Tartar families into the +wilds of Siberia; and his descendants reigned above three +centuries at Tobolsk, in that secluded region, and even reduced +the miserable Samoyedes in the neighbourhood of the polar +circle.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Dashte Kipzak, or the plain of Kipzak, extended +on both sides of the Volga, towards the Jaik or Ural, and the +Borysthenes or Dnieper, and is supposed to have given name to the +Cosacs.--Gibb.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] As reported by Gibbon, from Matthew Paris, p. +396, forty or fifty herrings were sold for a shilling. This must +be an error, perhaps for 40 or 50 thousand; as a shilling of +these days was worth at least from fifteen to twenty modern +shillings in effective value; and within memory herrings have +often sold, in a very plentiful fishery, for a shilling the +cart-load, when salt could not be had in sufficient +quantity.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Such was the establishment and extent of the first Tartar or +Mogul empire. The descendants of Cublai gave themselves up to +luxury in the palace of Peking, amidst a mischievous crowd of +eunuchs, concubines, and astrologers, and their Mogul army, +dissolved and dispersed in a vast and populous country, forgot +the discipline and bravery of their ancestors. The secondary +Mogul sovereigns of the west, assumed entire independence; and +the great khan was satisfied with the empire of China and eastern +Mongalia, In 1367, one hundred and forty years after the death of +Zingis, roused to rebellion by a dreadful famine, in which +thirteen millions of the inhabitants of China perished, the +native Chinese expelled their degenerate Mogul oppressors, and +the great khan became a wanderer in the desert. The vast empire +established by Zingis and his immediate successors was now broken +down into four vast fragments, each a powerful empire, Mongalia, +Kipzak, Zagtai or Transoxiana, and Persia; and these four khans +often contended with each other. On their ruins in lesser Asia, +arose the formidable, more permanent, and still subsisting empire +of the Ottoman Turks, whose youthful energies threatened the +subversion of the last remains of the Greek empire, which they at +last effected, and might perhaps have conquered the whole of +Western Europe, if their progress had not been arrested by the +power of a new Mogul dynasty.</p> + +<p>In the distribution of the vast empire of Zingis, we have +already seen that Zagathai, one of his sons, received the +subordinate rule of Transoxiana, or the rich country on the +rivers Jihon or Amu, and the Sir or Sihon, the Oxus and Jaxartes +of the ancients. This extensive and fertile country, now called +Western Turkestan, Great Bucharia, Kharism, Chorassan, and Balk, +with some other smaller territories, is bounded on the west by +the Caspian, on the east by the Belur-tag or Imaus, on the north +by the deserts of western Tartary, and on the south by the +mountains of the Hindoo-koh, and the desert of Margiana. The +descendants of Zagatai were long considered as the khans or +sovereigns of this fair empire, which fell into civil war and +anarchy, through the divisions and subdivisions of the hordes, +the uncertain laws of succession, and the ambition of the +ministers of state, who reduced their degenerate masters to mere +state puppets, and elevated or deposed successive khans at their +pleasure; and the divided and distracted country was subjected or +oppressed by the invasions of the khans of Kashgar, who ruled +over the Calmucks or Getes in eastern Turkestan, or little +Bucharia, on the cast of Imaus or the Belur-tag.</p> + +<p>In this state of misery and depression, a new hero arose, in +1361, to vindicate and re-establish the fame and empire of the +Moguls[5]. Timour, usually called Tamerlane, was the son of the +hereditary chief of Cash, a small but fruitful territory about +forty miles to the south of Samarcand. He was the fifth in +descent from Carashar-Nevian, who had been vizir or prime +minister to Zagathai, of which sovereign Timour was descended in +the female line. After various fortunes, he in 1370, rendered +himself absolute sovereign of Transoxiana, then called Zagatai, +after its first Mogul ruler; but for some time, he affected to +govern as prime minister, or general, to a nominal khan of the +house of Zingis, who served as a private officer at the head of +his family horde in the army of his servant. After establishing +his authority in Zagatai, and conquering Kharism, and Candahar, +he turned his arms against Persia or Iran, which had fallen into +disorganization by the extinction of the descendants of the great +Holacou, and which country he reduced under subjection. He +successively reduced Cashgar, or eastern Turkestan, and Kipzak or +western Tartary, and invaded Syria and Anatolia. In this +invasion, in 1402, was fought the great battle of Angora, in +which Bajazet, the great sultan of the Turks, was defeated and +taken prisoner. By this great victory, the progress of the +Turkish arms was checked for a time, and perhaps Europe was saved +on that day from being subjected to the law of Mahomet. Yet the +vast empire which Timour established, fell into fragments after +his death, in 1405, and his descendants have sunk into oblivion; +while the race of Othman and Bajazet still rule over a large +empire in Europe and Asia, nearly commensurate with the eastern +Roman empire, still called Rumi in the east.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] Decl. and Fall. XII. I.</blockquote> + +<p>Having thus traced an outline of the revolutions of empire in +Tartary, down to what may be considered as modern history, it is +only necessary farther to mention, that all eastern Tartary and +Mongalia is now subject to China, and Kipzac and all the northern +to Russia. Hardly any part of it now remains independent, except +Zagatai; or Transoxiana, Kharism, Candabar, and the deserts of +Western Tartary: the former of which is subject to the Usbeks, +and the latter to the Kirguses.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-8">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>The Travels of John de Plano Carpini and +other Friars, sent about the year 1246, as ambassadors from Pope +Innocent IV, to the great Khan of the Moguls or +Tartars.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt. I. 24. and 42. for the Latin of the two +relations; and p. 59. for the old English translation of the +second.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>In the collection of early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries, +by Hakluyt, published originally in 1599, and reprinted at London +in 1809 with additions, there are two separate relations of these +travels. The <i>first</i>, in p. 24, is the journal of John de +Plano Carpini, an Italian minorite, who, accompanied by friar +Benedict, a Polander, went in 1246 by the north of the Caspian +sea, to the residence of Batu-khan, and thence to Kajuk- khan, +whom he calls Cuyne, the chief or Emperor of all the Mongols. The +<i>second</i> in p. 42, is a relation taken from the Speculum +Historiale of Vincentius Beluacensis, lib. xxxii. ch. 2. of the +mission of certain friars, predicants and minorites in the same +year, 1246, to the same country; and in p. 59. of the same +collection, there is a translation by Hakluyt into antiquated +English of this second account. From this second narrative it +appears, that Vincentius had received an account of the journey +of the second mission from Simon de St Quintin, a minorite friar +belonging to the party; and that he had worked up along with +this, the whole of the narrative which had been separately +published by Carpini of his journey; which indeed forms by far +the larger and more interesting portion of the work published by +Vincentius. This latter edition, therefore has been considered as +sufficient for the present collection, because to have given both +would have been an unnecessary repetition; and it is here +translated from the Latin of Hakluyt, I. 42.</p> + +<p>The object of this mission or embassy seems to have been as +follows: A prodigious alarm was excited in Europe, by the +victorious and destructive progress of the Mongals or Tartars; +who, under the command of Tuschi-khan, and of Batu-khan, the son +of Tuschi, advancing through Kipzhak, Russia, Poland, and +Hungary, all of which they had most horribly ravaged and laid +waste, had penetrated even into Silesia; while by the eastern +side or the Caspian, penetrating through Transoxiana and Persia, +under the command of Zagatai-khan, likewise a son of Zingus, and +Holagu-khan, a nephew of Zagatai, they had made their appearance +on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris. In this alarming +conjuncture, it was thought advisable by Pope Innocent IV. in a +convocation of the clergy at Lyons, in 1245, to send ambassadors +to these formidable conquerors, to endeavour to pacify them, and +induce them to turn the destructive tide of their conquests in +some other direction, and perhaps partly in the hope of +endeavouring, if possible, to convert them to the Christian +faith, and inducing them to direct their arms against the Turks +and Saracens, who oppressed the Holy Land. For this purpose, six +monks were selected from the new and severe orders of predicants +and minorites. John de Plano Carpini and Benedict, travelled +through Bohemia and Poland to Kiow in Russia, and thence by the +mouth of the Dnieper to the camp of Korrensa, or Corrensa, a +general of the Mongals; whence, crossing the Don and Wolga or +Volga, they came to the encampment of Bata-khan, called also Baty +and Baatu, who sent them to Kajuk-khan, the emperor of the +Mongals, whom they call Cuyne. The other ambassadors were +Asceline, with Friars Alexander, Albert, and Simon de St Quintin: +who went by the south of the Caspian, through Syria, Persia, and +Chorassan, to the court of Baiju-Nojan, or as they call him +Bajothnoy: but of the particulars of this journey very little has +been preserved by Vincentius, so that in fact, the travels here +published belong almost exclusively to Carpini.</p> + +<p>The full title given by Hakluyt to this relation is worth +preserving as a literary curiosity, and is as follows:</p> + +<p>"The long and wonderful voyage of Friar John de Plano Carpini, +sent ambassador, by Pope Innocent IV. A.D. 1246, to the great Can +of Tartacia; wherein he passed through Bohemia, Polonia, Russia, +and so to the city of Kiow upon Boristhenes, and from thence rode +continually post for the space of sixe moneths through Comania, +over the mighty and famous rivers, Tanais, Volga, and Jaie, and +through the countries of the people called Kangittae, Bisermini, +Karakitay, Naimani, and so to the native country of the Mongols +or Tartars, situate in the extreme north-eastern partes of all +Asia; and thence back again the same Way to Russia, and Polonia, +and so to Rome; spending in the whole voyage among the sayd +Tartars, one whole year, and above four moneths: Taken out of the +32 booke of Vincentius Beluacensis his Speculum Historiale."</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>Introductory Epistle by John de Plano Carpini</i>.</p> + +<p>To all the faithful in Christ, to whom this writing may come, +I friar John de Plano Carpini, of the order of minorites, legate +and messenger from the Apostolic see to the Tartars and other +nations of the east, wish the Grace of God in this life, and +glory in the next, and perpetual triumph over all the enemies of +the Lord. Having learnt the will of our lord the Pope, and the +venerable Cardinals, and received the commands of the holy see, +that we should go to the Tartars and other nations of the east, +we determined to go in the first place to the Tartars; because we +dreaded that the most imminent and nearest danger to the Church +of God arose from them. And although we personally dreaded from +these Tartars and other nations, that we might be skin or reduced +to perpetual slavery, or should suffer hunger and thirst, the +extremes of heat and cold, reproach, and excessive fatigue beyond +our strength, all of which; except death and captivity, we have +endured, even beyond our first fears, yet did we not spare +ourselves, that we might obey the will of God, according to the +orders of our lord the Pope, that we might be useful in any thing +to the Christians, or at least, that the will and intention of +these people might be assuredly known, and made manifest to +Christendom, lest suddenly invading us, they might find us +unprepared, and might make incredible slaughter of the Christian +people. Hence, what we now write is for your advantage, that you +may be on your guard, and more secure; being what we saw with our +own eyes, while we sojourned with and among these people, during +more than a year and four months, or which we have learnt from +Christian captives residing among them, and whom we believe to, +be worthy of credit. We were likewise enjoined by the supreme +pontiff, that we should examine and inquire into every thing very +diligently; all of which, both myself and friar Benedict of the +same order, my companion in affliction and interpreter, have +carefully performed.</p> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Of the first Mission of Friars Predicants and Minorites to +the Tartars</i>.</p> + +<p>At the same period, Pope Innocent IV. sent Friar Asceline of +the order of friars predicants, with three other friars from +different convents, with apostolical letters to the army of the +Tartars, exhorting them to desist from slaughtering mankind, and +to adopt the true Christian faith; and from one of these lately +returned, Friar Simon de St Quintin, of the minorite order, I +have received the relations concerning the transactions of the +Tartars, which are here set down. At the same period, Friar, John +de Plano Carpini of the order of minorites, with some others, was +sent to the Tartars, and remained travelling among them for +sixteen months. This Friar John hath written a little history, +which is come to our hands, of what he saw among the Tartars, or +learnt from divers persons living in captivity. From which I have +inserted such things, in the following relation, as were wanting +in the accounts given me by Friar Simon.</p> + +<p>SECTION III.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Situation and Quality of the Land of the Tartars, +from Carpini</i>.</p> + +<p>The land of Mongolia or Tartary is in the east part of the +world, where the east and north are believed to unite[1]; haying +the country of Kathay, and the people called Solangi on the east; +on the south the country of the Saracens; the land of the Huini +on the south-east; on the west the province of Naimani, and the +ocean on the north. In some parts it is full of mountains, in +other parts quite plain; but everywhere interspersed with sandy +barrens, not an hundredth part of the whole being fertile, as it +cannot be cultivated except where it is watered with rivers, +which are very rare. Hence there are no towns or cities, except +one named Cracurim[2], which is said to be tolerably good. We did +not see that place, although within half a day's journey, when we +were at the horde of Syra, the court of their great emperor. +Although otherwise infertile, this land is well adapted for the +pasture of cattle. In some places there are woods of small +extent, but the land is mostly destitute of trees; insomuch, that +even the emperor and princes, and all others, warm themselves and +cook their victuals with fires of horse and cow dung. The climate +is very intemperate, as in the middle of summer there are +terrible storms of thunder and lightning, by which many people +are killed, and even then there are great falls of snow, and +there blow such tempests of cold winds, that sometimes people can +hardly sit on horseback. In one of these, when near the Syra +Horde, by which name they signify the station of the emperor, or +of any of their princes, we had to throw ourselves prostrate on +the ground, and could not see by reason of the prodigious dust. +It never rains in winter, but frequently in summer, yet so gently +as scarcely to lay the dust, or to moisten the roots of the +grass. But there are often prodigious showers of hail; insomuch, +that by the sudden melting of one of these, at the time when the +emperor elect was about to be placed on his throne, at which time +we were at the imperial court, above an hundred and sixty persons +were drowned, and many habitations and much valuable things were +swept away. In summer there are often sudden and intolerable +heats, quickly followed by extreme cold.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This strange personification of the East and +North, as if they were stationary geographical terms, not merely, +relative, only means that Mongalia lay in the most north-easterly +part of the then known world. --E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Called likewise Karakum, or Caracorum, and said +to signify the <i>Black Sand</i>.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION IV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Appearance, Dress, and Manner of Living of the +Tartars</i>.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the Mongols or Tartars is quite different +from all other nations, being much wider between the eyes and +cheeks, and their cheeks are very prominent, with small flat +noses, and small eyes, having the upper lids opened up to the +eyebrows, and their crowns are shaven like priests on each side, +leaving some long hair in the middle, the remainder being allowed +to grow long like women, which they twist into two tails or +locks, and bind behind their ears. The garments of the men and +women are alike, using neither cloaks, hats, nor caps, but they +wear strange tunics made of bucram, purple, or baldequin. Their +gowns are made of skins, dressed in the hair, and open behind. +They never wash their clothes, neither do they allow others to +wash, especially in time of thunder, till that be over. Their +houses are round, and artificially made like tents, of rods and +twigs interwoven, having a round hole in the middle of the roof +for the admission of light and the passage of smoke, the whole +being covered with felt, of which likewise the doors are made. +Some of these are easily taken to pieces or put together, and are +carried on sumpter-cattle; while others are not capable of being +taken to pieces, and are carried on carts. Wherever they go, +whether to war, or only travelling to fresh pastures, these are +carried with them. They have vast numbers of camels, oxen, sheep, +and goats, and such prodigious multitudes of horses and mares, as +are not to be found in all the rest of the world; but they have +no swine. Their emperor, dukes, and other nobles, are extremely +rich in gold and silver, silks, and gems. They eat of every thing +that is eatable, and we have even seen them eat vermin. They +drink milk in great quantity, and particularly prefer that of +mares. But as in winter, none but the rich can have mares milk, +they make a drink of millet boiled in water; every one drinking +one or two cups in the morning, and sometimes having no other +food all day; but in the evening, every one has a small quantity +of flesh, and they drink the broth in which it was boiled. In +summer, when they have abundance of mares milk, they eat little +flesh, unless it is given them, or when they catch venison or +birds.</p> + +<p>SECTION V.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Good and Bad Customs</i>.</p> + +<p>(Illustration: Map of the Western part of Tartary & +Adjacent Countries)</p> + +<p>Some of their customs are commendable, and others execrable. +They are more obedient to their lords than any other people, +giving them vast reverence, and never deceiving them in word or +action. They seldom quarrel; and brawls, wounds, or manslaughter +hardly ever occur. Thieves and robbers are nowhere found, so that +their houses and carts, in which all their treasure is kept, are +never locked or barred. If any animal go astray, the finder +either leaves it, or drives it to those who are appointed to seek +for strays, and the owner gets it back without difficulty. They +are very courteous, and though victuals are scarce among them, +they communicate freely to each other. They are very patient +under privations, and though they may have fasted for a day or +two, will sing and make merry as if they were well satisfied. In +journeying, they bear cold, or heat with great fortitude. They +never fall out, and though often drunk, never quarrel in their +cups. No one despises another, but every one assists his +neighbour to the utmost. Their women are chaste, yet their +conversation is frequently immodest. Towards other people they +are exceedingly proud and overbearing, looking upon all other men +with contempt, however noble. For we saw, in the emperor's court, +the great duke of Russia, the son of the king of Georgia, and +many sultans and other great men, who received no honour or +respect; so that even the Tartars appointed to attend them, +however low their condition, always went before them, and took +the upper places, and even often obliged them to sit behind their +backs. They are irritable and disdainful to other men, and beyond +belief deceitful; speaking always fair at first, but afterwards +stinging like scorpions. They are crafty and fraudulent, and +cheat all men if they can. Whatever mischief they intend they +carefully conceal, that no one may provide or find a remedy for +their wickedness. They are filthy in their meat and drink, and in +all their actions. Drunkenness is honourable among them; so that, +when one has drank to excess and throws up, he begins again to +drink. They are most importunate beggars, and covetous +possessors, and most niggardly givers; and they consider the +slaughter of other people as nothing.</p> + +<p>SECTION VI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Laws and Customs of the Tartars</i>.</p> + +<p>Men and women guilty of adultery, or even of fornication, are +punished with death. Those detected in robbery or theft are +likewise slain. If any one divulges their councils, especially +with regard to an intended war, he receives an hundred blows on +his buttocks with a great cudgel, as hard as a strong man can lay +on. When any of the meaner sort commit offences, they are +severely punished by their superiors. In marriage, they pay no +attention to nearness of kindred, except their mothers, +daughters, or sisters by the same mother; for they will even +marry their sisters from other mothers, and their fathers wives +after his death. The younger brother also, or some other of the +kindred, is bound to marry the wives of a deceased brother.</p> + +<p>While I remained in the country, a Russian duke, named +Andrew[1], being accused before duke Baatu, of conveying Tartar +horses out of the country and selling them to other nations, was +put to death, although the fact was not proved against him. After +this, the widow and younger brother of Andrew came to Baatu, +supplicating that they might not be deprived of the dukedom, upon +which Baatu commanded them to be married according to the Tartar +custom; and though both refused, as contrary to the religion and +laws of Russia, they were compelled to this incestuous union. +After the death of their husbands, the Tartar widows seldom +marry, unless when a man chooses to wed his brother's wife or his +stepmother. They make no difference between the son of a wife or +of a concubine, of which the following is a memorable example. +The late king of Georgia left two sons, Melich and David, of whom +the former was lawful, and the other born in adultery; but he +left part of his dominions to his bastard. Melich appealed to the +Tartar emperor for justice, and David went likewise to the court, +carrying large gifts; and the emperor confirmed the will of their +father, even appointing David to have the superior authority, +because eldest born. When a Tartar has more than one wife, each +has her own house and establishment, and the husband eats, +drinks, and sleeps, sometimes with one and sometimes with +another. One is considered as principal wife, and with her he +resides oftener than with the others; and though they are +sometimes numerous, they very seldom quarrel among +themselves.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In the previous account of the travels of +Carpini, Hakl. I. 27. this Andrew is said to have been duke of +Sarvogle, or Seirvogle, perhaps meaning +Yeroslave.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VII.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Superstitious Traditions</i>.</p> + +<p>In consequence of certain traditions, they consider many +indifferent actions as criminal. One is, to thrust a knife into +the fire, or any way to touch a fire with a knife, to take meat +from the pot with a knife, or even to hew any thing with an axe +near a fire; as they consider all these things as taking away the +force of the fire. Another is, to lean upon a whip, for they use +no spurs, or to touch arrows with their whip, to strike their +horse with their bridle, to take or kill young birds, or to break +one bone upon another. Likewise, to spill milk, or any drink, or +food, on the ground, or to make water in a house; for the last +offence, if intentional, a man is slain, or he must pay a heavy +fine to the soothsayers to be purified; in which case, the house, +and all that it contains, has to pass between two fires, before +which ceremony no person must enter the house, nor must any thing +be removed from it. If any one takes a bit of meat that he cannot +swallow and spits it out, a hole is made in the floor of the +house, through which he is dragged and put to death. If any one +treads on the threshold of a house belonging to one of their +dukes, he is put to death. Many such things they account high +offences.</p> + +<p>But to slay men, to invade the territories of others, to take +away the goods of other people, and to act contrary to the +commands of God, is no crime among them; and they know nothing of +the life to come, or of eternal damnation. But they believe in a +future life, in which they shall tend flocks, eat and drink, and +do those very things which they do in this life. At new moon, or +when the moon is full, they begin any new enterprise; they call +the moon the great emperor, and they worship that luminary on +their knees. All who dwell in their houses must undergo +purification by fire, which is performed in this manner. Having +kindled two fires at a convenient distance, they fix two spears +in the earth, one near each fire, stretching a cord between the +tops of these spears, and about the cord they hang some rags of +buckram, under which cord, and between, which fires, all the men, +and beasts, and houses must pass; and all the while, a woman +stands on each side, sprinkling water on the passengers, and +reciting certain verses. If any one is killed by lightning, all +that dwell in the same house with the dead person must be thus +purified; otherwise, the house, beds, carts, felts, garments, and +every thing else would be abandoned as unclean. When any +messengers, princes, or other persons arrive, they and their +gifts must pass between two fires for purification, lest they +should bring witchcraft, poison, or any other mischief.</p> + +<p>SECTION VIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Beginning of their Empire</i>.</p> + +<p>The land of Mongolia was formerly divided among four different +tribes or nations. One of these was the Yeka-Mongal, or the great +Mongols. The second Su-Mongal, or the Water Mongols, who called +themselves Tartars, from a river of that name in their +territories. The third was named Merkat, and the fourth Metrit. +All these tribes resembled each other in form, and complexion, +and spoke the same language, though they were divided into +distinct provinces, under separate princes. In the land of the +Yeka-Mongal, lived one named Zingis, a great hunter, who used to +rob and take much prey, going into the neighbouring districts, +where he seized all that came in his way, and associated many +under his command, till at length the people of his nation +attached themselves to him, and followed him as their leader to +do evil. After some time, Zingis went to war with the Su-Mongal +or Tartars, slew their duke, and subjugated the nation; and he +successively reduced the Merkats and Metrites to his growing +dominion. The Naymani, to whom all the surrounding tribes then +paid tribute, were much indignant at the elevation of Zingis; but +their great emperor had lately died, leaving the authority +divided among his sons, who were young and foolish, and knew not +how to rule the people; yet they invaded the territories of the +Mongals, slaying the inhabitants and carrying off much prey. On +this Zingis collected the whole strength of his subjects, and the +Naymani, united with the Cara-Cathayans, gathered a mighty army +in a certain narrow valley to oppose him, in which a great battle +was fought, and the Mongals obtained the victory, the +confederates being mostly slain, and those who escaped were +reduced to subjection. Zingis established his son Occoday, Ug +dai, or Octai-Khan, in the land of the Kara-Kitayans, where he +built a town called Omyl or Chamyl[1]; near which, and to the +south, there is a vast desert, in which there are said to be +certain wild men, who do not speak, and have no joints in their +legs, yet have sufficient art to make felt of camels wool for +garments, to protect them from the weather.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Called Chamil or Hami in the maps, in lat. +43° N. and long. 92° E It stands in a province of the +same name, on the north side of the great desert of Cobi, and to +the N.E. of the land of the Kalmuks, or little +Bucharia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION IX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Mutual Victories of the Mongals and +Cathayans</i>.</p> + +<p>After their return from conquering the Naymani and +Cara-Cathayans, the Mongals prepared to go to war with the +Kythaos, or Cathayans[1]; but the Mongals were defeated in a +great battle, and all their nobles were slain except seven. +Zingis and the rest who had escaped from this defeat, soon +afterwards attacked and conquered the people called Huyri[2], who +were Nestorian Christians, from whom they learned the art of +writing. After this they conquered the land of Sarugur, and the +country of the Karanites, and the land of Hudirat, and returning +into their own country, took a short respite from war. Again +assembling a great army, they invaded Cathay, and after a long +struggle, they conquered the greater part of that country, and +besieged the emperor in his greatest city. The siege lasted so +long, that the army of the Mongals came to be in want of +provisions, and Zingis is said to have commanded that every tenth +man of his own army should be slain as food for the rest. At +length, by great exertions, the Mongals dug a mine underneath the +walls of the city, through which a party entered and opened the +gates for the rest of the army, so that the city was carried, and +the emperor and many of the citizens put to the sword. Having +appointed deputies to rule over his conquests, Zingis returned +into Mongalia with immense quantities of gold and silver and +other precious spoil. But the southern parts of this empire, as +it lies within the sea, has not been conquered by the Mongals to +this day[3].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The inhabitants of Northern China, then a +separate kingdom from Mangi, or Southern China.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The Huirs or Uigurs.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This probably alludes to the difficulty +experienced by the Mongals in forcing a passage across the great +rivers Hoang-ho and Kian-ku--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The people of Cathay are Pagans, having a peculiar kind of +writing of their own, in which they are reported to possess the +scriptures of the Old and New Testament. They have also lives of +the fathers, and houses in which they pray at stated times, built +like churches; they are even said to have saints, to worship one +God, to venerate the Lord Jesus Christ, and to believe eternal +life; but they are not baptised[4]. They have no beards, and they +partly resemble the Mongals in their features. Their country is +exceeding fruitful in corn, and abounds in gold and silver, wine +and silk, and all manner of rich commodities, and the whole world +has not more expert artificers in all kinds of works and +manufactures.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] These absurd notions must have been picked up by +the credulous papal messengers, from ignorant or designing +Nestorians in Mongolia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION X.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Wars of the Mongals against the Greater and Lesser +India.</i></p> + +<p>When Zingis and his people had rested some time after their +conquest of Cathay, he divided his army, and sent one of his +sons, named Thosut- khan[1], against the Comaniam, whom he +vanquished in many battles, and then returned into his own +country. Another of his sons was sent with an army against the +Indians, who subdued the lesser India. These Indians are the +Black Saracens, who are also named Ethiopians. From thence the +Mongal army marched to fight against the Christians dwelling in +the greater India, and the king of that country, known by the +name of Prester John, came forth with his army against them. This +prince caused a number of hollow copper figures to be made, +resembling men, which were stuffed with combustibles, and set +upon horses, each having a man behind on the horse, with a pair +of bellows to stir up the fire. When approaching to give battle, +these mounted images were first sent forwards against the enemy, +and the men who rode behind set fire by some means to the +combustibles, and blew strongly with their bellows; and the +Mongal men and horses were burnt with wildfire, and the air was +darkened with smoke. Then the Indians charged the Mongals, many +of whom were wounded and slain, and they were expelled from the +country in great confusion, and we have not heard that they ever +ventured to return[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Probably Tuschi-Khan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] It is needless to remark upon the confused and +ignorant geography, and the idle tale of a Christian empire in +India in this section. The strangely ill-told story of the copper +images, by which the Mongals were scorched with wild-fire, may +refer to the actual employment either of cannon or rockets +against the Mongals in this invasion.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XI.</p> + +<p><i>Of Monstrous Men like Dogs, and of the Conquest of +Burithabeth.</i></p> + +<p>In returning through the desert, we were told by some Russian +priests at the emperor's court, that the Mongals found certain +women, who, being asked where their men were, said that all the +women of that country had human shapes, but that the males had +the shape of great dogs. After some time, they met the dogs on +the other side of a river. It being in winter, the dogs plunged +into the water, and then rolled themselves in the dust on the +land, till the dust and water was frozen on their backs; and +having done this repeatedly till the ice was thick and strong, +they attacked the Mongals with great fury; but when the Mongals +threw their darts, or shot their arrows at them, they rebounded +as if they had fallen on stones, neither could their weapons in +any way hurt them. But the dogs killed some of the Tartars, and +wounded many with their teeth, and finally drove them out of the +country[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] It is surely unnecessary to remark on this +ridiculous story of the canine men, which no commentary could +reduce to sense.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On their return home, the Mongals came into the country of +Burithabeth, of which the inhabitants are pagans, and conquered +the people in battle. These people have a strange custom of +eating their kindred when they die. They have no beard, for we +saw some of them going about with certain iron instruments in +their hands, with which they pluck out any hairs they find on +their faces[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] These people may possibly have been the Burats. +The same practice of eradicating the beard is still followed by +the native tribes of America.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XII.</p> + +<p><i>How the Mongals were repulsed at the Caspian Mountains, by +Men dwelling in Caves.</i></p> + +<p>When Zingis sent the before-mentioned armies into the east, he +marched personally into the land of the Kergis[1], which, +however, he did not now conquer. In this expedition the Mongals +are said to have penetrated to the Caspian mountains, which being +of adamant, attracted their arrows and other weapons of +iron[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Kirguses, inhabiting Western Turkestan, +between Lake Balkash and the Caspian.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The remainder of this short section is so +ridiculously fabulous as not to merit translation, and is +therefore omitted.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the death of Zingis, and concerning his Sons, and the +Tartar Dukes or Princes.</i></p> + +<p>Zingis is said to have been killed by lightning. He had four +sons, the first was called Occoday, or Oktai, the second Thosut, +Tuzi, or Tuschi, the third Thiaday, or Zagathai, and the name of +the fourth I could not learn. From these four all the dukes of +the Mongals are descended[1]. Cuyne, or Kajuk, the eldest son of +Occoday, or Oktai, is now emperor; and he has two brothers +Cocten, and Chyrinen. Bathy, or Baatu, Ordu, Siba, and Boru are +the sons of Thosut-khan. Baatu is richer and mightier than all +the rest, being next in power to the emperor; but Ordu is the +superior of all the dukes. The sons of Thiaday are Hurin and +Cadan. The sons of the son of Zingis whose name I could not +learn, are Mengu, Bithat, and several others. The mother of Mengu +was Seroctan, the greatest lady among the Tartars, and the most +honoured except the emperor's mother, and more powerful than any +subject except Bathy. The following is a list of their dukes: +Ordu, Bathy, Huryn, Cadan, Syban, and Ouygat, who were all in +Hungary; Cyrpodan, who remains beyond the sea[2], making war +against certain soldans of the Saracens, and other transmarine +nations. Mengu, Chyrinen, Hubilai, Sinocur, Cara, Gay, Sybedey, +Bora, Berca, and Corensa, all remain in Tartary. But there are +many other dukes whose names I could not learn.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Other authors give a different account of the +family of Zingis. According to Harris, I. 556, Zuzi, or Tuschi, +was his eldest son, who died six months before his father, and +his son Baatu got a great part of Tartary for his share. +Zagathai, a son of Zingis, got Transoxiana, or the country of the +Kirguses. Tuli, another son, had Chorassan, Persia, and western +India. Octai had Mongalia and Cathay, or Northern China. Carpini, +or rather Vincentius, has sadly confounded all authentic history, +by his rambling colloquial collections from ignorant relators, +and has miserably corrupted the orthography of names of nations, +places, and persons.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Probably meaning in Persia, beyond the Caspian +Sea.--E</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Power of the Emperors, and of his Dukes.</i>.</p> + +<p>The Tartar emperor enjoys incontrollable power over all his +subjects, insomuch, that no man dare abide in any other place +than he has assigned; and he even appoints the residences of all +the dukes. The dukes appoint the residence of the millenaries, or +commanders of a thousand men; the millenaries do the same with +the centurions, or captains of hundreds; and the centurions +direct in what place the decurions or commanders of tens are to +dwell. Whatsoever order any of these officers receive from their +immediate superiors must be instantly and implicitly obeyed. If +the emperor demands the virgin daughter or sister of any one, she +is instantly delivered up; nay, he often collects the virgins +from all the Tartar dominions, and retains such as he pleases for +himself, giving away others among his followers. All his +messengers must be everywhere provided with horses and +necessaries without delay: and all messengers coming to him with +tribute or otherwise, must be provided on their way with horses, +carriages, and all necessaries; yet messengers from strange +countries, suffer great distresses and much want of provisions +and clothing, especially when sent to any of the princes, and +when they have to make any stay; as they often allot for ten men, +what would hardly suffice for two, and if they suffer any injury +it is even dangerous to complain. Many gifts are demanded of +them, both by the princes and others, and if these are refused +they are contemned. Owing to this, we were constrained to expend +in presents, a large portion of what had been bestowed upon us by +well disposed persons to defray our expences. In fine, every +thing whatever belongs to the emperor, so that no one dare to say +that any thing is his own; and the dukes and princes exercise an +equally incontrollable dominion upon all below them.</p> + +<p>SECTION XV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Election of the Emperor Occoday, and of the +Expedition of Duke Bathy.</i></p> + +<p>On the death of Zingis-chan, the dukes assembled and elected +his son Occoday, Ugadai, or Oktai-khan, emperor in his place; who +immediately, in a council of the nobles, divided the army, and +sent Bathy, or Baatu-khan, who was next in authority, against the +land of Altissodan and the country of the Bissermini[1], who were +Saracens, though they spoke the language of the Comanians. Bathy +defeated these people in battle; but the city of Barchin, which +was surrounded with strong walls, resisted for a long while, +until the Tartars filled up the ditches and won the place, which +they destroyed. Sargat surrendered without resistance, for which +the city was not destroyed, but many of the citizens were slain +and made captives, and much spoil was taken, and the city was +filled with new inhabitants. The Tartars marched next against the +rich and populous city of Orna, in which were many Christian +Gassarians, Russians, and Alanians, and many Saracens, the lord +of the city being of that nation. This town stands on a large +river, and is a kind of port, exercising great trade. Being +unable to reduce this place by force, the Tartars dammed up the +river, and drowned the whole city, with the inhabitants and their +goods. Hence they invaded Russia, and besieged Kiow a long while, +which they at length took, and massacred the inhabitants. This +was a large and populous city, but is now reduced to nothing, and +scarcely has two hundred houses: and when we passed through +Russia, we found immense numbers of human skulls and bones +scattered about. From Russia and Comania they proceeded against +the Hungarians and Polonians, where many of them were slain: and +had the Hungarians withstood them manfully, the Tartars had been +utterly defeated. In their return from thence, they invaded and +defeated the pagan Morduans: whence they marched against the +Byleri of greater Bulgaria, which they almost entirely destroyed. +Thence they proceeded to the north against the Bastarci of +greater Hungary, whom they conquered; and going farther north, +they came to the Parossitae, and thence to the Samogetae, +reaching even to the ocean; and from thence returned into +Comania.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Busurmen, Musurmen, or Mahometan inhabitants +of Turkestan.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Expedition of Duke Cyrpodan.</i></p> + +<p>At the same time Occoday-khan sent duke Cyrpodan with an army +to the south, against the pagan Kergis, who have no beards, whom +he subdued. After which he marched against the Armenians, whom he +conquered, and likewise subdued a part of Georgia. The other part +of that country is likewise under subjection, and pays an yearly +tribute of 20,000 yperperas. He thence marched into the dominions +of the great and powerful soldan of the Deuri, whom he defeated; +and proceeded to the country of the soldan of Aleppo, which he +subdued; and afterwards reduced the caliph of Baldach or Bagdat +to subjection, who is forced to pay a daily tribute of 400 +byzants, besides baldekins[1] and other gifts. Every year the +Tartar emperor sends messengers to require the presence of the +caliph; who sends back great gifts besides the regular tribute, +to prevail on the emperor to excuse his absence.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This is probably a manufacture of Bagdat or +Baldach, from whence its name; and may have been flowered silk or +cloth of gold.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Duke Cyrpodan and his army still propose to invade more +distant countries, and have not yet returned into Tartary.</p> + +<p>SECTION XVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Military conduct of the Tartars.</i></p> + +<p>Zingis-khan divided the Tartars into companies or divisions of +ten, of, an hundred, and of a thousand each, every one of which +had its appropriate officer. Over every ten millenaries he placed +one general; and over an army of several bodies of ten thousand +men, two or three dukes, one of whom had the superior command. +When they join battle against their enemies, unless the whole +army retreat by common consent, all who fly are put to death. If +one, two, or more of a decury proceed bravely to battle, and the +rest do not follow, the cowards are slain. If one, two, or more +of the decury are made prisoners and the rest do not rescue them, +they are put to death. Every man must have two bows, or at least +one good bow, three quivers full of arrows, an axe, and certain +ropes to draw the military machines. The rich or officers have +sharp-pointed swords, somewhat curved and sharp on one edge. They +wear helmets, coats of mail, and cuisses, and their horses even +are armed. Some have their own armour and that of their horses +made of leather, ingeniously doubled and even tripled. The upper +parts of their helmets are of iron or steel, but the hood which +protects their neck and throat is of leather. Some have all their +defensive armour composed of many small plates of iron, a +hand-breadth long and an inch broad, perforated with eight small +holes, by which they are tied with small leather thongs to strong +thongs of leather underneath, so that the plates overlap each +other in regular series, and are firmly knit together. The armour +both of men and horses is often made in this fashion, and is kept +finely burnished. Some carry lances having hooks, to pull their +enemies from horseback. Their arrow-heads are exceedingly sharp +on both edges, and every man carries a file to sharpen them. +Their targets are made of wicker, but they are hardly ever +carried, except by the night guards, especially those in +attendance upon the emperor and the princes.</p> + +<p>The Tartars are exceedingly crafty in war, in which they have +been continually engaged for the last forty-two years against all +the surrounding nations. When they have to pass rivers, the +principal people secure their garments in bags of thin leather, +drawn together like purses, and closely tied. They fix these to +their saddles, along with their other baggage, and tie the whole +to their horse's tail, sitting upon the whole bundle as a kind of +boat or float; and the man who guides the horse is made to swim +in a similar manner, sometimes having two oars to assist in +rowing, as it were, across the river. The horse is then forced +into the river, and all the other horses follow, and in this +manner they pass across deep and rapid rivers[1]. The poorer +people have each a purse or bag of leather well sewed, into which +they pack up all their things, well tied up at the mouth, which +they hang to the tails of their horses, and thus swim across.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This mode of passing over rivers, though +carefully translated, is by no means obviously described. I am +apt to suppose that the leathern bags, besides holding the +apparel and other valuables, were large enough to be blown up +with air so as to serve as floats, like those used by the ancient +Macedonians; a practice which they may have learnt from the +Scythians. The Latin of Vincentius Beluacensis appears to have +been translated from the French original of Carpini, from the +following circumstance: What is here translated their <i>other +baggage</i> is, in the Latin, <i>alias res duriores</i>; almost +with certainty mistakenly rendered from the French <i>leurs +autres hardes</i>.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVIII.</p> + +<p><i>How the Tartars ought to be resisted.</i></p> + +<p>No single kingdom or province can resist the Tartars, as they +gather men for war from every land that is subjected to their +dominion; and if any neighbouring province refuses to join them, +they invade and lay it waste, slaughtering the inhabitants or +carrying them into captivity, and then proceed against another +nation. They place their captives in the front of battle, and if +they do not fight courageously they are put to the sword. +Wherefore, if the princes and rulers of Christendom mean to +resist their progress, it is requisite that they should make +common cause, and oppose them with united councils. They ought +likewise to have many soldiers armed with strong bows and plenty +of cross-bows[1], of which the Tartars are much afraid. Besides +these, there ought to be men armed with good iron maces, or with +axes having long handles. The steel arrow-heads should be +tempered in the Tartar manner, by being plunged, while hot, into +water mixed with salt, that they may the better be able to +penetrate the armour of the Tartars. Our men ought likewise to +have good swords, and lances with hooks to drag them from their +saddles, which is an easy matter; and ought to have good helmets +and armour of proof for themselves and horses: And those who are +not so armed ought to keep in the rear of those who are, to +discharge their arrows and quarrels over the heads of their +companions.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The word here used in the Latin, +<i>balistais</i>, is probably corrupted in transcription for +<i>balistariis</i>; and may either mean cross-bow-men, or men for +working balistae, the ancient artillery, if the expression be +allowable. Arcubalistarii is the appropriate middle age Latin for +men armed with cross-bows.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Our armies ought to be marshalled after the order of the +Tartars, already described, and under the same rigorous laws of +war. Whoever betakes himself to plunder before victory is +perfectly ascertained, should suffer death. The field of battle +ought to be chosen, if possible, in a plain, where every thing +may be seen around. The army should by no means be drawn up in +one body, but in many divisions, not too distant. One band ought +to be dispatched against those who first advance, while another +remains prepared to assist in time of need. Scouts ought to be +sent out on every side, to give notice of the approach of the +enemy; that band may always be sent to meet band as they come on, +as the Tartars are always anxious to surround their enemies. Each +band ought however to be cautious not to pursue too far when +their enemies fly, lest they fall into a snare or ambush, as the +Tartars fight more by stratagem than by main force; and this the +rather, that our people may not fatigue their horses, in which we +do not abound, while the Tartars always have such numbers that +they seldom remount one horse, till after three or four days +rest. Should even the Tartars retire towards their own country, +our army ought by no means to retreat or separate; as they often +practise this stratagem to delude their enemies and induce them +to divide, and then return suddenly to destroy the country at +their pleasure. Our generals ought to keep their troops day and +night on the alert, and always armed, ready for battle; as the +Tartars are always vigilant like the devils, and are ever +devising how to commit mischief. Finally, when a Tartar falls +from his horse in battle, he ought immediately to be taken or +slain; as when on foot even they are excellent archers, and +destructive to men and horses[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Our good minorite seems in this chapter to have +studied the old proverb, <i>fas est ab hoste doceri</i>; but +except in the leading political advice of the section, he might +have been better employed in following the adage of <i>ne sutor +ultra crepidam</i>.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Journey of Friar John de Plano Carpini, to the First +Guard of the Tartars</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The journal of Carpini begins here, that of +Asceline never appears.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Setting out, by command from the apostolic See, upon our +journey to the Tartars, lest there might arise danger from their +proximity to the church of God, we came first to the king of +Bohemia, with whom we were acquainted, and who advised us to +travel through Poland and Russia, because he had kinsmen in +Poland, through whose assistance we might be enabled to travel in +Russia; and he supplied us with recommendatory letters and +passports, giving us free passage as his charges through his +dominions, whence we proceeded to the court of Boleslaus, duke of +Silesia, his nephew, who was likewise known and friendly to us. +He treated us in the same hospitable manner, and transmitted us +free of expense to Conrad, duke of Lautiscia, or Masovia, where, +by God's grace, Wasilico[2], duke of Russia, then was, from whom +we fully learned the arts of the Tartars, as he had sent +messengers to them who were already returned. Learning that it +was necessary for us to make presents, we caused some skins of +beavers and other animals to be purchased with part of the money +which had been given us in charity to defray our expences; and we +received more of the same skins from duke Conrad, from +Grimislava, duchess of Cracow, from the bishop, and from certain +nobles of that place. And at the request of the duke, bishop, and +nobles of Cracow, Wasilico conducted us into his country, and +entertained us there for some days at his expense. Likewise he +convened his bishops at our request, to whom we read the Pope's +letters, admonishing them to return into the unity of the church, +adding our own exhortation to the same purpose. But because duke +Daniel, the brother of Wasilico was absent at the court of Baatu, +they could not then give a satisfactory answer.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] At this period Jeroslaw, or Jeroslaus, was grand +duke of Wolodimir or Wladimire, then considered as the sovereigns +of Russia, who was succeeded by Alexander.--<i>Playf. Syst. of +Chronol</i>. Wasilico, therefore, or Wasile, must have been a +subordinate duke, or a junior member of the reigning +family.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After this Wasilico sent us forward to Kiow, the chief city of +Russia, under the conduct of one of his servants; in which +journey we were in great danger of our lives from the +Lithuanians, who often invaded the borders of Russia in the very +places through which we had to pass; but by means of this servant +we were secured against any injury from the Russians, of whom +indeed the greater part had been slain, or carried into captivity +by the Tartars. In this journey we had almost perished of cold at +Danilou[3], through the prodigious depth of the snow, although we +travelled in a wagon. On our arrival at Kiow, and consulting with +the millenary[4], and other nobles, respecting our farther +journey, we were advised not to carry the horses we then had into +Tartary, as they would all certainly die by the way, as they were +not used to dig under the snow in search of grass like the Tartar +horses, and no food could be procured for them, as the Tartars +make no provision of hay or straw, or any other provender, +against winter. We determined therefore to leave them behind, +under the care of two servants, till our return, and by means of +presents, we prevailed on the millenary to allow us post-horses +and a guide. We began our journey on the second day after the +Purification[5], and arrived at Canow, which was under the +immediate dominion of the Tartars. The governor allowed us +horses, and a guide to another town, of which one Micheas, a most +malicious person, was governor; who, gained by our presents, +conducted us to the first station of the Tartars.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] There is a town named Danilovska, near the S. E. +frontiers of European Russia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] From this circumstance, it may be presumed that +Kiow was then occupied by a guard of Tartars, under a commander +of a thousand men.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] This was the 4th February, probably of +1247.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XX.</p> + +<p><i>Of his first Reception by the Tartars.</i></p> + +<p>On the first Saturday after Ash-Wednesday, while we were +taking up our quarters for the night, near sunset, a number of +armed Tartars came suddenly upon us, in a threatening manner, +demanding who we were. Having told them that we were messengers +from the Pope, and giving them some victuals, they immediately +went away. When we proceeded on our journey next morning, the +chiefs of this guard met us, and demanded to know the purpose of +our journey. We answered "That we were messengers from our Lord +the Pope, the father and lord of the Christians, going to their +emperor and princes, and the whole Tartar nation, to desire peace +and friendship between the Tartars and the Christians: And as the +Pope wished the Tartars to become great, and to acquire the +favour of God, he admonished them by us, and by his letters, to +embrace the faith of Christ, without which they could not be +saved: That the Pope was astonished to hear of their monstrous +slaughter of mankind, more especially of the Hungarians, +Mountaineers, and Polanders, who were his subjects, and who had +neither injured, or attempted to injure the Tartars; and as God +is sore offended by such proceedings, the Pope admonished them to +refrain in future, and to repent of what they had done, and +requested an answer as to their future intentions." On which they +promised us horses and a guide to Corrensa, but for which favour +they demanded presents. Some of them rode swiftly on before, to +inform Corrensa of our message, and we followed. This Corrensa is +general or duke of all the Tartars who are placed as a guard +against the people of the West, lest some enemy might suddenly +invade them; and is said to have 60,000 men under his +command.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXI.</p> + +<p><i>His Reception at the Court of Corrensa.</i></p> + +<p>On our arrival at the residence of Corrensa, our tent was +ordered to be pitched at a considerable distance, and his agents +came to demand what gifts we would offer in paying our obeisance +to him. We answered that our lord the Pope had sent no gifts, as +he was uncertain if we should ever arrive at their country, +considering the dangerous places we had to pass through; but that +we should honour him with part of those things which had been +given us to defray the charges of our journey. Having received +our gifts, we were conducted to the orda or tent of the duke +Corrensa, and instructed to bow our left knee thrice before his +door, taking great care not to set our feet on the threshold; and +when entered, we were to repeat on our knees the words which we +had said before. This done, we presented the letters of the Pope; +but the interpreter whom we had hired at Kiow, was not able to +explain them sufficiently, nor could any one be found equal to +the task.</p> + +<p>From this place post-horses were appointed to conduct us with +all speed to duke Baatu, under the guidance of three Tartars. +This Baatu is the most powerful prince among them, next to their +emperor. We began our journey to his court on the first Tuesday +in Lent, and riding as fast as we could trot, though we changed +our horses twice or thrice every day, and often travelled in the +night, it was Maunday Thursday before we accomplished our +journey. The whole of this journey was through the land of +Comania, which is all an uniform plain, watered by four large +rivers. The first of these is the Dnieper or Boristhenes; on the +Russian side of which the dukes Corrensa and Montij march up and +down, the latter, who marches on the other side of the plains, +being the more powerful of the two[1]. The second river is the +Don, or Tanais of the ancients, on the banks of which a certain +prince, named Tirbon, sojourns, who is married to the daughter of +Baatu. The third and largest is the Volga or Rha, on which Baatu +resides. The fourth is the Jaik or Rhymnus, on each bank of which +a millenary commands. All these descend southwards in winter to +the sea, and travel in summer up these rivers, towards the +northern mountains. All these rivers, especially the Volga, +abound in fish, and run into the great sea, from which the arm of +St George extends past Constantinople[2]. While on the Dnieper, +we travelled many days upon the ice; and on the shore of the sea +we found the ice three leagues broad. Before our arrival at the +residence of Baatu, two of our Tartars rode on before, to give +him an account of what we had said to Corrensa.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] It is difficult to understand the ambiguity here +used, unless we suppose that the station of Montij was on the +right bank of the Dnieper; while certainly that of Corrensa was +on the left or north-east bank.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The Euxine and Caspian are here confounded as one +sea. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the Dnieper and +Don run into the Euxine, while the Volga and Jaik, or Ural, are +discharged into the Caspian. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXII</p> + +<p><i>The Reception of Carpini at the Court of Baatu</i>.</p> + +<p>When we arrived at the residence of Baatu, in the land of +Comania, we were ordered to pitch our tent a full league from his +station, and when we were to be introduced at his court, we were +informed that it was previously necessary for us to pass between +two fires. We refused this at first, but were told there was no +danger, and that it was only precautionary, in case we intended +any mischief to their lord, or should have brought poison along +with us, as the fire would remove all evil. On which we complied, +that we might remove all suspicion of any such sinister +intentions. After this, when we came to the orda, we were +questioned by Eldegay, the agent of the prince, respecting the +gifts we meant to offer; and making the same reply we had given +at the court of Corrensa, our gifts were offered and accepted; +and having declared the object of our journey, we were introduced +into the presence, making our obeisances, and were admonished +respecting the threshold, as formerly mentioned. We then +rehearsed our former oration on our knees, and produced our +letters, and requested the aid of interpreters to translate them. +These were sent us on Good Friday, and, with their assistance, +our letters were carefully translated into the Russian, +Tartarian, and Saracen languages, and presented to Baatu, who +read them with attention. We were then conducted back to our +lodging, but no food was given us, except a little millet in a +dish, on the first evening of our arrival.</p> + +<p>Baatu carries himself with great magnificence, having porters, +and all other officers, after the manner of the emperor, and sits +in an elevated place, like a throne, along with one of his wives. +Some of his brothers, and sons, and nobles, sit below him, on +benches, and all others on the ground, behind the rest, the men +being on his right, and the women on his left. He uses some +beautiful and large linen tents, which formerly belonged to the +king of Hungary; and no person, however great, presumes to enter +his tent without leave, except his own family. At this interview +we were seated on his left hand, but on our return from the +emperor, we were placed on the right. A table stands near the +door of the tent or house, on which there is abundance of drink, +in golden and silver vessels. Neither Baatu, nor any of the +Tartar princes, drink in public, without having singers and +harpers playing before them. When he rides, there is a small +tent, canopy, or umbrella, carried over his head, on the point of +a spear; and the same is done to all the Tartar princes and their +wives. Baatu is extremely courteous to his people, yet is held in +great awe; he is exceedingly sagacious, crafty in war, and +inexorably cruel in battle, and has been long experienced in the +conduct of warlike enterprises.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXIII.</p> + +<p><i>The Journey through the Land of Comania, and of the +Kangittae.</i></p> + +<p>On Easter eve we were again called to the court, and Eldegay, +whom we have mentioned before as the agent of Baatu, came out to +us from the tent, saying that we must go forwards to the court of +their emperor: but they detained a part of our company, under +pretence of sending them back to the Pope. We accordingly gave +letters to these persons, reciting all that had hitherto +occurred; but they got no farther than the residence of duke +Montij, where we joined them on our return homewards. Next day, +being Easter, after prayers and a slight breakfast, we departed +from the court of Baatu in much dejection of spirits, accompanied +by two guides. We were so feeble that we could hardly support the +fatigue of riding, our only food during Lent having been millet +boiled with water, and our only drink melted snow. Passing +eastwards through Comania, we travelled continually with great +expedition, changing our horses five times a day, and sometimes +oftener; except when we had to pass through deserts, on which +occasions we had stronger horses allowed, that were able to +undergo the whole labour. In this manner we travelled, almost +without ceasing, from the beginning of Lent, until eight days +after Easter, including our journey to the court of Baatu.</p> + +<p>On the north of Comania, immediately beyond Russia, lie the +people called Morduyni-Byleri[1] in great Bulgaria, and the +Bastarci in great Hungary; beyond the Bastarci are the Parositae +and Samogetae; and beyond these, on the desert shores of the +ocean, a people who are said to have dogs faces. On the south, +Comania has the Alani, Circassians, Gazarians, Greece, and +Constantinople, the land of the Iberians, the Cattes, the +Brutaches, who are said to be Jews, who shave the whole of their +heads, and the lands of the Scythians, Georgians, Armenians, and +Turks. On the west are Hungary and Russia. Comania is a country +of great length and breadth, the inhabitants of which were mostly +extirpated by the Tartars, though many of them were reduced to +bondage and some fled, but the fugitives have in general +returned, and now serve the Tartars. We next entered the land of +the Kangittae, which has few inhabitants, owing to a great +scarcity of water. From this circumstance, several of the +servants of Jeroslaus, duke of Russia, perished in the desert, +when travelling to join him in the land of the Tartars. Both here +and in Comania, we found many human bones and skulls in large +heaps[2]. The Comanians and Kangittae, were pagans who dwelt in +tents, and lived entirely on the produce of their flocks and +herds, without practising any tillage whatever. On their +conquest, a great part of the Kangittae were rooted out by the +Tartars, and the remnant reduced to bondage.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Morduyni, Morduas, or Merdas, were probably +the same people with those now called Tscheremisses, who call +themselves Mari-murt, or the people of Mari.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Probably Tartar trophies of victory. Even Timour, +the great Mongol conqueror after Zingis, so much vaunted by many +writers for his virtues and humanity, used to order the erection +of immense pyramids of recent human heads, in memory of +victory.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXIV.</p> + +<p><i>The arrival of Carpini at the first Station of the new +Emperor.</i></p> + +<p>From the land of the Kangittae we entered the country of the +Bisermini, who speak the Comanian language and observe the law of +Mahomet. In this country we saw innumerable ruined cities and +castles, and many towns left desolate. The former sovereign of +this country, which is full of high mountains, was called Alti +Soldan, who, with all his lineage, was destroyed by the Tartars. +On the south side lie Jerusalem and Baldach, or Bagdat; and on +its nearest borders dwell two Tartar dukes, Burin and Cadan, sons +of Thiaday the son of Zingis-chan. To the north is the land of +the black Kitayans and the ocean[1]. Syban, the brother of Baatu, +dwells in the land of the Bisermini. We travelled in this country +from Ascension-day until eight days before the feast of St John +the Baptist, 16th June, when we entered the land of the black +Kitayans, in which the emperor has built a house, where we were +invited to drink, and the resident there for the emperor, caused +the principal people of the city, and even his own two sons, to +dance before us[2]. Going from thence we came to a certain sea, +having a small mountain on its banks, in which there is said to +be a hole, whence such vehement tempests of wind issue in winter, +that travellers can hardly pass without imminent danger. In +summer the noise of the wind is heard proceeding from this hole, +but it is then quite gentle. We travelled along the shore of this +sea for several days, leaving it upon our left; and though this +sea is not of very large dimensions, it contains a considerable +number of islands[3]. Ordu, whom we have already mentioned as the +senior of all the Tartar dukes, dwells in this country, in the +orda or court of his father, where one of his wives bears rule. +For, according to the Tartar customs, the courts of princes and +nobles are never dissolved at their deaths, but are kept up under +the government of one of his wives, to whom the gifts are +continued which used to be given to their lords. In this place, +therefore, we arrived at the first court under the immediate +jurisdiction of the emperor, in which one of his wives dwelt; but +as we had not yet been presented to the emperor, we were not +invited, or even permitted to enter the station, but were +exceedingly well entertained in our tent, after the Tartar +fashion, and were allowed to remain there one day for rest and +refreshment.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The confused geographical notices of this +traveller are so uninstructive, as not to merit any commentary. A +good account of the present state of these immense regions will +be found in Pinkerton's Modern Geography, articles Independent +Tartary, Chinese Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. The ancient and +perpetually changing distribution of nations in Scythia or +Tartary, in its most extended sense, almost elude research, and +would require lengthened dissertations instead of illustrative +notes.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] From the subsequent travels of Rubruquis, it will +appear, that this ceremony was in honour of the Tartar messengers +going from Baatu to the emperor, not from respect to the papal +envoys.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This sea is obviously the lake Balkash, or +Palkati-nor, at the south end of which our maps represent a group +of islands.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXV.</p> + +<p><i>The Arrival of Carpini at the Court of the Emperor +elect.</i></p> + +<p>Leaving this place on the eve of St Peter and Paul, 28th June, +we entered the country of the pagan Naymani[1], and next day was +excessively cold, attended by a great fall of snow. Indeed this +country is very mountainous and excessively cold, and has very +little plain ground, wherefore these nations had no tillage, but +dwelt in tents, which were destroyed by the Tartars. We travelled +through this country for many days, and at length entered the +land of the Mongals, whom we call Tartars. Through this latter +country we continued our journey for about three weeks, +continually riding with great expedition, and at length arrived +at the residence of the emperor elect, on the feast of Mary +Magdalen, 22d July. In the whole of this journey we used +extraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides were ordered to +bring us with all expedition to attend the solemn court which had +been long appointed for the election of the emperor: on which +account we always travelled from early morning till night, +without stopping to take food; and we often came to our quarters +so late, as not to get any food that night, but were forced to +eat in the morning what we ought to have had for supper. We +changed horses frequently every day, and travelled constantly as +hard as our horses could trot.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Soongaria of modern +Geography.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXVI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Reception of the papal Nuncios at the court of +Kujak, or Cuyne-Khan.</i></p> + +<p>On our arrival at the court of Cuyne, he ordered us to be +provided with a tent, and all necessary expences, after the +Tartar customs, and his people treated us with more attention and +respect than they shewed to any other messengers. We were not +admitted into his presence, as he had not been formally elected +and invested in the empire; but the translation of the Pope's +letters, and of our speech, had been transmitted to him by Baatu. +After remaining in this place for five or six days, we were sent +to his mother, who kept a solemn court. In this place we beheld +an immense tent, so vast, in our opinion, that it could have +contained two thousand men; around which there was an enclosure +of planks, painted with various figures. All the Tartar dukes +were assembled in this neighbourhood, with their attendants, and +amused themselves in riding about the hills and vallies. The +first day these were all clothed in white robes. The second day, +on which Cuyne came to the great tent, they were dressed in +scarlet. The third day they were dressed in blue, and on the +fourth in rich robes of Baldakin[1]. In the wall of boards, +encircling the great tent, there were two gates, through one of +which the emperor alone was allowed to enter; and though it stood +continually open, there were no guards, as no one dared to enter +or come out by that way. All who were admitted entered by the +other gate, at which there were guards, armed with bows, arrows, +and swords. If any one presumed to approach the tent beyond the +assigned limits, he was severely beaten, if caught; or if he +attempted to run away, he was shot at with arrows. Many of the +people whom we saw here, had upon their saddles, bridles, and +other trappings of their horses, to the value of twenty marks in +pure gold, according to our estimation.[2]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This term probably signifies the manufacture of +Baldach or Bagdat, and may refer to silken stuffs damasced, or +woven with gold flowers.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Taking the mark of gold at 84 oz. and valuing the +ounce at 4£ 17s, 6d, the sum of 20 marks amounts to L. 780 +Sterling.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The dukes assembled in the great tent, and consulted together, +as we thought, about the election of the emperor. The rest of the +people were collected all round the wooden walls, and at a +considerable distance; and in this manner they continued till +almost noon. Then they began to drink mares milk, or cosmos, and +continued to drink amazing quantities till evening. We were +invited among them, and they treated us with ale, as we did not +drink cosmos. They intended this as a great honour, but they made +us drink so much, in comparison with our ordinary diet, as we +were not able to endure; but on making them understand that it +was hurtful to us, they desisted from insisting on our +compliance. On the outside of the door stood Jeroslaus, duke of +Susdal in Russia, a great many dukes of the Kithayans and +Solangi, the two sons of the king of Georgia, the envoy of the +caliph of Bagdat, himself a sultan, and more than ten other +Saracen sultans. We were informed by the agents, that there were +above four thousand messengers present, partly from those who +paid tribute or sent presents, and from other sultans and dukes +who came to make their submission, or who had been sent for, and +from the various governors of countries and places under their +authority. All these were placed on the outside of the wooden +wall of the great tent, and were supplied with drink; and they +almost all gave to us and the duke Jeroslaus the place of honour, +when in their company.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Exaltation of Cuyne as Emperor.</i></p> + +<p>We remained in this place, called Syra Orda, about four weeks. +In our opinion the election was made here, though it was not +published, because always when Cuyne came out of the tent he was +greeted with a noise of music, and was saluted with beautiful +rods tipt with scarlet wool, which was not done to any of the +other dukes. Leaving this place, we all rode three or four miles +to a fine plain, near a river among the mountains, where we found +another tent erected, called the Golden Orda, in which Cuyne was +to have been installed in the imperial seat on the festival of +the Assumption, 15th August; but on account of a vast fall of +hail, formerly mentioned, the ceremony was deferred. This tent +was erected upon pillars, covered over with plates of gold, and +other beams were fixed to the pillars by gold nails. The whole +was superbly covered over with Baldakin, having other cloth on +the outside. We remained here till the feast of St Bartholomew, +24th August; on which day an immense multitude convened, standing +with their faces to the south. Certain persons, at about a +stone's throw distance from the rest, were continually employed +in making prayers and genuflexions, always proceeding slowly to +the south. We did not know whether they were making incantations, +or whether they bowed their knees to God or otherwise, and we +therefore made no genuflexions. When this ceremony had continued +a long while, the whole company returned to the tent, and Cuyne +was placed upon the imperial throne. On which all the dukes knelt +before him, and the same was done by all the people, except by +us, who were not his subjects.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXVIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Age and Demeanour of Cuyne, and of his Seal.</i></p> + +<p>When exalted to the imperial dignity, Cuyne seemed to be about +forty or forty-five years old. He was of middle stature, +exceedingly prudent, politic, serious, and grave in his +demeanour, and was hardly ever seen to laugh or to behave lightly +in any respect, as was reported to us by certain Christians who +were continually about him. These Christians of his family +assured us likewise, that he would certainly become a Christian, +because he always kept some Christian priests about his person, +and had at all times a chapel of Christians established near his +great tent, in which the clergy sang their devotions publickly +and openly, and struck the regular hours on bells, according to +the custom of the Greek church, whatever number of Tartars or +others might be in the presence; while no other of the Tartar +dukes did any thing like this.</p> + +<p>It is the custom of this emperor never to converse himself +with any stranger, however high his rank, but always to hear, as +it were, and to answer through an intermediate person: Whoever +proposes any matter to his consideration, or listens to his +reply, however great his quality, must remain on his knees the +whole time; and no one must presume to speak on any subject after +the determination of the emperor is expressed. For the dispatch +of affairs, both public and private, he has agents, secretaries, +scribes, and officers of all kinds, excepting pleaders; as every +thing is concluded according to his will and pleasure, without +strife or judicial noise: and the other princes of the Tartars +act exactly in the same manner.</p> + +<p>While we remained at his court, the emperor and all his +princes erected a standard of defiance against the church of God, +the Roman empire, and all the Christian kingdoms and nations of +the west, unless they should become obedient to his commands. +Their avowed intention is to subdue the whole earth under their +authority, as they were commanded by Zingis-khan, and they have +only abstained from this intention of late, on account of the +death of Occaday-khan, the emperor's father, who was poisoned. Of +all the nations under heaven, they are in some fear of the +Christians only, and on this account they are now preparing to +make war on us. In all his letters their emperor styles himself +the Power of God and the Emperor of Mankind; and the seal of the +present emperor is thus inscribed:</p> + +<p>GOD IN HEAVEN; AND CUYNE-KHAN ON EARTH, THE POWER OF GOD: THE +SEAL OF THE EMPEROR OF ALL MEN.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Admission of the Papal and other Envoys to the +Emperor.</i></p> + +<p>We were called into the presence of the emperor, in the same +place where he had been inaugurated; and Chingay, his chief +secretary, having written down our names, and the names of those +who sent us, and the name of the duke of Solangi and others, he +read over all these names in a loud voice to the emperor and the +assembled dukes. Then everyone of us bowed the knee four times +before him, and having warned us to beware of touching the +threshold, we were carefully searched lest we might have any +concealed weapons; after which, we entered within the precinct of +the imperial tent at the east gate; not even the Tartar dukes +dare presume to enter at the west gate, which is reserved for the +emperor alone; yet the lower people do not pay much regard to +this ceremonious injunction. At this time, likewise, all the +other envoys now at the imperial residence were presented, but +very few of them were admitted within the tent. On this occasion, +infinite quantities of rich gifts of all kinds were presented to +the emperor, by the various envoys and messengers, in samites, +purple robes, baldakins, silken girdles wrought with gold, rich +furs, and other things innumerable. Among these there was a +splendid umbrella, or small canopy, to be carried over the head +of the emperor, all covered over with gems. The governor of one +of the provinces brought a great number of camels, having +housings of baldakin, and carrying richly ornamented saddles, on +which were placed certain machines, within each of which a man +might sit. Many horses and mules likewise were presented to him, +richly caparisoned and armed, some with leather, and some with +iron. We were likewise questioned as to what gifts we had to +offer, but we were unable to present any thing, as almost our +whole substance was already consumed. At a considerable distance +from the court, there stood in sight on a hill, above five +hundred carts all filled with gold and silver and silken +garments. All these things were divided between the emperor and +his dukes, and the dukes divided their portions among their +followers, each according to his pleasure.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Separation between the Emperor and his Mother, and +of the Death of Jeroslaus Duke of Russia.</i></p> + +<p>Leaving this place we came to another, where a wonderfully +grand tent, all of red cloth, was pitched, the gift of the +Cathayans. At this place likewise, we were introduced into the +presence; and always on these occasions we were offered beer and +wine to drink, and boiled flesh to eat when we were inclined. In +this tent there was a lofty gallery made of boards, on which the +imperial throne was placed, most exquisitely carved in ivory, and +richly decorated with gold and precious stones; and, if we +rightly remember, there were several steps by which to ascend the +throne. This throne was round above. There were benches all +around, where the ladies sat on the left hand, upon stools, and +no one sat aloft on the right hand, but the dukes sat below on +benches, in the middle of the tent. Others sat behind them, and +every day there came great numbers of ladies to the court. These +three tents which we have mentioned, were of wonderful magnitude; +and the wives of the emperor had other tents, sufficiently large +and beautiful, made of white felt. At this place, the emperor +took leave of his mother, who went to one part of the land, and +he to another, to distribute justice. About this time, a +concubine belonging to the emperor was detected, who had poisoned +his father, at the time when the Tartar army was in Hungary, and +owing to which incident, they had been ordered to return. She, +and a considerable number of her accomplices, were tried and put +to death. Soon afterwards, Jeroslaus, the great duke of Soldal[1] +in Russia, being invited, as if to do him honour, by the +emperor's mother, to receive meat and drink from her hand, grew +sick immediately after returning to his lodging, and died in +seven days illness, his whole body becoming strangely of a blue +colour; and it was currently reported that he had been poisoned, +that the Tartars might freely and totally possess his land.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Called Susdal in a former +passage.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXXI.</p> + +<p><i>How the Friars, in the presence of the Emperor, +interchanged Letters</i></p> + +<p>Soon afterwards, the emperor sent us to his mother, as he +intended to set up a flag of defiance against all the nations of +the west, as has been mentioned before; and he was desirous to +keep this circumstance from our knowledge. Having remained some +days with his mother, we returned to his court, where we +continued a whole month, in such extreme distress for victuals +and drink, that we could hardly keep ourselves alive; for the +provisions allowed us for four days, were scarcely sufficient to +serve us for one day, neither could we go to purchase at the +public market, as it was too far from us. But God sent to our aid +a Russian goldsmith, named Cosmas, who was considerably favoured +by the emperor, and who procured us some food. This man shewed us +the imperial throne and seal, both of which he had been employed +to make.</p> + +<p>After some time, the emperor sent for us, and intimated, by +Chingay, his secretary, that we should write down our messages +and affairs, and deliver them to him, which we did accordingly. +Many days afterwards, we were again called to the presence, and +were asked if there were any persons about the Pope who +understood the Russian, Arabic, or Tartarian languages. To this +we answered that we were ignorant of these languages, and though +there were Saracens in our land, they inhabited at a great +distance from our lord the Pope; and we proposed, that when they +had written in the Tartar language, they might explain the +meaning to us, which we would carefully write down in our +language, and would then deliver both the originals and the +translation to his holiness. On this they went from us to the +emperor. We were again called upon at Martinmas, when Kadac, the +chief minister of the empire, with Chingay and Bala, and several +scribes, came to us and explained the emperor's letter, word for +word; and when we had written it in Latin, they made us interpret +every sentence to them, to see if we had any way erred. And when +both letters were written, they made us read them over twice +more, lest any thing were mistaken: Saying, "Take heed that every +thing be well understood, as great inconvenience might arise from +wrong conception." They gave us likewise a copy of the emperor's +letters in Arabic, in case any one might be found who could +explain them in our country.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXII.</p> + +<p><i>The Papal Envoys receive a Licence to depart.</i></p> + +<p>These Tartar ministers informed us, that the emperor proposed +to send envoys along with us; and it seemed to us, that they +wished we should ask this from the emperor, and one of the +principal among them advised us to make that request. But this +did not appear at all convenient, and we answered, that it did +not become us to make any such petition; but if it were the +pleasure of the emperor to send envoys, we should use our utmost +endeavour, with God's assistance, to conduct them in safety. We +were averse from this measure, for the following reasons: Lest, +seeing the wars and dissensions which subsisted among the +Christians, they should be the more encouraged to make war upon +us: We were afraid that the messengers were meant to act as +spies, to examine the approaches to our land: We dreaded that +they might be slain by the way: for when the servants which +attended us, by desire of the cardinal legate of Germany, were on +their return to him, they were well nigh stoned to death by the +Germans, and forced to put off that hateful dress: And it is the +custom of the Tartars, never to make peace with those who have +slain their messengers, till they have taken a severe revenge. +Fourthly, we feared their messengers might be taken from us by +main force. And lastly, because no good could arise from them, as +they were to have no other commission or authority, except merely +to deliver the letter of the emperor to the pope and princes of +Christendom, which letter we already had.</p> + +<p>The third day after this, being the feast of St Brice, 13th +November, we received our passport, and a letter sealed with the +emperor's own seal; and going to the emperor's mother, she gave +each of us a gown made of fox-skins, having the hair outwards, +and a linen robe; from every one of which our Tartar attendants +stole a yard, and from those that were given to our servants, +they stole a full half. We were perfectly aware of this knavery, +but did not think it convenient to take any notice.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXIII.</p> + +<p><i>The return of the Papal Envoys to Europe</i>.</p> + +<p>At length we took our departure, and travelled the whole +winter through the desert, often sleeping all night on the snow, +unless when we cleared a piece of ground with our feet, and +frequently in the morning we found ourselves entirely covered by +the snow, which had drifted over us during the night. On +Ascension day, we arrived at the court of Baatu, of whom we +inquired what message we should deliver in his name to the Pope? +To this he answered, that he had no message to give us in charge, +but only that we should carefully deliver what we had received +from the emperor. Having received additional passports from him, +we continued our journey, and arrived at the station of Montij on +the Sabbath after the Whitson week, where our companions and +servants, who had been kept so long from us, were returned at our +desire. From thence we travelled to the station of Corrensa, who +again required presents from us, but we now had none to give. He +however appointed two Comanians, of the lowest order of the +Tartar subjects, to accompany us to Kiow in Russia; but our +Tartar guide did not quit us till we were beyond the Tartar +bounds; after which the Comanians, who had been ordered by +Corrensa to attend us, brought us in six days from the last guard +of the Tartars, to the city of Kiow, where we arrived fifteen +days before the festival of John the Baptist, 9th June 1248. On +receiving notice of our approach, the whole inhabitants of Kiow +came out joyfully to receive us, congratulating us as men +returned from death to life; and we were received in a similar +manner in our whole progress through Russia, Poland, and Bohemia. +Daniel, and his brother Wasilico, feasted us splendidly, and +detained us, contrary to our desire, for eight days. In the +meantime, they and their bishops and nobles, having consulted on +those matters, which we had propounded to them, when on our +journey towards the Tartars, made an unanimous declaration, that +they would henceforwards hold the Pope as their special lord and +holy father, and would adhere to the Roman church as their lady +and mistress, confirming all things which they had previously +sent on this subject, by their own abbot, to the Pope before our +return; and in ratification of all this, they sent envoys and +letters along with us to the Pope[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In Section XIX. of this journey, Wasilico, or +Wasiley, is mentioned as duke of Russia; but who must only have +been duke of some subordinate province. This submission of +Russia, or of his particular dukedom, produced no fruit to the +Romish see, as the Russian empire still remains what are called +Greek schismatics.--E.</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-9">CHAPTER IX.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of William de Rubruquis into +Tartary, about the year 1253.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, I. 80. for the Latin, and I.101. for the +English. See likewise Harris, I. 556.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>These travels were undertaken by order of Louis IX. of France, +usually called St Louis. In the original, or at least in the +printed copies which have come down to our times, Rubruquis is +said to have commenced his journey in the year 1253; but this +date is attended with some difficulties, as we are certain that +king Louis was a prisoner from 1249 to 1254. It is possible, +indeed, that he may have dispatched this mission while a +prisoner; yet it is more probable, that the date may have been +vitiated in transcription. The real name of this early traveller, +who was a friar of the minorite order, is said to have been Van +Ruysbroek[2], from a village of that name near Brussels, +Latinized, or Frenchified rather, into De Rubruquis. By Hakluyt +he is named Rubruk. The version here offered to the public, is a +translation from the Latin copy in Hakluyt, as addressed by the +adventurous traveller to his royal master, after his return from +traversing the whole extent of Tartary; the English translation, +by that early and meritorious collector, being far too antiquated +for modern readers.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Pinkerton, Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.</blockquote> + +<p><i>Dedication by the Author</i></p> + +<p>To the Most Excellent and Most Christian Lord Louis, by the +Grace of GOD the illustrious King of the French; Friar William de +Rubruquís, the meanest of the Minorite Order, wisheth +health and continual triumph in CHRIST JESUS.</p> + +<p>It is written in the book of Ecclesiasticus, "That the truly +wise man shall travel through strange countries; for he hath +tried the good and evil among men." All this, Sire, I have +performed; and I wish I may have done so as a wise man, and not +as a fool. For many do foolishly those things which have been +done by wise men, and I fear I may be reckoned among that number. +But as you were pleased to command me at my departure, that I +should write down every thing I saw among the Tartars, and should +not fear to write long letters, I now therefore obey your orders, +yet with awe and reverence, as wanting fit language in which to +address so great a king.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>Commencement of the Journey.</i></p> + +<p>Be it known, therefore, to your sacred majesty, that in the +year 1253, on the 7th of May, we entered into the sea of Pontus, +which the Bulgarians call the Great Sea[1]; which I was informed, +by certain merchants, is 1008 miles in length, and is in a manner +divided, about its middle, into two parts, by means of two +provinces which project into it, one on the north, and the other +on the south. That which is on the south is called Synope, and +contains the castle and port of the Sultan of the Turks. The +northern province is called Gasaria by the Latins[2], and +Cassaria by the Greek inhabitants of its coast, which is the same +with Caesaria; and from thence certain headlands extend +southwards into the sea, towards Synope, from the nearest part of +which they are 300 miles distant; so that the distance from these +points to Constantinople is 700 miles in length and breadth, and +700 miles to Hiberia in the east, which is a province of +Georgia.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Euxine or Black Sea. Though not expressed in +the text, he probably took his departure from +Constantinople.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] By the Latins are here obviously meant the +inhabitants of western Europe. The province here mentioned is the +Crimea; the Taurica Chersonesus of the ancients, or the modern +Taurida.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>We arrived in the province of Gasaria, or Casaria, which is of +a triangular form, having a city named Kersova on its western +extremity, in which St Clement suffered martyrdom. While sailing +past that city, we saw an island containing a church, which is +said to have been built by the angels. In the middle of this +province, and on a cape to the south, stands the city of Soldaia, +directly facing Synope. And here all merchants land who come from +Turkey, in their way to the north, and embark here again on their +return from Russia and the north for Turkey; these latter bring +ermines and martins, and other valuable furs, and the former +carry cloths made of cotton, or bombasins, and silk webs, and +aromatic spices. On the east of this province is the city of +Matriga[3], where the Tanais flows into the Pontus, by a mouth of +twelve miles wide[4]. Before this river enters the Euxine, it +forms itself into a sea towards the north, of seven hundred miles +in length and breadth, but in no place above six paces deep, so +that it is not navigable for large vessels: For which reason, the +merchants of Constantinople, when they arrive at the city of +Matriga, send their barks to the Tanais, where they purchase +dried fish, sturgeons, thosas, barbels, and many other sorts of +fish.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] At the mouth of one of the branches of the Kuban +is the town of Temruck, formerly called Tmutrakhan by the +Russians, and Tamatarcha by the Greeks; this has been corrupted +to Tamaterca, Materca, and Matriga.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] This obviously refers to the canal of +communication between the sea of Azoph and the +Euxine.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This province of Casaria has the sea on three sides; on the +west, where stands Kersova, or the city of St Clement; on the +south, where is the city of Soldaia, at which we landed; and on +the east, where Matriga is situated at the mouth of the Tanais. +To the east of that mouth is the city of Zikia, and the countries +of the Suevi and Hiberi still further east, all of which are not +under the dominion of the Tartars. To the south is Trebisond, +which has its own prince, named Guido, who, although of the +imperial race of Constantinople, is under the Tartar dominion; +and next to it is Synope, which belongs to the sultan of the +Turks, who is likewise subjected to the Tartars. Beyond this is +the country of Vastacius, whose son is named Astar, after his +maternal grandfather, and this country is not under the dominion +of the Tartars. From the mouth of the Tanais to the Danube, and +even beyond the Danube towards Constantinople, including +Walachia, which is the country of Assanus, and the lesser +Bulgaria as far as Solonia, pay tribute to the Tartars, who of +late years have exacted an axe from each family, and all the corn +which they find in heaps, in addition to the regular tribute.</p> + +<p>We landed at Soldaia[5] on the 21st of May, where certain +merchants of Constantinople had previously arrived, who reported +that ambassadors from the Holy Land were coming thither, on their +way to Sartach; although I had publickly declared on palm Sunday, +in the church of St Sophia, that I was no ambassador from you or +any one, and only travelled to these infidels, in conformity with +the rule of our order. On our arrival, these merchants advised me +to be cautious of what I said; for, as they had already reported +that I was an ambassador, if I should now say the contrary, I +should be refused a free passage. Upon this, I addressed myself +to the lieutenants of the city, because the captains had gone +with the tribute to Baatu, and were not yet returned: saying, "We +have heard in the Holy Land, that your lord Sartach[6] had become +a Christian, which hath greatly rejoiced all the Christians, and +especially the most Christian King of the French, who is there in +pilgrimage, fighting against the Saracens, that he may redeem the +Holy Land out of their hands: Wherefore, I desire to go to +Sartach, that I may carry him letters from the king my master, in +which he gives him intelligence of importance to all +Christendom." They received us graciously, and entertained us +hospitably in the cathedral church; The bishop had been at the +court of Sartach, and told me many good things concerning him, +which I did not find afterwards to be true. They then gave us our +choice, either to have carts drawn by oxen, for carrying our +baggage, or sumpter horses; and the Constantinopolitan merchants +advised me to purchase covered carts, like those in which the +Russians carry their peltry, in which I should put every thing +which was wanted for daily use; because, if I were to take +packhorses, I should be constrained to pack and unpack at every +baiting place, and that besides, I should ride more easily in the +carts than on horseback. By following their evil advice, I was +two months in travelling to Sartach, which I might have +accomplished in one on horseback. I had brought with me from +Constantinople fruits of various kinds, muscadel wine, and +delicate biscuits, to present to the captains, that I might +obtain free passage, having been advised by the merchants, that +these persons gave a very cold reception to such as applied to +them empty handed. The governors or captains being absent, I +caused all these things to be packed up in one of the carts, +being informed that they would be acceptable presents to +Sartach.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] Called likewise Soldeya, Soldadia and Sogdat, now +Sudak.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Sartach was the son of +Baatu-khan.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>We began our journey about the beginning of June, having four +covered carts of our own, and two others which they furnished to +us, in which we carried our bedding, and we were allowed five +riding horses for ourselves, our company consisting of five +persons; viz. myself and my companion, Friar Bartholomew of +Cremona, Goset, the bearer of these letters, the man of God +Turgeman[7], and a servant or slave, named Nicholas, whom I had +purchased at Constantinople, out of the alms we had received. The +people of Soldaia likewise allowed us two men to drive our carts, +and to take care of our horses and oxen.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] This name is probably meant to imply the +Trucheman, Dragoman, or interpreter; and from the strange +appellative, <i>Man of God</i>, he may have been a monk from +Constantinople, with a Greek name, having that signification: +perhaps Theander--E.</blockquote> + +<p>There are several lofty promontories on the shore of Casaria, +between Kersova[8] and the mouth of the Tanais; and there are +forty castles between Kersova and Soldaia, at almost each of +which a distinct language is spoken; and among these are many +Goths who speak the Teutonic language[9]. Beyond these mountains, +towards the north, extends a most beautiful wood, in a plain, +which is full of springs and rivulets; and beyond this wood is an +extensive plain, continuing for five days journey to the northern +extremity of this province, where it contracts into a narrow +space, having the sea on the east and west, and a great ditch is +drawn between these two seas. In this plain the Comani dwelt +before the coming of the Tartars, and compelled the +before-mentioned cities and castles to pay tribute; and upon the +coming of the Tartars, so vast a multitude of the Comani took +refuge in this province, flying to the sea shore, that the living +were forced to feed upon the dying, as I was assured by a +merchant, an eye-witness, who declared, that the survivors tore +in pieces with their teeth, and devoured the raw flesh of the +dead as dogs do carrion. Towards the extremity of this province, +there are many large lakes, having salt springs on their banks, +and when the water of these springs reaches the lake, it +coagulates into hard salt like ice. From these salt springs, +Sartach and Baatu draw large revenues; as people come from all +parts of Russia to procure salt, and for each cart-load, they pay +two webs of cotton cloth, equal in value to half an yperpera. +Many vessels come likewise by sea for salt, all of which pay +tribute, in proportion to the quantities which they carry away. +On the third day after leaving Soldaia, we fell in with the +Tartars, on joining whom, I thought myself entered into a new +world; wherefore, I shall use my best endeavours to describe +their manners and way of life,</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Cherson or Kersona, called likewise Scherson, +Schursi, and Gurzi.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] These castles of the Goths, first mentioned by +Rubruquis, were afterwards noticed by Josaphat Barbaro, a +Venetian, in 1436; and Busbeck conversed with some of these Goths +from the Crimea at Constantinople in 1562, and gives a vocabulary +of their language. From the authority of Rubruquis misunderstood, +some ancient map makers have inserted the Castella Judeorum +instead of Gothorum in the Crimea, and even Danville placed them +in his maps under the name of Chateaux des Juifs, castles of the +Jews.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Tartars and their Houses</i>.</p> + +<p>They have no permanent city, and they are ignorant of the +future. They divide all Scythia among them; and each leader, +according to the number of his followers, knows the boundaries of +his pastures, and where he ought to feed his flocks in winter and +summer, and in spring and autumn. In winter they descend into the +warmer regions of the south, and in summer they travel towards +the colder countries of the north. Such pastures as have no +water, are reserved for winter use, when there is snow on the +ground, as the snow there serves instead of water.</p> + +<p>The houses in which they sleep are founded on a round +structure of wattled rods, and the roof is formed of wickers, +meeting above in a small roundel, from which arises a neck like a +chimney, all of which they cover with white felt; and they often +cover over the felt with lime, or white earth and powdered bones +to make it bright: sometimes their houses are black; and the felt +about the neck of the dome is decorated with a variety of +pictures. Before the door, likewise, they hang a felt, ornamented +with painting; and they employ much coloured felt, painted with +vines, trees, birds, and beasts, for decorating their dwellings. +Some of these houses are so large as to measure thirty feet in +breadth. I once measured the distance between the wheel ruts of +one of their waggons to be twenty feet, and when the house was +upon the waggon, it spread beyond the wheels at least five feet +on each side. I have counted twenty-two bullocks dragging one +waggon, surmounted by a house; eleven in one row, according to +the breadth or the waggon, and other eleven before these. The +axle of this waggon was very large, like the mast of a ship; and +one man stood in the door of the house, upon the waggon, urging +on the oxen. They likewise make quadrangular structures of small +split wicker, like large chests, and frame for them an arched lid +or cover of similar twigs, having a small door at the front end; +and they cover this chest or small house with black felt, smeared +over with suet or sheeps' milk[1], to prevent the rain from +penetrating; and these are likewise decorated with paintings or +feathers. In these they put all their household goods and +treasure; and they bind these upon higher carts, drawn by camels, +that they may be able to cross rivers without injuring their +contents. These chests are never taken down from the carts to +which they belong. When their dwelling-houses are unloaded from +the waggons, their doors are always turned to the south; and the +carts, with the chests which belong to each house, are drawn up +in two rows, one on each side of the dwelling, at about the +distance of a stone's throw.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The butter from ewe-milk is probably here +meant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The married women get most beautiful carts made for +themselves, which I am unable to describe without the aid of +painting, and which I would have drawn for your majesty, if I had +possessed sufficient talents. One rich Moal, or Tartar, will have +from a hundred to two hundred such carts with chests. Baatu has +sixteen wives, each of whom has one large house, besides several +small ones, serving as chambers for her female attendants, and +which are placed behind the large house; and to the large house +of each wife there belong two hundred chest-carts. When the camp +is formed, the house of the first wife is placed on the west, and +all the rest extend in one line eastwards, so that the last wife +is on the east, or left of all. And between the station of each +wife there is the distance of a stone's throw, so that the court +of a rich Moal appears like a large city, but in which there are +very few men. One girl is able to lead twenty or thirty carts; +for the ground being quite plain, they fasten the carts, whether +drawn by camels or oxen, behind each other, and the girl sits on +the front of the foremost cart of the string, directing the +cattle, while all the rest follow with an equable motion. If they +come to any difficult passage, the carts are untied from each +other, and conducted across singly; and they travel at a very +slow pace, only so fast as an ox or a lamb can easily walk.</p> + +<p>SECTION III.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Beds and Drinking-cups</i>.</p> + +<p>After having placed the house on the ground, with its door +turned to the south, the bed of the master is placed to the +north, opposite the door. The place of the women is always on the +east, or on the masters left hand, where he sits on his bed with +his face to the south, and the place of the men on his right +hand, to the west; and when any men enter into the house, they +never hang up their quivers on the womens side. Over the head of +the lord there is placed an image or puppet of felt, which is +called the masters brother, and a similar image over the head of +the mistress, which is called her brother; and a little higher +between these, there is one very small and thin, which is, as it +were, the keeper of the house. The mistress places at the foot of +her bed, on the right hand, in a conspicuous place, the skin of a +kid, stuffed with wool, or some such material, and beside that a +small puppet looking towards the maidens and women. Near the +door, on the womens side of the house, there is another image, +with a cows udder, as the guardian of the women who milk the +kine. On the masters side of the door is another image, having +the udder of a mare, being the tutelary deity of the men who milk +the mares. When they meet together for drinking, they, in the +first place, sprinkle the master's idol with some of the liquor, +and then all the rest in their order; after which a servant goes +out of the house with a cup of drink, and sprinkles thrice +towards the south, making a genuflexion between each, in honour +of the fire, then towards the east, in honour of the air, next +towards the west, in honour of the water, and lastly, towards the +north, for the dead. When the lord takes the cup in his hand to +drink, he first pours a part on the ground; and if he is to drink +on horseback, he first spills a portion on the neck and mane of +his horse. After the servant has made his libations to the four +quarters of the world, he returns into the house, and two other +servants are ready with two other cups and salvers, to carry +drink to the lord and his wife, who sit together on a bed. When +he has more than one wife, she with whom he slept the night +before sits beside him that day, and all the other wives must +come to her house that day to drink; and all the gifts which the +lord receives that day are deposited in her chests. Upon a bench +there stands vessels of milk and other drinks, and drinking +cups.</p> + +<p>SECTION IV.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Kinds of Drink, and Fashion of Drinking</i>.</p> + +<p>In winter they make excellent drink of rice, millet, and +honey, which is clear like wine; and they have wine brought to +them from distant countries. In summer they care not for any +drink except cosmos, which always stands within the door, and +beside it is a minstrel with his instrument of music. I saw no +citerns, lutes, and viols, such as ours, but they have many other +instruments which we have not. When the lord begins to drink, one +of his servants exclaims aloud Ha! and the minstrel begins to +play. When they make a great feast, all the guests clap their +hands and dance to the music, the men before the lord, and the +women before the lady of the house. When the lord hath drank, the +servant calls out as before, and the minstrel ceases; then all +drink round in their turns, both men and women, and they +sometimes carouse on hearing the news of a victory, to a shameful +and beastly degree. When they desire to provoke one to drink, +they seize him by the ears, dragging them strongly, as if to +widen his throat, clapping their hands, and dancing before him. +When they mean to do great honour to any person, one takes a full +cup, having one on his right hand, and another on his left, and +these three advance towards him who is to receive the cup, +singing and dancing before him; but when he reaches out his hand +to receive the cup, they suddenly draw back, and come forwards +again in the same manner, and they thus delude him three or four +times, till he seems very eager, when they give him the cup, and +keep dancing, singing, and stamping with their feet, till he has +finished his draught.</p> + +<p>SECTION V.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Food.</i></p> + +<p>They eat indifferently of all dead animals, even such as have +died of disease; and among such numbers of cattle and flocks, +many animals must die almost continually. Bat in summer, when +they have plenty of cosmos, or mares milk, they care little for +any other food. When an ox or horse happens to die, they cut its +flesh into thin slices, which they dry in the sun and air, which +preserves it from corruption, and free from all bad smell. From +the intestines of their horses they make sausages, better than +those which are made of pork, and which they eat when newly made, +but the rest of the flesh is reserved for winter use. Of the +hides of oxen they form large bags, which they dry in a wonderful +manner in the smoke. Of the hinder part of their horse skins they +fabricate excellent sandals. They will make a meal for fifty, or +even an hundred men, of the carcase of one ram. This they mince +in a bowl, mixed with salt and water, which is their only +seasoning, and then, with the point of a knife, or a little fork +made on purpose, like those with which we eat pears and apples +stewed in wine, they reach to every one of the company a morsel +or two, according to the number; the master of the house having +first served himself to his mind, before any of the rest, and if +he gives a particular portion to any one, that person must eat it +up, without giving any of it to another, or if he is unable to +eat the whole, he takes it home with him, or gives it to his +servant to take care of, if he has one, otherwise he puts it into +his own <i>saptargat</i>, or square leather bag, which they carry +always with them for such purposes, or for preserving any bones +which they have not time to pick thoroughly, that they may clean +them well afterwards, and that nothing may be lost.</p> + +<p>SECTION VI.</p> + +<p><i>How they make the Drink called Cosmos.</i></p> + +<p>Cosmos is made from mares milk, in the following manner: They +fasten a long line between two posts fixed in the ground, and to +it they tie the young foals of the mares which are to be milked, +by which means the mares are induced to stand quietly beside +their foals, and allow themselves to be milked. If any mare +happens to be unruly, her foal is brought, and allowed to suck a +little, after which the milker again succeeds. Having thus +procured a quantity of new drawn milk, it is poured into a large +skin bag, which is immediately agitated by blows with a wooden +club, having its lower end hollow, and as large as a man's head. +After some time the milk begins to ferment like new wine, and to +acquire a degree of sourness. The agitation is continued in the +same manner until the butter comes; after which it is fit for +drinking, and has a pungent yet pleasant taste, like raspberry +wine, leaving a flavour on the palate like almond milk. This +liquor is exceedingly pleasant, and of a diuretic quality; is +exhilarating to the spirits, and even intoxicating to weak +heads.</p> + +<p>Cara-cosmos, which means black cosmos, is made for the great +lords, in the following manner: The agitation, as before +described, is continued until all the lees or coagulated portion +of the milk subsides to the bottom, like the lees of wine, and +the thin parts remain above like whey, or clear must of wine. The +white lees are given to the servants, and have a strong soporific +quality. The clear supernatent liquor is called cara-cosmos, and +is an exceedingly pleasant and wholesome beverage[1]. Baatu has +thirty farms around his dwelling-place, at about a day's journey +distant, each of which supplies him daily with the caracosmos +from the milk of an hundred mares, so that he receives the daily +produce of three thousand mares, besides white cosmos which the +rest of his subjects contribute: For, as the inhabitants of Syria +pay the third part of their productions to their lords, so the +Tartars pay their mares milk every third day.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Under the name of Kumyss, this liquor is much +used by the Russian gentry, as a restorative for constitutions +weakened by disease or debauchery: and for procuring it they +travel to the Tartar districts of the empire.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From the milk of their cows they make butter, which they do +not salt for preservation, but boil and clarify it, after which +it is poured into bags made of sheep-skin, and preserved for +winter use. The residue of the milk is kept till it becomes quite +sour, after which it is boiled, and the coagula or curds, which +form, are dried in the sun till quite hard, and are preserved in +bags for winter provision. This sour curd, which they call +<i>gryut</i>, when wanted for use in winter when they have no +milk, is put into a bag with hot water, and by dilligent beating +and agitation, is dissolved into a sour white liquor, which they +drink instead of milk; for they have a great aversion to drink +water by itself.</p> + +<p>SECTION VII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Beasts they eat, of their Garments, and of their +Hunting parties.</i></p> + +<p>The great lords have farms in the southern parts of their +dominions, from whence millet and flour are brought them for +winter provisions; and the meaner people procure these in +exchange for sheep and skins. The slaves content themselves with +thick water[2]. They do not eat either long tailed or short +tailed mice. There are many marmots in their country, which they +call Sogur, which gather during winter, in companies of twenty or +thirty together, in burrows, where they sleep for six months; +these they catch in great numbers and use as food. There are +likewise a kind of rabbits, with long tails like cats, having +black and white hairs at the extremity of their tails. They have +many other small animals fit for eating, with which they are well +acquainted. I have seen no deer, and very few hares, but many +antelopes. I saw vast numbers of wild asses, which resemble +mules. Likewise an animal resembling a ram, called <i>artak,</i> +with crooked horns of such amazing size, that I was hardly able +to lift a pair of them with one hand. Of these horns they make +large drinking-cups. They have falcons, gyrfalcons, and other +hawks in great abundance, all of which they carry on their right +hands. Every hawk has a small thong of leather fastened round his +neck, the ends of which hang down to the middle of his breast; +and before casting off after game, they bow down the hawk's head +towards his breast, by means of this thong, with their left hand, +lest he be tossed by the wind, or should soar too high [3]. The +Tartars are most expert hunters, and procure a great part of +their sustenance by the chase.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Whether the author here means the dissolved sour +curd, mentioned at the close of the former Section, or gruel made +from meal and water, does not appear.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Our falconers use the left hand for carrying +their hawks. I leave the inexplicable use of the thongs to be +understood by professional falconers.--Hakluyt, ad +loc.</blockquote> + +<p>When the Tartars intend to hunt wild beasts, a vast multitude +of people is collected together, by whom the country is +surrounded to a large extent in a great circle; and by gradually +contracting this circle towards its centre, they at length +collect all the included game into a small space, into which the +sportsmen enter and dispatch the game with their arrows.</p> + +<p>From Cataya, and other regions of the east, and from Persia, +and other countries of the south they procure silk stuffs, cloth +of gold, and cotton cloth, of which they make their summer +garments. From Russia, Moxel, Greater Bulgaria, Pascatir, which +is the greater Hungary, and Kersis, all of which are northern +countries and full of woods, and from other countries towards the +north which are subject to their authority, they procure valuable +furs of many kinds, which I have not seen in our parts. With +these they make their winter garments; and they have always at +least two fur gowns, one of which has the fur inwards, and the +other has the fur outwards to the wind and snow; which outer +garments are usually made of the skins of wolves, foxes, or +bears. But while they sit within doors, they have gowns of finer +and more costly materials. The garments of the meaner sort are +made of the skins of dogs and goats.</p> + +<p>They likewise have breeches made of skins. The rich often line +their garments with silk shag, which is exceedingly soft, light, +and warm. The poor line theirs with cotton cloth, wadded with the +finest wool which they can sort out from their fleeces; and of +the coarser wool they make felts for covering their houses and +chests, and for sleeping upon. Their ropes are likewise made of +wool, mixed with a third part of horse hair. Of felt they also +make cloths to lay under their saddles, and caps to defend their +heads from rain. In all these things they use vast quantities of +wool. Your majesty has seen the habits of these people[4].</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Probably this concluding sentence means, that as +the king of France had seen some Tartars in Syria, the author did +not deem it necessary to describe their form and +fashions.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Fashion of their Hair, and the Ornaments of their +Women.</i></p> + +<p>The men have a square tonsure on their crowns, from the two +front corners of which they shave two seams down to their +temples. The temples also, and hinder part of the head, to the +nape of the neck, are shaved, and the forehead, except one small +lock which falls down to the eyes. On each angle of the hind +head, they leave a long lock of hair, which they braid and knot +together under each ear. The dress of unmarried women differs +little from that of the men, except in being somewhat longer. But +on the day after marriage, the head is shaved, from the middle +down to the forehead, and the woman puts on a wide gown, like +that of a monk, but wider and longer. This opens before, and is +tied under the right side. In this the Tartars and Turks differ, +as the Turks tie their garments always on the left side. They +have an ornament for their heads which they call Botta, which is +made of the bark of a tree or any other very light substance, +made in a round form, so thick as may be grasped with both hands, +becoming square at the upper extremity, and in all about two feet +long, somewhat resembling the capital of a pillar. This cap is +hollow within, and is covered over with rich silk. On the top of +this they erect a bunch of quills, or slender rods, about a cubit +long, or even more, which they ornament with peacocks feathers on +the top, and all around with the feathers of a wild drake, and +even with precious stones. The rich ladies wear this ornament on +the top of their heads, binding it on strongly with a kind of hat +or coif, which has a hole in its crown adapted for this purpose, +and under this they collect their hair from the back of the head, +lapped up in a kind of knot or bundle within the botta; and the +whole is fixed on by means of a ligature under their throat. +Hence, when a number of these ladies are seen together on +horseback, they appear at a distance like soldiers armed with +helmets and lances. The women all sit astride on horseback like +men, binding their mantles round their waists with silken scarfs +of a sky-blue colour, and they bind another scarf round their +breasts. They likewise have a white veil tied on just below their +eyes, which reaches down to their breasts. The women are +amazingly fat, and the smaller their noses, they are esteemed the +more beautiful. They daub over their faces most nastily with +grease; and they never keep their beds on account of +child-bearing.</p> + +<p>SECTION IX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Duties and Labours of the Women, and of their +Nuptials.</i></p> + +<p>The employments of the women are, to lead the waggons, to load +and unload the horses, to milk the cows, to make butter and +gryut, to dress skins, and to sew them together, which they +generally do with sinews finely split and twisted into long +threads. They likewise make sandals, and socks, and other +garments, and felts for covering their houses. They never wash +their garments, alleging that it would offend God, and that +hanging them up to dry would occasion thunder; and they even beat +any person who pretends to wash their garments, and take their +clothes from them. They are astonishingly afraid of thunder, +during which they turn all strangers from their dwellings, and +wrapping themselves in black felt, remain covered up till it is +over. They never wash their bowls or dishes; or if they do wash +the platters into which the boiled meat is to be put, they do it +merely with the scalding broth, which they throw back into the +pot.</p> + +<p>The men make bows and arrows, saddles, bridles, and stirrups, +construct houses and carts, takes care of the horses, and milk +the mares, agitate the cosmos or mares milk, make leather sacks, +in which these are kept, take care of, and load the camels, tend +the cows, sheep, and goats, and these are sometimes milked by the +men, sometimes by the women. They dress hides with sheeps milk, +thickened and salted. When they mean to wash their head and +hands, they fill their mouths with water, which they squirt out +gradually on their hands, and moisten their hair or wash their +heads.</p> + +<p>No man can have a wife unless by purchase; so that many maids +are rather old before marriage, as their parents always keep them +till they can get a good market. They keep the first and second +degrees of consanguinity inviolate, but pay no regard to +affinity, as one man may have either at once, or successively two +sisters. Widows never marry, as their belief is, that all who +have served a man in this life, shall do so in the next; so that +widows believe that they shall return after death to their +husbands. Hence arises an abominable custom among them, that the +son sometimes marries all his father's wives except his own +mother; for the court or household of the father and mother +always devolves to the younger son, and he has to provide for all +his father's wives, which fall to his share along with the +inheritance; and he considers, that if he takes his father's +wives, it will be no injury or disgrace to him though they went +to his father in the next world. When any one has made a bargain +with another for his daughter, the father of the maid gives a +feast to the bridegroom, and the bride runs away and hides +herself in the house of one of her relations. Then the father +says to the bridegroom, "My daughter is now yours, take her +wherever you can find her." On which he seeks for her, with the +assistance of his friends, till he discovers her concealment, and +then leads her as if by violence to his house.</p> + +<p>SECTION X.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Laws and Judgments, and of their Death and +Burial</i>.</p> + +<p>When two men fight, no one must interfere to part them, +neither may a father presume to aid his own son; but he who +considers himself injured must appeal to the court of his lord, +and whoever shall offer him any violence after this appeal is put +to death. He who is appealed against, must go without delay, and +the appellant leads him as a prisoner. No one is punished +capitally, unless taken in the act, or unless he confesses; but +when witnessed against by many, he is severely tortured to extort +confession. Homicide, adultery, and fornication, are punished +with death; but a man may use his own slave as he pleases. Great +thefts are punished capitally; but for small ones, as for +stealing a sheep, when the party is not caught in the fact, but +otherwise detected, the thief is cruelly beaten. And when an +hundred strokes are to be given by order of the court, an hundred +separate rods are required, one for each blow. Pretended +messengers are punished with death, as are likewise sacrilegious +persons, whom they esteem witches, of which more will be said +hereafter.</p> + +<p>When any one dies, he is mourned for with violent howlings, +and the mourners are free from tribute during a whole year. Any +one who happens to enter a house, in which a grown up person lies +dead, must not enter the house of Mangu-khan during a whole year; +if the dead person is a child, he is only debarred for one +lunation. One house is always left near the grave of the +deceased; but the burial place of any of the princes of the race +of Jenghis-khan is always kept secret; yet there is always a +family left in charge of the sepulchres of their nobles, though I +do not find that they deposit any treasure in these tombs. The +Comanians raise a large barrow or tomb over their dead, and erect +a statue of the person, with his face turned towards the east, +holding a drinking cup in his hand; they erect likewise, over the +tombs of the rich, certain pyramids or sharp pinnacles. In some +places, I observed large towers built of burnt bricks, and others +of stone, though no stones were to be found about the place. I +saw the grave of a person newly buried, in honour of whom there +were hung up sixteen horses hides, four of which towards each +quarter of the world, between high poles; and beside the grave +they had set cosmos, that the deceased might drink, and flesh for +him to eat, although the person was said to have been baptized. +Farther east, I saw other kinds of sepulchres, consisting of +large areas, paved with stone, some round and others square, +having four large stones placed upright around the pavement, and +fronting the four cardinal points. When any one lies sick in bed, +a mark is affixed to the house, that no one may enter, as no one +ever visits the sick, except his own servant; and when any one +belonging to the great courts is sick, watchmen are placed at a +great distance, all round, that no one may enter the precincts; +as they dread lest evil spirits, or bad winds, might enter along +with visitors. They consider their soothsayers, or people who +practise divination, as priests.</p> + +<p>SECTION XI.</p> + +<p><i>Of our first Entering among the Tartars, and of their +Ingratitude</i>.</p> + +<p>When we first entered among these Tartars, after having made +us wait for them a long time, under the shade of certain black +carts, a considerable number of them on horseback surrounded us. +Their first question was, whether we had ever before been among +them; and being answered in the negative, they began impudently +to beg some of our victuals; and we gave them some of the +biscuits and wine, which we had brought with us from +Constantinople. Having drank one flaggon of our wine they +demanded more, saying, that a man does not enter a house with one +foot only. But we excused ourselves, as not being well provided. +They next inquired, whence we came, and whither we were going? To +this I answered, that hearing Sartach was become a Christian, we +wished to go to him, that we might present your majestys letters +to him. They then asked if we came of our own accord, or were +sent upon this errand. To this I said, that no one had compelled +me, and that I had come voluntarily, and by the desire of my +superiors; being cautious not to say that I was the ambassador +from your majesty. They then required to know if our carts +contained gold and silver, or precious vestments, as presents for +Sartach. To which I answered, that Sartach should see what we +carried when we came to his presence, and that they had nothing +to do with such questions, but ought to conduct me to their +captain; that he, if he thought proper, might direct me to be +carried to Sartach, otherwise I should return. There then was in +this province one Scacatai, or Zagathai, related to Baatu, to +whom the emperor of Constantinople had written requisitorial +letters, that I might be permitted to proceed on my journey. On +being informed of this, they supplied us with horses and oxen, +and appointed two men to conduct us on our journey, and those +which we had brought with us from Soldaia returned. Yet they made +us wait a long while, continually begging our bread to give to +their children; and they admired and coveted every thing they saw +about our servants, as their knives, gloves, purses, and points. +But when we excused ourselves from their importunity, alleging +that we had a long journey before us, and must not give away +those things which were necessary for ourselves, they reviled me +as a niggard; and though they took nothing by force, they were +exceedingly impudent, and importunate in begging, to have every +thing they saw. If a man gives them any thing, it may be +considered as thrown away, for they have no gratitude; and as +they look upon themselves as the lords of the world, they think +that nothing should be refused to them by any one; yet, if one +gives them nothing, and afterwards stands in need of their +assistance, they will not help him. They gave us some of their +butter milk, called <i>Apram</i>, which is extremely sour. After +this we left them, thinking that we had escaped out of the hands +of the demons, and the next day we arrived at the quarters of +their captain. From the tune when we left Soldaia, till we got to +Sartach, which took us two months, we never lay under a house or +a tent, but always in the open air, or under our carts; neither +did we see any town, or the vestiges of any buildings where a +village had been; though we saw vast numbers of the tombs of the +Comanians. On the same evening, our conductor gave us some +cosmos, which was very pleasant to drink, but not having been +accustomed to that liquor, it occasioned me to sweat most +profusely.</p> + +<p>SECTION XII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Court of Zagathai, and how the Christians drink no +Cosmos</i>.</p> + +<p>Next morning, we met the carts of Zagathai, laden with houses, +and I thought that a great city was travelling towards us. I was +astonished at the prodigious droves of oxen and horses, and the +immense flocks of sheep, though I saw very few men to guide them; +which made me inquire how many men he had under his command, and +I was told he had not above 500 in all, half of whom we had +already passed at another station. Then the servant who conducted +us, informed me that it was requisite for us to make a present to +Zagathai, and desired us to stop while he went forwards, to +announce our arrival. It was then past three o'clock, and the +Tartars unladed their houses near a certain water. After this, +the interpreter of Zagathai came to us, and learning that we had +not been before among them, he demanded some of our victuals, +which we gave him; he also required to have some garments, as a +reward for his trouble in interpreting for us to his master; but +we excused ourselves on account of our poverty. He then asked us +what we intended to present to his lord, when we shewed him a +flaggon of wine, and filled a basket with biscuit, and a platter +with apples and other fruits; but he was not satisfied, as we had +not bought him some rich stuffs. However, we entered into the +presence of Zagathai with fear and bashfulness; he was sitting on +a bed, having a small citern or lute in his hand, and his wife +sat beside him, who, I really believe, had amputated her nose, +between the eyes, that it might be the flatter, for she had no +nose in that part of her face, which was smeared over with black +ointment, as were also her eyebrows, which seemed very filthy in +our eyes. I then repeated to him the exact same words which I had +used before, respecting the object of our journey, as we had been +admonished by some who had been among them formerly, never to +vary in our words. I requested that he would deign to accept our +small gift; for, being monks, it was contrary to the rules of our +order to possess gold or silver or rich garments; on which +account, we had no such things to offer, and hoped he would +accept some portion of our victuals as a blessing. He received +those things, and immediately distributed them among his men, who +were met in his house to drink. I likewise presented to him the +letters from the emperor of Constantinople. He then sent these to +Soldaia to be translated, because, being in Greek, there was no +person about him who understood that language. He asked if we +would drink cosmos? For the Russian, Greek, and Alanian +Christians, who happen to, be among the Tartars, and conform +strictly to their own laws, do not drink that liquor, and even +think they are not Christians who do so; and their priests, after +such conduct, formally reconcile them again to the church, as if +they had thereby renounced the Christian faith. I answered that +we had still a sufficiency of our own drink, but when that was +done, we should be under the necessity of using what might be +given us. He next asked us, what the letters contained which we +carried to Sartach? I answered that these were sealed, and +contained only the words of friendship and good will. He asked +what I meant to say to Sartach? To this I answered, that I should +speak to him the words of the Christian faith. He asked what +these were, as he would willingly hear them? I then expounded to +him the apostles creed, as well as I was able, by means of our +interpreter, who was by no means clever or eloquent. On hearing +this he shook his head, but made no reply. He then appointed oxen +and horses for our use, and two men to attend upon us; but he +desired us to abide with him, until the messenger should return +with the translation of the emperors letters from Soldaia. We +arrived at the horde of Zagathai, in the Ascension week, and we +remained with him until the day after Pentecost, or Whitsun +Tuesday, being ten days in all.</p> + +<p>SECTION XIII.</p> + +<p><i>How some Alanians visited them on the Eve of +Pentecost</i>.</p> + +<p>On the eve of Pentecost or Whitsunday, there came to us +certain Alanians, called there Acias or Akas, who are Christians +after the Greek form, using Greek books, and having Grecian +priests, but they are not schismatics like the Greeks as they +honour all Christians without exception. These men brought us +some sodden flesh, which they offered us to eat, and requested us +to pray for one of their company who had died. But I explained to +them the solemnity of the festival, and that we could eat no +flesh at this time. They were much pleased with our exposition, +as they were ignorant of every thing relative to the Christian +rites, the name of Christ alone excepted. They and many other +Christians, both Russians and Hungarians, demanded of us if they +might be saved, having been constrained to drink cosmos, and to +eat the flesh of animals that had been slain by the Saracens and +other infidels; which the Greek and Russian priests consider as +things strangled or offered to idols. They were likewise ignorant +of the times of fasting, neither could they have observed these +in this region, even if they had known their times and seasons. I +then instructed them as well as I could, and strengthened them in +the faith. We reserved the flesh which they had brought us until +the feast day, for there was nothing to be bought among the +Tartars for gold and silver, but only for cloth and garments, +which we had not to dispose of. When our servants offered any of +the coin which they call yperpera [1], they rubbed it with their +fingers, and smelt it, to see whether it were copper. All the +food they supplied us with was sour, and filthy cows milk; and +the water was so foul and muddy, by reason of their numerous +horses, that we could not drink it. If it had not been for the +grace of God, and the biscuit we brought with us, we had surely +perished.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Or hyperpyron, a coin said to be of the value of +two German dollars, or six and eightpence +Sterling.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIV.</p> + +<p><i>Of a Saracen who desired to be Baptized, and of men who +seemed Lepers</i>.</p> + +<p>Upon the day of Pentecost, a Saracen came to visit us, to whom +we explained the articles of the Christian faith; particularly +the salvation of sinners, through the incarnation of Jesus, the +resurrection of the dead, and judgment to come, and how through +baptism all sin was washed out. He seemed much affected with +these doctrines, and even expressed a desire to be baptized; but +when we were preparing for that ceremony, he suddenly mounted on +horseback, saying that he must first consult his wife; and he +returned next day, declining to receive baptism, because he would +not then be allowed to drink cosmos, without which, he could not +live in that country. From this opinion, I could not move him by +any arguments; so that these people are much estranged from +becoming Christians, by the assertion of that opinion by the +Russians, and other Christians, who come among them in great +numbers.</p> + +<p>On the same day, which was the morrow of the feast of +Pentecost, Zagathai gave us one man to conduct us to Sartach, and +two others to guide us to the next station, which was at the +distance of five days journey for our oxen. We were presented +also with a goat to serve us as food, and a great many skin bags +of cows milk, but they gave us very little cosmos, as that liquor +is in great estimation among themselves.</p> + +<p>From the station of Zagathai we travelled directly north, and +our attendants began to pilfer largely from us, because we took +too little heed of our property, but experience at length taught +us wisdom. At length we reached the bounds of this province, +which is fortified by a deep ditch, from sea to sea[1]. +Immediately beyond this ditch, we came to the station to which +our conductors belonged, where all the inhabitants seemed to be +infected with leprosy; and certain base people are placed here to +receive the tribute from all who come for salt from the salt pits +formerly mentioned. We were told that we should have to travel +fifteen days farther before meeting with any other inhabitants. +With these people we drank cosmos, and we presented them in +return with a basket of fruits and biscuit; and they gave us +eight oxen and a goat, and a vast number of bladders full of +milk, to serve as provision during our long journey. But by +changing our oxen, we were enabled in ten days to attain the next +station, and through the whole way we only found water in some +ditches, dug on purpose, in the vallies, and in two small rivers. +From leaving the province of Casaria, we traveled directly +eastwards, having the sea of Azoph on our right hand, and a vast +desert on the north, which, in some places, is twenty days +journey in breadth, without mountain, tree, or even stone; but it +is all excellent pasture. In this waste the Comani, called +Capchat[2], used to feed their cattle. The Germans called these +people Valani, and the province Valania; but Isidore terms the +whole country, from the Tanais, along the Paulus Maeotis, Alania. +This great extent would require a journey of two months, from one +end to the other, even if a man were to travel post as fast as +the Tartars usually ride, and was entirely inhabited by the +Capchat Comanians; who likewise possessed the country between the +Tanais, which divides Europe from Asia, and the river Edil or +Volga, which is a long ten days journey. To the north of this +province of Comania Russia is situate, which is all over full of +wood, and reaches from the north of Poland and Hungary, all the +way to the Tanais or Don. This country has been all wasted by the +Tartars, and is even yet often plundered by them.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] From this circumstance it is obvious, that the +journey had been hitherto confined to Casaria, or the Crimea, and +that he had now reached the lines or isthmus of +Precop.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] In the English translation of Hakluyt, this word +is changed to Capthak, and in the collection of Harris to +Capthai; it is probably the Kiptschak of the +Russians.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The Tartars prefer the Saracens to the Russians, because the +latter are Christians: and when the Russians are unable to +satisfy their demands for gold and silver, they drive them and +their children in multitudes into the desert, where they +constrain them to tend their flocks and herds. Beyond Russia is +the country of Prussia, which the Teutonic knights have lately +subdued, and they might easily win Russia likewise, if they so +inclined; for if the Tartars were to learn that the sovereign +Pontiff had proclaimed a crusade against them, they would all +flee into their solitudes.</p> + +<p>SECTION XV.</p> + +<p><i>Of our Distresses, and of the Comanian funerals</i>.</p> + +<p>In our journey eastwards we saw nothing but the earth and sky, +having sometimes the sea of Tanais within sight on our right +hand, and sometimes we saw the sepulchres in which the Comanians +used to bury their dead, at the distance of a league or two from +the line of our journey. So long as we travelled in the desert, +matters were tolerably well with us, but I cannot sufficiently +express the irksome and tedious plagues and troubles we had to +encounter in the dwellings of the Tartars; for our guide insisted +upon us making presents to every one of the Tartar captains, +which we were utterly unable to afford, and we were eight persons +in all, continually using our provisions, as the three Tartars +who accompanied us insisted that we should feed them; and the +flesh which had been given us was by no means sufficient, and we +could not get any to buy. While we sat under the shadow of our +carts to shelter us from the extreme heat of the sun, they would +intrude into our company, and even tread upon us, that they might +see what we had; and when they had to ease nature, would hardly +withdraw a few yards distance, shamelessly talking to us the +whole lime. What distressed me most of all, was when I wished to +address them upon religious subjects, my foolish interpreter used +to say, "You shall not make me a preacher, and I neither will nor +can rehearse these words." Nay, after I began to acquire some +little knowledge of their language, I found, when I spoke one +thing, he would say quite differently, whatever chanced to come +uppermost in his senseless mind. Thus, seeing the danger I might +incur in speaking by so faithless an interpreter, I resolved +rather to be silent.</p> + +<p>We thus journeyed on from station to station, till at length a +few days before the festival of Mary Magdalen, 22d July, we +arrived on the banks of the mighty river Tanais or Don, which +divides Europe from Asia. At this place Baatu and Sartach had +established a station of Russians on the eastern bank of the +river, on purpose to transport merchants and messengers across. +They ferried us over in the first place, and then our carts; and +their boats were so small that they were obliged to use two boats +tied together for one cart, putting a wheel into each. In this +place our guides acted most foolishly; for believing that the +Russians would provide us with horses and oxen, they sent back +those we had from the western side of the river, to their +masters. But when relays were demanded from the Russians, they +alleged that they had a privilege from Baatu, exempting them from +all services except those belonging to the ferry, and for which +they were even accustomed to receive considerable rewards from +such merchants as passed that way. We were, therefore, +constrained to remain three days in this place. The first day +they gave us a large fresh fish[1]. The second day the magistrate +of the village gathered from every house for us, and presented us +with rye-bread and some flesh. And the third day they gave us +dried fish, of which they have great abundance.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In the Latin this fish is named Barbatus, which +both Hakluyt and Harris have translated Turbot, a fish never +found in rivers. It was more probably a Barbel, in Latin called +Barbus; or it might be of the Sturgeon tribe, which likewise has +beard-like appendages, and is found in the Don.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The river Tanais, at this place, is as broad as the Seine at +Paris; and before arriving on its banks, we had passed many +goodly waters full of fish: but the rude Tartars know not now to +catch them, neither do they hold fish in any estimation, unless +large enough to feed a company. This river is the eastern limit +of Russia, and arises from certain marshes which extend to the +northern ocean; and it discharges itself in the south, into a +large sea of 700 miles extent, before falling into the Euxine; +and all the rivers we had passed ran with a full stream in the +same direction. Beyond this place the Tartars advance no farther +to the north, and they were now, about the first of August, +beginning to return into the south; and they have another village +somewhat lower down the river, where passengers are ferried over +in winter. At this time the people were reaping their rye. Wheat +does not succeed in their soil, but they have abundance of +millet. The Russian women attire their heads like those in our +country; and they ornament their gowns with furs of different +kinds, from about the knees downwards. The men wear a dress like +the Germans, having high crowned conical hats made of felt, like +sugar loaves, with sharp points.</p> + +<p>At length, after representing that our journey was intended +for the common benefit of all Christians, they provided us with +oxen and men to proceed upon our journey; but as we got no +horses, we were ourselves under the necessity of travelling on +foot. In this manner we journied for three days, without meeting +any people; and when both our oxen and ourselves were weary and +faint with fatigue, two horses came running towards us, to our +great joy: Our guide and interpreter mounted upon these, and set +out to see if they could fall in with any inhabitants. At length, +on the fourth day, having found some people, we rejoiced like +seafaring men, who had escaped from a tempest into a safe +harbour. Then getting fresh horses and oxen, we passed on from +station to station, till we at length reached the habitation of +duke Sartach on the second of the kalends of August[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This, according to the Roman method of reckoning, +ought to be the last day of July. Yet Rubruquis had previously +mentioned the 1st of August a considerable time +before.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Dominions and Subjects of Sartach</i>.</p> + +<p>The region beyond the Tanais is very beautiful, especially +towards the north, where there are fine rivers and extensive +forests. In these dwell two different nations. One of these, +named the Moxel, are ignorant pagans, without any laws, who dwell +in cottages among the woods, and have no cities. Their lord, and +the greater part of the nation were carried to the confines of +Germany by the Tartars, and were there slain by the Germans, who +are held in great estimation by the nations who are subject to +the Tartars, as they hope, through their means, to be freed from +the Tartar yoke. When a merchant comes among these people, the +first person with whom he stops is obliged to provide him with +all necessaries during his stay in the district; and they are so +little jealous of their wives, that husbands pay little regard to +their infidelity, unless directly under their eyes. These people +have abundance of swine, honey, and wax, precious furs, and +falcons. Beyond these dwell the Merdas[1] or Merdui, who are +Saracens or Mahometans. Beyond them is the Etilia or Volga, the +largest river I ever beheld, which comes out of the north, from +the country of the Greater Bulgaria and runs southwards, into a +vast lake of four months journey in circuit, of which I shall +speak afterwards. In the northern region, by which we travelled, +the Tanais and Volga are not above ten days journey asunder, but +towards the south they are at a much farther distance; the Tanais +falling into the Euxine, and the Volga into the before mentioned +sea or lake, which likewise receives many rivers from Persia. In +the course of our journey, we left to the south certain great +mountains, on whose sides, towards the desert, dwell the Cergis +and the Alani or Acas, who are Christians, and still carry on war +with the Tartars. Beyond these, near the sea or lake of Etilia, +or the Caspian, are certain Mahometans named Lesgis, who are +subjected to the Tartars. Beyond these again are the +<i>Irongates</i>, which were constructed by Alexander, to exclude +the barbarians from Persia, of which I shall speak hereafter, as +I passed that way in my return. In the country through which we +travelled between these great rivers, the Comanians dwelt before +it was occupied by the Tarters.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In the English of Hakluyt and Harris, these +people are called Merdas and Mardui.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Magnificence of the Court of Sartach</i>.</p> + +<p>WE found Sartach encamped within three days journey of the +river Volga or Etilia, and his court or horda appeared to us very +large and magnificent; as he had six wives, and his eldest son +three, and each of these ladies had a great house, like those +already described, besides that each had several smaller houses, +and 200 of the chest-carts already mentioned. Our guide went +immediately to a certain Nestorian named Coiat, who has great +influence at the court of Sartach; and this man carried us in the +evening a considerable distance, to an officer called, in the +Tartar language, the Lords Gate, to whom belongs the duty of +receiving messengers or ambassadors. Our guide inquired what we +had ready to present to this person, and seemed much offended +when he found we had nothing to offer. When we came into his +presence, he sat majestically, having music and dancing performed +before him. I then spoke to him the words formerly mentioned, +giving an account of the cause of our mission, and requesting +that he would bring us and our letters into the presence of his +lord. I excused myself also, that as I was a monk, neither +giving, receiving, or using any gold, silver, or other costly +things, except our books, and the vestments in which we served +God, that I could bring no present to him or his lord; and having +abandoned my own goods, I could not transport such things for +other men. He courteously answered, that being a monk, I acted +well in observing my vow: and that he stood in no need of any of +our things, but on the contrary, was ready to give us what we +might need. He then caused us to sit down and drink of his milk, +and afterwards desired that we should recite a benediction for +him, which we did. He inquired who was the greatest sovereign +among the Francs? To which I answered the emperor, if he could +enjoy his dominions in peace. "Not so, said he, but the king of +France." For he had heard of your majesty from the Lord Baldwin +of Hainault. I found also at this court, one of the Knight +Templars, who had been at Cyprus, and had made a report of all +that he had seen there concerning your majesty. We then returned +to our lodgings, whence we sent a flaggon of our Muscadel wine, +which had kept well during the journey, and a box of our biscuit +to this officer, who received the present very graciously, and +retained our servants all night in his dwelling.</p> + +<p>In the morning he ordered us to come to court, and to bring +the kings letters, and our books and vestments along with us, as +his lord desired to see these things. This we did accordingly, +lading one cart with our books and vestments, and another with +wine, biscuit, and fruits. Then he caused all our books and +vestments to be spread out, and asked if we meant to bestow all +these things upon his lord. A multitude of Tartars, Christians, +and Mahometans were around us, on horseback, at this time, and I +was sore grieved and afraid at this question; but dissembling as +well as I could, I said, "That we humbly requested his lord and +master to accept our bread, wine, and fruits, not as a present, +for it was too mean, but as a benevolence, lest we should appear +to come empty handed. That his lord would see the letters of the +king my master, which would explain the reason of our journey; +after which we, and all we had, would remain at his command: But +that our vestments were holy, and were unlawful to be touched or +used by any except priests." We were then commanded to array +ourselves in our sacred vestments, that we might appear in them +before his lord. Then putting on our most precious ornaments, I +took a rich cushion in my arms, together with the bible I had +from your majesty, and the beautiful psalter, ornamented with +fine paintings, which the queen bestowed upon me. My companion +carried the missal and a crucifix; and the clerk, clothed in his +surplice, carried a censer in his hand. In this order we +presented ourselves, and the felt hanging before the lords door +being withdrawn, we appeared, in his presence. Then the clerk and +interpreter were ordered to make three genuflexions, from which +humiliation we were exempted; and they admonished us to be +exceedingly careful, in going in and out of the lords dwelling, +not to touch the threshold of his door, and we were desired to +sing a benediction or prayer for their lord; and we accordingly +entered in singing the salve regina.</p> + +<p>Immediately within the door there stood a bench planted with +cosmos and drinking cups. All Sartachs wives were assembled in +the house; and the Moals, or rich Tartars, pressing in along with +us, incommoded us exceedingly. Then Coiat carried the censer with +incense to Sartach, who took it in his hand, examining it +narrowly. He next carried him the psalter, which he and the wife +who sat next him minutely inspected. After which the bible was +carried to him, on which he asked if it contained our Gospel? To +which I answered, that it contained that, and all our other Holy +Scriptures. I next delivered to him your majestys letter, with +its translation into the Arabian and Syriac languages, which I +had procured to be done at Acon[1]; and there happened to be +present certain Armenian priests, who were skilful in the Turkish +and Arabian languages, and likewise the before mentioned templar +had knowledge of both these and the Syriac. We then went out of +the house and put off our vestments, and we were followed by +Coiat, accompanied by certain scribes, by whom our letters were +interpreted; and when Sartach had heard these read, he graciously +accepted our bread, wine, and fruits, and permitted us to carry +our books and vestments to our own lodgings. All this happened on +the festival of St Peter ad Vincula.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Now called St Jean d'Acre.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVIII.</p> + +<p><i>They are ordered to proceed to Baatu, the Father of +Sartach</i>.</p> + +<p>Next morning early a certain priest, who was the brother of +Coiat, came to our lodging, and desired to have our box of chrism +to carry, as he said, to Sartach. About evening Coat sent for us, +and said that the king our master had written acceptably to his +lord and master Sartach; but there were certain difficult +matters, respecting which he did not dare to determine without +the orders and advice of his father, and that it was, therefore, +necessary that we should go to his father, leaving the two carts +behind us in which we brought the books and vestments, because +his lord was desirous to examine these things more carefully. +Suspecting the evil that might arise from this man's +covetousness, I immediately said that we would not only leave +these carts, but the other two also under his custody. You shall +not, said he, leave these two carts behind, but as for the other +two, we will satisfy your desire. But I insisted upon leaving +them all. He then desired to know whether we intended to remain +in the country? To which I answered, that if he had thoroughly +understood the letters of my lord and master, he would have seen +that we were so inclined. And he then exhorted us to demean +ourselves with patience, and humility; after which we parted for +that evening.</p> + +<p>Next day Coiat sent a Nestorian priest for the carts, to whom +we caused all the four to be delivered. After whom the brother of +Coiat came to our lodging, and took possession of all the books +and vestments which we had shewn the day before at the court; +although we remonstrated against this procedure, saying that +Coiat had ordered us to carry those things along with us, that we +might appear in them before Baatu; but he took them from us by +violence, saying, "you brought all these things to Sartach, and +would you carry them to Baatu?" And when I would have reasoned +with him against this conduct, he desired me not to be too +talkative, but to go my way. There was no remedy but patience, as +we could not have access to Sartach, and we could not expect to +procure justice from any other person. I was even afraid to +employ our interpreter on this occasion, lest he might have +represented matters in a quite different sense from what I should +direct, as he seemed much inclined for us to give away all we +had. My only comfort was, that I had secretly removed the bible +and some other books, on which I set a great store, when I first +discovered their covetous intentions; but I did not venture to +abstract the psalter, because it was so particularly +distinguished by its beautifully gilded illuminations. When the +person came who was appointed to be our guide to the court of +Baatu, I represented to him the necessity of leaving our other +carts behind, as we were to travel post; and on this being +reported to Coiat, he consented to take charge of these, and of +our servant. Before leaving the residence of Sartach, Coiat and +other scribes desired that we should by no means represent their +lord to Baatu as a Christian, but as a Moal: for though they +believe some things concerning Christ, they are very unwilling to +be called Christians, which they consider as a national +appellation; and they look upon their own name of Moal as worthy +to be exalted above all others. Neither do they allow themselves +to be called Tartars: as that is the name of another nation, +according to the information I received at this place. Leaving +the station of Sartach, we travelled directly eastwards for three +days, on the last of which we came to the Etilia or Volga, and I +wondered much from what regions of the north such mighty streams +should descend.</p> + +<p>SECTION XIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Reverence shewn by Sartach, Mangu-khan, and +Ken-chan, to the Christians</i>.</p> + +<p>At the time when the Francs took Antioch from the Saracens[1], +a prince named Con-can, or Khen-khan, held dominion over all the +northern regions of Tartary. Con is a proper name, and can or +khan is a title of dignity, signifying a diviner or soothsayer, +and is applied to all princes in these countries, because the +government of the people belongs to them through divination. To +this prince the Turks of Antioch sent for assistance against the +Francs, as the whole nation of the Turks came originally from the +regions of Tartary. Con-khan was of the nation called Kara-Catay, +or the black Catay; which is used to distinguish them from the +other nation of Catayans, who inhabit to the eastwards upon the +ocean, of whom I shall speak afterwards. These Kara-Catayans +dwelt upon certain high mountains through which I travelled; and +in a certain plain country within these mountains, there dwelt a +Nestorian shepherd, who was supreme governor over the people +called Yayman or Nayman, who were Christians of the Nestorian +sect. After the death of Con-khan, this Nestorian prince exalted +himself to the kingdom, and was called King John, or Prester +John; of whom ten times more is reported than is true, according +to the usual custom of the Nestorians, for they are apt to raise +great stories on no foundations. Thus they gave out, that Sartach +was a Christian, and they propagated similar stories of +Mangu-khan, and even of Con-khan, merely because these princes +shewed great respect to the Christians. The story of King John +had no better foundation; for when I travelled through his +territories, no one there knew any thing at all about him, except +only a few Nestorians. In these regions likewise dwelt Con-khan, +formerly mentioned, at whose court Friar Andrew once was; and I +passed through that region in my return. This John had a brother, +a powerful prince and a shepherd like himself, who was named +Vut-khan, or Unc-khan, who dwelt beyond the mountains of +Kara-Kitay, at the distance of three weeks journey from the +residence of John. This Vut-khan was lord of a small village +named Caracarum, and his subjects were called Crit or Merkit, +being Christians of the Nestorian sect. But Vut-khan abandoned +the Christian worship and followed idolatry, retaining priests to +his idols, who are all sorcerers and worshippers of the +devils.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] About the year 1097.</blockquote> + +<p>Ten or fifteen days journey beyond the territory of Vut-khan, +lay the pastures of the Moal, a poor nation without laws or +government, except that they were much given to sorcery and +divinations; and near them was another poor nation called +Tartars. On the death of John, the khan of the Cara- Kitayans, +without male issue, his brother Vut succeeded to all his great +riches, and got himself to be proclaimed khan. The flocks and +herds of this Vut-khan pastured to the borders of the Moal, among +whom was one Zingis, a blacksmith, who used to steal as many +cattle as he possibly could from the flock of Vut-Khan. At length +the herds complained to their lord of the reiterated robberies +which were committed by Zingis, and Vut-khan went with an army to +seize him. But Zingis fled and hid himself among the Tartars, and +the troops of Vut-khan returned to their own country, after +having made considerable spoil both from the Moal and the +Tartars. Then Zingis remonstrated with the Moal and Tartars, upon +their want of a supreme ruler to defend them from the oppressions +of their neighbours, and they were induced by his suggestions to +appoint him to be their khan or ruler. Immediately after his +elevation, Zingis gathered an army secretly together, and made a +sudden invasion of the territories belonging to Vut, whom he +defeated in battle, and forced to fly for refuge into Katay. +During this invasion, one of the daughters of Vut was made +prisoner, whom Zingis gave in marriage to one of his sons, and to +whom she bore Mangu-khan, the presently reigning great khan of +the Moal and Tartars. In all his subsequent wars, Zingis used +continually to send the Tartars before him in the van of his +army: by which means their name came to be spread abroad in the +world, as, wherever they made their appearance, the astonished +people were in use to run away, crying out, the Tartars! the +Tartars! In consequence of almost continual war, this nation of +the Tartars is now almost utterly extirpated, yet the name +remains; although the Moals use every effort to abolish that name +and to exalt their own. The country where these Tartars formerly +inhabited, and where the court of Zingis still remains, is now +called Mancherule; and as this was the centre of all their +conquests, they still esteem it as their royal residence, and +there the great khan is for the most part elected.</p> + +<p>SECTION XX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Russians, Hungarians, Alanians, and of the +Caspian</i>.</p> + +<p>I know not whether Sartach really believes in Christ, but am +certain that he refuses to be called a Christian, and I rather +think that he scoffs at Christianity. His residence lies in the +way through which the Russians, Walachians, Bulgarians of the +lesser Bulgaria, the Soldaians, or Christians of Casaria, the +Kerkis, Alanians, and other Christians have to pass in their way +with gifts or tribute to the court of his father Baatu-khan; and +by this means Sartach is more connected with the Christians than +any of the rest, yet when the Saracens or Mahometans bring their +gifts, they are sooner dispatched. Sartach has always about him +some Nestorian priests, who count their beads and sing their +devotions.</p> + +<p>There is another commander under Baatu-khan, called Berta or +Berca, who pastures his flocks towards the Iron-gate, or Derbent, +through which lies the passage of all the Saracens or Mahometans +who come from Persia and Turkey, to pay their gifts and tributes +to Baatu, and who make presents to Berta in their way. This +person professes himself to be of the Mahometan faith, and will +not permit swines flesh to be eaten in his dominions. But it +appearing to Baatu, that his affairs suffered detriment by this +intercourse with the Mahometans, we learnt on our return, that he +had commanded Berta to remove from the Iron-gate to the east side +of the Volga.</p> + +<p>For the space of four days which we spent in the court of +Sartach, we had no victuals allowed us, except once a little +cosmos; and during our journey to the residence of his father +Baatu, we travelled in great fear, on account of certain Russian, +Hungarian, and Alanian servants of the Tartars, who often +assemble secretly in the night, in troops of twenty or thirty +together, and being armed with bows and arrows, murder and rob +whoever they meet with, hiding themselves during the day. These +men are always on horseback, and when their horses tire, they +steal others from the ordinary pastures of the Tartars, and each +man has generally one or two spare horses to serve as food in +case of need. Our guide therefore was in great fear lest we might +fall in with some of these stragglers. Besides this danger, we +must have perished during this journey, if we had not fortunately +carried some of our biscuit along with us. We at length reached +the great river Etilia or Volga, which is four times the size of +the Seine, and of great depth. This river rises in the north of +Greater Bulgaria, and discharges itself into the Hircanian Sea, +called the Caspian by Isidore, having the Caspian mountains and +the land of Persia on the south, the mountains of Musihet, or of +the Assassins on the east, which join the Caspian mountains, and +on the north is the great desert now occupied by the Tartars, +where formerly there dwelt certain people called Canglae, or +Cangitae, and on that side it receives the Etilia, or Volga, +which overflows in summer like the Nile in Egypt. On the west +side of this sea are the mountains of the Alani and Lesgis, the +Iron-gate or Derbent, and the mountains of Georgia. This sea, +therefore, is environed on three sides by mountains, but by plain +ground on the north. Friar Andrew, in his journey, travelled +along its south and east sides; and I passed its north side both +in going and returning between Baatu and Mangu-khan, and along +its western side in my way from Baatu into Syria. One may travel +entirely round it in four months; and it is by no means true, as +reported by Isidore, that it is a bay of the ocean, with which it +nowhere joins, but is environed on all sides by the land.</p> + +<p>At the region from the west shore of the Caspian, where the +Iron-gate of Alexander is situated, now called Derbent, and from +the mountains of the Alani, and along the Palus Moeotis, or sea +of Azoph, into which the Tanais falls, to the northern ocean, was +anciently called Albania; in which Isidore says, that there were +dogs of such strength and fierceness, as to fight with bulls, and +even to overcome lions, which I have been assured by several +persons to be true; and even, that towards the northern ocean, +they have dogs of such size and strength, that the inhabitants +make them draw carts like oxen[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] It is astonishing how easily a small exaggeration +converts truth to fable. Here the ill-told story of the light +sledges of the Tshutki, drawn by dogs of a very ordinary size, is +innocently magnified into carts dragged by gigantic +mastiffs.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Court of Baatu, and our Entertainment there</i>.</p> + +<p>On that part of the Volga where we arrived, they have lately +built a new village, in which there is a mixed population of +Russians and Tartars, established for the service of the ferry, +that they may transport messengers going to and from the court of +Baatu, as he always remains on the east side of the Volga. +Neither does he ever travel any farther north, in summer, than to +the place where we arrived on that river, and was even then +descending towards the south. From January till August, he and +all the other Tartars ascend by the banks of rivers towards the +cold regions of the north, and in August they begin again to +return. From the place where we came to the Volga, is a journey +of five days northward to the first villages of the Greater +Bulgaria, and I am astonished to think how the Mahometan religion +should have travelled thither; as from Derbent, on the extreme +borders of Persia, it is thirty days journey to pass the desert +and ascend along the Volga into Bulgaria, and in the whole track +there are no towns, and only a few villages where the Volga falls +into the Caspian; yet these Bulgarians[1] are the most bigotedly +attached to the religion of Mahomet, of any of the nations that +have been perverted to that diabolical superstition.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Greater Bulgaria of our author seems to +comprehend the provinces of Astracan and Casan in +Russia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The court of Baatu having already gone towards the south, we +passed down the stream of the Volga in a bark from the before +mentioned village, to where his court then was; and we were +astonished at the magnificent appearance of his encampment, as +his houses and tents were so numerous, as to appear like some +large city, stretching out to a vast length; and there were great +numbers of people ranging about the country, to three or four +leagues all around. Even as the children of Israel knew every one +on which side of the Tabernacle to pitch his tent, so every +Tartar knows on to what side of the court of his prince he ought +to place his house, when he unlades it from his cart. The princes +court is called in their language <i>Horda</i>, which signifies +the middle, because the chieftain or ruler always dwells in the +midst of his people; only that no subject or inferior person must +place his dwelling towards the south, as the court gates are +always open to that quarter. But they extend themselves to the +right and left, according as they find it convenient. On our +arrival we were conducted to a Mahometan, who did not provide us +with any provisions; and we were brought next day to the court, +where Baatu had caused a large tent to be erected, as his house +was two small to contain the multitude of men and women who were +assembled at this place. We were admonished by our guide, not to +speak until we should receive orders from Baatu to that purpose, +and that then we should be brief in our discourse. Baatu asked if +your majesty had sent us as ambassadors to him? I answered, that +your majesty had formerly sent ambassadors to Ken-khan; and would +not have sent any on the present occasion, or any letters to +Sartach, had it not been that you had been advised they were +become Christians; on which account only I had been sent in +congratulation and not through any fear. We were then led into +the pavilion, being strictly charged not to touch any of the tent +ropes, which they consider as equivalent to the threshold of a +house, which must not be touched. We entered the tent barefooted +and with our heads uncovered, forming a strange spectacle in +their eyes; for though Friar John de Plano Carpini had been there +before me, yet being a messenger from the Pope, he had changed +his habit that he might not be despised. We were brought forward +into the middle of the tent, without being required to bow the +knee, as is the case with other messengers. Baatu was seated upon +a long broad couch like a bed, all over gilt, and raised three +steps from the ground, having one of his ladies beside him. The +men of note were all assembled in the tent, and were seated about +in a scattered manner, some on the right and some on the left +hand; and those places which were not filled up by Baatus wives, +were occupied by some of the men. At the entrance of the tent +there stood a bench well furnished with cosmos, and with many +superb cups of gold and silver, richly set with precious stones. +Baatu surveyed us earnestly for some time, and we him; he was of +a fresh ruddy colour, and in my opinion had a strong resemblance +to the late Lord John de Beaumont.</p> + +<p>After standing in the midst of the tent for so long as one +might have rehearsed the <i>Miserere</i>, during which an +universal silence prevailed, we were commanded to speak, and our +guide directed us to bow our knees before we spoke. On this I +bowed one knee as to a man; but he desired me to kneel on both +knees, and being unwilling to contend about such ceremonies, I +complied; and being again commanded to speak, I bethought me of +prayer to God on account of my posture, and began in the +following manner: "Sir, we beseech God, the giver of all good, +who hath bestowed upon you these earthly benefits, that he would +grant you hereafter the blessings of Heaven, seeing that the +former are vain without the latter. Be it known to you therefore, +of a certainty, that you cannot attain to the joys of heaven +unless you become a Christian; for God hath said, whosoever +believeth and is baptized shall be saved, but he that believeth +not shall be condemned." At this he modestly smiled, but the +other Moals clapped their hands in derision; and my interpreter, +who ought to have comforted me, was quite abashed. After silence +was restored, I proceeded thus: "Having heard that your son was +become a Christian, I came to him with letters from my master the +king of the Francs, and your son sent me hither; for what reason +it behoves you to know." He then desired me to rise, and inquired +the name of your majesty, and my name, and the names of my +companion and interpreter, all of which he caused to be set down +in writing. After which, he asked who it was that your majesty +made war against, as he had heard that you had departed from your +own country with an army. To which I answered, that you warred +against the Saracens, because they had violated the house of God +at Jerusalem. He then asked if your majesty had ever before sent +ambassadors to him. And I said never to him. He then desired us +to be seated, and gave us to drink; and it is accounted a great +favour when any one is admitted to drink cosmos in his house. +While I sat looking down upon the ground, he desired me to look +up; either wishing to observe me more distinctly, or out of some +superstitious fancy: for these people look upon it as a sign of +ill-fortune, when any one sits in their presence holding down his +head in a melancholy posture, and more especially when he leans +his cheek or chin upon his hand.</p> + +<p>We then departed from the tent of audience, and immediately +afterwards our guide came and told us, that, as our king had +desired that we might remain in this country, Baatu could not +consent to this without the knowledge and authority of +Mangu-khan; and it was necessary, therefore, that I should go +with the interpreter to Mangu, while my companion and the clerk +should return to the court of Sartach, and remain there till my +return. On this the interpreter began to lament himself as a dead +man; and my companion declared, that rather as separate from me, +he would allow them to take off his head. I added, that I could +not possibly go without my interpreter, and that we should need +two servants, that we might be sure of one in case of the other +being sick. Upon this the guide returned into the presence and +reported to Baatu what we had said, who now gave orders that the +two priests and the interpreter should go forwards to Mangu, but +that the clerk must immediately return to Sartach; and with this +answer the guide came to us. When I now endeavoured to plead for +the company of our clerk, he desired me to be silent; for as +Baatu had already given the orders, they must be obeyed, and he +dared not go again into the court. Goset, our clerk, still had +twenty-six yperperas remaining of the alms we had formerly +received, ten of which he retained for himself and the servant, +and gave us the remaining sixteen. We then sorrowfully parted, +the clerk returning to the court of Sartach, while we remained +following the court of Baatu. On Assumption eve, 14th August, our +clerk arrived at the court of Sartach, and the next day the +Nestorian priests were seen adorned in the vestments of which +they had deprived us.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXII.</p> + +<p><i>The Journey to the Court of Mangu-khan</i>.</p> + +<p>From the audience we were conducted to the dwelling of a +person who was ordered to provide us in lodging, food, and +horses; but as we had no presents to give, he treated us with +great neglect. We travelled along with Baatu, down the banks of +the Volga for five weeks, and were often so much in want of +provisions, that my companion was sometimes so extremely hungry +as even to weep. For though there is always a fair or market +following the court, it was so far from us, that we, who were +forced to travel on foot, were unable to reach it. At length, +some Hungarians, who had for some time been looked upon as +priests, found out, and relieved our distresses. One of these was +able to sing with a loud voice, and being considered by his +countrymen as a kind of priest, was employed at their funerals; +the other had been decently instructed in the Latin grammar, so +that he understood whatever we spoke to him deliberately, but was +unable to make answer. These men were a great consolation to us, +as they supplied us with flesh and cosmos. They requested some +books from us, and it grieved me much that we could not comply, +having only one bible and a breviary. But I made them bring some +ink and paper, and I copied out for them the Hours of the blessed +Virgin, and the Office for the Dead. It happened one day that a +Comanian passing by saluted us in Latin, saying <i>Salvete +domini</i>. Surprized at this unusual salutation, I questioned +him how he had learnt it, and he told me he had been baptized in +Hungary by our priests, who had taught him. He said, likewise, +that Baatu had inquired many things at him respecting us, and +that he had given him an account of the nature and rules of our +order. I afterwards saw Baatu riding with his company, who were +the whole of his subjects that were householders or masters of +families, and in my estimation they did not exceed 500 +men.[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This, however, is only to be understood of what +may be termed the pretorian or royal horde, in a time of profound +peace, travelling in their usual and perpetual round in quest of +forage; the almost boundless space of the desert must have been +interspersed with numerous subordinate hordes, and though the +usual guard of Baatu might not have exceeded 500 heads of +families, the military force of his dominions, though subordinate +to Mangu-khan, certainly exceeded 200,000 fighting +men.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>At length, about the Holyrood, 14th September, or festival of +the exaltation of the Holy Cross, there came to us a certain rich +Moal, whose father was a millenary or captain of a thousand +horse, who informed us that he had been appointed to conduct us. +He informed us that the journey would take us four months, and +that the cold was so extreme in winter, as even to tear asunder +trees and stones with its force. "Advise well with yourselves, +therefore," said he, "whether you be able to endure it, for +otherwise I shall forsake you by the way." To this I answered, +that I hoped we should be able, with the help of God, to endure +hardships like other men; but as we were sent by his lord under +his charge, and did not go on any business of our own, he ought +not to forsake us. He then said that all should be well, and +having examined our garments, he directed us what we should leave +behind in the custody of our host, as not useful for the journey; +and next day he sent each of us a furred gown, made of sheep +skins, with the wool on, and breeches of the same, likewise shoes +or footsocks made of felt, and boots of their fashion, and hoods +of skins. The second day after the holy cross day, 16th +September, we began our journey, attended by three guides, and we +rode continually eastwards during forty-six days, till the feast +of All-Saints, 1st November. The whole of that region, and even +beyond it, is inhabited by the people named Changle or Kangittae, +who are descended from the Romans. Upon the north side we had the +country of the Greater Bulgaria, and to the south the Caspian +sea.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the River Jaic or Ural, and of sundry Regions and +Nations</i>.</p> + +<p>At the end of twelve days journey from the Etilia or Volga, we +came to a great river named the Jagag (Jaic or Ural); which, +issuing from the land of Pascatir (of Zibier or of the Baschirs, +now Siberia), falls into the Caspian. The language of the +Baschirs and of the Hungarians is the same, and they are all +shepherds, having no cities; and their land is bounded on the +west by the Greater Bulgaria; from which country eastwards, in +these northern parts, there are no cities whatsoever, so that the +Greater Bulgaria is the last country which possesses towns and +cities. From this country of Pascatir the Huns went, who were +afterwards called Hungarians. Isidore writes, that with swift +horses they passed the walls of Alexander, and the rocks of +Caucasus, which opposed the barbarians, and even exacted tribute +from Egypt, and laid waste the whole of Europe as far as France, +being even more warlike in their day than the Tartars are now. +With them the Blacians or Walachians, the Bulgarians, and the +Vandals united. These Bulgarians came from the Greater Bulgaria, +The people named Ilac or Vlac, who inhabit beyond the Danube from +Constantinople, not far from Pascatir, are the same people, being +properly named Blac or Blacians, but as the Tartars cannot +pronounce the letter B, they are called Ilac, Vlac, or +Wallachians. From them, likewise, the inhabitants of the land of +the Assani are descended, both having the same name in the +Russian, Polish, and Bohemian languages. The Sclavonians and the +Vandals speak the same language; and all of these joined +themselves formerly with the Huns, as they now do with the +Tartars. All this that I have written concerning the land of +Pascatir, I was informed by certain friars predicants, who had +travelled there before the irruption of the Tartars; and as they +had been subdued by their neighbours the Bulgarians, who were +Mahometans, many of them adopted that faith. Other matters +respecting these people may be known from various chronicles. But +it is obvious, that those provinces beyond Constantinople, which +are now called Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Sclavonia [1], formerly +belonged to the Greek empire; and Hungary was formerly named +Pannonia.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Probably intended for what is now called +Servia--E.</blockquote> + +<p>We continued riding through the land of the Changles or +Kangittae, as before mentioned, from Holy Cross-day till +All-Saints, travelling every day, as well as I could guess, about +as far as from Paris to Orleans, and sometimes farther [2], +according as we happened to be provided with relays; for +sometimes we would change horses two or three times a-day, and +then we travelled quicker; while sometimes we had to travel two +or three days without finding any inhabitants to supply us, and +then we were forced to travel more deliberately. Out of thirty or +forty horses, we were always sure to have the worst, being +strangers, as every one took their choice before it came to our +turn. They always, however, provided me with a strong horse, +because I was corpulent and heavy; but whether his pace happened +to be hard or gentle, was all one to them, and I dared not to +make any complaints. Our horses often tired before we could fall +in with any of the inhabitants, and we were then obliged to beat +and whip them up, being obliged to lay our garments upon spare +horses, and sometimes two of us obliged to ride on one horse.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This may be taken at a medium of thirty miles a +day which, in forty-six days, would amount to 1380 miles; no +doubt a very fatiguing journey for a corpulent heavy man as he +describes himself--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXIV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Hunger, Thirst, and other Miseries we +endured</i>.</p> + +<p>There was no end of hunger and thirst, and cold and weariness. +In the morning they gave us something to drink, or some boiled +millet; but afterwards we had nothing to eat until the evening, +when they bestowed some flesh upon us, being generally the +shoulder and breast of a ram, and every one was allowed a +proportion of the broth to drink; and we considered ourselves +fortunate when we had enough of broth, as it was exceedingly +refreshing, pleasant, and nutritive. Sometimes we were +constrained to eat our meat half boiled, or even almost raw, for +want of fuel, especially when we were benighted and obliged to +pass the night in the fields, because we could not conveniently +gather horse or cow-dung to make a fire, and we seldom found any +other fuel, except a few thorns here and there, and a few rare +woods on the banks of some rivers. Every Saturday I remained +fasting until night, and was then constrained, to my great grief, +to eat flesh, as I could not procure any other food in the +desert. In the beginning of our journey our guide disdained us +exceedingly, and seemed quite indignant at being obliged to take +charge of such base fellows as he seemed to esteem us; but he +afterwards behaved better, and often took us purposely to the +courts of rich Moals, who requested us to pray for them; and if I +had been so fortunate as to have a good interpreter, I might have +been able to do some good among these ignorant people.</p> + +<p>Zingis, the first great khan or emperor of the Tartars, left +four sons, from whom descended many grandsons, who are daily +multiplying and dispersing over that immense waste desert, which +is boundless like the ocean. These Moals whom we visited and +prayed for, were astonished when we refused their proffered gifts +of gold and silver and fine garments. They often enquired whether +the great Pope was actually 500 years old, as they had heard from +report. They likewise enquired into the nature and productions of +our country, especially whether we had abundance of cattle, +sheep, and horses. When we spoke to them about the ocean, they +could form no adequate conception of its immense expanse, without +banks or limits.</p> + +<p>On the feast of All-Saints, 1st November, as the people had +now descended very much to the southwards, we now discontinued +our eastern route, and journied directly south for eight days, +along certain high mountains. In the desert we saw many wild +asses resembling mules, called colan or coulan by the Tartars, +which our guide and his companions often chased with great +eagerness, but without success, owing to the great swiftness of +these animals. Upon the seventh day of our southern route, we saw +directly before us some exceedingly high mountains, and we +entered upon a fine cultivated plain, which was irrigated like a +garden. Next day, 7th November, we arrived at a town belonging to +the Mahometans named Kenchat, the governor of which came out to +meet our guide with ale and other refreshments; for it is the +custom of all the subjected cities, to welcome the messengers of +Baatu and Mangu with meat and drink on their arrival. At this +season, the ice was fully bearing, and we found frost in the +desert before the feast of St Michael, 29th September. I inquired +the name of the province, but being in a strange land they could +not inform me, and could only tell me the name of this city, +which is very small. Into this district a large river descends +from the mountains, which the inhabitants lead off to water or +irrigate the whole region; so that this river does not discharge +itself into any sea, but after forming many pools or marshes, is +absorbed into the earth. In this region we saw vines growing, and +drank twice of their wines.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXV</p> + +<p><i>Of the Execution of Ban, and concerning the residence of +certain Germans</i>.</p> + +<p>The next day we came to another village nearer to the +mountains, which, I understood, were called Caucasus, and that +they reached from the eastern to the western sea, even passing +the Caspian to the west. I likewise inquired concerning the town +of Talas, in which, according to Friar Andrew [1], there were +certain Germans in the service of one <i>Buri</i> and I had +formerly made inquiries concerning them at the courts of Sartach +and Baatu[2]. But I could only learn, that their master, +<i>Ban</i>, had been put to death on the following occasion. This +Ban happened to have his appointed residence in inferior +pastures, and one day when drunk, he said to his people, that +being of the race of Zingis as well as Baatu, whose brother or +nephew he was, he thought himself entitled to feed his flocks on +the fine plains of the Volga as freely as Baatu himself. These +speeches were reported to Baatu, who immediately wrote to the +servants of Ban to bring their lord bound before him. Then Baatu +demanded whether he had spoken the words, which were reported, +and Ban acknowledged them, but pled that he was drunk at the +time, and it is usual among the Tartars to forgive the words and +actions of drunk men. But Baatu reproached him for daring to use +his name in his cups, and ordered his head to be immediately +struck off.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The person here alluded to was a monk named +Andrew Luciumel, who had been sent ambassador, by the pope, to +the emperor of the Mongals, in 1247 or 1248, with the same views +as in the missions of Carpini and Asceline at the same period; +but of his journey we have no account remaining.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] It is exceedingly difficult, or rather +impossible, to trace the steps of the travels of Rubruquis, for +want of latitudes, longitudes, and distances, and names of +places. After passing the Volga and Ural or Jaik, he seems to +have travelled east in the country of the Kirguses, somewhere +about the latitude of 50°. N. to between the longitudes of +65°. and 70°. E. then to have struck to the south across +the Kisik-tag into Western Turkestan, in which the cultivated +vale may have been on the Tshui or the Talas +rivers.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On my arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, I learnt, that the +before mentioned Germans had been removed from the jurisdiction +of Baatu to a place named Bolac, a months journey to the east of +Talus, where they were employed to dig for gold, and to fabricate +arms. In the before mentioned town we learnt that Talas was near +the mountains behind us, at the distance of six days journey. +From the before mentioned village near the mountains[3], we went +directly eastwards, coasting these mountains; and from that time +we travelled among the immediate subjects of Mangu-khan, who in +all places sang and danced in honour of our guide, because he was +the messenger of Baatu; it being the custom for the subjects of +Mangu-khan to receive the messengers of Baatu in this manner, and +reciprocally, the subjects of Baatu shew like honour to the +messengers of Mnngu; yet the subjects of Baatu are more +independently spirited, and do not evince so much courtesy. A few +days afterwards, we entered upon the mountains where the +Cara-Catayans used to dwell, where we found a large river which +we had to pass in boats. We afterwards came to a cultivated +valley, in which were the ruins of a castle, which had been +surrounded by walls of mud or earth. After this we came to a +large village called Equius, inhabited by Mahometans, who spoke +Persian, although so far removed from Persia. On the day +following, having passed those Alps which descend from the high +mountains towards the south, we entered a most beautiful plain, +having high mountains upon our right hand, and a sea or lake on +our left, which is fifteen days journey in circumference[4]. This +plain is watered or irrigated at will, by means of streams +descending from these mountains, all of which fall into the +before mentioned lake. In the subsequent summer we returned by +the north side of this lake, where likewise there are great +mountains[5]. In this plain there used to be many towns; but most +of these have been destroyed by the Tartars, that the excellent +lands around them might be converted into pastures for their +cattle. We still found one large town named Cailac, in which was +a market frequented by many merchants; and we remained fifteen +days at this place, waiting for one of Baatu's scribes, who was +to assist our guide in the management of certain affairs at the +court of Mangu. This country used to be called Organum[6], and +the people Organa, as I was told, because the people were +excellent performers on the organ[7] or lute; and they had a +distinct language and peculiar manner of writing. It was now +entirely inhabited by the Contomanni, whose language and writing +are used by the Nestorians of these parts. I here first saw +idolaters, of whom there are many sects in the east.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Probably near the north side of the Arguin or +Alak mountains.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] This position of Rubruquis is sufficiently +distinct: Having ferried over the river Tshui, and crossed the +Jimbai mountains, the route now lay between the Alak mountain on +his right, or to the south, and the lake of Balkash or Palkati +Nor, to the left or north.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The Kisik-tag, which he had before passed in +descending into Western Turkestan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] This absurd derivation of the name of the country +and people, is unworthy of credit. Organum was probably the +country called Irgonekan or Irganakon by Abulgari; and the word +signifies a valley surrounded by steep mountains, exactly +correspondent with the description in the +text.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] The Contomanni or Kontomanians, were probably a +Mongal tribe, originally inhabiting the banks of the Konta or +Khonda, who had afterwards settled on the banks of the river Ili +and lake of Balkash. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXVI.</p> + +<p><i>How the Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed with +Idolaters</i>.</p> + +<p>In the first place arc the Jugurs, whose country borders upon +the land of Organum among the mountains towards the east, and in +all their towns Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed among the +natives. And they are diffused likewise in all the towns of the +Mahometans towards Persia. In the city of Cailac, or Cealac, +there are three idol temples, two of which I went into to observe +their folly. In one of these I found a person having a cross +marked with ink upon his hand, whence I supposed him a Christian, +and to all my questions he answered like a Christian. I asked him +wherefore he had not the cross and image of Christ, and he +answered, that it was not their custom; wherefore I concluded the +people were actually Christians, but omitted these things for +want of instruction. Behind a certain chest, which served for an +altar, and on which they placed candles and oblations, I saw an +image with wings like that of St Michael; and other images +holding out their fingers, as if blessing the spectators. That +evening I could make no farther discovery; for though the +Saracens invite one into their temples, they will not speak of +their religion[1]; insomuch, that when I inquired at them about +their ceremonies, they were much offended.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Saracens are here much abused by the mistake +of our traveller; as, however erroneous their religious opinions, +they worship the true God only, and abhor even the least +semblance of idolatry.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Next day being the Kalends, 1st December, was the passover of +the Saracens, and I changed my lodging to the neighbourhood of +another temple of idols; for the people of this place shew +hospitality to all messengers, every one according to his +abilities. In this other temple I found the priests of the idols, +who open and adorn the temples at the Kalends, and the people +make offerings of bread and fruits. I shall first describe the +general rites of idolatry, and then those of the Jugurs, who are +a kind of sect different from the others. They all worship +towards the north, with joined hands, prostrating themselves upon +their knees to the earth, and resting their foreheads on their +hands. For which reason the Nestorians never join their hands in +prayer, but spread their hands on their breasts. Their temples +are built from east to west, having a chamber or vestry for the +priests on the north; or if the building is square, they have a +similar chamber on the middle of the north side in place of a +choir, and before it is placed a long broad chest like a table, +behind which, facing the south, stands the principal idol. That +which I saw at Caracarum was as large as the picture of St +Christopher. A Nestorian priest, who came from Catay, told me +there was an idol in that country so large, that it could be seen +at the distance of two days journey[2]. Other idols are placed +around the principal one, and all are beautifully gilt; All the +gates of their temples open to the south, contrary to the customs +of the Mahometans; and they have large bells, as is the case with +us, wherefore the oriental Christians will not use them, though +they are customary among the Russians and the Greeks in +Casaria.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The Nestorian probably said an idol-house; +meaning one of the high towers usually erected near Chinese +temples: and even this must have stood upon a very elevated +situation, in an extensive plain, to be seen from so great a +distance, perhaps of sixty miles.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of their Temples and Idols, and the Worship of their +Gods</i>.</p> + +<p>All their priests shave their heads and beards, and are +clothed in yellow; and they live in companies of one or two +hundred together, observing strict celibacy. On holy days, they +sit in the temple on long benches, placed directly opposite each +other, holding books in their hands, which they sometimes lay on +the benches; and all the time they remain in the temples, they +have their heads bare, and they read to themselves, keeping +profound silence: Insomuch, that when I went into the temple, and +endeavoured all I could to provoke them to speak, I could not +succeed. Wherever they go, they carry a string with an hundred or +two hundred nut-shells, like our rosaries, and they are +continually uttering the words, <i>Ou mam Hactani</i>, which was +explained to me as signifying, <i>O God! thou knowest</i>. And as +often as they pronounce these words in remembrance of God, they +expect a proportional reward[1]. Round the temple, there is +always a handsome court, environed by a high wall, on the south +side of which is a large portal, in which they sit to confer +together; and over this portal they erect a long pole, rising if +possible above the whole city, that every one may know where to +find the temple. These things are common to all the +idolaters.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The following more complete account of this +superstition, has been deemed worthy of insertion.</blockquote> + +<p>On going to visit this temple, I found the priests sitting +under the outer portal; and those whom I saw, appeared, by their +shaven beards, like French friars. They wore conical caps of +paper on their heads; and all the priests of the Jugurs wear this +cap continually, and yellow strait tunics fastened down the +middle like those in France; besides which, they wear a cloak on +their left shoulder, flowing loosely before and behind, but +leaving the right arm free, somewhat like a deacon carrying the +pix in Lent. Their mode of writing is adopted by the Tartars. +They begin to write at the top of the page, and extend their +lines downwards, reading and writing from left to right. They +make great use of written papers in their magical incantations, +and their temples are hung round with short written sentences. +The letters sent by Mangu-khan to your majesty, are written in +these characters, and in the language of the Moal. These people +burn their dead in the manner of the ancients, and deposit the +ashes on the top of certain pyramids. After sitting for some time +beside these priests, and having entered their temple to look at +their many images, some large and others small, I asked what was +their belief concerning God? To which they answered, that they +believed in one God only. On asking them whether he was a spirit +or of a corporeal nature, they said he was a spirit. Being asked +if God had ever assumed the human mature, they answered never. +Since, then, said I, you believe God to be a spirit, wherefore do +yow make so many images of him; and as you believe that he never +took upon him the human form, wherefore do you represent him +under the image of a man, rather than of any other creature? To +this they answered, we do not make images of God; but when any of +our rich men die, or their wives or children, or dear friends, +they cause images to be made of the deceased, which are placed in +the temple, which we venerate in respect to their memory. Then, +said I, you do these things in flattery of men: but they insisted +it was only in remembrance. They then asked me, as if in +derision, where is God? To this I answered by another question, +where is your soul? and they said, in our bodies. Then, said I, +is it not in every part of your body, ruling over the whole, yet +cannot be seen. Even in the same manner God is everywhere, ruling +all things, yet is invisible, being intelligence and wisdom. I +would willingly have proceeded in this conference, but my +interpreter became weary and unable to express my meaning, so +that I was obliged to desist.</p> + +<p>The Moals and Tartars follow the same religion, in so far that +they believe in one only God; but they make images in felt of +their departed friends, which they cover with fine costly +garments. These they carry about with them in one or two +appropriate carts, which no person must touch, except their +priests or soothsayers who have the care of them. This is to be +understood only of the great men who are of the race of Zingis, +for the poor or meaner people have none such. These soothsayers +constantly attend upon the court of Mangu and other great +personages; and when the court moves, these men precede the +march, like the pillar of cloud before the children of Israel. +They determine on the site of the new encampment, and unload +their houses first, after which they are imitated by the whole +court. On days of festival, such as the kalends or commencements +of their months, these images are placed in order around their +idol houses, and the Moals enter in and bow themselves before +these images, to do them reverence. Strangers are never permitted +to enter, so that once endeavouring to go into one of these +tabernacles, I was sore chidden for my presumption.</p> + +<p>"These supposed Nestorian Christians were undoubtedly +professors of the religion of the Dalai-Lama, who had several +usages and ceremonies resembling corrupt Christianity. Like the +Roman catholics, they had rosaries, containing 108 beads, and +their prayer is, <i>Hom-Mani-Pema- Hum</i>. This does not +signify, as asserted by Rubruquis, <i>God! thou knowest it</i>; +nor, as supposed by Messerschmid, <i>God have mercy on us</i>. +But its true import is, that <i>Mani</i>, who holds the flowers +of the Lotus, <i>and is the beginning and end of the higher +Magic</i>, may <i>hear</i> their prayers, be <i>propitious</i> to +them, and render them <i>happy</i>.</p> + +<p>"They have rolls or cylinders inscribed with their prayers, +which they twirl round on an axis, continually pronouncing these +mystic words, and they believe that all the prayers on these +rolls are virtually pronounced at each turn of the roll; The +religion of the Dalai-Lama, is a branch of the Shamanian and +Braminical superstitions, and has for its foundation the +Manichaean doctrine of the two principles, which Manes attempted +to incorporate into the Christian religion, so that it is no +wonder the practices of the followers of the Dalai-Lama should +resemble those of the Manichaean and Nestorian +Christians."--Forst. Voy. and Disc. 105.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXVIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of sundry Nations, and of certain People who used to eat +their Parents</i>.</p> + +<p>I am convinced that these Jugurs, who are mixed with +Christians and Mahometans, have arrived at the knowledge and +belief of one God, by frequent disputations with them. This +nation dwells in cities, which were brought under subjection to +Zingis, who gave his daughter in marriage to their king. Even +Caracarum is in a manner in their territories. The whole country +of Prester John and of Vut or Unc, his brother, lay round the +territories of the Jugurs, only that the subjects of the former +inhabited the pasture lands on the north, while the Jugurs dwelt +among the mountains to the south. As the Moals have adopted the +writing of the Jugurs, these latter are the chief Scribes among +the Tartars, and almost all the Nestorians are acquainted with +their letters.</p> + +<p>Next to the Jugurs, among the mountains to the east, are the +Tanguts, a powerful people who once made Zingis prisoner in +battle; but having concluded peace, he was set at liberty, and +afterwards subdued them. Among the Tanguts, there are oxen of +great strength, having flowing tails like horses, and their backs +and bellies covered with long hair. These are shorter legged than +other oxen, but much fiercer, having long, slender, straight, and +very sharp pointed horns, and they are much used for drawing the +great houses of the Moals; but the cows will not allow themselves +to be yoked unless they are sung to at the same time. These +animals are of the nature of the buffalo, for when they see a +person clothed in red, they run furiously upon him to put him to +death.</p> + +<p>Beyond these are the people of Tebet, who were wont to eat the +dead bodies of their parents, from a motive of piety, considering +that to be the most honourable sepulchre; but they have +discontinued this custom, which was looked upon as abominable by +all other nations. They still, however, continue to make handsome +drinking cups of the skulls of their parents, that they may call +them to remembrance even in their mirth. I received this +information from an eye-witness. In their country there is much +gold, so that any one who is in want, digs till he finds enough +for his necessities, and leaves the rest behind for another +occasion; for they have an opinion, that God would conceal all +other gold from them in the earth, if they were to hoard any in +their houses. I saw some of these people, who are much deformed. +The people of Tangut are tall lusty men of a brown complexion. +The Jugurs are of middle stature like ourselves, and their +language is the root or origin of the Turkish and Comanian +languages.</p> + +<p>Beyond Tebet, are the people of Langa and Solanga[1], whose +messengers I saw in the court of Mangu-khan, who had along with +them more than ten great carts, each drawn by six oxen. These are +little brown men like the Spaniards, and are dressed in tunics or +jackets, like our deacons, with straiter sleeves. They wear a +kind of caps like the mitres of our bishops; but the fore part is +less than the hinder part, and ends square, instead of being +pointed. These are made of straw, stiffened by great heat, and so +well polished, that they glister in the sun like a mirror or well +polished helmet. Round their temples, they have long bands of the +same material, fixed to their caps, which stream to the wind like +two long horns from their temples. When too much tossed by the +wind, they fold these over the top of their caps. When the +principal messenger entered the court, he held in his hand a +smooth ivory tablet about a foot long and a palm broad; and when +spoken to by the khan, or any other great man, he always looked +on his tablet as if he had seen there what was spoken, never +looking to the right or the left, or to the person who spoke to +him. Even in coming into the presence and in retiring, he looked +perpetually at his tablet.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster conjectures that the original words of +Rubruquis are here corrupted, and that this passage ought to have +been "beyond Tangut," instead of beyond Tebet or Thibet; in which +case, the countries of Langa and Solanga, may refer to that of +the Lamuts and Solonians, the ancestors of the Mantschus or +Mundschurians.--Voy. and Disc. 108.</blockquote> + +<p>Beyond these people, as I have been told for truth, there is a +nation called Muc, inhabiting towns, in whose country there are +numerous flocks and herds which are never tended, as no person +appropriates any of these exclusively; but when any one is in +need of a beast, he ascends a hill and gives a loud cry, on which +all the cattle within hearing flock around him and suffer +themselves to be taken, as if they were domesticated. When a +messenger or any stranger goes into that country, he is +immediately shut up in a house, where all necessaries are +provided for him, till his business is concluded; for they +affirm, that if any stranger were to travel about their country, +the animals would flee away from his scent, and become wild.</p> + +<p>Beyond the country of these people, lies Great Cathaya, whose +inhabitants I believe to have been the Seres[2] of the ancients, +as from thence came the most excellent silken stuffs; and these +people were called Seres after the name of one of their towns. I +have been told, that in that country there is a town having walls +of silver and towers of gold. In that land there are many +provinces, the greater part of which are not yet subjected to the +Moals, and the sea is interposed between them and India. These +Kathayans are men of small stature, with small eyes, and speak +much through the nose. They are excellent workmen in all kinds of +handicraft; their physicians judge exactly of diseases by the +pulse, and are very skilful in the use of herbs, but have no +knowledge in regard to the urine of sick persons. Some of these +people I saw at Caracarum, where there are always considerable +numbers; and the children are always brought up to the same +employments with their fathers. They pay to the Moals or Mongals, +a tribute of 1500 cassinos or jascots every day[3], besides large +quantities of silks and provisions, and they perform many other +services. All the nations between mount Caucasus, and from the +north of these mountains to the east sea, and in all the south of +Scythia, which is inhabited by the Moal shepherds, are tributary, +and are all addicted to idolatry. The Nestorians and Saracens are +intermixed with them as strangers, as far as Kathay, in which +country the Nestorians inhabit fifteen cities, and have a bishop +in a city called Segan[4]. These Nestorians are very ignorant, +for they say their service in the Syrian tongue, in which all +their holy books are written, and of which language they are +entirely ignorant, and sing their service as our monks do who +have not learnt Latin. They are great usurers and drunkards, and +some of them who live among the Tartars, have adopted their +customs, and even have many wives. When they enter the churches, +they wash their lower parts like the Saracens, eat no flesh on +Fridays, and hold their festivals on the same days with them. +Their bishops come seldom into the country, perhaps only once in +fifty years, and then cause all the little children to be made +priests, some even in the cradle; so that almost every Nestorian +man is a priest, yet all have wives, which is contrary to the +decrees of the fathers. They are even bigamists, for their +priests, when their wives die, marry again. They are all +Simonists, as they give no holy thing without pay. They are +careful of their wives and children, applying themselves to gain, +and not to propagating the faith. Hence, though some of them are +employed to educate the children of the Mongal nobility, and even +teach them the articles of the Christian faith, yet by their evil +lives they drive them from Christianity, as the moral conduct of +the Mongals and Tuinians[5], who are downright idolaters, is far +more upright than theirs.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] In this supposition Rubruquis was certainly +mistaken, as the Seres of the ancients appear to have lived in +Turkestan, Gete, and Uigur, and to have then ruled over a great +track of eastern central Asia, and may have extended their +commerce to northern China. Hence the original name of silk was +certainly either adopted from or applied to the intermediate +nation, through whom that precious commodity was transmitted to +the western nations.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] A jascot is described as a piece of silver +weighing ten marks, so that the tribute is 15,000 marks daily, or +about 5 1/2 millions of marks yearly, and is equal in weight of +silver, to L. 8,650,000 Sterling; perhaps equal, in real +efficacious value, to ten times that sum, and probably superior +to the yearly revenue of all the sovereigns then in +Europe.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Singan, or Singan-fu in the province of Shensee. +In the year 1625, a stone was found here, inscribed with Chinese +characters and a Syrian inscription round the borders, implying, +that in the year 636, the Nestorians had sent Olopuen into China +to propagate the gospel; and that the emperor Tai-sum-ven had +approved this step, and allowed the Christian religion to be +propagated through all China, with many other particulars +relative to the history of Christianity in China. This stone bore +to have been erected in 782 by Mar Isdabuzzid, priest, and +Chorepiscopus of Cumdan, the royal city of the east, now Nankin. +See a dissertation on this monument, following Renaudet's +translation of the two Mahometan travellers, London, 1788, p. +76.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Mani or Manes is named Thenaoui by the oriental +Christians, and the sect of Manicheans they call Al-Thenaouib, or +those who hold the doctrines of the two principles. These +Tuinians, therefore, of Rubruquis, are probably the +Manicheans.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of Cailac, and the Country of the Naymans</i>.</p> + +<p>We departed from the city of Cailac on St Andrew's day, 30th +of November, and in three leagues we found a village of +Nestorians, where we went into their church, and sang <i>salve +regina</i>, and other hymns, with great joy. In three days after +we came to the entrance of that province, not far from the before +mentioned sea, which seemed as tempestuous as the ocean, and in +which we saw a large island. The water was slightly salt, yet +might be drank. Opposite to it was a valley with another salt +sea, from which a river ran into this one. There was so strong a +wind that the passage was dangerous, as we much feared to be +blown into the lake; wherefore we went north into the hilly +country, covered with deep snow, and on St Nicholas day, 6th +December, we hastened our journey, as we found no inhabitants +except the <i>Jani</i>, or men appointed to conduct the +messengers from one day's journey to another. On the 7th of +December we passed between two terrible rocks, when the guide +sent entreating me to pray to God: we sang accordingly with a +loud voice, the <i>credo</i> and other hymns, and by the grace of +God we got through in safety.</p> + +<p>After this the Tartars entreated me to write papers for them; +but I offered to teach them words to carry in their hearts, +whereby their souls should be saved. Yet wanting an interpreter +for this, I wrote them the creed and the Lord's prayer, desiring +them to believe what was written in the one, and that the other +contained a prayer to God for all that is necessary to man, and +that though they could not understand these, I hoped God would +save them.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXX.</p> + +<p><i>Description of the Country of the Naymans, with an Account +of the Death of Ken-khan and of his Wife and Eldest Son</i>.</p> + +<p>After this we entered into the country where the court of +Ken-khan used to be held, which was formerly called the country +of the Naymans, who were the peculiar subjects of Prester John. +Though I did not see that court till my return, I shall briefly +mention what befel his son and wives. Ken-khan being dead, Baatu +desired that Mangu should be khan, but I could not learn exactly +the manner of Ken-khan's death. Friar Andrew says he died of the +effects of a medicine, which Baatu was suspected of having +procured to be given him. I heard, on the other hand, that he +summoned Baatu to do him homage, who accordingly began his +journey with much external pomp, but with great inward +apprehensions, sending forward his brother Stichin; who, when he +came to Keu-khan, and ought to have presented him with the cup, +high words arose between them, and they slew one another. The +widow of Stichin kept us a whole day at her house, that we might +pray for her and bless her. When Ken was dead, and Mangu chosen +emperor by the consent of Baatu, which was when friar Andrew was +there, Siremon, the brother of Ken, at the instigation of the +wife and peculiar vassals of Ken, went with a great train, as if +to do homage to Mangu, but with the intention of putting him and +all his court to death. When within a few days journey of the +court of Mangu, one of his waggons broke down, and a servant of +Mangu happened to assist the waggoner in repairing it. This man +was very inquisitive into the objects of the journey, and the +waggoner revealed the whole plot to him. Pretending to make very +light of the matter, he went privately and took a good horse from +the herd, and rode with great speed with the intelligence to the +court of Mangu; who quickly assembled his forces, and placing a +strong guard around his court; sent the rest against Siremon, and +brought him and all his followers prisoners to court. He +confessed his intentions, and he and his eldest son, with 300 +noble Tartars of their party, were put to death. The ladies were +also sent for who were concerned in the plot, and being beaten +with burning fire-brands till they confessed, were slain +likewise. Kon, the youngest son of Siremon, who was incapable of +entering into the conspiracy, from his youth, was permitted to +enjoy the inheritance of his father; but our guide durst not +enter the house either in going or returning.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXI.</p> + +<p><i>Arrival at the Court of Mangu-khan</i>.</p> + +<p>We still travelled in the high countries, trending towards the +north; and on St Stephen's day, 26th December, we came to a great +plain, on which not the smallest inequality was to be seen, and +the next day we arrived at the court of the great Khan. While at +the distance of five days, our host wanted us to have gone so far +about as would have taken us fifteen day's journey, and our guide +had much difficulty in being allowed to take the direct road. My +opinion of this procedure in our host, was, that we might have +gone by Onam and Cherule, the original residence of Zingis[1]. On +the way, the secretary told me that Baatu, in his letters to +Mangu, said that we wanted the assistance of a Tartar army +against the Saracens; by which I was much astonished, as I knew +the letters from your majesty required no army, and only advised +the khan to be a friend to all Christians, to exalt the cross, +and to be an enemy to all the enemies of the cross of Christ. And +as all the interpreters were from the Greater Armenia, who +greatly hated the Saracens, I feared they might have interpreted +falsely to serve their own purposes. I therefore held my peace, +fearing to gainsay the words of Baatu.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The country on the Onon and Kerlon, in Daouria, +or the land of the Tunguses.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>On our arrival at court, our guide had a large house appointed +for him, and only a small cottage was given to us three, which +would hardly contain our baggage, our beds, and a small fire. +Many came to our guide with drink made of rice, in long necked +bottles, which had no difference from the best wine, except that +it smelt otherwise. We were called soon after, and examined upon +our business. I answered, "That hearing Sartach had become a +Christian, the king our master had sent us to him with a letter; +that he had sent us to Baatu, who had sent us hither, and that he +therefore ought to have assigned the cause of our being here." +They then demanded if we would make peace with them. To this I +answered, "That having done them no wrong, they had no cause of +going to war with your majesty; that your majesty, as a just +king, if you had done any wrong, would make reparation, and +desire peace; but if warred against without cause, we trusted in +the help of a just God." At this they seemed all astonished, +constantly exclaiming, "Did you not come to make peace?" For they +are so puffed up with pride, that they think the whole world +should make peace with them; but if I might be suffered, I would +preach war against them to the utmost of my power. I dared not +deliver the true cause of my journey, lest, in so doing, I might +contradict what had been written by Baatu, and therefore always +said we came because he sent us.</p> + +<p>The day following I went to the court barefooted, at which the +people stared; but a Hungarian boy, who was among diem, knew our +order, and told them the reason; on which a Nestorian, who was +chief secretary, asked many questions at the Hungarian, and we +went back to our lodgings. On our return, at the end of the +court, towards the east, I saw a small house, with a little cross +at top, at which I greatly rejoiced, supposing there might be +some Christians there. I went in boldly, and found an altar well +furnished, having a golden cloth, adorned with images of Christ, +the Virgin, St John the Baptist, and two angels; the lines of +their body and garments being formed with small pearls. On the +altar was a large silver cross, ornamented with precious stones, +and many other embroiderings; and a lamp with eight lights burned +before the altar. Sitting beside the altar I saw an Armenian +monk, somewhat black and lean, clad in a rough hairy coat to the +middle of his leg, above which was a coarse black cloak, furred +with spotted skins, and he was girded with iron under his +haircloth. Before saluting the monk, we fell flat on the earth, +singing Ave regina and other hymns, and the monk joined in our +prayers. These being finished, we sat down beside the monk, who +had a small fire before him in a pan. He told us that he had come +a month before us, being a hermit in the territories of +Jerusalem, who had been warned by God in a vision, to go to the +prince of the Tartars. After some conversation, we went to our +lodgings. Having eaten nothing that day, we made a little broth +of flesh and millet for our supper. Our guide and his companions +were made drunk at the court, and very little care was taken of +us. Next morning the ends of my toes were so frostbit by the +extreme cold of the country, that I could no longer go +barefooted. From the time when the frost begins, it never ceases +till May, and even then it freezes every night and morning, but +thaws with the heat of the sun during the day. If they had much +wind in that country during winter, as we have, nothing could +live there; but they have always mild weather till April, and +then the winds rise; and at that season, while we were there, the +cold rising with the wind, killed multitudes of animals. In the +winter little snow fell there; but about Easter, which was that +year in the latter end of April, there fell so great a snow, that +the streets of Caracarum were so full, it had to be carried out +in carts.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXII.</p> + +<p><i>The Introduction of Rubruquis to Mangu-khan</i>.</p> + +<p>The people brought us from the court ram-skin coats, and +breeches of the same, with shoes, which my companion and +interpreter accepted, but I thought the fur garment which I +brought from Baatu was sufficient for me. On the 5th of January, +we were brought to the court, and some Nestorian priests, whom I +did not know to be Christians, came and asked me which way we +worshipped; to which I said, that we worshipped to the east. The +reason of their making this demand was, that we had shaven our +heads by the advice of our guide, that we might appear before the +khan after the fashion of our country, which made the Nestorians +take us for Tuinians or idolaters. On being demanded what +reverence we would pay to the khan, I said, that though as +priests, dedicated to God, the highest in our country did not +suffer us to bow the knee, yet we were willing to humble +ourselves to all men for the sake of the Lord. That we came from +a far country, and with permission, would first sing praises to +God, who had brought us hither in safety, and should afterwards +do whatever might please the khan; providing he commanded nothing +that was derogatory to the worship and honour of God. Then they +went into the presence, and reported what we had said, and they +brought us before the entrance of the hall, lifting up the felt +which hung before the decor, and we sung <i>A solis ortus +cardine</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>When we had sung this hymn, they searched our bosoms, to see +that we had no concealed weapons, and they made our interpreter +leave his girdle and knife with one of the doorkeepers. When we +came in, our interpreter was made to stand at a sideboard, which +was well supplied with cosmos, and we were placed on a form +before the ladies. The whole house was hung with cloth of gold, +and on a hearth, in the middle, there was a fire of thorns, +wormwood- roots, and cowdung. The khan sat upon a couch covered +with a bright and shining spotted fur, like seal's skin. He was a +flat-nosed man, of middle stature, about forty-five years of age, +and one of his wives, a pretty little young woman, sat beside +him; likewise one of his daughters, named Cerina, a hard-favoured +young woman, with some younger children, sat on another couch +next to them. The house had belonged to the mother of Cerina, who +was a Christian, and the daughter was mistress of this court, +which had belonged to her deceased mother, We were asked whether +we would drink wine of <i>caracina</i>, which is a drink made of +rice, or caracosmos, or <i>ball</i>, which is mead made of honey; +for they use these four kinds of liquor in winter. I answered, +that we had no pleasure in drink, and would be contented with +what he pleased to order; on which we were served with caracina, +which was clear and well flavoured like white wine, of which I +tasted a little out of respect. After a long interval, during +which the khan amused himself with some falcons and other birds, +we were commended to speak, and had to bow the knee. The khan had +his interpreter, a Nestorian; but our interpreter had received so +much liquor from the butlers at the sideboard, that he was quite +drunk; I addressed the khan in the following terms:</p> + +<p>"We give thanks and praise to God, who hath brought us from +such remote parts of the world, to the presence of Mangu-khan, on +whom he hath bestowed such great power; and we beseech our God to +grant him a long and prosperous reign. Having heard that Sartach +was become a Christian, the Christians of the west, especially +the King of the French, were much rejoiced, and sent us onto him +with letters, testifying that we were servants of the Lord, and +entreating him to permit us to abide in his country, as it is our +office to teach men the law of God. Sartach sent us forwards to +his father Baatu, and he hath sent us to you, to whom God hath +given great dominions upon the earth; we therefore entreat your +highness to permit us to continue in your country, that we may +pray to God for you, your wives, and children. We have neither +gold nor silver, nor precious jewels to offer, but we present +ourselves to do you service, and to pray to God for you. At +least, be pleased to permit us to remain till the cold be past, +as my companion is so weak, that he cannot travel on horseback +without danger of Ms life." His answer was to this effect: "Even +as sun sheds his beams everywhere, so our power, and that of +Baata, extend everywhere around, so that we have no need of your +gold or silver." I entreated his highness not to be displeased at +me for mentioning gold and silver, as I spoke in that manner only +to evince our desire to do him honour, and to serve him in +heavenly things. Hitherto, I had understood our interpreter, but +he was now drunk and could not make out any perfect sentence, and +it appeared to me that the khan was drunk likewise; wherefore I +held my peace. Then he made us rise and sit down again, and after +a few words of compliment, we withdrew from the presence. One of +the secretaries, and the interpreter, who had the charge of +educating one of his daughters, went with us, and were very +inquisitive about the kingdom of France, particularly inquiring +whether it had plenty of sheep, cattle, and horses, as if they +meant to make it all their own; and I had often to bridle my +indignation and anger at their presumptuous boastings.</p> + +<p>They appointed one to take care of us, and we went to the +monk; and when we were about to return to; our lodging, the +interpreter came to us, saying, that Mangu-khan gave us two +months to stay, till the extreme cold were past; and we might +either go ten day's journey from thence to the city of Caracarum, +or might remain with the court. Then I answered, "God preserve +Mangu-khan, and grant him a long and happy life: We have found +this monk, whom we think a holy man, and we would willingly +remain, and pray along with him for the prosperity of the khan." +We then went to our dwelling, which we found very cold, as we had +no fuel, and we were yet fasting, though it was then night; but +he who had the care of us provided us some fuel and a little +food; and our guide, who was now to return to Baatu, begged a +carpet from us which we had left in that court, which we gave +him, and he departed in peace.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of a Woman of Lorain, and a Goldsmith of Paris, and several +other Christians, whom they found at the Court of +Mangu-kkan</i>.</p> + +<p>We had the good fortune to meet with a woman, named Pascha, +from Metz in Lorain, who belonged to the court of Cerina, who +told us of the strange poverty she had endured before she came to +this court, but who now lived well, as she had a young Russian +husband, who was a skilful builder, and much esteemed among them, +by whom she had three fine children, and this woman contributed +all in her power to our comfort. She told us, that there was a +goldsmith at Caracarura, one William Bouchier from Paris, the son +of Lawrence Bouchier, and who had a brother, Roger Bouchier, yet +living upon the Great Bridge. She told me likewise, that he had a +son who was an excellent interpreter; but that Manga-khan had +delivered to the goldsmith 300 jascots of silver, equal to 3000 +marks, and fifty workmen, to make a certain piece of work, so +that she feared he would not then be able to spare his son to +interpret for us. I wrote to this goldsmith, requesting him to +send his son to me; he said in answer, that he could not at the +time, but would send him next moon, when his work would be +finished. At the court of Baatu no intercourse could be had with +other ambassadors, as each was under the charge of a particular +<i>Jani</i>; but in that of Mangu, all were under one Jani, and +might see and converse with each other. We found here a certain +Christian from Damascus, who said that he came from the sultan of +Mons Regalis and Crax, who desired to become the ally and +tributary of the great khan.</p> + +<p>The year before I came thither, there was a certain clerk of +Aeon or Ptolemais in Syria, who called himself Raimund, but his +true name was Theodolus. This man went with friar Andrew from +Cyprus into Persia, and procured certain instruments from +Amoricus, who remained in Persia after Andrew returned. Theodolus +went forwards with these instruments to the khan, pretending that +a certain bishop had received letters from heaven in gold +characters, saying that the khan should be king of the whole +earth, but that his horse had fled from him among woods and +mountains, so that he had lost all. And Theodolus engaged to +conduct ambassadors from the khan to the Pope and the king of +France. Then Mangu caused an exceedingly strong bow to be made, +which two men could hardly bend, and two arrows made of silver, +full of holes in their heads, which whistled when they were shot; +and he chose a Moal to accompany Theodolus as his ambassador, +ordering him to present these things to the king of France, and +to say, if he would have peace with the Tartars, they would +conquer the country of the Saracens, and would grant him ail the +other countries of the west. But if the king refused, the Moal +was to bring back the bow and arrows, and to inform the king that +the Tartars shot far and sharp with such bows. The khan then +caused Theodolus to go out, and the son of William Bouchier, who +acted as interpreter for Theodolus, heard the khan order the +Moal, who was to accompany him, to mark well all the ways, and +the castles, and the people, and the mountains, in the course of +his journey. And the young man blamed Theodolus for engaging to +conduct the Tartar messengers, as they went only to spy the land. +But Theodolus said he would take them by sea, so that they should +not know the way. Mangu gave to his Moal a golden bull or tablet +of an hand breadth, and half a cubit long, inscribed with his +orders; and whoever bears this, may everywhere command what he +pleases. On their journey through the dominions of Vestacius, +whence Theodolus meant to pass over to the Pope, that he might +deceive him as he had done Mangu. Vestacius demanded of him +whether he had letters for the Pope; but having none to show, +Vestacius concluded he was an impostor, and cast him into prison. +The Moal fell sick and died there, and Vestacius sent back the +golden tablet by the servants of the Moal, whom I met at Assron, +in the entrance into Turkey, and from them I learnt all that +happened to Theodolus.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXIV.</p> + +<p><i>Of a Grand Feast given by Mangu-khan and of the Ceremonies +of the Nestorians</i>.</p> + +<p>Epiphany was now at hand, and the Armenian monk, Sergins, told +me, that he was to baptize Mangu-khan on that day. I entreated +him to use his utmost endeavours that I might be present on the +occasion, which he faithfully promised. When the day came, the +monk did not call me, but I was sent for to court at six o'clock, +and I met the monk returning with his cross, and the Nestorian +priests with their censers, and the gospel of the day. It is the +custom of Mangu to make a feast on such days as are pointed out +by his soothsayers, or the Nestorian priests; and on these days +the Christians came first to court and pray for him, and bless +his cup, after which the Saracen priests do the same, and after +them the idolatrous priests. The monk pretended that he only +believed the Christians, yet would have all to pray for him; but +in this Sergius lied, for he believes none, but all follow his +court as flies do honey. He gives to all, and all think they are +his familiars, and all prophecy prosperity to him. Then we sat +down before the court, and they brought us flesh to eat, which I +refused, saying, that if they would provide for us, it ought to +be at our house. They then desired us to go home, as we were only +sent for that we might eat. On my return I called on the monk, +who was ashamed of the lie he had told me, and would not, +therefore, say any more of the matter; yet some of the Nestorians +affirmed, that the khan had been baptized, but I said that I +would neither believe it, nor report it to others, as I had not +been present.</p> + +<p>We came to our old empty house, where they provided us in +bedding and coverlids, and gave us some fuel They gave us the +carcase of a small lean sheep, as food for us three in six days, +and lent us a pot and trivet to boil our flesh, and gave us a +platter of millet every day. We boiled our meat first in water, +and afterwards boiled our millet in the broth; and that was our +whole allowance, which would have sufficed if we had been +suffered to eat in peace, but there were many starved fellows +about the court that thrust themselves in among us, and insisted +to partake. The cold became very severe, and Mangu-khan sent us +three fur coats, with the hair outwards, which we thankfully +received; but we represented that we had not a house in which we +could pray for the khan, our cottage being so small that we could +scarcely stand up in it, neither could we open our books on +account of smoke, after the fire was lighted. On this the khan +sent to ask the monk if he would be pleased with our company, who +gladly received us; and after this we had a better house before +the court, where none lodged but we and the soothsayers, they in +front of the first lady, and we at the farthest end, towards the +east, before the palace of the last lady. We made this alteration +on the 13th of January.</p> + +<p>Next morning all the Nestorian priests collected at the +chapel, and smote on a board, instead of ringing a bell. They +then sang matins very reverently, put on all their ornaments, and +prepared the censer and incense. After waiting some time, Cotata +Caten[1], the principal wife of the khan, came into the chapel, +attended by many ladies, and having with her Baltu, her eldest +son, and several other children. All these prostrated themselves, +ducking after the manner of the Nestorians; they then touched all +the images and kissed their hands, and afterwards gave the right +hand of fellowship to all who stood beside them, which is the +custom among the Nestorians. The priest sang many hymns, and gave +the lady some incense in her hand, which she threw into the fire, +and then the priests perfumed her. After this she began to put +off the ornaments of her head, called Bacca, and I saw her +bareheaded; but as we were now commanded to leave the chapel, I +know not what followed. As I was going out I saw a silver basin +brought, but I am ignorant if she was then baptized, but rather +think not; because at Easter I saw a fount consecrated with great +solemnity, and some persons baptized, but no such ceremony was +seen on the present occasion, and I know they do not celebrate +the mass in a tent, but only in a standing church.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Caten signifies <i>lady</i> and Cotata was her +particular name.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>During our absence, Mangu-khan himself came to the chapel, +into which a golden bed was brought, on which he sat with his +queen, opposite the altar. We were then sent for, and a +door-keeper searched us for concealed weapons. On going in with a +bible, and breviary in my bosom, I first bowed down before the +altar, and then made an obeisance to Mangu-khan, who caused our +books to be brought to him, and enquired the signification of the +images or pictures with which they were ornamented, to which the +Nestorians answered as they thought proper, because we had not +our interpreter. Being desired to sing a psalm after our manner, +we chanted <i>Veni sancte Spiritus</i>. Then the khan departed, +but the lady remained, and distributed gifts to all the +Christians present. She gave the monk Sergius a jascot, and +another to the archdeacon of the Nestorians, and she caused a +<i>nassic</i> or large cloth like a coverlet, and a buckram, to +be spread out before us; and as I declined the offer, she sent +them to our interpreter, who sold the nassic at Cyprus, for +eighteen gold sultanies, though it was much the worse for the +carriage. Then red wine, like that of Rochelle, and caracina and +cosmos were brought, and the lady holding a cupful in her hand, +desired a blessing on her knees, and she drank it up, we and all +the priests singing with a loud voice.</p> + +<p>Another time, when they were mostly all drunk, the carcass of +a sheep was brought in and presently devoured, and then some +large fishes, resembling our carp, which they eat without bread +or salt. And when the lady was drunk, she took her chariot and +went away, the priests singing all the while. Next Sunday, the +son of the khan, by a Christian mother, came to the chapel and +acted in a similar manner, but not with so much solemnity, and +only gave the priests to drink, and some parched millet to eat. +Before the first Sunday in Lent, the Nestorians fast three days, +which they call the fast of Jonas; and the Armenians fast five +days in honour of St Lorkis, their tutelary saint. The Nestorians +begin their fast on Tuesday and end it on Thursday, and on Friday +they bless the flesh, as if it were the Paschal Lamb. The monk +sent to Mangu to fast that week, which he did; and on the +Armenian Easter, he went in procession to the house of Mangu, +accompanied by us and the Nestorian priests. While we went in, +some servants met us carrying out some shoulder-blades of sheep, +burnt as black as coals; and on enquiring, I learnt that the khan +performs a divination, before undertaking any important matter, +in this manner. He causes three of these bones to be brought to +him unburnt, which are sought for all over the <i>Leskar</i> or +Tartar camp for this purpose; and these bones are burnt in a +particular fire, and then brought to him again. If the bones are +cracked across, or round pieces fly out of them in burning, it is +considered an evil omen; but if they crack lengthways, even one +of the three, he then proceeds in his design.</p> + +<p>When we went in before Mangu, the Nestorian priests gave him +incense, which he put upon the censer, with which they perfumed +him. Then they sung and blessed his cup, which was done next by +the monk, and lastly by us. After he had drunk, the attendants +gave drink to the priests, but we went out; and my companion +staying last, turned round near the door to make his obeisance to +the khan, and hastily turning again to follow us, stumbled on the +threshold, for which he was seized and carried before the +<i>Bulgai</i>, who is the chancellor or chief secretary of the +court, and judges those who are arraigned on matters of life and +death. But I knew not of all this, as missing him on looking +back, I thought he had been detained to receive thinner apparel, +for he was very weak, and could hardly walk under his load of +garments. He was sent home in the evening, and the monk sharply +rebuked him for having touched the threshold. Next day, the +Bulgai came to me, and demanded to know if any one had warned us +against touching the threshold; to which I answered, that as we +had not our interpreter along with us, we should not have +understood them if the caution had been given. On this my +companion was pardoned, but was never allowed, afterwards to come +into any of the houses of Mangu-khan.</p> + +<p>From the house of the khan, we went to that of his eldest son, +who had two wives, and lodged next on the right from his father. +As soon as he saw us approach, he leapt from his bed and +prostrated himself before the cross, striking the ground with his +forehead, then rising and kissing the cross, he caused it to be +placed on a new cloth, in a high place, very reverently. He has a +tutor, named David, to instruct him, who is a Nestorian priest +and a great drunkard. The prince gave drink to the priests, and +he drank himself, after the priests had blessed his cup. From him +we went to the court of Cota, the khans second lady, who is an +idolater, and whom we found very sick; yet the Armenian monk made +her rise from bed and adore the cross on her knees, with many +ceremonies. We then went to the third court, in which a Christian +lady formerly resided; but on her death, she was succeeded by a +young woman, who, with the khans daughter, joyfully received us, +and worshipped the cross with great reverence. We went then into +the house of the young lady Cerina, behind the third court, which +had formerly belonged to her mother, who likewise worshipped the +cross with great devotion. We next went into the court of the +fourth and last lady, whose house was very old, but the khan gave +her a new house and new chariots after Easter. This lady was an +idolater, yet she worshipped the cross, according to the +directions of the monk and priests. From that place we returned +to our oratory, the monks accompanying us with great howlings and +outcries in their drunkenness, as they had been plentifully +supplied with drink at every visit; but this is not considered as +blameable or unseemly, either in man or woman in these parts.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXV.</p> + +<p><i>Of a great Cure performed by the Armenian monk Sergius, on +one of the Wives of Mangu-khan</i>.</p> + +<p>Sometime after the lady Cota was sick almost to death, and the +divination by lot of the idolaters did her no good. Mangu-khan +then sent for the monk, who indiscreetly engaged to cure her on +the forfeiture of his head. On this, the monk sent for us, and +entreated us, with tears, to watch and pray all night along with +him, which we did. He took of a certain root called rhubarb, +which he beat to powder and put among water, along with a little +crucifix, and he used to give of that water to all sick persons, +which griped them by reason of its bitterness, and which they +attributed to a miracle. I proposed to prepare some holy water, +according to the rites of the church of Rome, which hath great +power to cast out devils, as I understood the lady was vexed of a +devil[1]. At his request, I consecrated some holy water, which he +mingled with the rhubarb, and left his crucifix all night in the +mixture.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] From the whole of this story, it would appear +that the lady Cota was hysterical from constipation; and that +Sergius had the good fortune to remove the cause by a few doses +of rhubarb.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Next morning I and the monk and two Nestorian priests went to +the lady, who was then in a small house behind her great one. She +sat up in her bed and worshipped the cross, laying it honourably +by her upon a silken cloth; she drank of the holy water mixed +with rhubarb, and washed her breast, and, at the desire of the +monk, I read the passion of our Lord according to St John, over +her. At length she felt herself relieved, and ordered four +jascots to be brought, which she first laid at the foot of the +cross, and gave three to the monk, offering one to me, which I +refused; then the monk took this likewise, and gave one to each +of the priests, keeping two to himself, so that she gave away +forty marks in all at this time.[2] She then ordered wine, which +she gave to the priests, and made me drink thrice from her hand +in honour of the holy trinity. She likewise began to teach me the +language, jesting with me, because I was silent for want of an +interpreter.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] About L. 30, perhaps equal in efficacy to L. 300 +of modern days; no bad fee for administering a dose of +rhubarb.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Next day Mangu-khan, hearing that we were passing, and having +learned that the lady Cota was somewhat better, made us come in, +and took the cross into his hand, asking several questions, which +I did not understand, but I did not see that he worshipped it. +The monk, by my suggestion, craved leave to carry the cross aloft +on a lance, and Manga gave permission that it might be carried in +any way we thought fit. Then paying our obeisance to the khan, we +went to the lady Cota, whom we found strong and cheerful. She +still drank the holy water, and we read the passion over her; but +those miserable priests never taught her the articles of our holy +faith, neither advised her to be baptized, nor did they find +fault with any kind of sorcery. For I saw four swords half drawn +out of their sheaths, one at the head of her bed, one at the +foot, and one on either side of her door. I observed likewise one +of our silver chalices, probably taken from some church in +Hungary, which hung against the wall, full of ashes, on the top +of which lay a black stone; but these priests not only do not +teach them that such things are evil, but even practice similar +things. We continued our visits for three days, by which time she +was restored to perfect health. During these visits, she +continued to rally me on my silence, and endeavoured to teach me +their language.</p> + +<p>I honoured the monk Sergius as my bishop, because he could +speak the language, though he was totally uneducated; and I +afterwards learnt, when I came to his own country on my return, +that he was no priest, but merely an adventurous weaver. In many +things he acted in a way that much displeased me, for he caused +to be made for himself a folding chair such as bishops use, and +gloves, and a cap of peacocks feathers, with a small gold cross; +but I was well pleased with the cross. He had scabbed feet, which +he endeavoured to palliate with ointments[3]; was very +presumptuous in speech, was present at many of the vain and +idolatrous rites of the Nestorians, and had many other vanities +with which I was much displeased. Yet we joined his society for +die honour of the cross, as he got a banner full of crosses on a +cane as long as a lance, and we carried the cross aloft through +among all the tents of the Tartars, singing <i>Vexilla regis +prodeant</i>, &c. to the great regret of the Mahometans, who +were envious of our favour.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] This surely was a sinless infirmity, and needed +not to have been recorded to his dishonour. He was probably +afflicted with chilblains, in consequence of the severity of the +Tartarian climate.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I was informed of a certain Armenian who came, as he said, +from Jerusalem along with the monk Sergius, carrying a silver +cross of about four marks weight, adorned with precious stones, +which he presented to Mangu-khan, who asked what was his +petition. He represented himself to be the son of an Armenian +priest, whose church had been destroyed by the Saracens, and +craved his help for rebuilding that church. Being asked how much +that might cost, he said two hundred jascots, or two thousand +marks; and the khan ordered letters to be given him, ordering +those who received the tribute of Persia and the Greater Armenia, +to pay him that sum in silver[4]. The monk continued to carry +this cross about with him wherever he went, and the Nestorian +priests became envious of the profit which he derived from its +use.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] L. 1500 in weight, equal at least to L. 15,000 of +our modern money; a most magnificent present to an itinerant +beggar.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXXVI.</p> + +<p><i>Account of the Country under the Dominion of the Great Khan +of the Manners and Customs of his Subjects; of a Wonderful Piece +of Mechanism, constructed by a French Goldsmith; and of the +Palace of the Khan at Caracarum</i>.</p> + +<p>From the time of our arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, the +leskar or camp made only two days journey towards the south; and +it then began its progress northwards, in the direction of +Caracarum. In the whole of my journey I was convinced of the +truth of what I had been informed by Baldwin de Hainault at +Constantinople, that the whole way eastwards was by a continual +ascent, as all the rivers run from the east towards the west, +sometimes deviating towards the north or south, more or less +directly, but never running east, but this was farther confirmed +to me by the priests who came from Kathay[1]. From the place +where I found Mangukhan, it is twenty days journey south-east to +Kathay, and ten days journey right east to Oman Kerule, the +original country of the Moal and of Zingis[2]. In those parts +there are no cities, but the country is inhabited by a people +called Su-Moall, or Mongols of the waters, who live upon fish and +hunting, and have neither flocks nor herds. Farther north, +likewise, there is no city, but a poor people of herdsmen, who +are called Kerkis. The Orangin are there also, who bind smooth +bones under their feet, and thrust themselves with such velocity +over the ice and snow, as to overtake beasts in the chase. There +are many other poor nations in those parts, inhabiting as far to +the north as the cold will permit, who join on the west with the +country of Pascatir, or the Greater Hungary, of which I have made +mention before[3]. In the north the mountains are perpetually +covered with snow, and the bounds are unknown by reason of the +extreme cold. All these nations are poor; yet they must all +betake themselves to some employment, as Zingis established a law +that none was to be free from service till so old as to be unable +for work.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] So for as was travelled by Rubruquis, and in the +route which he pursued on the north of the Alak mountains, this +observation is quite correct to longitude 100° E. But what he +here adds respecting Kathay, is directly contradictory to the +fact; as all the rivers beyond Caracarum run in an easterly +direction. The great central plain of Tangut, then traversed by +the imperial horde of the Mongals, and now by the Eluts and +Kalkas, must be prodigiously elevated above the level of the +ocean.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The information here seems corrupted, or at least +is quite incorrect. Kathay or northern China is due east, or east +south-east from the great plain to the south of Karakum. Daouria, +the original residence of the Mongols of Zingis, between the +rivers Onon and Kerlon, is to the north-east.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The Kerkis must fee the Kirguses, a tribe of whom +once dwelt to the south-west of lake Baikal. The Orangin or +Orangey, inhabited on the east side of that lake. Pascatir is the +country of the Bashkirs, Baschkirians, or Pascatirians in Great +Bulgaria, called Great Hungary in the text, between the Volga and +the Ural.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I was inquisitive about the monstrous men of whom Isidore and +Solinus make mention; but no one had ever seen any such, and I +therefore doubt whether it be true. Once a priest of Kathay sat +by me, clothed in red, of whom I asked how that colour was +procured. He told me that on certain high; craggy rocks in the +east of Kathay there dwelt certain creatures like men, not above +a cubit long, and all hairy, who leapt rather than walked, and +dwelt in inaccessible caves. That those who go to hunt them carry +strong drink, which they leave in holes of the rocks, and then +hide themselves. These little creatures come out from their +holes, and having tasted the drink, call out <i>chin-chin</i>, on +which multitudes gather together, and drink till they are drunk, +and fall asleep. Then the hunters come and bind them, after which +they draw a few drops of blood from the veins of the neck of each +of these creatures, and let them go free; and this blood is the +most precious purple dye. He told me, likewise, that there is a +province beyond Kathay, into which, if a man enters, he always +continues of the same age at which he entered; but this I do not +believe[4].</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Rubruquis properly rejects the stories of +monstrous men, related by the ancients, yet seems to swallow the +absurd story of the purple dye, engrafted by the Kathayan priest +on a very natural invention for catching apes. He disbelieves the +last information of the priest, which must have been an +enigmatical representation of the province of death, or of the +tombs.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Kathay is on the ocean, and I was told by the French goldsmith +at Caracarum, that there is a people or nation called Tante and +Manse, inhabiting certain islands, the sea around which is frozen +in winter, so that the Tartars might invade them; but they sent +messengers to the great khan, offering a tribute of 2000 tuemen +or jascots yearly, to permit them to live in peace[5]. A tuemen, +toman, or jascot, is a piece of money equal to ten marks.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] It is difficult to guess as to these people and +their islands; which may possibly refer to Japan, or even Corea, +which is no island. Such tribute could not have been offered by +the rude inhabitants of Saghalien or Yesso.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The ordinary money of Kathay is of paper made like pasteboard, +the breadth and length of a hand, on which lines are printed, +like the seal of Mangu. They write with a pencil like that used +by our painters, and in one figure they comprehend many letters, +forming one word[6]. The people of Thibet write as we do, and +their characters are very like our own. Those of Tangut write +from right to left, like the Arabs, and multiply their lines +ascending; while the Jugurs write in descending columns. The +common money of the Rutenians or Russians, consists in spotted or +grizzled furs.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] This evidently but obscurely describes the +Chinese characters; the most ingenious device ever contrived for +the monopoly of knowledge and office to the learned class, and +for arresting the progress of knowledge and science at a fixed +boundary.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When our Quinquagesima came, which is the Lent time of all the +people of the east, the lady Cota fasted all that week, and came +every day to our oratory, giving meat to the priests and other +Christians, of whom a great company came daily to attend the +service. But the porters of the court, seeing such multitudes +come daily to our chapel, which was within the precincts of the +court, sent one to tell the monk, that they would not allow such +multitudes to come within their bounds; to this the monk made a +sharp reply, and threatened to accuse them to the khan; but they +prevented him, and lodged a complaint before Mangu, that the monk +was too full of words, and gathered too great a multitude to hear +him speak. On this he was called before the khan, who reproved +him severely, saying, that as a holy man, he should employ +himself in prayers to God, and not in speeches to men. But he was +afterwards reconciled, by promising to go to the Pope, and to +induce all the nations of the west to yield obedience to the +khan. On his return to the oratory, the monk asked me if I +thought he might gain admission to the Pope as the messenger of +Mangu; and whether the Pope would supply him with horses to go to +St James in Galicia; and whether your majesty would send your son +to the court of Mangu. But I counselled him, to beware of making +false promises to Mangu, and that God needed not the service of +lies or deceitful speaking. About this time a dispute arose +between the monk and one of the Nestorian priests, more learned +than the rest, as the monk asserted that man was created before +paradise, which the other denied; on reference to me, I said that +paradise was created on the <i>second</i> day, when the other +trees were made, whereas man was made on the sixth. Then the monk +said, that the devil brought clay on die first day, from all the +corners of the earth, of which he made the body of man, which God +inspired with a soul. On this I sharply reproved him for his +heretical ignorance, and he scorned me for my ignorance of the +language: I departed, therefore, from him to our own house. But +when he and the priests went afterwards in procession to the +court without calling me, Mangu earnestly enquired the reason of +my absence; and the priests being afraid, excused themselves as +well as they could, and reported to me the words of the khan, +murmuring at the monk. After this the monk was reconciled to me, +and I entreated him to aid me in acquiring the language, +promising to help him to the knowledge of the Holy +Scriptures.</p> + +<p>After the first week of fasting, the lady ceased from coming +to the oratory, and to give meat and drink, so that we had +nothing but brown bread, and paste boiled in melted snow or ice, +which was exceedingly bad. My companion was much grieved at this +diet, on which I acquainted David, the teacher of the khans +eldest son, with our necessities, who made a report to the khan, +and we were then supplied, with wine, flour, and oil. The +Nestorians and Armenians eat no fish in Lent; but the monk had a +chest under the altar, with almonds, and raisins, and dried +prunes, and other fruits, on which he fed when alone.</p> + +<p>About the middle of Lent, the goldsmiths son came from +Caracarum, bringing a silver cross made in the French fashion, +with an image of Christ, as a present for Bulgai, the chief +secretary of the court; and the young man informed Mangu, that +the great work he had commanded to be made by his father, was +completed. In the neighbourhood of Caracarum, Mangu has a large +court, inclosed with a brick wall like our priories. Within that +court is a great palace, in which the khan holds feasts twice +a-year, once in Easter, and the other in summer; but the latter +is the greater, as all the nobles meet then at the court, when +the khan distributes garments among them, and displays all his +magnificence. Beside the palace there are many great buildings +like our barns, in which the victuals and treasures belonging to +the khan are stored. Because it was indecent to have flaggons +going about the hall of the palace, as in a tavern, William, the +goldsmith, constructed a great silver tree, just without the +middle entrance of the great hall, at the root of which were four +silver lions, having pipes discharging pure cows milk. Four pipes +were conveyed up the body of the tree to its top, which spread +out into four great boughs, hanging downwards; on each of these +boughs was a golden serpent, all their tails twining about the +body of the tree, and each of these formed a pipe, one +discharging wine, a second caracosmos, a third ball, or mead made +of honey, and the fourth <i>teracina</i> or drink made of rice; +each particular drink having a vessel at the foot of the tree to +receive it. On the top, between the four pipes, there stood an +image of an angel with a trumpet. Under the tree there was a +vault, in which a man was hidden, and from him a pipe ascended to +the angel; and when the butler commands to sound the trumpet, the +man below blows strongly, and the trumpet emits a shrill sound. +In a chamber without the palace, the liquors are stored, and +servants who are waiting, pour the liquors each in its proper +pipe, at the signal, when they are conveyed by concealed pipes up +the body of the tree, and discharged into, their appropriate +vessels, whence they are distributed by the under butlers to the +visitors. The tree is all ornamented with silver boughs, and +leaves and fruit all of silver. The palace is like a church, +having a middle aisle and two side ones, beyond two rows of +pillars, and has three gates to the south, and before the middle +gate stands the silver tree. The khan sits at the north wall, on +a high place, that he may be seen of all, and there are two +flights of steps ascending to him, by one of which his cup-bearer +goes up, and comes down by the other. The middle space between +the throne and the silver tree is left vacant for the cup-bearers +and the messengers who bring presents; on the right side of the +khan the men sit, and the women on the left. One woman only sits +beside him, but not so high as he.</p> + +<p>About Passion Sunday, the khan went before with his small +houses only, leaving the great ones behind, and the monk and we +followed. On the journey we had to pass through a hilly +country[7] where we encountered high winds, extreme cold, and +much snow. About midnight the khan sent to the monk and us, +requesting us to pray to God to mitigate the severity of the +weather, as the beasts in his train were in great jeopardy, being +mostly with young, and about to bring forth. Then the monk sent +him incense, desiring him to put it on the coals, as an offering +to God: Whether he did this or no, I know not, but the tempest +ceased, which had lasted two days. On Palm Sunday we were near +Caracarum, and at dawn of day we blessed the willow boughs, on +which, as yet, there were no buds. About nine o'clock we entered +the city of Caracarum, carrying the cross aloft with the banner, +and passing through the street of the Saracens, in which the +market is held, we proceeded to the church, where the Nestorians +met; us in procession. We found them prepared to celebrate the +mass, and they all communicated; but I declined this, having +already drank, and the sacrament should always be received +lasting. After mass, being now evening, William Bouchier, the +goldsmith, brought us to sup at his lodging. He had a wife, born +in Hungary, of Mahometan parents, who spoke French, and the +language of the Comanians. We found here also one Basilicus, the +son of an Englishman, likewise born in Hungary, who was likewise +skilled in these languages. After supper we retired to our +cottage, which, with the oratory of the monk, were placed near +the Nestorian church; which is of considerable size, and very +handsomely built, and all the ceiling is covered with silk, +wrought with gold.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] From this circumstance, it would appear that +Rubruquis had found the court of the khan in the country of the +Eluts, to the south of the Changai mountains, perhaps about +latitude 44° N. and longitude 103° E, the meridian of the +supposed site of Karakum on the Orchon. And it may be presumed, +that the imperial suite was now crossing the Changai chain +towards the north.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I much deliberated with myself, whether I should continue in +communion with the monk and the Nestorians, because I saw their +actions full of idolatry and sorcery; but I feared to give +offence to the khan in separating from the other Christians, as I +saw that my presence pleased him, for which reason I always +accompanied them to court; but when there I did not join in their +mummeries, praying always in a loud voice for the church, and +that God would direct the khan in the right way of salvation. On +one occasion the khan promised to come to the church next day; +but he departed on his journey to the northward, desiring the +priests to excuse him, because he had learnt that the dead were +carried thither. But we remained behind, that we might celebrate +the festival of Easter. There were a vast multitude of +Hungarians, Alans, Rutenians or Russians, Georgians, and +Armenians, who had not received the sacrament since they were +taken prisoners, as the Nestorians would not admit them into +their church unless they were rebaptized; yet they offered their +sacrament freely to us, and allowed me to see their manner of +consecration; on the vigil of Easter I saw their ceremony of +baptism. They pretend to have the ointment with which Mary +Magdalen anointed the feet of Jesus, and they put in so much of +that oil in kneading their sacramental bread; for all the people +of the east use butter, or oil, or fat from a sheeps tail, in +their bread, instead of leaven. They pretend also to have of the +flour of which the bread was made which was consecrated by our +Lord at his Last Supper, as they always keep a small piece of +dough from each baking, to mix up with the new, which they +consecrate with great reverence. In administering this to the +people, they divide the consecrated loaf first into twelve +portions, after the number of the apostles, which they afterwards +break down into smaller pieces, in proportion to the number of +communicants, giving the body of Christ into the hand of every +one, who takes it from his own palm with much reverence, and +afterwards lays his hand on the top of his head.</p> + +<p>I was much at a loss how to act, as the Nestorians entreated +me to celebrate the festival, and I had neither vestments, +chalice, nor altar. But the goldsmith furnished me with +vestments, and made an oratory on a chariot, decently painted +with scripture histories; he made also a silver box or pix for +the host, and an image of the blessed Virgin, and caused an iron +instrument to be made for us to make hosts in our way. Then I +made the before mentioned Christians to confess to me, as well as +I could, by means of an interpreter, explaining to them the ten +commandments, the seven deadly sins, and other matters, exhorting +them to confession and penitence: But all of them publickly +excused themselves respecting theft, saying that they could not +otherwise live, as their masters neither provided them with food +or raiment; and I said they might lawfully take necessaries from +their masters, especially as they had forcibly deprived them of +their subsistence and liberty. Some who were soldiers excused +themselves from having gone to the wars, as otherwise they would +be slain; these I forbid to go against Christians, declaring, +that if slain for their refusal, God would account them as +martyrs. After this I gave the holy communion to these people on +Easter day, and I hope, with the blessing of God to many, being +assisted by the Nestorians, who lent me their chalice and paten. +They baptized above threescore persons on Easter eve with great +solemnity, to the great joy of all the Christians.</p> + +<p>Soon after this William Bouchier was grievously sick, and when +recovering, the monk Sergius visited him, and gave him so great a +doze of rhubarb as had almost killed him. On this I expostulated +with the monk, that he ought either to go about as an apostle, +doing miracles by the virtue of prayer and the Holy Ghost, or as +a physician, according to the rules of the medical aid, and not +to administer strong potions to people who were not prepared. +About this time the principal priest of the Nestorians, who was a +kind of archdeacon over the rest, became sick $ and when I +endeavoured, at the request of his family, to prevail upon the +monk to visit him, he said, "Let him alone for he and three +others intend to procure an order from Mangu-khan to expel you +and I." And I learnt afterwards, that there was a dispute between +them, as Mangu-khan had sent four jascots on Easter eve to the +monk, to distribute among the priests; and Sergius, keeping one +to himself, had given three to the priests, one being a +counterfeit, and the priests thought Sergius had kept too great a +share to himself. Finding the archdeacon in a dying way, I +administered to him the Eucharist and extreme unction, which he +received with great humility and devotion; but, by the advice of +the monk, I quitted him before he died, as otherwise I could not +have entered the court of Mangu-khan for a whole year. When he +was dead, the monk said to me, "Never mind it: This man only, +among the Nestorians, had any learning, and opposed us; +henceforwards Mangu-khan and all the rest will crouch at our +feet." He even pretended that he had killed him by his prayers. I +afterwards learnt that the monk practised divination, with the +aid of a Russian deacon, though, when I challenged him, he +pretended to excuse himself, and to deny the truth of what had +been reported to me: But I could not leave him, having been +placed there by command of the khan, so that I dared not to +remove without his special command.</p> + +<p>Exclusive of the palace of the khan, Caracarum is not so good +as the town of St Denis, and the monastery of St Dennis is worth +more than ten times the value of the palace itself. It contains +two principal streets: that of the Saracens in which the fairs +are held, and to which many merchants resort, as the court is +always near; the other is the street of the Kathayans, which is +full of artificers. Besides these streets, there are many +palaces, in which are the courts of the secretaries of the khan. +There are twelve idol temples belonging to different nations, two +Mahometan mosques, and one Nestorian church at the end of the +town. The town itself is inclosed with a mud wall, and has four +gates. On the east side, there is a market for millet and other +grain, but which is ill supplied; on the west, sheep and goats +are sold; on the north side, oxen and waggons; and on the south +side, horses.</p> + +<p>Mangu-khan has eight brothers, three by the mother and five by +the father. One of these on the mothers side he sent into the +country of the Assassines, called <i>Mulibet</i> by the Tartars, +with orders to kill them all. Another was sent into Persia, who +is supposed to have orders to send armies into Turkey, and from +thence against Bagdat and Vestacius. One of his other brothers +has been sent into Kathay, to reduce certain rebels. His youngest +maternal brother, named Arabucha, lives with him, and keeps up +his mothers court, who was a Christian.</p> + +<p>About this time, on account of a violent quarrel between the +monk and certain Mahometans, and because a rumour was propagated +of four hundred assassins having gone forth in divers habits, +with an intention to murder the khan, we were ordered to depart +from our accustomed place before the court, and to remove to the +place where other messengers dwelt. Hitherto I had always hoped +for the arrival of the king of Armenia[8], and had not therefore +made any application for leave to depart; but hearing no news of +the king, or a certain German priest who was likewise expected, +and fearing lest we should return in the winter, the severity of +which I had already experienced, I sent to demand the pleasure of +the khan, whether we were to remain with him or to return, and +representing that it would be easier for us to return in summer +than in winter. The khan sent to desire that I should not go far +off, as he meant to speak with me next day; to which I answered, +requesting him to send for the son of the goldsmith to interpret +between us, as my interpreter was very incompetent.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Haitho, of whom some account will be found in the +succeeding chapter of this work.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXXVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of certain disputes between Rubruquis and the Saracens and +Idolaters, at the Court of Mangu-khan, respecting +Religion</i>.</p> + +<p>Next day I was brought to the court, and some of the chief +secretaries of the khan came to me, one of whom was a Moal, who +is cup-bearer to the khan, and the rest were Saracens. These men +demanded on the part of the khan, wherefore I had come there? To +this I answered, as I had done before, that I came to Sartach, +who sent me to Baatu, and he had ordered me to the khan, to whom +I had nothing to say on the part of any man, unless I should +speak the words of God if he would hear them, for the khan should +know best what Baatu had written. Then they demanded what words +of God I would speak to the khan, thinking I meant to prophecy +prosperous things as others had done. To this I answered, "If ye +would that I speak the words of God unto the khan, get me an +interpreter." They said they had sent for him, but urged me to +speak by the present one, as they would understand me perfectly. +I therefore said, "This is the word of God, to whom much is +given, much will be required at his hands; and to whom much is +forgiven, he ought the more to love God. To Manga I would say, +that God hath given much; for the power and riches which he +enjoys, come not from the idols of the Tuinians, but from the +omnipotent God who hath made heaven and earth, in whose hands are +all kingdoms and dominions, and who transferreth them from nation +to nation for the sins of men; wherefore if he love God, it will +go well with him, but if otherwise, God will require all things +at his hands, even to the utmost farthing." Then they asked if I +had been in Heaven, that I should know the commandments of God? I +said no, but that God hath given them from Heaven to holy men, +and had at length descended from Heaven to earth to teach us, and +that we had those things in the Scriptures, and could judge from +their works whether men kept the commandments of God or disobeyed +them. They then asked if I meant to say that Mangu-khan did not +keep the commandments of God? To this I answered, "When I shall +have a proper interpreter and am permitted, I shall then recite +the commandments of God before Mangu, and he shall be his own +judge, whether he hath kept or disobeyed them." Upon this, they +went and told Mangu, that I said he was an idolater and Tuinian, +and kept not the commandments of God. Next day Mangu sent one of +his secretaries, saying, "Ye are here Christians, Mahometans, and +Tuinians, wherefore the khan desires that ye will all come +together and make comparison of your opinions, that he may know +the truth." To this I answered, "Blessed be God that hath put +this in the heart of the khan; but our Scriptures command the +servants of God not to be contentious, but meek unto all. +Wherefore I am ready, without strife or contention, to render a +true account of the faith and hope of the Christians to every one +who may require to be informed." They wrote down my words and +brought them to the khan.</p> + +<p>Next day, another message came from the khan, desiring again +to know on what account I had come to his court; to which I +answered, that this might be known from the letters of Bantu. But +they said that these letters were lost, and the khan had +forgotten their contents, and would know of me. Somewhat +emboldened by this, I said, "The duty and office of our religion +is to preach the gospel unto all. Wherefore, having heard of the +fame of, the Mongals, I desired to come to them; and hearing that +Sartach had become a Christian, I directed my journey to him, and +my sovereign the king of the French sent him letters containing +good words of friendship, testifying what men we were, and +requesting we might be permitted to remain with the people of +Moal That Sartach had sent us to Baatu, and he had ordered us to +Mangu-khan, whom we had entreated and still do entreat to suffer +us to stay." They wrote all this, and made a report of it to the +khan. On the morrow he sent again that he knew we had no message +for him, but came to pray for him as other priests did, but +desired to know if any of our ambassadors had ever been in their +country, or any of theirs in our parts. Then I declared unto them +all I knew respecting David and Friar Andrew, all of which was +put down in writing and laid before Mangu. They came back, +saying, "Our lord the khan thinks you have staid long here, and +his pleasure is that you return into your own country; but he +desires to know whether you would conduct his ambassadors along +with you." To this I answered, that I dared not to carry his +ambassadors beyond his own dominions, as a warlike nation dwelt +between their country and ours, between the sea and the +mountains, and being only a poor monk, I could not take upon me +to be their guide. This they likewise set down in writing and +carried to the khan.</p> + +<p>The Nestorians were commanded to set down in writing all that +they would speak in favour of the Christian religion; and they +wrote out a chronicle from the creation of the world to the +passion of Christ; and passing over the passion, they spake of +the resurrection of the dead, and of the day of judgment. Finding +many things wrong, I pointed them out, and we wrote out the creed +or symbol. Asking them how they meant to proceed in the +conference, they said they meant to begin with the Saracens; but +I dissuaded them from that, because, as they agreed with us in +the belief of one only God, they would assist against the +Tuinians. I then pointed out to them the original of idolatry in +the world; and they desired me to explain these things before +Mangu, and then to let them speak, because I should find it +difficult and tedious to speak by an interpreter. I then proposed +to try them, by taking the side of the Tuinians, while they +should defend the opinions of the Christians; but they knew not +how to prove any thing, except merely by quoting their +Scriptures. To this I said, that these men believed not in our +Scriptures, and would oppose them by advancing contrary opinions +and positions from those books which they accounted holy. Then I +desired that they would allow me to speak first; since if I were +overcome they would be permitted to speak, whereas if they were +confuted, I would be refused a hearing, and to this they +consented.</p> + +<p>All things being arranged, we convened at our oratory, and +Mangu-khan sent three of his secretaries, a Christian, a Saracen, +and a Tuinian, to be judges of the controversy. It was first +proclaimed, "This is the order of Mangu-khan, and none dare say +that the commandment of God is otherwise. Let none speak +contentiously, or use injurious words to one another, or make any +tumult whereby this business may be hindered, upon pain of +death." There was a great assembly, as every party had convened +the wisest of their sect, and many others came flocking around to +listen; but all were silent. The Christians set me in the middle, +willing that I should contend with the Tuinians; who murmured +against Mangu, as no khan had ever thus endeavoured to search +into their secrets. Yet they opposed one from Kathay to me, who +had his interpreter, while I had the son of the goldsmith to +interpret my words. The Kathayan said to me, "Friend! if you be +put to a nonplus, who must seek a wiser than thou art?" To this I +made no reply. Then he demanded whether I would dispute as to how +the world was made, or as to what became of the souls after +death? For they were desirous to begin with these questions, as +they held them for the strongest in their doctrines, all the +Tuinians following the heresy of the Manicheans, believing in a +good and a bad principle, and they all believe that souls pass +from body to body. In confirmation of this, the goldsmith told me +they had brought a person from Kathay, who, by the size of his +body, appeared to be only three years old, yet was capable of +reasoning, and knew how to write, and who affirmed that he had +passed through three several bodies. Even one of the wisest of +the Nestorians demanded of me whether the souls of brutes could +fly to any place after death where they should not be compelled +to labour.</p> + +<p>To the before-mentioned question of the Kathayan, I answered: +"Friend, this ought hot to be the commencement of our conference. +All things are of God, who is the fountain and head of us all; +and therefore we ought first to speak concerning God, of whom you +think otherwise than you ought, and Mangu desires to know which +of us hath the better belief." The arbitrators allowed this to be +reasonable, and I proceeded: "We firmly believe that there is but +one God in perfect unity; what believe you?" He said, "Fools say +there is but one God, but wise men say there are many. There are +great lords in your country, and here is still a greater, even +Mangu-khan. So it is of the Gods, as in divers countries there +are divers gods." To this I answered: "You make a bad comparison +between God and men; for in this way every mighty man might be +called a God in his own country." And when I meant to have +dissolved the similitude, he prevented me, by asking, "What +manner of God is yours, who you say is but one?" I answered: "Our +God, beside whom there is no other, is omnipotent, and therefore +needeth not the help of any other; whereas all have need of his +help. It is not so with men, as no man can do all things; +wherefore there must be many lords on earthy as no one can +support all. God is omniscient, or knoweth all things; and +therefore hath no need of any counsellor, for all wisdom is from +him. God is perfectly good; and needs not therefore any good from +us. In God we live and move and have our being. Such is our God, +and you must not hold that there is any other." "It is not so," +said he; "for there is one highest in heaven, whose origin or +generation we know not, and there are ten under him, and on earth +they are infinite in number." To this he would have added other +fables. I asked him respecting the highest God, of whom he had +spoken, whether he were omnipotent, or if any of the inferior +Gods were so? And fearing to answer this, he demanded, "Why, +since our God was perfectly good, he had made the half of all +things evil?" To this I answered, that this was false; for +whosoever maketh any evil is no God, and all things whatsoever +are good. At this all the Tuiuians were astonished, and set it +down in writing as false or impossible. He then asked me, "Whence +cometh evil?" "You ask amiss," said I, "for you ought first to +inquire what evil is, before you ask whence it comes: But let us +return to the first question, whether do you believe that any God +is omnipotent? and when that is discussed, I will answer whatever +you may demand." On this he sat a long time without speaking, and +the judges appointed by the khan commanded him to make answer. At +length he said, that no God was omnipotent; on which all the +Saracens broke out into great laughter. When silence was +restored, I said, "None of your gods, therefore, can save you in +all dangers, since chances may happen in which they have no +power. Besides, no man can serve two masters; how, therefore, can +you serve so many Gods in heaven and in earth?" The auditory +decreed that he should make answer to this, but he held his +peace.</p> + +<p>When I was about to have propounded reasons to prove the truth +of the divine essence, and to have explained the doctrine of the +Trinity, the Nestorians alleged that I had said quite enough, and +that now they meant to speak; so I gave place to them. When, +therefore, they would have disputed with the Saracens, these men +said that they agreed to the truth of the law and the gospel of +the Christian, and would not dispute with them in any thing, and +even confessed that they beg from God in their prayers that they +may die the death of the Christians. There was among the +idolaters a priest of the sect of the Jugurs, who believe in one +God, and yet make idols. With this man the Nestorians talked +much, shewing all things till the coming of Christ to judgment, +and explaining the Trinity to him and the Saracens by +similitudes. All of them hearkened to their harangue without +attempting to make any contradiction; yet none of them said that +they believed and would become Christians. The conference was now +broken up. The Nestorians and Saracens sang together with a loud +voice, and the Tuinians held their peace; and afterwards they all +drank together most plentifully.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXVIII.</p> + +<p><i>The last audience of Rubruquis with Mangu-khan, and the +letter he received for the King of France.</i></p> + +<p>On Whitsunday I was called into the presence of the khan, and +before I went in, the goldsmiths son, who was my interpreter, +informed me that it was determined I was to return to my own +country, and advised me to say nothing against it. When I came +before the khan I kneeled, and he asked me whether I said to his +secretaries that he was a Tuinian. To this I answered, "My lord, +I said not so; but if it please your highness I will repeat what +I then said;" and I recited what I had spoken, as mentioned +before, and he answered: "I thought well you said not so, for it +was a word you ought not to have spoken; but your interpreter +hath ill rendered your words." Then, reaching forth the staff on +which, he leaned towards me, he said, "be not afraid." To which I +answered smiling, that if I had feared I should not have come +hither. He then said, as if confessing his faith: "We Moals +believe that there is but one God, and we have an upright heart +towards him." "Then," said I, "may God grant you this mind, for +without his gift it cannot be." He then added, "God hath given to +the hand divers fingers, and hath given many ways to man. He hath +given the Scriptures to you, yet you keep them not. You certainly +find not in the Scriptures that one of you should dispraise +another?" "No," said I; "and I signified unto your highness from +the beginning, that I would not contend with any one." "I speak +not," said he, "respecting you. In like manner, you find not in +your Scriptures, that a man ought to swerve from justice for the +sake of money?" To this I answered, "That our Scriptures taught +no such evil doctrine, neither had I come into, these parts to +get money, having even refused that which was freely offered to +me." And one of the secretaries, then present, certified, that I +had refused a jascot and a piece of silk. "I speak not of that," +said the khan; "God hath given you the Scriptures and you keep +them not; but he hath given to us soothsayers, and we do what +they bid us, and live in peace." He drank four times, as I think, +before he disclosed these things; and, while I waited attentively +in expectation that he might disclose any thing farther +respecting his faith, he began another subject, saying: "You have +stayed a long time here, and it is my pleasure that you return. +You have said that you dared not to carry my ambassadors with +you; will you carry my messenger, or my letters?" To this I +answered, "If he would make me understand his words, and that +they were put in writing, I would willingly carry them, to the +best of my power." He then asked if I would have gold or silver, +or costly garments? I answered, that we received no such things; +but not having wherewith to bear our expences, we could not get +out of his country without his help. He then said, that he would +provide us in all necessaries through his country, and demanded +how far we would be brought. I said it were sufficient if he gave +us a pass into Armenia. To this he answered: "I will cause you to +be carried thither, after which look to yourself. There are two +eyes in one head, yet they both look to one object. You came here +from Baatu, and therefore you must return by him." Having +requested and obtained leave to speak, I addressed him thus: +"Sir! we are not men of war, and desire that they who would most +justly govern according to the will of God may have dominion in +the world. Our office is to teach men to live according to the +law of God: For this, purpose we came into these parts, and would +willingly have remained here if it had been your pleasure; but +since you are pleased that we should return, I shall carry your +letters according to my power, in obedience to your commands. I +request of your magnificence, that, when I have delivered your +letters, it may be lawful for me to come back into your +dominions; chiefly because you have servants of our nation at +Balac, who want a priest to teach them and their children the law +of our religion, and I would willingly stay with them." He then +asked whether I knew that our lords would send me back to him? To +this. I answered, "I know not what may be the purpose of my +sovereign; but I have licence to go wherever I will, where it is +needful to preach the word of God, and it seems to me necessary +in these parts; wherefore, whether my lords send ambassadors or +not, if it is your pleasure, I will return." Then, after a long +pause, as if musing, he said, "You have a lone way to go, make +yourself strong with food, that you may be enabled to endure the +journey." So he ordered them to give me drink, and I departed +from his presence, and returned not again. From that time I could +have no time nor place to expound to him the catholic faith; for +a man must not speak before him, unless what he pleaseth to order +or allow, except he were an ambassador, who may speak what he +will, and they always demand of such whether he has any thing +more to say.</p> + +<p>The soothsayers are the priests of the Mongals, and whatever +they command to be done is performed without delay. I shall +describe their office, as I learnt it from the goldsmith and +others. Of these soothsayers there are great numbers, under the +direction of a chief priest, whose house is always about a +stone's throw in front of the great house of Mangu-khan, and +under his charge are all the chariots which carry idols. The +other soothsayers dwell behind the court, in places appointed for +them; and such as have confidence in their art come to consult +them from various distant parts. Some of them are skilful in +astronomy, especially their chief, and they foretel eclipses of +the sun and moon. When these are to happen, all the people +prepare their food, that they may not be under the necessity of +going out of doors, and during the eclipse they play on various +instruments of music, and set up loud shouts: when it is over, +they indulge in feasting and carousing, to express their joy.</p> + +<p>These soothsayers pretend to foretell lucky and unlucky days +for all affairs; and the Tartars never levy an army, or undertake +a war without their approbation. They had long since resumed +their attack on Hungary, but that the soothsayers have always +opposed it. They make every thing which is sent to court pass +between two fires, as a purification, likewise, all the household +stuff belonging to a dead person must be purged in the same +manner; and, if any living creature drop down, or any thing +whatever fall to the ground during the ceremony, it becomes the +property of the soothsayers, who, besides, have a certain +proportion of every thing which they purify as their due. There +was, therefore, a twofold reason why Friar Andrew Carpini was +made to pass between the fires; both because he brought presents, +and because Con-khan, for whom these had been brought, was dead: +But as I brought nothing, this was not required of me.</p> + +<p>Once on a time, some very costly furs were presented at the +court of the Christian lady, whom Pascha, the good woman of Metz +served, and the soothsayers, in passing them between the fires, +took more than was their due. Another woman, who had the custody +of the treasures belonging to that lady, accused them of the +fraud to her mistress, who reproved them severely for their +conduct. Sometime afterwards the lady fell sick, and the +soothsayers accused the servant, who had detected their fraud, of +having bewitched her. She received the bastinado for seven days +successively, and other tortures, to make her confess; and on +hearing of her mistress's death, begged to be killed that she +might follow her, for that, in truth, she had never done her the +smallest injury. But, as she confessed nothing, Mangu-khan +commanded that she should live. After this the soothsayers +accused the daughters nurse of the deceased lady, which nurse was +a Christian, and wife to the chief of the Nestorian priests. She +and her servant-maid were tortured to make a confession, and the +maid answered, that the nurse had sent her to receive responses +from a certain horse. The nurse also confessed that she had used +some spells to procure the love of her lady, but had never done +any thing to hurt her. On being demanded to say whether her +husband knew of her incantations, she excused him, saying that he +had burnt the characters which she had made. Then she was put to +death, and the husband was sent to be judged by his bishop in +Kathay.</p> + +<p>It happened that the principal wife of Mangu brought forth a +son, and the soothsayers were brought to foretell the destiny of +the infant, when they prophesied that he should live long and +prosperously, and become a great lord; but he died in a few days. +On being reproached for their falsehood, they said that the nurse +of Cerina, who had been lately put to death, had killed the boy, +and pretended to have seen her carrying him away. There were then +in the camp a son and daughter of the nurse, whom the lady +immediately sent for in a rage, and ordered them to be put to +death. Some time afterwards this came to the ears of Mangu-khan, +who was much enraged at the conduct of his wife. He caused the +man to be beheaded who had slain the nurses son, and made his +head to be hung round the neck of the woman who had killed her +daughter, ordering her to be cudgelled with burning fire-brands, +through among all the tents, and then put to death. He would also +have put his wife to death if it had not been for the sake of the +children he had by her; but he commanded her to be shut up for +seven days without food, and went out from his court for a whole, +moon.</p> + +<p>After the feast of Pentecost, they began to prepare their +letters for your Majesty, and, in the mean time, the khan +returned to Caracarum, and held a great feast on the 15th of +June, at which all the ambassadors were desired to be present, +but I went to church to baptize the three children of a poor +German. William the goldsmith was chief butler at this feast, as +he had the charge of the silver tree which poured out the drink. +On this occasion the khan gave, during four successive days, a +complete suit of apparel each day to all his courtiers, every day +a new colour; and he made them a speech, saying, "I have sent my +brothers afar into dangers among foreign nations; it shall be +seen how you will conduct yourselves when I send you to extend +the boundaries of our empire."</p> + +<p>At this time there was an ambassador at the court from the +khans of Bagdat, of whom it was reported, when Mangu declared he +would not grant them peace unless they would destroy all their +warlike ammunition, that he answered, "We will do this when you +pluck off all the hoofs from your horses." I saw there, also, the +ambassadors from a soldan of India, who brought with him eight +leopards and ten hare-hounds who were taught to sit on a horses +croup in hunting, like the leopards. When I asked of them, the +way to India, they pointed to the west, and they travelled with +me, on our return, always westwards, for nearly three weeks. I +also saw there the ambassador of the sultan of Turkey, who +brought rich presents to the khan. At length the letters being +ready for your majesty, they called for me and explained them, +and the following is their substance, so far as I could +understand them by my interpreter:</p> + +<p>"The commandment of the Eternal GOD is this: As there is but +one Eternal GOD in heaven, so upon earth let there be but one +Lord, Zingis-khan, son of God, and Mangu-tinij[1]. This is the +word which is spoken to you; whether Moals, Namans, Markets, or +Musselmen; wherever man may hear or horse may go, cause it to be +heard and understood, that such as have heard my commands and do +not obey, or would levy an army against me, shall be as having +eyes and not seeing, as having hands and unable to hold any +thing, and as having feet, yet unable to walk.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Explained as signifying the sound of iron, +probably in allusion to his martial power.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>"This is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, and by the virtue +of the Eternal GOD, the commandment of Mangu-khan, the great +emperor of the Moals, is given to Lodowick the French King, and +to all other lords and priests, and to the great world of the +Franks, that they understand my words and the commandments of the +Eternal GOD, made to Zingis-khan; neither but from Zingis-khan +ever came this commandment unto you[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The obscurity of this passage is +inexplicable.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>"A certain man, named David, came unto you as an ambassador +from the Moals, but he was a liar; and with him you sent your +ambassador to Khen-khan. After Khen-khan was dead, your +ambassador came to this court, and Charmis his wife sent you a +nassick cloth. But how could that wicked woman, more vile than a +dog, know matters appertaining to war and peace, and to settle +the great world in quiet?</p> + +<p>"Those two monks who came from you to Sartach, were sent by +Sartach to Baatu; but as Mangu-khan is the greatest over the +world of the Moals, Baatu sent them unto us. And now that the +great world of the Franks, and the priests, and monks, may live +in peace and enjoy their goods, and that the commandment of GOD +might be heard among you, we would have sent certain Moals as our +ambassadors to you by your priests; but your messenger answered, +that betwixt us and you there was a warlike nation, with many bad +men and troublesome ways, so that they were afraid they could not +bring our ambassadors in safety to you; but if we would deliver +them our letters, containing our commandments to King Lodowick, +they engaged to carry them. For this cause we have not sent our +ambassadors along with them; but we have sent you this, the +commandment of the Eternal GOD, by your priests. And this is the +commandment of the Eternal GOD, which we have given you to +understand, and when you shall hear and believe it, if you will +obey, send your ambassadors unto us, so that we may be satisfied +whether you will have peace or war. When, by the power of the +Eternal GOD, the whole world shall be in unity, peace, and joy, +from the rising of the sun to where it sets, then shall it appear +what we will do. But if ye shall see and hear the commandment of +the Eternal GOD, and will not hearken to or believe it, saying, +our country is far off, our hills are strong, our sea is great; +and in this confidence shall lead an army against us to know what +we can do; he that made what is hard easy, and that which is far +off near, the Eternal GOD himself knows that alone."</p> + +<p>While these things were going forwards, my companion heard +that we were to return by the wilderness to Baatu, under the +guidance of a Moal, on which he ran to Bulgai, the chief +secretary, signifying to him, by signs, that he should certainly +die if he went that way. On the day when we were to receive our +pass, which was a fortnight after the feast of St John, 8th July, +the secretary said to him; it is the pleasure of Mangu, that your +companion shall return by Baatu, and as you are sick, you may +remain and shall be provided in necessaries till some ambassador +come, with whom you may return more easily by a way where there +are villages. The friar answered "God grant the khan a long and +prosperous life, I will remain." Then they brought us three +garments, saying, that as we refused gold or silver, and had +stayed long here, praying for the khan, he entreats that each +would accept a single garment, that you may not depart empty +handed.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXXIX.</p> + +<p><i>The departure of Rubruquis from the Court of Mangu-khan, +and his journey by Saray and other places, to Tripoly in +Syria.</i></p> + +<p>Leaving the Leskar or moving camp of Mangu-khan, we came to +Caracarum, and while we remained in the house of William Bouchier +the goldsmith, my guide brought ten jascots, five of which he +delivered to William, commanding him, from the khan, to expend +these for the use of the friar while he remained there, and he +left the other five with my interpreter for my subsistence by the +way; for William had given them such instructions without my +knowledge. I immediately changed one of the jascots into small +money, which I distributed among the poor Christians of +Caracarum. Another was spent in providing garments and other +necessaries for our journey. With the third my interpreter bought +several articles, of which he afterwards made some profit. The +other two we expended on the road, as, after we came into Persia, +sufficient necessaries were nowhere given us. William, your +majestys citizen and subject, sends you a girdle set with a +precious stone, which is worn in those parts as a defence against +thunder and lightning, and most humbly salutes you, always +commending you to God in his prayers.</p> + +<p>My companion and I parted with tears, he remaining with master +William, while I, with my interpreter, the guide, and one +servant, returned to the court of Baatu, our guide having +authority to take a sheep once in four days, for the sustenance +of all four. From Caracarum to the court of Baatu our journey +continued four months and ten days, during all which time we +never saw a town, or even the appearance of a single house, +except one village, in which we did not even eat bread; nor in +all that time did we ever rest, except one day, when we could not +get horses. We returned, for the most part, by the same kind of +people through whom we had passed in going, and yet through other +countries, for we went in the winter, and returned in the summer, +by the higher parts of the north, except that for fifteen days +journey we had to travel along a certain river among the +mountains, where there was no lodging, except by the river +side[1]. Sometimes we had to go two, or even three days, with no +other food than cosmos; and at one time we were in great danger, +not being able to fall in with any people, our provisions all +exhausted, and our horses quite tired.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The reason of the change was, probably, that they +might fall in with the travelling Tartar camps, who went +northwards in the summer, that they might procure food and change +of horses. In going to Mangu, he appears to have travelled +through Soongaria, and, in returning, through the country of the +Kalmaks. The river here mentioned may have been the +Borotala.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When we had travelled twenty days, I heard that the king of +Armenia had passed by on his journey to the court of Mangu. In +the end of August I met with Sartach, who went to Mangu, +accompanied by his wives and children, and with flocks and herds; +yet the bulk of the families over whom he ruled, remained between +the Tanais and Etilia, or Volga. I sent my duty to him, saying +that I would willingly have remained in his country, but that +Mangu had ordered me to return and carry his letters. His answer +was, that I must obey the will of Mangu-khan.</p> + +<p>I then asked Coiac to return our clothes and books. "What," +said he, "did you not bring them to Sartach?" I said that I had +certainly brought them to Sartach, but had not given them, and +put him in mind of what I had said on that former occasion. To +this he answered "You say truth, and none can resist the truth. I +left your goods with my father, who dwells in Saray, a new town, +which Baatu has built on the eastern shore of the Volga, but our +priests have some of your vestments." "If any thing please you," +said I, "keep it, so that you restore my books." I requested +letters from him to his father to restore my things; but he was +in haste to be gone, and said that we should alight at the train +of the ladies, which was near at hand, and he should send me +Sartachs answer. Though I was fearful he might deceive me, yet I +dared not to contend with him. Late in the evening his messenger +came with two coats, seemingly all of silk, saying that Sartach +had sent me these, one for myself, and that I might present the +other to my king on his behalf. I answered, that I wore no such +garments, but should present both to my king, in honour of his +lord; and I now send both by the bearer of these letters. He +delivered me also a letter for the father of Coiac, to restore +all that belonged to me.</p> + +<p>We returned to the court of Baatu on the same day on which I +had departed thence the year before, being the second day after +the invention of the Holy Cross, 16th September 1254; and I found +our young men in health, though much afflicted with poverty. +Gosset told me, they had perished for want, if the king of +Armenia had not comforted them, and recommended them to Sartach, +for the Tartars believed I was dead, and even asked them if they +could keep oxen and milk mares; for if I had not returned, they +had certainly been reduced to servitude. After this Baatu called +me before him, and made the letters which Mangu-khan sends you to +be interpreted to me. He likewise demanded what way I would go, +whether by sea or land? I said the sea would be frozen, as whiter +was approaching, and I must, therefore, go by land; and believing +your majesty was still in Syria, I directed my journey to Persia, +for if I had known you were in France, I would have gone through +Hungary. We had to travel a month with Baatu before we could +obtain a guide. At length they appointed a Jugur, who +understanding I would give him nothing, and that I wished to go +by Armenia, caused our letters to be made for conducting me to +the soldan of Turkey, hoping he might there receive gifts. We +left the moving court of Baatu fifteen days before All Saints, +16th October, and went direct southwards for Sarai, always +keeping near the Volga, and there the Volga divides into three +branches or arms, each almost twice as large as the branch of the +Nile at Damieta. Besides these, it divides into four lesser arms, +so that we had to pass seven branches of the river in boats: Upon +the middle branch, is a village called Sumerkant[2], without any +wall, but which was besieged by the Tartars for eight years +before they could gain possession, and had formerly cost the +Saracens and Alani nine years; for though not fortified, it is +surrounded by water. We there found a German and his wife, with +whom Gosset had lived all the preceding winter, by the order of +Baatu. On the east side of this river Baatu always travels, and +Sartach on the west, never going farther south than this place, +as there is very good grass in great abundance. Coiacs father, on +receiving the letters of Sartach, restored my vestments, except a +surplice, an albs, an almic trimmed with fine silk, a stole, a +girdle, and a tualia adorned with gold embroidery. He gave me +back, likewise, my silver plate, except the censer, and a small +box for holding chrism, all of which were with the priest who +attended Sartach; and he returned my books, except our ladys +psalter, which he kept with my leave, as I could not deny him, +for he said Sartach took great delight in it. A bible also, and +an Arabian book worth thirty sultanies, were retained, and many +other things which I never recovered. Sarai, and the palace of +Baatu are on the east side of the river, and the valley through +which the arms of the river spread abroad, is more than seven +leagues in breadth.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Sarni, Saray, or Sarey, seems to have been built +on the Achtuba, or eastern branch of the Volga, near Zarewpod, +where many traces of a large town, still exist. Sumerkent is +unknown, but may have been near Astrachan, formerly named +Hadschi-Aidar-Khan. But there are ruins of a town still existing +on both sides of the Volga, which are now used for the purpose of +making saltpetre.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>After leaving Sarai, on the feast of All Saints, 1st November, +we travelled south till the feast of St Martin, 11th November, +when we came to the mountains of the Alani. In fifteen days +travel we found no people, except at one little village, where +one of the sons of Sartach resided, accompanied by many +falconers, and falcons. For the first five days we did not meet a +single man, and were a whole day and night in great danger of +perishing for want of water. The Alani in some of the mountains, +still hold out against the Tartars, so that two of every ten of +the subjects of Sartach are obliged to guard certain passes in +the mountains of Dagistan, lest the Alanians carry away the +cattle in the plain. There are likewise certain Mahometans called +Lesghis in these mountains who are not subjugated, so that the +Tartars had to give us a guard of twenty men to see us safe +beyond the Iron-gate. I was glad of this circumstance, as I had +never seen the Tartars armed; and yet, of all those twenty, only +two had habergions, which they said they had procured from the +Alani, who are excellent smiths and armourers. In my opinion, the +Tartars have small store of armour, except bows and arrows, and +leather jackets; some have iron plates, and skull cups from +Persia, and I saw two at the court of Mangu armed with clumsy and +unwieldy coats of rough hog-skin. We found one castle of the +Alanians, which had been subdued by the Tartars, about which +there were many vineyards, and there we drank wine for the first +time. On the following day we reached Derbent or the Iron-gate, +built by Alexander the Macedonian, on a small plain between the +sea and the mountains, one end of the city reaching to the shore, +while the other extends a mile in length to the top of the +mountain, on which is a strong castle. But the breadth of the +city scarcely exceeds a stones throw. It has very strong walls, +and turrets of large polished stones, with no trenches; but the +Tartars have demolished the tops of the turrets, and the bulwarks +of the walls.</p> + +<p>Two days journey from Derbent we came to a city named +Samaron[3], in which there were many Jews; near which we saw +walls descending from the mountains to the sea; and leaving the +way by the sea, because it turns to the east, we went up into the +high countries, towards the south. Next day we passed through a +valley, in which we could perceive the foundations of walls, +stretching quite across between two mountains, which were +themselves quite impassable. All these walls were erected of old +by Alexander, for restraining the fierce nations of Scythian +shepherds, inhabiting the wilderness, from invading the plains +and cities of the southern countries of Persia and Asia Minor. +There were also other walls and inclosures inhabited by Jews. +Next day we came to a great city called Samach[4]; and after this +we entered the great plain of Moan, through which runs the river +Cur or Cyrus, from which the Curgi or Curdi have their name, whom +we call Georgians, and which river passes through the middle of +Tefflis, their capital. The Cur comes directly from the west, +running east into the Caspian, and in it are excellent salmon[5]. +In the plains of Moan or Mogan we again met with Tartars; and +through this plain flows the Araxes, which comes from Armenia the +Greater, called likewise the land of Ararat. To the west of that +plain is Curgia[6], and in this plain the Crosmini, Krosmians or +Korasmiens[7], formerly dwelt. Ganges or Kanja, a great city in +the entrance of the mountains towards Georgia, was their capital, +and prevented the Georgians from coming down to plunder the plain +country. We next came to a bridge of boats fastened together with +great iron chains, for crossing the united stream of the Kur and +Araxes.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Schabran, or Schabiran.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Shamaki, in Shirvan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The Karai, on which Tefflis or Tiblis stands, +runs from the north-west; the Demur, Araz or Araxes from the +west; and both united form the Kur, which runs directly south +into the Caspian.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Georgia or Gurgistan is to the north-west of the +plain of Mogan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] These were the ancestors of the present Turks, +who laid the foundation of the Osmanian or Othoman empire. Kanja, +called Ganges or Ganghe in the text, was their +capital.--Frost.</blockquote> + +<p>We proceeded thence, travelling up the river called <i>pontem +inidignatus Araxes</i>, leaving Persia and the Caspian mountains +on our left hand, towards the south, Curgia and the great sea on +our right hand, towards the west[8]. Going all the way +southwards[9], we passed through the meadows of Bacchu- khan, the +general of the Tartar army on the Araxes, who has likewise +subjugated the Curgi, the Turks, and the Persians. There is +another Tartar governor of Persia at Tauris, named Argon, who +presides over the tribute. But Mangu-khan has recalled both of +these generals to make way for one of his brothers, as I formerly +mentioned, who is to have the command in Persia. I was in the +house of Bacchu, who gave me wine, while he drank cosmos; and, +although it was the best new wine, I would rather have had +cosmos, if he had offered it, being more restorative for such a +half starved wretch as I then was. We ascended the Araxes to its +head, and beyond the mountains, where it rises, is the good city +of Arsorum [10], which belongs to the Soldan of Turkey [11]. When +we departed from Bacchu, my guide went to Tauris to speak with +Argon, and took my interpreter with him; but Bacchu caused me to +be carried to Naxuam [12], formerly the capital of a great +kingdom, and the greatest and fairest city in those parts, but +the Tartars have now made it a wilderness. There were formerly +eight hundred churches [13] of the Armenians here, which are now +reduced to two very small ones, in one of which I held my +Christmas as well as I could, with our clerk Gosset. Next day the +priest of this church died, and a bishop with twelve monks came +from the mountains to his funeral, for all the bishops of the +Armenians are monks, and likewise most of those belonging to the +Greeks [14].</p> + +<blockquote>[8] This passage is erroneous or corrupted. In +travelling westwards up the Araxes or Araz, he had Persia on his +left, to the south, Georgia on his right, to the north, and the +Caspian sea and mountains of the Iron-gate were left +<i>behind</i> him, to the <i>east</i> and +north-east.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Westwards.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Arz-roum on the Frat or Euphrates, perhaps a +corruption of Arx- romanorum; as the Turks give the name of Roum +to a part of Lesser Asia; and all the eastern nations call the +Constantinopolitan empire Roum to this day.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Turkey, in these travels of Rubruquis, is +always, to be understood as referring to the Turkish dominion in +Asia Minor, of which Konieh or Iconium was the +capital.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Nak-sivan, or Nag-jowan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] This must be an error for +eighty.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] Rubruquis here tells a long story of an Armenian +prophecy, from which they expected to be freed from the iron yoke +of the Tartars, by St Louis, not worth +inserting.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the city of Naxuam I met a Catalan friar, of the order of +Predicants, named Barnard, who lives with a friar of the Holy +Sepulchre, resident in Georgia, and possessing extensive lands +there. We were detained in Naxuam by the snow, till the 6th +January 1255, and came in four days to the country of Sabensa, a +Curdish prince, heretofore powerful, but now tributary to the +Tartars, who destroyed all his warlike stores. Zacharias, the +father of Sabensa, possessed himself of all the country of the +Armenians, from whence he drove out the Saracens. In this country +there are many fine villages of true Christians, having churches +like those of Europe; and every Armenian has in his house, in an +honourable place, a wooden hand holding a cross, before which a +lamp continually burns; and that which we do by holy water, they +do with frankincense, which they burn every evening through every +corner of the house, to drive away evil spirits. I eat with +Sabensa, and both he and his wife did me great reverence. His son +Zachary, a wise and comely young man, asked me if your majesty +would, entertain him; for though he has plenty of all things, he +is so uneasy under the Tartar dominion, that he would rather +retire to a strange country, than endure their violent exactions. +These people say they are true sons of the church, and if the +Pope would send them aid, they would bring all the neighbouring +nations under subjection to the church of Rome.</p> + +<p>From Naxuam we travelled in fifteen days into the country of +the soldan of Turkey, to a castle called Marseugen, inhabited by +Armenians, Curgians, and Greeks, the Turks only having the +dominion. From that place, where we arrived on the first Sunday +of Lent, till I got to Cyprus, eight days before the feast of St +John the Baptist, I was forced to buy all our provisions. He who +was my guide procured horses for us, and took my money for the +victuals, which he put into his own pocket; for when in the +fields, he took a sheep from any flock he saw by the way, without +leave or ceremony. In the Feast of the Purification, 2d February, +I was in a city named Ayni, belonging to Sabensa, in a strong +situation, having an hundred Armenian churches, and two mosques, +and in it a Tartar officer resides.</p> + +<p>At this place I met five preaching friars, four of whom came +from Provence, and the fifth joined them in Syria. They had but +one sickly boy who could speak Turkish and a little French, and +they had the Popes letters of request to Sartach, Baatu, and +Mangu-khan, that they might be suffered to continue in the +country to preach the word of God. But when I had told them what +I had seen, and how I was sent back, they directed their journey +to Tefflis, where there were friars of their order, to consult +what they should do. I said that they might pass into Tartary +with these letters, but they might lay their account with much +labour, and would have to give an account of the motives of their +journey; for having no other object but preaching, they would be +little cared for particularly as they had no ambassador. I never +heard what they did afterwards.</p> + +<p>On the second Sunday in Lent we came to the head of the +Araxes, and passing the mountains, we came to the Euphrates, by +which we descended eight days journey, going to the west, till we +came to a castle named Camath or Kemac, where the Euphrates +trends to the south, towards Halapia, or Aleppo. We here passed +to the north-west side of the river, and went over very high +mountains, and through deep snow, to the west. There was so great +an earthquake that year in this country, that in one city called +Arsingan, ten thousand persons are said to have perished. During +three days journey we saw frequent gaps in the earth, which had +been cleft by the convulsion, and great heaps of earth which had +tumbled down from the mountains into the vallies. We passed +through the valley where the soldan of the Turks was vanquished +by the Tartars, and a servant belonging to my guide, who was in +the Tartar army, said the Tartars did not exceed 10,000 men, +whereas the soldan had 200,000 horse. In that plain there broke +out a great lake at the time of the earthquake, and it came into +my mind, that the earth opened her mouth to receive yet more +blood of the Saracens.</p> + +<p>We remained in Sebasta, Siwas, or Sivas, a town of the Lesser +Armenia, in the Easter week, and on the succeeding Sunday we came +to Caesaria of Capadocia, now called Kaisarea. In about fifteen +days, making short journeys, we came to Konieh or Iconium. This +delay arose in part from the difficulty of procuring horses, but +chiefly because the guide chose to stop, often for three days +together in one place, to negotiate his own affairs; and though +much dissatisfied, I durst not complain, as he might have slain +me and our servants, or sold us for slaves, and there was none to +hinder it. I found many Franks at Iconium, and among these a +merchant called Nicholas de Sancto Syrio, and his partner +Boniface de Molandino, who had a monopoly of all the alum of +Turkey from the soldan, and by this means they had raised the +price so much, that what used to sell for fifteen byzants, is now +sold for forty. My guide presented me to the soldan, who said he +would willingly get me conveyed to the sea of Armenia or Cilicia; +but the above merchants knowing that the Turks made little +account of me, and that I was much distressed with my guide, +caused me to be conveyed to Curruma[15], a port in the dominions +of the king of Armenia. Having remained here from before the +Ascension till after Pentecost, or near a fortnight, I heard +there were messengers arrived from the king to his father, and I +went to the kings father to learn the news. I found him +surrounded by all his sons, except Barum Usin, who resided in a +certain castle; and he told me that his son was on his return, +and that Mangu-khan had much eased his tribute, granting him a +privilege that no ambassador should come into his country. On +this the old man and all his sons made a banquet; and he caused +me to be conveyed by sea to the haven called Aijax[16], whence I +passed over into Cyprus, and at Nicosia I found our provincial, +who, the same day, carried me with him to Antiochia [17], which +is in a very weak state; we were there on the feast of St Peter, +and St Paul, 29th June; and from thence we went to Tripolis in +Syria, where the chapter of our order was held, on the Assumption +of the Blessed Virgin, 15th August 1255.</p> + +<blockquote>[15] Kurke or Kurch.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] Aias-cala, in the gulf of Aiasso, or +Scanderoon.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] Antioch or Antakia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Our provincial is determined that I shall reside at Acon [18], +and will not suffer me to come to your majesty, but commands me +to write what I will by the bearer of these presents. I would +willingly see your highness, and some spiritual friends in your +kingdom; and beseech your majesty to write our provincial to +allow me to go to you, and to return shortly again into the Holy +Land.</p> + +<blockquote>[18] Ptolomais, or St John d'Acre.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I would have your majesty to understand, that in Turkey, every +tenth man is not a Mahometan; they are all Armenians and Greeks, +and are ruled over by children. The soldan, who was conquered by +the Tartars, had a lawful wife of Iberia, by whom he had one +feeble son, whom he directed to succeed him as soldan. He had +another son by a Greek concubine, whom he committed to the +guardianship of a certain great admiral. The third he had by a +Turkish woman, to whom many Turks and Turkomans having gathered, +they proposed to have slain all the soldans sons by Christian +mothers, and if successful, to have destroyed all the churches, +and to compel all to become Mahometans on pain of death. But he +was overcome in battle, and many of his men slain. He recruited +his army, and ventured a second battle, in which he was defeated +and taken prisoner, and still remains confined. Pacester, the son +of the Greek concubine, was soon afterwards made soldan, as the +other was weak, whom they have sent to the Tartars; the kindred +by the mothers side, of this son, such as the Iberians and Curds, +are much dissatisfied at his being deprived; so that at this time +a child ruleth in Turkey, having no treasure, few soldiers, and +many enemies. The son of Vestacius is weak, and at war with the +son of Assan, who is likewise a child, and worn out with the +servitude of the Tartars. If, therefore, an army of the church +were now to come to the Holy Land, it were easy to subdue all +these countries, or to pass through them. The king of Hungary +hath not above 30,000 soldiers. From Cologne to Constantinople +are not above sixty days journey by waggons; and from +Constantinople not so many to the country of the king of Armenia. +In old times, valiant men passed through all these countries and +prospered; yet they had to contend with most valiant opponents, +whom God hath now destroyed out of the earth. In this way we need +fear no dangers of the sea, or the mercy of sailors, and the +price of freight would defray the expences by land. I say +confidently, if our countrymen would go as the king of the +Tartars does, and would be contented with such victuals, they +might conquer the whole world.</p> + +<p>It does not seem to me expedient, that any more friars should +be sent to the Tartars, in the way I went, or as the predicant +friars go. But if our lord the Pope were to send a bishop in an +honourable style, capable to answer their follies, he might speak +unto them as he pleased; for they will hear whatever an +ambassador chooses to speak, and always demand if he will say any +more. But he ought to have many good interpreters, and ought to +be at large expences.</p> + +<p>I have thus written to your highness, according to my weak +power and understanding, craving pardon from your clemency, for +my superfluities or wants, or for any thing that may be +indiscreetly or foolishly written, as from a man of little +understanding, not accustomed to write long histories. The peace +of God, which passeth all understanding, preserve your heart and +fortify your mind.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-10">CHAPTER X.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in +Tartary, in 1254.</i></b> [1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forst. Hist. of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. +113.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p>Introduction.</p> + +<p>Haitho, or Hatto, was the son of Livon, or Leon II., nephew of +Haitho I., king of Armenia Minor, in Lesser Asia. At the demise +of his father, he refused to accept of the crown, which he +resigned in favour of his brother Thores or Theodore; but +assisted him and his son and successor, Leon III., in all the +wars and troubles in which they were engaged during many years. +During the reign of his father in 1254, accompanied by his wife +and child, he travelled to the court of Mangu-khan, the great +sovereign of the Tartars or Mongals, for the purpose of obtaining +an abatement of the tribute which had been imposed by these +conquerors upon his country, and appears to have been successful +in his negotiations. His journey into the east took place in the +same year in which Rubruquis was on his return; and while at the +court or leskar of Sartach, he was of material service to two of +the attendants of Rubruquis, who had been left at that station; +and who but for his interference must have perished by famine, or +would have been reduced to slavery. Forster asserts that Haitho +met with Rubruquis, who was then on his return home; but we have +already seen, in the account of the travels of Rubruquis, that +the two travellers did not meet.</p> + +<p>In the year 1305, when he must have become very old, Haitho +became a monk of the Praemonstratensian order at Episcopia in +Cyprus. He afterwards went to Poitou in France, where he dictated +in French to Nicholas Salconi, a history of the events which had +occurred in the east from the first commencement of the conquests +of the Tartars or Mongals, including the reigns of Zingis-khan +and his successors, to Mangu-khan inclusively; and a particular +narrative of the history of his own country, Armenia Minor, from +the reign of Haitho I. to that of Leon II. both inclusive. This +account Salconi translated into Latin in 1307, by order of the +reigning Pope.</p> + +<p>The travels of Haitho being perfectly contemporary with those +of Rubruquis, are not sufficiently interesting to be here +inserted; and the historical part of his relations have no +connection with the plan of this work, which it would swell +beyond due bounds: But the following brief account of his +geographical description of the east, as it existed in the +thirteenth century, and as abstracted by J. R. Forster, in his +Voyages and Discoveries in the North, have been deemed worthy of +insertion, together with the observations or commentaries of that +ingenious author.</p> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical Notices of the East in the Thirteenth Century, +by Haitho.</i></p> + +<p>§ 1. The empire of <i>Kathay</i> is one of the most +extensive, most opulent, and most populous in the world, and is +entirely situated on the sea coast. The inhabitants have a very +high notion of their own superior intelligence, which they +express by saying, that they only of all the people on earth have +<i>two</i> eyes; to the Latins they allow <i>one</i>, and +consider all other nations as blind. The Kathayans have small +eyes and no beards. Their money consists of small square pieces +of paper, impressed with the seal of their emperor. To the west, +this empire is bounded by that of the Tarsae; to the north by the +desert of Belgian; and to the south by the sea, in which there +are innumerable islands. The inhabitants of Kathay are +exceedingly skilful and ingenious in all works of art and in +manufactures, but are of a very timorous disposition. In the +foregoing description, and in the traits of character, the empire +and inhabitants of northern China are distinctly +indicated.--Forst.</p> + +<p>§ 2. The empire of <i>Tarsa</i> is divided into three +provinces, each of which has a sovereign who assumes the title of +King. The inhabitants are called Jogur, the Jugur or Uigur of +other authors. They are divided into many tribes, ten of whom are +Christians, and the rest heathens. They abstain from every +article of food which has ever had life, and drink no wine, but +raise abundance of corn. Their towns are very pleasant, and +contain great numbers of idol temples. They are not inclined to +war, but learn all arts and sciences with great facility, and +have a particular manner of writing, which is adopted by all the +neighbouring nations. To the east, this country is bounded by +Kathay, to the west by Turkestan, to the north by an extensive +desert, and to the south by a very rich province, named Sym or +Peim, in which diamonds are found, and which, is situated between +Kathay and India. It appears, that Haitho here describes the +country of the Uigurs in conjunction with that of the Gete: but +how it came to receive the name of Tarsae I know +not--<i>Forst</i>.</p> + +<p>§ 3. <i>Turkestan</i> is bounded on the east by the +empire of Tarsae, to the west by Khorasmin or Khuaresm, and to +the south it extends to the desert which forms the northern +frontier of India. In this country there are few good towns; but +many extensive plains, which afford excellent pasturage to +cattle, and the inhabitants are almost universally shepherds and +tenders of cattle. They dwell mostly in tents, and in huts which +can be transported from place to place. They cultivate only a +small quantity of corn, and have no wine. Their drink is beer and +milk, and they subsist upon meat with rice and millet. The people +are known by the name of Turks, and are of the Mahometan +religion. Such of them as live in towns use the Arabian letters. +Ocerra or Otrar is the capital of this country.</p> + +<p>§ 4. <i>Khorasmin</i> or Khuaresm, is a populous, +pleasant, and fertile country, containing many good and strong +towns, the capital being Khorasme. The country produces abundance +of corn, and very little wine. This empire borders on a desert of +an hundred days journey in extent. To the west is the Caspian +sea, to the north Kumania, and to the east Turkestan. The +inhabitants are heathens, without letters or laws. The Soldini +are the most intrepid of warriors; have a particular language of +their own, for which they employ the Greek characters in writing; +and they follow the usages and rites of the Greek church, being +subject in spirituals to the Patriarch of Antioch.</p> + +<p>According to Ulug-Beg, who was himself prince of this country, +the capital of Khuaresm is the city of Korkang, and no author +except Haitho has ever mentioned a place called Khorasme. The +Soldini, whom he mentions as Christians of the Greek church, are +unknown; perhaps they may have been the +Sogdians.--<i>Forst</i>.</p> + +<p>§ 5. <i>Kumania</i> is of vast extent; but, owing to the +inclemency of its climate, is very thinly inhabited. In some +parts, the cold is so intense in winter, that neither man nor +beast can remain in them; and in other parts the heat is so +extreme, and they are so infested with swarms of flies, as to be +quite intolerable. The whole country is flat and level, and +without woods, except some orchards near the towns. The +inhabitants live in tents, and use the dung of their cattle as +fuel. It is bounded on the east by a desert towards Khorasmia; to +the west is the great sea, or Euxine, and the sea of Tenue, +Tanna, or Azof; to the north, is the empire of Kaffia or Kiow; +and to the south it extends to the great river Etile or Wolga, +which passes the capital. This river is frozen over every year, +and men and beasts walk upon the ice as on dry land; along the +banks of the river are many small trees; and on the other side of +the river, the country is inhabited by a people, who, though not +Kumanians, are subject to the Khan. Some live towards the high +mountains of Cocas or Caucasus, in which there are white kites. +This range of mountains extends between the Black Sea or Euxine +on the west, and the Caspian on the east; this latter has no +connection with the ocean, but is a vast lake called a sea, on +account of its extent, being the largest lake in the world, and +contains a great quantity of excellent fish. It divides Asia into +two parts; that to the east being called <i>Lower</i> Asia, and +that to the west <i>Greater</i> Asia. In the Caspian mountains, +abundance of buffalos and many other wild beasts are found. In +this sea there are many islands, to which numerous birds resort +to breed; particularly the falcons called <i>Pegrim</i>[1], +<i>Esmetliones</i>[2], and <i>Bousacei</i>[3], and many other +birds not to be found elsewhere. The largest town of Kumania is +Sara or Saray, which was large and of great renown, but has been +ravaged, and almost entirely destroyed by the Tartars, who took +it by storm.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Faucon Pelerin, the Pilgrim +Falcon,--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Esmerliones, or Merlins.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The Bondree and Sacre, or the Honey-buzzard and +Sacre.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>It is obvious, that Haitho here describes that part of the +empire of the Mongals which was subject to Baatu-khan. The Euxine +or Black Sea, he calls the <i>Great Sea</i>. The sea of Tenue is +that of Tanna or Azof, the town at the mouth of the Tanais or Don +having been known by both of these names, the former evidently +derived from the ancient name of the river, or the river from the +town, and of which the modern name Don is a mere corruption. The +empire of Kaffia is obviously that of Kiow, Kiovia, or Kiavia, +long the capital of the Russian empire, and the residence of the +czars or great dukes.--Forst.</p> + +<p>§ 6. Beyond the great mountain of Belgian or Bilkhan, the +Tartars lived formerly without religion, or the knowledge of +letters, being chiefly employed in tending their flocks; and were +so far from warlike, that they readily submitted to pay tribute +to any neighbouring prince who made the demand. All the tribes of +the Tartars were known by the name of Mogles, Moguls or Mongals; +and in process of time they increased so much, as to form seven +populous independent nations. The first was called Tartar, after +a province of that name, which was their original habitation; the +second Tangot, Tangut, or Tongusians; the third Kunat; the fourth +Jalair or Thalair; the fifth Sonich; the sixth Monghi; and the +seventh Tabeth. Prompted by a vision and a command from God, the +chiefs of these nations chose Changi or Zinghis to be their +sovereign ruler or Great Khan; and we are told that when he came +down from the mountains of Belgian, the sea withdrew nine feet, +and made a way for him where there was none before.</p> + +<p>This seems to be the same history with that of Irganekon, +which is also related by Abulgasi. The mountain Belgian must be +looked for in the environs of lake Balehas, in the country of +Organum or Irganekon. According to the Nighiaristan, a collection +of oriental history, the Turkomanni likewise came from a place +called Belgian or Bilkhan.--Forst.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-11">CHAPTER XI.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Marco Polo, through Tartary, +China, the Islands of India, and most of Asia, from A. D. 1260 to +1295 .</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Harris, I, 593. Forst. Voy. and Disc. p. 117. +Modern Geogr. II. xvi.</blockquote> + +<p>Nicolo Polo, the father of this intelligent early traveller, +and Maffei Polo his uncle, were Venetian gentlemen engaged in +commerce; and appear to have gone into the east, in the +prosecution of their trade, in the year 1260. They resided far +some time at the court of Kublai-khan, the great emperor of the +Mongals or Tartars; and, returning to Venice in 1269, they found +that the wife of Nicolo had died during their absence, leaving a +son Marco, the author of the following travels, of whom she was +pregnant at the time of their departure. These circumstances are +detailed in the first section of this chapter, but the date which +has been usually assigned for the commencement of this first +journey, 1250, is evidently corrupted, as will appear from the +following considerations, derived from a comparison of the +chronology of the kings and princes, who are mentioned in the +travels as reigning at the time. The high probability is, that +the obvious mistake, of assuming the year 1250 as the era of the +first journey, arose from a careless substitution of the figure 5 +for 6 in transcription.</p> + +<p>Assuming the corrected date of 1260 as the commencement of the +first journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, this will appear to be +consonant with the chronology of the princes with whose reigns +their travels were connected; while the date of 1250, adopted by +Ramusio and Muller, is totally irreconcilable with the truth of +history. They remained one year at the leskar or camp of +Bereke-khan, whence they travelled into Bochara, where they +tarried three years. From thence they spent one year on their +journey to the court of Kublai-khan, and were three years on +their journey back to Venice. But as they remained some time at +the residence of Kublai-khan, one year may be allowed for that +circumstance; and this first journey may therefore be allowed to +have occupied nine years in all.</p> + +<p>Kublai-khan reigned supreme emperor of the Mongals from 1259 +to 1294, in which last year he died at eighty years of age. If, +therefore, Nicolo and Maffei had set out upon their first journey +in 1250, they must have arrived at the imperial residence of +Cambalu, or Pekin, in 1255, at the latest, or four years before +Kublai-khan ascended the throne. Their first journey commenced +while Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople, who reigned from +1234 to 1261. The khan of Kiptschak, or the western division of +the vast empire of the Mongals, at the time of this journey, was +Bereke, who ruled from 1256 to 1266. Holagu-khan, who was then at +war with Bereke, did not begin to reign till 1258. Hence it +follows, that they could not have commenced their first journey +at the very earliest before 1258, or 1259 rather; as it is not to +be supposed that Holagu would enter upon a dangerous war in the +first year of his reign. Upon the whole, therefore, the date of +1260, for the commencement of the first journey, as already +observed, is perfectly consistent with the chronology of +history.</p> + +<p>The year of their return to Venice, 1269, is agreed upon on +all hands; and as Marco was born in the first year of their +absence, he would then be about nine years of age. Ramusio, who +dates the commencement of the first journey in 1250, supposes +Marco to have been fifteen years of age at the return of his +father and uncle, which is absurd; as, if the era assumed by +Ramusio were possibly true, he must then have been in his +nineteenth year.</p> + +<p>According to the opinion of Mr J. R. Forster, the commencement +of the second journey in which Marco was engaged, must have been +in 1271; and he founds this opinion on the circumstance, that +Gregory IX. had then been elected pope, from whom they carried +letters for Kublai-khan. But it will appear from the travels +themselves, that the three Polos had commenced their journey +previously to the election of that sovereign pontiff, and that +they were detained some time in Armenia, in consequence of an +express sent after them for the purpose, that they might there +wait for his final instructions. They may, therefore, have +commenced this second journey in 1270. We only know, however, +that they set out from Venice for a second journey into Tartary, +soon after their return from the first, in 1269; and that they +carried young Marco along with them. On his appearance at the +court of Cambalu, Kublai-khan took a fancy to the young Venetian, +and caused him to be instructed in four of the principal +languages which were spoken in the extensive dominions of the +Mongals. Marco was afterwards employed by the khan, for a +considerable number of years, in several important affairs, as +will appear in the relation of his travels.</p> + +<p>At length, the three Polos returned to Venice, in 1295, after +an absence of twenty-five or twenty-six years, during which long +period they had never been heard of by their friends and +countrymen, seventeen years of which Marco had been employed in +the service of the great khan. On their return to their own house +in Venice, they were entirely forgotten by their relations and +former acquaintances, and had considerable difficulty to +establish their identity, and to get themselves recognized by +their family, and were obliged to use extraordinary means to +recover the respect which was their due, and an acknowledgement +of their name, family, and rank, the particulars of which will be +found in the travels themselves.</p> + +<p>About three years after the return of these adventurous +travellers, hostilities arose between the republics of Genoa and +Venice. The Genoese admiral, Lampa Doria, came to the island of +Curzola with a fleet of seventy gallies, to oppose whom, the +Venetians fitted out a great naval force under Andrea Dandolo, +under whom Marco Polo had the command of a galley. The Venetians +were totally defeated in a great naval engagement, with the loss +of their admiral and eighty-five ships, and Marco Polo had the +misfortune to be among the number of the prisoners.</p> + +<p>Harris alleges that he remained a prisoner during several +years, in spite of every offer of ransom that was made for his +liberation. But in this he must have mistaken, or been misled by +the authorities which he trusted to, as peace was concluded in +1299, the year immediately subsequent to the naval engagement in +which he was made prisoner. While in prison at Genoa, many of the +young nobility are said to have resorted to Marco, to listen to +the recital of his wonderful travels and surprizing adventures; +and they are said to have prevailed upon him to send to Venice +for the notes which he had drawn up during his peregrinations, by +means of which the following relation is said to have been +written in Latin from has dictation. From the original Latin, the +account of his travels was afterwards translated into Italian; +and from this again, abridgements were afterwards made in Latin +and diffused over Europe.</p> + +<p>According to Baretti[2], the travels of Marco Polo were +dictated by him in 1299, while in the prison of Genoa, to one +Rustigielo, an inhabitant of Pisa, who was his fellow prisoner. +They were afterwards published in Italian, and subsequently +translated into Latin by Pessuri, a Dominican monk of Bologna. +Copies of the original manuscript, though written in the Venetian +dialect, which is extremely different from the Tuscan or pure +Italian, were multiplied with great rapidity in all parts of +Italy, and even made their way into France and Germany. From one +or more of these, corrupted by the carelessness or ignorance of +transcribers, some of whom may have abridged the work, or may +even have interpolated it from other sources, a thing quite +common before the invention of printing, the Latin translations +may have been made and circulated over Europe. Ramusio, an early +editor of voyages and travels, published these travels in an +Italian translation from the Latin, which he erroneously supposed +to have been the original dictation of Marco to Rustigielo; and +many other editions have been published in the various languages +of Europe, but all from one or other of these corrupted +transcripts or translations.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Ital Libr. p. iv.</blockquote> + +<p>A manuscript of the travels of Marco polo, in the Venetian +dialect, was long preserved by the Soranza family at Venice, but +whether this now exists, or has ever been published, is unknown. +Mr Pinkerton informs us [3], that a genuine edition of these +travels, probably from the original MS. either of Marco himself, +after his return from Genoa, or from that of his amanuensis +Rustigielo, was published at Trevigi in 1590, in the dialect of +Venice, which has hitherto escaped the attention of all editors +and commentators. This curious publication is often worded in the +names of all the three travellers, father, uncle, and son; but +when the peculiar travels of Marco are indicated, his name only +is employed. In the former case, the language runs thus, +"<i>We</i>, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, have heard, seen, and +know, &c.:" In the latter, "I Marco was in that place, and +saw, &c." In this Venetian edition, the names of places and +persons are often widely different from those in the other +editions, and probably more genuine and correct. But that +publication being at present inaccessible, we are under the +necessity of being contented with the edition of Harris, in which +he professes to have carefully collated the edition of Ramusio +with most of the other translations, and with an original MS. in +the royal library of Prussia. This latter labour, however, he +seems to have taken entirely upon trust from Muller, a German +editor and translator, probably through the intermediation of +Bergeron, an early French editor of voyages and travels. The only +freedom which has been assumed in the present edition is, by +dividing it into sections for more ready consultation and +reference, and by the addition of explanatory notes from various +sources.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.</blockquote> + +<p>Marco Polo is the chief of all the early modern discoverers; +having been the first who communicated to Europe any distinct +ideas of the immense regions of Asia, from the Euxine eastwards, +through the vast extent of Tartary to China and Japan; and the +very first author who has made any mention of that distant +insular sovereignty. Even Columbus is supposed, with some +considerable probability, to have been prompted to his +enterprize, which ended in the discovery of America, by the study +of these travels; believing, that by a western course through the +unexplored Atlantic, he should find a comparatively short passage +to those eastern regions of the Indies, which Polo had visited, +described, or indicated. In this view he was, however, so far +misled in his estimation of the distance, by the erroneously +spread-out longitudes of Ptolomy, bringing these regions much +farther towards the east, and consequently nearer by the west, +than their actual situation; and was stopped in his western +course, by the important and unexpected discovery of many +islands, and a vast interposed continent; which, from +preconceived theory, he named the West Indies.</p> + +<p>Such is the account of these travels which has been handed +down to us from various sources, and which their importance and +intrinsic merit have induced us to record at some length. Of +these adventurous travellers, some notices yet remain, which may +be worthy of being preserved. Signior Maffio Polo, the uncle of +Marco, became a magistrate of Venice, and lived for some time in +much respect among his countrymen. Nicolo Polo, the father of +Marco, is said to have married during the captivity of his son at +Genoa, and to have left three children by this second marriage. +Marco himself married after his return to Venice from Genoa, and +left two daughters, Moretta and Fantina, but had no male issue. +He is said to have received among his countrymen the name of +Marco Millioni, because he and his family had acquired a fortune +of a million of ducats in the east. He died as he had lived, +universally beloved and respected by all who knew him; for, with +the advantages of birth and fortune, he was humble and beneficent +and employed his great riches, and the interest he possessed in +the state, only to do good.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>Introductory General Account of the whole Travels, from the +commencement of the first Journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, in +1260, to their final return along with Marco to Venice, in +1295</i>.</p> + +<p>(Illustration: MAP OF THE Eastern part of Tartary & +ADJACENT COUNTRIES)</p> + +<p>In the year 1260, when Baldwin was emperor of Continople, two +brothers of an illustrious family at Venice, Nicolo and Maffei +Polo, embarked in a vessel which was laden with a various +assortment of merchandize on their own account; and, after +traversing the Mediterranean and Bosphoros with a fair wind, they +arrived in safety at Constantinople. Having remained for some +time in the imperial city, they crossed the Great Sea to +Soldadia[1], from thence they went to the court of a Tartar +prince, named Barha[2], who lived in the towns of Bolgara and +Alsara[3]. To this prince they shewed the fine jewels which they +had brought for sale, and presented him with some of the most +valuable. He was far from ungrateful for their presents, which he +kindly accepted, and for which he made them returns of greater +value. Having remained a whole year at his court, they were +desirous of returning to Venice; but before they had any +opportunity of departing, a war broke out between Barha and +another Tartar prince named Arau[4]; the armies of these rivals +came to a battle, in which Barha was defeated, and obliged to +fly. By this unfortunate incident, the roads to the westwards +became quite unsafe for the journey of the Polos, and they were +advised to make a large circuit round the north and east +frontiers of the dominions of Barha; and by which route they made +their escape from the seat of war to Guthacam, a town on the +Tygris[5]. A little farther on, they crossed the Gihon, one of +the four rivers of Paradise, and travelled afterwards for +seventeen days in the desert, in which they saw neither town, +castle, nor village, and only a few Tartars dwelling in huts or +tents. Leaving the desert, they came to a considerable city, +named Bochara, on the frontiers of Persia, then the residence of +a prince called Barach[6], who gave them a good reception; and +being unable to proceed any farther, on account of the great wars +which then raged among the Tartars, they remained there for three +years.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Black-Sea, or Euxine, is here called the +<i>Great</i> Sea. Soldadia, Soldaia, or Sudak, was a city in the +Crimea, a little to the west of Caffa.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Barha or Barcha, more properly Bereke-khan, who +reigned from 1256 to 1266.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Bolgara is the town of Bolgari, the capital of +Bulgaria, which subsisted from 1161 to 1578. Alsara is Al-seray, +which was built by Baatu-khan, on the Achtuba, a branch of the +Volga.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Probably Holagu-khan, to whom all Persia was in +subjection, quite to Syria.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Ukakah, Grikhata, Khorkang, or Urghenz on the +Gihon.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Bereke-khan.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>At that time there came to Bochara a person of distinction, +who was going as ambassador from Holagu to Kublai-khan, the great +emperor of all the Tartars, who resided in the remotest countries +of the earth, betwixt the north-east and the east. Meeting with +the brothers, who had now become well versed in the Tartarian +language, he was much taken with their conversation, and +persuaded them to accompany him to the court of the great khan, +knowing that he should gratify him in this circumstance, and +promised them that they should be received with great honour, and +gratified with large rewards. They were well aware that it was +utterly impossible for them to return home at this period, +without the most imminent danger, and agreed to this proposal, +taking with them some Christian servants whom they had brought +from Venice; and travelling toward the north-east, they employed +a whole year on the journey, being often obliged to wait the +melting of the snow, and the decreasing of the floods, which +obstructed their passage.</p> + +<p>At length they arrived at the residence of the great khan, and +being brought into his presence, were most courteously received, +and treated with great distinction. He interrogated them much +concerning many things relative to the countries of the west; +particularly respecting the Roman emperor[7], and the other kings +and princes of Europe; the forms of their different governments, +the nature, number and discipline of their military force; how +peace, justice and concord were established and maintained among +them; of the manners and customs of the different European +nations; and concerning the pope, the discipline of the church, +and the tenets of the Christian faith. To all this Nicolo and +Maffei made proper and suitable replies, as prudent and wise men, +declaring the truth, and speaking orderly in the Tartarian +language; with which the emperor was well satisfied, as he +acquired a knowledge of the affairs of the Europeans; insomuch +that he often commanded them to be brought into his presence.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] This probably refers to the Constantinopolitan or +Greek emperor; his dominions being called <i>Roum</i> in the east +to the present day.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After some time, Kublai-khan having consulted with his great +lords, informed them, that he was desirous to send them as his +ambassadors to the pope of the Romans, accompanied by one of his +lords named Chogatal[8], requesting that he would send an hundred +men, learned in the Christian religion, to his courts, that they +might instruct his wise men, that the faith of the Christians was +preferable to all other sects, being the only way of salvation; +that the gods of the Tartars were devils, and that they and other +people of the east were deceived in the worship of these gods. He +likewise commanded them, on their return from Jerusalem, to bring +him some of the oil from the lamp which burns before the +sepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom the emperor had great +devotion, believing him to be the true God. Yielding due +reverence to the great khan, they promised faithfully to execute +the charge which he had committed to them, and to present to the +pope the letters in the Tartarian language, which he gave them +for that purpose. According to the custom of the empire, the +great khan caused to be given them a golden tablet, engraven and +signed with the mark or signet of the khan, in virtue of which, +instead of a passport, the bearers were entitled to be everywhere +conveyed in safety through dangerous places, by the governors of +provinces and cities, throughout the whole empire, having their +expences everywhere defrayed, and should be furnished with +whatever was needful for them and their attendants in all places, +and for as long as they might have occasion to stay.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] In different editions this name is corruptly +written Gogoka, Gogatal, Cogatal, and Chogatal.--E.</blockquote> + + +<p>Taking their leave of the great khan, they set out upon the +journey into the west, carrying with them the letters to the +pope, and the golden tablet. After travelling twenty days, the +Tartar lord, who was associated in their embassy to the pope, +fell grievously sick; on which, having consulted upon what was +best to be done, they resolved to leave him, and to continue +their journey, They were everywhere courteously received, through +the authority of the imperial tablet; yet they were often +compelled to wait, by the overflowing of the rivers, in the +course of their journey, so that they spent three years before +they reached the port in the country of the Armenians, called +Giazza [9]. From thence they proceeded to Acre [10], where they +arrived in the month of April 1269. On their arrival at Acre, +they were informed of the death of Pope Clement IV., by Tibaldo +Visconti of Placentia, the papal legate who then resided in that +place. They related to him what had befallen them, and declared +what commission they had received from the great khan to the +pope, and he advised to wait the creation of a new pope, to whom +they might deliver their letters. Upon this they took shipping +for Venice, by the way of Negropont, intending to visit their +friends and relations, and to remain there until a new pope +should be elected. On their arrival, Nicolo found that his wife +was dead, whom he had left pregnant at his departure; but that +she had left a son, now nineteen [11] years of age, who is this +very <i>Marco</i>, the author of this book, in which he will make +manifest all those things which he has seen in his travels.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Otherwise called Glaza and Galza, but more +properly Al-Ajassa, on the south-east extremity of the Euxine or +Black-sea.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Acon, or more properly Akko. It is not easy to +conceive what should have taken them so much out of their way as +Acre; unless they could not procure shipping at Giazza, and +travelled therefore by land through Asia Minor and Syria; or that +they intended here to procure the holy oil for the +khan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] This is an error in transcription, and it has +been already noticed in the introduction to these travels, that +Marco could not then have exceeded the ninth year of his +age.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The election of the pope was deferred two years, and the Polos +became afraid least the great khan might be displeased at their +delay. They went therefore back to Acre, carrying Marco along +with them; and having gone to Jerusalem for the holy oil +requested by Kublai, they received letters from the legate, +testifying their fidelity to the great khan, and that a pope was +not yet chosen. They then set out on their journey, and went to +Giazza, in Armenia. In the mean time letters came from the +Cardinals to the legate Visconti, declaring that he was elected +pope, and he assumed the name of Gregory. On this the new pope +sent messengers to the Polos to call them back, or to delay their +departure from Armenia until he might prepare other letters for +them, to present to the khan in his name, and to inform them, +that he meant to join two friars predicants in commission with +them, Nicolo of Vicenza and Guelmo of Tripoli, men of learning +and discretion. The Polos accordingly remained at Giazza, where +these two monks arrived with letters and presents of great value +for the khan, and furnished with ample powers and privileges, and +authority to ordain priests and bishops, and to grant absolution +in all cases, as fully as if the pope were present. But learning +that the sultan of Babylon, Bentiochdas[12], was leading a great +army to invade Armenia, and where he committed the most cruel +ravages, the two friars became afraid of themselves, and +delivered the letters and presents of the pope to Nicolo, Maffei, +and Marco; and to avoid the fatigues of the ways and the dangers +of war, they remained with the master of the temple, then at +Giazza, and returned with him to Acre.</p> + +<blockquote>[12] Bibars el Bentochdari, sultan of Kahira or +Cairo, in Egypt, often called Babylon.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>But the three Venetians proceeded boldly through many dangers +and difficulties, and at length, after a journey of three years +and a half, they arrived at the great city of Clemenisu[13]. In +this lengthened journey they had often long stoppages, on account +of the deep snow and extreme cold, and on occasion of floods and +inundations. When the khan heard of their approach, though yet at +a great distance, he sent messengers forty days journey to meet +them, that they might be conducted with all honour, and to +provide them with every accommodation during the remainder of +their journey. On their arrival at the court, and being +introduced into the presence, they prostrated themselves before +the khan on their faces, according to the customary form of +reverence; and being commanded to rise, were most graciously +received. The khan then demanded an account of the many dangers +through which they had passed by the way, and of their +proceedings with the pope of the Romans. All this they distinctly +related, and delivered to him the letters and presents from the +pope, with which the khan was well pleased, and gave them great +commendations for their care and fidelity. They presented to him +also the oil which they had brought from the holy sepulchre of +the Lord at Jerusalem, which he reverently received, and gave +orders that it should be honourably preserved. The khan inquired +who Marco was? On which Nicolo replied, "He is your majesty's +servant, and my son." The khan graciously received him with a +friendly countenance and had him taught to write among his +honourable courtiers; whereupon he was much respected by all the +court, and in a little time made himself familiar with the +customs of the Tartars, and learned to read and write four +different languages. After some time the great khan, to make +experience of his capacity, sent Marco upon a mission or embassy, +to a great city called Carachan or Zarazan, at such a distance as +he could scarcely travel in six months. He executed the +commission with which he had been entrusted with judgment and +discretion, and perfectly to the satisfaction of the khan: And +knowing that the khan would be delighted with an account of all +the novelties in the places through which he had to pass, he +diligently inquired into the manners and customs of the people, +the conditions of the countries, and every thing worthy of being +remarked, making a memorial of all he knew or saw, which he +presented to the great khan for his information and amusement. By +this means he got so much into the favour of the khan, that +during the twenty-six years which he continued in his service, he +was continually sent through all his realms and dependencies, +chiefly on affairs of government, but sometimes on his own +private matters, by the khan's orders; and this is the true +reason that he should have seen and learnt so many particulars +relating to the east, as he has declared in these his +memoirs.</p> + +<blockquote>[13] Chambalu, or Khan-balu, or the city of the Khan, +now Peking.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>After staying many years in the court of the great khan, and +having become very rich in jewels of great value, and considering +that if the khan, who was now grown very old, should happen to +die, they should never be able to return home; the Venetians +became exceedingly anxious to be permitted to return to their own +country. Wherefore, one day that he found the khan in +extraordinary good humour, Nicolo begged permission to return +home with his family. At this the Khan was much displeased, and +asked what could induce them to undertake so long and dangerous a +journey; adding, that if they were in want of riches, he would +gratify their utmost wishes, by bestowing upon them twice as much +as they possessed; but out of pure affection, he refused to give +them leave to depart.</p> + +<p>It happened, however, not long after this, that a king of the +Indies named Argon, sent three of his counsellors, named Ulatai, +Apusca, and Coza, as ambassadors to Kublai-khan on the following +occasion. Bolgana, the wife of Argon, was lately dead, and on her +death-bed had requested of her husband that he should choose a +wife from among her relations in Kathay. Kubla yielded to this +request, and chose a fair young maiden of seventeen years of age, +named Cogalin[14], who was of the family of the late queen +Bolgana, and determined to send her to Argon. The ambassadors +departed with their charge, and journeyed eight months the same +way they had come to the court of Kublai; but found bloody wars +raging among the Tartars, insomuch, that they were constrained to +return and to acquaint the great khan with the impossibility of +their proceeding home in that road. In the mean time, Marco had +returned from the Indies, where he had been employed with certain +ships in the service of the khan, to whom he had reported the +singularities of the places which he had visited, and the +facility of intercourse by sea between Kathay and the Indies. +This came to the knowledge of the ambassadors, who conferred with +the Venetians on the subject; and it was agreed, that the +ambassadors and the young queen should go to the great khan, and +beg permission to return by sea, and should request to have the +three Europeans, who were skilful in sea affairs, to accompany +and conduct them to the dominions of king Argon. The great khan +was much dissatisfied with this proposal, yet, at the earnest +entreaty of the ambassadors, he at length gave his consent; and +calling Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco into his presence, after much +demonstration of his favour and affection, he made them promise +to return to him after they had spent some time in Christendom +among their relations; and he caused a tablet of gold to be given +them, on which his commands were engraven for their liberty, +security, and free passage throughout all his dominions, and that +all the expences of them and their attendants should be defrayed, +providing them everywhere with guides and escorts, where +necessary. He authorized them also to act as his ambassadors to +the pope, and the kings of France and Spain, and all other +Christian princes.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] Called likewise; Kogatin, Gogatin, and Gogongin, +in the different transcripts of these travels.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The khan ordered fourteen ships to be prepared for the voyage, +each having four masts, and carrying nine sails. Four or five of +these were so large as to have from 250 to 260 mariners in each, +but the rest were smaller. In this fleet the queen and the +ambassadors embarked, accompanied by Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco; +having first taken leave of the great khan, who presented them, +at parting, with many rubies and other precious stones, and a sum +or money sufficient to defray all their expences for two years. +Setting sail from Kathay or China, they arrived in three months +at an island called Java, and sailing from thence they arrived in +eighteen months in the dominions of king Argon. Six hundred of +the mariners and others died during the voyage, and but one +woman; and only Coza of the three ambassadors survived. On +arriving at the dominions of Argon, he was found to be dead, and +a person named Ghiacato or Akata, governed the kingdom for his +son Casan; who was under age. On making the regent acquainted +with their business, he desired them to carry the young queen to +Casan, who was then on the confines of Persia, towards Arbor +Secco[15] with an army of 60,000 men, guarding certain passes of +the frontiers against the enterprises of their enemies; Having +executed this order, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, returned to the +residence of Chiacato, and staid there for nine months.</p> + +<blockquote>[15] From the circumstance of this kingdom of Argon +being near Arbor Secco it would appear to have been one of the +eight kingdoms of Persia mentioned in the sequel; and from the +sea voyage, it probably was Mekran, which, reaches to the sea and +the Indies,--E.</blockquote> + +<p>At the end of this period they took leave of Chiacato, who +gave them four tablets of gold, each a cubit long and five +fingers broad, and weighing three or four marks[16]. On these +were engraven to the following purport: "In the power of the +eternal God, the name of the great khan shall be honoured and +praised for many years; and whosoever disobeyeth, shall he put to +death, and all his goods confiscated." Besides this preamble, +they farther commanded, that all due honour should be shown to +the three ambassadors of the khan, and service performed to them +in all the countries and districts subject to his authority, as +to himself in person; that all necessary relays of horses and +escorts, and their expences, and every thing needful should be +supplied to them freely and gratuitously. All this was duly +executed, so that sometimes they had 200 horse for their +safeguard. During their journey, they were informed that the +great emperor of the Tartars, Kublai-khan was dead, by which they +considered themselves absolved from all obligations of the +promise they had made to return to his court. They continued +their journey to Trebisond, on the south side of the Euxine; +whence they proceeded by the way of Constantinople and Negropont +to Venice, where they arrived in safety, and with great riches, +in the year 1295.</p> + +<blockquote>[16] These were most princely letters-patent; equal +in weight to 400 guineas, perhaps equal in efficacious value to +4000 in our times.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On their arrival at their own house, in the street of St +Chrysostom in Venice, they found themselves entirely forgotten by +all their old acquaintances and countrymen, and even their +relations were unable to recognize them, owing to their long +absence, now thirty-five years from setting, out on their first +journey into the east; besides being much altered by age they had +become altogether resembling Tartars in their speech, dress and +manners, and were obliged to use some extraordinary expedients to +satisfy their family and countrymen of their identity, and to +recover the respect which was their due, by a public +acknowledgment of their name, family, and rank. For this purpose, +they invited all their relations arid connections to a +magnificent entertainment, at which all the three travellers made +their appearance in rich eastern habits of crimson satin. After +the guests were seated, and before the Polos sat down, they put +off their upper garments which they gave to the attendants, +appearing still magnificently dressed in habits of crimson +damask. These they threw off at the appearance of the last course +or service of the entertainment, and bestowed likewise on the +attendants; while they themselves still appeared clad in +magnificent dresses of crimson velvet. When dinner was over, and +all the servants had withdrawn, Marco Polo produced to the +company the coats of Tartarian cloth or felt, which he, and his +father and uncle had ordinarily worn during their travels, from +the folds of which he took out an incredible quantity of rich +jewels; among which were some that were well known to those who +were present at the entertainment, and by which the three +travellers incontestibly proved themselves members of the Polo +family, and the identical persons they represented +themselves.</p> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Description of Armenia the Lesser, of the country of the +Turks of Greater Armenia, Zorzania, the kingdom of Mosul, of the +cities of Bagdat and Tauris, and account of a strange +Miracle[1].</i></p> + +<blockquote>[1] Marco Polo having spent much the largest portion +of his life among the Tartars, necessarily used their names for +the countries, places, and people which he described, and these +names have been subsequently much disfigured in transcription. +This has occasioned great perplexity to commentators in +endeavouring to explain his geography conformably with modern +maps, and which even is often impossible to be done with any +tolerable certainty. The arrangement, likewise, of his +descriptions is altogether arbitrary, so that the sequence does +not serve to remove the difficulty; and the sections appear to +have been drawn up in a desultory manner just as they occurred to +his recollection, or as circumstances in the conversation or +inquiry of others occasioned him to commit his knowledge to +paper.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>There are two Armenias, the Greater and the Lesser. In the +Lesser Armenia the king resides in a city called Sebaste; and in +all this country justice and good government are strictly +enforced. This kingdom has many cities, fortresses, and castles; +the soil is fertile, and the country abounds with game and +wildfowl, and every necessary article of provisions, but the air +is not very good. Formerly the Armenian gentlemen were brave men +and good soldiers, but are now become effeminate, and addicted to +drinking and debauchery. The city of Giazza, on the Black Sea, +has an excellent harbour, to which merchants resort from divers +countries, even from Venice and Genoa, for several sorts of +merchandize, especially for the different kinds of spices, and +various other valuable goods, which are brought here from India, +as this place is the settled market for the commodities of the +east.</p> + +<p>Turcomania is inhabited by three different nations, Turcomans, +Greeks, and Armenians. The Turcomans, who are Mahometans, are a +rude, illiterate, and savage people, inhabiting the mountains and +inaccessible places, where they can procure pasture, as they +subsist only on the produce of their flocks and herds. In their +country there are excellent horses, called Turkish horses, and +their mules are in great estimation. The Greeks and Armenians +possess the cities and towns, and employ themselves in +manufactures and merchandize, making, especially, the best +carpets in the world. Their chief cities are Cogno or Iconium, +Caesarea, and Sebaste, where St Basil suffered martyrdom. This +country is under subjection to one of the khans of the +Tartars.</p> + +<p>The Greater Armenia is a large province, subject to the +Tartars, which has many cities and towns, the principal of which +is Arsugia, in which the best buckram in the world is made. In +this neighbourhood there are excellent hot springs, which are +celebrated as salutary baths in many diseases. The cities next in +consequence are Argiron and Darziz. In the summer season many +Tartars resort to this country on account of the richness of the +pastures, and retire again in winter, because of the abundance of +snow. The ark of Noah rested on Arrarat, one of the mountains of +Armenia.</p> + +<p>This country has the province of Mosul and Meridin on the +east, or Diarbekir; and on the north is Zorzania[2], where there +is a fountain that discharges a liquid resembling oil; which, +though it cannot be used as a seasoning for meat, is yet useful +for burning in lamps, and for many other purposes; and it is +found in sufficient quantities to load camels, and to form a +material object of commerce. In Zorzania is a prince named David +Melic or King David; one part of the province being subject to +him, while the other part pays tribute to a Tartar khan. The +woods are mostly of box-trees. Zorzania extends between the +Euxine and Caspian seas; which latter is likewise called the sea +of Baccu, and is 2800 miles in circumference: but is like a lake, +as it has no communication with any other sea. In it there are +many islands, cities, and castles, some of which are inhabited by +the people who fled from the Tartars out of Persia.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Gurgistan, usually called +Georgia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The people of Zorzania are Christians, observing the same +rites with others, and wear their hair short like the western +clergy. There are many cities, and the country abounds in silk, +of which they make many fine manufactures. Moxul or Mosul, is a +province containing many sorts of people; some are called Arahi, +who are Mahometans; others are Christians of various sects, as +Nestorians, Jacobites, and Armenians; and they have a patriarch +stiled Jacolet, who ordains archbishops, bishops, and abbots, +whom he sends all over India, and to Cairo, and Bagdat, and +wherever there are Christians, in the same manner as is done by +the pope of Rome. All the stuffs of gold and silk, called +<i>musleims</i>, are wrought in Moxul[3]. In the mountains of +this country of Diarbekir, dwelt the people called Curds, some +off whom are Nestorians or Jacobites, and other Mahometans. They +are a lawless people, who rob the merchants that travel through +their country. Near to them is another province called Mus, +Meridin, or Mardin, higher up the Tigris than Mosul, wherein +grows great quantities of cotton, of which they make buckrams[4] +and other manufactures. This province is likewise subject to the +Tartars. Baldach, or Bagdat, is a great city in which the supreme +caliph formerly resided, who was pope of all the Saracens. From +this city it is counted seventeen days journey to the sea; but +the river Tigris runs past, on which people sail to Balsora, +where the best dates in the world grow, but in the passage +between these; two cities there lies another named Chisi. In +Bagdat are many manufactures of gold and silk, and damasks and +velvets with figures of various creatures; in that city there is +a university, where the law of Mahoment, physic, astronomy, and +geomancy are taught; and from it come all the pearls in +Christendom.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] This manufacture from Mosul or Moxul, on the +Tigris, must be carefully distinguished from the muslins of +India, which need not be described.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] These buckrams seem to have been some coarse +species of cotton cloth, in ordinary wear among the eastern +nations. The word occurs frequently, in these early travels in +Tartary, but its proper meaning is unknown--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When the Tartars began to extend their conquests, there were +four brothers who possessed the chief rule; of whom Mangu, the +eldest, reigned in Sedia[5]. These brethren proposed to +themselves to subdue the whole world, for which purpose one went +to the east, another to the north, a third to the west, and Ulau +or Houlagu went to the south in 1250, with an army of an hundred +thousand horse, besides foot. Employing stratagem, he hid a great +part of his force in ambush, and advancing with an inconsiderable +number, enticed the caliph to follow him by a pretended flight; +by this means he took the caliph prisoner, and made himself +master of the city, in which he found such infinite store of +treasure, that he was quite amazed. Sending for the caliph into +his presence, he sharply reproved him, that, possessing such +riches, he had not employed them in providing soldiers to defend +his dominions; and commanded him to be shut up in the tower where +his treasure was placed, without any sustenance.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] This word is inexplicable, unless by supposing it +some corruption of <i>Syra</i> Horda, the golden court or +imperial residence, which was usually in Tangut or Mongalia, on +the Orchen or Onguin. But in the days of Marco, the khans had +betaken themselves to the luxurious ease of fixed residences and +he might have misunderstood the information he received of the +residence of Mangu.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This seemed a just judgment from our Lord Jesus Christ upon +the caliph; for, in the year 1225, seeking to convert the +Christians to the Mahometan superstition, and taking advantage of +that passage in the gospel which says, "He that hath faith as a +grain of mustard seed, shall be able to remove mountains," he +summoned all the Christians, Nestorians, and Jacobites, and gave +them their choice, "In ten days to remove a certain mountain, to +turn Mahometans or to be slain;" alleging that there was not one +among them who had the least grain of faith. The astonished and +dismayed Christians continued ten days in prayer; when, by a +revelation to a certain bishop, a certain shoemaker was chosen to +perform this compulsatory miracle. This shoemaker was once +tempted to lust in fitting a shoe to a young woman, and had +literally and zealously performed the injunction of the gospel by +putting out his right eye. On the day appointed by the caliph, he +and all the Christians of the city followed the cross towards the +mountain; then, lifting up his hands, he prayed to God to have +mercy on his afflicted people, and, in a loud voice, commanded +the mountain, in the name of the holy and ever blessed Trinity to +remove: which it presently did, to the great astonishment and +terror of the caliph and all his people, The anniversary of this +day, and the evening before, is ever since kept holy by fasting +and prayer[6].</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Marco Polo is no more answerable for the truth of +this ridiculous legend of the 13th century, than the archbishop +of Paris of the 19th is for many, equally absurd, that are +narrated in the French national Catechism. Both were good +catholics, and rehearsed what they had heard, and what neither of +them pretended to have seen.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION III</p> + +<p><i>Of the Country of Persia, the Cities of Jasdi, Cermam and +Camandu, and the Province of Reobarle.</i></p> + +<p>Tauris is a great city in the province of Hircania[1], and is +a very populous place. The inhabitants live by the exercise of +manufacture and trade, fabricating, especially, stuffs of silk +and gold. The foreign merchants who reside there make very great +gains, but the inhabitants are generally poor. They are a mixed +people, of Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites, Georgians, Persians, +and Mahometans. These last are perfidious and treacherous people, +who think all well got which they can filch or steal from those +of other religions; and this wickedness of the Saracens has +induced many of the Tartars to join their religion; and if a +Saracen be killed by a Christian, even while engaged in the act +of robbery, he is esteemed to have died a martyr. It is twelve +days journey from Tauris to Persia[2]. In the confines stands the +monastery of St Barasam, of which the monks resemble Carmelites: +they make girdles, which they lay on the altars and give to their +friends, who esteem them as holy. Persia is divided into eight +kingdoms, <i>viz</i>. Casbin, Curdistan[3], Laristan, Susistan or +Chorassan, Spahan, Ispahan or Fars, Shiras[4], Soncara[5], and +lastly Timochaim, which is near Arboreseco, towards the north[6]. +Persia breeds excellent horses, which are sold to the Indies; +also very good asses, which are sold for a higher price than the +horses, because they eat little, carry much, and travel far. They +have camels also, which, though not swift, are necessary in these +countries, which, sometimes for a long way, yield no grass or +water.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Now Tebriz in Corcan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] This must refer to Fars, or Persia proper; as +Tebriz is in Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Perhaps Iracagemi?--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Perhaps Kerman?--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Inexplicably corrupt.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Timochaim and Arboresecco are inexplicable, +perhaps from corrupt transcription. But Timochaim appears to nave +been Mekran on the coast of the Indian sea, and perhaps reached +to the Indus, as observed in a former note; and it may have +included Sigistan.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The people in these countries are very wicked and covetous, +thieves and murderers, killing the merchants unless they travel +in caravans, yet they profess to follow the law of Mahomet. In +the cities there are excellent artificers in gold, silk, and +embroidery; and the country abounds with silk-worms, wheat, +barley, millet, and other kinds of grain, with plenty of fruits +and wine; and though wine is forbidden by the Mahometan law, they +have a gloss to correct or corrupt the text, saying, that when +boiled, it changes its taste and name, and may be then drank.</p> + +<p>Jasdi is a great city on the confines of Persia, which carries +on a great trade, and has many manufactures of silk. Chiaman[7] +is a kingdom on the frontiers of Persia to the east, which is +subject to the Tartars. In the veins of the mountains, the stones +commonly called turquoises are found, and other valuable jewels. +They here make all sorts of warlike weapons; and the women work +admirably with the needle in silken embroidery, on which they +pourtray the figures of various animals in a most beautiful +manner. They have the best falcons in the world, which are red +breasted, of very swift flight and more easily trained than those +of other countries. Proceeding from Chiaman or Crerina, for eight +days journey through a great plain, in which are many towns and +castles, and many habitations, with abundance of game, you come +to a great descent, in which there are abundance of fruit trees, +but no habitations, except those of a few shepherds, though, in +ancient times, it was well inhabited. From the city of Crerina to +this descent, the cold, in winter, is quite insupportable. After +descending for two days journey, you come to a wide plain, at the +beginning of which is a city called Adgamad or Camandu, which, in +ancient times, was large and populous, but is now destroyed by +the Tartars. This plain is very warm, and the province is called +Reobarle[8], in which grow pomegranates, quinces, peaches, dates, +apples of paradise, pistachios, and other fruits. The oxen are +large, white, and thin haired, with thick short blunt horns, and +having a hunch like a camel between the shoulders about two spans +round. They are accustomed to bear great burthens, and when they +are to be loaded, they are taught to bow their knees like camels, +and rise again when loaded. The sheep of this country are as +large as small asses, having such long and broad tails, that some +of these weigh thirty pounds, and this part is most delicate and +extremely rich food. In this plain there are many cities and +towns, having high and thick ramparts of earth to defend them +against the Caraons, who are a mixed race between Tartar fathers +and Indian mothers, ten thousand of whom are commanded by one +Nugodar, the nephew of Zagathai, who once ruled in Turkestan. +This Nugodar having heard of the weakness of the Malabars subject +to soldan Asiden, went, without his uncles knowledge, and took +Dely and other cities, in which he erected a new sovereignty[9]; +and his Tartar soldiers, by mixing with the women, of the +country, produced this spurious breed called Caraons, who go up +and down, committing depredations in Reobarle, and other +neighbouring districts.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] Jasdi is almost certainly Yezd in Fars. Pinkerton +considers Chiaman to be Crerina, which is impossible, as that +place is afterwards named: Perhaps it may be the province named +Timochaim, mentioned in the immediately preceding +note.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] As the route may be considered as nearly in a +straight line south from Yesd, Crerina may possibly be the city +of Kerrnan, and the cold elevated plain, a table land between the +top of the Ajuduk mountains and a nameless range to the south, +towards Gambroon or Ormus. Adgamad being destroyed, cannot now be +ascertained, but it must have stood on the fine plain above +described, and at the bottom of these southern mountains. +Reobarle is not to be found In our maps, but must have been a +name for the province of Ormus.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] There is a series of corruptions or absurdities +here: a <i>Malabar</i> government under a <i>Sultan</i> Asiden, +or Asi-o-din, situated at <i>Dely</i>, conquered by a secret +expedition from <i>Turkestan</i>, requires a more correct edition +of the original of Marco Polo to render intelligible. We can +suppose a tribe of Indians or Blacks not far from Gombroon, to +have been under the rule of a mussel man Sultan, and conquered or +subverted by a Tartar expedition from Touran, or the north of +Persia: But this remains a mere hypothetical +explanation.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When these people wish to commit robberies, by means of +incantations addressed to the demons, they have the means of +obscuring the air as if it were midnight darkness, that they may +not be seen from any distance. This obscurity, when once raised, +lasts for seven days; and they are perfectly acquainted with all +the passes of the mountains, in which they march one after +another in single file, so that no one can possibly escape them, +but all who fall in their way, must encounter death or captivity, +the old being slain, and the young sold for slaves. I Marco, who +write this book, was once very near falling into their hands, and +in the utmost danger, of being either killed or taken prisoner by +them in midst of this darkness, if I had not been so fortunate as +to make my escape in to a castle, called Ganosulmi, while many of +my companions in the journey were either taken or slain[10].</p> + +<blockquote>[10] For this paragraph, the editor is indebted to Mr +Pinkerton, Mod. Geog. II. xxii. who has had the good fortune to +procure what he thinks an original edition from the MS. of Marco +Polo.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After travelling in this plain for five days, towards the +south, the road again begins, by little and little, to descend +for twenty miles together, the road itself being very bad, and +not without danger from thieves. At the bottom of this declivity +there is another plain of great beauty and fertility, which +extend for two days journey in breadth. This fine country, which +is called Cormos or Ormus[11], abounds in streams of water, and +plantations of date palms, and there are abundance of birds of +various kinds, particularly of popinjays, which are not like +those of Europe.</p> + +<blockquote>[11] By some singular negligence in translating, Mr +Pinkerton, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, has +ridiculously called this country the plain of <i>Formosa</i>, +mistaking the mere epithet, descriptive of its <i>beauty</i> in +the Italian language, for its name. The district was obviously a +distinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its capital city; which, +from its insular situation, and great trade with India, long +maintained a splendid independence.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninth +century, give precisely the same account of the ships of Siraf, +in the same gulf of Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After two days journey across this plain country, we arrive at +the sea, in which is the island and city of Ormus, which is the +capital of the kingdom, and a great emporium of commerce, to +which many merchants resort, bringing spices, pearls, precious +stones, cloth of gold and silver, and all the other rich +commodities of India, The king is called Ruchinad Ben Achomach, +having many cities and castles under his authority, and he makes +himself the heir of all merchants who happen to die in that +placed; yet he is himself tributary to the king of Chermain or +Kerman. In summer the heat of this country is quite outrageous, +and the inhabitants betake themselves to their summer houses, +which are built in the waters. From nine o'clock in the morning +till noon, there blows a wind, with such extreme heat, from the +sands, that it is quite stifling and insufferable, and during +this time the people sit in the water. The king of Kerman once +sent an array of 5000 foot and 1600 horse against the king of +Ormus, to compel the payment of tribute, when the whole army was +stifled by that wind. The inhabitants of Ormus eat no flesh, or +bread made of corn; but live upon dates, salt fish, and onions. +The ships of this country are not very stout, as they do not +fasten them with iron nails, because the timber is too brittle, +and would split in driving these home; but they are fastened with +wooden pins, and sewed with twine made from the husks of certain +Indian nuts, prepared in a peculiar manner; this twine or thread +is very strong, and is able to endure the force and violence of +the waters, and is not easily corrupted[12]. These ships have +only one mast, one beam or yard, and one deck, and are not payed +with pitch, but with the oil and fat of fishes; and when they +cross the sea to India, carrying horses or other cargoes, they +lose many ships, because they are not strengthened with iron. The +people of this country are black, and have embraced the religion +of Mahomet. It is the custom of this country, when the master of +a family dies, that the widow shall mourn for him publickly once +every day, for four years; but there are women who profess the +practice of mourning, and are hired to mourn daily for the +dead.</p> + +<blockquote>[11] By some singular negligence in translating, Mr +Pinkerton, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, has +ridiculously called this country the plain of <i>Formosa</i>, +mistaking the mere epithet, descriptive of its <i>beauty</i> in +the Italian language, for its name. The district was obviously a +distinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its capital city; which, +from its insular situation, and great trade with India, long +maintained a splendid independence.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninth +century, give precisely the same account of the ships of Siraf, +in the same gulf of Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In returning from Ormus to Kerman, you pass through a fertile +plain, but the bread made there cannot be eaten, except by those +who are accustomed to it, it is so exceedingly bitter, on account +of the water with which it is made. In this country there are +excellent hot baths, which cure many diseases.</p> + +<p>SECTION IV.</p> + +<p><i>Account of several other Countries, and their Principal +Curiosities</i>.</p> + +<p>From Kerman[1], in three days riding, you come to a desert +which extends to Cobin-ham[2], seven days journey across, the +desert. In the first three days you have no water, except a few +salt, bitter ponds, of a green colour, like the juice of herbs; +and whoever drinks even a small quantity of this water, cannot +escape a dysentery, and even beasts that are compelled to drink +of it, do not escape without a scouring. It is therefore +necessary for travellers to carry water along with them, that +they may avoid the inconvenience and danger of thirst. In the +fourth day you find a subterranean river of fresh water[3]. The +three last days of this desert are like the first three. +Cobin-ham is a great city, where great mirrors of steel are +made[4]. Tutia also, which is a cure for sore eyes, and spodio +are made here in the following manner: From the mines of this +country they dig a certain earth, which is thrown into furnaces, +from which the vapours, forced downwards, through an iron grate, +condense below into tutia of tutty[5], and the grosser matter +remaining in the furnace is called spodio.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Marco here probably means the town or city of +Kerm-shir, as that lies in the course of his present route from +Ormus to the north-east of Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] This name is inexplicable; yet from the +circumstance of its mines, and the direction of the journey, it +may have been situated near the Gebelabad mountains; and some +German editor may have changed <i>abad</i>, into the precisely +similar significant termination <i>ham</i>. The original probably +had Cobin-abad.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] In confirmation of the idea entertained of the +present route of Marco, from Ormus by Kerm-shir, to the +north-east of Persia, there is, in the maps, a short river in the +desert between Diden and Mastih, which has no outlet, but loses +itself in the sands, on which account he may have called it +subterraneous, as sinking into the earth.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] More probably of copper, whitened by some +admixture of zinc, and other metals, of the existence of which in +this district there are sufficient indications in the sequel. +These mirrors may have been similar to telescope +metal.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] What is here called Tutty, is probably the +sublimed floculent white oxid, or flowers of +zinc.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Leaving Cobin-ham, you meet with another desert of eight days +journey in extent, and terribly barren, having neither trees or +water, except what is extremely bitter, insomuch, that beasts +refuse to drink of it, except when mixed with meal, and +travellers are therefore obliged to carry water along with them. +After passing this desert, you come to the kingdom of +Timochaim[6], in the north confines of Persia, in which there are +many cities and strong castles. In this country there is an +extensive plain, in which one great tree grows, which is called +the Tree of the Sun, and by Christians Arbore-secco[7], or the +dry tree. This tree is very thick, the leaves being green on one +side, and white on the other, and it produces prickly and husky +shells, like those of chesnuts, but nothing in them. The wood is +strong and solid, and of a yellow colour like box. There are no +other trees within an hundred miles, except on one side, where +there are trees at the distance of ten miles. In this place, the +inhabitants say that Alexander fought a battle against Darius[8]. +The cities of this place are plentifully furnished with good +things; the air is temperate, and the people handsome, especially +the women, who are in my opinion the handsomest in the world.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Timochaim seems obviously Segistan, to which +Mechran appears to have been then joined, from the circumstance +before related of the Polos having gone from China by sea to this +kingdom. The strange application of Timochaim is probably +corrupt, and may perhaps be explicable on the republication of +the Trevigi edition of these travels; till then, we must rest +satisfied with probable conjecture.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] The native name of this tree, and of the plain in +which it grew, appears obviously to have been translated by Marco +into Italian.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] It is possible that this Arbore-secco may have +some reference to Arbela.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION V.</p> + +<p><i>History of the Assassins, and the manner in which their +Prince was killed: With the description of several other +Countries</i>.</p> + +<p>Mulchet[1], in the Saracen language, signifies the place of +Heretics, and the people of the place are called Hulehetici, or +heretics in regard to the Mahometan law. The prince of this +country is called the <i>old man</i> of the mountain, concerning +whom I Marco heard much from many persons during my travels. His +name was Aloadin, and he was a Mahometan. In a lovely valley +between two high and inaccessible mountains, he caused a pleasant +garden to be laid out, furnished with the best trees and fruits +that could be procured, and adorned with many palaces and +banqueting houses, beautified with gilded bowers, pictures, and +silken tapestries. Through this place, by means of pipes, wine, +milk, honey, and water were distributed in profusion; and it was +provided with beautiful damsels, skilled in music, singing and +dancing, and in all imaginable sports and diversions. These +damsels were dressed in silk and gold, and were seen continually +sporting in the garden and its palaces. He made this garden with +all its palaces and pleasures, in imitation of that sensual +paradise, which Mahomet had promised to his followers. No man +could enter into this garden, as the mouth of the valley was +closed up by a strong castle, from which there was a secret +entrance into the garden, which was called the Terrestrial +Paradise.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Called likewise Mulete or Alamut; Marco makes +here a sudden return to the north-west of Persia; and from the +abruptness of the transition, it has been probably disarranged in +transcription. This country has been likewise called the land of +the Assassins; it is near Cashbin in Dilem, on the borders of +Mazenderan.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Aloadin had certain youths from twelve to twenty years of age, +chosen among such as seemed of a bold and dauntless character, +who were initiated in all the pleasures and delights of this +paradise, and whom he employed to entice others to join the +select company of young enthusiasts, by representing the joys and +pleasures of the paradise of Aloadin. When he thought proper, he +caused ten or twelve of these youths to be cast into a deep +sleep, by means of a potion, and then had them conveyed severally +into different chambers of the garden palaces; where they were +attended upon at their awaking by the beautiful damsels, and +supplied with all kind of delicious meats and fruits and +excellent wines, and in whose company they enjoyed all manner of +luxurious delights, so that they imagined that they were actually +transported into paradise. When they had revelled in delights for +a few days, they were again cast into a deep sleep, and removed +from the garden of pleasure; and being brought into the presence +of Aloadin, were questioned by him where they had been. The old +man then represented that it was the command of the prophet, that +whoever was faithful and obedient to his lord, should enjoy the +delights of paradise; and that if they would faithfully obey all +his commands, they should be admitted to reside continually among +the joys of which they had been permitted to participate for a +short time. Having thus roused their passions for pleasure, they +thought themselves happy to execute whatever commands they might +receive, even at the utmost hazard of their lives, being assured, +whether living or dead, that their obedience would secure them +the eternal enjoyment of paradise and all its delights. By these +means Aloadin used to procure the murder of other lords who were +his enemies, by these his assassins, who despised all dangers, +and contemned their lives when employed in his service. By this +procedure he was esteemed a tyrant, and greatly dreaded by all +around; and he had two vicars or deputies, one in the +neighbourhood of Damascus, and another in Curdistan, who had +similarly instructed young men under their orders. Besides this, +he used to rob all passengers who went past his borders. At +length, in the year 1262, Ulau, or Houlagu-khan, sent an armed +force against him, which besieged his castle for three years, and +at length made themselves masters of it, partly by famine, and +partly by undermining the walls[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The last of these princes was named Moadin, who, +as mentioned in the text, was made prisoner, and put to death by +Houlagu-khan. In the sequel of this work, there will be found +other and more full accounts of this old man of the mountain, or +prince of the assassins. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>Departing from thence[3], you come to a pleasant enough +country, diversified by hills and plains with excellent pasture, +and abundance of fruits, the soil being very fertile[4]. This +continues for six days journey, and then you enter a desert of +forty or fifty miles without water; after which you come to the +city of Sassurgan[5], where there are plenty of provisions, and +particularly the best melons in the world, which are as sweet as +honey. Passing from thence, we come to a certain city named +Batach, Balach, or Balk, which was formerly large and famous, +having sumptuous marble palaces, but is now overthrown by the +Tartars. In this city it is reported that Alexander married the +daughter of Darius. The eastern and north-eastern frontiers of +Persia reach to this city; but in proceeding between the east and +north-east from this place, We found no habitations for two days +journey, the inhabitants having endured so many grievances from +thieves, that they were compelled to fly to the mountains for +safety. There are many rivers in this country, and much game, and +lions are also to be met with. As travellers can find no food in +this part of their journey, they must carry enough with them for +two days. At the end of two days journey, we came to a castle +called Thaican, Thalkan, or Thakan, where we saw pleasant fields +and abundance of corn. The mountains to the south of this place +are high, some of which contain white salt, so extremely hard +that it has to be dug out and broken with iron tools; and the +inhabitants, from thirty days journey all around, come here to +procure salt, which is of most excellent quality, and is in such +amazing quantities, that the whole world might be supplied from +these mines. The other mountains produce abundance of almonds and +pistachio nuts.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] The transition seems here again abrupt, and +unconnected; at least the intermediate country of Mazerderan and +Chorassan to the desert, probably of Margiana, is very slightly +passed over.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] In this section, Marco seems to trace his journey +along with his father and uncle from Giazza towards Tartary; but +the regular connection appears to have been thrown into +confusion, by ignorant transcribers and editors.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Probably Satugar of the modern maps, on the +western border of Balk.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Going between the east and north-east from hence, the country +is fruitful, but the inhabitants are perfidious Mahometans, +murderers, thieves, and drunkards. Their wine is boiled, and +truly excellent. They go bareheaded, except that the men bind a +string or fillet, ten handbreadths long, about their heads. They +make breeches and shoes of the skins of wild beasts, and use no +other garments. After three days journey is the town of +Scasom[6], seated in a plain, through the middle of which there +flows a great river; and there are many castles in the +surrounding mountains[7]. There are many porcupines in this +country, which are hunted by dogs; and these animals, contracting +themselves with great fury, cast their sharp quills at the men +and dogs, and often wound them. The nation has a peculiar +language, and the shepherds dwell in caves in the mountains. We +went three days journey from thence, without meeting any +inhabitants, to the province of Balaxiam, Balascia or Balasagan, +which is inhabited by Mahometans, who have a peculiar language. +Their kings, who succeed each other hereditarily, pretend to +derive their lineage from Alexander and the daughter of Darius, +and are called Dulcarlen, which signifies Alexandrians. In this +country the famous Ballas rubies are found, and other precious +stones of great value, particularly in the mountains of Sicinam. +No person dares either to dig for these stones, or to send them +out of the country, without the consent and licence of the king, +on pain of death; and he only sends them to such as he thinks +fit, either as presents, or in payment of tribute; he likewise +exchanges many of them for gold and silver, lest they should +become too cheap and common. In other mountains of the same +province, the best lapis lazuli in the world is found, from which +azure or ultramarine is made. There are mines also of silver, +copper, and lead. The climate is very cold, yet it produces +abundance of large, strong, and swift horses, which have such +hard and tough hoofs, that they do not require iron shoes, +although they have to run among rocks. It is said, that not many +years ago, the king's uncle was in the exclusive possession of a +breed of horses descended from the famous Bucephalus, and marked +on the forehead exactly as he was; and refusing to let the king +have any of his stud, he was put to death, on which his widow, in +revenge, destroyed the whole race. The mountains of this country +produce the sacre falcon, the lanner, the goshawk, and the +sparrowhawk, all excellent in their kind, and much used by the +inhabitants in the chase, as they are all much addicted to +hunting. The soil of this country produces excellent wheat, and +barley without husks, and oil made of nuts and mustard, which +resembles the oil from lintseed, but is more savoury than other +oil. The men of the country are excellent archers and keen +hunters, and are mostly clothed in the skins of beasts; while the +women contrive to put sixty or eighty yards of cotton cloth into +the skirts of their garments, as the bulkier they look they are +esteemed the handsomer. The plains of this country are large, and +well watered with fine rivers, but the hills are high and steep, +and the passes very difficult of access, by which the inhabitants +are secured against invasions; and in these mountains there are +flocks of from four hundred to six hundred wild sheep, which are +very difficult to catch. If any one contracts an ague by living +in the moist plains, he is sure to recover his health by a few +days residence in the mountains, which I Marco experienced in my +own person after a whole years sickness.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Forster considers this place to be Scasse or +Al-shash, on the river Sirr or Sihon, perhaps the Tashkund of +modern maps, in the province of Shash. The distances given by +Marco must be strangely corrupted by transcribers and editors, or +Marco must have forgot when he wrote his travels, perhaps +twenty-six years after he passed this country, when only a boy. +The distance between Balk, on one of the branches of the Sihon or +Oxus, and Shash on the Jihon or Sirr, is at least 350 miles in a +straight line; which he appears to have travelled in <i>five</i> +days, but which would more probably occupy +fifteen.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] This river is probably the Sirr or Sihon; and the +mountains of Karatan and Arjun pervade the district, the two +chains being separated by the river.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The province Bascia, or Vash, on a river of that name which +falls into the Gihon, is ten days journey to the south of +Balaxiam, and the country is very hot, on which account the +people are of a brown colour. They have a language of their own, +and wear gold and silver ear-rings, artificially ornamented with +pearls and other precious stones; they eat flesh and rice, and +are crafty and cruel idolaters.</p> + +<p>The province of Chesmur, Khesimus, Khaschimir, or Cashmere, is +seven days journey from Bascia. The inhabitants have also a +peculiar language of their own, and are given to idolatry beyond +all others, and addicted to enchantment, forcing their idols to +speak, and darkening the day. The people of this country are not +wholly black, but of a brown complexion, the air being temperate. +They are extremely lean, although they use abundance of flesh and +rice; yet the natives will shed no blood, and employ the Saracens +who live among them to slaughter their cattle. They have many +strong cities and towns, and being surrounded by deserts and +rugged mountains, they are in no danger of any foreign enemies, +so that the king of this country yields tribute to none. Coral is +held in great estimation in this country, and sells dearer than +in any other part of the world. There are certain hermits in this +province, who live with great abstinence in cells and +monasteries, devoting their whole lives to the service of their +idols, and observing the strictest chastity; Many of these men +are reputed as saints and are held in high estimation among the +people. From this province you may go to the Indies and the +ocean; but I shall not now follow out the course to India, but +returning to Balaxiam, shall trace the way to Kathay, betwixt the +east and north-east.</p> + +<p>Beyond Balaxium is a certain river, on which there are many +castles and villages, belonging to the brother of the king of +Balaxium; and after three days journey, we came to Vachan[8], +which extends three days journey in length, and as much is +breadth, The inhabitants of this country have a peculiar +language, and are Mahometans; they are brave Warriors, and good +huntsmen, as their country abounds in wild beasts. Departing from +thence, in a direction between the east and north-east, we +ascended for three whole days journey, until we came to an +exceeding high mountain, than which there is none said to be +higher in the world. In this place, between two mountains, is a +plain, in which is a great lake, and a fine river runs through +the plain, on the banks of which are such excellent pastures, +that a lean horse or ox will become quite fat in ten days. It +contains also great quantities of wild beasts, and particularly +very large wild sheep, having horns six spans long, out of which +they make various kinds of vessels. This plain continues twelve +days journey in length, and is called <i>Pamer</i>, in which +there are no habitations, so that travellers must carry all their +provisions along with them. This plain is so high and cold that +no birds are to be found; and it is even said, that fires do not +burn so bright in this place, and do not so effectually boil or +dress victuals as in other places[9]. From hence, the way to +Kathay leads, for forty days journey, between the east and the +north-east, through mountains, hills, and vallies, in which there +are many rivers, but no villages, neither any verdure, except +that some huts and cottages are to be seen among the mountains; +but the inhabitants are savage and wicked idolaters, who live by +hunting, and are clothed in the skins of wild beasts; the country +is called Palow[10]. After this you come to the province of +Caschar[11], which is inhabited by Mahometans, who are tributary +to the great khan of the Mongals or Tartars. The soil is fertile, +and the country is full of pleasant fields, gardens, and +orchards, producing vines, fruit trees, cotton, hemp, and flax, +and extends five days journey. The inhabitants have a particular +language, and have many merchants, manufacturers, and artizans, +but they are so covetous, that they do not allow themselves +either good meat or drink. Among them there are some Nestorian +Christians, who also have some churches,</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Vochan, Vocham or Vakhan, on the river +Vash.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] This observation was made on the mountains of +Savoy and Switzerland, not many years ago, by M. de Luc, and +published as a new discovery. The phenomena must be owing to the +diminished pressure of the atmosphere at this great elevation, by +which water boils at a much lower temperature than is requisite +for effective cookery: A digester would effectually remove this +evil, by enabling the water to become sufficiently hot, without +being dissipated.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Beloro, Belor, or Belur, according to Forster. +This immense extent of forty days journey through deserts, seems +to include the deserts of Sultus, Cobi, and Shamo, and to reach +to the frontiers of Kathay, or Northern China.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Cascar, Chascar, Cassar, Kaschgar, or Hasicar, +according to Forster. Cashgar is at the western end of the great +desert, instead of the eastern, as expressed in the text; indeed +this route is most confusedly, and almost unintelligibly laid +down, probably from corrupted transcription. The series ought to +have been, the high table land of Pamer, the province of Cashgar, +and lastly, the desert of Pelow or Belur. But care must be taken +to distinguish this from the chain of Belur-tag, which runs north +and south, between Great and Little Bucharia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the city of Samarcand, the town of Lop, the Great Desert +in its Neighbourhood, and other remarkable Passages</i>.</p> + +<p>Samarcand[1] is a great and famous city, in a fertile plain, +and surrounded by fine gardens. It is subject to the nephew of +the great khan, and is inhabited by a mixed population of +Christians and Mahometans, among whom there is little agreement; +and in one of their disputes, the following miracle is said to +have happened, about an hundred years ago. Zagathai, the brother +of the great khan, then governed this country, and was persuaded +to become a Christian; and the Christians, through his favour, +built a church in honour of St John the Baptist, which was +constructed with such skill, that the whole roof seemed to depend +for support upon one central pillar, which was founded upon a +large stone, which, by the permission of Zagathai, had been taken +from a building belonging to the Mahometans. After the death of +Zagathai, he was succeeded by a son who was not of the Christian +faith, and from him the Mahometans obtained an order, by which +the Christians were compelled to restore that stone; and though +they offered a sum of money as a compensation, the Mahometans +absolutely insisted to have the stone itself, hoping, by that +means, to reduce the Christian church to ruins: But the pillar +lifted itself up, that the Mahometans, might remove the contested +stone, and still continues suspended in the air.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The text is here obviously transposed. While the +editor endeavours to illustrate and explain the descriptions of +the author, he does not consider himself at liberty to alter the +text, even in the most obviously faulty places.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Departing from this city, we came into the province of +Charahan[2], which is about five days journey in length, and has +plenty of provisions. The inhabitants are mostly Mahometans, +intermixed with some Nestorian Christians, and are subject to the +nephew of the great khan. They are diligent artificers in various +manufactures, but are much subject to thick legs, and the +<i>goitres</i> or large wens on their throats, occasioned by the +bad quality of the waters of the country. The province of Cotam +follows between the east and the north-east[3]. It is subject to +the nephew of the great khan, and has many cities and towns, the +chief city being called Cotam. This province extends eight days +journey in length, and possesses every thing necessary for life, +in sufficient abundance; particularly cotton, flax, hemp, corn, +and wine. The people are Mahometans, and not warlike, but are +skilful in various articles of manufacture.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Charchan, Charcham, Carcam, Hiarkand, Jarkun, +Jerket, Jerken, Urkend; such are the varieties in the editions of +these travels, for the Yarkand of modern maps. This paragraph +ought obviously to have followed the account of +Cashgar.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Cotan, Cotam, Hotum, Khoten, Khotan, from which +the useful material of manufacture, <i>cotton</i>, takes its +name. But instead of being between the east and north-east +direction from Yarkand, as in the text, or E.N.E. it is actually +E.S.E.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Proceeding through the same country, we come to the province +of Peim, extending four days journey in length, and containing +many towns and castles, the city of Peim being the chief, near +which there is a river in which jaspers and chalcedonies and +other valuable stones are found. The inhabitants, who are +Mahometans, are expert manufacturers, and are subject to the +great khan. There is a custom in this province, that when any +married man goes to a distance from home, and remains absent for +twenty days, it is lawful for his wife to marry another husband; +and reciprocally, if the wife absents herself for twenty days, +the husband may take another wife.</p> + +<p>The next province, Ciascian[4], of which the chief city is +named Sartan, is subject to the Tartars, and has many cities and +castles. In its rivers abundance of jaspers, chalcedonies, and +other fine stones are found, which are carried by merchants all +the way to Ouchach or Kathay, and sold there with great profit +From Peim to Sartem, and quite through this latter province, the +soil is very sandy, having very little water, and that generally +bad. When an army passes through this province, all the +inhabitants take their wives and children, with all their cattle +and valuables, two days journey into the sands, to places where +they know that good water is to be found, and remain there till +the army has quitted the country; after harvest also, they +uniformly take all their corn into the desert, and hide it in +pits, and the wind soon obliterates all traces of their +footsteps, so that their enemies are unable to discover where +they have deposited these precious hoards. After travelling for +five days through the sands from this province, we arrive at the +great city of Lop, which is at the entrance of a great desert +called the Wilderness of Lop[5]. The inhabitants of this place +are Mahometans, and are subject to the great khan. All the +before-mentioned provinces, Cashgar, Yarkand, Koten, Peim, +Sartem, and Lop, are in the bounds of Turkestan.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Called likewise Ciarciam, Ciartiam, and Sartam, +in different editions. --E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The journey from Sartem to Lop is obviously +retrograde, and this course must have been pursued by the Polos +for commercial purposes; perhaps for collecting those valuable +stones which are mentioned by Marco as giving so much profit when +sold in China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It requires a months journey to cross this desert from south +to north, but to go through it lengthways would take up a whole +year. Those who intend to cross the desert remain for some time +in Lop, on purpose to prepare all necessaries for the journey, as +no provisions are to be met with for a whole month. These, with +their merchandize, are loaded on asses and camels, and if +provisions fall short in the desert, the unfortunate travellers +are reduced to the necessity of killing their beasts of burden +for sustenance, preferring the asses for this purpose, as the +camels can carry much heavier burdens, and are satisfied with +less food. This journey is entirely through sands and barren +mountains, in which water is found every day; yet at some of the +resting places it is so scanty as hardly to suffice for a caravan +of fifty of an hundred persons and their cattle. In three or four +places the water is salt and bitter, but in all the rest of the +journey it is very good. In the whole of this journey there are +no beasts or birds to be seen. It is reported, that many evil +spirits reside in the wilderness, which occasion wonderful +illusions to travellers who happen unfortunately to lag behind +their companions calling them even by their names, and causing +them to stray farther from the right course, so that they lose +their way and perish in the sands. In the night time also they +hear noises as of their friends, and sometimes the sound of music +is heard in the air, and people imagine that they hear the din of +drums, as if armies were marching past. To avoid the danger of +separation, the travellers in the desert keep close together, and +hang bells about the necks of their beasts; and if any one stays +behind, they set up marks in the route, that they may know how to +follow.</p> + +<p>Having crossed the desert of Lop, we come to the city of +Sachion[6] or Sachiou, which is subject to the great khan, and is +situated in the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of this +city are mostly idolaters, who have a peculiar language, mixed +with a good many Mahometans, and some Nestorian Christians; this +people are little addicted to merchandize or manufacture, and +live on the products of their soil. In this city there are many +temples, consecrated to various idols, with monasteries of +priests devoted to the service of these false deities, to which +numerous sacrifices are offered with great reverence. When a son +is born to any person, he is immediately consecrated to the +protection of some particular idol, and the father nourishes a +sheep in his house for a year with great care; and on the +anniversary day of that idol, he presents his son and the sheep +as a sacrifice, with great reverence and many ceremonies, before +the shrine of this tutelary deity. The flesh of the sheep is +boiled and set before the idol during the continuance of the +prayers and invocations, as an offering for the preservation and +protection of the boy, and the idol is supposed to inhale the +savour of the meat. After the religious ceremonies are finished, +the meat is carried home to the father's dwelling, where all the +kindred of the family are convened, and feasted with great joy +and devotion; but the bones are religiously kept in certain +appropriated vessels. The priests receive the head, feet, skin, +and intrails, with a portion of the flesh for their share.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Schatscheu, Tschat-scheu, or Chat-chou, on the +Polonkir, which runs into the Hara lake.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When a person of any estimation dies, his funerals are +celebrated with much ceremony. An astrologer is sent for by the +kindred, and informed of the year, month, day, and hour when the +deceased was born, when he calculates the aspect of the +constellation, and assigns the day when the burial is to take +place, sometimes at the distance of seven days, or perhaps the +planet may not have a favourable aspect for six months, during +all which time the body is kept in the house. For this purpose a +fit chest or coffin is provided, which is so artificially jointed +that no noisome smell can escape, and in this the body is placed, +having been previously embalmed with spices. The coffin is +ornamented with painting, and is covered over with an embroidered +cloth. Every day, while the body remains unburied, a table is +spread near the coffin, and set out with meat, bread, and wine, +which remains for as long a time as a living person would require +to eat and drink, and the soul of the deceased is supposed to +feed upon the savour. The astrologers sometimes forbid the body +to be carried out for interment at the principal door of the +house, pretending to be regulated in this by the stars, and order +it to be carried out by some other way; or will even command a +passage to be broken out in the opposite wall of the house, to +propitiate the adverse planet. And if any one object to this, +they allege that the spirit of the dead would be offended, and +would occasion injury to the family. When the body is carried +through the city to be buried, wooden cottages are built at +certain distances by the way, having porches covered with silk, +in which the coffin is set down, with a table spread out with +bread and wine and delicate viands, that the spirit of the dead +may be refreshed with the savour. When the body is carried to the +place of the funeral, a number of pieces of paper, made of the +bark of trees, curiously painted with figures of men and women +servants, horses, camels, money, and garments of all kinds are +carried in procession, all the instruments of music in the city +sounding as the cavalcade moves along; and all these pieces of +painted paper are burned in the same funeral pile with the body, +under the idea that the deceased will have as many servants, +cattle, and garments in the next world, and as much money, as +there were pictures of these things burnt along with his body, +and shall live perpetually hereafter in the enjoyment of all +these things[7].</p> + +<blockquote>[7] It is highly probable that this emblematical +representation had been substituted by some humane legislator or +conqueror, in place of the actual sacrifice of the servants, +cattle, and goods themselves, which we are well assured was once +the practice among many rude nations, in honour of their deceased +great men.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Province of Chamil and several other Countries on +the road from thence to the City of Ezina; and of another great +Desert</i>.</p> + +<p>The province of Chamil, which abounds in all the necessaries +of life, is situated in the wide country of Tangut, and is +subject to the great khan. This province, of which the city of +Chamil or Hami is the capital[1], is bounded by two deserts; the +great desert of Lop already mentioned, and another which is only +three days journey across[2]. The inhabitants are idolaters, have +a peculiar language, and appear to live only for amusement, +devoting their whole time to singing, dancing, and sports, +playing upon instruments of music, and reading and writing after +their fashion. When any traveller goes into a house for +entertainment and lodging, the master of the family receives him +with great joy, and commands his wife and family to obey the +stranger in all things so long as he may choose to remain, and +even departs immediately from his own house, that he may not be +any restraint upon his guest. And while the traveller remains, he +may choose a female bed fellow every night, either the wife, +daughter, or servant of the polite host, as he feels inclined. +The women of the country are very beautiful, and are perfectly +ready to obey these singular commands; and the husbands believe +that this strange hospitality is conducive to their own honour +and glory, and is an acceptable service to their idols, from +whose favour it secures prosperity and abundance to themselves +and their country. Mangu-khan having received notice of this +detestable custom, issued a peremptory order for its +discontinuance, and it was accordingly laid aside for three +years; but as these years happened to be unusually barren, and +the inhabitants were vexed with some disasters in their domestic +concerns, they sent ambassadors to the khan, earnestly entreating +him to revoke so grievous a mandate, and to permit them to +continue a custom which had been handed down by their ancestors. +To this the khan answered, "Since you glory in your shame, you +may go and act according to your customs." The messengers who +brought back this favourable answer, were received with great +rejoicings by the nation; and the above custom continued when I +Marco was among them.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Called also Kamul, Chamul, Khami, and +Came-xu.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The desert of Noman-Cobi; or Tzokurin of modern +maps.--E.</blockquote> + + +<p>After leaving the province of Chamil, we enter into that of +Chinchintalas[3], subject to the great khan, which is bounded by +the desert on the north, and is sixteen days journey in length. +It has large cities and many castles, the inhabitants being +divided into three sects or religions: The greater number are +idolaters, a considerable number are Mahometans, and a small +proportion are Nestorian Christians. In this province there are +mountains containing mines of steel, and andanicum or audanicum, +and also a mineral substance called salamander or asbestos, from +the wool of which an incombustible cloth is manufactured, which, +if cast into the fire does not burn. This cloth is actually made +of stone in the following manner, as I was informed by a Turk +named Curifar, an intelligent industrious person of my +acquaintance, who had the superintendence of the mines in this +province. A certain mineral is found in these mountains, which +yields fibres resembling wool: After being thoroughly dried in +the sun, this substance is pounded in a brass mortar, and then +washed to remove all earthy impurities; and the clean fibrous +matter is spun in the same manner as wool, and woven into cloth. +When this cloth requires to be cleaned or whitened, it is thrown +into the fire for an hour, and is then taken out unhurt, and as +white as snow. It is said, there is a napkin at Rome of this +salamander wool, in which the handkerchief of the Lord Jesus is +kept wrapped up, which a certain king of the Tartars sent as a +present to the Pope. But as for the salamander or serpent, which +is reported to live in the fire, I could hear of no such creature +in all the eastern countries.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Called likewise Cinchincalas, Sanghin-talgin, +Sankin-talai, and Chitalas-dalai.--Forst. This appears to be the +district stretching to the S.E. of the Bogdo mountains, between +the Changai ridge on the north, and the Ungandag on the south, +now occupied by a tribe of Eluts, and in which there do not +appear to be any towns.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Leaving this province, we travel for ten days between the east +and north-east, during which there are few habitations or things +worthy of remark; after which we come to the province of +Succir[4], in which there are many towns and villages, the chief +city being called Succir. In this province, which is subject to +the great khan, there are a few Christians among a great number +of idolaters. The best rhubarb[5] is found in great quantities in +this province, and is carried thence by merchants to various +parts of the world. Strangers dare not go to the mountains where +the rhubarb grows, on account of certain poisonous plants, which +occasion any beasts that feed upon them to cast their hoofs; but +the beasts of the country know this plant, and avoid feeding upon +it Campion[6] is a great city, and is the chief place in all +Tangut. In it, besides idolaters and Mahometans, there are a good +many Christians, who have three fair churches. The idolaters have +many temples and monasteries dedicated to their idols. These +idols are very numerous, and are made of stone, wood, or clay, +some of them curiously inlaid with gold, and very artificially +made: Some are very large, almost ten paces high, standing +upright, and having many smaller idols placed around, which seem +to give reverence to the great one. The priests of these idols +appear to live more regularly, and are less addicted to +voluptuousness than other idolaters. Yet wantonness is not looked +upon in this country as any great sin; for they say if a woman +invites a man, there is no harm in compliance, but if the man +solicits the woman, it is quite otherwise.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Suchur, Succuir, Souk, or Suck, on the river +Suck, which empties itself into the river of Pegu to the north of +Thibet.--Forst. + +<p>This I suspect to be Chioming of our modern maps, on a river +which runs north into the Soukouk lake.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The country of the genuine rhubarb has been +described by the great Russian traveller Palas, as situated on +the river Selingol, not far from the town of Selinga, which falls +into the Chattungol, Hoang-ho, Choango, or Karamuren.--Forst. + +<p>The travels of Palas will be found in an after portion of this +work; and it need only be remarked in this place, that there are +at least two kinds of true rhubarb, the China and Russia; and +that two species of the genus, the R. Palmatum and R. Undulatum, +certainly produce the drug nearly of the same quality, and are +probably to be found in various parts of central Asia or +Tartary,--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Kampion, Kampition, Kampiciou, Kantscheu, or +Kan-tcheou, in the Chinese province of Shensi, on the +Etzine-moren, or Etchine river, which joins the +Souk.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>In this country they divide the year by lunations, and in +every moon they keep certain days as holy, in some five, or four, +or three days, in which they kill no beast or bird, and abstain +from animal food. The people of this country marry twenty or +thirty wives, or as many as they are able to maintain, but the +first wife always has the precedence over the others. The husband +receives no portion with his wife, but on the contrary has to +assign her a dower in cattle, servants, and money, according to +his ability. If any of the wives does not live in harmony with +the rest, or if she becomes disliked by her husband, it is lawful +for him to put her away. They marry their own near relations, and +even the wives of their deceased father, excepting always their +own mothers. In the manners and customs of this country, I Marco +was sufficiently experienced, having dwelt a whole year in this +place, along with my father and uncle, for the dispatch of +certain affairs of business.</p> + +<p>In twelve days journey from Campion, we come to the city of +Ezina[7], which borders on a sandy desert towards the north. All +the provinces and cities before mentioned, viz. Sachion, Camul, +Chinchintalas, Succair, Campion, and Ezina, are comprehended in +the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of Ezina are +idolaters, who live by agriculture, and on the produce of their +flocks and herds, having great quantities of camels and other +cattle, but carry on no trade. In this country there are forests +of pine trees, in which there are wild asses, and many other wild +beasts; there are likewise abundance of falcons, particularly the +lanner and sacre, which are reckoned excellent. Such travellers +as intend to pass through the great desert of Shamo, which is +forty days journey in extent, must provide all their provisions +in this place, as they afterwards meet with no habitations, +except a few straggling people here and there on the mountains +and valleys.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] Eziva, or Etzine, on a river of the same name, +which runs into the Suck or Souhouk.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the City of Caracarum and of the Tartars, with some +account of their History, Monarchs, and Manners</i>.</p> + +<p>Having passed over the before mentioned desert of forty days, +travelling always to the northward, we come to the large city of +Charachoran, or Caracarum[1] which is three miles in +circumference, and strongly fortified with an earthen rampart, as +there is no stone in these parts. Near the city there is a great +castle with an elegant palace, in which the governor usually +resides. Near this place the Tartars used to assemble in old +times, and here therefore I shall explain the original of their +empire.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum, +Karakarin, Karakum, called Holin by the Chinese. This city was +laid down by Danville, with acknowledged uncertainty, on the +Onguin-pira river, in Lat. 44°. 50'. N. Long. 107°. E.; +while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in Lat. 46°. +30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to the +N.W.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>They dwelt at first in the northern parts called Curza and +Bargu[2], where there are many vast plains without cities and +towns, but abounding in pastures, lakes, and rivers. They had no +prince of their own nation, but paid tribute to a certain great +king, named, as I have been told, in their language, +<i>Umcan</i>, and which some people believe to signify, in the +languages of Europe, Prester-John[3]; and to whom the Tartars +gave yearly a tenth part of the increase of their flocks and +herds, and of their horses. In process of time, the Tartars so +increased in numbers, that Umcan became afraid of them, and +endeavoured to disperse them into several parts of his empire; +and when any of them rebelled, he used to send parties into their +territories to reduce them to obedience; for which purpose, he +even frequently deputed some of their own nobles. At length it +became obvious to the whole nation, that their ruin was intended; +and being unwilling to be separated from each other, they retired +into the northern deserts, where they might be safe from the +power of Umcan, to whom they refused the accustomed tribute. +After continuing in the north for some time, they chose a king +among themselves, named Zingis-khan, who was a wise and valiant +man, and reigned with such justice, that he was beloved and +feared of all as a god rather than as a prince, so that by his +fame and prowess, he soon reduced all the Tartars in these parts +under his authority. Seeing himself at the head of so many +valiant men, he determined to leave the northern deserts; and +commanding his people to provide themselves with bows and other +weapons, he began to reduce the neighbouring cities and provinces +under his dominion, in which conquests he placed such just +governors, that the people were perfectly reconciled to his +authority. In all his conquests he carried the chief persons +along with him, bestowing upon them provisions and other gifts, +and by that means attached them to his person, and continually +augmented his power. After sometime, finding himself advanced to +power and glory, he sent ambassadors to Umcan, to entreat that he +would bestow his daughter upon him for a wife. Umcan received +this message with the utmost indignation, saying to the +messengers; "Does my servant presume to demand my daughter? +Begone, and tell your master, that if ever he dare to repeat so +insolent a proposal, I will make him die a miserable death."</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis, +whom Marco always calls Tartars, appears to have been limited by +the Selinga and lake Baikal on the west, or perhaps reaching to +the Bogdo Altai and Sayanak mountains; the Soilki mountains on +the east dividing them from the Mandshurs, and the Ungar-daga +mountains on the south, dividing them from the great empire of +Tangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have been on the Baikal, +near which there still is a place called Barsuzin. Of Cursa no +trace is to be found in our maps.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as called +by the Germans, Priester Johann, from which our English +denomination, was prince of the Naymanni or Karaites, a tribe +residing on tke river Kallassui or Karasibi, which, discharges +itself into the Jenisei. His original name is said to have been +Togrul, and for some services to the Chinese in their wars, he +was honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from whence +arose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneously +written Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may have +been converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even have +received priests orders.--Forst. + +<p>It is more probable that he may have belonged to the +Dalai-lama religion, which some ignorant traveller, from +resemblance in dress, and the use of rosaries in prayer, may have +supposed a Christian sect residing in eastern Scythia.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Zingis seems only to have wanted a reasonable pretence to +justify him in the estimation of his nobles for entering into war +against Umcan; he therefore immediately levied a great army, with +which he marched boldly against Umcan, and encamped in a great +plain named Tanduc[4], sending a message to Umcan to defend +himself. Upon this Umcan collected a vast army, with which he +advanced into the plains, and pitched his camp within ten miles +of that of the Tartars. Zingis commanded his astrologers to shew +him what was to be the event of the approaching battle; on which +they split a reed into two pieces, on one of which they wrote the +name of Zingis, and the name of Umcan on the other, and struck +them separately into the ground, saying to Zingis: "While we read +in our holy books, it shall come to pass through the power of the +idol, that these two pieces of reed shall fight together, and +whose part shall get the better, to that king shall the victory +be given." The astrologers began to mumble their prayers and +incantations, while the multitude stood around to observe the +result; and after some time, the two pieces of reed seemed +spontaneously to fight together, and the portion inscribed with +the name of Zingis got the mastery over that of Umcan; and the +Tartars being encouraged by this prodigy, went into the battle +fully assured of victory, which they actually obtained. By this +battle, in which Umcan was slain, the sovereignty of all Tangut +was transferred to Zingis, who took to wife the daughter of +Umcan. Zingis reigned six years after this, and conquered many +provinces: But at last, while he endeavoured to take a certain +castle called Thaigin, he approached too near the walls, and was +wounded in the knee by an arrow, of which wound he died, and was +buried in the mountain of Altai. Zingis was the <i>first</i> king +of the Tartars; the second was Khen-khan, the third Bathyn-khan, +the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mangu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan, +whose power is greater than that of all his predecessors, as, +besides having inherited all their acquisitions, he has added +almost the whole world to his empire, during a long and +prosperous reign of sixty years[5]. All the great khans and +princes of the blood of Zingis, are carried for burial to the +mountains of Altai, even from the distance of an hundred days +journey; and those who attend the body, kill all whom they meet +by the way, ordering them to go and serve their lord in the other +world, and a great number of fine horses are slain on the same +occasion and pretence. It is said that the soldiers, who +accompanied the body of Mangu-khan to the mountain of Altai, slew +above ten thousand men during their journey.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] According to the genealogical history of the +Tartars by Abulgasi Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in +1230. In 1245 he was succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, called +Khen-khan by Marco in the text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in +1247, who held the empire till 1257; when he was succeeded by +Koplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned thirty-five years, and died in +1292.--Harris. + +<p>Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which he +extends to sixty years, from his having received a great +delegated government, a long time before he became great khan, or +emperor of the Tartars.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The Tartar women are remarkably faithful to their husbands, +considering adultery as the greatest and most unpardonable of +crimes; yet it is accounted lawful and honest for the men to have +as many wives as they can maintain, but the first married is +always accounted the principal and most honourable. These wives +live all in one house, in the utmost harmony and most admirable +concord; in which they carry on various manufactures, buy and +sell, and procure all things necessary for their husbands and +families, the men employing themselves only in hunting and +hawking, and in martial affairs. They have the best falcons in +the world, and great numbers of excellent dogs, and they live +upon flesh and milk, and what they procure by hunting. They eat +the flesh of horses and camels, and even of dogs, if fat; and +their chief drink is cosmos, made of mares milk in a particular +manner, and very much resembling white wine. When the father of a +family dies, the son may marry all his fathers wives, except only +his own mother, neither do they marry their sisters; and on the +death of a brother, the surviving brother may marry the widow of +the deceased. The husbands receive no portions with their wives, +but must assign sufficient dowries to their wives and mothers. As +the Tartars have many wives, they often have great numbers of +children; neither is the multitude of their wives very +burthensome, as they gain much by their labour, and they are +exceedingly careful in the management of family concerns, in the +preparation of food, and in all other household duties.</p> + +<p>The Tartars feed many herds of cattle, and numerous flocks of +sheep, and great numbers of camels and horses. They remain with +these during the summer in the pastures of the mountains and +colder regions of the north, where they find abundance of grass +and wood; but in winter they remove into the warmer regions of +the south, in search of pasture, and they generally travel +forwards for two or three months together. Their houses are made +of slender rods covered with felt, mostly of a round form, and +are carried along with them in carts or waggons with four wheels, +and the doors of these moveable houses are always placed fronting +the south. They have also very neat carts on two wheels, covered +so closely with felt, that the rain cannot penetrate, in which +their wives and children and household goods are conveyed from +place to place. All these are drawn by oxen or camels.</p> + +<p>The rich Tartars are clothed in sables and ermines, and other +rich furs, and in cloth of gold, and all their apparel and +furniture is very costly. Their arms are bows, swords, +battle-axes, and some have lances; but they are most expert in +the use of the bow, in which they are trained from their infancy. +They are hardy, active, and brave, yet somewhat cruel; are +exceedingly patient and obedient to their lords, and will often +remain two days and nights armed on horseback without rest. They +believe in one supreme God of heaven, to whom they daily offer +incense, praying to him for health and prosperity. But every +person has a little image covered with felt, or something else, +in his house, called <i>Natigay</i>; and to this household god +they make a wife, which is placed on his left hand, and children, +which are set before his face. This image or idol is considered +as the god of earthly things, to whom they recommend the +protection of their wives and children, their cattle, corn, and +other valuables. This god is held in great reverence, and before +eating any thing themselves, they anoint the mouth of the idol +with the fat of their boiled meat, and they cast some broth out +of doors in honour of other spirits; after which they eat and +drink their fill, saying, that now their god and his family have +had their due portion.</p> + +<p>If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another die +unmarried, the parents meet together and celebrate a marriage +between their deceased children. On this occasion they draw up a +written contract, and paint representations of men and women for +servants, of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep, of clothes of all +kinds, and of paper money; and all these things are burned along +with the contract, conceiving that these will all follow their +children substantially to the other world to serve them, and that +they will be there united in affinity, as if they had been +actually married while living.</p> + +<p>When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an army +of not less than an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each man +having usually eight or more horses or mares. Their troops are +regularly distributed into bands of tens, hundreds, thousands, +and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred is called a <i>Tuc</i>, +and a body of ten thousand is called a <i>Toman</i>. They carry +them felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather. +When necessity requires, they will ride for ten days together +without victuals, subsisting upon the blood of their horses, by +cutting a vein and sucking the blood. But they likewise prepare +dried milk, for taking with them in their expeditions, in the +following manner: After taking off the cream, which is made into +butter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into a kind of +hard curd, of which every man in the army carries about ten +pounds along with him. Every morning they take about half a pound +of this curd, which they put into a leathern bottle with a +quantity of water, and as he rides along, the motion of the horse +shakes and mixes these together, and this mess suffices for the +food of one day. When they approach towards the enemy, they send +out numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not be assaulted +unawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, and +posture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride about +in apparent disorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimes +make a show of precipitate flight, discharging their arrows +backwards as they fly; and when by these means they have broken +or dispersed the enemy, they suddenly rally their forces, and +make an unexpected assault, which generally decides the victory, +their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turn +any way merely by a signal.</p> + +<p>If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put to +death, but receives a certain number of blows with a cudgel, +according to the measure of the offence; either seven, or +seventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven, or forty-seven; though +some die through the severity of this cudgelling. But if any one +steal a horse or other thing of great value, for which he +deserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with a +sword, unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft nine +fold. Such as have horses, oxen, or camels, brand them with their +particular marks, and send them to feed in the pastures without a +keeper.</p> + +<p>Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, we +enter the champaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwards +for about fifty days journey. The inhabitants of this country are +called Medites[7], and are subject to the great, khan, and +resemble the Tartars in their manners. They have no corn or wine, +and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, in the chase of +wild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which they +subsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind of +stags, which they render so tame that they allow themselves to be +ridden. In the winter this country is so excessively cold, that +fowls, and all other living things, remove to warmer regions. +After forty days journey we arrive at the ocean, near which is a +mountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, as a breeding +place, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusement of +the great khan.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river on +the east side of lake Baikal, on which is a town or village named +Barguzin, or Barguzinskoy Ostrog, signifying the town of the +Burguzians. But by the description in the text, Marco appears to +have comprehended the whole north-east of Tartary, to the north +of the Changai mountains, under the general name of Bargu, in +which he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at the +commencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation of +Bargu has been already more particularly described in a +note.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Metrites, Meclites, or Markaets.--Forst. No such +appellation is to be found in modern geography; but the +discontinuance of the designations, of temporary and continually +changing associations of the wandering tribes of the desert, is +not to be wondered at, and even if their records were preserved, +they would be altogether unimportant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION IX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and many +other curious Particulars</i>.</p> + +<p>We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the river +Etziné. Proceeding thence five days journey towards the +east, we come to the country of Erginul[1] in the province of +Tangut, which is subject to the great khan. In this kingdom there +are many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks. It contains +many cities and castles, the chief place being of the same name +with the province.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this ought +to be read <i>fifty</i> days south-west, instead of five days +east.--Forst. This may probably be some district in the country +of the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned in our modern +maps.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come to +the famous city of Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the same +name, which is tributary to the great khan, and is contained in +the kingdom of Tangut. Some of the people are Christians, some of +them Mahometans, and others are idolaters. In this country there +are certain wild cattle, nearly as large as elephants, with black +and white hair, which is short all over the body, except on the +shoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine, pure +white, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I brought +some of this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen are +tamed and broke in for labour, for which they are better adapted, +by their strength, than any other creatures, as they bear very +heavy burdens, and when yoked in the plough will do twice the +work of others. The best musk in the world is found in this +province, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the size of a +goat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling an +antelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw, +above three inches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. When +the moon is at the full, a tumor, or imposthume, grows on the +belly of this animal, resembling a bladder filled with blood, and +at this time people go to hunt this animal for the sake of this +bag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sell at a high +price, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal is +good for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one of +these animals to Venice.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chinese +province of Shensee. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise to +have two similar tusks in the lower jaw, but this error must have +been put in by some ignorant editor.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The people of this country of Singui live by trade and +manufacture, and they have abundance of corn. They are idolaters, +having fat bodies, small noses, black hair, and no beard, except +a few scattered hairs on their chins. The women are exceedingly +fair, and the men rather make choice of their wives by their +beauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that when a great +nobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often to +assign a large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. This +province extends twenty-five days journey in length, and is very +fertile. In it there are exceedingly large pheasants, with tails +eight or ten handbreadths long, and many other kinds of birds, +some of which have very beautiful and finely variegated +plumage.</p> + +<p>After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to the +district of Egrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut, +and subject to the great khan; it contains many cities and +castles, Calacia being the principal city, which is inhabited by +idolaters, though the Nestorian Christians have three churches. +In this city, excellent camblets are manufactured from, white +wool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exported by the +merchants to all parts of the world, and particularly to +Kathay.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted, +and ought to be thus read: "After eight days journey <i>west</i> +from Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum, +or Irganekon." And he names the chief town Calacia, Cailac, +Gailak, or Golka.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copied +camels by mistake. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], in +which there are many cities and castles. The king of this nation +is called George, who is a Christian and a priest[7], and most of +the people also are Christians; he is descended of Prester John, +formerly mentioned under the name of Umcan, from whom he is the +fourth in descent, and he pays tribute to the great khan; and +ever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis, the +great khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kings +of this country, who do not possess all the dominions which were +formerly subject to Prester John. There is a mixed race in this +country, called Argons, descended of idolaters and Mahometans, +who are the handsomest people in these parts, and are most +ingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants. This province was +the chief residence of Prester John, and there are two +neighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives, +which the people of Europe call Gog and Magog.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] This foolish story of Prester John has been +explained in a former note.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there are +many cities, inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians, +who live by commerce and manufactures, and who make stuffs +wrought with gold and flowers, and other silken stuffs of all +kinds, and colours like those made among us, and also woollen +cloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, or +Sindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war are +manufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, or +Ydifu, there are great mines of silver.</p> + +<p>Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, named +Iangamur[8], which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, the +khan has a palace, in which he takes great delight, as he has +fine gardens, with many lakes and rivers, and multitudes of +swans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes, pheasants, +partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here, +some of which have black wings, others are white and bright; +their feathers being ornamented with eyes like those of a +peacock, but of a golden colour, with beautiful black and white +necks; a third kind is not unlike our own, in size and +appearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful, +variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of a +grey colour, with black and red heads. In a valley near this +city, there are astonishing numbers of quails and partridges, for +the maintenance of which the khan causes millet and other seeds +to be sown, that they may have plenty of food; and a number of +people are appointed to take care that no person may catch any of +these birds, which are so tame, that they will flock around their +keepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands. There are +also a great number of small huts built, in different parts of +the valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity of +winter, where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By these +means, when the emperor chooses to come to this part of the +country, he is certain to find abundance of game; and during +winter, he has great quantities sent to him on camels, or other +beasts of burden.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor, +in lat. 45°. 30. N. long. 117°. E. Marco, in these +accounts of the different districts of Tangut, seems to have +followed no regular order, but goes from one to another, as fancy +or memory served.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city of +Ciandu[9], which was built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, and +in which he had a palace erected, of marvellous art and beauty, +ornamented with marble and other rare stones. One side of this +palace extends to the middle of the city, and the other reaches +to the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosed park, +extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter but +by the palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows, +groves, and rivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallow +deer, and other animals. The khan has here a mew of about two +hundred ger-falcons, which he goes to see once a-week, and he +causes them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. When he rides out +into this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried on +horseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when he +gives command, a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes a +stag or deer; and he takes great delight in this sport.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very elegant +house built all of wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished; +on every one of the pillars there is a dragon gilt all over, the +tail being wound around the pillar, while the head supports the +roof, and the wings are expanded on each side. The roof is +composed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, and ten +yards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and so +artificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole of +this house can be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like a +tent, and readily set up again, as it is all built of cane, and +very light; and when it is erected, it is fastened by two hundred +silken ropes, after the manner of tent cords, to prevent it from +being thrown down by the winds. Every thing is arranged in this +place for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, who spends +three months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on the +twenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to some +other place, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always on +the twentieth day of August, he is directed by the astrologers +and sorcerers, to sprinkle a quantity of white mares milk, with +his own hands, as a sacrifice to the gods and spirits of the air +and the earth, in order that his subjects, wives, children, +cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourish and +prosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white, +nearly ten thousand in number; of the milk of which none are +permitted to drink, unless those who are descended from +Zingis-khan, excepting one family, named <i>Boriat</i>, to whom +this privilege was granted by Zingis, on account of their valour. +These white horses are held in such reverence, that no one dare +go before them, or disturb them in their pastures.</p> + +<p>There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth and +Chesmu, who ascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms, +and persuade the people they are so holy, that they can prevent +any rain from falling on the roof. These people go about in a +very filthy condition, as they never wash or comb themselves. +They have also an abominable custom of eating the bodies of +malefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed on +any who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which is +the name of their order, as our friars are named predicants, +minors, and the like. These fellows are great sorcerers, and seem +to be able to do any thing they please by magic art. When the +great khan sits in his hall at a table, which is raised several +feet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard of plate at +some distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence these +sorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khans +table, whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have a +mind to make feasts in honour of their idols, send word to the +khan, through certain officers deputed for the purpose, that if +their idols are not honoured with the accustomed sacrifices, they +will send blights on the fruits of the ground, and murrains among +the beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he will order a certain +number of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood, to be +delivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of the +regular sacrifices.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to be +<i>eighty</i> feet, perhaps a typographical error for eight, as, +in a subsequent passage, the table of the khan is merely said to +be higher than those of the rest who have the honour to dine +along with him; the particular height, therefore, is left +indeterminate in the text.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are as +large as small cities, and several of them contain about two +thousand monks, or persons devoted to the service of the idols, +all of whom shave their beards and heads, and wear particular +garments, to denote that they are set apart from the laity, for +the service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. In their +solemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carry +lights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, or +Santoms, lead an austere life, eating nothing but meal mingled +with water, and when all the flour is expended, they content +themselves with the bran, without any savoury addition. These men +worship the fire, and those who follow other rules, allege that +these austere Santoms are heretics against the religious law, +because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. These +Santoms shave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garments +of a black, or bright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats, +and live the severest life imaginable, amid every conceivable +deprivation and austerity[11].</p> + +<blockquote>[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yet +irrational ancient superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind have +vainly thought to propitiate the Almighty beneficence, by +ridiculous acts of austere self-torment; and even the ignorant or +designing followers of the pure and rational religion of Jesus, +have copied all the monstrous mummery, and abominable practices +of the heathen, which they have engrafted upon his law of love +and harmony.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION X.</p> + +<p><i>Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circumstances +respecting his Family, Government, and Dominions</i>.</p> + +<p>I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts of +Kublai-khan, the great emperor of the Tartars. His name, +expressed in our language, signifies lord of lords, and he +certainly is the greatest prince in cities, people, and +treasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineally +descended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars, +being the sixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256, +being then <i>twenty-seven</i> years of age[1] and he has long +ruled this immense empire, with great gravity and wisdom. He is a +very valiant man, strong of body and well exercised in arms, and +evinced himself such, in many actions, before he attained to +empire, which he effected by his superior wisdom and management, +contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, he +shewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general than +ever the Tartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayed +the empire, he has always deputed his sons and other generals +upon military expeditions, and has only since then gone into the +field on the following occasion.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In a former note, it has been mentioned, on the +authority of Abulgazi- khan, himself a descendant of Zingis, and +prince, of Khuaresm, that Kublai-khan was only the fifth emperor +of the Tartars, and that he ascended the throne in 1257. The +difference of date in this latter circumstance is quite +unimportant, and may have proceeded, either from a different way +of reckoning, or the delay of intelligence from so vast a +distance. But Kublai died in 1292, after reigning thirty-five +years, according to Abulgazi, and is said to have been then +eighty years of age. He must therefore have been forty-five years +old at his accession, instead of twenty-seven. Harris indeed +mentions in, a note, that the age of Kublai in the MSS. and even +in many of the printed editions, was left blank.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, being +then thirty years of age, who had the command of so many +countries and nations, that he could easily have mustered 400,000 +horse, became puffed up with youthful vanity, determined to take +away the empire from his lord, and drew into his schemes another +great Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai, and +commanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged to +bring an 100,000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitious +project of Naiam. Both of these confederates began to gather +forces; but this could not be done so secretly as not to come to +the knowledge of the great khan, who immediately set guards on +all the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forces which +lay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperial +residence. In twenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to +360,000 horse and 100,000 foot, a large part of which vast force +was composed of huntsmen and falconers, and persons belonging to +the imperial household. With this army, Kublai marched with all +expedition into the province occupied by Naiam, where he arrived +at the end of twenty-five days march altogether unexpectedly, and +before Naiam had completed his preparations, or had been joined +by his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest, +and having encouraged his men in the confident expectation of +victory, by means of his astrologers and soothsayers, he advanced +towards the encampment of Naiam, and appeared with his whole army +on a hill, over against the camp of the rebels, who had not even +sent out any scouts to procure intelligence.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] In Harris, this date is 1286; but as, in a note, +this war is said to have occurred on occasion of the election of +Kublai to the imperial dignity in 1257, I have ventured to +restore what seems to be the true date. Besides Naiam, in 1286, +thirty years of age, could not possibly have been the uncle of +Kublai.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The new city of Pekin, of which +hereafter.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carried +by four elephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men, +from which the royal standard was displayed, on which the +pictures of the sun and moon were pourtrayed. Dividing his army +into three bodies, he kept one as a reserve on the hill beside +himself, and sent the two wings to attack the army of Naiam, who +resolved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousand +horse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmen +with lances were assigned, who had been taught to leap up behind +the horsemen on any occasion when flight or retreat became +necessary, and were instructed to alight, and kill the horses of +the enemy during battle. The two armies joined in a well +contested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day, when +Naiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submitted +themselves to the clemency of the victor; and having renewed +their oaths of allegiance, were pardoned and dismissed, having a +new governor set over them, in whose fidelity the great khan +could confide[4].</p> + +<blockquote>[4] The followers of Naiam in this rebellion are said +to have consisted of four nations, or tribes of Tartars, named +Ciazza, Cadi, Barscol, and Sitinqui, but of whom no other +information or notice remains.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Naiam was ordered to be sewed up between two carpets, and +tossed up and down till he died, to avoid shedding the blood of +any one belonging to the imperial house of Zingis.</p> + +<p>Naiam is said to have been secretly baptized, and to have +professed himself a Christian, having his principal ensign marked +with the sign of the cross, and to have had a great number of +Christians in his army who were all slain. On this occasion, the +Jews and Mahometans, who served in the army of Kublai, upbraided +his Christian soldiers with the disaster which had happened to +the cross in this battle. The Christians complained to Kublai of +this injurious conduct, who sharply reproved the Jews and +Mahometans for their behaviour; then turning to the Christians, +he addressed them as follows: "Surely your God and his cross +would not give aid to Naiam. Be not you therefore ashamed of what +has happened; seeing that God, who is good and just, did not +defend iniquity and injustice. Naiam was a traitor and a rebel, +and sought the aid of your God in his mischievous purpose: But +your good and upright God would not favour his bad designs." +Kublai-khan returned after this great victory to Cambalu; and on +Easter day he called the Christians into his presence, and kissed +their gospel with great reverence, making all his great officers +and barons do the same. And he acts in a similar manner on the +great festivals of the Mahometans, Jews [5], and heathens; that +Segomamber-khan, the great god of the idol, Mahomet, Moses, and +Jesus, or whosoever is greatest in heaven, may be favourable to +him; yet he made the best shew of liking to the Christian faith, +but alleged that the ignorance of the Nestorian priests, and the +great interest of the sorcerers among the people, hindered him +from making a profession of Christianity.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] This is the only notice of the Jews in the east +by Marco Polo, and serves considerably to confirm the +authenticity of Rabbi Banjamin; who, as a Jew, felt more interest +in attending to his countrymen.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>For the better rewarding his brave and faithful soldiers, the +khan has a military council, composed of twelve Tartar barons, +who give him notice of the meritorious services of all +commanders, that they may be promoted to higher stations, giving +to one the command of an hundred, to another the command of a +thousand, and to a third the command of ten thousand, and so on. +The captain of an hundred men has a badge or tablet of silver; +the captain of a thousand has a tablet of gold or silver gilt; +and the commander of ten thousand has a tablet of gold, +ornamented with the head of a lion. These tablets differ in size +and weight, according to the dignity of the wearers. On each +tablet there is an inscription of the following import: "By the +strength and power of the Almighty God, and by the grace which He +hath given to our empire: Let the name of the great khan be +blessed, and let all die or be destroyed who will not obey his +commands." Besides these badges of distinction all officers have +commissions in writing, in which all their duties, privileges, +and authorities are recited. When the generals appear in public, +they have a cloth or canopy carried over their heads, and they +give audience sitting on chairs of silver. The badge or tablet of +a general, weighs three hundred <i>sagi</i>, or fifty ounces of +gold, laving images of the sun and moon; and such as have the +representation of a ger-falcon, may take with them a whole army +for their guard.</p> + +<p>Kublai-khan is a comely handsome man of middle stature, with a +fresh complexion, bright black eyes, a well formed nose, and +every way well proportioned. He has four lawful wives, every one +of whom has the title of empress, and the eldest born son of +these wives is to succeed him in the empire. Each of these +empresses has her own magnificent palace and peculiar court, and +is attended by three hundred women, besides many eunuchs, and the +suite of each extends at least to ten thousand persons. The great +Khan has also many concubines; and every second year he sends +messengers to a remarkably fair tribe among the Tartars named +<i>Virgut</i>, to make search for die fairest young women among +them for his use. These messengers usually bring with them four +or five hundred young women, more or less as they see cause. +Examiners are appointed to take a view of all their beauties, who +fix values upon them in proportion to their various merits, at +sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, or more carats; +and only those are brought to court whose values reach to a +certain appointed rate. On their arrival at Cambalu, other +examiners again view them, and choose out twenty or thirty of the +handsomest for the chambers of the khan. Those who are thus +selected, are placed for some time under the care of some of the +wives of the great barons about the court, who are directed to +report whether they do not snore in their sleep, and if they are +not offensive in smell or behaviour. Such as are finally +approved, are divided into parties of five; and one such party +attends in the chamber of the khan for three days and nights in +their turn, while another party waits in an adjoining chamber to +prepare whatever the others may command them. Those who are less +prized in the course of these rigid examinations of their +qualities, are employed in cookery or other offices about the +palace, or are bestowed by the khan on his favoured officers, +with large portions. The men of the country from whence these +young women are brought, deem it a great honour when their +daughters are found worthy of the khans regard, and esteem +themselves unfortunate when they are rejected at court.</p> + +<p>Kublai had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives, and +the first born of his first wife, named Zingis, would have +succeeded him in the empire if he had not died before his father. +Zingis left a son named Timur, who is a wise and valiant prince +of great military experience, and who is destined to succeed his +grandfather on the imperial throne, instead of his deceased +father. By his concubines he has twenty-five sons, all of whom +are daily exercised in martial employments, and are all promoted +to high military posts and governments. Seven of his sons by his +lawful wives are kings of great provinces, and rule the countries +committed to their charge with great prudence and discretion.</p> + +<p>SECTION XI.</p> + +<p><i>Account of the Imperial City of Cambalu, and the Court of +the Great Khan, or Emperor of the Tartars</i>.</p> + +<p>During the three winter months of December, January, and +February, Kublai-khan generally resides in Cambalu[1] which is at +the north-east border of Kathay. On the north part of the new +city stands the great palace of the khan. In the first place is a +great wall surrounding a vast square enclosure, each side being +eight miles in length; the wall is environed on the outside by a +deep ditch, and has a great gate in the middle of each side. +Within this outer wall, there is another exactly a mile distant, +each side of the square which it forms being six miles; and in +the space between these two walls the soldiers attend and perform +their exercises and evolutions. This inner square has three gates +on its south side, and the same number on the north; the middle +gate of both these sides being greater and more magnificent than +the others, and is appropriated to the sole use of the khan, the +others being open to all who have a right to pass. In each corner +of this second wall, and in the middle of each side, there are +very large and magnificent buildings, eight in all, which are +appropriated as storehouses or arsenals for keeping the warlike +weapons and furniture belonging to the khan: as horse trappings +of all kinds in one; bows and arrows and cross-bows in a second; +helmets, cuirasses, and leather armour in a third; and so on in +the rest. Within this second circuit, and at a considerable +distance, there is a third wall, likewise square, each side being +a mile in length; this wall being ten paces high and very thick, +with white battlements, has six gates as in the second wall. +Between this third wall and the former there is an extensive +park, with many fine trees and large meadows, well stocked with +deer and other game, and the roads are raised two cubits above +the meadows, to save the grass from being trodden. All of this +park is kept in the finest order imaginable. In the four angles, +and in the middle of each side of this interior wall, there are +eight large and magnificent buildings, in which the khans +provisions, and other things belonging to the court, are stored +up.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The proper name of this place is Kan-balgassan, +or, for shortness, Khan-balga, signifying the city of the khan. +Arabian authors have changed it to Khan-balick or Khan-baligh; +and the Italians to Chanbalig, Chanbalu, Cambalu, and even +Gamelecco. The Chinese call this northern part of the imperial +city King-tshing, which has the same meaning with the Tartar +name, and may be translated Kingstown. Pe-king, the other part of +the same city, signifies the northern court or +residence.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Within this last wall is the palace of the great khan, which +is the largest and most magnificent of any in the world[2], +extending the whole way between the north and south walls of the +inner circuit, except an opening of sufficient width for the +passage of the soldiers and barons attending the courts The +palace hath no ceiling[3], but the roof is very high. The +foundation of the pavement or floor is raised ten palms above the +ground, and is surrounded by a marble wall of two paces wide, +resembling a walk; and at the end of the wall without, there is a +fair turret ornamented with pillars. In the walls of the halls +and chambers, there are numerous figures of dragons, soldiers, +birds and beasts of various kinds, and representations of +battles, all finely carved and splendidly gilded, and the roof is +so richly ornamented, that nothing is to be seen but splendid +gold and imagery. In every square of the palace there is a great +hall, capable of containing a prodigious multitude of people, and +all the chambers are arranged and disposed in the best possible +manner; the roofs being all richly painted red, green, azure, and +all other colours. Behind the palace there are many great rooms +and private storehouses, for the treasure and jewels of the khan, +for the dwellings of his women, and for various other private +purposes. Over against the palace of the khan, there is another, +which was formerly inhabited by his deceased son Zingis, who held +a court in all things resembling that of his father. Near the +palace, and to the north, there is a high artificial mount, a +mile in circumference, and an hundred paces high, planted with +evergreen trees, which were brought from remote places, with all +their roots, on the backs of elephants: This eminence is called +the <i>Green Mountain</i>, and is extremely pleasant and +beautiful. Where the earth was taken away to form this mount, +there are two lakes corresponding with each other, supplied by a +small river, and well stored with fish; and the passages of the +water are grated in such a manner that the fish cannot +escape.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The description of this palace is exceedingly +confused and unintelligible, most probably from erroneous +transcription and mistakes in translation.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] By this obscure expression, it seems to be +implied that there are no upper rooms.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The city of Cambalu is seated on a great river in the province +of Kathay, or Northern China, and its name signifies the city of +the prince, having been the royal residence in former times. +After the conquest, understanding, from his astrologers, that the +inhabitants would rebel, the great khan removed the city to the +other side of the river, calling the new city Taidu, which is +twenty-four miles in circumference, every side of the square +being six miles, and he commanded all the Kathayans to remove +from the old city into the new one. The walls are of earth, ten +paces thick at the bottom, and gradually tapering to three paces +thick at the top, with white battlements. Each side of the square +has three principal gates, or twelve in all, having sumptuous +palaces built over each; and there are pavilions in all the +angles of the wall, where the arms of the garrison are kept, +being 1000 men for each gate. The whole buildings of this city +are exactly squared, and all the streets are laid out in straight +lines; so that a free prospect is preserved from gate to gate, +through the whole city; and the houses are built on each side +like palaces, with courts and gardens, divided according to the +heads of families. In the middle of the whole, there is a noble +building, in which a great bell is suspended, after the tolling +of which, at a certain hour of the night, no person must go out +of his house till the dawn of next morning, except it be for some +urgent cause, as for assistance to a woman in labour, and even +then they must carry lights. On the outside of the walls there +are twelve large suburbs, extending three or four miles in +length, from each gate, and there are more inhabitants in these +suburbs than within the walls. In these, foreign merchants, and +other strangers live, each nation having several storehouses and +bazars, in which they lodge and keep their goods. No dead body is +allowed to be burnt or buried within the city; but the bodies of +the idolaters are burned without the suburbs, and the bodies of +all other sects are buried in the same places. On account of the +vast multitude of Mahometans who inhabit here, there are above +25,000 harlots in the city and suburbs: Over every 100 and every +1000 of these, there are chiefs or captains appointed, to keep +them in order, and one general inspector over the whole. When any +ambassador or other person, having business with the khan, comes +to Cambalu, his whole charges are defrayed from the imperial +treasury, and the general inspector of the harlots provides the +ambassador, and every man of his family, a change of women every +night at free cost. The guards of the city carry all whom they +may find walking in the streets, after the appointed hour, to +prison; and it these persons cannot give a valid excuse, they are +beaten with cudgels, as the Bachsi allege that it is not right to +shed mens blood; yet many persons die of this beating.</p> + +<p>There are 12,000 horse-guards, called Casitan, who attend on +the person of the khan, more from state than from any suspicion +of danger. These have four chief commanders, one to every 3000 +men; and one commander, with his band of 3000, keeps guard over +the khan for three days and nights, after which he is succeeded +by another, and so on in regular order.</p> + +<p>When the khan holds a solemn court on any particular day of +festival, his table is raised higher than all the rest, and is +set on the north side of the hall, having his face to the south, +his first queen or principal wife being placed on his left hand, +and his sons and nephews, and other princes of the blood-royal +being arranged on his right; but their table is placed so much +lower, that their heads are hardly so high as the khans feet. The +princes and other lords of the court sit lower still on the right +hand; and the ladies being all placed in similar order on the +left, those of the sons and kinsmen of the khan being next to the +queen, and after these, the wives of the lords and officers, each +according to their several ranks, in due order. By this means the +khan, as he sits at table, can see all that feast along with him +in the hall. There are not tables for all who are admitted to the +feast, but the greatest part of the soldiers and captains sit +down on carpets, where they are served with victuals and drink. +At all the doors there are two gigantic fellows with cudgels, who +observe carefully if any one touches the threshold in going in; +and whoever does so, forfeits his garment, or receives a certain +number of blows of a cudgel. Those who serve the khan, or who sit +at his table, have their mouths covered with silken veils, lest +their breath should touch the meat or drink which he is to use. +When he drinks, the damsel who carries the cup kneels down, and +then all the barons and others present kneel likewise, and all +the musicians sound their instruments, till the khan has done +drinking. If I were to describe all the pomp and magnificence of +these festivals, and all die dainties and delicate dishes which +are served up, I should become prolix and tiresome.</p> + +<p>The birth days of their lords are celebrated with great +reverence among the Tartars. That of Kublai-khan, their great +emperor, is held yearly, on the twenty-eighth day of September, +and is kept with greater solemnity than any other festival, +except that of the new year, which is celebrated on the first day +of February, when the Tartar year commences. On his birth day the +great khan is clothed in a most splendid robe of cloth of gold, +and about 2000 of his barons and soldiers receive, on this +occasion, silken garments of a golden, colour, and girdles +wrought in gold or silver, with each a pair of shoes. Some of +those who are next to the khan in dignity, wear pearls and jewels +of great value. These splendid garments are only worn on thirteen +solemn festivals, corresponding to the thirteen moons or lunar +months, into which the Tartar year is divided, when all the great +men of the court are splendidly habited, like so many kings. The +birth-day of the great khan is celebrated by all the Tartars +throughout his extensive dominions; and on this day, all the +kings, princes, governors, and nobles, who are subject to his +authority, send presents to him in honour of the day, and in +token of submission. Such as are desirous of obtaining any place +of dignity or office, present their petitions to a council of +twelve barons, appointed for that express purpose; and their +decision is considered as equivalent to an answer from the khan +in person. All the people of the immense dominions who +acknowledge the authority of the great khan, whether Christians, +or Jews, Mahometans, Tartars, or Pagans, are bound, on this +anniversary, to pray solemnly to their Gods for the life, safety, +prosperity, and health of the great khan.</p> + +<p>On the first of February, which is the commencement of the +Tartar year, the great khan, and all the Tartars, wherever they +may happen to be at the time, observe a very solemn feast; and +all of them, both men and women, are desirous, on that occasion, +to be clothed in white garments, that fortune may be favourable +to them for the remainder of the year. On this occasion, the +governors of provinces, and rulers of cities, and all who are in +office or authority, send presents to the khan, of gold, silver, +pearls, and precious stones, likewise of many white cloths of +various kinds, and other white things, and many white horses. It +is the custom of those who bring presents, if they can, to +present nine times nine of every particular article, whether it +be gold, or silver, or cloths, or horses; and on this occasion, +the khan sometimes receives 100,000 horses. On this grand +festival, all the elephants belonging to the great khan, about +5000, are brought into the great court of the palace, covered +with splendid housings of tapestry, wrought with the figures of +various kinds of birds and beasts, each of them bearing on their +backs two chests filled with vessels of gold and silver; and many +camels are paraded on the same occasion, covered over, with fine +silken cloths, and loaded with other necessaries for the +court.</p> + +<p>On the morning of this festival of the new year, all the +captains, barons, soldiers[4], physicians, astrologers, governors +of provinces, generals of armies, and other officers of the great +khan, assemble before the emperor, in the great hall of the +palace, all placed in due order, according to their rank and +dignity, and those who have no place or employment, stand +without, that they may see the ceremonies. One of the heads of +their priests then rises, and cries out with a loud voice, "Bow +down and adore," on which all who are present bend down their +foreheads to the earth. He then calls out aloud, "God preserve +our khan, and grant him long life and happiness;" and all the +people answer, "God grant this." Then he says, "May God increase +and advance his empire, and preserve all his subjects, in peace, +concord, and prosperity;" and the people say, "God grant this our +prayer." All this is repeated four times. Then the chief priest +goes forwards to a red table or altar, richly adorned, on which +the name of the khan is written; and taking a censer, containing +rich spices and perfumes, he perfumes the altar or table with +great reverence, in honour of the khan, and returns to his place +in the assembly. After the conclusion of this ceremony, the +various gifts which have been already mentioned are presented to +the khan. And then the tables are prepared, and a most solemn and +splendid dinner is served up, of which all the assistants, with +their wives, partake, eating and drinking with great joy, as +formerly described. In the course of this solemn feast, a tame +lion is led up to the khan, which lies down at his feet as gentle +as a whelp, acknowledging and caressing his lord.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] The soldiers mentioned here and in other places, +as present in the great hall upon solemn occasions, can only mean +the officers of the military actually on guard over the person of +the khan at the time. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>In those three winter months during which the khan resides in +Cambalu, viz. December, January, and February, all the imperial +huntsmen who are maintained in the provinces contiguous to +Kathay, employ themselves continually in hunting, and bring all +the larger wild beasts, such as stags, deer, roe-bucks, bears, +and wild-boars, to their governors or masters of the game; and if +within thirty days journey of Cambalu, all these are sent in +waggons to the court, being first embowelled; but such as are at +a greater distance, send only the skins, which are used in making +housings and other military articles.</p> + +<p>The khan has many leopards, wolves, and even lions, trained +for hunting. These lions are larger than those which are found +near Babylon, and are variegated with small spots of white, +black, and red. They are bred to catch bears, boars, stags, +roe-bucks, wild asses, and wild bulls, and it is wonderful to see +their dexterity and fierceness in the chase. When these lions are +taken out to hunt, they are carried in waggons, two together, +accompanied by a dog, with which they are familiar. They are +managed in this manner, because of their fierce and unruly +disposition, and they must be drawn towards the game against the +wind, otherwise the beast would scent them and fly away. There +are also many tame eagles, so trained as to take hares, +roe-bucks, deers, and foxes; and some of these will even seize +upon wolves, and vex them so grievously, that the men may take +them without danger. For the conduct of the imperial hunt, there +are two great officers called Ciurco, or masters of the game, who +are brothers, named Boyan and Mingan, each of whom have the +command of 10,000 men; those who belong to one of these divisions +being clothed in red, and the others in sky blue; and they keep +various kinds of dogs, such as mastiffs and others, for hunting, +to the number of 5000 or more. When the khan goes to hunt, one of +these great companies of hunters stretches out on his right hand, +and the other on his left, occupying the plain country to the +breadth of a whole days journey, so that no beast can escape +them; and when they have collected the game into a circle, it is +delightful to see the khan going into the middle, with numbers of +dogs, which hunt down the harts and bears, and other wild beasts. +The masters of the game are bound by their commissions to send to +court, between the beginning of October and end of March, 1000 +head of beasts, besides birds of various kinds, and fish, the +best they can procure.</p> + +<p>SECTION XII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Magnificence of the Court of the Great Khan, and of +the Manners and Customs of his Subjects</i>.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of March the great khan departs from Cambalu, +and proceeds north towards the ocean[1], which is at the distance +of two days journey, accompanied by 10,000 falconers, with +falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and other birds of prey, that are +trained to the sport. These falconers disperse themselves in +companies of 100 or 200 together, and most of the birds that are +taken are brought to the khan; who, on account of the gout, which +has disabled him from riding, sits in a wooden house, covered +with lions skins, and hung within with cloth of gold, which is +carried on the backs of two elephants. For his particular +recreation, he is accompanied by twelve choice hawks, carried by +twelve nobles, many other noblemen and soldiers attending him. +When any cranes, or pheasants, or other birds are seen, notice is +given to the falconers who are near the khan, and by these to the +khan himself, who then orders his travelling house to be removed, +and the hawks to be flown at the game, and he, sitting in his +bed, enjoys the sport. Ten thousand men attend the khan, who +disperse two and two together, to mark where the falcons fly, +that they may assist them when needful, and bring back them, and +their game to the khan. These men are called <i>Tascoal</i>, +which signifies watchmen or marksmen, and have a peculiar whistle +by which they call in the hawks and falcons, so that it is not +necessary that the falconers who let fly the hawks should follow +them, as these tascoal are busily employed in taking up the +hawks, and are very careful that none of them be hurt or lost. +Every hawk has a small plate of silver attached to the foot, on +which is the peculiar mark of its master, that each may be +restored to its right owner. But if the mark be lost, or cannot +be known, the hawk is delivered to a certain baron, whose name of +office is Bulangazi, to whom all lost things whatever must be +brought, otherwise the finder would be punished as a thief; and +to the Bulangazi all who have lost any thing make application. +This man is distinguished by a peculiarly conspicuous ensign, +that he may be easily found out in so numerous an assemblage.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The deserts or Tartarian wastes are probably +meant in this passage.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>While thus busily employed in hawking, the royal retinue came +at length to a great plain called Carzarmodin, where the tents of +the khan and all the courtiers are pitched, to the number of +10,000 or more. The grand pavilion of the khan is so large, that +10,000 men might stand within it, besides barons and noblemen. It +is placed with its entrance to the south, supported upon +curiously carved pillars, and is covered on the outside with the +skins of lions and other wild beasts, to keep out the rain; but +the whole inside is lined with sables and ermines, to an immense +value. For so precious are these skins esteemed, that a +sufficient number to make one garment only will sometimes cost +2000 gold sultanies, and the Tartars call the sable the queen of +furs. All the cords of the imperial pavilions are of silk. Around +this there are other pavilions for the sons, wives, and +concubines of the khan. At a farther distance there are tents for +the falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and other birds of game; and the +whole encampment seems at a distance like a great city, or the +station of a large army. The khan remains all the month of March +in that plain, employed in hawking; and the multitude of beasts +and fowls which are taken in that time is quite incredible. From +the beginning of March to the month of October, no person is +permitted to hunt within five days journey of this plain of +Carzarmodin in one direction, ten in another, and fifteen in a +third, nor to keep any hawk or hunting dog, neither to use any +device or engine whatever, for taking any stag, deer, roe-buck, +hare, or other game, lest the breed should be injured; by which +means the game is always in great abundance.</p> + +<p>It is quite wonderful to behold what numbers of merchants and +other people, and what astonishing quantities of merchandize and +goods of all sorts are to be seen in Cambalu. The money of the +great khan is not of gold or silver, or other metal, but of a +species of paper, which is thus made: They take the middle Dark +of the mulberry tree, which they make firm in a particular +manner, and this is cut out into round pieces of various sizes, +on which the seal or mark of the khan is impressed. Of this paper +money, an immense quantity is fabricated in the city of Cambalu, +sufficient to supply the currency of the whole empire; and no +person, under pain of death, may coin or spend any other money, +or refuse to accept of this, in all the kingdoms and countries +which are subject to his dominions. All who come into his +dominions are prohibited from using any other money, so that all +merchants coming from countries however remote, must bring with +them gold, silver, pearls, or precious stones, for which they +receive the khans paper money in exchange: And as that money is +not received in other countries, they must exchange it again in +the empire of the great khan, for merchandize to carry with them +on their return. The khan pays all salaries, stipends, and wages +to his officers, servants, and army, in this money, and whatever +is required for the service of his court and household is paid +for in the same. By all these means, there is no sovereign in the +world who equals the great khan in extent of treasure; as he +expends none in the mint, or in any other way whatever.</p> + +<p>The great khan has a council of war, composed of twelve +barons, as formerly mentioned, who direct all martial affairs, +and have the power of promoting or disgracing officers and +soldiers as they think proper. Their office is called +<i>Thai</i>, or the high court or tribunal, as no person in the +empire is superior to them except the great khan. Other twelve +barons are appointed as counsellors for the thirty-four +provinces, into which the vast empire of the khan is divided; +these have a splendid palace in Cambalu as their office, in which +there is a judge for each province, and many notaries. This +tribunal chooses proper persons to be appointed governors of the +provinces, and presents their names to the khan for confirmation. +They likewise have the charge of the collection and expenditure +of the public treasure. The name of their office is <i>Singh</i>, +or the second court, which is subordinate only to the khan, yet +is considered as less noble than the <i>Thai</i> or military +tribunal.</p> + +<p>Many public roads lead from Cambalu to all the neighbouring +provinces; and on every one of these there are inns or lodgings, +called <i>lambs</i>, built at the distance of every twenty-five +or thirty miles, which serve as post- houses, having large fair +courts, and many chambers, furnished with beds and provisions, +every way fit to lodge and entertain great men, and even kings. +The provisions are furnished from the circumjacent country, out +of the tributes. At every one of these, there are four hundred +horses, two hundred of which are kept ready for use in the +stables, and the other two hundred at grass, each division for a +month alternately. These horses are destined for the use of +ambassadors and messengers, who leave their tired horses, and get +fresh ones at every stage. In mountainous places, where there +were no villages, the khan has established colonies of about ten +thousand people in each, in the neighbourhood of these +post-houses, that they may cultivate the ground, and supply +provisions. These excellent regulations extend to the utmost +limits of the empire, in all directions, so that there are about +ten thousand imperial inns or lambs in the whole empire; and the +number of horses appointed in these, for the service of +messengers, exceeds two hundred thousand[2]; by which means, +intelligence is forwarded to the court without delay, from all +parts of the empire. If any person should wonder how so many +beasts and men can be procured and provided for, let him consider +that the Mahometans and pagans have many women, and great +numbers, of children, some having even so many as thirty sons, +all able to follow them armed into the field. As for victuals, +they sow rice, panik, and millet, which yield an hundred after +one, and they allow no land that is fit to carry crops to remain +uncultivated. As wheat does not thrive in this country it is +little sown, and they use no bread, but feed upon the formerly +mentioned grains, boiled in milk, or made into broth along with +flesh. Their horses continually increase, insomuch, that every +Tartar soldier carries six, eight, or more horses into the field +for his own use, which he rides upon in their turns. All cities +that are adjoining to rivers or lakes, are ordered to have +ferry-boats in constant readiness for the posts; and those which +are on the borders of deserts, must supply horses and provisions +for such as have to pass through these deserts; for which +service, they are allowed a reasonable compensation from the +state.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Instead of this number, 10,000 post-houses, at +400 horses each, would require four millions of horses. The +number and proportion of horses in the text would only supply 500 +inns; or would allow only 20 horses each to 10,000 inns. The +text, therefore, must be here corrupted.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In cases of great conscience, the messenger has a gerfalcon +badge, formerly mentioned, and is so equipped, that he will ride +200, or 250 miles in a day and night, being attended in dark +nights by persons who run along with him on foot, carrying +lights. On approaching a post-house, the messenger sounds a horn, +that a fresh horse or horses, according to his company, may be +brought out, and ready to mount immediately. These speedy +messengers have then bellies, loins, and heads firmly swathed, +and they always travel as fast as their horses can go; and such +as are able to endure this excessive riding, are held in great +estimation, as nothing is more admired among the Tartars than +good horsemanship.</p> + +<p>Between the <i>lambs</i>, or large post-houses, there are +other habitations, at three or four miles distance from each +other, where foot-posts are established, every one of whom has +his girdle hung round with shrill sounding bells. These are +always in readiness; and when dispatched with the khans letters, +they convey them with great speed to the next foot-post station, +where they hear the sound of the bells from a distance, and some +one is always in readiness to take the letters, and to run on to +the next station: Thus, by constant change of swift runners, the +letters are conveyed with great dispatch to their destinations. +By this means, the khan often receives letters or new fruits in +two days, from the distance often ordinary days journey: As for +instance, fruits growing at Cambalu in the morning, are conveyed +to Xandu by the night of the next day. All the people employed in +the posts, besides being exempted from all tribute, have an ample +recompense for their labour from the gatherer of the khans rents. +There are inspectors employed, who examine the state and conduct +of these posts every month, and are empowered to punish those who +are guilty of faults.</p> + +<p>The khan sends every year to the different provinces of his +empire, to inquire whether any injuries have been sustained to +the crops by tempests, locusts, worms, or any other calamity; and +when any province or district has suffered damage, the tribute is +remitted for that year, and he even sends corn for food and seed +from the public granaries: For in years of great abundance, he +purchases large quantities of grain, which is carefully preserved +for three or four years, by officers appointed for the purpose; +by which means, when a scarcity occurs in any province, the +defect may be supplied from the granaries of the khan in another +province. On these occasions, he orders his grain to be sold at a +fourth part of the market price, and great care is taken to keep +his granaries always well supplied. When any murrain attacks the +cattle of one of the provinces, the deficiency is supplied from +the tenths which he receives in the other provinces. If any beast +or sheep happens to be killed by lightning in a flock or herd, he +draws no tribute from that flock, however great, for three years, +under an idea that God is angry with the owner of the herd.</p> + +<p>That travellers may discern, and be able to discover the road +in uninhabited places, trees are planted at convenient distances, +along all the principal roads; and in the sandy and desert +places, where trees will not grow, stones and pillars are erected +to direct the passengers, and officers are appointed to see that +all these things are performed. According to the opinion of the +astrologers, the planting of trees conduces to lengthen the age +of man, and therefore, the khan is the more induced to encourage +their propagation by his order and example.</p> + +<p>In the province of Cathay, the people make excellent drink of +rice and certain spices, which even excels wine in flavour; and +those who drink too much of it become sooner drunk than with +wine[3]. Through this whole province, certain black stones are +dug from the mountains, which burn like wood, and preserve fire a +long time, and if kindled in the evening, will keep on fire all +night[4]; and many people use these stones in preference to wood, +because, though the country abounds in trees, there is a great +demand for wood for other purposes.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] This must allude to a species of corn-spirits or +brandy, distilled from rice, fermented with water, named +Arrak.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] This evidently points out the use of coal in +northern China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The great khan is particularly attentive to the care of the +poor in the city of Cambalu. When he hears of any honourable +family that, has fallen to decay through misfortune, or of any +who cannot work, and have no subsistence, he gives orders for +issuing a whole years subsistence, together with garments, both +for winter and summer, to the heads of those distressed families. +There is an appropriate office or tribunal for this imperial +bounty, to which those who have received the warrants or orders +of the khan apply for relief. The khan receives the tenths of all +wool, silk, and hemp, which he causes to be manufactured into +stuffs of all kinds, in houses set apart for this purpose; and as +all artificers of every description are bound to work for him one +day in every week, he has immense quantities of every kind of +useful commodity in his storehouses. By these means, likewise, +there are similar imperial manufactures in every city of the +empire, in which clothing is made from his tithe wool for his +innumerable soldiers. According to their ancient customs, the +Tartars gave no alms, and were in use to upbraid those who were +in poverty, as hated of God. But the priests of the idolaters, +especially those who have been formerly mentioned under the name +of Bachsi, have convinced the khan that charity is a good work, +and an acceptable service to God; so that in his court food and +raiment are never denied to those who ask, and there is no day in +which there is less than the value of 20,000 crowns distributed +in acts of charily, particularly in rice, millet, and panik; by +which extensive benevolence the khan is esteemed as a god among +his subjects.</p> + +<p>There are in Cambalu about five thousand astrologers and +diviners, Christians, Mahometans, and Kathayans, all of whom are +provided yearly by the khan in food and raiment. These have an +Astrolabe, on which all the signs of the planets are marked, +together with the hours, and most minute subdivisions of the +whole year. By this instrument, these astrologers, each religion +apart, observe the course of the year, according to every moon, +noting the prognostications of the weather, yet always referring +to God, to do as they predict or otherwise, according to his +pleasure. They write down upon square tablets, called +<i>Tacuini</i>, all those things which are to fall out during the +year, which they sell to any who will purchase; and those who are +most fortunate in their predictions are held in the highest +honour. If any one intends to commence an important labour, or to +undertake a distant journey, and is anxious to be certified of +the event, he has recourse to the astrologers to read, as they +pretend, his destiny in the heavens, for this purpose, being +instructed in the precise date of birth of the person consulting +them, they calculate the present aspect of the constellation +which ruled at his birth, and foretel that good or evil will flow +from his intentions. The Tartars compute time by cycles of twelve +lunar years; calling the first of each series the year of the +lion; the second of the ox; the third of the dragon; the fourth +of the dog; and so on through the whole twelve, and when these +are gone through, they begin the series anew. Thus, if a man is +asked when he was born, he answers that it was on such a division +of such an hour, day, and moon, in the year of the lion, ox, or +so forth. All this their fathers set down exactly in a book.</p> + +<p>It has been already said that the Tartars are idolaters. Each +man of any consequence has a table aloft in the wall of one of +his chambers, on which a name is written, to signify the great +God of Heaven, whom he adores once each day, with a censer of +burning incense; and lifting up his hands, and thrice gnashing +his teeth, he prays to God to grant him health and understanding; +this being the only petition addressed to the Almighty, of whom +they pretend not to make any similitude. But they have a statue +or image on the ground, called <i>Natigai</i>, the god of earthly +things, and images of his wife and children. This is likewise +worshipped with incense, gnashing of teeth, and lifting up the +hands; and from this, they beg for favourable weather, productive +crops, increase of children, and all manner of worldly +prosperity. They believe the soul to be immortal, and that when a +man dies, his soul enters into another body, better or worse, +according to the merits or demerits of his former life: As that a +poor man becomes a gentleman, then a prince or lord, and so +higher, till at length the soul is absorbed in God. Or if he have +deserved ill, it descends to animate the body of a lower and +poorer man, after that the body of a dog, always descending to +the lowest rank of baseness. In their manners, the language of +the Tartars is comely; they salute one another with grace and +cheerfulness, conducting themselves honestly, and they feed in a +cleanly manner. They bear great reverence to their parents, and +if any one be undutiful or regardless of their necessities, they +are liable to the jurisdiction of a public tribunal, especially +assigned for the punishment of ungrateful or disobedient +children. Persons condemned to imprisonment for crimes, are +discharged after three years confinement, when they are marked on +the cheek, that they may be known as malefactors.</p> + +<p>All barons or others, who approach within half a mile of the +residence of the great khan, must be still and quiet, no noise or +loud speech being permitted in his presence or neighbourhood. +Every one who enters the hall of presence, must pull off his +boots, lest he soil the carpets, and puts on furred buskins of +white leather, giving his other boots to the charge of servants +till he quits the hall; and every one carries a small covered +vessel to spit in; as no one dare spit in the halls of the +palace.</p> + +<p>SECTION XIII.</p> + +<p><i>Some Account of the Provinces of Kathay, or Northern China, +and of other neighbouring Countries subject to the Great +Khan[1]</i>.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Owing to the prodigious revolutions which have +taken place in the East since the time of Marco, and the +difference of languages, by which countries, provinces, towns, +and rivers have received very dissimilar names, it is often +difficult or impossible to ascertain, with any precision, the +exact geography of the relations and descriptions in the text. +Wherever this can be done with any tolerable probability of +usefulness it shall be attempted.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Ten miles from Cambalu is a great river called Pulisangan[2], +which empties itself into the ocean, and by which many vessels +ascend with merchandize to a certain handsome bridge, all built +of serpentine stone, curiously wrought. This bridge is 300 paces +in length, and eight paces broad, so that ten men may ride +abreast. It is secured on each side with a wall of marble, +ornamented with a row of pillars. The pillar on each side, at the +summit of the bridge, has the image of a great lion on the top, +and another at its base; and all the others, which are at +intervals of a pace and a half, have figures of lions on their +tops only. After passing this bridge, and proceeding to the +westwards for thirty miles, continually passing through +vineyards, and fertile fields, with numerous palaces on all +sides, you come to the fair and large city of Gouza, in which +there are many idol temples, and in which cloth of gold and silk, +and the purest and finest cambrics or lawns, are manufactured. It +contains many common inns for strangers and travellers; and the +inhabitants are very industrious in trade and manufactures. A +mile beyond this city, the road divides into two; that to the +west leading through the province of Kathay, and that to the +south-east towards the province of Mangi, from Gouza to the +kingdom of Tain-fu[3]. In this journey, you ride for ten days +through Kathay, always finding many fair and populous cities, +well cultivated fields, and numerous vineyards, from whence all +Kathay is supplied with wine; and many plantations of mulberry +trees, for rearing silk worms. Tain-fu is the name of the kingdom +or province, and of the chief city, which is large and handsomely +built, carrying on much trade, and containing great magazines of +military stores for the khans army. Seven days journey farther to +the west, there is a pleasant country, having many cities and +castles, and carrying on great trade. We then come to a very +large city, called Pian-fu, in which there is vast abundance of +silk and much trade.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The Pei-ho, which runs into the gulf of Pekin, +near the head of the Yellow sea.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Kathay, or Northern China, contained the six +northern provinces, and Mangi or Southern China, the nine +provinces to the south of the river Kiang, Yang-tse-Kiang or +Kian-ku. Tain-fu may possibly be Ten-gan-fu: Gouza it is +impossible to ascertain, unless it may be Cou-gan, a small town, +about thirty miles south from Peking or Cambalu. I suspect in the +present itinerary, that Marco keeps on the north of the Hoang-ho. +--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Westwards from Pian-fu, there is a pleasantly situated castle +called Thaigin, containing a spacious palace with a fine hall, in +which there are portraits of all the famous kings who have +reigned in this country. This castle and palace are said to have +been built by a king named Dor, who was very powerful, and was +only attended on by great numbers of young damsels, who used to +carry him about the castle in a small light chariot. Confiding in +the strength of this castle, which he believed impregnable, Dor +rebelled against Umcan, to whom he was tributary. But seven of +his courtiers or attendants, in whom he placed confidence, made +him prisoner one day while hunting, and delivered him to Umcan, +who dressed him in mean clothes, and set him under a strong guard +to tend his cattle. At the end of two years, Umcan called Dor +into his presence, and after a severe reproof and admonition for +his future obedience, dressed him in princely robes, and sent him +back to his kingdom with a powerful escort.</p> + +<p>About twenty miles beyond the castle of Thaigin, we come to +the great river Caramaran[4]; which is so broad and deep that it +has no bridge between this place and the ocean. There are many +cities, towns, and castles, on the banks of this river, which +carry on great trade. The country abounds in ginger and silk; and +fowls of all kinds, particularly pheasants, are so plentiful, +that three of them may be purchased for a Venetian groat. Along +the banks of this river, there grow vast quantities of great +reeds or hollow canes[5], some of which, are a foot or eighteen +inches round, and are applied to many useful purposes. Two days +journey beyond this river is the famous city of Carianfu, in +which great quantities of silks and cloth of gold are made. This +country produces ginger, galuigal, spike, and many spices; and +the inhabitants are idolaters. Proceeding seven days journey +westwards, we pass through many cities, and towns, and fine +fields, and gardens, and everywhere there are plantations of +mulberries for feeding silk-worms, and abundance of wild beasts +and fowls. The inhabitants are mostly idolaters, with some +Christians, or Nestorians, and Saracens or Mahometans. Continuing +the journey for seven days, we come to a great city called +Quenzanfu, which is the capital of the kingdom of that name, in +which many famous kings have reigned. At the present time +Mangalu, one of the sons of the great khan, has the supreme +command of this kingdom. This country yields great plenty of +silk, and cloth of gold, and all things necessary for the +subsistence of an army, and the maintenance of its numerous +inhabitants. The people are mostly idolaters, but there are some +Christians and Mahometans among them. Five miles from the city +stands the palace of Mangalu, in a fine plain, watered by +numerous springs and rivulets, and abounding in game. This fine +palace, all painted with gold and azure, and adorned with +numberless statues, stands in the middle of a fine park of five +miles square, surrounded by a high wall, in which all kinds of +beasts and fowls are to be found in abundance; and in this place +Mangalu and his courtiers take great delight to hunt. He follows +his fathers excellent example, in conducting his government with +great equity and justice, and is much beloved and respected by +the people.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Hara-moran, or Hoang-he. Thaigin may therefore be +Tan-gin, about twenty miles east from that river, in Lat. S6-1/4 +N. In which case, Pian-fu may be the city of Pin-yang; and +Tain-fu, Tay-uen.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Bamboos.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Proceeding three days to the westward, from the palace of +Mangalu, through a very beautiful plain, adorned with many cities +and castles, which have great abundance of silk and other +manufactures, we come to a mountainous district of the province +of Chunchian, in the vallies of which there are many villages and +hamlets; the inhabitants being idolaters and husbandmen. In these +mountains they hunt lions, bears, stags, roebucks, deer, and +wolves. The plain is two days over, and for twenty days journey +to the west, the country is well inhabited, and finely +diversified with mountains, vallies, and woods. At the end of +these twenty days, there lies, towards the west, a populous +province called Achbaluch Mangi, or the <i>white</i> city on the +borders of Mangi. On entering this province, we find a plain of +two days journey in extent, and containing a prodigious number of +villages; beyond which the country is diversified with mountains, +vallies, and woods, yet all well inhabited. In these mountains +there are plenty of wild beasts, among which are the animals that +produce musk. This province produces rice and other grain, and +abundance of ginger. After twenty days journey through these +hills, we come to a plain and a province on the confines of +Mangi, called Sindinfu. The city of the same name is very large, +and exceedingly rich, being twenty miles in circumference; of +old, this city and province was governed by a race of rich and +powerful kings. On the death of an old king, he left the +succession among three sons, who divided the city into three +parts, each surrounded by its own wall, yet all contained within +the former wall of the city; but the great khan subjected the +city and province to his dominion. Through this city and its +environs there run many rivers, some half a mile over, and some +an hundred paces, all very deep; and on these there are many +handsome stone bridges, eight paces broad, having marble pillars +on each side, supporting wooden roofs, and on every bridge there +are houses and shops. After passing this city, all these rivers +unite into one great river called the Quian, or Kian, which runs +from hence one hundred days journey before it reaches the ocean; +having many cities and castles on its banks, with innumerable +trading vessels. Proceeding four days journey farther, we pass +through a fine plain, containing many cities, castles, and +villages, and several beautiful green lawns or pastures, in which +there are many wild beasts.</p> + +<p>Beyond this last mentioned plain is the wide country of +Thebet, or Thibet, which the great khan vanquished and laid +waste; and in it there are many ruined cities and castles, for +the space of twenty days journey, which has become an uninhabited +wilderness, full of lions and other wild beasts. Those who have +to travel through this country must carry victuals along with +them, and must use precautions to defend themselves against the +ferocious animals of the desert. Very large canes grow all over +this country, some of which are ten paces long and three palms +thick, and as much between the knots or joints. When travellers +take up their quarters for the night, they take large bundles of +the greener reeds or canes, which they put upon the top of a +large fire, and they make such a crackling noise in burning as to +be heard for two miles off by which the wild beasts are terrified +and fly from the place; but it has sometimes happened that the +horses, and other beasts belonging to the merchants or +travellers, have been frightened by this noise, and have run away +from their masters: for which reason prudent travellers use the +precaution of fettering or binding their feet together, to +prevent them from running off.</p> + +<p>SECTION XIV.</p> + +<p><i>An account of Thibet, and several other Provinces, with the +Observations made by the Author in passing through them</i>.</p> + +<p>At the end of twenty days journey through the before mentioned +depopulated country, we met with cities and many villages, +inhabited by an idolatrous people, whose manners are so +licentious that no man marries a wife who is a virgin. Hence when +travellers and strangers from other countries come among them, +the women of the country who have marriageable daughters bring +them to the tents of the strangers, and entreat them to enjoy the +company of their daughters so long as they remain in the +neighbourhood. On these occasions the handsomest are chosen, and +those who are rejected return home sorrowful and disappointed. +The strangers are not permitted to carry away any of these +willing damsels, but must restore them faithfully to their +parents; and at parting the girl requires some toy or small +present, which she may shew as a token of her condition; and she +who can produce the greatest number of such favours has the +greatest chance of being soon and honourably married. When a +young woman dresses herself out to the best advantage, she hangs +all the favours she may have received from her different lovers +about her neck, and the more acceptable she may have been to many +such transitory lovers, so much the more is she honoured among +her countrymen. But after marriage they are never suffered to +have intercourse with strangers, and the men of the country are +very cautious of giving offence to each other in this matter.</p> + +<p>The people of this country are idolaters, who live by hunting, +yet cultivate the ground, and are much addicted to stealing, +which they account no crime; they are clothed in the skins of +wild beasts, or in coarse hempen garments, having no money, not +even the paper money of the khan, but they use pieces of coral +instead of money. Their language is peculiar to themselves. The +country of which we now speak belongs to Thibet, which is a +country of vast extent, and has been some time divided into eight +kingdoms, in which are many cities and towns, with many +mountains, lakes, and rivers, in some of which gold is found. The +women wear coral necklaces, which they likewise hang about the +necks of their idols. In this country there are very large dogs, +almost as big as asses, which are employed in hunting the wild +beasts, especially wild oxen called Boyamini. In this province of +Thibet there are many kinds of spices which are never brought +into Europe. This, like all the other provinces formerly +mentioned, is subject to the great khan.</p> + +<p>On the west of the province of Thibet lies the province of +Caindu, which was formerly governed by kings of its own, but is +now ruled by governors appointed by the great khan. By the west, +it is not to be understood that these countries are actually in +the west; but that, as we travelled to them from those parts +which are situate between the east and the north-east, and +consequently came thither westwards, we therefore reckon them as +being in the west[1]. The people are idolaters and have many +cities, of which the principal is called Caindu, after the name +of the province, and is built on the frontiers. In this country +there is a large salt lake, which produces such extraordinary +abundance of white pearls, but not round, that no person is +allowed to fish for them under pain of death, without a licence +from the great khan, lest by becoming too plentiful, the price +should be too much reduced. There is likewise a mountain +producing turquoises, the digging for which is restrained under +similar regulations. There are great numbers of the animals +called <i>gadderi</i> in this province, which produce musk. The +lake which produces pearls is likewise very abundant in fish, and +the whole country is full of wild beasts of many kinds, as lions, +bears, stags, deer, ounces, and roebucks, and many kinds of +birds. Cloves also are found in great plenty, which are gathered +from small trees, resembling the bay-tree in boughs and leaves, +but somewhat longer and straighter, having white flowers. The +cloves when ripe are black, or dusky, and very brittle. The +country likewise produces ginger and cinnamon in great plenty, +and several other spices which are not brought to Europe. It has +no wine, but in place of it, the inhabitants make a most +excellent drink of corn or rice, flavoured with various +spices.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The meaning of this sentence is obscure, unless +it is intended to guard the readers against the supposition that +these countries were to the west of Europe.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The inhabitants of this country are so besotted to their +idols, that they fancy they secure their favour by prostituting +their wives, sisters, and daughters to strangers. When any +stranger comes among them, all the masters of families strive to +procure him as a guest, after which, they leave the stranger to +be entertained by the females of the family, and will not return +to their own house till after his departure; and all this is done +in honour of their idols, thinking that they secure their favour +by this strange procedure. The principal money in this country is +gold, unstamped, and issued by weight. But their ordinary money +consists in solid small loaves of salt, marked with the seal of +the prince; and of this merchants make vast profits in remote +places, which have abundance of gold and musk, which the +inhabitants are eager to barter for salt, to use with their +meat.</p> + +<p>Leaving this province, we proceeded fifteen days journey +farther, passing through many cities and villages, the +inhabitants of which have the same customs with those of Caindu; +and at length we came to a river called <i>Brius</i>, which is +the boundary of the province of Caindu. In this river gold dust +is found in great abundance, by washing the sand of the river in +vessels, to cleanse the gold from earth and sand. On the banks of +this river, which runs direct to the ocean, cinnamon grows in +great plenty. Having passed the river Brius, we come westwards to +the province of Caraian, which contains seven kingdoms, and is +under the command of Sentamur, as viceroy for his father the +great khan. This prince is young, rich, wise, and just. The +country produces excellent horses, is well peopled and has a +peculiar and very difficult language; the inhabitants are +idolaters, who live on their cattle and the produce of the earth. +After proceeding five days journey through this country, we came +to the great and famous city of Jaci[2]. In this large city there +are many merchants and manufacturers, and many different kinds of +people, idolaters, Christians, Nestorians, and Mahometans; but +the great majority are idolaters. It has abundance of corn and +rice, but the inhabitants only use bread made from rice, as they +esteem it more wholesome; they make a drink also from rice, mixed +with several kinds of spices, which is very pleasant. They use +white porcelain instead of money, and certain sea shells for +ornaments[3]. Much salt is made in this country from the water of +salt wells, from which the viceroy derives great profit. There is +a lake in this country 100 miles in circuit, which has great +quantities of fish. The people of this country eat the raw flesh +of beef, mutton, buffalo, and poultry, cut into small pieces and +seasoned with excellent spices, but the poorer sort are contented +with garlic shred down among their meat. The men have no +objections to permit the intercourse of strangers with their +wives, on condition only of being previously asked for their +consent.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Called Lazi by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi +edition of these travels, mentioned in the introduction. This +place, therefore, may be Lassa, in the kingdom or province of Ou, +in Middle Thibet, the residence of the Dalai Lama, situate on a +branch of the Sampoo, or great Brahma-pootra, or Barampooter +river, which joins the Ganges in the lower part of +Bengal.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This sentence most probably is meant to imply the +use of cowries, sometimes called porellane shells, both for money +and ornament.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>We departed from Jaci or Lazi, and travelling westwards for +ten days journey, we came to a province called Carazan after the +name of its chief city, which is governed by a son of the great +khan, named Cogatin[4]. The rivers in this province yield large +quantities of washed gold, and, likewise in the mountains, solid +gold is found in veins; and the people exchange gold against +silver, at the rate of one pound of gold for six pounds of +silver[5]. The ordinary currency of the country is in porcelain +shells brought from India. In this country there are very large +serpents, some of which are ten paces long, and ten spans in +thickness, having two little feet before, near the head, with +three talons or claws like lions, and very large bright eyes[6]. +Their jaws have large sharp teeth, and their mouths are so wide, +that they are able to swallow a man; nor is there any man, or +living creature, that can behold these serpents without terror. +Some of these are only eight, six, or five paces in length. In +the day-time they lurk in holes to avoid the great heat, going +out only in the night in search of prey, and they devour lions, +wolves, or any other beasts they can find, after which they go in +search of water, leaving such a track in the sands, owing to +their weight, as if a piece of timber had been dragged along. +Taking advantage of this circumstance, the hunters fasten great +iron spikes under the sand in their usual tracks, by means of +which they are often wounded and killed. The crows or vultures +proclaim the serpents fate by their cries, on which the hunters +come up and flea the animal, taking out his gall, which is +employed as a sovereign remedy for several diseases, given to the +quantity of a pennyweight in wine; particularly against the bite +of a mad dog, for women in labour, for carbuncles, and other +distempers. They likewise get a good price for the flesh, which +is considered as very delicate.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, names the +country Cariam, and the governor Cocagio.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The ordinary European price is about fourteen for +one.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This province breeds many stout horses, which are carried by +the merchants into India. They commonly take out a bone from the +tails of their horses, to prevent them from being able to lash +them from side to side, as they esteem it more seemly for the +tails to hang down. The natives, who are idolaters, use long +stirrups in riding, like the French; whereas the Tartars and +other nations use short stirrups, because they rise up when they +discharge their arrows. In their wars, they use targets and other +defensive armour made of buffalo hides; and their offensive +weapons are lances and crossbows, with poisoned arrows. Some of +them, who are great villains, are said always to carry poison +with them, that if taken prisoners, they may swallow it to +procure sudden death, and to avoid torture. On which occasion, +the great lords force them to swallow dogs dung that they may +vomit up the poison. Before they were conquered by the great +khan, when any stranger of good appearance happened to lodge with +them, they used to kill him in the night; believing that the good +properties of the murdered person would afterwards devolve to the +inhabitants of the house; and this silly notion has occasioned +the death of many persons.</p> + +<p>Travelling still westwards from the province of Carazam, or +Cariam, we came, after five days journey, to the province of +Cardandan, of which the chief city is called Vociam[7]. The +inhabitants, who are subject to the great khan, use porcelain +shells, and gold by weight, instead of money. In that country, +and many other surrounding provinces, there are no silver mines, +and the people give an ounce of gold for five ounces of silver, +by which exchange the merchants acquire great profits. The men +and women cover their teeth with thin plates of gold, so exactly +fitted, that the teeth seem as if they were actually of solid +gold. The men make a kind of lists or stripes round their legs +and arms, by pricking the places with needles, and rubbing in a +black indelible liquid, and these marks are esteemed as great +decorations. They give themselves up entirely to riding and +hunting, and martial exercises, leaving all the household cares +to the women, who are assisted by slaves, whom they purchase or +take in their wars. Immediately after delivery, the woman leaves +her bed and washes the child; after which, the husband lies down +in her bed with the child, where he remains for forty days, +during all which time, he receives the visits and compliments of +the friends and neighbours. The wife looks after the house, +carries broth to her husband in bed, and suckles the child. Their +wine is made from rice and spiceries; and their ordinary food is +rice and raw flesh, seasoned with spiceries or garlic, as +formerly mentioned. There are no idols in this province, except +that every family adores the oldest man in the house, from whom +they say that they and all they have are come. The country +consists mostly of wild and rugged mountains; into which +strangers seldom come, because the air, especially in summer, is +exceedingly noxious. They have no letters, but all their +contracts and obligations are recorded by tallies of wood, one +counterpart being kept by each party, and when the contract is +fulfilled the tallies are destroyed.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] The description of this creature seems to +indicate an alligator or crocodile; which probably Marco had not +seen, and only describes from an imperfect account of the +natives.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] According to Pinkerton, this province is named +Cariti, and its principal town Nociam, in the edition of +Trevigi.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>There are no physicians in this province or in Caindu, Vociam, +or Caraiam; but when any one is sick, the magicians or priests of +the idols are assembled, to whom the sick person gives an account +of his disease. Then the magicians dance to the sound of certain +instruments, and bellow forth songs in honour of their idols, +till at length, the devil enters into one of these who are +skipping about in the dance. The dance is then discontinued, and +the rest of the magicians consult with him who is possessed as to +the cause of the disease, and what ought to be done for its +remedy. The devil answers by this person, "because the sick +person has done this or that, or has offended some particular +idol." Then the magicians entreat this idol to pardon the sick +person, engaging, if he recover, that he shall offer a sacrifice +of his own blood. But if the devil or the priest thinks that the +patient cannot recover, he says that the person has so grievously +offended the idol, that he cannot be appeased by any sacrifices. +If, on the other hand, he thinks the sick person may recover, he +orders an offering of a certain number of rams with black heads, +to be prepared by so many magicians and their wives, and offered +up to appease the idol. On this the kinsmen of the sick person +immediately execute the orders of the devil. The rams are killed, +and their blood sprinkled in the air. The assembled magicians +light up great candles, and perfume the whole house with the +smoke of incense and aloes wood, and sprinkle some of the broth +made from the flesh, mixed with spices, into the air, as the +portion of the idols. When these things are performed, they again +skip and dance in honour of the idol, singing and making a +horrible noise; and then ask the possessed priest whether the +idol is now satisfied. If he answer in the negative, they prepare +to obey any farther commands; but if he answer that the idol is +satisfied, they sit down to table, and eat the flesh which was +offered to the idol and drink the liquors; after which, the +magicians being paid for their trouble, every one departs to his +own home. If the sick person recover through the providence of +God, he attributes the restoration of his health to the idol; but +if he die, it is then supposed that the idol had been defrauded, +by some of the assistants having eaten of the sacrifices before +all the rites were duly performed. This ceremony is only +practised for rich patients, on whom the devil, or the priests in +his name, impose their blind belief.</p> + +<p>In 1272, the great khan sent an army of 12,000 veteran troops, +under the command of aft experienced officer, named Nestardin, to +reduce the kingdom of Vociam and Guarazan[8]. As soon as the +kings of Mien[9] and Bengala heard of this invasion, they +assembled an army of 60,000 horse and foot, besides a thousand +elephants, carrying castles, in each of which there were from +twelve to sixteen armed men. With this army, the king of Mien +marched towards the city of Vociam, where the Tartar army was +encamped. Nestardin, regardless of the great disparity of +numbers, marched with invincible courage to fight the enemy; but +when he drew near, he encamped under cover of a great wood, +knowing that the elephants could not penetrate into the wood with +the towers on their backs. The king of Mien drew near to fight +the Tartars; but the Tartarian horses were so terrified with the +sight of the elephants, who were arranged along the front of the +battle, that it was impossible to bring them up to the charge. +The Tartars, therefore, were compelled to alight from their +horses, which they fastened to the trees, and came boldly +forewards on foot against the elephants, among whom they +discharged immense quantities of arrows; so that the elephants, +unable to endure the smart of their wounds, became unmanageable, +and fled to the nearest wood, where they broke their castles, and +overturned the armed men, with which they were filled. On this, +the Tartars remounted their horses, and made a furious attack on +the enemy. The battle continued for some time undecided, and many +men were slain on both sides. At length the army of the king of +Mien was defeated and put to flight, leaving the victory to the +Tartars; who now hastened into the wood, and made many prisoners, +by whose assistance they seized two hundred of the elephants, +which were sent to the great khan. Before this time, the Tartars +were unaccustomed to the use of elephants in war; but the great +khan has ever since had elephants in his army. After this +victory, the great khan subjected the kingdoms of Mien and +Bengala to his empire.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Named previously Carazam and Caraian, afterwards +Caraiam, or Carian. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>Departing from the province of Carian, or Caraiam, there is a +great desert which continues for two days and a half, without any +inhabitants, at the end of which desert there is a large plain, +in which great multitudes meet for traffic three days in every +week. Many people come down from the great mountains, bringing +gold, which they exchange for five times its weight of silver; on +which account, many merchants come here from foreign countries +with silver, and carry away gold, bringing likewise large +quantities of merchandize to sell to these people; for no +strangers can go into the high mountains where the people dwell +who gather gold, oh account of the intricacy and impassable +nature of the roads. After passing this plain, and going to the +south for fifteen days journey, through uninhabited and woody +places, in which there are innumerable multitudes of elephants, +rhinoceroses[10], and other wild beasts, we come to Mien, which +borders upon India. At the end of that journey of fifteen days, +we come to the great and noble city of Mien, the capital of the +kingdom, which is subject to the great khan. The inhabitants are +idolaters, and have a peculiar language. There was formerly a +king in this city, who being on the point of death, gave orders +to erect two pyramidal monuments, or towers of marble, near his +sepulchre, one at the head and the other at the foot, each of +them ten fathoms high, and having a round ball on the top of +each. One of these he ordered to be covered with gold, and the +other with silver, a fingers breadth in thickness; and round +about the tops of these pyramids many little bells of gold and +silver were hung, which gave a pleasing shrill sound, when +agitated by the wind. The monument or sepulchre between these was +likewise covered with plates of gold and silver. When the great +khan undertook the conquest of this country, he sent a valiant +captain at the head of a large army, mostly of cavalry, of which +the Tartarian armies principally consist. After the city was won, +the general would not demolish this monument without orders from +the khan; who, on being informed that the former king had erected +it in honour of his soul, would not permit it to be injured, as +the Tartars never violate those things which belong to the dead. +In the country of Mien there are many elephants and wild oxen, +large stags and deer, and various other kinds of wild beasts in +great abundance.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] In some modern maps, Mien is introduced as a +large province on the river of Pegu, immediately to the +south-west of Yunnan in China, and divided from Bengal by the +whole country of Ava. But the distribution of eastern dominion +has been always extremely fluctuating; and Mien may then have +included all the north of Ava.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] In the original text this animal is called the +unicorn; a word of the same import with +rhinoceros.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The province of Bengala borders on India towards the +south[11], and was subdued by the great khan, while I Marco Polo +resided in the eastern countries. It had its own proper king, and +has a peculiar language. The inhabitants are all idolaters, and +have schools in which the masters teach idolatries and +enchantments, which are universal among all the great men of the +country. They eat flesh, rice, and milk; and have great abundance +of cotton, by the manufacture of which a great trade is carried +on. They abound also in spike, galingal, ginger, sugar, and +various other spices; and they make many eunuchs, whom they sell +to the merchants. This province continues for thirty days journey +going eastwards, when we come to the province of Cangigu[12]. +This country has its own king, who is tributary to the great +khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiar +language. The king has about three hundred wives. The province +has much gold and many spices, but these cannot be easily +transported, as it is far distant from the sea. It has also many +elephants and much game. The inhabitants live on flesh, rice, and +milk, having no wine, but they make an excellent drink of rice +and spices. Both men and women ornament their faces, necks, +hands, bellies, and legs, with the figures of lions, dragons, and +birds, and these are so firmly imprinted, as to be almost +indelible. There are in this country professors of this foolish +art of skin embroidery, who follow no other trade but this needle +work, and dying of fools skins; and the person who has the +greatest number and variety of these images, is considered the +finest and most gallantly ornamented.</p> + +<blockquote>[11] This either implies that Bengal on the borders +of India is to the south of Thibet; or <i>south</i> is here an +error for <i>east</i>, Bengal being the eastern frontier province +of India proper.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] The difficulty, or rather impossibility of +tracing the steps of Marco Polo, may proceed from various causes. +The provinces or kingdoms, mostly named from their chief cities, +have suffered infinite changes from perpetual revolutions. The +names he gives, besides being corrupted in the various +transcriptions and editions, he probably set down orally, as +given to him in the Tartar or Mogul dialect, very different from +those which have been adopted into modern geography from various +sources. Many of these places may have been destroyed, and new +names imposed. Upon the whole, his present course appears to have +been from Bengal eastwards, through the provinces of the farther +India, to Mangi or southern China; and Cangigu may possibly be +Chittigong. Yet Cangigu is said in the text to be an inland +country. --E.</blockquote> + +<p>Amu or Aniu, twenty-five days journey to the east of the +province of Cangigu, is subject to the great khan, and its +inhabitants are idolaters who have a peculiar language. This +country abounds in provisions, and has great quantities of cattle +and many horses; and these last being excellent, are carried by +the merchants for sale into India. The country is full of +excellent pastures, and therefore abounds in buffalos and oxen. +Both men and women wear bracelets of gold and silver of great +value on their legs and arms, but those of the women are the most +valuable.</p> + +<p>The province of Tholoman, which is likewise subject to the +great khan, is at the distance of eight days journey east from +Amu; the inhabitants are idolaters, and use a peculiar language; +both men and women are tall, well shaped, and of a brown +complexion. This country is well inhabited, having many strong +towns and castles, and the men are practised in arms, and +accustomed to war. They burn their dead, after which they inclose +the bones and ashes in chests, which they hide in holes of the +mountains. Gold is found in great plenty, yet both here and in +Cangigu and Amu, they use the cowrie shells which are brought +from India.</p> + +<p>From this province of Tholoman, the high road leads eastwards +by a river, on the banks of which there are many towns and +castles, and at the end of twelve days journey, we come to the +great city of Cintigui, the province of the same name being +subject to the great khan, and the inhabitants are idolaters. +They manufacture excellent cloths from the bark of trees, of +which their summer clothing is made. There are many lions in this +country, so that no person dare sleep out of doors in the night, +and the vessels which frequent the river, dare not be made fast +to the banks at night from dread of the lions. The inhabitants +have large dogs, so brave and strong, that they are not afraid +even to attack the lion, and it often happens that one man armed +with a bow and arrows, and assisted by two of these dogs, will +kill a lion. The dogs, urged on by the man, give the onset, and +the lion endeavours to take shelter beside a tree, that the dogs +may not be able to get behind him, yet he scorns to run away, and +holds on his stately slow space, the dogs always fastening on his +hinder parts; but so cautiously and nimbly do they manage their +assaults, that whenever the lion turns upon them, they are beyond +his reach. Then the magnanimous beast holds on his way towards a +tree, the man all the while plying him with arrows, at every +opportunity, and the dogs constantly tearing him from behind, +till at length, with loss of blood, he falls down and dies. This +country abounds in silk, which is carried by the merchants to +various provinces, by means of the river. Their money is paper, +and the inhabitants are valiant in arms.</p> + +<p>At the end of ten days journey from Cintigui, we come to the +city of Sindinfu; twenty days from thence is Gingui, and four +days from thence, towards the south, is Palan-fu in Kathay, +returning by the other side of the province. The people are +idolaters and burn their dead, but there are also some Christians +who have a church. The people use paper money, and are all under +the dominion of the great khan. They make cloths of gold and +silk, and very fine lawns. Past this city of Palan-fu, which has +many cities under its jurisdiction, there runs a fine river, +which carries great store of merchandize to Cambalu, by means of +many canals made on purpose. Leaving this place, and travelling +three days journey towards the south of the province of Kathay, +subject to the great khan, is the great city of Ciangu. They are +idolaters, who burn their dead, and their money is the mulberry +paper coin of the khan. The earth, in the territories of this +city, abounds in salt, which is extracted in the following +manner: The earth is heaped up like a hill, and large quantities +of water are poured on, which extracts the salt, and runs by +certain conduits into cauldrons, in which it is boiled up into +fine white salt; and this manufacture produces great profit to +the people and the great khan, as large quantities are exported +for sale to other countries. In this neighbourhood there are +large and fine flavoured peaches, one of which weighs two +pounds.</p> + +<p>Five days journey farther south from Ciangu is the city of +Ciangli, likewise in Kathay, between which we pass many cities +and castles, all subject to the great khan; and through the +middle of this last city of Ciangli, there runs a large river, +which is very convenient for the transport of merchandize. Six +days journey from thence to the south is the noble kingdom and +great city of Tudinfu, which was formerly subject to its own +king, but was subdued by the arms of the great khan in 1272. +Under its jurisdiction there are twelve famous trading cities. It +is most pleasantly situated among gardens and orchards, and is +rich in silks. A baron, named Lucanser, who was sent to govern +this acquisition by the khan, with an army of 8000 horse, chose +to rebel; but was defeated and slain by an army of 100,000 horse +sent against him by the khan under two other barons, and the +country again reduced to obedience. Seven days journey farther +south is the famous city of Singuimatu, to which, on the south, a +great river runs, which is divided by the inhabitants into two +rivers, one branch of which flows by the east towards Kathay, and +the other by the west towards Mangi[13]. By these rivers or +canals innumerable vessels, incredible for their size and wealth, +carry vast quantities of merchandize through both of these +provinces; and for sixteen days journey to the south from +Singuimatu, we meet with many cities and towns, which carry on +immense trade. The inhabitants of all these countries are +idolaters, and subject to the great khan. You then come to a +great river called Caramoran[14], which is said to take its rise +in the dominions formerly belonging to Umcan, or Prester John, in +the north. It is very deep, and carries ships of great burden, +and is well stocked with fish. Within one days journey of the sea +are the two cities of Coigan-zu and Quan-zu, on opposite sides of +the river, the one a great city and the other a small one, where +a fleet of 15,000 vessels is kept by the great khan, each fitted +for carrying fifteen horses and twenty men. These are always in +readiness to carry an army to any of the islands, or to any +remote region in case of rebellion[15]. On passing the great +river Caramoran, or Hoang-ho, we enter into the noble kingdom of +Mangi: But it must not be supposed that I have described the +whole province of Kathay, as I have not spoken of the twentieth +part of it; for in passing through this province, I have only +mentioned the principal cities on my way, leaving those on both +sides, and many intermediate ones to avoid prolixity, and not to +set down in writing what I only learned from hearsay.</p> + +<blockquote>[13] Kathay and Mangi, as formerly mentioned, are +Northern and Southern China, so that the direction of these +rivers ought perhaps to have been described as north and south, +instead of east and west. About seventy miles from the mouth of +the Yellow river, or Hoang-ho, there is a town called Tsingo, +near which a canal runs to the north, communicating with the +river on which Pekin is situated, and another canal, running far +south into Mangi or Southern China. Tsingo, though now an +inferior town, may have been formerly Singui-matu, and a place of +great importance.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] Caramoran or Hora-moran, is the Hoang-ho, or +Yellow river; and it must be allowed, that the distance which is +placed in the text, between Singui-matu and this river, is quite +hostile to the idea mentioned in the preceding note, of Tsingo +and Singui-matu being the same place. The only other situation in +all China which accords with the two canals, or rivers, +communicating both with Kathay and Mangi, is Yotcheou on the +Tong-ting-hou lake, which is on the Kian-ku river, and at a +sufficient distance from the Hoang-ho to agree with the text. In +the absence of all tolerable certainty, conjecture seems +allowable. --E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] There are no Chinese cities, in our maps, that, +in the least appearance of sound, correspond with the names of +these towns or cities near the mouth of the Hoang-ho. Hoain-gin +is the only large city near its mouth, and that is not on its +banks. All therefore that can be said, is, that the two cities in +the text must have stood on opposite sides of the Hoang-ho in the +days of Marco Polo.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XV.</p> + +<p><i>An account of the Kingdom of Mangi, and the manner of its +Reduction under the dominion of the Great Khan; together with +some Notices of its various Provinces and Cities</i>.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of Mangi is the richest and most famous of all +that are to be found in the east. In the year 1269, this kingdom +was governed by a king named Fanfur[1], who was richer and more +powerful than any who had reigned there for an hundred years. +Fanfur maintained justice and internal peace in his dominions, so +that no one dared to offend his neighbour, or to disturb the +peace, from dread of prompt, severe, and impartial justice; +insomuch, that the artificers would often leave their shops, +filled with valuable commodities, open in the night, yet no one +would presume to enter them. Travellers and strangers travelled +in safety through his whole dominions by day or night. He was +merciful to the poor, and carefully provided for such as were +oppressed by poverty or sickness, and every year took charge of +20,000 infants who were deserted by their mothers from poverty, +all of whom he bred up till they were able to work at some trade. +But in process of time, betaking himself more to pleasures than +was fit, he employed his whole time in delights, in the midst of +1000 concubines. His capital was encompassed with ditches full of +water; but Fanfur was entirely addicted to the arts of peace, and +so beloved of his subjects for his justice and charity, that, +trusting to their numbers and attachment, and to the natural +strength and resources of the country, both king and people +neglected the use of arms, keeping no cavalry in pay, because +they feared no one, and believed themselves invincible.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Called Tou-tsong by the Chinese historians, the +fifteenth emperor of the nineteenth dynasty, who succeeded to the +throne in the year 1264.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>Cublai-khan was of a different disposition from Fanfur, and +delighted in war and conquest; and having resolved upon making a +conquest of the kingdom of Mangi, he levied a great army of horse +and foot for that purpose, over which he placed a general named +Chinsan-Baian[2]. He accordingly marched with his army, +accompanied by a fleet, into the province of Mangi, and summoned +the city of Coiganzu[3] to surrender to the authority of the +great khan. On this being refused, he departed without making any +assault, to the second, the third, and the fourth city, all of +which he summoned, and on their refusal, marched on without siege +or assault. But receiving the same answer from the fifth, he +assaulted it with great courage, and having taken it by storm, he +massacred the whole inhabitants, without sparing any of either +sex, or of any age or condition. This severe military execution +so terrified the other cities, that they all immediately +surrendered. On this successful commencement being reported to +the khan, he sent a new army to reinforce Chinsan-Baian, whose +army was now much diminished by the garrisons he had to leave in +the conquered cities. With his army thus reinforced, Chinsan +marched against Quinsai[4] the capital city of the kingdom of +Mangi, in which Fanfur resided. He was much terrified at this +formidable invasion, and having never seen any war, he fled with +all his wealth on board a great fleet which he had prepared, +retiring to certain impregnable islands in the ocean[5], +committing the custody of his capital to his wife, whom he +desired to defend it as well as she could, as being a woman, she +need not fear being put to death if she were made prisoner. It +may be observed, that Fanfur had been told by his diviners, that +his kingdom would never be taken from him except by one who had +an hundred eyes; and this being known to the queen, she was in +hopes or preserving the city in all extremities, thinking it +impossible for any one man to have an hundred eyes. But learning +that the name of the commander of the Tartars had that +signification, she sent for him and delivered up the city, +believing him to be the person indicated by the astrologers, and +to whom destiny had predetermined the conquest of the city and +kingdom.[6] She was sent to the court of the great khan, where +she was most honourably received, and entertained as became her +former dignity. After the surrender of the capital, the citizens +and inhabitants of the whole province yielded to the obedience of +the great khan[7].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The name of this general is said to have +signified <i>an hundred eyes</i>; doubtless a Tartar title, +denoting his vigilance and foresight. By the Chinese historians, +this general is named Pe-yen; which may have the same +signification. These historians attribute the conquest of Mangi, +or Southern China, to the indolence, debauchery, and extreme love +of pleasure of this emperor, whom they name +Tou-Tsong.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The names of all places and provinces in the +travels of Marco Polo, are either so disguised by Tartar +appellations, or so corrupted, that they cannot be referred with +any certainty to the Chinese names upon our maps. Coiganzu, +described afterwards as the first city in the south-east of Mangi +in going from Kathay, may possibly be Hoingan-fou, which answers +to that situation. The termination <i>fou</i> is merely +<i>city</i>; and other terminations are used by the Chinese, as +<i>tcheou</i> and others, to denote the rank or class in which +they are placed, in regard to the subordination of their +governors and tribunals, which will be explained in that part of +our work which is appropriated to the empire of +China.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Or Guinsai, to be afterwards +described.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] It does not appear where these islands were, +situated; whether Hainan or Formosa, properly Tai-ouan, or +Tai-wan, or the islands in the bay of Canton.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] These sagacious diviners must have been well +acquainted with the military energy of the Tartar government, and +the abject weakness of their own; and certainly knew, from their +brethren in Kathay, the significant name of the Tartar general; +on which foundation, they constructed the enigma of their +prophecy, which, like many others, contributed towards its own +accomplishment.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] About a year after the surrender of his capital, +Tou-Tsong died, leaving three sons, who all perished in a few +years afterwards. The eldest was made prisoner, and died in +captivity in Tartary. The second died of a consumption at Canton, +where he had taken refuge at eleven years of age. The third, +named Ti-Ping, after all the country was seized by the Tartars, +was carried on board the Chinese fleet, which was pursued and +brought to action by a fleet which the Tartars had fitted out for +the purpose. When the Chinese lord, who had the charge of the +infant emperor, saw the vessel in which he was embarked +surrounded by the Tartars, he took the young prince in his arms +and jumped with him into the sea. One considerable squadron of +the Chinese fleet forced a passage through that of the Tartars, +but was afterwards entirely destroyed in a +tempest.--Harris.</blockquote> + +<p>I shall now speak of the cities in the kingdom of Mangi. +Coiganzu is a very fair and rich city, situate towards the +south-east and east, in the very entrance of the province of +Mangi[8]. In this city, which is situated on the river Carama[9], +there are vast numbers of ships employed in trade, and great +quantities of salt are made in that neighbourhood. Proceeding +from Coigan-zu, we ride one days journey to the south-east, on a +stone causeway, on both sides of which are great fences with deep +waters, through which people may pass with proper vessels[10], +and there is no entrance into Mangi but by this causeway except +by shipping. At the end of this days journey is a large and fair +city called Paughin, of which the inhabitants are idolaters, and +manufacturers of stuffs of silk and gold, in which they drive a +considerable trade. It is plentifully supplied with all the +necessaries of life, and the paper money of the khan is current +in the whole province. One days journey farther south-east, is +the large and famous city of Caim. The neighbouring country +abounds in fish, beasts, and fowl of all kinds, especially with +pheasants as large as peacocks, which are so plentiful, that +three may be bought for a Venetian groat. Proceeding another days +journey through a well cultivated, fertile, and well peopled +country, we come to a moderate sized city called Tingui, which is +much resorted to by ships and merchants, and abounds in all the +necessaries of life. This place is in the south-east, on the left +hand, three days journey from the ocean, and in the country, +between it and the sea, there are many salt pits, in which great +quantities of salt are made. After this is Cingui[11], a great +city, whence the whole country is furnished with salt, of which +the khan makes immense profit, almost beyond belief. The +inhabitants are idolaters, and use paper money. Riding farther to +the south-east is the noble city of Jangui[12], which has +twenty-seven other cities dependent on its government. In this +city, one of the twelve barons, who are governors of provinces, +usually resides; but I, Marco, had the sole government of this +place for three years, instead of one of these barons, by a +special commission from the great khan. The inhabitants are +idolaters, living chiefly by merchandize, and they manufacture +arms and harness for war. Naughin[l3] is a province to the +west[14] of Tangui, one of the greatest and noblest in all Mangi, +and a place of vast trade, having abundance of beasts and fowls, +wild and tame, and plenty of corn. The inhabitants are idolaters, +and manufacture, stuffs of silk and gold, using only paper money. +This country produces large revenues to the khan, especially in +the customs which he receives from trade.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] This direction must be understood in reference to +Kathay; as it is perfectly obvious, that the entrance here spoken +of must be in the north-east of Mangi. Supposing the C aspirated, +Coigan-zu and Hoaingan-fu, both certainly arbitrarily +orthographized from the Chinese pronunciation, are not very +dissimilar.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Perhaps an error in transcription for Hara-moran, +or Kara-moran, the Mongul or Tartar name of the Hoang-ho, or +Whang river, near, and communicating with which, Hoaingan, or +Whan-gan-fou is situated.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] This is an obscure indication of navigable +canals on each side of the paved road of communication to the +south.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Cin-gui, or in the Italian pronunciation, Chin, +or Tsin-gui, may possibly be Yen-tching. Tin-gui may be Sin-Yang, +or Tsin-yang, to the north-east of Yen-tching.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Obviously Yang-tcheou, the latter syllable being +its title or designation of rank and precedency. Marco certainly +mistakes, from distant recollection, the direction of his +travels, which are very nearly south, with a very slight +deviation towards the east. South-east would by this time have +led him into the sea.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Though called a province, this obviously refers +to the city of Nankin; the Nau-ghin of the text being probably a +corruption for Nan-ghin.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] For west, we ought certainly here to read +south-west.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Sian-Fu is a large and noble city in the province of Mangi, +having twelve great and rich cities under its jurisdiction. This +city is so strong that it was three years besieged by the army of +the Tartars, and could not be vanquished at the time when the +rest of the kingdom of Mangi was subdued. It was so environed +with lakes and rivers, that ships came continually with plenty of +provisions and it was only accessible from the north. The long +resistance of this city gave much dissatisfaction to the khan; +which coming to the knowledge of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, then at +his court, they offered their services to construct certain +engines, after the manner of those used in Europe, capable of +throwing stones of three hundred weight, to kill the men, and +ruin the houses in the besieged city. The khan assigned them +carpenters, who were Nestorian Christians, to work under their +direction, and they made three of these engines, which were tried +before the khan and approved of. These were accordingly sent by +shipping to the army before Sian-fu, and being planted against +the city, cast great stones into it, by which some of the houses +were beaten down and destroyed. The inhabitants were very much +astonished and terrified by the effect of these machines, and +surrendered themselves to the authority and dominion of the khan, +on the same conditions with the rest of Mangi; and by this +service, the Venetian brethren acquired great reputation and +favour.</p> + +<p>From this city of Sian-fu, to another called Sin-gui, it is +accounted fifteen miles to the south-east. This city, though not +very large, has a prodigious number of ships, as it is situate on +the greatest river in the world, called Quiam [l5], being in some +places ten, in others eight, and in others six miles broad. But +its length extends to a distance of above an hundred days journey +from its source to the sea, receiving numberless navigable rivers +in its course, from various and distant regions, by which means +incredible quantities of merchandize are transported upon this +river. There are about two hundred cities which participate in +the advantages of this river, which runs through, or past, the +boundaries of sixteen provinces. The greatest commodity on this +river is salt, with which all the provinces and cities which have +communication with its water are supplied. I, Marco, once saw at +Singui five thousand vessels, yet some other cities on the river +have a greater number. All these ships are covered, having but +one mast and one sail, and usually carry 4000 Venetian Canthari +and upwards, some as far as 12,000. In these vessels they use no +cordage of hemp; even their hawsers or towing ropes being made of +canes, about fifteen paces long, which they split into thin +pieces from end to end, and bind or wreath together into ropes, +some of which are three hundred fathoms long, and serve for +dragging their vessels up or down the river; each vessel having +ten or twelve horses for that purpose. On that river there are +rocky hillocks in many places, on which idol temples, with +monasteries for the priests are built, and in all the course of +the river we find cultivated vallies and habitations +innumerable.</p> + +<blockquote>[15] Quiam, Kiang, Kian-ku, Kin-tchin-kian, or +Yang-tsi-kiang. In modern maps, there is a town on the northern +shore of this river, named Tsing-Kiang, which may possibly be the +Singui of Marco, and we may perhaps look for the Sian-fu of the +Polos at Yang-tcheou, at the southern extremity of a chain of +lakes immediately to the north of the river Kian-ku. The subject +is however full of perplexity, difficulty, and extreme +uncertainty.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Cayn-gui is a small city on the same river to the south, +eastwards of Sin-gui, where every year great quantities of corn +and rice are brought, which is carried for the most part to +Cambalu. For from the Quiam or Kian-ku river, they pass to that +city by means of lakes and rivers, and by one large canal, which +the great khan caused to be made for a passage from one river to +another; so that vessels go all the way from Mangi or Southern +China to Cambalu, without ever being obliged to put to sea. This +great work is beautiful and wonderful for its size and vast +extent, and is of infinite profit to the cities and provinces of +the empire. The khan likewise caused great causeways to be +constructed along the banks of this prodigious canal, for the +conveniency of travelling by land, and for towing the vessels. In +the middle of the great river there is a rocky island, with a +great temple and monastery for the idolatrous priests.</p> + +<p>Cin-ghian-fu [16] is a city of the province of Mangi, which is +rich in merchandize, and plentiful in game and provisions of all +kinds. In 1274, the great khan sent Marsachis, a Nestorian +Christian to govern this city, who built here two Christian +churches. From the city of Cin-ghian-fu, in a journey of three +days journey to the south-eastwards, we find many cities and +castles, all inhabited by idolaters, and at length come to the +great and handsome city of Tin-gui-gui, which abounds in all +kinds of provisions. When Chinsan Baian conquered the kingdom of +Mangi, he sent a large body of Christian Alani[17] against this +city, which had a double inclosure of walls. The inhabitants +retired from the outer town, within the inner wall, and the +Alanians finding great store of wine, indulged themselves too +freely after a severe march. In the night time, the citizens +sallied out upon them, while all were drunk and asleep, and put +every man of them to the sword. But Baian sent afterwards a fresh +army against them, which soon mastered the city, and in severe +revenge massacred the whole inhabitants. The great and excellent +city of Sin-gui[18] is twenty miles in circumference, and +contains a vast population, among whom are great numbers of +physicians and magicians, and wise men or philosophers. It has +sixteen other cities under its jurisdiction, in each of which +there is much trade and many curious arts, and many sorts of silk +are made in its territories. The neighbouring mountains produce +rhubarb and ginger in great plenty. The name Sin-gui signifies +the City of the Earth, and there is another city in the kingdom +of Mangi called Quin-sai, which signifies the City of Heaven. +From Singui it is one days journey to Vagiu, where also is +abundance of silk, and able artisans, and many merchants, as is +universally the case in all the cities of this kingdom.</p> + +<blockquote>[16] This must be Tchin-kian-fou; the three separate +syllables in both of these oral orthographies having almost +precisely similar sounds; always remembering that the soft +Italian <i>c</i> has the power of <i>tsh</i>, or our hard +<i>ch</i> as in the English word <i>chin</i>, and the Italian +<i>gh</i> the sound of the hard English +<i>g</i>.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] This evinces the great policy of the military +government of the Tartars, in employing the subjugated nations in +one corner of their empire to make conquests at such enormous +distances from their native countries. The Alanians came from the +country between the Euxine and Caspian, in Long. 60° E. and +were here fighting Long. 135° E.; above 4000 miles from +home.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] By the language in this place, either Sin-gui +and Tin-gui-gui are the same place, or the transition is more +than ordinarily abrupt; if the same, the situation of Sin-gui has +been attempted to be explained in a former note. If different, +Tin-gui-gui was probably obliterated on this occasion, as no name +in the least similar appears in the map of +China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the noble City of Quinsai, and of the vast Revenues +drawn from thence by the Great Khan</i>.</p> + +<p>In a journey of three days from Vagiu, we find numbers of +cities, castles, and villages, all well peopled and rich, the +inhabitants being all idolaters and subject to the great khan. At +the end of these three days journey, we come to Quinsay, or +Guinsai, its name signifying the City of Heaven, to denote its +excellence above all the other cities of the world, in which +there are so much riches, and so many pleasures and enjoyments, +that a person might conceive himself in paradise. In this great +city, I, Marco, have often been, and have considered it with +diligent attention, observing its whole state and circumstances, +and setting down the same in my memorials, of which I shall here +give a brief abstract. By common report, this city is an hundred +miles in circuit[1]. The streets and lanes are very long and +wide, and it has many large market places. On one side of the +city there is a clear lake of fresh water, and on the other there +is a great river, which enters into the city in many places, and +carries away all the filth into the lake, whence it continues its +course into the ocean. This abundant course of running water +causes a healthful circulation of pure air, and gives commodious +passage in many directions both by land and water, through those +numerous canals, as by means of these and the causeways, by which +they are bordered, carts and barks have free intercourse for the +carriage of merchandize and provisions. It is said that there are +twelve thousand bridges, great and small, in this city, and those +over the principal canals are so high, that a vessel without her +masts may go through underneath, while chariots and horses pass +above. On the other side of the city, there is a large canal +forty miles[2] long, which incloses it on that side, being deep +and full of water, made by the ancient kings, both to receive the +overflowings of the river, and to fortify the city, and the earth +which was dug out from this canal, is laid on the inside as a +rampart of defence. There are ten great market places which are +square, half a mile in each side[3]. The principal street is +forty paces broad, having a canal in the middle with many +bridges, and every four miles [<i>Li</i>] there is a market +place, two miles [<i>Li</i>] in circuit. There is also one large +canal behind the great street and the market places, on the +opposite bank of which there are many storehouses of stone, where +the merchants from India and other places lay up their +commodities, being at hand and commodious for the markets. In +each of these markets, the people from the country, to the number +of forty or fifty thousand, meet three days in every week, +bringing beasts, game, fowls, and in short every thing that can +be desired for subsistence in profusion; and so cheap, that two +geese, or four ducks, may be bought for a Venetian groat. Then +follow the butcher markets, in which beef, mutton, veal, kid, and +lamb, are sold to the great and rich, as the poor eat of all +offal and unclean beasts without scruple. All sorts of herbs and +fruits are to be had continually, among which are huge pears, +weighing ten pounds each, white within, and very fragrant[4], +with yellow and white peaches of very delicate flavour. Grapes do +not grow in this country, but raisins are brought from other +places. They likewise import very good wine; but that is not in +so much esteem as with us, the people being contented with their +own beverage, prepared from rice and spices. Every day there are +brought up from the ocean, which is at the distance of +twenty-five miles, such vast quantities of fish, besides those +which are caught in the lake, that one would conceive they could +never be consumed, yet, in a few hours all is gone. All these +market places are encompassed with high houses, underneath which +are shops for all kinds of artificers, and all kinds of +merchandize, as spices, pearls, and jewels, and so forth, and in +some the rice wine is sold. Many streets cross each other, +leading into these markets; in some of which there are many cold +baths, accommodated with attendants of both sexes, who are used +to this employment from their infancy. In the same bagnios, there +are chambers for hot baths, for such strangers as are not +accustomed to bathe in cold water. The inhabitants bathe every +day, and always wash before eating.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] There are two Chinese measures called Li; of the +greater there are 200 to a degree of latitude, and of the smaller +250. It is possible that Marco may have mistaken one or other of +these measures for miles; either of which suppositions would +reduce the bounds of Quinsai to some decent moderation, being +thirty-four miles for the greater, and twenty-seven miles for the +smaller li, yet a large city on even the latter substitution. +Koan-sing, which may likewise be written Quan- sing, all Chinese +names in alphabetical characters, being quite of arbitrary +orthography, is the only place which can be supposed the same +with Quinsai. But similarity of sounds is a very uncertain guide. +From other circumstances in the text, the modern Kua-hing may +have once been Quinsay.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Calculating by Li, this extent will be reduced to +eleven or thirteen miles.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In other streets, there are such numbers of mercenary +prostitutes, that I dare not pretend to say how many. These are +found near the market places, and in all quarters of the city, in +places appointed for their residence, where they shew themselves, +pompously adorned and perfumed, attended by many servants, and +having their houses richly furnished. They are very skilful in +sports and dalliances, and in contriving pleasures to rob men of +their senses. In other streets there are physicians and +astrologers, and persons who teach to read and write, and an +infinity of other trades. At each end of every market place, +there is a palace or tribunal where judges, appointed by the +khan, are stationed for determining any disputes which may happen +between merchants and others; also, to superintend the guards +upon the bridges, and other matters of police, punishing all who +are negligent or disorderly. Along both sides of the principal +street, there are great palaces with gardens; and between these +the houses of artificers; and such multitudes are perpetually +going to and fro in all the streets, that one would wonder how so +vast a population could be provided in food. I was informed by an +officer of the customs, that it appeared, by a very accurate +computation, the daily expenditure of pepper in Quinsai, was +forty-three <i>soma</i>, each soma being 223 pounds[5]. From this +some idea may be formed of the immense quantities of victuals, +flesh, wine, and spices, which are expended in that place. There +are twelve principal companies or corporations, each of which has +a thousand shops; and in each shop or factory, there are ten, +fifteen, or twenty men at work, and in some forty under one +master[6].</p> + +<blockquote>[3] By the same reduction, these squares will be +reduced to half a quarter of a mile in the +sides.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Probably a mistaken translation or transcription +for melons, pumpkins, or gourds.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] This amounts to more than one sixth of an ounce +daily for a population of a million, including infants. A thing +utterly incredible, and which must arise from some corruption of +the text. It exceeds 9000 tons yearly. Perhaps, instead of +<i>pepper</i> the original had <i>salt</i>.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] This alone would give a working population +exceeding a million, including the women, children, and aged, +belonging to these. But populous as the country certainly is, the +Chinese, in all ages, from Polo down to Staunton, have imposed +those ridiculously exaggerated accounts upon all inquisitive +travellers. This subject will be discussed in that division of +this work, which particularly relates to China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The rich tradesmen do not work themselves, although the +ancient laws ordained that the sons of all should follow the +trades of their fathers, but the rich are permitted not to work +with their own hands, but to keep shops and factories, +superintending the labour of others in their particular trades. +These rich people, and especially their wives, stand in their +shops, well dressed, or rather sumptuously arrayed in rich silks, +and adorned with valuable jewels. Their houses are well built, +and richly furnished, and adorned with pictures and other +ornaments of immense price; and they exercise their trades with +great integrity. The whole inhabitants are idolaters, of a very +fair complexion, and mostly dressed in silken garments, as silk +is produced in great abundance in their neighbourhood, or brought +from other places. They dwell together in great amity, insomuch, +that the inhabitants of a street seem only to compose one family, +and are particularly circumspect in their behaviour to females, +as it would be reputed exceedingly disgraceful to use any +indecorous language to a married woman. The natives are of a most +peaceable disposition, and no way addicted to strife or +quarrelling, and altogether unused to arms, which they do not +even keep in their houses. They are extremely hospitable to +foreign merchants, whom they entertain kindly in their houses, +giving them the best advice in regard to the conduct of their +affairs: But they are by no means fond of the soldiers and guards +of the great khan, as by their means they have been deprived of +their natural kings and rulers. About the lake there are many +fair buildings and palaces of the principal men, and numerous +idol temples, with monasteries of idolatrous priests. There are +two islands in the lake, on each of which is a palace, containing +an incredible number of rooms, to which they resort on occasion +of marriages and other festivals. In these palaces, abundance of +plate, linens, and all other things necessary for such purposes, +are kept up at the common expence, and sometimes 100 separate +companies are accommodated at one time in the several apartments. +In the lake also there are vast numbers of pleasure boats and +barges, adorned with fair seats and tables under cover, being +flat on the tops, where men stand to push the boats along with +poles, as the lake is very shallow. These are all painted within, +and have windows to open or shut at pleasure. Nothing in the +world can be more pleasant or delightful than this lake, from its +immense variety of rich objects on all sides; particularly the +city ornamented with so many temples, monasteries, palaces, +gardens, trees, barges, and innumerable people taking their +recreations; for they ordinarily work only a part of each day, +spending the remainder in parties of pleasure with their friends, +or with women, either on the lake, or in driving through the city +in chariots. All the streets are paved with stone, as are all the +highways in the kingdom of Mangi, only a space on one side being +left unpaved for the use of the foot posts. The principal street +of Quinsai has a pavement of ten paces broad on each side, the +middle being laid with gravel, and having channels in every place +for conveying water, it is kept always perfectly clean. In this +street there are innumerable long close chariots, each of which +is accommodated with seats and silk cushions for six persons, who +divert themselves by driving about the streets, or go to the +public gardens, where they pass their time in fine walks, shady +bowers, and the like, and return at night in the same chariots to +the city[7].</p> + +<blockquote>[7] The contrast between the cleanness and splendour +of Quinsay and the gloomy dirt of European cities in the +thirteenth century is very striking. China then enjoyed hackney +coaches, tea gardens, and hilarity; while the delights of +European capitals were processions of monks among perpetual +dunghills in narrow crooked lanes.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When a child is born, the father notes down the exact point of +time, and with this memorandum goes immediately to some +astrologer, of whom there are many in every market place, to +consult the destiny in regard to his future fortunes; and they +use the same forms before celebrating their marriages, to +ascertain the lucky times. When a person of note dies, the +kindred clothe themselves in canvas or sackcloth, and accompany +the body to the funeral, both men and women, people being +employed to play on musical instruments, and singing all the way +prayers to their idols; and being come to the place, they cast +into the fire in which the body is burnt, many pieces of cotton +paper, on which figures of slaves, horses, camels, stuffs of silk +and gold, money, and all other things are painted, which, by this +means, they believe the dead person will really possess in the +next world; and they make a grand concert of music, under the +idea of the joy with which the soul of their departed friend will +be received by their idols in the other life which he is now to +begin. As their timber houses are very liable to accidents by +fire, there are stone towers in every street, to which they carry +their goods for security on such occasions. On most of the +bridges there are guard-houses, in which soldiers continuallv +watch, five in each by day, and five by night, in case of any +alarm or disturbance. In every guard-house there hangs a great +bason[8], on which the warders strike the successive hours, +beginning one at sunrise, and beginning a new series at sunset. +These guards patrole during the night, and if they see any light +or fire in a house after the appointed time, or meet any person +in the streets after legal hours, they cause them to answer +before the judges or magistrates of the district. When a fire +happens, the guards collect from their different stations to +assist in quenching it, and to carry away the goods to the stone +towers, or into the islands in the lake; for during the night +none of the citizens are permitted to go out, except such as are +in danger from fires.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Probably meaning a gong.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The khan keeps always a large body of his best and most +faithful soldiers for the security of the city, which is the +largest and richest in the whole earth; and besides the small +guard-houses on the bridges already mentioned, there are larger +lodges built of wood all over the city, for the accommodation of +parties of guards to preserve peace and order. On the reduction +of Mangi to obedience, the khan divided it into nine great +provinces, placing a viceroy in each, to administer the +government, and to dispense justice. Every year each of these +viceroys gives an account to the tribunals of the khan at +Cambalu, of the revenues, and all other matters connected with +his government; and every third year, the viceroy, and all the +other officers are changed. The viceroy, who resides in Quinsai, +commands over 140 other cities, all large, rich, and populous; +nor is the extent of this government to be wondered at, as there +are in Mangi 12,000 cities, all inhabited by rich and industrious +people, in every one of which the khan maintains a garrison +proportional to its greatness and importance, in some 1000 men, +and even up to 10 or 20,000 men[9]. These are not all Tartars, +for the Tartar soldiers are cavalry only, and are kept in places +where there is conveniency for exercising their horses. The great +majority of the troops in Mangi are Kathayans, and the garrisons +in Kathay are composed of people from Mangi. Every third year, +such a number of men fit to carry arms as are wanted, are +selected for filling up the garrisons, and are sent to serve in +places, at least twenty days journey from their homes; and, after +serving four or five years, they are permitted to go home, and +are replaced by fresh recruits. Most part of the revenues of the +khan are expended in this way, and on the other necessary +expences of government; and by this distribution of so powerful a +military force, an army can be suddenly called together in the +event of any town rebelling. In the city of Quinsai there is a +constant garrison of 30,000 soldiers, and the smallest city in +all Mangi contains at least 1000 regular troops. If any person is +not able to work, he is carried to some hospital, of which there +are many in Quinsai, founded by the ancient kings, and endowed +with large revenues: But when they are well again, they must +return to their labour.</p> + +<blockquote>[9] There must be some corruption in the text here; +for even Chinese exaggeration could hardly venture upon this +computation, which would extend the garrisons in Mangi alone to +many millions.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I come next to speak of the palace of the late king Fanfur. +His predecessors caused a large park to be inclosed with high +walls, ten miles in circuit[10], and divided within into three +parts. That in the middle was entered by a gate leading to a +range of large galleries or halls, whose roofs were sustained by +pillars finely wrought and painted, and richly adorned with gold +and azure. The smallest of these galleries was that nearest the +gate of entrance, and they gradually became larger and fairer in +succession, the most sumptuous being at the farthest end. The +walls of all these apartments were elegantly painted with the +portraits and histories of the former kings. Every year, on +certain holidays dedicated to the idols, Fanfur used to hold open +court, on which occasion he feasted his chief lords, the +principal merchants, and rich artificers of Quinsai, 10,000 at a +time in these halls, the feasts continuing for ten or twelve +successive days, with incredible magnificence, every guest using +his utmost endeavours to appear in the most pompous dresses. On +one side of this magnificent range of galleries, there was a wall +dividing it from a great cloistered court, having a terrace all +round, set with pillars, communicating with which were the +chambers of the king and queen, all curiously wrought, carved, +gilded, and painted with the utmost splendour and magnificence. +From this cloister, a covered gallery, six paces wide, extended a +great length all the way to the lake; and on each side of this +gallery there were ten courts, answering to each other like +cloisters, each having fifty chambers with their gardens, and in +these there were 1000 concubines for the kings service. Sometimes +with the queen, and sometimes with these concubines, the king +used to go in his barge for recreation on the lake, or to visit +the idol temples. The rest of the great inclosure was divided +into graves, lakes, and gardens, in which all sorts of beasts of +chase were kept, as stags, roebucks, hares, conies, and others, +and there the king used to divert himself with his damsels, in +chariots, or on horseback, no man being allowed to enter there. +In this place the ladies hunted with dogs, and when wearied with +sport they retired into the groves, and throwing off their +garments, came forth naked, and fell to swimming in the lakes in +the kings presence. Sometimes he banqueted in these groves, being +served by his damsels. All of these particulars I learnt from an +old rich merchant of Quinsai, who had been familiar with king +Fanfur, and knew all the incidents of his life and reign, and had +seen the palace in its most flourishing state; and he carried me +to see it. The viceroy now resides there, the first described +galleries remaining, still in their original state, but the +chambers of the damsels are fallen to ruin; the walls also which +encompassed the woods and gardens, are all fallen down, the +beasts and trees are all gone, and all the other ornaments are +destroyed.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] If Li, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 +miles.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Twenty-five miles from Quinsai we come to the ocean, between +the east and the north-east, near which is a city called +Gampu[11], having an excellent port frequented by merchant ships +from the Indies. While I Marco was in Quinsai, an account was +taken for the great khan, of the revenues, and the number of +inhabitants, and I saw that there were enrolled 160 toman of +fires, reckoning for each fire a family dwelling in one house. +Each toman is 10,000, which makes 1,600,000 families[12]; and for +all this population there is only one Nestorian church, all the +rest being idolaters. Every householder is obliged to have +written over his door the names of every individual in his +family, whether males or females, as also the number of horses, +adding or effacing as the family increases or diminishes, and +this rule is observed in all the cities of Mangi and Kathay. +Those also who keep inns, must write down in a book the names of +all their guests, with the day and hour of their arrival and +departure; and these books are sent daily to the magistrates who +preside at the market places. The revenues which accrue to the +khan from Quinsai, and the other cities under its authority, are, +first from salt eight tomans of gold, every toman being 80,000 +sazzi, and a sazzi is more than a gold florin, which will amount +to six millions, and four hundred thousand ducats. The cause of +this is, that being near the sea, there are many lakes or salines +of sea water, which dry up and coagulate into salt in summer, and +five other provinces in Mangi are supplied from the coast of +Quinsai. This province produces plenty of sugar, which pays, like +all other spices, three and a third in the hundred, which is +likewise paid for rice-wine. All the twelve companies, which, we +said before, have twelve thousand shops, and all merchants who +bring goods hither by sea, or carry any away, pay a similar rate. +Those who come from India or other remote countries, pay ten per +cent. All breeding cattle, and all productions of the earth, as +silk, rice, corn, and the like, pay to the khan. The whole +computation being made in my presence, amounted yearly, besides +the above mentioned produce from salt, to two hundred and ten +tomans of gold, which are equal to sixteen millions and eight +hundred thousand golden ducats[13].</p> + +<blockquote>[11] Supposing Kua-hing to have been Quan-sai, no +city appears in the direction indicated in the text for the +situation of Gampu. But if we might venture to suppose north-east +an error for south, the city of Hanfcheou is nearly at the +distance mentioned by Marco, and stands at the bottom of a deep +bay of the ocean, in a very convenient situation for trade, +communicating with Kua-hing by the great canal--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Multiplying this number of families by five, +would give a population of eight millions of individuals of every +age and sex. Fortunately Marco permits us to suppose that this +population belonged to the viceroyalty, or province over which +Quinsai presided.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Either this computation, or that of the duty on +salt, is erroneous. If 8 tomans are 6,400,000 ducats, 210 tomans +would amount to 168,000,000, instead of the sum in the text. If +the latter computation be right, 16,800,000 ducats from 210 +tomans; the duty on salt, or 8 tomans, ought only to have been +640,000 ducats, which appears to be the truth. The whole revenue, +therefore, of the province, will be 17,440,000 ducats, equal to +L. 2,911,250 Sterling, at 3s. 7d. the ducat.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>A days journey from Quinsai to the south-east, we pass the +whole way through houses, villages, fine gardens, and abundant +cultivation, and then come to a fine city called Tapin-zu. Three +days hence is Uguiu, and two days farther, we still ride past +castles, cities, and well cultivated fields, so near adjoining, +that the whole seems, to travellers, like one continued city; in +this district are great canes, fifteen paces long, and four palms +thick. Two days farther is the large and handsome city of Congui, +and travelling thence for four days, through places well filled +with industrious people, having plenty of beeves, buffaloes, +goats, and swine, but no sheep, we come to the city of Zengian, +which is built on a hill in the middle of a river, which, after +encompassing it, divides into two branches, one of which runs to +the south-east and the other to the north-west. Three days +journey thence, through a most pleasant country, exceedingly well +inhabited, we come to the large city of Gieza, which is the last +in the kingdom of Quinsai, After this we enter into another +province of the kingdom of Mangi called Concha, the principal +city of which is Fugiu, by which you travel six days journey +south-east, through hills and dales, always finding inhabited +places, and plenty of beasts, fowls, and game, and some strong +lions are found in the mountains and forests. Ginger, galingal, +and other spices, grow here in great plenty, and there is an +herb, of which the fruit has the same colour, smell, and effect +with saffron, which it is not, and is much used in their +meats[15], The inhabitants are idolaters, and subjects of the +great khan, and eat mans flesh, if the person has not died of +disease, even considering it as better flavoured than any other. +When they go into the fields, they shave to the ears, and paint +their faces with azure. All their soldiers serve on foot, except +the captains, who are on horseback, and their arms are swords and +lances. They are very cruel, and when they kill an enemy, they +immediately drink his blood, and afterwards eat his flesh.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] Besides the utter discrepancy of these names to +those of any cities now in China, it appears obvious, that the +direction of the itinerary in the text is erroneous or corrupted. +We have been already on the ocean or bay of Nankin, the eastern +boundary of China and of the land; yet the text persists +continually to travel <i>south-east</i>, which is impossible. The +direction of the itinerary must have been westwards, probably +south-west.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] This was probably Turmeric, so much used in the +Eastern cookery, though it is the root which is +employed.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After six days journey is Quelinfu, a great city with three +bridges, each of which is eight paces broad, and above an hundred +paces long. The men are great merchants and manufacturers, and +the women are fair and delicately shaped. The country produces +plenty of ginger and galingal, and great abundance of silk and +cotton. I was told, but saw them not, that they have hens without +feathers, hairy like cats, which yet lay eggs, and are good to +eat[16]. In this part of the country there are many lions, which +make the ways very dangerous. After three days journey, we arrive +in a populous country inhabited by idolaters, who make great +quantities of silk stuffs. The chief city is Unguem, near which +abundance of sugar is produced, and sent from thence to Cambalu. +Before the reduction of this country by the great Khan, the +inhabitants of this country could only manufacture a bad kind of +sugar, by boiling down the juice of the cane into a black paste; +but certain inhabitants from <i>Babylonia</i>, taught them refine +it by means of the ashes of a certain tree[17]. Fifteen miles +farther is the city of Cangiu, still in the province of Concha, +and here the Khan has always an army in readiness for keeping the +country under subjection. Through this city there runs a river of +a mile broad, with handsome buildings on both sides, and the +river is constantly covered with vessels carrying sugar and other +goods. This river disembogues itself at the distance of five days +journey south-east from Cangiu, into the sea at Zaitum all the +country between being extremely pleasant, and abounding in trees +and shrubs of camphor. Zaitum is a famous port, and much +frequented by ships with rich cargoes from India, for the supply +of Mangi and Kathay, and from this port the productions of these +regions are dispersed all over India. At this port such +quantities of pepper are imported, that what comes through +Alexandria into our western world is not to be compared to it, +being hardly an hundredth part. The concourse of merchants to +this famous emporium is incredible, as it is one of the most +commodious ports in the whole world, and is exceedingly +productive in revenue to the great Khan, who receives ten in the +hundred of all merchandize. The merchants pay likewise so high +for freights, that not above a half of their cargoes remains to +themselves for sale, and yet of that moiety they make immense +profits. The inhabitants of Zaitum are idolaters, and much given +to pleasure, and in it there are many artizans employed in +embroidery and arras-work[18].</p> + +<blockquote>[16] Obviously what are now called Friesland, but +more properly frizzled hens.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] In the manufacture of sugar it is necessary to +neutralize a certain redundant acid in the juice of the cane, by +a fit proportion of some alkaline ingredient to enable the sugar +to crystallize: The ordinary <i>temper</i>, as it is called, for +this purpose, in the West Indies, is lime, but any alkali will +produce nearly the same effect. This subject will be fully +elucidated in that part of our work which is peculiarly +appropriated to the sugar colonies in the West +Indies,--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] There can hardly be a doubt that the Zaiturn of +Marco is the modern Canton; yet from the causes already mentioned +in several notes, it is next to an impossibility to trace the +route or itinerary from Quinsai to this place.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This river is large, wide, and swift, one arm of it reaching +to Quinsai, and the other to Zaitum[19], and at the parting of +these branches, the city of Tringui is situated, where porcelain +dishes are made[20]. I was told of a certain earth which is cast +up into conical heaps, and left exposed to the weather for thirty +or forty years without stirring; after which, refined by time, it +is made into dishes, which are painted and baked in furnaces; and +so cheap is this manufacture, that eight of these dishes may be +bought for one Venetian groat[21]. From this province of Concha, +the great Khan derives nearly as great a revenue as he does from +Quinsai. In these two provinces I travelled, but in none of die +other provinces of Mangi; in all of which one language Is used, +with considerable variety in dialect, and but one kind of +writing.</p> + +<blockquote>[19] This is an obvious error, corruption, or +interpolation; for on no conceivable hypothesis of the situations +of Quinsai and Zaitum, can any river be found in China which +answers to this description.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[20] This is the only hint in Marco, of the +peculiarly famous manufacture of China, from which all the best +<i>earthen ware</i> of Europe has acquired this name as <i>par +excellence</i>. From this circumstance, and from the fame of +Nankin for this manufacture, I strongly suspect that this passage +has been foisted in by some ignorant or careless editor in a +wrong place.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[21] It is singular that Marco should make no mention +whatever of the peculiar beverage of the Chinese, <i>tea</i>, +though particularly described both in name and use, by the +Mahometan travellers in the <i>ninth</i> century, four hundred +years earlier, as used in all the cities of +China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVII</p> + +<p><i>Of the island of Zipangu, and of the unsuccessful attempts +made by the Tartars for its Conquest</i>.</p> + +<p>I shall now leave the country of Mangi, and proceed to +discourse of India the greater, the middle, and lesser; in which +I have been, both in the service of the great khan, and also on +our return home along with the queen, who was sent from Kathay to +Argon. The ships which are built in the kingdom of Mangi are made +of fir, having only one deck, on which are built twenty cabins, +more or less, according to their size, each for one merchant. +They have each a good rudder, and four masts, with four sails, +which they raise or let down at pleasure, but some have only two +masts. Some of the largest ships have thirteen divisions in the +inside, made of boards let into each other, so that if, by the +blow of a whale, or by touching on a rock, water should get into +one of these divisions, it can go no farther, and the leak being +found, is soon stopped. They are all built double, or have two +courses of boards, one within the other, both of which are well +caulked with oakum, and nailed with iron; but they are not +pitched, as they have no pitch in Mangi, instead of which they +are payed all over with the oil of a certain tree, mixed up with +lime and chopped hemp which binds faster than pitch or lime. The +largest of these ships have three hundred marines, others two +hundred, or an hundred and fifty, according to their size; and +they carry from five to six thousand bags of pepper. In ancient +times they used to build larger ships than now; but owing to the +great numbers of islands and shoals in some places of these seas, +they now build them less[1]. Besides their sails, they use oars. +occasionally to propel these ships, four men being employed to +each oar. The larger ships are usually attended by two or three +of a smaller size, able to carry a thousand bags of pepper, and +having sixty mariners in each and these smaller ships are +sometimes employed to tow the greater vessels. Each of the larger +ships hare ten small boats for fishing and other services, which +are fastened aloft on their sides, and let down when wanted for +use. After having been employed for a year, these ships are +sheathed all over, so that they then have three courses of +boards: and they proceed in this manner till they sometimes hare +six courses, alter which they are broken up.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In this passage, in the edition of Harris, the +sense seems obscurely to insinuate that this had been occasioned +by the sea having broken down or overwhelmed certain lands or +islands, producing numbers of smaller islands and extensive +shoals.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Zipangu[2] is a very large island on the east, and fifteen +hundred miles distant from the shores of Mangi. The people of +this island are of a white complexion and of gentle manners, and +have a king of their own. They have gold in great plenty, as Jew +merchants report thither, and no gold is allowed to be exported. +Such as have traded to this island speak of the kings palace as +being covered over with gold as our churches are with lead, and +that the windows and floors are likewise of gold. It abounds in +pearls, and is amazingly rich. Hearing of the vast opulence of +this island, Kublai Khan sent two of his barons, Abasa and +Vensaasin[3], with a fleet and a great army, to attempt the +conquest. Sailing from Zaitum and Quinsai[4], they arrived safely +on the island, but falling out between themselves, they were only +able to take one city, all the garrison of which they beheaded, +except eight persons, who could not be wounded with steel, +because each had an enchanted stone inclosed between the skin and +flesh of their right arms. These men were beaten to death with +clubs, by order of the generals. Soon after this a violent north +wind arose, which flew so hard as greatly to endanger the ships, +some of which were lost, and others blown out to sea. On this, +the whole army re-embarked, and sailed to an uninhabited island, +at the distance of about ten miles: But the tempest continuing, +many of the ships were wrecked, and about thirty thousand of the +people escaped on shore, without arms or provisions; the two +generals with a few of the principal persons, returning home. +After this tempest ceased, the people of Zipangu sent over an +army, in a fleet of ships, to seize the Tartars; but having +landed without any order, the Tartars took the advantage of a +rising ground in the middle of the island, under cover, of which, +they wheeled suddenly round between the Zipanguers and the ships, +which had been left unmanned, with ail their streamers displayed. +In these ships, the Tartars sailed to a principal city of +Zipangu, into which they were admitted without any suspicion, +finding hardly any within its walls except women, the men being +all absent on the expedition into the uninhabited island. The +Zipanguers collected a new fleet and army to besiege the city, +and the Tartars receiving no succour, were constrained to +surrender, after a defence of six months, on terms by which their +lives were spared. This happened in the year 1264[5]. For the bad +conduct of the two commanders, the great khan ordered one to be +beheaded, and sent the other to the desert island of Zerga, in +which malefactors are punished, by sewing them up in the new +flayed hide of a buffalo, which shrinks so much in drying, as to +put them to exquisite torture, and brings them to a miserable +death.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Zipangu, Zipangri, or Cimpagu, is Japan without +any doubt.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Named Abataa and Yonsaintin by Pinkerton, from +the Trevigi edition. The latter Ven-san-sui, or Von-sain-cin, by +his name seems to have been a Chinese.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Called Caicon, or Jaiton in the Trevigi edition. +Caicon is not very far removed from the sound of Cangtong or +Canton, which has already been considered to be the Zaitum of the +text.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] A.D. 1269, according to the Trevigi +edition.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The idols in Zipangu and the adjoining islands are strangely +made, some having the head of a bull, others of a hog, or a dog, +and in other most monstrous fashions. Some have heads with four +faces, others three heads on one neck, while some have faces on +their shoulders. Some have four arms, others ten, or even an +hundred arms; and that idol is reputed the most powerful, and is +held in greatest reverence, which has the greatest number. When +asked the reason of making their idols in such distorted and +ridiculous forms, they answer that such is the custom which has +been handed down from their ancestors. It is reported of these +islanders, that they eat such of their enemies as they take +prisoners; esteeming human flesh a peculiar dainty. The sea in +which Zipangu lies is called the sea of <i>Chi</i> or +<i>Chin</i>, or the sea over against Mangi, which is called +<i>Chan</i> or <i>Chint</i>, in the language of that island. This +sea is so large, that mariners who have frequented it, say it +contains seven thousand four hundred and forty islands, most of +them inhabited; and that in ail those islands there is no tree +which is not odoriferous, or does not bear fruit, or is not +useful in some other respects. In them likewise there are great +abundance of spices of various kinds, especially black arid white +pepper, and lignum aloes[6]. The ships of Zaitum are a whole year +on their voyage to and from Zipangu, going there during the +winter, and returning again in summer, as there are two +particular winds which regularly prevail in these seasons. +Zipangu is far distant from India. But I will now leave Zipangu, +because I never was there, as it is not subject to the khan, and +shall now return to Zaitum and the voyage from thence to +India.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Marco obviously extends this sea and these +islands to all those of the Chinese sea and the Indian ocean, +from Sumatra in the SW. to Japan in the NE.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XVIII.</p> + +<p><i>Account of Various Countries, Provinces, Islands, and +Cities in the Indies</i>.</p> + +<p>Sailing from Zaitum, 1500 miles to the south westwards, we +pass a gulf called Cheinan[1], which extends two months sail to +the northward, still confining on the south-east[2] of Mangi, and +elsewhere, with Ania and Toloman, and other provinces mentioned +formerly. Within it are infinite islands all in a manner +inhabited [3], and in them is found abundance of gold, and they +trade with each other. This gulf seems like another world; and +after 1500 miles sailing, is the rich and great country of +Ziambar[4]. The people are idolaters, and pay an yearly tribute +to the great khan of twenty elephants, and great quantities of +aloes wood. In the year 1268, hearing of the riches of this +country, the khan sent one of his generals, named Segatu, to +invade it, Acambute, who was then king of the country, was old, +and chose to avoid the dangers and miseries of war, by agreeing +to pay the before-mentioned tribute. In Ziambar there are many +woods of black ebony, of great value.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Probably the gulph of Siam.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] South-west, certainly.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The inlands in the gulf of Siam are small, and +not numerous; so that the passage is probably corrupted; and may +have been in the original, "that, leaving the gulf of Cheinan on +the north, they left infinite islands, &c; on the south." +After all, the gulf of Cheinan may mean the whole sea of +China.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] It is difficult to say precisely what division of +farther India is here meant by Ziambar. 1500 miles would carry us +to the coast of Malaya; but 1500 li, or about 500 miles reach +only to the coast of Cochin-China, or it may be Tsiompa. Ziambar, +in the editions, is variously written Ciambau, Ciariban, and +Ziambar.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Sailing thence for 1500 miles, betwixt the south and +southeast, we came to Java[5], which is considered by mariners to +be the largest island in the world, being above 3000 miles in +circumference. It is governed by a king who pays tribute to none; +as, owing to the length and danger of the voyage, the great khan +has made no attempt to annex it to his vast dominions. The +merchants of Zaitum and Mangi, bring from thence abundance of +gold and spices. South and south-westwards six hundred miles, are +the islands of Sondur and Condur, both desolate, of which Sondur +is the larger[6]. Fifty miles south-east from them is a rich and +great province, or island, called Lochae[7]. The people are +idolaters, and have both a king and language of their own. In it +there grows great plenty of Brazil wood; and it has much gold, +many elephants, wild beasts, and fowls, and an excellent fruit +called bercias, as large as lemons. The country is mountainous +and savage, and the king permits no person to come into his +dominions, lest they should get acquainted with the county and +attempt its conquest. It produces abundance of porcelain shells, +which are transported to other places, where they serve as +money.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] The direction of the voyage is here obviously +erroneous, it must have been between the south and the +south-west, or south-south-west. In the Trevigi edition, the Java +of this part of our text is Lava, and according to Valentine, +Lava is the name of the principal city and kingdom in Borneo; +which at all events must be the island here mentioned by +Marco.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] According to the Trevigi edition, as reported by +Pinkerton, these islands are only seven miles from Lava or +Borneo. At about seventy miles distance to the south-west, there +are two islands named Caremata and Soorooto, which may be those +mentioned in the text.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Called Lochach in some of the editions, and said +to be 200 miles from Sondor and Condur. Whether this may be +Ma-lacca or Ma-laya, it is impossible to +determine.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Five hundred miles southward from Lochae, is the isle of +Pentan[8], a savage place, which produces sweet trees in all its +woods. For sixty miles of this voyage, between Lochae and Pentan, +the sea in many places is only four fathoms deep Thirty miles to +the south-east from Pentan, is the island and kingdom of +Malaiur[9], which has a king and a peculiar language of its own, +and has a great trade carried on in spices from Pentan. One +hundred miles south-east is Java the less[10], which is about two +thousand miles in circuit, and is divided into eight kingdoms, +each having its own language. I was in six of these kingdoms, of +which I shall give some account, omitting those I did not +see.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] In the Trevigi edition only five miles, and the +island is called Pentara. This may possibly be the island of +Bintang in the south-eastern entrance of the straits of +Malacca.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Most probably the kingdom of Malacca. From the +Trevigi edition Pinkerton calls this Malonir, and curiously +identifies Pepetam, Pentara, or Pentan, as the name of the city +and kingdom of Malonir or Malaiur.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>One of these kingdoms is Felech or Ferlach, in which the +formerly idolatrous inhabitants of the cities have been converted +to the Mahometan religion, in consequence of much trade and +intercourse with the Saracens; but the mountaineers are very +savage, eating human flesh, and living upon every kind of unclean +food, and they worship all day what they first happen to meet in +the morning. The next kingdom is called Basma, which has a +language peculiar to itself, the people living without law or +religion like beasts: But they sometimes send hawks to the khan, +who lays claim to the sovereignty of the whole island. Besides +wild elephants, there are unicorns in this country, which are +much less than elephants, being haired like the buffalo, but +their feet are like those of die elephant. These animals have one +horn in the middle of their foreheads; but they hurt no one with +this weapon, using only their tongue and knee, for they trample +and press any one down with their feet and knees, and their +tongue is beset with long sharp prickles, with which they tear a +person to pieces. The head is like that of a wild boar, which the +animal, carries hanging down to the ground. They are filthy +beasts that love to stand and wallow in the mire, and they do not +in the least resemble those unicorns which are said to be found +in some other parts of the world, which allow themselves to be +taken by maids[11]. In this country, there are many apes of +different kinds, some of them, being black with faces like men, +which they put into boxes, preserved with spices; these they sell +to merchants, who carry them to various parts of the world, and +pass them for pigmies or little men. This country likewise +produces large goshawks, as black as ravens, which are excellent +for sport.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] If right in our former conjectures, the island +spoken of in the text must be Sumatra not that now called Java. +Indeed, the mention immediately afterwards of the islands of +Nocueran and Angaman 150 miles to the north, which can only he +the Nicobar and Andaman islands, establish the identity of +Java-minor, here called Java the less, and +Sumatra.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] The animal here described under the name of +unicorn is the Rhinoceros monoceros, or one-horned rhinoceros of +naturalists; but the single horn is placed a little above the +nose, not on the middle of the forehead, as here erroneously +described by Marco.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Samare or Samara is the next kingdom, in which I remained for +five months against my will, in consequence of bad weather[12], +during all which time, none of the stars in the constellation of +the great-bear were seen. Being forced to remain here for five +months. I landed with 2000 men, and erected fortifications to +defend us against any unforeseen attack from the savage cannibals +of the island, with whom we established a trade for provisions. +They have excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palm +tree, which is a very wholesome beverage, as it is medicinal for +consumption, the dropsy, and for disorders of the spleen. They +have likewise abundance of fine fish, and eat of all sorts of +flesh, without making any difference. Their cocco nuts are as +large as a mans head, and the middle of them is full of a +pleasant liquor, better than wine.</p> + +<blockquote>[12] He had evidently missed the Monsoon, and had to +await its return. From this kingdom or division of the island, it +probably acquired the name of Sumatra, by which it is known in +modern geography. From the circumstance in the text of not seeing +the great bear, it is probable that Marco was stopped near the +south-eastern extremity of the island. What is here translated +the great bear, Pinkerton calls, from the Trevigi edition <i>del +Maistro.</i> The polar star was invisible of +course.--E.</blockquote> + + +<p>Dragoian[13] is another of those kingdoms claimed by the khan, +which has a king and a peculiar language. I was told of an +abominable custom in this country; that when any one is sick, his +relatives send to inquire at the sorcerers if he is to recover? +If they answer no, the kindred then send for a person, whose +office it is to strangle the sick person, whom they immediately +cut in pieces and devour, even to the marrow of their bones, for +they allege, that if any part were to remain, worms would breed +in it, which would be in want of food, and would therefore die, +to the great torture of the soul of the dead person. They +afterwards carry away the bones, and conceal them carefully in +caves in the mountains, that no beast may touch them. If they can +lay their hands on any stranger, they treat him in the same +barbarous manner.</p> + +<blockquote>[13] Called Deragola by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi +edition.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Lambri is the fifth kingdom of Java-minor, or Sumatra, in +which is great plenty of Brazil wood, some of the seeds of which +I brought to Venice, but they would not vegetate, as the climate +was too cold for them. In this country there are great numbers of +unicorns or rhinoceroses, and plenty of other beasts and birds. +Fanfur is the sixth kingdom, having the best camphor, which Is +sold weight for weight with gold. In that kingdom, they make a +kind of meal from great and long trees, as thick as two men are +able to fathom. Having taken off the thin bark, the wood within +is only about three fingers thick, all the rest being pith, from +which the meal is made. This pith is broken to pieces, and +stirred among water, the light dross swimming, and being thrown +away, while the finer parts settle at the bottom, and is made +into paste[14]. I brought some of this to Venice, which tastes +not much unlike barley bread. The wood of this tree is so heavy +as to sink in water like iron, and of it they make excellent +lances, but being very heavy, they are under the necessity of +making them short. These are hardened in the fire, and sharpened, +and when so prepared, they will pierce through armour easier than +if made of iron. About 150 miles to the northward of Lambri, +there are two islands, one called Nocueran and the other +Angaman,[l5] in the former of which the inhabitants live like +beasts, and go entirely naked, but have excellent trees, such as +cloves, red and white sanders, coco-nuts, Brazil, and various +spices in the other island the inhabitants are equally savage, +and are said to have the heads and teeth of dogs.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] He here distinctly indicates the manufacture of +sego.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] Nicobar and Andaman, on the east side of the bay +of Bengal; called Necunera and Namgama in the Trevigi +edition.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Island of Ceylon, and various parts of Hither +India</i>.</p> + +<p>Sailing from Angaman 1000 miles west, and a little to the +south, we come to the island of Zelan or Ceylon, which is 2400 +miles in circumference; but was anciently 3600 miles round, as +appears from the former charts of the country, the north winds +having occasioned the sea to destroy a great part of it. This is +the finest island in the world, and its king is called Sendernaz. +The men and women are idolaters, and go entirely naked, except a +small cloth before them. They grow no corn except rice; and they +have plenty of oil of sesame, milk, flesh, palm wine, Brazil +wood, the best rubies in the world, sapphires, topazes, +amethysts, and other gems. The king of the island is said to have +the finest ruby that ever was seen, as long as the hand, and as +thick as a mans wrist, without spot or blemish, and glowing like +a fire. Cublai-Khan once sent to purchase this ruby, offering the +value of a city for it; but the king answered that he would not +part with it for all the treasure in the world, because it had +belonged to his ancestors. The men of this island are unfit for +soldiers, and hire others when they have occasion to go to +war.</p> + +<p>There is a high mountain in Ceylon, to the top of which no one +can ascend, without the assistance of iron chains, and on which +the Saracens report that the sepulchre of Adam is situated; but +the idolaters say that it is the body of Sogomon Burchan, the +first founder of idol worship, son of a king of the island, who +betook himself to a recluse life of religious contemplation on +the top of this mountain, from whence no pleasures or persuasions +could induce him to withdraw. After his death, his father caused +an image of him to be made of solid gold, and commanded all his +subjects to adore him as their god: and hence they say is the +origin of idol worship. People come here in pilgrimage from +remote regions, and there his fore-teeth, and a dish which he +used, are solemnly exhibited as holy relics. As the Saracens +pretend that these belonged to Adam, Cublai-Khan was induced, in +1281, to send ambassadors to the king of this country, who +obtained the dish, two teeth, and some of the hairs of Sogomon +Barchan: These the great khan caused to be received without the +city with great reverence and solemnity, by the whole people of +Cambalu, and brought into his presence with great honour.</p> + +<p>Sixty miles to the west of Ceylon is Moabar[1]. This is no +island, but lies on the firm continent, which may be called the +greater India. In it there are four kings, the principal one of +whom is Sinder Candi, in whose kingdom they fish for pearls, +between Ceylon and Moabar, in a bay where the sea does not exceed +ten or twelve fathoms deep. Here the divers descend to the +bottom, and in bags or nets which are tied about their bodies, +bring up the oysters which contain the pearls. On account of +certain great fish which kill the divers, they hire bramins to +charm them from doing harm, and these have the twentieth part of +the pearls, the king getting the tenth part[2]; These oysters are +only found from the beginning of April to the end of May in this +place; but from the beginning of September to the middle of +October, they are got in another place, about three hundred miles +distant. The king of this country goes naked, like the rest of +his subjects, except that he wears some honourable marks of +distinction, as a collar of precious stones about his neck, and a +thread of silk hanging down to his breast, on which are strung +104 large fine pearls, by which he counts his prayers as with a +rosary. These prayers are merely the word <i>Pacaupa</i>, +repeated 104 times over. He wears a sort of bracelets on three +places of his arms and on his legs, and rings on all his fingers +and toes. This king has a thousand concubines, and if any woman +pleases his fancy, he takes her away from whoever she may happen +to belong to. He once did this unjust deed to his own brother, in +consequence of which a civil war had nearly ensued; but as their +mother threatened to cut off her own breasts if they continued +their enmity, they were reconciled. He has a numerous guard of +horsemen, who are under a vow, when he dies, to throw themselves +into the fire in which his body is consumed, that they may serve +him in the next world.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This Pinkerton calls Moabar on the margin, and +Nachabar in the text, of his dissertation on the Trevigi edition +of Marco Polo, very justly observing that it refers to +Coromandel, or the Carnatic below the gauts. Harris erroneously +substitutes Malabar. Moabar and Madura may have a similar origin, +as may Nachabar and Nega-patnam.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] The fish here alluded to are sharks; and the same +custom of employing bramins to defend the fishermen, by +conjuration, against this formidable enemy, is continued to the +present day.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This prince, and the other kings of Moabar, buy their horses +from Ormus and other parts, as their country produces none, or if +any happen to be bred there, they are ugly and useless[3]. +Condemned persons often offer themselves to die in honour of a +particular idol; on which the devotee puts himself to death with +twelve knives, giving himself twelve deep wounds in various parts +of his body, calling out aloud on the infliction of each, that he +does this in honour of such or such an idol; and the last of all +is through his own heart, after which his body is burned by his +kindred. The women of this country voluntarily burn themselves +along with the bodies of their deceased husbands, and those who +neglect to do this are held in disrepute. They worship idols, and +most of them hold cows in such high veneration, that they would +not eat their holy flesh for any consideration on earth. A +certain tribe is called Gaui, who feed upon such oxen as die of +themselves, but never kill any. These Gaui are descended from the +people who slew St Thomas, and dare not enter the shrine in which +his body is preserved. The people of this country sit on carpets +on the ground, using no chairs or stools. Their only grain is +rice. They are not a martial people, and kill no animals; but +when they are inclined for animal food, they get the Saracens or +some other people to kill for them. Both men and women wash +themselves twice a-day, and always before eating; and those who +neglect this ceremony are reputed heretics. They never touch +their meat with their left hands, which they only employ for +wiping themselves, or other unclean purposes. Each drinks from +his own pot, neither do they allow it to touch their mouths, but +hold it above, and pour in the drink; and to strangers who have +no pot, they pour liquor into their hands, from which they must +drink, as they will not allow their pots to be touched by any +other person.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Mr Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, has this +passage as follows: "The king of Vor, one of the princes of +Nacbabar, purchases about 10,000 horses yearly from the country +of Cormos, formerly mentioned, each horse costing five +<i>sazi</i> of gold."--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Justice is severely administered for crimes; and in some +cases, a creditor has a singular manner of compelling payment, by +drawing a circle round his debtor, out of which he must not stir +till he has satisfied his creditor, or given security for the +debt, under the pain of death. I, Marco, once saw the king on +horseback thus encircled, by a merchant whom he had long put off +with delays; and the king would not come out of the circle, which +the merchant had drawn; till he had sent for the means of paying +the merchant, all the people who were present highly applauding +the kings justice. They are very scrupulous of drinking wine, and +those who are addicted to that practice, are held disreputable +and unworthy of being admitted as witnesses; which is the case +likewise with those who go to sea, as they reckon them desperate +persons. They look on letchery as no sin. In the months of June, +July, and August, they have no rains, and it is excessively hot, +insomuch, that they could not live if it were not for the +refreshing winds which blow from the sea. They have many +physiognomists and soothsayers, who observe omens from birds and +beasts, and other signs. These people consider one hour in every +day of the week as unlucky, which they name Choiach, and which is +different on all the days, all of which are carefully recorded in +their books, and they are curious observers of nativities. At +thirteen years of age, their boys are put out to gain their +living, who go about buying and selling, by means of a small +stock given them to begin with. In the pearl season, these boys +will buy a few pearls, and sell them again for a small profit to +the merchants, who are unable to endure the sun. What gain they +get they bring to their mothers, to lay out for them, as it is +not lawful for them to live at their fathers cost. Their +daughters are dedicated to the service of the idols, and +appointed by the priests to sing and dance in presence of the +idols; and they frequently set victuals before the idols for some +time, as if they would eat, singing all the while, when they fall +to eat themselves, and then return home. The great men have a +kind of litters, made of large canes artificially wrought, which +are fixed in some high situation, to avoid being bitten by +tarantulas[4], and other vermin, and for the benefit of fresh +air.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Tarantulas is assuredly, a mistake here for +centipedes and scorpions, which are common all over +India.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The sepulchre of St Thomas is in a small city, not much +frequented by merchants, but very much by Christians and +Saracens, on account of devotion. The Saracens hold him as a +great prophet or holy man, and call him Ananias. The Christians +take of a red earth which is found in the place where he was +slain, which they mix with water, and administer to the sick with +great reverence. It happened in the year 1288, that a great +prince, who had more rice than he had room to keep it in, chose +to make bold with that room in St Thomas's church in which +pilgrims are received, and converted it into a granary: But he +was so terrified by a vision of St Thomas in the night following, +that he was glad to remove it with great speed. The inhabitants +are black, although not born so, but by constantly anointing +themselves with the oil of jasmine they become quite black, which +they esteem a great beauty, insomuch, that they paint their idols +black, and represent the devil as white. The cow worshippers +carry with them to battle some of the hairs of an ox, as a +preservative against dangers.</p> + +<p>SECTION XX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Kingdom of Murfili, and the Diamond Mines, and some +other Countries of India</i>.</p> + +<p>Murfili or Monsul[1], is five hundred miles northwards from +Moabar, and is inhabited by idolaters. In the mountains of this +country there are diamonds, which the people search for after the +great rains. They afterwards ascend these mountains in the +summer, though with great labour, on account of the excessive +heat, and find abundance of these precious stones among the +gravel; and are on these occasions much exposed to danger from +the vast numbers of serpents which shelter themselves in the +holes and caverns of the rocks, in which the diamonds are found +in greatest abundance. Among other methods of obtaining the +diamonds, they make, use of the following artifice: There are +great numbers of white eagles, which rest in the upper parts of +these rocks for the sake of feeding on the serpents, which are +found at the bottom of the deep vallies and precipices where the +men dare not go. They therefore throw pieces of raw meat down +into these deep places, which the eagles seeing, stoop for, and +seize with all the little stones and gravel which adhere to them. +The people afterwards search the eagles nests when they leave +them, and carefully pick out all the little stones they can find, +and even carefully examine the eagles dung in quest of +diamonds[2]. The kings and great men of the country keep all the +largest and finest diamonds that are procured from these mines, +and allow the merchants to sell the rest.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Muis in the Trevigi edition, according to +Pinkerton, and which, he says, is 10OO miles, instead of the 500 +in the text. This certainly refers to Golconda. The districts of +India have been continually changing their names with changes of +dominion; and one or other of these names given by Marco to the +diamond country, may at one time have been the designation of +some town or district at the mines--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] One would suppose we were here reading a fragment +of the adventures of Sinbad the sailor, from the Arabian Nights. +But on this and a few other similar occasions in the narrative of +Marco, it is always proper to notice carefully what he says on +his own knowledge, and what he only gives on the report of +others.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Lac is westwards from the shrine of St Thomas, from whence the +Bramins have their original, who are the honestest merchants in +the world, and will not lie on any account. They faithfully keep +any thing committed to their charge, or as brokers, they will +sell or barter merchandize for others, with great fidelity. They +are known by a cotton thread, which they wear over their +shoulders, and tied under their arms across their breast. They +have but one wife, are great astrologers, of great abstinence, +and live to great ages. They constantly chew a certain herb, +which keeps their teeth good and helps digestion. There are +certain religious persons among them called <i>Tangui</i>, who +live with great austerity, going altogether naked; their +principal worship is addressed to cows, of which they wear a +small brass image on their foreheads, and they make an ointment +of ox bones, with which they anoint themselves very devoutly. +They neither kill nor eat any living creature, and even abstain +from green herbs, or fresh roots till dried, esteeming every +thing that lives to have a soul. They use no dishes, but lay +their victuals on dry leaves. They ease themselves in the sands, +and they disperse it, lest it should breed worms, which might die +for want of food. Some of these people are said to live to 150 +years of age, and when they die their bodies are burned.</p> + +<p>Cael is a great city governed by Aster, one of the four +brethren[3], who is very rich and kind to merchants. He is said +to have three hundred concubines. All the people this country are +continually chewing a leaf called Tembul[4], with lime and +spices. Coulam[5] is 500 miles south-west from Moabar, being +chiefly inhabited by idolaters, who are very much addicted to +venery, and marry their near kindred, and even their own sisters. +It also contains Jews and Christians, who have a peculiar +language. They have pepper, Brazil, indigo, black lions, parrots +of many kinds, some white as snow, some azure, and others red, +peacocks very different from ours, and much larger, and their +fruits are very large. In this country there are many astrologers +and physicians. In Camari, there are apes so large, that they +seem like men, and here we again came in sight of the north star. +Delai has a king, and its inhabitants have a peculiar language[6] +and are idolaters. Ships from Mangi come here for trade.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] This obscure expression seems to imply, that +Aster was one of the four kings in Moabar, or the +Carnatic.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Now called Betel, and still universally used in +India in the same manner.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Coulam may possibly be Cochin or Calicut, on the +Malabar coast as being south-west from Moabar or Coromandel, and +having Jews and Christians; as the original trade from the Red +Sea to India was on this coast.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Camari or Comati, and Delai or Orbai, are +obviously the names of towns and districts on the Malabar coast +going north from Coulain. Yet Comari may refer to the country +about Cape Comorin.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Malabar is a kingdom in the west, in which, and in Guzerat[7], +there are many pirates, who sometimes put to sea with an hundred +sail of vessels, and rob merchants. In these expeditions they +take their wives and children to sea along with them, where they +remain all summer. In Guzerat there is great abundance of cotton, +which grows on trees six fathoms high, that last for twenty +years; but after twelve years old, the cotton of these trees is +not good for spinning; and is only fit for making quilts.</p> + +<blockquote>[7] According to Pinkerton, these are called Melibar +and Gesurach in the Trevigi edition, and he is disposed to +consider the last as indicating Geriach, because of the pirates. +But there seems no necessity for that nicety, as all the +north-western coast of India has always been addicted to maritime +plunder or piracy.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Canhau is a great city, having plenty of frankincense, and +carrying on a great trade in horses. In Cambaia is much indigo, +buckram, and cotton. Semenath or Sebeleth, is a kingdom of +idolaters, who are very good people, and greatly occupied in +trade. Resmacoran is a great kingdom of idolaters and Saracens, +and is the last province towards the north in the Greater India. +Near this there are said to be two islands, one inhabited by men +and the other by women; the men visiting their wives only during +the months of March, April, and May, and then returning to their +own island; and it is reported, that the air of that country, +admits of no other procedure. The women keep their sons till +twelve years old, and then send them to their fathers. These +people are Christians, having a bishop, who is subject to the +archbishop of Socotora; they are good fishermen, and have great +store of amber. The archbishop of Socotora[8] is not subject to +the Pope, but to a prelate called Zatulia, who resides at Bagdat. +The people of Socotora are said to be great enchanters, though +excommunicated for the practice by their prelate, and are +reported to raise contrary winds to bring back the ships of those +who have wronged them, that they may obtain satisfaction.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Socotora is called Scorsia or Scoria in the +Trevigi edition.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XXI.</p> + +<p><i>Of Madagascar, Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and several other +Countries[1]</i>.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This concluding section may be considered as a +kind of appendix, in which Marco has placed several unconnected +hearsay notices of countries where he never had been +personally.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>A thousand miles south from Socotora is Magaster[2] or +Madagascar, one of the largest and richest islands in the +world[3], 3000 miles in circumference, which is inhabited by +Saracens, and governed by four old men. The currents of the sea +in those parts are of prodigious force. The people live by +merchandize, and sell vast quantifies of elephants teeth [4]. +Mariners report strange stories of a prodigiously large bird like +an eagle, called <i>Ruch</i>, said to be found in this +country.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Mandeigascar in the Trevigi edition, and +certainly meant for Madagascar.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Madagascar has no pretensions to riches or trade, +and never had; so that Marco must have been imposed upon by some +Saracen or Arab mariner. Its size, climate, and soil certainly +fit it for becoming a place of vast riches and population; but it +is one almost continued forest, inhabited by numerous independent +and hostile tribes of barbarians. Of this island, a minute +account will appear in an after part of this +work.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] There are no elephants in Madagascar, yet these +teeth might have been procured from southern +Africa.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Zensibar or Zanguebar, is also said to be of great extent, and +inhabited by a very deformed people; and the country abounds in +elephants and antelopes, and a species of sheep very unlike to +ours.</p> + +<p>I have heard from mariners and skilful pilots, much versant in +the Indian seas, and have seen in their writings, that these seas +contain 12,700 islands, inhabited or desert.</p> + +<p>In the Greater India, which is between Moabar or the +Coromandel coast on the east, round to Chesmacoran on the +north-west, there are thirteen kingdoms. India Minor is from +Ziambo to Murfili[5], in which are eight kingdoms and many +islands.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] By India Minor he obviously means what is usually +called farther India, or India beyond the Ganges, from the +frontiers of China to Moabar, or the north part of the Coromandel +coast, including the islands.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The second or Middle India is called Abascia[6], of which the +chief king is a Christian, who has six other kings subject to his +authority, three of whom are Christians and three of them +Mahometans; there are also Jews in his dominions. St Thomas, +after preaching in Nubia, came to Abascia, where he preached for +some time, and then went to Moabar or Coromandel. The Abyssinians +are valiant soldiers, always at war with the sultan of Aden and +the people of Nubia. I was told, that in 1288, the great emperor +of the Abyssinians was extremely desirous to have visited +Jerusalem; but being dissuaded from the attempt, on account of +the Saracen kingdoms which were in the way, he sent a pious +bishop to perform his devotions for him at the holy sepulchre. On +his return, the bishop was made prisoner by the sultan of Aden, +and circumcised by force. On this affront, the Abyssinian monarch +raised an army, with which he defeated the sultan and two other +Saracen kings, and took and destroyed the city of Aden. Abyssinia +is, rich in gold. Escier, subject to Aden, is forty miles distant +to the south-east, and produces abundance of fine white +frankincense, which is procured by making incisions in the bark +of certain small trees, and is a valuable merchandize. Some of +the people on that coast, from want of corn, use fish, which they +have in great abundance, instead of bread, and also feed their +beasts on fish. They are most abundantly taken in the months of +March, April, and May.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Abyssinia, here taken in the most extended sense, +including all the western coast of the Red Sea, and Eastern +Africa.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I now return to some provinces more to the north, where many +Tartars dwell, who have a king called Caidu, of the race of +Zingis, but who is entirely independent. These Tartars, observant +of the customs of their ancestors, dwell not in cities, castles, +or fortresses, but continually roam about, along with their king, +in the plains and forests, and are esteemed true Tartars. They +have no corn of any kind, but have multitudes of horses, cattle, +sheep, and other beasts, and live on flesh and milk, in great +peace. In their country there are white bears of large size, +twenty palms in length; very large wild asses, little beasts +called <i>rondes</i>, from which we have the valuable fur called +sables, and various other animals producing fine furs, which the +Tartars are very skilful in taking. This country abounds in great +lakes, which are frozen over, except for a few months in every +year, and in summer it is hardly possible to travel, on account +of marshes and waters; for which reason, the merchants who go to +buy furs, and who have to travel for fourteen days through the +desert, have wooden houses at the end of each days journey, where +they barter with the inhabitants, and in winter they travel in +sledges without wheels, quite flat at the bottom, and rising +semicircularly at the top, and these are drawn by great dogs, +yoked in couples, the sledgeman only with his merchant and furs, +sitting within[7].</p> + +<blockquote>[7] This paragraph obviously alludes to the Tartar +kingdom of Siberia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Beyond these Tartars is a country reaching to the extremest +north, called the <i>Obscure land</i>, because the sun never +appears during the greatest part of the winter months, and the +air is perpetually thick and darkish, as is the case with us +sometimes in hazy mornings. The inhabitants are pale and squat, +and live like beasts, without law, religion, or king. The Tartars +often rob them of their cattle during the dark months; and lest +they might lose their way in these expeditions they ride on mares +which have sucking foals, leaving these at the entrance of the +country, under a guard; and when they have got possession of any +booty, they give the reins to the mares, which make the best of +their way to rejoin their foals. In their, long-continued +summer[8], these northern people take many of the finest furs, +some of which are carried into Russia, which is a great country +near that northern land of darkness. The people in Russia have +fair complexions, and are Greek Christians, paying tribute to the +king of the Tartars in the west, on whom they border. In the +eastern parts of Russia there is abundance of fine furs, wax, and +mines of silver; and I am told the country reaches to the +northern ocean, in which there are islands which abound in +falcons and ger-falcons.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] The summer in this northern country of the +Samojeds is extremely short; but the expression here used, must +allude to the long-continued summer day, when, for several +months, the sun never sets.--E.</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-12">CHAPTER XII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Oderic of Portenau, into China +and the East, in 1318.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt, II. 142, for the Latin; II. 158, for the +old English translation.--Forst. Voy. and Disc. 147.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Oderic of Portenau, a minorite friar, travelled into the +eastern countries in the year 1318, accompanied by several other +monks, and penetrated as far as China. After his return, he +dictated, in 1330, the account of what he had seen during his +journey to friar William de Solona, or Solangna, at Padua, but +without order or arrangement, just as it occurred to his memory. +This traveller has been named by different editors, Oderic, +Oderisius, and Oldericus de Foro Julii, de Udina, Utinensis, or +de Porto Vahonis, or rather Nahonis. Porto-Nahonis, or Portenau, +is the <i>Mutatio ad nonum</i>, a station or stage which is +mentioned in the Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, or description of +the various routes to Jerusalem, a work compiled for the use of +pilgrims; and its name is apparently derived from the Kymerian +language, apparently a Celtic dialect, in which <i>port</i> +signifies a stage, station, or resting-place, and <i>nav</i> or +<i>naou</i> signifies nine; <i>Port-nav</i>, Latinized into +Portus naonis, and Frenchified into Portenau, implies, therefore, +the ninth station, and is at present named Pordanone in the +Friul. The account of his travels, together with his life, are to +be found: in <i>Bolandi Actis Sanctorum, 14to Januarii</i>; in +which he is honoured with the title of Saint. Oderic died at +Udina in 1331. In 1737, Basilio Asquini, an Italian Barnabite of +Udina, published <i>La Vita e Viaggi del Beato Qderico da +Udihe</i>, probably an Italian translation from the Latin of +Bolandi. The account of these travels in the collection of +Hakluyt, is called "The Journal of Friar Odericus, concerning the +strange things which he sawe among the Tartars of the East;" and +was probably transcribed and translated from Bolandi, in which +these travels are entitled <i>De mirabilibus Mundi</i>, or the +Wonders of the World. They have very much the air of an ignorant +compilation, fabricated in the name of Oderic, perhaps upon some +slight foundation, and stuffed with ill-assorted stories and +descriptions from Marco Polo, and other, writers, interspersed +with a few ridiculous miracles, for the honour or disgrace of the +minorite order. Mr Pinkerton asserts, that Oderic was not +canonized until 1753. But the Acts of the Saints is a publication +of considerable antiquity, and he is called <i>Beatus</i> in the +work of Asquini, already mentioned as having been published in +1787.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>The Commencement of the Travels of Oderic</i>.</p> + +<p>Many things are related by various authors, concerning the +customs, fashions, and conditions of this world: Yet, as I, friar +Oderic of Portenau in the Friul, have travelled among the remote +nations of the unbelievers, where I saw and heard many great and +wonderful things, I have thought fit to relate all these things +truly. Having crossed over the great sea[1] from Pera, close by +Constantinople, I came to Trebizond, in the country called Pontus +by the ancients. This land is commodiously situated as a medium +of intercourse for the Persians and Medes, and other nations +beyond the Great Sea, with Constantinople, and the countries of +the west. In this island I beheld a strange spectacle with great +delight; a man, who led about with him more than 4000 partridges. +This person walked on the ground, while his partridges flew about +him in the air, and they followed him wherever he went; and they +were so tame, that when he lay down to rest, they all came +flocking about him, like so many chickens. From a certain castle +called Zauena, three days journey from Trebizond, he led his +partridges in this manner to the palace of the emperor in that +city. And when the servants of the emperor had taken such a +number of the partridges as they thought proper, he led back the +rest in the same manner, to the place from whence he came.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Perhaps the sea of Marmora; or it may indicate +the Euxine or Black Sea.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From this city of Trebizond, where the body of St Athanasius +is preserved over one of the gates, I journeyed into the Greater +Armenia, to a city named Azaron, which was rich and flourishing +in former times, but the Tartars have nearly laid it entirely +waste; yet it still has abundance of bread and flesh, and +victuals of all sorts, excepting wine and fruits. This city is +remarkably cold, and is said to be situated on a higher elevation +that any other city of the world. It has abundance of excellent +water, which seems to originate from the great river +Euphrates[2], which is only at the distance of a days journey. +Azaron stands in the direct road between Trebizond and Tauris. In +journeying farther on, I came to a mountain named Sobissacalo; +and we passed by the very mountain of Ararat, on which the ark of +Noah is said to have rested. I was very desirous to have gone to +the top of that mountain, but the company with which I travelled +would not wait for me; and the people of the country allege that +no one was ever able to ascend to its top, because, say they, it +is contrary to the will of God. Continuing our journey, we came +to Tauris[3], a great and royal city anciently called Susa, which +is reckoned the chief city in the world for trade and +merchandize; for every article whatever, both of merchandize and +provision, is to be had there, in the greatest abundance, Tauris +is most conveniently situated, and to it may all the nations of +the earth, almost, resort for trade. The Christians in those +parts report, that the emperor of Persia derives more tribute +from this city alone than the king of France receives from the +whole of his dominions. Near this city there is a hill of salt, +from whence every one may take as much as he pleases, without +paying any thing whatever to any person. Many Christians from all +parts of the world are to be found in this place, over whom the +Saracens have the supreme authority.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The holy traveller ought rather to have said, +that the springs or rivulet near Azaron flowed into the +Euphrates. Azaron is obviously Erzerum, on or near one of the +higher branches of the Frat or Euphrates.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Tebriz in Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>From Tauris I travelled to the city called Soldania[4], where +the Persian emperor resides during the summer; but in winter he +changes his residence to another city upon the sea of Baku[5]. +Soldania is a large city, but very cold, from its situation in +the mountains, and has considerable trade, and abundance of good +water. From thence I set out with a caravan of merchants, for the +Upper India, and in our way, after many days journey, we came to +Cassan or Casbin[6], the noble and renowned city of the three +wise men, which abounds in bread and wine, and many other good +things, but the Tartars have nearly destroyed it. From this city +to Jerusalem, to which the three wise men we're led by miracle, +the distance is fifty days journey. For the sake of brevity I +omit many wonderful things which I saw in this city. Going from +thence, we came to the city of Geste[7], whence the sea of sand, +a most wonderful and dangerous track, is distant only one days +journey. In the city of Yezd there is abundance of all kinds of +victuals, especially of figs, grapes, and raisins, which are +there more plentiful, in my opinion, than in any other part of +the world. It is one of the principal cities in all Persia, and +its Saracen inhabitants allege that no Christian can live there +above a year. Continuing our journey forwards for many days, I +came to a city named Comum[8], which was a great city in old +times, near fifty miles in circumference, and often did much +damage to the Romans. In this place there are stately palaces, +now destitute of inhabitants, yet it hath abundance of +provisions. Travelling from thence through many countries, I came +at length into the land of Job, named Us[9], which borders on the +north of Chaldea. This land is full of all kinds of provisions, +and manna is here found in great abundance. Four partridges are +sold here for less than an Italian groat; and the mountains have +excellent pastures for cattle. In this country the men card and +spin, and not the women; and the old men are very comely.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Sultania or Sultanie.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The Caspian; so called in this place, from Baku +or Baccou, a city on its banks, in the province of +Shirvan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Oderic must have made a mistake here, as Casbin +is not above seventy or eighty miles from Sultanie, and the +journey of the caravans between these cities, could not have +exceeded four or five days.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Yezd, about 500 miles east from +Ispahan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] This is obviously the city of Kom or Koom, above +400 miles to the north-west of Yezd, and much nearer Sultanie. +Our traveller, therefore, must either have strangely forgotten +his route or he came back again from Yezd, instead of journeying +forwards.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Khus or Khosistan, the south-western province of +Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION II</p> + +<p><i>Of the Manners of the Chaldeans, and concerning +India</i>.</p> + +<p>From thence I travelled into Chaldea, which is a great +kingdom, having a language peculiar to itself, and I passed +beside the Tower of Babel. The men of this country have their +hair nicely braided and trimmed, like the women of Italy, wearing +turbans richly ornamented with gold and pearls, and are a fine +looking people: but the women are ugly and deformed, and are clad +in coarse shifts, only reaching to their knees, with long sleeves +hanging down to the ground, and breeches or trowsers which +likewise reach the ground, but their feet are bare. They wear no +head-dresses, and their hair hangs neglected and dishevelled +about their ears. There are many other strange things to be seen +in this country.</p> + +<p>From thence I travelled into the lower India, which was +overrun and laid waste by the Tartars[1]. In this country the +people subsist chiefly on dates, forty-two pound weight of which +may be purchased for less than a Venetian groat. Travelling on +for many days, I arrived at Ormus on the main ocean, which is a +well fortified city, having great store of merchandize and +treasure. The heat of this country is excessive, and constrains +the people to make use of extraordinary expedients to preserve +their lives[2]. In this place, their ships or barks are called +<i>jase</i>, the planks of which are sewed together with hemp. +Embarking in one of these vessels, in which I could find no iron +whatever, I arrived in twenty-eight days sail at Thana[3], in +which place four of our friars suffered martyrdom for the +Christian faith. This country is well situated for trade, and has +abundance of bread and wine, and of all other articles necessary +for the food of man. The kingdom in ancient times was very large +and populous, and was under the dominion of King Porus, who +fought a great battle with Alexander the Macedonian conqueror. +The inhabitants are idolaters, worshipping the fire, and likewise +paying divine honours to serpents, and even to trees. The +Saracens have conquered the whole of this land, and are +themselves under subjection to king Daldili[4]. In this country +there are great numbers of black lions; apes and monkies are also +very numerous, and their bats are as large as our pigeons. They +have rats also, as large as the dogs in Italy, which are hunted +by means of dogs, as cats are unable to cope with them. In this +country every one has a bundle of great boughs of trees, as large +as a pillar, standing in a pot of water before the door; and +there are many other strange and wonderful novelties, a relation +of which would be exceedingly delightful.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] By lower India, our author seems here to indicate +the southern provinces of Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Tantus est calor, quod virilia hominum exeunt +corpus, et descendant usque at mediam tibiarum: ideo faciunt +unctionum, et ungunt illa, et in, quibusdam sacculis ponunt circa +se cingentes, et aliter morerentur.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This place seems to have been Tatta, in the Delta +of the Indus.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] This unknown king, rex Daldili, is probably an +error in translating from the Venetian or Friul dialect of Oderic +into Monkish Latin, and may have been originally <i>Il Re dal +Deli</i>, or the King of Delhi.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION III.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Martyrdom of the Friars</i>[l].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The whole of this and the following section is +omitted in the old English of Hakluyt, and is here translated +from the Latin.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Four of our friars, Tolentinus de Marchia, James of Padua, +Demetrius, a lay brother, and Peter de Senis, suffered martyrdom +in the city of Thana. These friars had engaged for their passage +at Ormus to Polumbrum, but were forcibly carried to Thana, where +there are fifteen houses of Christians, schismatics of the +Nestorian communion, and on their arrival they were hospitably +entertained in one of these houses. A strife happened to take +place between the man of that house and his wife, in which the +man beat his wife severely. She complained to the kadi, who +interrogated her how she could prove her assertion. On which she +answered that there were four priests of the Franks who were +present, and could attest the bad usage she had received. On this +a person of Alexandria, who was present, requested of the kadi +that these men might be sent for, since they were learned men, +versant in the scriptures, and it would be right to dispute with +them concerning the faith. Our friars were accordingly sent for, +and, leaving Peter to take charge of their goods, the other three +went to the kadi; who began to dispute with them concerning our +faith, saying, "That Christ was a mere man, and not God." But +friar Thomas[2] shewed evidently, both from reason and by +examples drawn from Scripture, that Christ was really God and +man, and so confounded the kadi and the other infidels, that they +were unable to produce any rational arguments in contradiction to +him. On this some one exclaimed, "And what do you say concerning +Mahomet?" To this friar Thomas replied; "Since I have proved to +you that Christ is really God and man, who hath given the law to +mankind, and since Mahomet set himself contrary thereto, and +taught an opposite law, if ye are wise, you may well know what +ought to be concluded respecting him." But the kadi and the other +Saracens insisted that he should declare his own opinion +concerning Mahomet. "You may all see," said he, "what must be my +opinion; and as you insist that I should speak out plainly, I +must declare that your Mahomet is the son of perdition, and is in +hell with his father the devil. And not him only, but all who +have held his law, which is entirely abominable and false, +contrary to GOD, and adverse to the salvation of souls." On +hearing this, the Saracens cried out, "Let him die! let him die! +who hath thus blasphemed against the prophet."</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Probably he who is named above +Tolentinus.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Then they seized upon the friars, and exposed them to the +burning sun, that they might suffer a severe death by the adust +heat of the suns rays: For such is the excessive heat of the sun +in that place, that any person who remains exposed to its direct +influence, during the time necessary to say the mass, is sure to +die. But the friars remained hale and joyful, from the third to +the ninth hour of the day, praising and glorifying the Lord. The +Saracens, astonished at this, came to the friars, saying, "We +intend to make a large fire, and to throw you therein; and if +your faith is true, as you say, the fire will not be able to burn +you; but if you are burnt, it will plainly appear that your faith +is false." To this the friars answered, that they were ready to +endure chains and imprisonment, and even the fire, and all other +torments for the faith; but should the fire consume them it was +not to be inferred that it did so on account of their faith, but +as a punishment for their sins: declaring that their faith was +most true and perfect, and the only one by which the souls of men +could possibly be saved. While they thus determined upon burning +the friars, the report of this affair spread over the whole city, +and all the people of both sexes, young and old, flocked to +behold the spectacle. The friars were accordingly led to the most +public square of the city, where a great fire was lighted up, +into which friar Thomas endeavoured to throw himself; but a +Saracen held him back, saying: "You shall not do so, old man, as +you may have some spell or contrivance about you, for preventing +the fire from hurting you, and you must allow another of your +people to go into the fire." Then four of the Saracens seized +upon friar James, intending to have thrown him into the fire, but +he requested permission to walk in of his own accord, to shew his +devotion to the faith. This, however, they refused, and threw him +in headlong. The fire was so large and fierce that he could not +be seen; yet his voice was heard from the midst of the flames, +calling upon the name of the Glorious Virgin. When the fire was +totally consumed, friar James was seen standing on the embers, +unhurt and joyful, with his hands raised to heaven in form of the +cross, and himself praising and glorifying GOD, who had thus +manifested the greatness of his faith; and nothing whatever about +his person, not even his clothes or his hair, was found in the +slightest degree injured by the fire. Upon this, all the people +began to cry aloud, "They are holy! they are holy! it is sinful +to do them any injury, for we see now that their faith is good +and holy." To this the kadi objected, saying that he was not +holy, notwithstanding he remained unhurt amid the fire; but that +his tunic, being fabricated from the wool of the land of Habraa, +had protected him: That he ought therefore to be thrown naked +into the fire, and they should then see whether or not he would +be consumed.</p> + +<p>After this, the wicked Saracens, by direction of the kadi, +made a fire twice as large as the former; and, having stripped +James quite naked, they washed his body, and anointed him +abundantly with oil, besides pouring a great quantity of oil upon +the faggots which composed the fire; and when the fire was fully +kindled, they threw friar James into the midst. Friars Thomas and +Demetrius, retiring from among the people, remained on their +knees praying to GOD, with many tears. Friar James, however, came +a second time unhurt from the fire, and the people again cried +out that it was sinful to injure these holy men. Upon this the +Melich, or governor of the city, called friar James to his +presence, and causing him to put on his garments, said to the +friars, "We see, brothers, that by the Grace of God ye have +suffered no harm from us: wherefore we are convinced that ye are +holy men, and that your faith is good and true; we advise you to +take yourselves away out of this land as quickly as possible, as +the kadi will do his utmost to destroy you, because you have +confounded his arguments". At this time, likewise, the people +were full of astonishment and admiration of what they had seen, +and were so filled with wonder at the miracle, that they knew not +what to believe, or how to conduct themselves. The melich ordered +the three friars to be carried across a small arm of the sea, +into a village at a moderate distance from the city, where he +ordered them to be lodged in the house of an idolater.</p> + +<p>Afterwards the kadi went to the melich, and represented to him +that the law of Mahomet would be overthrown if these people were +allowed to live. He observed farther, that, by the precepts of +Mahomet in the alcoran, it was declared, that any one who slew a +Christian, acquired as much merit by that action as by the +pilgrimage to Mecca. Then said the melich unto him, "Go thy way, +and do what thou wilt." Whereupon the kadi took four armed men, +whom he directed to go and slay the friars. These men crossed +over the water while it was night, but were then unable to find +the friars. In the meantime, the melich caused all the Christians +in the city to be taken up and thrown into prison. In the middle +of the night, the three friars rose up to say matins, and being +then discovered by the four armed Saracens, they were dragged out +of the village to a place beneath a certain tree, where they thus +addressed our friars: "Know ye that we are ordered by the kadi +and the melich to slay you, which we are very unwilling to do, as +you are good and holy men; but we dare not refuse, as we and our +wives and children would be put to death." Then answered the +friars, "Do ye even as you have been commanded, that by a +temporal death we may gain eternal life; since, for the love of +our Lord Jesus Christ, who was crucified and died for us, and in +honour of our faith in his holy gospel, we are prepared willingly +to suffer every kind of torment, and even death itself." A +Christian man, who had joined company with the friars, reasoned +much with the four armed Saracens, declaring, if he had a sword, +he would either defend these holy men from death, or would die +along with them. Then the armed men caused the friars to take off +their garments, and friar Thomas, on his knees, and with his arms +folded in form of the cross, had his head smitten off. Friar +James had his head divided to the eyes by the first blow, and by +a second, his head was severed from his body. They wounded friar +Demetrius at first in the breast, and then cut off his head. In +the moment of the martyrdom of these holy men, the moon shone out +with unusual splendour, and the night became so exceedingly +light, that all admired greatly: After which, it suddenly became +excessively dark, with great thunder and lightning, and violent +coruscations, so that all expected to be destroyed; and the ship, +which ought to have carried away the friars, was sunk, with all +on board, so that no tidings of it were ever heard +afterwards.</p> + +<p>In the morning, the kadi sent to take possession of the goods +belonging to the friars, and then friar Peter de Senlis, who had +been left in charge of the goods, was found, and carried before +the kadi; who, together with the other Saracens, promised him +great things, if he would renounce the Christian faith, and +conform to the law of Mahomet. But friar Peter scorned all their +offers, and derided them: Whereupon they inflicted every species +of torment upon him, from morning until mid-day, which he bore +with patience and constancy in the faith, continually praising +God and holding out the belief in Mahomet to scorn and contempt. +The Saracens then hung him up on a tree; and, seeing that he bore +this unhurt from the ninth hour till evening, they cut him in +two. In the morning after, when they came to look for his body, +no part of it was to be found. It was afterwards revealed to a +person worthy of credit, that God had hidden his body for a +season, until he should be pleased to manifest the bodies of his +saints, and should shew the souls of the saints, rejoicing +together with GOD and his angels and the saints, in bliss.</p> + +<p>On the night following the martyrdom of these holy friars, +they appeared to the melich in a vision, glorious and resplendent +like the noon-day sun, each holding a sword on high, in a +menacing posture, as if about to stab or cut him in pieces. In +horror at the sight, he cried out aloud, to the great terror of +his family, to whom he said, that these rabbis of the Franks, +whom he had ordered to be slain, had come upon him with swords to +slay him. The melich likewise sent for the kadi, to whom he +communicated his vision, seeking advice and consolation, as he +feared to be slain by the martyrs. And the kadi advised him to +give large alms to their brethren, if he would escape from the +hands of those whom he had slain. Then the melich sent for the +Christians, whom he had thrown into prison, from whom he begged +forgiveness for what he had done, promising henceforwards to be +their companion and brother; and he ordained, that if any person +in future should injure a Christian, he should suffer death; and +sending away the Christians unhurt, each man to his home, the +melich caused four mosques or chapels to be built in honour of +the four martyrs, and appointed Saracen priests to officiate in +them. When the Emperor Dodsi[3] heard of the slaughter of the +four friars, he ordered the melich to be brought bound before +him, and questioned him why he had cruelly ordered these men to +be slain. The melich endeavoured to justify himself, by +representing that they had exerted themselves to subvert the laws +of Mahomet, against whom they had spoken blasphemously. The +emperor thus addressed him; "O! most cruel dog! when you had seen +how the Almighty God had twice delivered them from the flames, +how dared you thus cruelly to put them to death?" And the emperor +ordered the melich, and all his family, to be cut in two; +sentencing him to the same death which he had inflicted on the +holy friars. On these things coming to the knowledge of the kadi, +he fled out of the land, and even quitted the dominions of the +emperor, and so escaped the punishment he had so justly +merited.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Probably the same called, at the close of the +former sections, Daldili, and there conjecturally explained as +the King of Delhi.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION IV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Miracles performed by the four Martyrs</i>.</p> + +<p>It is not the custom in that country to commit the bodies of +their dead to the grave, but they are exposed in the fields, that +they may be consumed by the heat of the sun. But after the bodies +of these martyrs had remained fourteen days exposed to the sun, +they remained as fresh and uncorrupted as on the day of their +martyrdom. On this being seen by the Christians who inhabited the +land, they buried the bodies with great reverence. When I, +Oderic, heard of the circumstances attending the death of these +martyrs, I went to the place and dug up their bodies; and having +collected all their bodies into beautiful <i>towallias</i>, I +carried them with me into upper India to a certain place, +assisted by a companion and a servant. While we were on our way, +we rested in the house of a hospitable person, and placing the +bones at my head, I went to sleep. And while I was asleep, the +house was suddenly set on fire by the Saracens, that I might be +burnt therein. My companion and servant made their escape, +leaving me and the bones in the burning house. Seeing the fire +above and all around me, I took up the bones, and withdrew, with +them into one of the angles of the house; whence I saw all the +other three corners on fire, while I remained safe along with the +bones. So long as I remained there with the bones, the fire kept +itself above my head, like lucid air; but the moment that I went +out with the bones, the whole of that place where I had stood was +enveloped in the flames, and many other surrounding buildings +were likewise burnt to the ground.</p> + +<p>Another miracle happened as I was going by sea with the bones +to the city of Polumbrum, where, pepper grows in great abundance, +when the wind totally failed us. On this occasion, the idolaters +began to pray to their gods for a favourable wind; but which they +were unable to attain. Then the Saracens industriously made their +invocations and adorations, to as little purpose. After this, I +and my companion were ordered to pray to our God, and the +commander of the ship said to me in the Armenian language, which +the rest of the people on board did not understand, that unless +we could procure a favourable wind from our God, he would throw +both us and the bones into the sea. Then I and my companion went +to our prayers, and we vowed to celebrate many masses in honour +of the Holy Virgin, if she would vouchsafe us a wind. But as the +time passed on, and no wind came, I gave one of the bones to our +servant, whom I ordered to go to the head of the ship, and cast +the bone into the sea; which he had no sooner done, than a +favourable gale sprung up, which, never again failed us till we +had arrived at our destined port in safety, owing entirely to the +merit of these holy martyrs. We then embarked in another ship, on +purpose to sail to the higher India; and we arrived at a certain +city named Carchan, in which there are two houses of the brethren +of our order, and we intended to have deposited these holy relics +in that place. There were in that ship above 700 merchants and +others; and the idolaters have a custom, that always before they +go into port, they search the whole ship carefully for, the bones +of dead animals, which they throw into the sea, thinking by that +means the more readily to reach the harbour, and to escape the +danger of death. But though they searched frequently and +carefully, and even often touched the bones, of the martyrs, +their, eyes were always deluded, so that they could not perceive +them: And thus we brought them reverently to the dwelling of our +brethren, where they rest in peace, and where God continually +works miracles by their means among the idolaters. When any one +labours under heavy sickness, they go to the place where the +bodies of the martyrs are deposited, and taking some of the +earth, it is mixed among water, which is drank by the diseased +persons, who are thus freed from their infirmities.</p> + +<p>SECTION V.</p> + +<p><i>Of the places where Pepper grows, and in what Manner it is +procured</i>.</p> + +<p>Pepper grows in the kingdom of Minibar (Malabar), where it is +more plentiful than in any other part of the world, being found +abundantly in that country, in a forest which extends for +eighteen days journey in circuit. In the wood, or forest, there +are two cities, named Flandrina and Cynci lim[1]. Flandrina is +inhabited both by Jews and Christians, who are often engaged in +quarrels, and even in war, in which the Christians are always +victorious. In this forest which we have mentioned, the plant +which produces the pepper is planted near the large trees, as we +plant vines in Italy. It grows with numerous leaves, like our pot +herbs, and climbs up the trees, producing the pepper in clusters +like our grapes. When these are ripe, they are of a green colour, +and, being gathered, are laid in the sun to dry, after which they +are put into earthen vessels for sale. In this forest there are +many rivers, having great numbers of crocodiles and serpents; and +the natives make large fires of straw and other dry fuel, at the +proper season for gathering the pepper, that they may do so +without danger from these noxious animals. At one end of this +forest the city of Polumbrum is situated, which abounds in all +kinds of merchandize.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The names of these cities or towns, in the pepper +country of Malabar, which is called Minibar in the text, are so +thoroughly corrupted, that no conjectural criticism can discover +them in our modern maps. Hakluyt on the margin, corrects +Flandrina, by an equally unknown, Alandrina. They may possibly +refer to places now fallen into ruin, in the kingdom or province +of Travancore, which has always been a great mart of +pepper.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The inhabitants of that country worship a living ox as their +god, which is made to labour in husbandry for six years, and in +his seventh year, he is consecrated as holy, and is no more +allowed to work. With this strange animal god, they use the +following strange ceremony: Every morning they take two basons of +silver or gold, in one of which they collect the urine of the +holy ox, and his dung in the other; and the devotees wash their +faces, eyes, and all their five senses in the urine; and anoint +their eyes, cheeks, and breasts with the dung; after which, they +consider themselves sanctified for the whole of that day; and +even the king and queen of the country use this absurd +superstition. They worship an idol also, which resembles a man +from the navel upwards, all below being in the likeness of an ox; +and this idol delivers oracles, as they believe, and sometimes +requires the sacrifice of forty virgins. On this account, the +people consecrate their sons and daughters to the idols, even as +we Christians dedicate our sons and daughters to some particular +order of religion, or to some of the saints in Heaven. They even +sacrifice their sons and daughters, so that many are put to death +in honour of this accursed idol; and they commit many other +abominable and beastly actions; and I saw many other strange +things among them which I refrain from relating[2].</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Friar Oderic appears only to have observed the +superstitions in the southern part of India very superficially, +if at all; and as many opportunities will occur in the course of +this collection, for explaining the strange beliefs, customs, and +ceremonies of the braminical worship, it has not been thought +necessary to discuss these in notes on the present +occasion.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>This nation has another most abominable custom; that when a +man dies, his body is burned to ashes, and his living wife is +burned along with him, that she may assist her husband in his +trade or husbandry in the next world. Yet, if she have children +by her husband, she may remain alive with them, if so inclined, +without shame or reproach; yet most of them prefer to be burnt +with the bodies of their husbands. But husbands are not +influenced by any similar law, as when they lose their wives they +may marry again. There are some other strange customs among the +people of this country; insomuch, that the women drink wine, +which the men do not; and the women shave their eyebrows, and +eyelids, and their beards, besides many other filthy customs, +contrary to the true decorum of the sex. From that country I +travelled ten days journey to another kingdom called Moabar[3], +in which there are many cities; and in a certain church of that +country, the body of St Thomas the apostle lies buried; which +church is full of idols, and round about it there are fifteen +houses inhabited by Nestorian priests, who are bad Christians, +and false schismatics.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Hakluyt has explained Moabar on the margin by +Maliassour or Meliassour. The country here indicated is obviously +the Carnatic, or kingdom of Arcot of modern times, from the +circumstance of containing the shrine of St Thomas. The idols +mentioned by Oderic, as filling the church of St Thomas, were +probably Nestorian images; not sanctioned by the Roman +ritual.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VI.</p> + +<p><i>Of a Strange Idol, and of certain Customs and +Ceremonies</i>.</p> + +<p>In the kingdom of Moabar there is a wonderful idol in the +shape of a man, all of pure and polished gold, as large as our +image of St Christopher; and there hangs about its neck a string +of most rich and precious stones, some of which are singly more +valuable than the riches of an entire kingdom. The whole house, +in which this idol is preserved, is all of beaten gold, even the +roof, the pavement, and the lining of the walls, both within and +without[1]. The Indians go on pilgrimages to this idol, just as +we do to the image of St Peter; some having halters round their +necks, some with their hands bound behind their backs, and others +with knives sticking in various parts of their legs and arms; and +if the flesh of their wounded limbs should corrupt, owing to +these wounds, they believe that their god is well pleased with +them, and ever after esteem the diseased limbs as sacred. Near +this great idol temple, there is an artificial lake of water in +an open place, into which the pilgrims and devotees cast gold and +silver, and precious stones, in honour of the idol, and as a fund +for repairing the temple; and when any new ornament is to be +made, or any repairs are required, the priests take what is +wanted from the oblations that are thrown into this lake.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] More recent and more accurate travellers have +informed us, that this profusion of gold, on the idols and +temples of the Buddists, especially, is only rich +gilding.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>At each annual festival of this idol, the king and queen of +the country, with all the pilgrims, and the whole multitude of +the people assemble at the temple; and placing the idol on a rich +and splendid chariot, they carry it from the temple with songs +and all kinds of musical instruments, having a great company of +young women, who walk in procession, two and two, singing before +the idol. Many of the pilgrims throw themselves under the chariot +wheels, that they may be crushed to death in honour of their god, +and the bodies of these devotees are afterwards burned, and their +ashes collected as of holy martyrs. In this manner, above 500 +persons annually devote themselves to death. Sometimes a man +devotes himself to die in honour of this abominable idol. On +which occasion, accompanied by his relations and friends, and by +a great company of musicians, he makes a solemn feast; after +which, he hangs five sharp knives around his neck, and goes in +solemn procession before the idol; where he takes four of the +knives successively, with each of which he cuts off a piece of +his own flesh, which he throws to the idol, saying, that for the +worship of his god he thus cuts himself. Then taking the last of +the knives, he declares aloud that he is going to put himself to +death in honour of the god; on uttering which, he executes his +vile purpose. His body is then burned with great solemnity, and +he is ever after esteemed as a holy person.</p> + +<p>The king of this country has vast treasures in gold and +silver, and precious stones, and possesses the largest and +fairest pearls that are to be seen in the whole world. Leaving +this country, I travelled fifty days journey to the southward, +along the shore of the ocean, when I came to a country called +Lamouri[2], in which, owing to the extreme heat, the whole +inhabitants go stark naked, both men and women, and they derided +me for wearing clothes, saying, that Adam and Eve were created +naked. In this country the women are all common, so that no one +has a wife; and when a child is born, the mother gives it to any +of the men she pleases, who may have been connected with her. The +whole of the land, likewise, is possessed in common, but everyone +has his own house. Human flesh, if fat, is used as commonly in +that country as beef with us; and though the manners and customs +of the people are most abominable, the country is excellent, and +abounds in flesh and corn, gold and silver, aloes-wood, and +camphor, and many other precious commodities. Merchants who trade +to this country, usually bring with them fat men, among their +other commodities, which they sell to the natives as we do hogs, +and these are immediately slain and devoured.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This seems properly enough corrected on the +margin by Hakluyt, by the word Comori, or the country about Cape +Comorin.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>In this region, toward the south, there is an island or +kingdom called Symolora[3], where both the men and women mark +themselves with a hot iron in twelve different parts of their +faces[4]; and this nation is continually at war with a certain +naked people in another region. I then went to another island +named Java, the coast of which is 3000 miles in circuit; and the +king of Java has seven other kings under his supreme dominion. +This is thought to be one of the largest islands in the world, +and is thoroughly inhabited; having great plenty of cloves, +cubebs, and nutmegs, and all other kinds of spices, and great +abundance of provisions of all kinds, except wine. The king of +Java has a large and sumptuous palace, the most lofty of any that +I have seen, with broad and lofty stairs to ascend to the upper +apartments, all the steps being alternately of gold and +silver.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Simoltra or Sumatra.--Hakluyt.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Probably alluding to tatooing, which will be +explained in the voyages to the islands of the Pacific +ocean.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The whole interior walls are lined with plates of beaten gold, +on which the images of warriors are placed sculptured in gold, +having each a golden coronet richly ornamented with precious +stones. The roof of this palace is of pure gold, and all the +lower rooms are paved with alternate square plates of gold and +silver. The great khan, or emperor of Cathay, has had many wars +with the king of Java, but has always been vanquished and beaten +back.</p> + +<p>SECTION VII.</p> + +<p><i>Of certain Trees which produce Meal, Honey, Wine, and +Poison</i>.</p> + +<p>Near to Java is another country called Panten, or +Tathalmasin[1], the king of which has many islands under his +dominion. In this country there are trees which produce meal, +honey, and wine, and likewise the most deadly poison in the +world; the only remedy for which is human ordure dissolved in +water, which, drank in considerable quantify, acts as a +cathartic, and expels the poison. These trees are very large; +and, when cut down, a quantity of liquor exudes from the trunk, +which is received into bags made of leaves, and after exposure +for fifteen days to the sun, it hardens into meal. This is first +steeped in sea water, and is afterwards washed in fresh water, +when it becomes a savoury paste, which may either be eaten as +bread, or cooked in various ways[2]. I have eaten of this bread, +which is fair on the outside, and somewhat brown within. Beyond +this country, the <i>Mare Mortuum</i>, or Dead Sea[3], stretches +with a continual current far to the south, and whatever falls +into it is seen no more. In this country there grow canes of an +incredible length, as large as trees, even sixty paces or more in +height. There are other canes, called <i>cassan</i>, which spread +over the earth like grass, even to the extent of a mile, sending +up branches from every knot; and in these canes they find certain +stones of wonderful virtue, insomuch, that whoever carries one of +these about him, cannot be wounded by an iron weapon; on which +account, most of the men in that country carry such stones always +about them. Many of the people of this country cause one of the +arms of their children to be cut open when young, putting one of +these stones into the wound, which they heal up by means of the +powder of a certain fish, with the name of which I am +unacquainted. And through the virtue of these wonderful stones, +the natives are generally victorious in their wars, both by sea +and land. There is a stratagem, however, which their enemies +often successfully use against them, to counteract the power of +these stones. Providing themselves with iron or steel armour, to +defend them from the arrows of these people, they use wooden +stakes, pointed like weapons of iron, and arrows not having iron +heads, but infused with poison which they extract from certain +trees, and they thus slay some of their foes, who, trusting to +the virtue of these stones, wear no defensive armour. From the +canes formerly mentioned, named cassan, they build themselves +small houses, and manufacture sails for their ships, and many +other things are made from them. From thence, after many days +travel, I came to another kingdom, called Campa[4], which is a +very rich and beautiful kingdom, abounding in all kinds of +provisions. The king who reigned at the time of my being there, +had so many wives and concubines, that he had three hundred sons +and daughters. He had likewise 10,004[5] tame elephants, which +were pastured in droves as we feed flocks and herds.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Hakluyt endeavours to explain this on the margin +by Malasmi. It is possible the river Banjar, and the port of +Masseen, otherwise called Bendermassin, or Banjar-massin, in the +great island of Borneo, may be here indicated. Panten, Petan, or +perhaps Bentam, is perhaps a small woody island mentioned by +Marco Polo, near great Java or Borneo. The names of places, +however, in these early travellers, have been so confounded by +ignorant transcribers as often to defy all criticism. +--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] This seems an ill-collected account of +Sago.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The Pacific Ocean, the navigation of which was +then so much unknown, that those who ventured to navigate it +never returned.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Probably Siampa, called likewise Ciampa, and +Tsiompa.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] In the Latin, this number is decies millesies et +quatuor, which may even be read 14,000; certainly a vast +exaggeration either way.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION VIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of vast multitudes of Fish, which throw themselves on the +dry Land</i>.</p> + +<p>The following most wonderful circumstance is to be observed in +this country of Siampa. All the kinds of fishes which frequent +those seas, swim towards the shore at certain times in such +abundance, that nothing can be seen for a great way but the backs +of fishes. The fish throw themselves upon the shore, and for the +space of three days allow the people to take up as many of them +as they please. At the end of these three days this shoal returns +again to sea, and a different kind comes to the shore in the same +manner, and remains for a similar period. And in the same way, +all other kinds of fish in these seas come to the shore in +succession, each kind by itself. This strange phenomenon happens +once every year, and the natives pretend that the fishes are +taught by nature to do this, in token of homage to their emperor. +I saw many other strange things in this country, which would be +incredible to any one who had not seen them; and among these, I +may mention that they have tortoises as large as ovens. In this +country, the bodies of their dead are burned, and the living +wives are burned along with their dead husbands, as has been +already mentioned when describing the customs of the city of +Polumbrum; and they are believed by this means to accompany their +husbands into the other world.</p> + +<p>Travelling from this country to the southward, along the coast +of the ocean, I passed through many countries and islands, one of +which is called Moumoran[1], and is 2000 miles in circumference. +The people of this country, both men and women, go naked, except +a small cloth before the middle of their bodies. They have dogs +faces, and worship an ox as their god, and all of them wear the +image of an ox in gold or silver on their foreheads. The men are +very tall and strong, and when they go to battle, they carry +targets of iron or steel, large enough to cover and protect their +whole bodies. All the prisoners whom they take in war, unless +they can ransom themselves with money, are eaten; but those who +are able to pay ransom are set free. The king of this country +wears a string of 300 large and fair pearls about his neck, which +he employs as a rosary for counting his prayers; and says every +day as many prayers to his god. He wears also on his finger a +marvellously large and brilliant stone, of a span long, which +resembles a flame of fire, so that no one dare approach him, and +it is said to be the most valuable precious stone in all the +world. The great Tartar emperor of Cathay, hath often used every +endeavour to procure this wonderful jewel, but has never been +able to prevail, either by force, policy, or money.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] It is impossible even to conjecture what island +is here meant; but as Ceylon follows next in succession, it may +possibly refer to Sumatra, though that island appears to have +been mentioned already, under the name of +Symolora--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION IX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Island of Ceylon, and of the Mountain where Adam +mourned the Death of Abel</i>.</p> + +<p>From thence I passed another island named Sylan, or Ceylon, +which is 2000 miles in circuit, in which there are infinite +multitudes of serpents, great numbers of lions, bears, and all +kinds of ravenous beasts, and a great many of elephants. In this +island there is a great mountain, on which the inhabitants +pretend that Adam mourned for the death of his son Abel, during +500 years. On the top of this mountain there is a most beautiful +plain, in which is a small lake always full of water, which the +inhabitants allege to have proceeded from the tears of Adam and +Eve; but this I proved to be false, as I saw the water to flow +out of the lake. This lake is full of horse-leeches, and numbers +of precious stones are to be found on its bottom, which the king +of the island, instead of appropriating to his own use, allows +certain poor people to dive for once or twice a-year, for their +own profit, that they may pray for blessings upon his soul. On +this occasion they smear their bodies with lemon juice, which +prevents the leeches from hurting them while they are in the +water. The water from this lake runs into the sea, at which place +the inhabitants dig on the shore, at low water, for rubies, +diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, which are found in +such abundance, that the king of this island is believed to +possess more precious stones than any other monarch in the world. +There are wild beasts and birds of all kinds in this island in +great numbers; and I was informed by the natives, that these +beasts never attack or do harm to strangers, but only kill the +indigenous inhabitants. I saw in this island certain birds, as +large as our geese, having two heads, and other wonderful things +I do not here write of.</p> + +<p>Still farther to the south, I came to a certain island, called +Bodin[1], which name signifies <i>unclean</i>; and this island is +inhabited by a most wicked people, who devour raw flesh, and +commit all manner of wickedness and abominable uncleanness to an +incredible extent; insomuch, that they kill and eat each other, +the father eating his son, the son his father, the husband his +wife, and the wife her husband. If any man be sick, the son goes +to the soothsayer, or prognosticating priest, requesting him to +inquire of his god, whether or not his father is to recover. Then +both go to an idol of gold or silver, which they thus address: +"We adore thee as our lord and god, and we beseech thee to inform +us, whether such a man is to die or to recover from his present +infirmity." Then the devil returns an answer from the idol, and +if he says the man is to recover, the son returns to the house of +his father, and ministers to him in all things necessary, until +he regain his former health; but if the response is that the man +is to die, the priest then goes to him, and putting a cloth into +his mouth, immediately strangles him. After this the dead body is +cut in pieces, and all the friends and relations are invited to +feast upon this horrible banquet, which is accompanied with music +and all manner of mirth; but the bones are solemnly buried. On my +blaming this abominable practice, they alleged, as its reason and +excuse, that it was done to prevent the worms from devouring the +flesh, which would occasion great torments to his soul; and all I +could say was quite insufficient to convince them of their error. +There are many other novel and strange things in this country, to +which no one would give credit, who had not seen them with his +own eyes; yet, I declare before God, that I assert nothing of +which I am not as sure as a man may be of any thing. I have been +informed by several credible persons, that this India contains +4400 islands, most of which are well inhabited, among which there +are sixty-four crowned kings.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Explained on the margin by Hakluyt, <i>or +Dadin</i>, which is equally inexplicable.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION X.</p> + +<p><i>Of Upper India, and the Province of Mancy</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Otherwise Mangi, or Southern +China.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>After sailing for many days on the ocean towards the east, I +arrived at the great province of Mancy, or Mangi, which is called +India by the Latins; and I was informed by Christians, Saracens, +and idolaters, and by many persons in office under the great +khan, that this country contains more than 2000 great cities, and +that it abounds in all manner of provisions, as bread, wine, +rice, flesh, and fish. All the men of this country are artificers +or merchants, and so long as they are able to help themselves by +the labour of their hands, they never think to beg alms, however +great may be their poverty. The men of this country are fair and +of a comely appearance, yet somewhat pale, having a small part of +their heads shaven; but their women are the most beautiful of any +under the sun. The first city that I came to belonging to this +country is called Ceuskalon[2], which is a days journey from the +sea, standing on a river, which at its mouth overflows the land, +to the extent of twelve days journey. This city has so prodigious +a number of ships and vessels, as would be quite incredible by +any person who had not been an eye-witness. In this city I saw +300 pounds of good and new ginger sold for less than a groat. +They have the largest and finest geese, and the greatest plenty +of them is to be sold, more than in any other part of the world. +They are as white as milk, having a bone the size of an egg on +the crown of the head, of a blood-red colour, and a skin or bag +under their throat, which hangs down half a foot or more[3]. +These birds are exceedingly fat, and are sold at reasonable +rates. The ducks and hens of this country are twice the size of +ours. There are likewise large and monstrous serpents, which are +caught and eaten by the natives, and are held in such estimation +as to be produced at all their feasts. In short, this city +abounds in all kind of provisions.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This place, which on the margin is corrected by +the equally unknown name of Ceuskala, was probably Canton; but +having endeavoured to explain the distorted names of places in +China, in the travels of Marco Polo, it is unnecessary to resume +the almost impossible task in these much less interesting, and +perhaps fabricated travels of Oderic.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Oderic here means pelicans, called alca-trarzi by +the Spaniards. --Hakluyt.</blockquote> + +<p>Travelling from thence through many cities, I came at length +to a city called Caitan or Zaiton[4], in which the minorite +friars have two places of abode, unto which I transported the +bones of the dead friars formerly mentioned, who suffered +martyrdom for the faith of Christ. In this city, which is twice +as long as Bologna, there are abundance of provisions, and it +contains many monasteries of religious persons, who are devoted +to the worship of idols. I was in one of these monasteries, which +was said to contain 3000 religious men, and 11,000 idols, one of +the smallest of which was as large as our St Christopher. These +religious men feed their idols daily, serving up a banquet of +good things before them, smoking hot, and they affirm that their +gods are refreshed and fed by the steam of the victuals, which +are afterwards carried away, and eaten up by the priests.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] Called in p. 404. Carchan.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the City of Fuko, or Foquien</i>.</p> + +<p>Continuing my journey still farther to the east, I came to the +city of Foquien, which is thirty miles in circuit. The poultry +here are very large, and as white as snow, but have wool like +sheep instead of feathers. This is a stately and most beautiful +city, and standeth on the sea. Travelling onwards for eighteen +days, I passed through many provinces and cities; and in my way, +I passed over a certain great mountain, on one side of which all +living creatures were quite black, whereas, on the other side, +all were as white as snow; and the inhabitants of the two sides +of the mountain differed exceedingly from each other, in their +manners and customs. In these parts, all the married women wear a +large tire or cap of horn, like a small barrel, on their heads, +as a mark that they have husbands.</p> + +<p>Journeying onwards for other eighteen days, I came to a city +on a large river, over which there is a prodigiously great +bridge. The host with whom I lodged in that city, willing to +amuse me, carried me along with him to this bridge, taking with +him in his arms certain diving birds bound to poles, and he tied +a thread about every one of their necks, lest they might swallow +the fish they were to catch. He carried likewise three large +baskets to the river side. He then loosed his divers from the +poles, on which they went into the water, and in less than an +hour, they caught as many fish as filled the three baskets. Mine +host then untied the threads from their necks, and sent them +again into the water, where they fed themselves with fish. And, +when satisfied, they returned to their master, allowing +themselves to be fastened to the poles as before. I eat of these +fish, and found them very good.</p> + +<p>Travelling thence many days, I came to another city named +Canasia[1], which signifies in their language the city of Heaven. +I never saw so great a city, for it is an hundred miles in +circumference, and every part of it is thoroughly inhabited, yea, +many of its houses are ten or even twelve stories high. It has +many large suburbs, which contain more inhabitants than even the +city itself. There are twelve principal gates; and at the +distance of about eight miles from every one of these there is a +large city, each of them larger, in my opinion, than Venice or +Padua. The city of Canasia is situated among waters or lakes, +which are always stagnant, without flux or reflux, and it is +defended against the violence of the wind in the same manner as +Venice. In this city there are more than 10,002 bridges[2], many +of which I counted and passed over; and on every one of these, +there stand certain watchmen, constantly keeping guard for the +great khan, or emperor of Cathay. The people of the country +informed me that they have to pay, as tribute to their lord, one +<i>balis</i> for every fire. Now one balis consists of five +pieces of silken paper, which are worth one florin and a half of +our coin. Ten or twelve households are counted as one fire, and +only pay accordingly. All these tributary fires amount to +eighty-five tomans, besides four tomans of the Saracens, making +in all eighty-nine tomans; and one toman contains 10,000 +fires[3]. The residue of the people consist of some Christians, +some merchants, and some who travel through the country. I +marvelled how it were possible for such an infinite number of +people to live together, and get food; yet there is great +abundance of provisions, such as bread and wine, and other +necessaries, especially hogs flesh.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Cansai, Quinzay, or Quinsay.--Hakluyt.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] In the Italian copy, published by Ramusio, the +number of bridges is extended to 11,000.--Hakluyt.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This enumeration would give 890,000 fires, or +almost ten millions of households; which at four persons to each, +would produce an aggregate population of 39 millions of people +for Quinsay alone. The tribute, as stated by Oderic, amounts to +6,675,000 florins.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XII.</p> + +<p><i>Of a Monastery, having many different kinds of Animals on a +certain Hill</i>.</p> + +<p>In this city of Quinsay, four of our friars had converted a +powerful man to the Christian faith, in whose house I abode all +the time I remained in that place. This man once addressed me, by +the name of <i>Ara</i> or father, asking me to visit the city. +Embarking in a boat, he carried me to a certain monastery, where +he spoke to one of the priests of his acquaintance, saying, "this +Raban, or religious man of the Francs, coming from the western +parts of the earth, is on his way to Cambalu to pray for the life +of the great khan, and you must shew him some rare thing, that he +may be able to say on his return to his own country, what strange +and novel sights he has beheld in our city of Quinsay." Then the +priest took two great baskets full of broken victuals, and led me +to a small walled inclosure, of which he had the key, the door of +which he unlocked, and we went into a pleasant green plot, in +which stood a small hillock like a steeple, all adorned with +fragrant herbs and trees. He then beat upon a cymbal, at the +sound of which many animals of various kinds came down, from the +mount, some like apes, some like cats, others like monkeys, and +some having human faces, which gathered around him to the number +of four thousand, and placed themselves in seemly order. He set +down the broken victuals for them to eat; and when they had +eaten, he rung again upon his cymbal, and they all returned to +their places of abode. Wondering greatly at this strange sight, +this man informed me that these creatures were animated by the +souls of departed persons of rank, and that they were fed by him +and his brethren out of love for the God that governs the world. +He added, that, when a man was noble in this life, his soul +entered, after death, into the body of some excellent beast, +while the souls of the deceased common rude people, possess the +bodies of vile animals. I then endeavoured to refute that gross +error, but my arguments were all in vain, as he could not believe +that any soul could exist without a body.</p> + +<p>From Quinsay I went to the city of Chilenso, which is forty +miles round, and contains 360 stone bridges, the fairest I ever +saw. This place is well inhabited, has a vast number of ships, +and abundance of provisions and commodities. From thence I went +to a great river called Thalay, which is seven miles broad where +narrowest, and it runs through the midst of the land of the +Pigmies, whose chief city is Kakam, one of the finest of the +world. These Pigmies are only three spans in height, yet they +manufacture larger and better cloths of cotton and silk, than any +other people. Passing that river, I came to the city of Janzu, in +which there is a house for the friars of our order, and there are +also three churches belonging to the Nestorians. This Janzu is a +great and noble city, having forty-eight tomans of tributary +fires, and abounds in all manner of victuals, flesh, fish, and +fowl. The lord of this city has fifty tomans of <i>balis</i> in +yearly revenue from salt alone; and as every bali is worth a +florin and a half of our money, one toman is worth 15,000 +florins, and the salt revenue of this city is 750,000 florins. +This lord has been known to forgive 200 tomans of arrears at one +time to his people, or three millions of florins, lest they +should be reduced to distress. There is a strange fashion in this +city, when any one inclines to give a banquet to his friends: He +goes about to certain taverns or cooks shops, informing each of +the landlords, that such and such of his friends are to come +there for entertainment in his name, and that he will allow a +certain sum for the banquet. By this means his friends are better +entertained in divers places, than if all had been collected into +one. Ten miles from the city of Janzu, and at the mouth of the +river Thalay, there is another city named Montu, which has a +greater number of ships than I ever saw in any part of the world. +All the ships are white as snow, and have banquetting houses in +them; and there are many other rare and wonderful things, that no +one would give credit to, unless he were to see them with his own +eyes.</p> + +<p>SECTION XIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of the city of Cambalu</i>.</p> + +<p>Travelling eight days farther, through divers provinces and +cities, I came by fresh water to a city called Lencyn, on the +river Karamoran, which pervades the middle of Cathay, and does +much injury when it breaks its banks and overflows the land. +Passing from thence many days journey to the eastwards, and +within sight of many different cities, I came to the city of +Sumakoto, which abounds more in silk than any city of the earth; +insomuch that silk is reckoned scarce and dear, when the price of +forty pounds weight amounts to four groats. It likewise abounds +in all kinds of merchandize and provisions. Journeying still +towards the east past many cities, I arrived at length at the +great and renowned city of Cambalu, or Cambaleth, which is of +great antiquity, and is the capital of Cathay. Being taken by the +Tartars, they built a new city at the distance of half a mile, +which they named Caido, which has twelve gates, each two miles +distant from the other. The space also between the two cities is +thoroughly built upon, and inhabited; so that the whole is as one +city, and is forty miles in circuit. In this city the great khan +or emperor has his palace, the walls of which are four miles in +circuit; and near to the imperial palace there are many other +houses and palaces of the nobles who belong to the court. Within +the precincts of the imperial palace, there is a most beautiful +mount, all set over with trees, called the Green Mount, having a +sumptuous palace on the top, in which the khan mostly resides. On +one side of the mount is a great lake, abounding in geese and +ducks, and all manner of water fowl, and having a most +magnificent bridge; and the wood upon the mount is stored with +all kinds of beasts and land birds. Hence when the khan is +inclined to take the diversion of hunting or hawking, he needs +not to quit his palace.</p> + +<p>The principal palace in which the khan resides is very large, +and contains fourteen pillars of gold, and all the walls are hung +with red skins, which are reckoned the most costly in the +world[1]. In the midst of this palace, there is a cistern two +yards high, all of a precious stone called <i>merdochas</i>, +which is wreathed round with gold, having the golden image of a +serpent at each corner, as it were furiously menacing with their +heads. This cistern is farther ornamented by a rich net-work of +pearls; and, by means of certain pipes and conduits, it +continually supplies certain kinds of drink that are used at the +court of the emperor[2]. Around this there stand many golden +vessels, so that all who choose may drink abundantly. There are +likewise many golden peacocks; and when any of the Tartars drink +to the prosperity of their lord, and the guests clap their hands +from mirth and joy, the golden peacocks spread their wings and +expand their trains, and appear to dance. This, I presume, is +occasioned by magic art, or perhaps by means of some secret +machinery below ground.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] These red skins, in the Latin of Hakluyt, +<i>pelles rubes</i>, are probably the zaphilines pelles, or +sables, of other travellers; converted into <i>red</i> skins by +some strange blunder.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] This fountain of <i>four</i> drinks, seems copied +from honest Rubruquis; but with corrections and +amendments.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Magnificence of the Great Khan</i>.</p> + +<p>When the great khan sits upon his imperial throne of state, +his queen or empress sits upon his left hand; and on another and +lower seat two women are seated, who accompany the emperor in the +absence of his spouse; and underneath them all the other ladies +of the imperial family are placed. All the married ladies wear +ornaments on their heads, shaped like a mans foot, a cubit and a +half long[1], ornamented with cranes feathers, and richly set +with large oriental pearls. The eldest son and heir apparent of +the emperor, is seated on the right hand of the throne, and below +him sit all the nobles of the imperial race. There are likewise +four secretaries, who write down every word spoken by the +emperor. The barons and others of the nobility stand all around, +with numerous trains of their followers, and all preserve the +most profound silence, unless permitted to speak by the emperor; +except his jesters and stage-players, nor even they but as they +are ordered. Certain barons are appointed to keep the palace +gate, to prevent all who pass from treading on the threshold.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] In the plates of La Monarchie Francaise, by Pere +Montfaucon, the French ladies of the fourteenth century are +represented as wearing conical caps on their heads, at least one +third of their own height.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When the khan holds a solemn feast, he is attended upon by +about 14,000 barons, who have their heads ornamented by circlets +or coronets of gold, and who minister to him in all things; and +they are all richly dressed in cloth of gold, ornamented with +precious stones, the dress and ornaments of each being worth +10,000 florins[2]. His court is kept in the most perfect order, +the immense multitude of attendants being regularly arranged +under officers of tens, hundreds, and thousands, so that every +one perfectly knows his own place and performs his duty. I, friar +Oderic, was personally at Cambalu for three years, and was often +present at the royal banquets; for we of the minorite order have +a habitation appointed for us in the emperors court, and are +enjoined to go frequently into the presence, that we may bestow +our blessing on the emperor. I inquired from some of the +attendants at court concerning the numbers in the imperial +establishment, who assured me that, of stage-players, musicians, +and such like, there were at least eighteen tomans, and that the +keepers of dogs, beasts, and fowls, were fifteen tomans[3]. There +are four hundred physicians of the body to the emperor, eight of +whom are Christians, and one Saracen. The whole of these +attendants are supplied with all manner of apparel, victuals, and +necessaries, from the palace.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] One hundred and forty millions of florins, as the +value of the dresses of the nobles of the imperial court! It +seems that most writers concerning China are apt entirely to +forget the power of numbers, in the fervour of their +admiration.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Odericus, or his Bolandist biographer, seems to +have forgot that thirty-three tomans make 330,000 useless +ministers of luxury and folly. I strongly suspect the Minorites, +for the honour of Oderic, have ignorantly borrowed and +exaggerated from Marco Polo, to decorate the legend of the +favourite Saint of Udina.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When the khan makes a progress from one country to another, +there are four troops of horsemen appointed, having orders to +keep each at the distance of a days journey from the presence; +one in advance, one in the rear, and one on either hand, like a +cross, the emperor being in the middle; and each troop has its +regular days journey appointed for it, that all may keep in due +order, and be regularly supplied with provisions. The great khan +is carried in a chariot, having two wheels, on which a splendid +throne is built of aloes wood, magnificently adorned with gold, +precious stones, and pearls; and this moving throne is drawn by +four elephants, richly caparisoned; before which, four war +horses, in magnificent housings, are led for his particular use. +Close to the chariot, and keeping hold of it, eight barons attend +on either side, to prevent all persons from approaching too near, +or from incommoding the emperor. Two milk-white ger-falcons are +carried in the chariot along with the emperor, that he may fly +them at any game that comes in the way. No one dare come within a +stones throw of the chariot in which the emperor rides, except +those who are expressly appointed. The number of his own +followers, and of those who attend the empress, and on his eldest +son, would appear quite incredible to any person who had not seen +the same, and is therefore omitted. The whole empire is divided +into twelve great provinces, one only of which has 2000 great +cities within its bounds; and the whole is so extensive, that one +may travel continually for six months in any one direction, +besides the islands under his dominion, which are at least 5000 +in number.</p> + +<p>SECTION XV.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Inns established over the whole Empire, for the use +of Travellers</i>.</p> + +<p>That travellers may have all things necessary throughout the +whole empire, the emperor has caused certain inns to be provided +in sundry places upon the highways, where all kinds of provisions +are in continual readiness. When any intelligence is to be +communicated to him, his messengers ride post on horses or +dromedaries; and when themselves and their beasts are weary, they +blow their horns, and the people at the next inn provide a man +and horse in readiness to carry forward the dispatch. By this +means, intelligence, which would take thirty days in the ordinary +way of travelling, is transmitted in one day, and he is +consequently immediately informed of any important matter which +may occur in the most distant parts of his dominions.</p> + +<p>About twenty days journey from Cambalu, there is a forest of +six days journey in circuit, containing an incredible number of +different kinds of beasts and birds, to which the khan usually +goes for hunting, once in three or four years, attended by his +whole train. The attendants environ the whole forest, and, with +the assistance of dogs, drive all the lions, stags, and other +beasts before them, into a beautiful open plain in the midst of +the forest. Then the khan, mounted on a throne, carried by three +elephants, rides forwards to the throng of animals, and shoots +five arrows among the herd; and after him, all his barons in +succession, and the rest of his courtiers and family attendants, +discharge their arrows in like manner. Then all the surviving +beasts are allowed to go away into the forest, and all the people +go among those beasts which are slain, and each person knows by +the particular marks on their own arrows, which of the beasts he +has right to.</p> + +<p>SECTION XVI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the four Solemn Feasts held yearly by the Great +Khan</i>.</p> + +<p>The great khan celebrates four great feasts every year; on the +anniversaries of his birth, his circumcision, his coronation, and +his marriage. Sitting upon his throne of state, all his kindred, +barons, and stage-players, attend in great ceremony and in rich +attire; the highest order being dressed in green, the second in +red, and the third in yellow, all girt with golden girdles, half +a foot broad, and every one holding a small ivory tablet in his +hand, they all stand in regular order, keeping the most profound +silence. On the outside, all the stage-players, and the +musicians, with their musical instruments, are arranged. In one +of the corners of a certain great gallery, all the philosophers +or magicians attend, waiting for certain hours and moments, and +when the fortunate moment is arrived, a crier calleth out in a +loud voice, "Prostrate yourselves before the emperor," and then +all fall upon their faces. After a certain interval, the crier +again orders the whole assembly to rise up, and they do so. At +another particular moment, fixed by the philosophers, orders are +given in a loud voice, for every one to stop their ears with +their fingers; afterwards they are called upon to take out their +fingers. Many similar things are performed in this manner, which +they pretend to be significant, but which, being vain and +ridiculous, I gave no attention to, and am not inclined to write. +When the hour of music comes, the philosophers give the word, and +they all sound their instruments, making a great and melodious +noise; after which, orders are given to cease from the music. +Then come the women musicians, who sing sweetly before the +emperor, which I thought delightful. After them, the lions are +led in, and are made to pay their obeisance to the emperor. Then +the jugglers cause golden cups, full of wine, to fly up and down +in the air, and to apply themselves to mens mouths, that they may +drink. And many other strange things are performed, which I omit +to mention, as no one would believe me.</p> + +<p>I was informed by certain credible persons, that in the +mountains of Kapsei, in the kingdom of Kalor, which is in the +dominions of the great khan, there grow certain gourds, or +pompions, which open when ripe, and a little beast is found +within them, resembling a young lamb. I have likewise heard, that +there grow certain trees upon the shore of the Irish sea, which +carry a fruit like gourds, and that these fall into the sea at +certain times, and are changed into birds called Bernacles.</p> + +<p>SECTION XVII.</p> + +<p><i>Of various Provinces and Cities of the East</i>.</p> + +<p>After a residence of three years in Cambalu, I departed from +the empire of Kathay, and travelled fifty days to the west, when +I arrived in the dominions of Pretegoani[1], whose principal city +is Cosan. Continuing my journey for many days, I came to the +province of Casan, which is well inhabited, and one of the first +countries in the world, for abundance of provisions, and +commodities of all kinds, especially of chesnuts; and, is so +extremely populous, that, on leaving the gates of any one city, +we may always have the gates of another within sight. This +country is fifty days journey in breadth, and it is above sixty +days journey in length. This is one of the twelve great provinces +belonging to the great khan.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This strange word, both in the Latin and English +of Hakluyt, is obviously the Italian for Prester John, +information concerning whom will be found in the travels of Marco +Polo.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Farther on, I came into another kingdom belonging to the khan, +called Tebek or Thibet, which is, in my opinion, more abundant in +bread and wine than any other country in the world. The +inhabitants mostly dwell in tents of black felt, The principal +city is surrounded by beautiful walls, built of large white and +black stones, disposed chequerwise; and all the highways of the +country are well paved. In this country, from certain religious +notions, no one dares shed the blood of a man, or of any beast. +The Abassi, who is their Pope, dwells in the city already +mentioned, being the head or prince of all the idolaters, on whom +he bestows gifts; just as our Pope of Rome considers himself to +be the head of all the Christians. The women of this country wear +a prodigious number of ornaments, and they have two long teeth +like the tusks of a boar. When any man dies in this country, his +son assembles all the priests and musicians that he can procure, +to do honour to his father, whose body he causes to be carried +out into the fields, accompanied by all the kindred, friends, and +neighbours of the family. Then the priests, with great solemnity, +cut off the head of the deceased, which they give to his son; +after which, they divide the whole body into small pieces, which +they leave strewed about the place; and then the whole company +return home in solemn procession, accompanied with prayers, the +son bearing his fathers head. On their departure from the field, +the vultures of the country, accustomed to similar banquets, come +down from the mountains, and carry off all the remains of the +deceased person; who is thereupon pronounced holy, because the +angels of God, as they say, have carried him to paradise. When +the procession returns to the dwelling of the deceased, the son +boils the head of his father, and eats the flesh, converting the +skull into a drinking cup, out of which he, and all his family, +and kindred, carouse with much, mirth and solemnity, in +remembrance of his father. This nation has many other vile and +abominable customs, which I refrain from describing, because no +one would believe them unseen.</p> + +<p>SECTION XVIII.</p> + +<p><i>Of a certain Rich Man, who was Fed by fifty +Virgins</i>.</p> + +<p>While in the province of Mangi, or Southern China, I passed by +the palace of a rich man, who is continually attended upon by +fifty young virgins, who feed him at every meal as a bird feeds +her young; and all the time they are so employed, they sing to +him most sweetly. The revenues of this man are thirty toman of +tagars of rice, each toman being 10,000 tagars, and one tagar is +the burthen of an ass. His palace is two miles in circuit, and is +paved with alternate plates of gold and silver. Near the wall of +his palace, there is an artificial mound of gold and silver, +having turrets and steeples, and other magnificent ornaments, +contrived for the solace and recreation of this great man.[l] I +was further informed, that there are four such great men in the +kingdom of Mangi. It is reckoned a great mark of dignity, among +the great men of this country, to have their nails of great +length; more especially their thumb nails, which are sometimes of +sufficient length to be wrapped round the hand. The beauty, and +even the rank of their women is supposed to consist in the +smallness of their feet; for which reason, mothers bind up the +feet of their daughters when young, to prevent them from growing +large.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This seems an ill-digested account of a pagoda, +or idol temple, of great extent and magnificence, richly gilt, +similar to those of which we have splendid views in the relation +of the embassy to Ava, by Colonel Symes.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION XIX.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Old Man of the Mountain</i>.</p> + +<p>Proceeding on my travels towards the south, I arrived at a +certain pleasant and fertile country, called Melistorte[1], in +which dwells a certain aged person called the Old Man of the +Mountain. This person had surrounded two mountains by a high +wall, within which he had the fairest gardens, and finest +fountains in the world, inhabited by great numbers of most +beautiful virgins. It was likewise supplied with fine horses, and +every article that could contribute to luxury and delightful +solace; on which account it was called by the people of the +country the terrestrial paradise. Into this delightful residence, +the old man used to entice all the young and valiant men he could +procure, where they were initiated into all the delights of the +earthly paradise, in which milk and wine flowed in abundance, +through certain hidden conduits. When desirous of assassinating +any prince or nobleman, who had offended him, the old man would +order the governor of his paradise to entice into that place, +some acquaintance or servant of the prince or baron whom he +wished to slay. Allowing this person to take a full taste of the +delights of the place, he was cast into a deep sleep by means of +a strong potion, in which state he was removed from paradise. On +recovering from his sleep, and finding himself excluded from the +pleasures of paradise, he was brought before the old man, whom he +entreated to restore him to the place from whence he had been +taken. He was then told, that, if he would slay such or such a +person, he should not only be permitted to return into paradise, +but should remain there forever. By these means the old man used +to get all those murdered, against whom he had conceived any +displeasure; on which account all the kings and princes of the +east stood in awe of him, and paid him tribute.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] It is impossible to explain this strange word, +Melistorte. the dominions of the old man of the mountain, and his +earthly paradise, in some other travels of the present volume, +are said to have been situated in the north of +Persia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When the Tartars had subdued a large portion of the earth, +they came into the country of the old man, and took from him his +paradise. Being greatly incensed at this, he sent out many of his +resolute and desperate dependents, by whom numbers of the Tartar +nobles were slain. Upon this, the Tartars besieged the city of +the old man of the mountain; and, making him prisoner, they put +him to a cruel and ignominious death.</p> + +<p>SECTION XX.</p> + +<p><i>Of several wonderful things in those parts</i>.</p> + +<p>In that place[1], the friars have the special gift, that, +through the power of the name of Jesus Christ, and of his +precious blood, which was shed on the cross for the remission of +our sins, they speedily expel devils from those who are +possessed. And as there are many possessed persons in those +parts, they are brought bound, from the distance of ten days +journey all around, to the friars; and being dispossessed of the +unclean spirits, they immediately believe in Christ, who hath +delivered them, and are baptized in his name, delivering up to +the friars all their idols, and the idols of their cattle, which +are usually made of felt, or of womens hair. Then the friars +kindle a great fire in some public place, into which they cast +the idols before all the people. At the first, the idols used to +come out of the fire; but the friars, having sprinkled the fire +with holy water, threw in the idols again, where they were +consumed to ashes; and the devils fled away in the likeness of +black smoke, when a noise was heard in the air, crying out aloud, +"Behold how I am expelled from my habitation!" By these means, +the friars have baptized great multitudes; but they mostly return +soon again to their idols, on which account, the friars have +continually to abide among them, to exhort and instruct them in +the faith.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The place in which these wonderful things were +seen, is no where indicated; neither is the omission to be +regretted, as the whole is evidently fabulous.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>I saw another terrible thing in those parts. Passing by a +certain valley, near a pleasant river, I saw many dead bodies +therein, and I heard issuing therefrom many sweet and harmonious +musical sounds, especially of lutes; insomuch that I was much +amazed. This valley is at least seven or eight miles long, into +which, whoever enters, is sure to die immediately; for which +cause, all who travel by that way pass by on one side, no one +being able to travel through that valley and live. But I was +curious to go in, that I might see what it contained. Making +therefore my prayers, and recommending myself to God, I entered +in, and saw such vast quantities of dead bodies, as no one would +believe, unless he had seen them with his own eyes. At one side +of the valley, I saw the visage of a man upon a stone, which +stared at me with such a hideous aspect, that I thought to have +died on the spot. But I ceased not to sign myself with the sign +of the cross, continually saying "The Word became flesh, and +dwelt with us." Yet I dared not to approach nearer than seven or +eight paces; and at length, I fled to another part of the valley. +I then ascended a little sand hill; from whence, looking around, +I saw on every side the before mentioned lutes, which seemed to +me to sound of themselves in a most miraculous manner, without +the aid of any musicians. On the top of this sand hill, I found +great quantities of silver, resembling the scales of fishes, and +gathered some of this into the bosom of my habit, to shew as a +wonder; but, my conscience rebuking me, I threw it all away, and +so, by the blessing of God, I departed in safety. When the people +of the country knew that I had returned alive from the valley of +the dead, they reverenced me greatly; saying, that the dead +bodies were subject to the infernal spirits, who were in use to +play upon lutes, to entice men into the valley, that they might +die; but as I was a baptized and holy person, I had escaped the +danger. Thus much I have related, which I certainly beheld with +mine own eyes; but I have purposely omitted many wonderful +things, because those who had not seen them would refuse to +believe my testimony.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXI.</p> + +<p><i>Of the Honour and Reverence shewn to the Great +Khan</i>.</p> + +<p>I shall here report one thing more concerning the great khan +of Cathay, of which I was a witness. It is customary, when he +travels through any part of his wide dominions, that his subjects +kindle fires before their doors, in such places as he means to +pass, into which they fling spices and perfumes, that he may be +regaled by their sweet odour. And numberless multitudes flock +from all quarters, to meet him, and do him homage. Upon a certain +time, when the approach of the khan to Cambalu was announced, one +of our bishops, together with several minorite friars and myself, +went out two days journey from the city to meet him. When we came +nigh to his presence, we bore aloft a cross upon a pole, and +began to sing <i>Veni Creator</i>, in a loud voice, while I +carried the censer. When he came up to the place where we were +singing by the way side, he called us to come towards him; for no +man dare approach within a stones throw of his chariot, unless +called, except those only who are appointed to attend upon his +person. When we came near, he took off his cap or helmet, of +inestimable value, and did reverence to the cross. I immediately +put incense into the censer; and the bishop, taking the censer +into his own hands, perfumed the khan, and gave him his +benediction. Besides this, as those who approach the great khan +always bring with them some offering to present to him, according +to the ancient law. "Thou shalt not come empty handed into my +presence," so we carried some apples along with us, and +reverently offered them to him on a salver; and he was pleased to +take two of our apples, of one of which he eat a part. The khan +then gave a sign for us to depart, lest we might have been +injured by the crowd of horses; upon which we turned aside to +certain of his barons, who had been converted to the Christian +faith, and who were then in his train, to whom we offered the +remainder of our apples, which they joyfully received, as If we +had made them some great gift.</p> + +<p>SECTION XXII</p> + +<p><i>Conclusion of the Travels, and Account of the Death of +Friar Oderic</i>.</p> + +<p>All the above were put down in writing by friar William de +Solanga, as dictated to him by friar Oderic, in the year of our +Lord 1330, in the month of May, and in the place of St Anthony at +Padua. He hath not attempted to render these relations into fine +Latin, or in an eloquent style, but hath written them even as +rehearsed by Oderic himself.</p> + +<p>I, friar Oderic of Portenau, in the Friuli, of the order of +minorites, do hereby testify, and bear witness to the reverend +father Guidotus, minister of the province of St Anthony, in the +marquisate of Trevigi, by whom I was commanded so to do, that all +which is here written, was either seen by myself or reported to +me by credible and worthy persons; and the common report of the +countries through which I travelled, testifies all those things +which I have seen and related to be true. Many other wonderful +things I have omitted, because they were not seen by myself. It +is farther mine intention, soon again to travel into foreign and +far distant lands, in which I may live or die, as it may please +the Almighty Disposer of events.</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 1331, friar Oderic, resolving to enter +upon his intended journey, determined to present himself before +Pope John XXII[1] on purpose to receive his benediction, that his +labour might be the more prosperous; as he intended to travel +into the countries of the infidels, with certain friars who had +agreed to accompany him. While journeying to the residence of the +pope, and not far distant from the city of Pisa, he was +encountered by an old man in the garb of a pilgrim, who saluted +him by name, saying, "Hail to you, friar Oderic." And when Oderic +inquired how he should know him, the old man answered, "While you +were in India, I well knew both you and your holy purpose; but +now be warned from me, and return to the convent whence you came, +for in ten days you shall depart out of this world." Upon this +the old man immediately vanished, from his sight; and Oderic, +amazed at his words, determined to return to his convent, which +he did in perfect health, feeling no illness, or decay of his +body or faculties. And ten days afterwards, being then in his +convent at Udina, in the province of Padua, and having received +the holy communion, as preparing himself unto God, yea, being +strong and sound of body, he happily rested in the Lord, +according as it had been revealed. Which holy death was signified +unto the foresaid supreme pontiff, under the hand of a public +notary, in the following words:</p> + +<blockquote>[1] This pope reigned from about 1317 to 1334, so +that the original editor, or fabricator of these travels, has so +for been fortunate in his chronology.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>"On the 14th of January, in the year of our Lord 1331, the +blessed Oderic, a friar of the minorite order, deceased in +Christ; at whose prayers God shewed many and sundry miracles, +which I, Guetelus, public notary of Udina, son of Dora. Damiano +de Portu Gruario, at the command and direction of the noble lord +Conradus, of the borough of Gastaldion, one of the council of +Udina, have written down with good faith to the best of my +abilities; and I have delivered a copy of the same to the friars +minors: Yet not of the whole, because they are innumerable, and +too difficult for, me to write."</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-13">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Sir John Mandeville into the +East, in 1322.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. in the Nerth, p. 148. +Pinkert. Mod. Geogr. II. xxxvi. Hakluyt, II. 76.</blockquote> + +<p>The travels of Sir John Mandevil, or Mandeville, are to be +found in Latin in Haklyuts collection. An edition of this strange +performance was published in 8vo. at London in 1727, by Mr Le +Neve, from a MS. in the Cotton Library. This old English version +is said to have been made by the author from his own original +composition in Latin. It is a singular mixture of real or +fictitious travels, and compilation from the works of others +without acknowledgement, containing many things copied from the +travels of Oderic, and much of it is culled, in a similar manner, +from the writings of the ancients. Though, from these +circumstances, it is a work of no authenticity and unworthy of +credit, it has been judged indispensable to give some account of +its nature and contents.</p> + +<p>Mandeville affirms that he was descended of an ancient and +noble family, and was born at St Albans. After receiving the +rudiments of a liberal education, he says that he studied +mathematics, physic, and divinity, and wrote books on all these +sciences; and became expert in all the exercises then befitting a +gentleman. Having a desire to travel, he crossed the sea in 1322, +or 1332, for different manuscripts give both dates, and set out +on a journey through France towards the Holy Land, a description +of which country, replete with monkish tales, and filled with the +most absurd holy fables, occupies half of his ridiculous book. In +the very outset he pretends to have visited India, and the Indian +islands, and other countries; all of which appears to be +fabulous, or interpolation. Before proceeding to the Holy Land, +perhaps the sole country which he really visited, he gives +various routes or itineraries to and from Constantinople, +containing no personal adventures, or any other circumstances +that give the stamp of veracity; but abundance of nonsensical +fables about the cross and crown of our Saviour, at the imperial +city.</p> + +<p>He pretends to have served in the army of the sultan of Egypt, +whom he calls Mandybron, who must have been Malek el Naser +Mohammed, who reigned from 1310 to 1341, and states a war against +the Bedouins, or Arabs of the desert, as the scene of his own +exploits. Yet he seems to have been entirely unacquainted with +Egypt, and gives only a slight mention of Cairo. He represents +the sultan as residing in Bablyon, and blunders into pedantic +confusion between Babylon in Egypt, and Babylon in Chaldea, all +of which is probably an injudicious complement from books common +at the time.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the book he gives some account of the +ideas of the Saracens concerning Christ; and then falls into a +roaming description of various countries, obviously compiled +without consideration of time or changes of people and names; +deriving most of his materials from ancient authors, particularly +from Pliny, and describing Mesopotamia, Chaldea, Albania, +Hircania, Bactria, Iberia, and others, as if such had actually +existed in the geography of the fourteenth century. Where any +thing like modern appears, it is some childish fable, as that the +ark of Noah was still visible on mount Ararat. He even gives the +ancient fable of the Amazons, whom he represents as an existing +female nation.</p> + +<p>He next makes a transition to India, without any notice of his +journey thither; arid gravely asserts that he has often +experienced, that if diamonds be wetted with May-dew, they will +grow to a great size in a course of years. This probably is an +improvement upon the Arabian philosophy or the production of +pearls by the oysters catching that superlative seminal +influence. The following singular article of intelligence +respecting India, may be copied as a specimen of the work: "In +that countree growen many strong vynes: and the women drynken +wyn, and men not: and the women shaven hire berdes, and the men +not." From India he proceeds to the island of Lamary, the Lambri +of Marco Polo; and by using the Italian term "the star +transmontane," at once betrays the source of his plagiarism. His +descriptions seem disguised extracts from Polo, with ridiculous +exaggerations and additions; as of snail shells so large as to +hold many persons. His account of the pretended varieties of the +human race, as of nations of Hermaphrodites, and others equally +ridiculous, which he places in separate islands of the Indian +ocean, are mere transcripts from Pliny.</p> + +<p>His accounts of Mangi and Kathay, or southern and northern +China, are most inaccurately stolen from Marco Polo, and +disguised or rather disfigured to conceal the theft. "The city +with twelve thousand bridges, has twelve principal gates, and in +advance from each of these a detached town, or great city, +extends for three or four miles." Though he pretends to have +resided three years in Cambalu, he does not seem to have known +the name of the khan, whom he served for fifteen months against +the king of Mangi. Leaving Cathay he goes into Tharsis, +Turquescen, Corasine, and Kommania, in which he seems to have +transcribed from Oderic; and makes Prester John emperor of India, +a country divided into many islands by the great torrents which +descend from Paradise! He gives also an account of a sea of sand +and gravel, entirely destitute of water, the Mare arenosum of +Oderic; to which he adds that it moves in waves like the ocean. +Though he makes Prester John sovereign of India, he assigns Susa +in Persia for his residence; constructs the gates of his palace +of sardonyx, its bars of ivory, its windows of rock crystal, and +its tables of emeralds; while numerous carbuncles, each one foot +in length, served infinitely better than lamps to illuminate the +palace by night. To many absurdities, apparitions, and miracles, +copied and disguised from Oderic, he adds two islands in the +middle of the continent, one inhabited by giants thirty feet +high, while their elder brethren in the other are from forty-five +to fifty feet.</p> + +<p>He borrows many fabulous stories from Pliny, and from the +romances of the middle, ages, yet so ignorantly as to reverse the +very circumstances of his authors. Andromeda is not the lady who +was rescued by Perseus, but the monster by which she was to have +been devoured. Two <i>islands</i> in India, one called Brahmin, +and the other Gymnosophist. And a thousand other fictions and +absurdities, too ridiculous even for the credulity of children. +Of this worse than useless performance, the foregoing analysis is +perhaps more than sufficient for the present work.--E.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-14">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and +China, in 1355.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North, p. +150.</blockquote> + +<p>In the year 1355, Francisco Balducci Pegoletti, an Italian, +wrote a system of commercial geography, of great importance, +considering the period in which it was written. Its title +translated into English, is, "Of the Divisions of Countries, and +of their Measures, Merchandize, and other things useful to be +known by the Merchants of various parts of the World." All of +this curious work which has any reference to our present +undertaking, is the chapter which is entitled, "Guide or the +Route from Tana to Kathay, with Merchandize, and back again." +This is published entire by J. R. Forster, with several learned +notes and illustrations, and is here reprinted.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> + +<p>From <i>Tana</i> or Asof to <i>Gintarchan</i> or Astracan[2], +is twenty-five days journey with waggons drawn by oxen; but may +be accomplished in ten or twelve days, if the waggons are drawn +by horses. On the road one meets with a great number of armed +<i>Moccols</i>, Moguls or Mongals. From Gintarchan to +<i>Sara</i>[3] by the river, it is only one days sail; but from +Sara to <i>Saracanco</i>[4], it takes eight days by water; one +may, however, travel either by land or water, whichever is most +agreeable; but it costs much less expence to go with merchandize +by water. From Saracanco to Organci[5] is a journey of twenty +days with loaded camels; and whoever travels with merchandize, +will do well to go to Organci, as it is a very convenient place +for the expeditious sale of goods. From Organci to Oltrarra[6], +it is thirty-five or forty days journey, with camels: But in +going direct from Saracanco to Oltrarra, it takes fifty days +journey; and if one has no merchandize, it is a better way than +to go by Organci. From Oltrarra to Armalecco[7], it is forty-five +days journey with loaded asses, and in this road, one meets every +day with Moguls. From Armalecco to Camexu[8], it is seventy days +journey on asses; and from Camexu to a river called the <i>Kara +Morin</i>[9], it is fifty days journey on horses. From this +river, the traveller may go to Cassai[10] to dispose of his +silver there, as it is an excellent station for the expeditious +sale of merchandize; and from Cassai, he may go through the whole +land of Gattay or Kathay, with the money he has received at +Cassai for his silver[11]. This money is of paper, and called +balischi, four of which balischies are equal to one silver +<i>somno</i>[12]. From Cassai to <i>Galmalecco</i>[l3], which is +the capital of the empire of Kathay, it is thirty days +journey.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Gintarchan, or Zintarchan, is, by Josaphat +Barbaro, called also Gitarchau; and Witsan, in his account of +Northern and Eastern Tartary, says Astracan was called of old +<i>Citracan</i>. By the Calmuks, it is called +Hadschi-Aidar-Khan-Balgassun, or the city of Hadschi Aidar Khan, +whence all these names are derived by an obvious corruption, like +[Greek: Eis tnae polis], or the city, by way of eminence, by +which the Greeks distinguished Constantinople, and which the +Turks have corrupted into Estambol, and +Stambol.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Sara is undoubtedly the town of Saray, situated +on the eastern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. The Astracan +mentioned in the text by Pegoletti, was not on the spot where +that city now stands; both that ancient Astracan and Saray having +been destroyed by Timur Khan, or Tamerlane, as he is usually +called, in the winter 1395. The old town of Saray was at no great +distance from ancient Astracan.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Saracanco is probably the town which formerly +existed on the river Jaik or Ural, the remains of which are now +known by the name of Saratschik.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The name of Organci is easily recognized In the +town of Urgenz in Kheucaresm; which is named Dschordschanio by +Abulfeda, and Korkang by the Persians. But there were two towns +of this name, the greater and the lesser Urgenz, or Old and New +Urgenz. The Old or Greater Urgenz was situated near to where the +Gihon discharges its waters into lake Aral; the New or Ixsser +Urgenz is to be found near Chiwa, or Chiva, on the +Gihon--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Oltrarra is properly called Otrar, and also +Farab, which latter name is to be found in Abulfeda. It is +situate on the river Sihon or Sire. The Chinese, who cannot +pronounce the letter <i>r</i>, call it +Uotala.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Armalecco is the name of a small town called +Almalig, which, according to Nassir Ettusi and Ulug-beg, is in +Turkestan. From the life of Timur Khan, by Shersfeddin Ali, it +appears that Almalig is situate between the town of Taschkent and +the river Irtiah, in the country of the Gete, and on the banks of +the river Ab-eile, which discharges itself into the Sihon, or +Sirr-Daria.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] Came-xu is in all probability the name of Khame +or Khami with the addition of xu, instead of Tcheou or Tsheu, +which, in the Chinese language, signifies a town of the second +rank.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Obviously the Kara-Moran, called Hoang-ho by the +Chinese, or the Yellow River.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Cassai, or Kaway, seems to be the place called +Kissen, on a lake of that name, near the northernmost winding +branch of the Kara-moran, in Lat. 41º.50'. N. long. +107°. 40'. E.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] It is curious to notice, in the writings, of +this intelligent commercial geographer, and in the travels of +Marco Polo, the peculiar advantages in commerce enjoyed by the +Chinese at so early a period, of being paid in sliver for their +commodities and manufactures. This practice, which prevailed so +early as 1260, the era of the elder Polos, and even, in 851, when +the Mahometan travellers visited Southern China, still continues +in 1810.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] The value of the silver <i>somno</i> is nowhere +mentioned; but it is of no importance, as it would not enable us +to institute any comparison of values +whatsoever.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Gamalecco is undoubtedly Cambalu, Cambalig, or +Khan-balig, otherwise Pekin; exactly as Gattay is substituted for +Katay Kathay, or Cathay. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<p>If the reader has any idea of the difficulty attendant on +making out so many places, disguised by a vicious orthography, a +difficulty, which is still more increased by the necessity there +is for determining, with accuracy, the situation of these places, +and their probable distances from each other, he will be ready to +allow that the task is certainly not very trifling, nor to be +accomplished without much labour. In the foregoing itinerary, +Pegoletti certifies the existence of the paper money which had +been previously mentioned by Rubraquis, Haitho, Marco Polo, and +Oderic: Some of these authors describe it as having been +fabricated of cotton paper; while others remark very justly, that +it was made of the bark of the paper mulberry tree. Oderic calls +it Balis, Pegoletti gives it the name of Balis-chi. A Jesuit +named Gabriel de Magaillans, pretends that Marco Polo was +mistaken in regard to this paper money; but the concurrent +testimony of five other credible witnesses of the fact, is +perfectly conclusive that this paper money did actually exist +during the first Mogul dynasty, the descendants of Zinghis, +called the legal tribe of <i>Yu</i> by the Chinese. On the +downfall of that race it was abolished.</p> + +<p>Supposing the station on the Kara-morin and Cassai to be the +same, which is highly probable, the whole journey in this +itinerary, from Asof to Pekin, extends to 276 days, besides nine +days more by water, or 285 in all; so that allowing for delays, +rests, accidents, and occasional trafficking, a whole year may +fairly be allowed, and as much for the return.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-15">CHAPTER XV.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno in +1380.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Ramusio. Forst. Voy. and Disc, p. +158.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Although we have admitted this article into our collection, on +the authority of Ramusio and J. R. Forster, we are disposed to +consider the whole as a fabrication, altogether unworthy of any +credit. The first section, indeed, may possibly have had some +foundation in truth, as the Zenos may have navigated about the +close of the fourteenth century to the Orkneys, and some +imperfect and disfigured narrative of their voyage may have +fallen into the hands of Marcolini, the author or editor of these +strangely distorted and exaggerated or pretended voyages. In +regard to the second section, unless we could suppose, that, by +Estoitland and Drogio, some strangely distorted account of +different districts in Ireland were meant to be enigmatically +conveyed, the whole of that section must be pronounced a palpable +and blundering forgery. But it appears obviously intended by the +relater, to impress upon his readers, that some portion of the +western hemisphere, afterwards named America, had been visited by +Antonio Zeno; and the high probability is, that Marcolini, a +patriotic Venetian, had invented the whole story, on purpose to +rob the rival republic of Genoa of the honour of haying given +birth to the real discoverer of the New World. If there be any +truth whatever in the voyages of the Zenos, it is only to be +found in the first section of this chapter; and even there the +possible truth is so strangely enveloped in unintelligible names +of persons and places, as to be entirely useless. The +<i>second</i> section is utterly unworthy of the slightest +serious consideration; and must either have been a posterior +fabrication, engrafted upon an authentic, but ignorantly told +narrative; or the seeming possibility of the <i>first</i> section +was invented to give currency to the wild forgery of the +<i>second</i>. Latin books, a library, gold, ships, and foreign +trade, corn, beer, numerous towns and castles, all in the most +northern parts of America in the <i>fourteenth</i> century, where +only nomadic savages had ever existed, are all irrefragable +evidence, that the whole, or at least that portion of the voyages +of the Zenos, is an idle romance. To increase the absurdity, as +if to try the gullability of the readers, <i>Dedalus</i>, a king +of Scotland! is assumed to have been the first discoverer of the +Western World; and his son <i>Icarus</i> is introduced to give +his name to a civilized island, already named Estoitland in the +narrative.</p> + +<p>After this decided opinion of the falsehood and absurdity of +the whole of this present chapter, it may be necessary to state, +that, in a work so general and comprehensive as that we have +undertaken, it did not seem advisable or proper to suppress an +article which had been admitted into other general collections of +voyages and travels. The remainder of this introduction is from +the work of Mr J. R, Forster, extracted partly from Ramusio, and +partly consisting of an ingenious attempt to explain and bolster +up the more than dubious production of Marcolini: But these +observations are here considerably abridged; as an extended, +grave, and critical commentary on a narrative we believe +fabulous, might appear incongruous, though it did not seem proper +to omit them altogether.--E.</p> + +<p>The family of Zeno, in Venice, was very ancient, and not only +of the highest rank of nobility, but celebrated for the +performance of great actions, and the highest offices of the +state had been filled from time immemorial by persons of the +family. About the year 1200, Marin Zeno assisted in the conquest +of Constantinople, and he was Podesta, or governor of that city, +about 1205. He had a son named Pietro Zeno, who was father to +Rinieri Zeno, who was elected doge, or Duke of Venice, in 1282, +and governed the republic for seventeen years, during which +period he waged a successful war against the Genoese. he adopted +Andrea, the son of his brother Marco, who was afterwards raised +to be captain-general of the Venetian fleet, in the war against +Genoa. Rinieri Zeno, the son of Andrea, was the father of Pietro +Zeno, who, in 1362, was captain-general of the Venetian squadron +in the allied fleet of the Christians against the Turks, and had +the surname of Dracone, from the figure of a dragon which he wore +on his shield. Pietro had three sons; Carlo Leone, the eldest, +who was procurator and captain-general of the fleet: of the +republic, and; rescued, her from imminent danger in a war in +which, almost all Europe was leagued for her destruction; the +second, Nicolo, called likewise il Cavaliere, or the night, +shewed great valour in the last mentioned war of <i>Chioggia</i> +against the Genoese; Antonio was the youngest.</p> + +<p>Francesco Marcolini, a learned Italia, extracted the whole of +the ensuing relation from the original letters of the two Zenos, +Nicole and Antonio, which is published in the collection of +Ramusio; and declares that Antonio laid down all the particulars +of these voyages, and of the countries he and his brother had +visited, on a map, which he brought with him to Venice, and which +he hung up in his house as a sure pledge and incontestible proofs +of the truth of his relations, and which still remained as an +incontrovertible evidence in the time of Marcolini. Many have +been inclined to reject the whole of this narrative because the +names which it assigns to several of the countries are nowhere +else to be found. After having carefully examined, and made a +translation of the whole, I am fully convinced that the narrative +is true, and that it contains internal proofs of its own +authenticity, and I hope fully to solve, in the course of this +dissertation, all the difficulties attending the names, which +have been strangely perverted by a vicious orthography.</p> + +<p>It has been alleged that the whole narrative has the +appearance of a mere fable; and it may be asked where is +<i>Friesland</i> and the other countries which it mentions, to be +found? Who has ever heard of a <i>Zichmuni</i> who vanquished +Kako, or Hakon, king of Norway, in 1369, or 1380? All this is +very plausible; but we think a good deal may be done for clearing +away the difficulties.</p> + +<p>Marcolini extracted this relation from the original letters of +the two Zenos, who were of one of the most considerable families +in Venice; a family which could not be supposed to have boldly +forged a story of this kind. The truth could easily have been +detected, whether these brothers existed or not, and whether they +ever made voyages to the north. Besides this, the map, actually +constructed by Antonio, and hung up in his house at Venice, +existed in the time of Marcolini, as a sure and incontestable +proof of the fidelity of the narrative. How then is it possible +to harbour any doubts? In this case, there must be an end of all +faith in history.</p> + +<p>I once held, that the countries described by the Zenos had +been swallowed up by an earthquake; but, reflecting that so great +a revolution in nature must have left some historical vestiges, +or traditions, I examined the matter over again, and found that +the countries described, bore a strong resemblance to the +Orkneys, Shetland, Faro, and Western Islands, &c. The Zenos +having represented <i>Porland</i> as composed of a cluster of +small islands, I suspected the other names might likewise refer +to collective groups. Thus <i>Estland</i> appeared to resemble in +name the Shetland, Zetland, or Hitland Islands; and on comparing +the names of <i>Tolas, Broas, Iscant, Trans, Mimant, Dambre</i>, +and <i>Bres</i>, with those of Yell, Zeal or Teal, Burray or +Bura, of which name there are two places, West Bura, and East +Bura, and when taken collectively the Buras, Unst, Tronda, +Main-land, Hamer, which is the name of a place in the mainland of +Orkney, and Brassa, or Bressa, the resemblance seemed so obvious, +that I no longer harboured any doubt. The land of <i>Sorani</i>, +which lay over against Scotland, naturally suggested the +<i>Suderoe</i>, or southern islands of the Norwegians, now called +the Western Islands or Hebrides. <i>Ledovo</i> and <i>Ilofe</i>, +are the Lewis and Islay. <i>Sanestol</i>, the cluster of islands +named <i>Schants-oer. Bondendon</i>, Pondon, or Pondon-towny in +Sky. <i>Frisland</i>, is Faira or <i>Fera</i>, also called +Faras-land. <i>Grisland</i> seems Grims-ay, an island to the +North of Iceland: though I would prefer Enkhuysan to the +eastwards of Iceland, but as that was probably nothing more than +an island of ice, we are compelled to assume Grims-ay, +<i>Engroneland</i> is obviously Greenland. <i>Estoitland</i> must +have been <i>Winland</i>, the Newfoundland of the moderns; and +the Latin books may have been carried there by bishop Eric of +Greenland, who went to Winland in 1121. <i>Drogio</i> lay much +farther south, and the people of <i>Florida</i>, when first +discovered, had cities and temples, and possessed gold and +silver.</p> + +<p><i>Icaria</i> with its king <i>Icarus</i>, could be no other +than Ireland[2] and perhaps the name took its origin from Kerry; +and as <i>Icarus</i> was chosen for the name of its first king +and lawgiver, his father must of course be <i>Dedalus</i> who, in +all probability, was some Scottish prince, having a name of a +similar sound. <i>Neome</i> I take to be Strom-oe, one of the +Faro isles, <i>Porland</i> probably meant the Far-oer, or Faro +islands; as Far-oe, or Far- land, is easily transmuted into +<i>Porland</i>.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] This is a most unlucky blunders as Icaria and +Estoitland are obviously one and the same place in the narrative +of Marcclini, and therefore, both must be America, or both +Ireland, or both in nubibus.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It is true that we find no such name as <i>Zicumni</i> among +the princes of the Orkneys. The race of the ancient earls of +Orkney, descendants of Jarl Einar-Torf, becoming extinct, Magnus +Smak, king of Norway, nominated, about 1343, Erngisel Sunason +Bot, a Swedish nobleman, to be Jarl or Earl of Orkney. In 1357 +Malic Conda, or Mallis Sperre, claimed the earldom. Afterwards, +in 1369, Henry Sinclair put in his claim, and was nominated earl +in 1370, by King Hakon. In 1375, Hakon nominated Alexander Le-Ard +to be earl for a year. But Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, and by a +large sum procured the investiture from Hakon in 1379, and we +know from history, that he remained earl in 1406, and was +likewise possessed of Shetland. The name <i>Sinclair</i>, or +<i>Siclair</i>, might easily to an Italian ear seem +<i>Zichmni</i>; and as Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, who +represented the king of Norway, it was no great impropriety to +say that he had beaten the king of Norway. After these +elucidations, there can be no reason left to doubt of the truth +of this narrative of the Zenos which besides, as considered with +relation to the geography of the north at that period, is of +great importance --Forst.</p> + +<p>SECTION I</p> + +<p><i>Narrative of Nicolo Zeno</i>.</p> + +<p>Nicolo Zeno, surnamed <i>il Cavaliere</i>, or the knight, had +a strong desire to see distant countries, that he might become +acquainted with the manners and languages of foreign nations, by +which he might acquire credit and reputation, and might render +himself the more useful to his country. Being a man of great +property, he fitted out a ship with this view, at his own +expence, in 1380, and sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar to +the northwards, intending to visit England and Flanders. By a +storm, which lasted many days, his ship was cast away on the +coast of <i>Frislanda</i>[1].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Faira, or Fara, in the Orkneys, called +Farras-land, and corrupted into Feislanda or +Frisland.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>The vessel was entirely lost, but the crew got safe on shore, +and part of the cargo was saved. Zeno and his people were soon +attacked by the natives, attracted by the hopes of a rich +plunder, against whom they were hardly able, in their weary and +weather-beaten state, to defend themselves; but, fortunately for +them, <i>Zichmni</i>, or Sinclair, the reigning prince or lord of +<i>Porlanda</i>[2], who happened to be then in <i>Frislanda</i>, +and heard of their shipwreck, came in all haste to their relief, +of which they stood in great need. After discoursing with them +for some time in Latin, he took them under his protection; and +finding Nicolo Zeno very expert, both in naval and military +affairs, he gave him, after some time, the post of admiral of his +fleet, which Nicolo for some time refused, but at length +accepted.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Mr Forster is not happy in his explanation of +this word, Porlanda or Porland, which he endeavours to derive +from Fara-land; precisely the same with Fris-land from +Faras-land, only dropping the genitive <i>s</i>. Porland seems +used as a general name of the earldom, perhaps connected with the +strange name Pomona, still used for mainland, the largest of the +Orkney islands. Frisland the particular Fara islands, or one of +them.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Not long afterwards, Nicola wrote an account of these +circumstances to his brother Antonio, inviting him to come to +<i>Frislanda</i>; who accordingly soon arrived there, and lived +four years along with Nicolo in that country; and remained ten +years in the service of <i>Zichmni</i>, or Sinclair, the prince +of that country, after the death of his brother Nicolo.</p> + +<p>Nicolo Zeno having been shipwrecked in 13SO, on the island of +<i>Frislanda</i>, and saved by prince <i>Zichmni</i> from the +rude attacks of the natives, put himself and all his people under +the protection of this prince, who was lord of certain islands +lying to the south of <i>Frislanda</i>, which were called +<i>Porlanda</i>, and were the most fertile and most populous of +all the islands in those parts. <i>Zichmni</i>, or Sinclair, was +besides this duke of <i>Sorany</i>[3], a place which lies on one +side of Scotland. Of these northern parts, I, Antonio Zeno, have +constructed a map, which hangs up in my house; and which, though +it be much decayed by time, may serve to give some information to +the curious.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] Sorany or Sorani, of which Sinclair is said to +have been duke or lord, Mr Forster considers to have been the +Sodor-oe, or southern islands of the Norwegians, or those now +called the Western Islands; and traces the corruption from the +Norwegian plural <i>Suder-oer</i> contracted <i>Soroer</i>, +varied <i>Soroen</i> and transmuted to <i>Sorani</i>. All this +may be possible; but it does not appear in Scots history that the +Sinclairs ever held the Western Islands, and certainly not at +this period: Sorani ought therefore to be looked for in +Caithness; or it may possibly refer to <i>Roslin</i> near +Edinburgh, which belonged to the family of +Sinclair.--E.</blockquote> + +<p><i>Zichmni</i> the lord of all these countries, was a man of +great courages and famous for his skill in navigation. The year +before the arrival of Nicolo Zeno, he had defeated the king of +Norway in a pitched battle, and was now come with his forces to +conquer <i>Frislandia</i>, which is much larger than Iceland. On +account of the knowledge of Nicolo Zeno in maritime affairs, the +prince took him and all his crew on board his fleet, and gave +orders to his admiral to treat him with the highest respect, and +to take his advice in every affair of importance.</p> + +<p><i>Zichmni</i> had a fleet consisting of thirteen vessels, two +of which only were galleys, the rest being small barks, and only +one of the whole was a ship[4]. With all these they sailed to the +westward, and without much difficulty made themselves masters of +<i>Ledovo</i> and <i>Ilofe</i>[5], and several other smaller +islands and turning into a bay called <i>Sudero</i>, in the haven +of the town of <i>Sanestol</i>[6] they took several small barks +laden with fish[7]; and here they found <i>Zichmni</i> who came +by land with his army, conquering all the country as he went. +They stayed here but a short time, and then shaped their course +to the westwards, till they came to the other cape of the gulf or +bay, and here turning again, they found certain islands and +broken lands, all of which they brought under subjection to +<i>Zichmni</i>, or Sinclair. These seas were all full of shoals +and rocks, insomuch that if Nicolo Zeno and the Venetian mariners +had not acted as pilots, the whole feet, in the opinion of all +who were in it, must have been lost; so small was the skill of +their people in comparison with ours, who had been trained up in +the art and practice of navigation from their childhood. After +the proceedings already mentioned, the admiral, by the advice of +Nicolo Zeno, determined to make for the shore, at a town called +<i>Bondendon</i>[8], with a view to get intelligence of the +success which <i>Zichmni</i> had met with in the prosecution of +the war on land. They here learned, to their great satisfaction, +that he had fought a great battle, in which he had put the army +of the enemy to flight; and in consequence of this intelligence, +the inhabitants sent ambassadors from all parts of the island, +agreeing to yield the country to his pleasure, and took down +their flags and ensigns in every town and castle. It was +therefore thought advisable to remain at <i>Bondendan</i> for his +arrival, as they had received reports that he would certainly be +there in a short time. On his arrival there were great +congratulations and rejoicings, as well for the victory obtained +by land as for the success of the naval expedition; and the +Venetians were much honoured and extolled for their skill, every +tongue being loud in their praises, and Nicolo Zeno was much +applauded for his prowess. The prince caused Nicolo to be brought +into his presence, and bestowed high commendations for the skill +he had exerted in saving the fleet, and for the great valour he +had displayed in the taking of many towns, where indeed there was +no great difficulty or opposition; in reward for which he +bestowed upon him the honour of knighthood, and distributed rich +and liberal presents among his followers. Departing from +<i>Bondendon</i>, the fleet returned in triumph to +<i>Frislanda</i>, the chief city of which is situated on the +south-east side of the island within a gulf, of which there are +many in that island. In this gulf or bay, there are such vast +quantities of fish taken, that many ships are yearly laden thence +to supply Flanders, Britannia[9], England, Scotland, Norway, and +Denmark; and the produce of this fishing brings great riches into +the country.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] By this latter distinction, Zeno probably means a +decked vessel.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] It is hardly possible to mention all the little +islands, and the places situated on the largest of the Orcadian +Islands, which by the ancients was called Pomona, and on account +of its size, is likewise called Mainland, also <i>Hross-ey</i>, +i.e. <i>Gross-ey</i>, or large island. The town was called +<i>Kirkiu-og</i> or the harbour near the church, now called by +the Scots, Kirkwall.--Forst. + +<p>In this note Mr Forster wanders from the subject in hand, and +his observations have no reference to the present expedition. +<i>Ledovo</i> is probably the Island of Lewis, and <i>Ilofe</i> +may possibly be Hay, though that conjecture would lead them too +far to the south.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] <i>Sudero</i>, or <i>Suder-oe</i>, might mean the +Western Islands so called by the Norwegians; but certainly here +means some bay of Sutherland, as they here met the troops of +Sinclair, who had marched by land. The town of <i>Sanestol</i> is +quite inexplicable. Though Mr Forster supposes it to have been +the cluster of islands called Schant, or Shanti-oer, which he +thinks is here corrupted into Sanestol: But, if correct in our +opinion, that they must have been on the main land of Scotland, +his conjecture must be erroneous. These conquests could be +nothing more than predatory, incursions, strangely +exaggerated.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] This is a very early mention of salted fish, yet +within the lifetime of William Beukels, the supposed inventor of +the art of pickling herrings who died in 1397. Professor Sprengel +has shewn that herrings were caught at <i>Gernemue</i>, or +Yarmouth, so early as 1283. In Leland's Collectanea we meet with +a proof that pickled herrings were sold in 1273; and there are +German records which speak of them so early as 1236. Vide Gerken, +Cod. Diplom. Brandenb. I. 45. and II. 45l.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] This is certainly a place in the isle of Sky +called Pondontown.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Britannia in this place is assuredly put for +Britany in France.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The foregoing circumstances were contained in a letter sent by +Nicolo Zeno to his brother Antonio, in which he invited him to +come to <i>Frislanda</i>; and accordingly the latter set sail for +this purpose, and, having surmounted many dangers, safely joined +his brother in that far distant country. Antonio remained +fourteen years in Frisland or Orkney; four years of that time +along with his brother, and ten years alone after the death of +Nicolo. The elder Zeno ingratiated himself so much into the +favour of the prince, that he was appointed admiral of a fleet +which was sent out upon an expedition against <i>Estland</i>[10], +which lies between Frisland and Norway. The invaders committed +great ravages in that country, but hearing that the king of +Norway was coming against them with a considerable fleet, they +departed in haste; and being assailed by a violent tempest, they +were driven on certain shoals where a part of their ships were +lost, and the remainder were saved upon <i>Grisfand</i>[11], a +large but uninhabited island. The fleet of the king of Norway was +overtaken by the same storm and mostly perished; of which +<i>Zichmni</i>, who was personally engaged in this expedition, +was apprized in consequence of one of the enemy's ships having +likewise been forced to take refuge in <i>Grisland</i>. Finding +himself driven so far to the north, and having repaired his +ships, Zichmni now resolved to make an attack upon the island of +Iceland, which was under the dominion of the king of Norway; but +finding it too well fortified and defended for his small force, +and reflecting that his diminished fleet was now in bad repair, +he deemed it prudent to retire. In his way homewards, however, he +made an attack upon the islands of <i>Estland</i>, of which there +are seven in number. These are <i>Tolas</i>, Yeal or Zel; +<i>Broas</i>, Brassa sound; <i>Iscant</i>, Unst or Vust; +<i>Trans</i>, Trondra; <i>Mimant</i>, Mainland; +<i>Danbert</i>[12]; and <i>Bres</i>, or Bressa; all of which he +plundered, and built a fort in Bres, where he left Nicolo Zeno in +the command, with a sufficient garrison and a few small barks, +while he returned himself to Frisland. In the ensuing spring, +Nicolo Zeno resolved to go out upon discoveries; and, having +fitted out three small vessels, he set sail in July, shaping his +course to the northwards, and arrived in <i>Engroveland</i>[13], +where he found a monastery of predicant friars, and a church +dedicated to St Thomas, hard by a mountain that threw out fire +like Etna or Vesuvius.</p> + +<blockquote>[10] Estland is probably meant for Shetland, formerly +called Yaltaland or Hitland, and afterwards changed into Zet-land +and Shetland. This will appear more distinctly in the sequel, +when the names given by Zeno to the particular islands of the +group, come to be compared with, the modern +names.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Grisland seems to be the island which lies to +the eastward of Iceland, called Enkhuyzen; perhaps the island of +Grims-ey to the north, of Iceland.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Probably Hamer, a place on the north of +Mainland.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Engrgroneland, Groenland, or +Greenland.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>In this place there is a spring of boiling hot water, by means +of which the monks heat their church, monastery, and cells. It is +likewise brought info their kitchen, and is so hot that they use +no fire for dressing their victuals; and by enclosing their bread +in brass pots without any water, it is baked by means of this hot +fountain as well as if an oven had been used for the purpose. The +monks have also small gardens, covered over in winter, which +being watered from the hot spring are effectually defended from +the extreme cold and snow, which are so rigorous in this region +so near the pole. By these means they produce flowers, and +fruits, and different kinds of herbs, just as they grow in +temperate climates; and the rude savages of those parts, from +seeing these to them supernatural effects, take the friars for +gods, and supply them with poultry, flesh[14], and various other +things, reverencing the monks as their lords and rulers. When the +frost and snow is considerable, the monks warm their apartments +as before described, and by admitting the hot water, or opening +their windows, they are able in an instant to produce such a +temperature as they may require.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] The poultry here mentioned in the text; must +have been ptarmagans and the flesh that of the +reindeer.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>In the buildings of their monastery they use no more materials +than are presented to them by the before mentioned volcano. +Taking the burning stones which are thrown from the crater, they +throw them, while hot, into water, by which they are dissolved +into excellent lime; which, when used in building, lasts forever. +The same stones, when cold, serve to make their walls and vaults, +as they cannot be broken or cut except with an iron instrument. +The vaults which they build with these stones are so light as to +require no props for supporting them[15]. On account of these +great conveniences, the monks have constructed so many walls and +buildings of different kinds, as is really wonderful to see. The +coverings or roofs of their houses are constructed for the most +part in the following manner: Having carried the wall to its full +height, they make it to incline or bend in gradually till it form +a regular vault. They are little incommoded with rain in this +country; as the climate is so extremely cold, that the first snow +that falls does not thaw for nine months.</p> + +<blockquote>[15] The lime or mortar here described, appears to be +the terra puzzuolana or terras, a compound of lime and oxid of +iron, which forms an indestructible cement, even under water; and +the remarkably light stones ejected from the volcano, and used in +the construction of their vault, were probably of +pumice.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The monks live mostly on fish and wild fowl; for, in +consequence of the boiling hot water running into a large and +wide haven of the sea, that bay is kept from freezing, and there +is so great a concourse of sea fowl and fish in that place, that +they easily take as many of them as they can possibly have +occasion for, with which they maintain a great number of people +round about, whom they keep constantly employed either in +building or in catching fish and fowls, and in a thousand other +necessary occupations relative to the monastery. The houses of +these natives are built on the hill near the monastery, of a +round form, about twenty-five feet wide at the bottom, and +growing gradually narrower as they go up, in a conical form, +ending in a small hole at top, to admit light and air; and the +floor of the house is so hot, that the inhabitants feel no cold +within doors at any season. To this place many barks resort in +summer from the neighbouring islands, from the cape above Norway, +and from <i>Trondon</i> or Drontheim, which bring to the fathers +all kind of commodities and merchandize that they have occasion +for; taking fish in exchange, dried either in the sun or by means +of cold, and the furs of various animals. The commodities brought +here for sale are, wood for fuel, wooden utensils, very +ingeniously carved, corn, and cloth for making into garments. By +these means the monks are plentifully supplied with every thing +they need, in exchange for their furs and fish, which are in +great request by all the neighbouring nations. Monks resort to +this monastery from Norway and Sweden, and other countries; but +principally from Iceland. It often happens that many barks are +detained here ail the winter, by the sea becoming frozen +over.</p> + +<p>The fishermens boats of this country are made in the form of a +weavers shuttle, long and narrow, and pointed at each end; +constructed of a light frame of fish bones, cased all over with +the skins of fishes, sewed together in many doubles, and so tight +and strong, that it is wonderful to see the people bind +themselves fast within them during storms, and allow the winds +and waves to drive them about, without fear of their boats +splitting or of themselves being drowned. Even when they are +driven against a rock, they remain sound and without hurt or +damage. In the bottom of each boat there is a kind of sleeve or +nose, tied fast in the middle by a string; and when any water +gets into the boat, they let it run into the upper half, of the +sleeve, which they then fasten with two pieces of wood, after +which they loosen the under band, and squeeze the water out; and +they repeat this operation as often as may be necessary with +great facility, and without danger.</p> + +<p>The water, of the boiling spring, being sulphureous, is +conveyed into the monastery, and the cells of the principal +friars, by means of pipes made of copper, tin, or stone; and is +so hot that it heats the apartments like a stove, without +communicating any disagreeable or unwholesome stench. Their sweet +water for drinking is conveyed in a subterraneous canal of +masonry, into a great copper reservoir in the middle of the court +of the convent; and this reservoir being contained within a +larger bason supplied from the boiling, spring, is continually +kept of a proper temperature, and prevented from freezing. This +they use in the preparation of their victuals, for drinking, and +for watering their gardens. Thus they derive much convenience and +comfort from the adjoining volcano, and these good friars make it +their chief study to keep their gardens in order, and to erect +commodious and even elegant buildings. For this latter purpose +they are in no want of good workmen and ingenious artizans, as +they give good wages, so that there is a great resort of workmen +and artizans of every denomination; they are likewise very +bountiful to those who carry them fruits, and seeds, and other +articles; and as great profits are to be made, and provisions are +very cheap, there is a great resort of workmen and artists of +every denomination, and of traders to this place. Most of these +monks speak Latin, particularly the superiors and principals of +the monastery.</p> + +<p>This is all that is known of <i>Engroveland</i> or Greenland, +from the relation of Nicolo Zeno, who gives likewise a particular +description of a river that he discovered, as is to be seen in +the map which I, Antonio Zeno, have drawn of all these countries. +Not being able to bear the cold of these northern and +inhospitable regions, Nicolo Zeno fell sick, and soon afterwards +returned to Frisland, where he died. He left two sons behind him, +John and Thomas; the latter of whom had likewise two sons, +Nicolo, the father of the celebrated Cardinal Zeno, and Peter, +from whom was descended the rest of the Zenos who are now living. +After the death of Nicolo, his fortune, honours, and dignity, +devolved upon his brother Antonio; and, though he made great +supplications and entreaties for the purpose, he was not +permitted to return to his native country; as Zichmni, who was a +man of a high spirit and great valour, had resolved to make +himself master of the sea, and for this purpose made use of the +talents and advice of Antonio, and ordered him to go with a few +barks to the westwards, because in the summer several islands had +been discovered by some of the fishermen. Of this voyage and the +discoveries which were made in consequence of it, Antonio gives +an account in a letter to his brother Carlo, which we here give +exactly as it was written, having only altered a few antiquated +words[16].</p> + +<blockquote>[16] The greater part of this concluding paragraph +must necessarily be in the language of the editor; perhaps of +Ramusio. It contains, however, some palpable contradictions, +since Nicolo Zeno could hardly be supposed to mention the +<i>rest</i> of the Zenos, descendants of his grand-nephew, while +still living himself; neither does it appear how the sons of +Nicolo got back to Venice; and there is no account of Antonio +ever being allowed to return at all.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Sequel of the Narrative by Antonio Zeno</i>.</p> + +<p>Twenty-six years ago, four fishing boats, which had been +overtaken by a violent storm, were driven out to sea for a great +many days; and on the cessation of the tempest, they discovered +an island called <i>Estoitland</i>, which lay above a thousand +miles to the westward of <i>Frisland</i>. One of the boats, +containing six men, was cast away upon this island; and the men, +being made prisoners by the inhabitants, were conducted to a fine +and populous city where the king resided, who sent for various +interpreters, but none could be found except one who spoke Latin. +This man, who, in like manner, had been cast by accident on the +same island, asked them, by order of the king, from what country +they had come; and being made acquainted with their case, the +king ordered that the should stay in the country. These orders +they obeyed, as indeed they could not do otherwise, and they +remained five years on the island, during which time they learned +the language of the people. One of them was in various parts of +the island, and affirms that it is a very rich country, abounding +in every commodity and convenience in life, being little less +than Iceland, but much more fertile, having a very high mountain +in the centre, from whence four great rivers take their source, +and traverse the whole country.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants are a very ingenious and sensible people, and +have arts and handicrafts of every kind as we have; and it is +highly probable that they formerly carried on some traffic with +Europe, as this man says he saw Latin books in the kings library, +but which at present they do not understand; for they have a +language of their own, and peculiar letters or characters in +which it is written. They trade with <i>Engroveland</i> or +Greenland, and get from thence furs, brimstone, and pitch. To the +south of <i>Estoitland</i> there is a very large and populous +country, which abounds with gold. The people sow corn, and make +the liquor called beer, which is drank by the people of the north +as wine is among us in Italy. They have large and extensive +woods; make their buildings with walls; and have a great number +of towns and castles. They build ships and navigate the sea; but +they have not the loadstone, and know nothing about the use of +the compass; on which account these fishermen were held in high +estimation, insomuch that the king sent them with twelve ships to +the southward to a country called Drogio. In their voyage +thither, they had such contrary winds and stormy weather that +they thought to have foundered at sea; but escaping that death, +they met with a fate still more dreadful, as they were made +prisoners by the savages, who are cannibals, and most of them +were devoured. But the Frisland fisherman and his companions, by +teaching these barbarians the way to catch fish with nets, saved +their lives. This man used to go every day to the sea or the +rivers, in which he caught vast quantities of fish, which he gave +away among the principal people of the country; by which means he +got into such high favour that he was beloved and respected by +every body.</p> + +<p>The fame of this man spread abroad through the whole country; +and one of the lords, being very desirous to have him, that he +might see and learn this new and wonderful art of catching fish, +made war against the lord with whom he lived, and prevailing in +consequence of his superior power and greater skill in war, the +fisherman and his companions were given up to him as the price of +peace. During thirteen years that he resided in these parts, he +says that he was transferred in this manner to twenty-five +different lords, as they were continually at war with each other +to procure possession of him; so that by wandering about the +country in this manner he became perfectly well acquainted with +every part of it, He says that it is a very extensive country, +and as it were a new world; but that the inhabitants are a rude +unpolished people, without the enjoyment of any convenience of +life; for, although they take or kill many wild animals in +hunting, they have not the sense to make their skins into +garments, but all go naked, and are miserably pinched with cold. +They are besides extremely uncivilized and savage, continually +engaged in wars against each other, in which they commit horrible +ravages, and devour their prisoners. They know not the use of any +metal, and live by the chase, being armed with spears of wood +made sharp at the point, and use bows, the strings of which are +made of slips of hide. They are divided into small tribes, each +of which has its lord or governor, and the laws or customs of the +several tribes differ much from each other. Farther to the +southwest, however, the manners are more civilized in proportion +to the increasing mildness of the climate; and there the people +are not without some degree of knowledge, making use of gold and +silver, and having cities and temples dedicated to idols, in +which they offer up human sacrifices.</p> + +<p>After residing many years among this savage people, the +principal fisherman became desirous of returning into his own +country, but his companions being without hope of ever seeing it +again, wished him prosperity in his attempt, and resolved to +remain where they were. Bidding them farewell, he fled through +the woods, in the direction which led towards <i>Drogio</i>, and +was received with great kindness by one of the lords of that +country who knew, him, and who was a determined enemy to the lord +from whence he had escaped. Thus passing from one lord to +another, with all of whom he was well acquainted, as he had +formerly resided with them all, he at length, and with great +difficulty, arrived in Drogio, where he stayed three years. Then +fortunately hearing that some small vessel had arrived on the +coast, he went thither, and learned, to his unspeakable +satisfaction, that they were from <i>Estoitland</i>. Upon this, +he earnestly requested to be taken on board, which they did very +willingly; and as he understood the language of the country, +which the others did not, he became their interpreter. He +afterwards made repeated voyages from <i>Estoitland</i> to +<i>Drogio</i> and acquired great riches. After which, he equipped +a bark of his own, in which he returned to <i>Frisland</i> where +he made a report to his lord of all that had befallen him, and of +the discovery he had made of an extensive and wealthy +country.</p> + +<p>As this strange and marvellous story was confirmed by the +testimony of the sailors he had brought along with him, it gained +full credit; and accordingly Zichmni determined to send me, +Antonio Zeno, with a fleet into these parts; and so great was the +desire among the people to embark in this expedition, that our +fleet was well manned and equipped without expence to the public. +I accordingly set sail with a great number of ships and men, but +not commander in chief as I expected, for Zichmni went in person +on the expedition. Our great preparation for the voyage to +<i>Estoitland</i> began in an unlucky hour as, three days before +our departure, the fisherman died who was to have been our guide; +yet Zichmni would not give up the enterprise, but took for, his +guides several of the sailors who had returned with the fisherman +from <i>Estoitland</i>. Shaping our course to the westwards, we +passed several islands subject to <i>Frisland</i>, and arrived at +<i>Ledovo</i>, or the Lewis, where we staid a week to refresh +ourselves, and to provide the fleet with necessaries. Departing +thence, we arrived on the first of July off the island of +<i>Ilofe</i>, or Islay; and the wind being favourable, did not +stop there but stood on our voyage. Not long afterwards, being in +the main sea, we were overtaken by a dreadful tempest, which +tossed us to and fro, at the mercy of the winds and waves for +eight days, so that we knew not whereabouts we were. By the +violence of this tempest, we lost many of our vessels, but after +the return of good weather, we collected the remains of our +shattered fleet, and having a fair wind, we stood on to the +westwards, and at length descried the coast of <i>Estoitland</i>, +and arrived in a good and safe harbour. Here we saw an infinite +number of armed men running furiously towards the shore, +apparently for the purpose of defending the island. Upon this, +Zichmni commanded signs of peace to be made, and the islanders +sent ten men to us who could speak ten different languages; but +we could understand none of these, excepting one man who happened +to be an Icelander. This man was brought to our prince, and gave +the following account of the country; and people.</p> + +<p>The land was called <i>Icarta</i>, and all its kings were +named <i>Icarus</i>, after the name, of its first king, who was +the son of <i>Daedalus</i> king of Scotland. This <i>Daedalus</i> +had discovered and conquered the island, and after instituting +the body of laws by which they are still governed, had left them +his son to be their king. After this, <i>Daedalus</i>[1] sailed +in quest of farther discoveries, but was overtaken by a violent +storm and drowned. In memory of which, they named their island +Icaria, the sea surrounding it the <i>Icarian</i> sea, and all +their successive kings <i>Icarus</i>. He stated, moreover, that +they were perfectly contented with the state in which they had +been placed by Providence, and not choosing to make the smallest +change in their manners and customs, would admit no strangers +into their land; and therefore requested the prince not to +attempt violating the laws of their king, of glorious memory, as +any such attempt would turn to his manifest destruction, since +they were resolved to sacrifice their lives in defence of their +laws. They were willing, however, to receive <i>one</i> of our +men, who should be advanced to the rank of a chief, on purpose to +learn our language; having already received <i>ten</i> different +men with that view from ten different nations.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Or Icarus, for the language in Forster is +ambiguous, and does not clearly fix this important historical +fact!--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Upon this <i>Zichmni</i> sailed from the harbour, as if +meaning to go away from the island; but being in want of wood and +water, he skirted along the coast at some distance, and put into +another harbour on the eastern side of the island with all his +fleet. Here the mariners went on shore, and procured the +necessary supplies with all possible speed, lest they might be +attacked by the natives. This precaution was by no means +unnecessary, for the inhabitants near this harbour made signals +by fire and smoke to the rest of the country; and taking to their +arms, were soon joined by others, and came down upon our men with +bows and arrows, and other weapons, and in the conflict, many of +them were killed, and others dangerously wounded[2]. We were +therefore obliged to depart, and made a large circuit round the +island, always accompanied on the shore and on the hills by a +vast number of armed men to oppose our landing. Seeing that +nothing could be done here, Zichmni set sail to the eastwards +with a fair wind; and after six days sail, we came in sight of +land, which we found to be a very good country, with an excellent +harbour. We descried a mountain at a considerable distance, which +emitted smoke, and Zichmni sent an hundred soldiers to explore +the country, and to inquire if it were inhabited. In the +meantime, we took in wood and water, and caught vast quantities +of fish and sea-fowl, and procured immense numbers of eggs; so +that our people, before almost famished, had now more provisions +than they could eat. To this harbour, we gave the name of port +<i>Trin</i>, and the point that stretched out into the sea was +named Cape <i>Trin</i>. The soldiers who had been sent out to +examine the country, returned at the end of eight days, and +reported they had been all through the island, quite to the +smoking mountain, and that the smoke we saw proceeded from a fire +at its bottom, where there was a spring of liquid pitch which ran +into the sea. They said likewise, that the interior of the island +was inhabited by a wild people, who were very short in stature, +and timid, and hid themselves in, caves.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The expression is here so equivocal as to leave +in doubt whether the killed and wounded were <i>Icarians</i> or +<i>Frislanders</i>, or part of both.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On receiving this piece of intelligence, and considering that +the island was blest with a pure and wholesome air, good soil, +fine rivers, and many other advantages, Ziehmni resolved to +people it and to build a town at Port Trin, and took, great pains +to discover the whole of it, and to explore the seas on both +sides of <i>Engroveland</i>, or Greenland. But many of his people +began to murmur, being quite wearied with so tedious a voyage, +alleging, that as the winter was fast approaching, they should +not be able to return home before the ensuing summer, if they +made any longer delay. On this account, retaining only the +row-boats, and as many men as were willing to stay with him. +Zichmni sent away all the rest of the people with the ships, +giving the command to me, Antonio Zeno, much against my will. +Taking therefore our departure, we sailed twenty days to the +eastwards, without seeing any land; on which we shifted our +course to the south-east, and after five days, we came in sight +of the island of Neome[3], so that we passed Iceland without +seeing it. We here procured refreshments from the inhabitants, +who were subject to Zichmni, and sailed thence in three days to +<i>Frisland</i>, where we were received with great joy, as the +people thought, in consequence of our long absence, that their +prince and the whole armament had been lost.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] <i>Neome</i> seems to be the isle or Stromoe, one +of the Faro Islands; as it is in fact to the southward of +Iceland, and only three days sail from the Orkneys, the +Faras-islands, or <i>Frisland</i> of this +author.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>As to the particulars concerning the people and their customs, +the animate, and the productions of these countries, I have +written all these in a separate book, in which I have described +the country, and the wonderful fishes of <i>Frisland, +Estland</i>, Norway, <i>Estoitland, Drogio, Icaria</i>, and +<i>Engroveland</i>, on both its sides. I have composed likewise, +the life of my brother Nicolo Zeno, with an account of his +discoveries; and a history of the life and acts of +<i>Zichmni</i>, a prince as worthy of immortal fame as any that +ever lived, having been famous for his valour, enterprising +spirit, and humanity.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-16">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of John Schildtberger into +Tartary, in 1394.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. +158.</blockquote> + +<p>John Schildtberger, a native of Munich in Bavaria, went with +the army of King Sigismund of Hungary, against the Turks in 1394. +In 1395, being taken prisoner, he was sent by Bajazet, whose name +he always writes <i>Weyasit</i>, into Asia. In the great battle, +in which Bajazet was defeated, and taken captive by Timur, +Schildtberger was again made prisoner, and accompanied that +conqueror in all his expeditions, till his death in 1405, at +Otrar or Farab, though Schildtberger says that he died in his +capital of Samarcand. After the death of Timur, he entered into +the service of Shah-Rokh, and was left by that prince among the +auxiliary troops, which assisted his brother Miran-Shah against +Kara-Joseph, a Turkomanian emir of the black-weather tribe. +Miran-shah having been made prisoner and beheaded by Kara-Joseph, +Schildtberger followed the standards of Abubekr, the son of +Miran-shah.</p> + +<p>At this time, there lived in the court of Abubekr, a prince +named Zegra, a son of the khan of Great Tartary, to whom Ideku[2] +sent word that he would resign to him the sovereignty of +Kiptschak. Zegra accordingly set out for Great Tartary, +accompanied by Schildtberger, and four others. Their route lay +through <i>Strana</i>[3], which produces good silk; then through +<i>Gursey</i>, Gurghia, or Georgia, which is inhabited by +Christians; after this, through the country of, +<i>Lahinsham</i>[4], where silk is cultivated; and through +<i>Schurban</i>, or Shirvan, where the silk is produced from +which the silk stuffs of Damascus and <i>Kaffer</i>[5] are made. +They next passed through <i>Bursa</i>[6], which is situated in +Turkey, and from whence the fine silk, of which velvet is +manufactured, is sent to Venice and Lucca: This is an unhealthy +country. Their route next lay through <i>Temur-capit</i>, +Demir-Kapi or, Derbent, which signifies, in the Tartarian +language, the Iron-gate, and which separates Persia from Tartary. +They then went through a town of great strength, called +<i>Origens</i>[7], situated in the middle of the <i>Edil</i>. +After this, their way was through the mountainous country of +Setzalet, in which there are many Christians, who have a bishop +and some Carthusian monks, who perform the service in the +Tartarian language, that the common people may understand what is +sung and read. They were now arrived in Great Tartary, at the +camp of Ideku, who had just assembled all his forces and was +going to march into the land of <i>Ibissibur</i>[8]. In this +expedition, they employed two months of continual marching; in +the course of which, they crossed a range of mountains, +thirty-two days journey in length, and at their extremity, there +is a desert, which is the end of the world[9]; which desert is +uninhabitable from the number of reptiles and wild beasts with +which it is infested. These mountains are inhabited by roaming +savages, who are hairy all over, except their faces and +hands[10], and who subsist on green leaves and roots, or whatever +they can procure. In this country, also, there, are wild asses as +large as horses. The inhabitants employ dogs, as large as asses, +to draw carts and sledges, and some times feed upon them. They +are Christians, and they bury, their young people who die in +celibacy, with music and rejoicing, eating and drinking at their +graves. In this country they cultivate nothing but beans, and +they eat no bread. Having made a conquest of <i>Bissibur</i>, +they marched into. <i>Walor</i>[11], which they also conquered, +and then returned into Kiptschak.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] About this period, many abuses subsisted among +the Golden Tribe on the Wolga. Mamay and Ideku, or Yedeghey-khan, +called Edigi by Schildtberger, had not the title of great khan of +the Golden Tribe in Kiptschak, but held in fact the supreme power +in their hands, and set up khans from among the royal family, or +deposed them at their pleasure.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The names are much disfigured, and the +commencement of the journey is not mentioned; but, from the +course afterwards, this may be some corruption for Armenia, or +one of its districts.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Perhaps a corruption for +Daghistan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] Perhaps Kahira, or Cairo.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Schildtberger, or his transcriber, calls this the +town of Bursa, by mistake for the mountain of +Al-Burs.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Probably Agrachan; as both Astracan and Saray had +been demolished by Timur. As to his saying that it stood in the +middle of the Edil, Etilia, or Wolga, that may be a mistake; but +at any rate, Edil signifies any river +whatever.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] Bissibur or Issibur, is the ancient Russian town +of Isborsk.--Forst. It would appear that the present expedition +was into Siber, or Siberia --E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] This appears to refer to the Uralian chain, and +the frozen regions of the north of Russia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] A mistake, by confounding close-made dresses of +fur with the notion of naked men, covered all over with shaggy +hair.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Probably Wolgar, Bulgar, or Bulgaria, is here +meant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>At this period, there was a high officer of state among the +Tartars, called Obmann, who had usurped the power of nominating +and deposing the khan, and to whom all the lords or chiefs were +subservient. This anomalous dignity was now held by Ideku; who, +as has been already mentioned, had invited Zegra to accept the +dignity of khan. This Ideku, with the khan, all the nobility, and +the whole people, wandered continually up and down the country, +with their wives and children, their cattle, and whole property, +to the number of about 100,000 people, having no fixed abodes, +but dwelling in moveable huts, at all seasons of the year. At +this time there was a king in Tartary, named <i>Schudicho +chey</i> or <i>Kom</i>, or Schadibeck-knan, the son of +Timur-Utluck, grandson of Timur-melik-aglen, and great-grandson +of Urus- Khan, This Schadibeck reigned from 1401 to 1406. +Immediately on hearing that Ideku was approaching, he took to +flight; but was pursued, and killed in a skirmish. Ideku +appointed <i>Polat</i> or Pulad-khan, the son[12] of Schadibeck, +to be his successor, who reigned a year and a half, between 1406 +and 1408. After him <i>Segel-Aladie</i>, or Zedy-khan, the son of +<i>Tokatmysch</i> or Toktemysch-khan, got possession of the +throne; but he was soon expelled by Timur-Khan, the son of +Timur-Uduck, and brother of Pulad- Khan, who reified fourteen +months. Thebak, the brother of Pulad-khan, took the field against +Timur-khan, and killed him, but was unable to attain the +sovereignty, as his brother Kerunhardin ascended the throne, +which he only held for five months. Thebak again endeavoured to +dispossess his brother Kerunhardin, but was unable to effectuate +his purpose; for at this juncture, Ideku interposed, and +conferred the sovereignty on Zegra, in the room of both. Zegra, +however, continued khan only for nine months, when Mohammed-khan, +son of the before-mentioned Timur-khan, and grandson of Timur +Utluck, gained a pitched battle against Ideku and Zegra, in which +Ideku was made prisoner, and Zegra fled into a country called +Descht-Kiptscha. Mohammed was in his turn driven from the throne +by Waroch; from whom Mohammed soon after retook his dominions. He +was again driven out by Doblaberd, who only kept possession for +three days, when he was in his turn dethroned by Waroch. He again +was soon afterwards slain by Mohammed, who a third time attained +the sovereign power. After these repeated revolutions, Zegra made +ah unsuccessful attempt to recover the throne, in which +enterprize he lost his life.</p> + +<blockquote>[12] From the sequel he appears rather to have been +his brother.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On the death of Zegra, Schildtberger, and the other four +Christians who had been in his service, attached themselves to +Manustzusch, who had been counsellor to that prince. This person +went upon a journey to Kaffa in the Crimea, where six different +religions are professed among the mixed inhabitants of that +peninsula, a part of whom are Christians; After a residence there +of five months, Manustzusch crossed the straits of Zabake in the +country called <i>Zeckchas</i> or Zikchia, where he sojourned for +six months. But the sultan of Turkey sent a message to the +sovereign of that country, requesting that Manustzusch might not +be allowed to remain there any longer; and upon this he removed +into the land of <i>Magrill</i>[13].</p> + +<blockquote>[13] This is probably a corruption for Mangrill, or +Mingrelia.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Schildtberger and his Christian companions, reflecting that +they were now only three days journey from the Black Sea, formed +a resolution to endeavour to return into their own country. With +this view, having taken leave of Manustzusch, they went, to the +capital of the country of <i>Bathan</i>[14] whence they requested +to be conveyed across into Christendom, but were refused. Upon +this they rode four days journey along the coast, when at length +they espied a ship at about eight Italian miles from the shore. +They made signals to the people on board by means of fire, and a +boat was sent to inquire their purpose; and having convinced the +boats crew that they, were Christians, by rehearsing the Lords +prayer, Ave Maria, and creed, and these people having reported an +account of them to the captain, of the ship, boats were sent back +to bring them, on board. Having escaped many dangers, they landed +at Constantinople, where they were well received by John +Palaeologus, the Grecian emperor, who: sent them by sea to the +castle of Kilia, at the mouth of the Danube. Schildtberger here +parted from his companions, and went with some merchants to +Akkerman[15] in Wallachia. From thence he went to <i>Sedhof</i> +Sutschawa the capital of Moldavia, or the lesser Walachia. Hence +to <i>Lubick</i> called otherwise Lwow or Lemberg, the capital of +White Russia, where he was detained by illness for three months. +From that place he went to Cracow, the capital of Poland; and by +Breslau in Silesia, Misnia, Eger, Ratisbon, and Freysingen, back +to Munich, having been absent for more than thirty-two years.</p> + +<blockquote>[14] Forster explains this by substituting the names +of Bebian and Bedias as synonymous. No such name occurs in our +best maps; but there is a place near the country of Mingrelia in +Guria on the Black-Sea, named Batum, which may be here +indicated--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] This place is called in the text Weisseburgh, +signifying the White Town, otherwise named Akkerman or +Akkiermann, Asprecastro, Tschetatalba, and Belgorod.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>From the concluding sentence, Schildtberger, who began his +travels, or rather captivity in 1394, must have returned to +Munich about 1426 or 1427--E.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-17">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of the Ambassadors of Mirza Shah +Rokh, King of Persia, from Herat to Khanbalek in Katkay, in +1419.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Astley IV. 621. Forst. Voy. and Disc. +158.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>This curious embassy, sent by Mirza Shah Rokh one of the sons +of Timur, or Timour the Great, better known in Europe by the name +of Tamerlane, travelled from Herat, in Persia, the residence of +their sovereign, to Khanbalek, Cambalu, or Peking, the imperial +city of Kathay, Khatay, Kitay, or Northern China, where Yong-lo, +or Ching-tsu, the third emperor of the race of Ming then kept his +court. Yong-lo began to reign, in 1404, and died in 1425, the +year in which the ambassadors returned to Persia, the race of +Ming, a Chinese dynasty, was founded in 1368, fifty-one years +before the present embassy, by Hoang-vu, who had expelled the +Mongol khans, the degenerate and enervated descendants of Gingis +or Zengis. This journey was described by the famous Persian +historian, Emir-Khond, or Emir-Khovand, usually known by the name +of Mirchond, in his performance, entitled, "Of the Wonders of the +World." Nicolas Witsen[2], a learned burgomaster of Amsterdam, +has inserted this curious journey, in his curious work, "Of North +and East Tartary," Having translated it for that purpose from the +Persian into Dutch. The singularly excellent work of Witsen is +extremely rare, and very seldom to be met with, as the author +suppressed the work, from motives which are now unknown. The +library of the university of Goettingen; formerly possessed a +copy, which had belonged to the library of the Empress of Russia, +and which was purchased at the sale of the effects of the late Mr +Thunnman for eighty-six dollars. These travels are contained in +the fourth volume of the French collection by Thevenot; who says +that it was written in Persian, in twelve pages, without notes or +explanation. He makes no mention of the translator, but probably +borrowed the article from Witsen, without acknowledgment. The +present edition is taken from Astleys collection, and is enriched +by several notes and elucidations, by Mr John Reinhold Forster; +who, while he regrets the scarcity of Witsens valuable work in +Dutch, forgets to inform us of the existence of this tract in +Thevenot, or in the collection of Astley. This journey throws +some light on the interior part of Tartary, or Central Asia; and +is therefore an important addition to our scanty knowledge of +that little known and interesting country, the real storehouse of +nations, and the scourge, during many centuries, of all the +surrounding countries, from the sea of Japan to the Baltic, and +from the Frozen Ocean, to the seas of China, India, Persia, +Arabia, and Roum, or the Mediterranean.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] I suspect this learned Dutchman has been +sometimes quoted in Latin, by the name of +Candidius.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The present edition has been carefully corrected and enlarged, +by collation with the abstract which Forster published from the +Dutch translation by Witsen. This journal gives many curious +remarks on the magnificence of the Chinese court, and respecting +the ceremonial observed in giving audience to ambassadors, which +still continue nearly the same. The editor of Astley labours hard +to explain away the want of notice In these travels, and in the +repeated journeys of Marco Polo, respecting the great Chinese +wall. But the only rational explanation of this omission, is the +clear conclusion that it was not then built. We learn from this +narrative, that the paper money of the former Mogul Khans of +Kathay was no longer in use, and that silver money, under the +same denomination of Balishes, had been substituted in its +place.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>The Journey of the Ambassadors from Herat to Khanbalek, and +their reception at the Court of the Emperor of Kathay</i>.</p> + +<p>In the year of the Hejirah 822, or 1419 of the Christian era, +the Sultan Mirza Shah Rokh, king of Persia, sent ambassadors from +Herat, his royal residence, to the emperor of Kathay, or China, +of whom Shadi Khoja was the chief. At the same time, Mirza +Baysangar, the son of Shah Rokh, sent Soltan Ahmet, and a painter +named Khoja Gayath Addin, to accompany his fathers ambassadors, +giving orders to his servants to keep an exact journal of their +travels, and to take notice of every thing that was remarkable in +every city and country they travelled through; carefully noting +the nature of the roads, the police, and customs of the people, +and the magnificence and government of the various sovereigns. +Leaving Herat[1] on the 11th of the month Zi'lkaa-deh[2], the +ambassadors arrived at Balkh on the 8th of Zi'lhejjeh, where they +were detained by the rains till the first of Moharram, in the +year 823 of the Hejira[3], or Thursday, 16th January 1420; on +which day they departed from Balkh, and arrived in twenty-two +days journey at Samarkand. They here found Soltan Shars, and +Mehemmed Bakhshi, the ambassadors of Ulug-Beg[4], who had been +sent to accompany them, together with all his Kathayans: And the +ambassadors of Khorassan, Badakshan, and from other princes, +having here joined company, they all set out together with those +of Kathay[5].</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The capital of Khorassan, or Corassan, in the +north-east of Persia, then the residence of Shah +Rokh.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Or Zu'lkaadeh, as pronounced by the Persians, +called Dhu'lkaddeh by the Arabians, which is the eleventh month +of the Mahometan year. As this year is lunar, the months run +through all the seasons, for want of a properly regulated +kalendar, or a period like the Julian or Gregorian. To enable the +reader to understand the journal, we give the Persian names of +the months in their order: 1. Moharram; 2. Safar; 3. +Rabiya-al-awal, or Prior; 4, Rabiya-al-Akher, or Latter; 5. +Jomada-al- awal; 6. Jomada-al-akher; 7. Rajeb; 8. Shaaban; 9. +Ramazan; 10. Shawal; 11. Zu'lkaadeh; 12. +Zu'lhejjeh.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This year began on Thursday, 16th January, +1420.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] Ulug-Beg was the son and successor of Shah-Rokh, +and was famous for his astronomical tables.--Astl.<br> + The Kathayans of Ulug-Beg, here mentioned, were probably Chinese +astronomers in the service of that prince, sent on the present +occasion to ascertain and report the geographical circumstances +of the journey.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] The text here is obscure, as appearing to +indicate Kathayan ambassadors going to Kathay. They may have been +ambassadors from Yong-lo to Shakh-Rokh, now on their +return.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Having passed through the cities of Tashkend, Sayram, and +Ash[6], they entered into the country of the Mongols[7] on the +eleventh of <i>Rabiya-al- akher</i>, and learnt that the +<i>horde</i> was in great confusion, Awis-khan being at war with +Shir Mehemmed Aglan. These disturbances being settled, Amir +Khudadad, who commanded in that country, came to inform them, +that the ambassadors might proceed safely on their journey. On +the 18th of Jomada- al-awal, they came to a place named +Bilgotu[8], on the territories of Mehemmed-Beg, where they waited +for the Dajis[9], and the retinue of the Shah of Badakshan. After +their arrival, they passed the river <i>Kenker</i>[10] on the +twenty-second of Jomada-al-awal, and next day, they saw Mehemmed- +Beg, prince of that horde, whose son, Soltan Shadi Karkan[11], +was son-in- law to Shah Rokh, and a daughter of that prince had +married Mirza Mehemmed Juki[12]. On the twenty-eighth of the +before named month, they entered the country of Ilduz[13], which +was occupied by the tribe of Jel, and under the dominion of Shir +Behram, or Scheir Begrahim; and though the sun was then in the +summer solstice, they were often astonished to find ice two +inches thick in this vast desert. On the eighth of +Jomada-al-akher, they were alarmed, by receiving, news that the +son of Ahmed Beg had plundered the Daji, who was ambassador from +Awis, or Oweys Khan; and they made every possible haste to pass +through the defiles of the mountains, notwithstanding of much +hail and rain falling at the time. At the end or the month, they +arrived at Tarkan[14], where there is a great temple, with a huge +idol, which the idolatrous inhabitants say is the image of +Shakmonni, or Shamku. Departing from thence on the second of +Rajeb, they came on the fifth to Karakoja.[l5] And certain +Kathayans came here on the tenth, who took a list of the names of +the ambassadors and all their retinue. On the nineteenth they +arrived at the town of Ata-Sufi, where Kha Zadeh Taj'oddin +resided, a person descended from the prophet, originally of the +city of Tormul, and son-in-law to Amir Fakr'oddin, chief of the +Moslems in Kabul[16].</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Called Asperah by Forster.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] From this description of the route, and the +implied division of empire, it would appear that Shah-Rokh ruled +over a very ample portion of the vast conquests of Timur, having +under has command the countries of Iran and Touran; or Persia, +Chorassan, Balkh, Kharism, Great Bucharia, and Fergaana; even +including Samarkand, the imperial residence of +Timur.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[8] Mr Forster calls this place Pielgutu, and +explains the name by the substitution of <i>Palchas</i> with a +mark of interrogation as doubtful. The geography of the East is +rendered difficult and obscure, by the frequent recurrence of +names in different languages, and by a lax orthography. Perhaps +Pielgutu or Palchas, may have been situated on the lake Balcash, +otherwise named Palkati-nor, and Tengis--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] Otherwise Dagis and Dakgis--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Called Lenger in Forster, who gives, as +synonymous, Ab-lenger and Abi- longur; which merely repeat the +original name Lenger, with the prefix abi, which signifies water +or river. Of this river no mention is made on our maps; but, from +the direction of the route, it must have crossed their way +somewhere between the Palkati-nor and Turfan, which is the next +station mentioned.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Called Gurgu by Forster.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Fifth son of Shah-Rokh.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Perhaps the same place called Yulduz, and Yilduz +by others, and supposed to be the Chialis of later authors, in +Little Bucharia. In the Jesuits maps there is a river called +Cheldos, near the Ili, on which this town may have +stood.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] This is doubtless a mistake for Tarfan, or +Turfan, in little Bucharia; the Arabic F and K differing only by +a point. Astl. Turfan, Turkhan, or Farkhaan, is situated in +Tenduc or Uiguria, in Lat. 43° N. Long. 85°. SO. E. The +snowy mountains crossed in such haste must have been the Alahtag. +The cold desert of the tribe of Jel, was probably in the eastern +part of Soongria; perhaps the Karang desert, north from Turfan +and the Alak mountains.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] This is supposed to be the same place with +Aramuth in other Journals; and to be named Oramchi in the Jesuits +map--Astl. Called Kharadztah, Harasliar, Hara-cosa, and Asarlic, +by Forster. Now named Asarleak on our best maps.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] In Forsters edition, this sentence is +differently expressed, as follows: "On the nineteenth they came +to a town called Naas, or Naar, near which several Zeijids, or +descendants of Mahomet, are settled, at a place named +Termed".--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On the twenty-second of Rajeb they arrived at Kabul[17], in +which place Amir Fakr'oddin had built a fine mosque; near which +was a temple of the idolaters, set round with images, and strange +figures of various sizes, and at the doors there were two +gigantic statues that seemed to fight. Mengli Timur Bayri, a +handsome young man, was governor of this city. Departing thence +on the twenty-fifth of Rajeb, they entered on the desert of Noman +Cobi, where they only found water once in two days; and on the +twelfth of Shaaban, they saw lions, oxen, and other wild beasts; +the oxen, named Gau Kottahs, are very large and strong, insomuch +that they are able to toss a man and horse into the air. Their +tails are remarkably long and hairy, and are in great estimation +all over the East, where they are often carried on long poles, by +way of ornament, and are likewise much employed for driving away +flies. On the fourteenth, they arrived at a place within twelve +stages of Sekju[18], the first city in Kathay. From this time, +the Kathayans came daily to meet them, erecting tents or huts, +adorned with green boughs, in the desert for their accommodation, +and plentifully supplied their tables with fowls, and various +kinds of flesh, fruits, fresh and dried, and other victuals, all +served on porcelain or china dishes, besides several kinds of +strong liquors; and henceforwards they were as splendidly regaled +in the desert as they afterwards were in the cities of Kathay. +According to the list taken by the Kathayans, Amir Shadi Khoja, +and Gaksheh, had 200 persons in their retinue; Soltan Ahmed and +Gayath-addin, 500; Argdak, sixty; Ardvan, fifty; and Taj'oddin, +fifty; in all 860 persons; among whom were many merchants, who +were passed as belonging to the retinue of the ambassadors, and +who were, afterwards under the necessity of performing the +services which fell to their lot, according to the register. In +taking this list, the Kathayan officers made them swear that +there were no other persons besides those named, and informed +them that they would be despised if they did not tell the +truth.</p> + +<blockquote>[17] This name Kabul is evidently a mistake for +Kamul, Khamul, Khamil, Kamyl, or Chamil; called Hami by the +Chinese.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] This is certainly So-chew, near the entrance of +the great wall in Shensi.--Astl. Called by Forster +Katasekt-schen, Sekt-scheu, Schel- scheu, or +Su-tcheu.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>It is remarkable, that among the many viands and liquors +supplied to them, in the before-mentioned entertainment, there +was a pot of Chinese <i>tea</i>, which the Jesuit Trigault +imagined had only come into use in China of late years. Tea is +called <i>Tscha</i> by the Chinese, and its use is very ancient, +as the earlier of the two Mahometan travellers, who wrote in 851 +and 867, mention the use, by the Chinese in that early period, of +the infusion of the leaves of a shrub called <i>sah</i> or +<i>tsha</i>. Even at that time, the use of tea must have become +an article of constant and extensive consumption in China, as the +emperor derived a large revenue from the tax on that +article[19].</p> + +<blockquote>[19] This commentary on tea is placed in the text of +Forster, and is therefore here preserved in the same form, though +no part of the original.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>On the sixteenth of the month Shaaban, they were informed that +the Dankji, governor of the borders of Kathay, intended to +entertain them that day with an imperial feast; and on their +arrival at his encampment, they found a square arpent[20] of +ground inclosed with tents, the cords of which, fastened to pegs +in the ground, were so interlaced together that there was no +entrance into the inclosure but by four gates, which were left on +purpose. In the midst of this place, they had erected a great and +very high awning of cloth, supported on wooden pillars; at one +end of which was an imperial canopy of state, erected on two +richly varnished pillars, between which stood a great chair of +state as if for the emperor, and other seats on both sides. The +ambassadors were placed on the left hand of the imperial throne, +arid the Kathayan officers on the right. Before each ambassador +there were two tables, one of which was covered with various +meats and fruits, and the other with cakes and delicate bread, +ornamented with festoons of silk and paper. The other persons +present had only one table to each. At the opposite end of this +great banqueting tent, there stood a buffet or side-board, full +of vessels of china and of silver, for serving the liquors. +During the entertainment, they were regaled by a band of music, +and a number of young persons, in strange dresses, performed +various tricks for their amusement. They were likewise much +amused by the performance of a comedy, the actors of which wore +masks representing the faces of animals; and a child, inclosed in +the body of an artificial stork, walked about and performed a +variety of surprising motions. In short, nothing could be more +magnificent.</p> + +<blockquote>[20] An arpent is a French measure nearly one and a +half of which are equal to an English acre.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<p>Next day, being the seventeenth of Shaaban, they continued +their journey through the desert, and arrived in a few days at a +karaul[21] or strong fortress, in the mountains, which is built +across the road in a pass or defile, so that travellers must +necessarily enter by one gate and pass through the other. Here +the ambassadors and all the members of their retinues were +carefully numbered, and a new list made of all their names. From +the karaul they went to Sekju or So-chew[22], where they were +lodged in a large public building over the gate of the city; in +which, as in all their other lodgings, they were amply provided +with every necessary and convenience, as provisions, beds, and +horses; and even the servants had mattresses and coverlets +allowed for their beds. So-chew is a large and strong city, quite +square, in the entrance into Kathay. It has sixteen market +places, each fifty cubits square, which are always kept clean. In +these there are several covered halls or galleries, having shops +on both sides; and a handsome hall of entrance, adorned with +pictures. There are hogs kept in every house, and the butchers +hang their pork in the shambles along with the mutton[23]. The +city wall is flanked with towers at every twenty paces distance; +and there is a gate in the middle of each side, from each of +which one may see the opposite gate, as the streets pass straight +through the middle of the city, dividing it into four quarters. +Over each gate there is a pavilion of two stories, the roof of +which is tiled with porcelain, and is shaped like an asses back, +or penthouse, according to the fashion of Kathay, which is +likewise followed in Mazanderan. Each of the temples in this +place occupy nearly ten arpents of ground, and all are very neat, +with their brick pavements polished like glass. At the gates +there stand a number of fine youths, who, after regaling +strangers, show them the temples.</p> + +<blockquote>[21] This Persian term Karawl or Karawul, is also +introduced into the Tartarian language, from which it has been +adopted into Russian, in which language a guard or outpost is +termed a Karaul.--Forst.<br> + It seems more probable that the Tartar conquerors had introduced +their own military term into the languages of subjugated Persia, +and tributary Russia.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[22] In the description of this route by Forster, he +brings the ambassadors to Su-tchew before their arrival at the +Karaul, and interposes a desert of several days journey between +these two places.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[23] This seemingly trifling circumstance was matter +of great surprize and scandal to the Mahometans, who consider +hogs as unclean animals, and to whom pork is a forbidden +food.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<p>From So-chew it is ninety-five days journey to Cambalu, or +Khanbalek, where the emperor resides, the whole way leading, +through a populous country, insomuch that travellers always lodge +at night in a large town. Throughout the whole way there are many +structures named Kargu, and Kidifu. The former are a species of +corps-de-garde, which are sixty cubits high, and are built within +sight of each other, having always persons on guard, who are +relieved every ten days. These are intended to communicate alarms +speedily to the seat of government, which they do by means of +fires; and intelligence can be sent, in this manner, in the space +of a day and a night, from the distance of three months +journey[24]. The Kidifus are a kind of post-houses, which are +built at ten <i>merres</i>[25] from each other, having fixed +establishments of people, with houses to live in, and ground to +cultivate for their support; and all letters to the imperial city +are sent by couriers from one to another. From Sakju, or So-chew, +to Kamju[26], there are nine stages or days journey, and the +dankji who resides in Kan-chew is superior to all the other +governors on the frontiers. At each stage the ambassadors were +furnished with 450 horses, mules, and asses, and fifty-six +chariots or waggons. The servants who tended the horses were +called <i>Ba-fu</i>; the muleteers, who had charge of the mules +and the asses, <i>Lu-fu</i>; and the men who drew the chariots, +<i>Jip-fu</i>. These chariots were each drawn by twelve young men +with cords on their shoulders, and they dragged through all +difficulties from one lodging to another, the <i>Ba-fu</i> always +running before as guides. At all the lodging places, where the +ambassadors and their retinue stopped nightly, provisions were +always found in abundance. At every city the ambassadors were +feasted in a hall set apart for that special purpose, called +<i>Rasun</i>, in each of which there stood an imperial throne +under a canopy, with curtains at the sides, the throne always +facing towards the capital of the empire. At the foot of the +throne there always was a great carpet, on which the ambassadors +sat, having their people ranked in regular rows behind them, like +the Moslems at their prayers. When all were properly arranged, a +guard beside the throne gave a signal, by calling out aloud three +times; on which all the Kathayan officers bowed their heads to +the ground towards the throne, and obliged the ambassadors to +make a similar reverence; after which every one sate down to his +appointed table.</p> + +<blockquote>[24] It is singular how very nearly this arrangement +resembles the supposed modern invention of a chain of +telegraphs.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[25] Six merres make a pharasang, or Persian league, +which is equal to four English miles, and 868 feet. One merre is +therefore equal to 1221 yards, and each post station of ten +merres is equal to 12,213 yards, or almost seven English +miles.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[26] Otherwise Kamgiou or Kan-chew, the Kampion or +Kainpiou of Marco Polo; which is a city of Shen-si, near the +great wall and the desert.--Astl. + +<p>In Forsters account of this journey, the ambassadors arrived +from the Karaul, or fortified pass, at Natschieu, Nang-tsiew, or +Naa-tsieu; after which, they are said to have arrived at +Kham-tcheou, the Kan- chew of the text.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>On the twenty-fifth of Ramazan, the dankji, or governor of +Kan-chew invited the ambassadors to a feast, intimating that they +were to consider it as a banquet given them by the emperor; but +as it was the fast of the Moslems, the ambassadors sent an +apology, yet he sent them all the victuals which had been +prepared for the entertainment. In Kanchew they saw a temple, +each side of which extended 500 <i>kes</i> or cubits, having in +the middle of it an idol fifty feet in length, lying as if +asleep. The hands and feet of this gigantic idol were nine feet +long, and the head was twenty-one feet round. There were numbers +of smaller idols, each a cubit high, behind this large one and +above his head, in such natural attitudes that they seemed alive. +The great idol was gilt all over, having one hand under his head, +and the other stretched down along his thigh. This idol was +called <i>Samonifu</i>, and vast numbers of people were +constantly prostrating themselves before him. The walls were also +adorned with many figures. All round the great temple, there were +numerous small temples, like the chambers in caravanseras, having +curtains of tapestry or brocade, gilded easy chairs and stools, +chandeliers, and vessels, for ornament. There were ten other +temples in the city of Kan-chew like the former, and a tower +having eight fronts, twenty cubits in circumference, and fifteen +stories high. Each story was twelve cubits high, so that the +whole tower was 180 cubits in height. In every story was a +chamber finely varnished, and a gallery round, embellished with +paintings. One of these paintings represented the emperor of +Kathay sitting among his courtiers, and with boys and girls on +either hand. This structure is called <i>Teherki felek</i> by the +Moslems, and resembles a kiosk. At the bottom there were the +figures of giants, which seemed to carry the whole tower on their +backs. The whole was constructed of wood, richly gilded and +varnished, and so exquisitely polished, that it seemed of +burnished gold. In a vault under the edifice, there is an iron +axis resting on a plate of iron, and reaching from the bottom to +the top of the tower: and the whole was so ingeniously contrived, +that it could easily be turned round on this axis, in so +surprizing a manner, that all the smiths, carpenters, and +painters of the world ought to go there, to learn the secrets of +their respective trades[27].</p> + +<blockquote>[27] The description given in the text of this +Chinese pagoda has much the air of a fiction; yet we can hardly +conceive the author would venture to report to Shah-Rokh what +must have been contradicted by his ambassadors, if +false.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<p>Before the ambassadors left Kan-chew, they were furnished with +horses and carriages, which they returned here in their way back. +In this place also, they consigned the presents which were +intended for the emperor, except a lion, which they carried along +with them, to the imperial court. In proportion as they +approached towards the capital, the Kathayan magnificence always +increased. Every evening they arrived at a <i>Yam</i>[28] or +lodging, and once every week at a city. On the fourth of the +month Shawal they reached the river Karamuran[29], which is as +large as the Jihon or Amu. Across this river there is a bridge of +twenty-six boats, laid over with planks, and kept together by +iron hooks and chains, which are fastened to iron pillars on each +bank, as thick as a mans thigh, so that the whole is kept +perfectly firm and even. On crossing this river they came to a +great city, where the ambassadors were more splendidly, feasted +that in any other place; and here they saw a more magnificent +idol temple than any of the former. They took notice also of +three public stews, full of very beautiful harlots; and as the +women here are handsomer than any other in Kathay, this place has +the name of <i>Rosnabaad</i>, or the <i>City of Beauty</i>. After +passing through several other cities, they arrived on the twelfth +of the month Zu'lkaadeh, at another river[30] twice as large as +the Jihon, which they passed over in boats. Continuing their +journey, and crossing over several rivers, some in boats and +others by means of bridges, they arrived, on the twenty-seventh +of the last mentioned month, at the great and populous city of +<i>Sadin-fu</i>[31]. In one of the temples of this city there +stands a gilded brass image fifty cubits high, called the +<i>image with a thousand hands</i>, for such is the number with +which this idol is furnished, and on the palm of each there is an +eye. The feet of this idol are near ten cubits long. Round this +idol there are several others of different heights, placed in +chambers or niches, some reaching only as high as the ankle of +the great one, others to the knee, and others again as high as +the breast. It is reckoned that this prodigious work required +100,000 loads of brass. The top of the temple is exquisitely +finished, and terminates in an open hall. It is surrounded by +eight mounts or eminences, which may be ascended both on the +outside and the inside; and these have several grottos, the walls +of which are adorned with various paintings, representing +priests, idols, hermits, tigers, leopards, serpents, and trees. +These, with the idols, mountains, and arches, seem all to be +composed of plaster. Around this great temple there are many fine +buildings, and among these a turning tower, similar to that of +Kan-chew, but larger and finer.</p> + +<blockquote>[28] This is called Lam in the French of Thevenot, +and is the same with the Lamb of Marco Polo.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[29] This is the Cara-moran or Whang-ho, which they +crossed a second time between Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is +much larger than at Lan-chew, the place probably alluded to in +this part of the text.--Astl.<br> +In the edition, by Forster, this river is named Abi Daraan, or +the Daraan, afterwards Kara-raan; but is obviously the +Kara-moran, Whang- ho, or Hoang-ho.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[30] This <i>other</i> river, certainly is the same +Kara-moran, passed again at a different part of their +route.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[31] This must have been some city in the province of +Pe-che-li, or near its borders in Shan-si; but no such name as +that of the text is to be found in any of the maps of +China.--Astl.<br> + +<p>In Forsters edition, this place is named Chien-dien-puhr, +perhaps Tchin-teuen-pou, a city at some distance to the west of +the Hoan-ho river. The route is not distinctly indicated in the +text; but seems to have been from Soutcheo, at the N.W. extremity +of Chensi, in lat. 40° N. following a S. E. direction to the +Hoan-ho, somewhere about Yung- nam, in lat. 37° N. long. +104° E.; and Yung-nam may have been the fine city which the +Persians named Rosna-baad, or the Habitation of Beauty.--E.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Continuing their journey, at the rate of four or five +pharasangs each day[32], the ambassadors arrived before day-break +of the eighth of Zu'lhajieh, at the imperial city of +Khanbalik[33], or Pekin. This city is so great that each side is +a pharasang in length, or about four and a quarter English miles. +But at this time 100,000 houses within its walls lay in ruins. +The ambassadors and their retinue were conducted on foot along a +causeway 700 feet long, to the palace gate, where there stood +five elephants on either side. On passing this outward gate, they +entered a very beautiful paved court of great extent, where they +found 100,000 men waiting at the emperors gate, although it was +not yet day. Facing this court there was a great <i>kiosk</i> or +pavilion, the basis of which was thirty cubits high, on which +stood pillars fifty cubits high, supporting a gallery sixty +cubits long and forty cubits wide. This pavilion had three gates, +the middle one being reserved for the emperor, and that on each +side was smaller. Above this kiosk, and over the right and left +gates, was a <i>kurkeh</i>, or great drum; and a bell hung over +the middle gate, attended by two persons, to give notice of the +appearance of the emperor on his throne. They reckoned that near +300,000 persons were assembled before the palace, among whom were +2000 musicians, who sung hymns for the prosperity of the emperor. +Two thousand men, armed with halberts, batons, darts, arrows, +lances, swords, and maces, had enough of business in keeping the +crowd in order. Others held fans and umbrellas. Around this court +there were many apartments, and it was surrounded by high +porticos closed with grates, and containing sofas. When day +appeared, the drums, trumpets, flutes, and hautboys, began to +sound, and the great bell tolled; at which the great gates were +thrown open, and the people crowded in to see the emperor. On +passing from the first court into the second, the ambassadors +found a larger and more magnificent pavilion than the former, on +which was a raised platform, or sofa, of a triangular form, four +cubits high, covered with yellow satin, and sumptuously adorned +with gildings and paintings, representing the <i>Simorg</i>[34], +or Phoenix, which the Kathayans call the royal bird. On this sofa +was a seat or throne of massy gold, and on both sides stood ranks +of officers of different orders, some commanders of 10,000 men, +some of a 1000, and others of 100 men. Each of these held a +tablet in his hand, a cubit long and a quarter broad, on which +they all continued to look with much gravity, without attending +to any thing around them; and behind these, stood an infinite +number of guards, all in profound silence. At length the emperor +made his appearance from an inner apartment, and ascended the +throne by nine steps of silver. The emperor was a man of middle +stature, and his beard consisted of 200 or 300 long hairs, which +descended from his chin upon his breast. On each side of the +throne there stood two very beautiful maidens, having their faces +and necks bare, with their hair tied on the top of their heads, +and large pearls in their ears. Each of these held paper and a +pen in their hands, and wrote down with great attention whatever +was spoken by the emperor; and when he retires, they present him +with the papers, to see if he has any alterations to make in his +orders. These are afterwards carried to the <i>Diwan</i>, or +tribunal of state, that they may be carried into execution.</p> + +<blockquote>[32] About seventeen or twenty-one English miles, or +nineteen miles on the average.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[33] This is the same with the Khambalu of Polo. One +name signifies the palace of the Khan, the other the city of the +Khan.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[34] This is the Fong-whang, or fabulous bird of the +Chinese. The Simorg- Anka, is supposed among the Persians to have +existed among the Preadamites, and to have assisted Solomon in +his wars.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<p>When the emperor was seated on his throne, the seven +ambassadors were brought forwards, facing the emperor, and at the +same time a great number of criminals were presented. There were +seven hundred of these, some of whom were fastened by the neck, +others having their heads and hands inclosed by a board, six +sometimes fastened thus to one board. Each criminal was attended +by a keeper, who held his prisoner by the hair: and all thus +waited the imperial sentence. Most of these were remanded to +prison, and only a few were condemned to die, which power resides +solely in the emperor. All the governors of this vast empire, +however distant from court, send all malefactors to Khanbalik, to +appear in presence of the emperor. Each persons crime is written +on one end of the board which he carries about his neck; and the +crimes against religion are the most severely punished of all. +Great care is taken to examine into all the facts on these +occasions, insomuch that the emperor holds council twelve several +times before he condemns any one to death. Hence a person who has +been condemned in eleven successive councils, is sometimes +acquitted in the twelfth, which is always held in presence of the +emperor, who never condemns any but those he cannot save. When +the criminals were dismissed, the ambassadors were led by an +officer within fifteen cubits of the throne; and this officer, on +his knees, read out of a paper the purport of their embassy; +adding that they had brought rarities as presents to his majesty, +and were come to knock their heads against the ground before him. +Then the <i>Kadhi Mulana Haji Yusof</i>, a commander of ten +thousand, who was a favourite of the emperor and one of his +twelve councillors, approached to the ambassadors, with some +Moslems who spoke the Persian language, and ordered them to fall +on their knees and knock their ground with their foreheads; but +they only bowed their heads three times. Then they delivered the +letters of Shah Rokh and the other princes, wrapped up in yellow +satin, to Kadhi Mulana, who gave them into the hands of a khoja +of the palace at the foot of the throne, and he presented them to +the emperor. He took them into his own hands, opened them and +looked at them, and delivered them back to the khoja, who +descended from the throne, and sat down on a seat at the foot of +the steps. At the same time were brought out three thousand +vestments of fine stufis, and two thousand coarse, such as are +the usual clothing of the imperial children and household[35]. +The emperor then commanded the ambassadors to draw near, and +being on their knees, he inquired after the health of Shah Rokh, +and put many other questions to them, all of which they answered. +He then ordered them to rise, and go eat, saying that they had +come a far journey. From thence the ambassadors were conducted +back to the first court, where they were feasted in a similar +manner as at other times already mentioned.</p> + +<blockquote>[35] The text is here abrupt and inconclusive: These +vestments were probably presented to the ambassadors and their +suite.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>When this entertainment was finished, they were conducted to +their lodgings, in which the principal chamber was furnished with +a large sofa or raised platform, laid with fine silk cushions, a +great basin, and a pan for fire. On the right and left of this, +there were other chambers, with beds, silk cushions, and foot +carpets or fine mats, for lodging the ambassadors separately. +Each person had a kettle, a dish, a spoon, and a table. Every +day, for six persons, there were allowed a sheep, a goose, and +two fowls; and to each person two measures of flour, a large dish +of rice, two great basins full of things preserved with sugar, a +pot of honey, some garlic, onions, salt, several sorts of herbs, +a bottle of <i>dirapum</i>[36], and a basin of walnuts, filberts, +chesnuts, and other dried fruits. They were likewise attended +from morning till night by a number of handsome servants.</p> + +<blockquote>[36] What this may have been does not appear; it may +possibly have been arrack, or the wine made of rice and spices, +which is frequently mentioned in the travels of Marco +Polo.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>The several Audiences of the Ambassadors, their +Entertainments, Presents, and Return</i>.</p> + +<p>On the ninth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, the <i>Sekjin</i>, or +officer belonging to the court who had charge of the ambassadors, +came to their lodgings before day, and raised them from their +beds, saying that the emperor meant to feast them that day. He +brought them to the palace on horses which were sent for the +purpose, and placed them in the outer court, where two hundred +thousand persons were in attendance. As soon as the sun was up, +they were led to the foot of the throne, where they saluted the +emperor, by bowing their heads to the ground five several times. +At length the emperor descended from the throne, and the +ambassadors were led back to the outer court, where they were +separated for a while, that they might perform the deeds of +necessity; being told that no person could be allowed to stir out +on any pretence during the continuance of the feast. After this, +they were led through the first and second courts, and thence +into a third, which was entirely open, and paved with fine +freestone. In the front of this court there was a great hall +sixty cubits long, having chambers over it; and in the hall was a +great sofa, higher than a man, which was ascended by three silver +stairs, one in front, and the others at the two sides. In this +place there stood two khojas of the palace, having a kind of +pasteboard covers on their mouths, and fastened to their ears. +Upon the great sofa or platform, there was a smaller one in form +of a couch, having pillows and cushions for the feet; and on each +side there were pans for fire, and perfuming pans. This smaller +sofa was of wood, beautifully gilded, and looking quite fresh, +though sixty years old, and every thing was finely varnished. The +most eminent of the Dakjis stood on each side of the throne, +armed, and behind them were the soldiers of the imperial guard, +with naked sabres. The ambassadors were placed on the left hand, +as the most honourable station. Three tables were placed before +each of the <i>Amirs</i> and other most distinguished persons, +while others had only two, and the more ordinary persons but one; +and there were at least a thousand tables at this +entertainment.</p> + +<p>Before the throne, near a window of the hall, there was a +great kurkeh or drum, on a raised stage, attended by two men, and +near it a great band of musicians. Part of the hall was divided +off by curtains which came close to the throne, that the ladies +belonging to the palace might see the company without being seen. +After all the victuals and liquors were brought in and properly +distributed, two khojas withdrew, the curtains which covered a +door behind the throne, and the emperor came forth, amid the +sound of many instruments of music, and took his seat under a +canopy of yellow satin, ornamented with four dragons. After the +ambassadors had made five prostrations, they sat down to table, +and were treated as at other times. During the entertainment, +many comic tricks were acted for the amusement of the emperor and +the company. The first performers that appeared were painted with +white and red, like girls, and dressed in gold brocade, holding +nosegays of artificial flowers. After this, a man lay down on his +back, as if asleep, holding his feet raised up in the air; then +another person held several thick canes in his hands, seven +cubits long, placing the other ends between his legs, on which a +youth of ten or twelve years of age mounted, with surprising +agility, and performed several tricks at the top. At last the +canes slipped away from under him, and every person thought he +must have fallen to the ground and been dashed to pieces; but the +pretended sleeper instantly started up and caught him in the air. +There was one musician who played tunes after the twelve +different modes of the Kathayans. Two men played the same air +together, each having one hand on his own instrument, and the +other on that of his companion. During this entertainment, +several thousand birds of different kinds flew about the court of +the palace, and lighted among the people, to eat up what they +could find scattered on the ground, without appearing to be in +the least scared at the multitude. During the five months that +the ambassadors remained at Khanbalik, they were regaled at +several other banquets, where plays were acted, much surpassing +that now mentioned.</p> + +<p>On the seventeenth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, all the criminals +were carried to be punished according to the nature of their +offences, and as prescribed by the laws. The twenty-fifth of +Moharram, Mulana Kadhi Yusof sent to acquaint the ambassadors +that next day, being the first of the new year, according to the +reckoning of the Kathayans, the emperor was to go to his new +palace, and that no person must wear white, as that was the dress +of mourning in this country. On the twenty-eighth, at midnight, +the Sekjin came to conduct them to the new palace, which had been +nineteen years building, and was only newly finished. Every +person had his house or shop illuminated, with torches, lanterns, +candles, and lamps, so that it appeared as light as noon-day. At +the palace they found an hundred thousand people, who had come +from all parts of Kathay, the countries of Tachin and Machin, +Kalmak, Kabul, Karakoja, Jurga, and the sea coasts. This day the +ambassadors tables were set out of the hall where the throne +stood, while those of the <i>Amirs</i>, or great officers and +lords of the court were within; and there were near two hundred +thousand armed men, carrying umbrellas and bucklers. This feast +lasted till the afternoon, and among the music were many songs in +praise of the new palace. To give some idea of this superb +structure, it may be mentioned that, from the gate of the hall to +the first inclosure, measured 1925 paces. On each side are +buildings and gardens one within another. The edifices were of +freestone, porcelain, or marble, so delicately put together that +they seemed inchased. There are many hundred cubits of pavement, +the stones of which are so even and well joined, that they looked +like the checkered ruling in books. Nothing in other countries +can equal the Kathayans in masonry, joiner-work, making relievos +or raised figures in plaster, and in painting.</p> + +<p>The ambassadors were called early to audience, on the ninth of +the month Safar; the emperor having then come out from a +retirement of eight days; for it is his custom to retire every +year for some days, during which he eats no kind of victuals and +abstains from going near his ladies, neither does he, during all +that time, see or converse with any one. In this retirement, the +emperor has no picture or idol of any of his gods; as during this +period, all his devotions are addressed solely to the GOD of +Heaven. On this occasion, the imperial elephants were all adorned +in a style of magnificence, which is quite inexpressible; many of +them having silver seats, like litters, on their backs, adorned +with standards of seven different colours, and the seats were +filled with armed men; fifty of the elephants carried the +imperial musicians. This grand procession of elephants was +preceded, or followed, by at least 50,000 persons, who all +preserved the most exact order, and the most profound silence. In +all this pomp and splendour, the emperor was conducted from, the +place of his religious retirement to the female apartments of the +palace. The court astrologers had predicted that the palace of +the emperor was this year to suffer by fire, on which account, a +solemnity, accompanied by splendid fireworks and illuminations, +was exhibited during seven days. On this occasion, an artificial +mount was erected in the middle of the imperial court, covered +all over with branches of cypress, and planted with 100,000 +torches; by means of little artificial mice, made of bitumen or +wild fire, which ran along a number of ropes, fixed for the +purpose, these torches were all lighted up in a moment, forming a +wonderful blaze of lights from the bottom of the mountain to the +top; and many other lights appeared all over the city. During all +the seven days of this festival, no criminals were sought after; +the emperor discharged all debtors under arrest for debt, and set +free all persons in prison for crimes, except murderers, and he +distributed large presents. All this was notified on the +thirteenth of the month Safer, by an imperial edict or +proclamation, the emperor being seated on his throne, in the +grand <i>kiosk</i>, or pavilion of the first court, surrounded by +more than 100,000 persons; and in this edict, the emperor +notified that he would send no ambassadors to any country during +three years. After this edict had been read aloud by three +officers of the court, who stood on a bench before the emperor, +it was conveyed down from the pavilion into the court below, by +means of rings fastened to yellow silk cords; and, being +reverently placed on a board with a golden border, it was carried +to the city, followed by music, and accompanied by a multitude of +the people. After the conclusion of this ceremony, the emperor +left the pavilion, and the ambassadors were feasted, as at other +times.</p> + +<p>On the first of the month Rabiya-al-awal, the ambassadors were +again called to court before the emperor, who had several +Shankars[1] brought in, which he said he meant to give to those +who had presented him with good horses; and at this time, he +caused three to be given to each of the ambassadors of the Mirza +Ulug-Beg, Mirza Baysangar, and Sultan Shah-Rokh. Next day he sent +for them again; when, addressing himself to Arjak, the ambassador +of Mirza Siurgatmish, he said, "I have no Shankar to give you; +and even if I had, I should not give you any, lest it should be +taken from you, as was done from Ardeshir, a former ambassador +from your, master." To this Arjak made answer: "If your majesty +will do me that honour, I will engage my word that no person +shall take it from me." To this the emperor replied: "On that +condition I will give you two, which I have ordered to be brought +for that purpose." On the eighth day of the month, the +ambassadors of Soltan Shah, and Bakshi Malek were sent for, to +receive the Shankish, or imperial present. The first received +eight <i>balish</i> of silver[2], thirty furred imperial +vestments, twenty-four under petticoats[3], two horses, one of +which was provided with furniture, 100 bundles of cane arrows, +twenty-five great porcelain vases, and 5000 ***[4]. Bakshi Malek +had as much, bating one balish of silver; the women belonging to +the ambassadors had no silver given them, but they each received +half the quantity of stufis that had been given to their lords. +On the thirteenth of the same month, the ambassadors were sent +for to court, when the emperor said to them: "I am going to hunt; +take your shankars, therefore, which fly well, and divert +yourselves; but the horses you brought me are good for nothing." +About this time, the emperors son returned from the country of +<i>Nemray</i>, and the ambassadors went to pay their compliments +to him in his particular court, to the east of the imperial +palace, where they found him seated in state, amid his +attendants, and having his table served in the same manner with +that of the emperor.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Shankars, Shonkers, or Shongars, are birds of +prey, famous among the Tartars, and may probably have been the +most esteemed species of falcon, and which are said to have been +white.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] These silver <i>balishes</i> seem to have come in +place of the paper money of the emperors of the race of Zingis, +formerly mentioned; but its value is nowhere +described.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] This surely must be an error for under +garments--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] In Forsters account of these travels, the blank +in the text is filled up with Dzjau, or Tzjau; which he supposes +to have been tea, and that the numbers refer to certain Chinese +weights or packages of that commodity. Forster adds, that small +pieces of tin were given to the ambassadors, to some twenty-four, +and to others as far as seventy pieces; and he says that Witsen +left many of the articles enumerated in the original +untranslated, as not understanding the +terms.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>On the first of the month Rabiya-al-akher, the ambassadors +received notice to go to meet the emperor, who was then on his +return from hunting; and, on getting on horseback before day for +that purpose, they found Mulana Kazi Yusof waiting for them at +the door of their hotel, in great dejection. Inquiring the cause, +he told them privately that the emperor had been thrown in +hunting from the horse they had presented him from Shah Rokh, and +had given orders that they should be carried in chains to certain +cities in the east of Kathay. The ambassadors were much afflicted +at this news, and continued their journey for about twenty miles +to the emperors camp. At this place, the Kathayans had in one +night inclosed a plot of ground 500 paces square, with walls ten +feet high. This wall was composed of earth, hard pressed down +between two planks, as in a mould, leaving two gates; and the +place whence the earth was dug, served for a ditch. There were +strong guards posted at both of the gates, and other soldiers +posted along the ditch. Within this outer inclosure, there were +two others, each twenty-five cubits high, formed of yellow satin, +supported upon square posts and all set round with tents of +yellow satin. When the ambassadors were arrived within 500 paces +of the imperial quarters, Mulana. Cazi Yusof desired them to +alight, and wait for the emperor, while he went forwards to the +presence. The emperor was on the point of giving orders for +having the ambassadors arrested, when <i>Lidaji</i> and +<i>Jandaji</i>, officers named <i>Setalid</i> and <i>Jik-fu</i>, +in the Kathayan or Chinese language, who stood before the +emperor, and Kazi Yusof, fell prostrate before him, entreating +him not to proceed to that extremity, as it might have very bad +consequences to put them to death, and would give occasion for +the world to say that the emperor had violated the law of nations +in the persons of these ambassadors. The emperor at length +yielded to their reasons and entreaties, and Kazi Yusof went with +great joy to let them know that they were pardoned. The emperor +even condescended to send them victuals; but, being mixed with +pork, they could not eat of it, on account of their religion.</p> + +<p>Afterwards, the emperor approached, mounted on a great black +horse, with white feet, richly caparisoned with brocade housings, +which had been sent to him by Mirza Uleg Beg, and haying two +attendants on each side at the saddle-bow. He was dressed in a +vest of rich gold brocade on a red ground, and had his beard +inclosed in a bag of black satin. The emperor marched slowly +forwards, followed by his women, who were carried by men in seven +covered litters, after whom came a large covered litter, carried +by seventy men. A body of horse marched in squadrons before the +emperor, each squadron twenty paces asunder, and the cavalcade +reached all the way to the city. The emperor rode in the middle, +attended by ten Dajis, or governors of provinces, and by the +three lords who had so warmly pled in flavour of the ambassadors. +When the emperor drew near, Kazi Jusof, one of these friendly +lords, came up and ordered the ambassadors to prostrate +themselves; and when they had done so, the emperor ordered them +to arise and mount their horses, and to accompany him. Then +turning to them, he thus addressed Shadi Khoja, one of the +ambassadors: "The presents, rarities, horses, and wild beasts +which are sent to me in future must be better chosen, in order to +preserve and increase the amity which I have for your princes. At +the hunt, I mounted the horse which you presented me; but he is +so vicious, and I am so old, that he threw me, by which I was +wounded, and have received a contusion on my head, which gave me +great anguish; but by laying much gold on the place, the pain is +assuaged." Upon this, Shadi Khoja said, that it was the horse on +which the great Amir Timid Karkan[5] used to ride; and that Shah +Rokh, who kept him as a rarity, had sent him to the emperor, as +the most valuable horse in all his dominion. Being satisfied with +this apology, the emperor called for a shaker, which he let fly +at a crane; but on the bird returning, without seizing his prey, +the emperor gave it three strokes on the head. He then alighted +from his horse, and sat down in a chair, resting his feet on +another, and gave a shaker to Soltan Shah, and another to Soltan +Ahmed, but none to Shadi Khoja. After this he mounted his horse, +and as he approached towards the city, was received by vast +crowds of people with a thousand acclamations.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] This is the famous Timur-Beg, or Tamerlane the +Great.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<p>On the fourth of the before named month, the ambassadors were +brought to court to receive their presents from the emperor; who +was seated on his throne, and caused tables to be set before him, +on which the presents were displayed. These were much of the same +nature with those already mentioned, which were given to Soltan +Shah, and Bakshi Malek. Sometime afterwards, the most beloved of +the emperor's wives died, and her death was made public on the +eighth day of the month Jomada-al-awake, the next day being +appointed for her interment. The ladies belonging to the imperial +family are buried, on a certain mountain, on which all the horses +that belonged to them are turned out to graze at liberty for the +rest of their lives. At the same time, several maidens and Khojas +of the palace, who had belonged to the retinue of the deceased, +are placed in attendance on the grave, having provisions allowed +them to subsist upon for live years, perhaps more; and when their +victuals are expended, they are permitted to die of famine. But +on the ensuing night, the new palace took fire, not without +suspicion of the astrologers haying a hand in it. By this +misfortune, the principal apartment, which was eighty cubits +long, and thirty cubits broad, adorned with pillars, painted +blue, and richly varnished, so large that three men could hardly +grasp them, was entirely consumed. From thence, the flames +communicated to a kiosk or gallery of twenty fathoms, and to the +apartment of the ladies, which was still more magnificent. By +this fire, 250 houses were destroyed, and several men and women +lost their lives[6]. The emperor and his <i>Amirs</i> did not +consider that this chastisement fell upon them for being +infidels. On the contrary, the emperor went to an idol temple[7], +where he said on his knees, "The GOD of Heaven is angry with me, +and therefore hath burned my palace. Yet have I done no evil; for +I have neither offended my father nor my mother, nor can I be +charged with the exercise of any tyranny on my people."</p> + +<blockquote>[6] In the abstract of these travels, as given by +Forster, this fire is said to have been caused by +lightning.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] It is to be remarked, that the author of these +travels was a Mahometan. The circumstances of the idol temple, +says the editor of Astleys Collection, seems malicious; as, in +his opinion, there are no images in the imperial temples of +Pe-king. I suspect the editor is mistaken; for however strongly +the philosophical sect of Confucius may be convinced of the +absurdity of idolatry, the religion of Fo is as grossly +idolatrous as any on the face of the earth; and it is to be +noticed, that the dynasty then reigning in China was +native.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The emperor was so deeply affected by these untoward +circumstances, that he fell sick, and the prince his son assumed +the administration of the government, and gave the ambassadors an +audience of leave[8]; after which, they received no farther +subsistence from the court, till their departure. They left +Kham-balik on the fifteenth of the month Jomada-al-awal, +accompanied by certain dajis from the court; and they were lodged +and treated with all necessaries on their return, in the same +manner as they had been on their journey to court. They arrived +on the first of Rajeb at the city of <i>Nikian</i>[9], where the +magistrates came out to meet them, but did not search their +baggage, as is customary there, as they had an express order from +the emperor to the contrary. On the day after their arrival at +that place, they were magnificently feasted. On the fifth of +Shaaban, thirty-five days afterwards, they reached the river +Karamuran, Whang-ho, or Hoang-ho; and on the twenty-fifth of that +month arrived at Kamju[10], where they had left their servants, +and heavy baggage; where every thing that they had committed to +the custody of the Kathayan officers, when on their journey to +the capital, was faithfully restored. After remaining +seventy-five days in this place, they resumed their journey, and +came soon afterwards to Nang-tschieu, or Nang-chew[11]. At this +place, or rather at Sa-chew, they met with ambassadors from +Ispahan and Shiras in Persia, on their way to Khambalik, who told +them that they had met with many difficulties on their +journey.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] The emperor died in the same year; but after the +departure of the ambassadors.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[9] No such name can be found among the cities of +Pe-che-li or Shan-si --Astl.<br> + In the abstract given by Forster, this place is called Sekan or +Segaan; named in the maps Sigan-fou, or more properly +Si-Ngan-Fou.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[10] Or Kan-chew, in the province of Shen-si; +otherwise called Kam-tsiu, or Kan-tcheou, on the river +Etchine.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] This name is probably erroneously substituted +for Sou-chew; as that is the regular station for retracing their +former journey, which the text distinctly indicates to have been +the case hitherto.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>As the roads through the country of the Mongals were very +unsafe, owing to confusions and civil wars among the hordes, they +remained ten months at So-chew, whence they set out at full moon +in the month of Moharram, of the year 825 of the Hegira[12], and +came in a few days to the Karaul at the pass leading into the +desert, where their baggage was searched. Leaving this place on +the nineteenth of Moharram, on purpose to avoid the obstacles and +dangers they were likely to encounter, on account of intestine +war among the tribes of the Mongals, they took the road through +the desert[13], where they suffered much distress on account of +the scarcity of water. They got out from the desert on the +sixteenth of Rabiya-al-awal, and arrived at the city of +Khoten[14] on the ninth of Jomada-al-akher. Continuing their +journey from thence, they came to the city of Kashgar[15] on the +sixth of Rajeb. On the twenty-first of the same month, the +ambassadors separated a little way beyond the city of +Endkoien[16], some taking the road towards Samarkand, and the +rest directing their way for Badakshan. Those of Shah Rokh +arrived at the castle of Shadman on the twenty-first of Shaaban; +at Balkh on the first of Ramazan; and on the tenth of that month +at Herat, the residence of their sovereign.</p> + +<blockquote>[12] This month began on Thursday the twenty-fifth +December, 1421.--Astl.<br> + According to Forster, they recommenced their journey in the +month of January, 1421.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Probably taking their route by the lake of Lop, +to the south of Little Bucharia.--Astl.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] Called likewise Koton, Khateen, and Hotam, in +Little Bucharia, or Eastern Turkistan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] Named likewise Khasiger, Kashar, Cashgar, and +Hasiker.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] Probably the same with Anghein, on the river +Sir.--Astl.<br> +In Forsters abstract, this place is called Andigan, and the +names of Andischdan and Dedschan are said to be +synonymous.--E.</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-18">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Voyage and Travels of Pietro Quirini into +Norway, in 1431.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. +209.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Pietro Quirini, a Venetian nobleman, was a merchant and master +of a ship belonging to the island of Candia, which at that time +was in the possession of the Venetian republic. With a view both +to fame and profit, he undertook in 1431 a voyage from Candia to +Flanders; and towards the end of autumn of that year suffered +shipwreck on the coast of Norway, not far from the island of +Rost. He wintered in that island, and in the following summer, +1432, travelled through Drontheim to Wadstena, in Sweden, and +from thence returned to Venice that year. He has himself given an +account of his adventures, and two of his companions, Christopho +Fioravente and Nicolo di Michiel, did the same. Both of these +journals are to be found in the collection of Ramusio; and +extracts have been published from them by Hieronimus Megiserus, +in a work entitled, Septentrio Novantiquus, printed in 8vo, at +Leipsic in 1613.--Forst.</p> + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + +<p><i>Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini</i>.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of April 1431, Pietro Quirini set sail from +Candia, steering westwards to the straits of Gibraltar; but, +owing to contrary winds, he was obliged to keep near the coast of +Barbary. On the 2d of June, he passed the straits, and, through +the ignorance of the pilot, the ship got upon the shoals of St +Peter, in consequence of which accident the rudder was thrown off +the hinges, and the ship admitted water in three several places; +insomuch that it was with great difficulty they could save the +vessel from sinking, and get her into Cadiz. The vessel was here +unloaded; and, having given her a thorough repair, the lading was +again put on board in twenty-five days after their arrival. +Having learned in the meantime that the republic of Venice had +entered into a war with Genoa, he thought proper to augment the +number of his men, so that his crew in all amounted to +sixty-eight. He set sail again on the 14th of July, and +endeavoured to bear up for Cape St Vincent; but, owing to a +strong north-east wind, which on that coast is called +<i>Agione</i>, he was forced to beat up to windward forty-five +days at a great distance from land, and was driven into dangerous +and unknown seas near the Canary islands. When at length their +stock of provisions was nearly exhausted, they got a fair wind +from the south-west, and directed their course towards the +north-east; and the iron work about their rudder giving way, they +mended it up as well as they could, and arrived safe at Lisbon on +the 25th of August.</p> + +<p>Having here carefully repaired the iron work of their rudder, +and taken in a fresh stock of provisions, they again set sail on +the 14th of September; and were a second time baffled by contrary +winds, insomuch that they had to put in at the port of Mures in +Spain, whence Quirini went with thirteen of his crew to perform +his devotions at the shrine of St Jago di Compostella. They +returned from thence with all speed, and again set sail with a +fair wind at south-west, and kept at the distance of 200 miles +from the land, in hopes the wind might continue. But on the 5th +November the wind shifting to the east and south-east, prevented +them from entering the English channel, and forced them beyond +the Scilly islands. The wind now again increased in violence, and +on the 10th November carried the rudder a second time from its +hinges. They slung it by means of ropes to the quarters of the +ship, but it soon broke loose, and was dragged after the ship for +three days, when, by exerting their utmost efforts, it was again +made fast. The vessel now drove continually farther from land; +and as the crew consumed the victuals and drink without bounds or +moderation, two or three of the men were appointed to guard the +provisions, with orders to distribute regular shares to each +person on board twice a day, Quirini himself not excepted.</p> + +<p>As a substitute for their disabled rudder, they constructed, +by the advice of the carpenter, out of some spare masts and +yards, two rudders with triangular boarded ends, in order to +steady the course of the vessel. These being properly fastened +proved highly serviceable, and inspired them with fresh hopes of +safety; but, by the extreme violence of the winds and waves, this +their last refuge was torn away. On the 26th of November the +storm increased to such extreme violence, that they expected +every moment to founder, and had no doubt this was to have proved +the last day of their lives. By degrees, indeed, the storm +abated; but they were driven out to sea to the W.N.W., and the +sails, from being perpetually fatigued by the rain and wind, were +now torn to shivers; and though they put up new ones, they were +soon likewise destroyed. The ship now drove without either sails +or rudder, at the mercy of the winds and waves, and was filled by +the sea which continually beat over it; insomuch that the crew, +worn out with constant labour, anxiety, and watching, were +scarcely able to keep the water under. On heaving the lead they +found water at 80 fathoms; on which they spliced all their four +cables on end, and rode at anchor for the space of forty hours; +when one of die crew, terrified at the dreadful working of the +ship occasioned by the winds and waves, cut the cable at the +forecastle, and the ship now drove about as before. On the 4th +December, four large waves broke in succession over their +ill-fated vessel, and filled it so full of water that it seemed +just ready to sink. By exerting their utmost strength and +resolution, the crew baled the water out, though it reached to +their waists, and at length succeeded in emptying the vessel +entirely. On the 7th, the tempest increased with such violence, +that the sea flowed into the ship uninterruptedly from the +windward, and their speedy destruction seemed quite inevitable; +so that they were now of opinion their only chance of safety was +by cutting away the mainmast, which might lighten the ship. This +was done therefore immediately; and a large wave fortunately +carried the mast and yard clear away, by which the ship worked +with considerably less strain and violence. The wind and waves +too, now became less violent, and they again baled out the water. +But now the mast was gone, the ship would no longer keep upright, +and lay quite over on one side, so that the water ran into her in +torrents; and the people, being quite exhausted with labour and +want of food, had not strength remaining to clear out the +water.</p> + +<p>In this desperate situation, expecting every moment that the +vessel would sink or go to pieces, they came to the resolution of +endeavouring to save themselves in the boats, of which the larger +held only forty-seven men, and the smaller twenty-one. Quirini +had the choice of either of the boats, and at last went with his +servants, into the larger boat, in which the officers had +embarked. They took with them a stock of provisions; and on the +17th December, the winds and waves having somewhat moderated, +they quitted their unfortunate ship. Among other costly articles +of commerce, the ship was laden with 800 casks of Malmsey wine, +and a great quantity of sweet-scented Cyprus wood, with pepper +and ginger. On the following night, the small boat in which +twenty-one of the crew were embarked, was separated from them by +the violence of the storm, and they never heard of her more. +Those in the larger boat were obliged to throw overboard most of +their stock of wine and provisions, and all their clothes except +those they had on, in order if possible to lighten her a little. +As the weather proved fair for some time, they steered to the +eastwards, in hopes of getting as they thought to Iceland; but +the wind again chopping about, drove them about at its will, and +they were quite ignorant whereabouts they were.</p> + +<p>Their liquor now began to fail, and many of the people being +quite exhausted with incessant labour, long watchings, and the +other hardships they had undergone, and through scarcity of +provisions, a great number of them died. So great particularly +was the scarcity of drink, that the allowance for each man was +only a fourth part of a moderate cupful once in twenty-four +hours. They were better provided with salted meat, cheese, and +biscuit; but this dry and salt food excited an intolerable +thirst, which they had no means to quench; in consequence of +which some of them died suddenly, and without having exhibited +any previous symptoms of illness; and it was particularly +observed, that those were first carried off who had formerly +lived in the most intemperate manner, and had given themselves up +to drunkenness, or had continually indulged themselves in +hovering over the fire. Though these had the external appearance +of being strong and healthy, they were least able to endure the +hardships they had now to suffer, and two or three of them used +to die in a day. This mortality prevailed for ten days, from the +19th to the 29th of December. On the 29th the last remainder of +the wine was served out, and every one resigned himself to meet +death, which seemed at hand. Some of the people, urged by raging +thirst, drank sea water, which evidently hastened their +dissolution. Others had recourse to their own urine, and this +nauseous beverage, joined to the precaution of eating as little +salt provision as possible, contributed most of all to the +preservation of their lives.</p> + +<p>For the space of five days they continued in this dreadful +situation, sailing all the time to the north-eastward. At length +on the 4th of January, one of the people who sat in the bow of +the boat, descried somewhat to leeward which he conceived to be +the shadow of land, and immediately informed the crew of his +discovery in an anxious voice. All eyes were now eagerly directed +to this object, and as day broke they saw with extreme joy that +it really was the land. The sight of this welcome object inspired +them with fresh vigour, and they now plied their oars in order to +arrive the sooner at the shore; but on account of its great +distance, as well as the shortness of the day, which was only two +hours long, they were unable to accomplish this desire. Besides, +they were now so weak as to be unable to make use of their oars +for any length of time; and as night soon overtook them, and was +of long continuance, it seemed to men in their forlorn state as +if it would never end. When the next day broke, they could no +longer discern the land which they had seen the day before; but +they discovered another mountainous country very near them and to +leeward. That they might not lose the way to this during the +ensuing night, they took its bearings by the compass, and +hoisting sail with a fair wind they reached it about four o'clock +in the evening. On approaching the shore, they observed that it +was surrounded by many shallows, as they distinctly heard the sea +breaking over these; but they gave themselves up to the guidance +of providence, and at one time the boat grounded on a shoal, but +a vast wave came and floated them over, and at the same time +carried them safely to land upon a shelving rock, which was now +their great security, as the spot was encompassed on every side +with rugged projecting rocks, and they could not possibly have +got on shore in any other place. Here therefore they ran their +boat on shore; and those who were on the bows leaped directly on +the coast, which they found entirely covered with snow, which +they swallowed in immense quantities, filling their parched and +burning stomachs and bowels. They likewise filled a kettle and +pitcher for those who from weakness remained in the boat; and +Quirini alleges, that he swallowed as much snow as he would have +found it difficult to have carried on his back, all his happiness +and welfare seeming to depend upon the quantity of it he could +swallow. This extravagant quantity of snow agreed so ill with +some of the people, that five of them died that night; though +their deaths were attributed to the sea water which they had +previously drank.</p> + +<p>SECTION II.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation of Quirini on the Coast of Norway, and +Residence In the Isle of Rostoe</i>.</p> + +<p>As they had no rope with, which to make fast their boat to the +shore and prevent it from being dashed to pieces, they remained +in it the whole night. Next day at dawn, sixteen weak, miserable +and exhausted wretches, the sad remains of forty-seven who had +originally taken refuge in the large boat, went on shore and laid +themselves down in the snow. Hunger, however, soon obliged them +to examine if there might not remain some of the provisions which +they had brought with them from the ship: All they found was a +very small ham, an inconsiderable remnant of cheese, and some +biscuit dust in a bag, mixed with the dung of mice. These they +warmed by means of a small fire, which they made of the boat +seats, and in some measure appeased their hunger. On the +following day, having convinced themselves beyond doubt that the +rock on which they then were was quite desert and uninhabited, +they resolved to quit it in hopes of being able to reach some +inhabited island, or part of the adjacent coast of Norway; but, +after filling five small casks with snow water, and getting into +the boat to put their resolution into execution, the water ran in +torrents through all the seams, and the boat went to the bottom +immediately, so that they were forced to get on shore again quite +drenched in the sea. During the whole of the preceding long +night, the boat had been beating against the rock, which had +loosened its planks and opened all the seams. Despairing now of +any relief, as they were utterly destitute of any means to repair +their boat, they constructed two small tents of their oars and +sails, to shelter themselves from the weather, and hewed the +materials of their boat in pieces to make a fire to warm +themselves. The only food they were able to procure consisted in +a few muscles and other shell-fish, which they picked up along +the shore. Thirteen of the company were lodged in one of the +tents, and three in the other. The smoke of the wet wood caused +their faces and eyes to swell so much that they were afraid of +becoming totally blind; and, what added prodigiously to their +sufferings, they were almost devoured by lice and maggots, which +they threw by handfuls into the fire. The secretary of Quirini +had the flesh on his neck eaten bare to the sinews by these +vermin, and died in consequence; besides him, three Spaniards of +a robust frame of body likewise died, who probably lost their +lives in consequence of having drank sea water while in the boat; +and so weak were the thirteen who still remained alive, that +during three days they were unable to drag away the dead bodies +from the fire side.</p> + +<p>Eleven days after landing on this rock or uninhabited island, +Quirini's servant, having extended his search for shellfish, +their only food, quite to the farthest point of the island, found +a small wooden house, both in and around which he observed some +cow-dung. From this circumstance the forlorn people concluded +that there were men and cattle at no great distance, which +inspired them with, fresh hopes of relief, and revived their +drooping spirits. This house afforded them abundant room and good +shelter; and all, except three or four, who were too weak to be +able for the fatigue of removing to such a distance, changed +their abode to this hut, crawling with great difficulty through +the deep snow, the distance being about a mile and a half, and +they took with them as much as they were able of the ruins of +their boat, to serve them for fire-wood. Two days after this, +while going along the shore in search of the usual supply of +shell-fish, one of the company found a very large fish quite +recently cast up by the sea, which appeared to weigh about two +hundred pounds, and was quite sweet and fresh. This most +providential supply they cut into thin slices and carried to +their dwelling, where they immediately set to work to broil and +boil it; but so great was their famine, and so tempting its +smell, that they had not patience to wait till it was thoroughly +dressed, but devoured it eagerly half raw. They continued to +gorge themselves with this fish almost without intermission for +four days; but at length the evident and rapid decrease of this +stock of food taught them more prudent economy, and by using it +sparingly in future it lasted them ten days more. Those who staid +behind in one of the tents near the place of their first landing, +sent one of their number to see what had become of the rest; and, +when he had been refreshed with some of the fish, he carried a +portion to his two companions, and the whole survivors were soon +afterwards reassembled in the wooden hut. During the whole time +that they subsisted upon the providentially found fish, the +weather was so exceedingly tempestuous that they certainly would +not have been able to have looked out for shellfish, and they +must inevitably have perished of famine.</p> + +<p>Having made an end of the large fish, which seems to have +lasted them for fourteen days, they were obliged to have recourse +again to the precarious employment of gathering shellfish along +the shore for their subsistence. About eight miles from the rock +upon which they now were, which Fioravente informs us was called +<i>Santi</i>, or Sand-ey by the natives, there was another isle +named <i>Rustene</i>[1], which was inhabited by several families +of fishers. It happened that a man and two of his sons came over +from Rost to Sandey to look after some cattle which were +amissing. Observing the smoke from the hut in which Quirini and +his wretched companions had taken shelter, curiosity led them to +examine the hut. On their approach, their voices were heard by +the people within the hut; but they believed it to be only the +screaming of the sea-fowl who devoured the bodies of their +deceased companions. Christopher Fioravente, however, went out to +examine whence the unusual sound proceeded; and espying the two +youths, he ran back in haste, calling aloud to his companions +that two men were come to seek them. Upon this the whole company +ran out immediately to meet the lads, who on their parts were +terrified at the sight of so many poor famished wretches. These +latter debated for some time among themselves whether they should +not detain one of their visitors, with the view of making +themselves more certain to procure assistance; but Quirini +dissuaded them from this projected violence. They all accompanied +the youths to the boat, and entreated the father and sons to take +two of their people along with them to their habitations, in +order the sooner to procure them assistance from thence. For this +purpose they chose one Gerrard of Lyons, who had been purser of +the ship, and one Cola a mariner of Otranto, as these men could +speak French and a little German.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Rost, or Rostoy.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>The boat with the fishermen, and the two men who had been +deputed to seek assistance, went over to Rostoe on Friday the +31st. of January 1432. On their landing, the inhabitants were +much astonished at their appearance, but were not able to +understand them, though the strangers addressed them in different +languages; till at last one of the strangers began to speak a +little German with a German priest of the order of friars +predicant who lived there, and informed him who they were and +whence they came. On Sunday the 2d February, which happened to be +the festival of the purification of the blessed Virgin, the +priest admonished all the people of Rostoe to assist the unhappy +strangers to the utmost of their power, at the same time +representing the hardships and dangers they had undergone, and +pointing to the two famished wretches then present. Many of the +congregation were softened even to tears at the recital, and a +resolution was formed to bring away the miserable survivors as +soon as possible, which they accomplished next day. In the mean +time, those who remained behind at Sandey considered the absence +of their companions as extremely long; and what with hunger, cold +and anxiety, they were almost dead. Their joy may be more easily +conceived than expressed, when they perceived six boats +approaching to their relief. On landing, the Dominican priest +inquired which of them was the captain of the unhappy crew; and +when Quirini made himself known as such, the priest presented him +with some rye bread and some beer, which he looked upon as manna +sent from heaven. After this the priest took him by the hand, and +desired him to choose two of his companions to accompany him; and +Quirini pitched upon Francis Quirini of Candia, and Christopher +Fioravente a Venetian, all three embarking in the boat of the +principal man of Rostoe along with the priest. The rest of the +company were distributed in the other five boats; and these good +Samaritans went even to the tents where these unfortunates had +first dwelt, taking away with them the only survivor of the three +men who had staid behind from weakness, and buried the other two; +but the poor invalid died next day.</p> + +<p>On the arrival of the boats at Rostoe, Quirini was quartered +with the principal person of the island: This man's son led him +to his father's dwelling, as his debility was so great he was +unable to walk without assistance. The mistress of the house and +her maid came forwards to meet him, when he would have fallen at +her feet; but she would not permit him, and immediately got him a +bason of milk from the house, to comfort him and restore his +strength. During three months and a half that Quirini dwelt in +this house, he experienced the greatest friendship and humanity +from the owners; while in return he endeavoured by complaisance +to acquire the good will of his kind hosts, and to requite their +benevolence. The other partners of his misfortunes were +distributed among the other houses of the place, and were all +taken good care of.</p> + +<p>The rocky isle of Rost, or Rostoe, lies 70 Italian miles to +the westwards of the southern promontory of Norway, which in +their language they call the worlds backside, and is three miles +in circumference[2]. This rocky isle was inhabited at this time +by 120 souls, of whom 72 received the holy communion on +Easter-day like good catholics. They get their livelihood and +maintain their families entirely by fishing, as no corn of any +kind grows in this very remote part of the world. From the 20th +of November to the 20th of February, the nights were twenty-one +hours long; and on the contrary, from the 20th of May to the 20th +of August the sun is either always seen, or at least the light +which proceeds from it. Thus during June, July and August, they +may be said to have one continued day of three months; while in +the opposite months of winter they have one almost continued +night. During the whole year they catch an incredible quantity of +fish; which, however, are almost solely of two kinds. One of +these they catch in prodigious quantities in the great bays, +which they call <i>stockfish</i>[3]. The other, called Halibut, +is a kind of flat fish of an astonishing size, for one of them +was found to weigh near two hundred pounds. The stockfish are +dried without being salted, in the sun and air; and, as they have +little fat or moisture, they grow as dry as wood. When they are +to be prepared for eating, they arc beaten very hard with the +back part of a hatchet, by which they are divided into filaments +like nerves; after which they are boiled, and dressed with butter +and spices to give them a relish. The people of this country +carry on a considerable trade with these dried stockfish into +Germany. The halibuts, are cut into pieces on account of their +great size, and are then salted; in which state they are very +good eating. With these two kinds of fish the people of Rostoe +load every year a ship of about 50 tons burthen, which they send +to Bergen, a place in Norway, about a thousand miles from their +island; and from whence a great number of ships of 300 or 330 +tons burthen, carry all the produce of the fisheries of different +parts of Norway into Germany, England, Scotland, and Prussia, +where they are exchanged against the produce of these countries, +particularly for every necessary article of food, drink and +clothing, as their own country is so extremely barren and +unfruitful, that they cannot raise these things for +themselves.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] The small island of <i>Rust</i> probably the one +in question, is the south-westernmost of the Loffoden isles of +Norway, in lat. 67°. 80 N. long. 11°. E. and is about 80 +statute miles from the nearest land of the continent of Norway to +the east. The rest of the Loffoden islands are of considerable +size, and are divided from Norway by the Westfiord, which grows +considerably narrower as it advances to the +north-east.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] The Cod or Gadus Morrhua, is termed stock-fish +when dried without salt.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Thus, most of their traffic being carried on by means of +barter, they have little money among them, nor is it very +necessary. When these exchanges have been made at Bergen, the +vessel returns to Rostoe, landing in one other place only, whence +they carry wood sufficient for a whole year's fuel, and for other +necessary purposes.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of these rocks are a well-looking people, and +of pure morals. Not being in the least afraid of robbery, they +never lock up any thing, and their doors are always open. Their +women also are not watched in the smallest degree; for the guests +sleep in the same room with the husbands and their wives and +daughters; who even stripped themselves quite naked in presence +of the strangers before going to bed; and the beds allotted for +the foreigners stood close to those in which their sons and +daughters slept. Every other day the fathers and sons went out a +fishing by day-break, and were absent for eight hours together, +without being under the least anxiety for the honour and chastity +of their wives and daughters[4]. In the beginning of May, the +women usually begin to bathe; and custom and purity of morals has +made it a law among them, that they should first strip themselves +quite naked at home, and they then go to the bath at the distance +of a bow-shot from the house. In their right hands they carry a +bundle of herbs to wipe the moisture from their backs, and extend +their left hands before them, as if to cover the parts of shame, +though they do not seem to take much pains about the matter. In +the bath they are seen promiscuously with the men[5]. They have +no notion of fornication or adultery; neither do they marry from +sensual motives, but merely to conform to the divine command. +They also abstain from cursing and swearing. At the death of +relations, they shew the greatest resignation to the will of God, +and even give thanks in the churches for having spared their +friends so long, and in now calling them to be partakers of the +bounty of heaven. They shew so little extravagance of grief and +lamentation on these occasions, that it appeared as if the +deceased had only fallen into a sweet sleep. If the deceased was +married, the widow prepares a sumptuous banquet for the +neighbours on the day of burial; when she and her guests appear +in their best attire, and she entreats her guests to eat +heartily, and to drink to the memory of the deceased, and to his +eternal repose and happiness. They went regularly to church, +where they prayed very devoutly on their knees, and they kept the +fast days with great strictness.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] This must have appeared a most wonderful reliance +upon female chastity, in the opinion of jealous Italians, +unaccustomed to the pure morals of the north.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] This custom of promiscuous bathing is very +ancient, and existed among the Romans, from whom it was learnt by +the Greeks, but gave rise to such shameful lewdness, that it was +prohibited by Hadrian and Antoninus. This law seems to have +fallen into oblivion, as even the Christians in after times fell +into the practice, and gave occasion to many decrees of councils +and synods for its prohibition; yet with little effect, as even +priests and monks bathed promiscuously along with the women. +Justinian, in his 117th novel, among the lawful causes of +divorce, mentions a married woman bathing along with men, unless +with the permission of her husband. Russia probably adopted +bathing from Constantinople along with Christianity, and in that +country promiscuous bathing still continues; and they likewise +use a bundle of herbs or rods, as mentioned in the text, for +rubbing their bodies. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Their houses are built of wood, in a round form, having a hole +in the middle of the roof for the admission of light; and which +hole they cover over in winter with a transparent fish skin, on +account of the severity of the cold. Their clothes are made of +coarse cloth, manufactured at London, and elsewhere. They wore +furs but seldom; and in order to inure themselves to the coldness +of their climate, they expose their new born infants, the fourth +day after birth, naked under the sky-light, which they then open +to allow the snow to fall upon them; for it snowed almost +continually during the whole winter that Quirini and his people +were there, from the 5th of February to the 14th of May. In +consequence of this treatment, the boys are so inured to the +cold, and become so hardy, that they do not mind it in the +least.</p> + +<p>The isle of Rostoe is frequented by a great number of white +sea-fowl called <i>Muris</i> [6] in the language of the country. +These birds are fond of living hear mankind, and are as tame and +familiar as common pigeons. They make an incessant noise; and in +summer, when it is almost one continued day for three months, +they are only silent for about four hours in the twenty-four, and +this silence serves to warn the inhabitants of the proper time of +going to rest. In the early part of the spring, there arrived an +amazing quantity of wild geese, which made their nests on the +island, and even sometimes close to the walls of the houses. +These birds are so very tame, that when the mistress of the house +goes to take some eggs from the nest, the goose walks slowly +away, and waits patiently till the woman has taken what she +wants; and when the woman goes away, the goose immediately +returns to her nest.</p> + +<blockquote>[6] The Norwegians call this species of sea fowl +<i>Maase</i>; which is probably the Larus Candidus; a new +species, named in the voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord +Mulgrave, <i>Larus eburneus</i>, from being perfectly white. By +John Muller, plate xii. it is named <i>Lams albus</i>; and seems +to be the same called <i>Raths kerr</i>, in Martens Spitzbergen, +and <i>Wald Maase</i>, in Leoms Lapland. The Greenlanders call it +<i>Vagavarsuk</i>. It is a very bold bird, and only inhabits the +high northern latitudes, in Finmark, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, +and Spitzbergen. This <i>Maase</i>, or sea-gull, is probably the +white <i>Muxis</i> of the text.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>In the month of May, the inhabitants of Rostoe began to +prepare for their voyage to Bergen, and were willing also to take +the strangers along with them. Some days before their departure, +the intelligence of their being at Rostoe reached the wife of the +governor over all these islands; and, her husband being absent, +she sent her chaplain to Quirini with a present of sixty +stockfish, three large flat loaves of rye-bread and a cake: And +at the same time desired him to be informed, that she was told +the islanders had not used them well, and if he would say in what +point they had been wronged, instant satisfaction should be +afforded; it was also strongly recommended by that lady to the +inhabitants, to give them good treatment, and to take them over +to Bergen along with themselves. The strangers returned their +sincere thanks to the lady for the interest she took in their +welfare, and gave their full testimony, not only to the innocence +of their hosts in regard to what had been alleged, but spoke of +the kind reception they had experienced in the highest terms. As +Quirini still had remaining a rosary of amber beads which he had +brought from St Jago in Gallicia, he took the liberty of sending +them to this lady, and requested her to use them in praying to +God for their safe return into their own country.</p> + +<p>When the time of their departure was come, the people of +Rostoe, by the advice of their priest, forced them to pay two +crowns for each month of their residence or seven crowns each; +and as they had not sufficient cash for this purpose, they gave, +besides money, six silver cups, six forks, and six spoons, with +some other articles of small value, which they had saved from the +wreck, as girdles and rings. The greater part of these things +fell into the hands of the rascally priest; who, that nothing +might be left to them of this unfortunate voyage, did not scruple +to exact these as his due for having acted as their interpreter. +On the day of their departure, all the inhabitants of Rostoe made +them presents of fish; and on taking leave, both the inhabitants +and the strangers shed tears. The priest, however, accompanied +them to Bergen, to pay a visit to his archbishop, and to give him +a part of the booty.</p> + +<p>Norway certainly did not learn the practice of bathing either +from Rome or Constantinople. Some learned men are never content +unless they can deduce the most ordinary practices from classical +authority, as in the above note by Mr Forster.--E.</p> + +<p>SECTION III.</p> + +<p><i>Voyage from Rostoe to Drontheim, and journey thence into +Sweden</i>.</p> + +<p>At their departure from Rostoe, the season was so far +advanced, being now the end of May, that during this voyage they +saw the image of the sun for forty-eight hours above the horizon; +but as they sailed farther to the south, they lost the sun for +one hour, though it continued broad day the whole time. Their +whole course lay between rocks, and they perceived here and +there, near the projecting points of land, the marks of deep +navigable waters, which intersected the coast. Many of these +rocks were inhabited, and they were received very hospitably by +the inhabitants, who freely gave them meat and drink, and would +accept of no recompense. The sea-fowl, which, when awake, are +always loud and noisy, they found had built their nests in all +the rocks past which they now sailed, and the silence of these +birds was a signal for them likewise to go to rest.</p> + +<p>In the course of their voyage, they met the bishop of +Drontheim; who, with two gallies, and attended by 200 people, was +making the tour of his diocese, which extends over all these +countries and islands. They were presented to this prelate, who, +being informed of their rank, country, and misfortunes, expressed +great compassion for them; and gave them a letter of +recommendation for his episcopal residence at Drontheim, where St +Olave, one of the kings of Norway, was buried. This letter +procured them a kind reception at this place. As the king of +Norway happened at this time to be at war with the Germans, the +host of Quirini, who was likewise master of the vessel, refused +to sail any further; but landing them at a small inhabited island +near Drontheim, recommended them to the care of the inhabitants, +and immediately returned home. On the next day, which was +Ascension day, they were conducted to Drontheim, and went into +the church of St Olave, which was handsomely ornamented, and +where they found the lord-lieutenant with a great number of the +inhabitants. After hearing mass, they were conducted before the +lord-lieutenant, who asked Quirini if he spoke Latin? and being +informed by him that he did, invited him and all his attendants +to his table, to which they were conducted by a canon. They were +afterwards taken, by the same canon, to good and comfortable +lodgings, and were amply provided with all kinds of +necessaries.</p> + +<p>As Quirini wished for nothing more than to return to his own +country, he desired therefore advice and assistance to enable him +to travel either by the way of Germany or England. That they +might avoid travelling too much by sea, which was not safe on +account of the war, they were advised to apply to their +countryman, <i>Giovanne Franco</i>, who had been knighted by the +king of Denmark, and who resided at his castle of Stichimborg, or +Stegeborg, in east Gothland, in the kingdom of Sweden, at the +distance of fifty days journey from Drontheim. Eight days after +their arrival in Drontheim, the lord-lieutenant gave them two +horses and a guide to conduct them to Stegeborg; and as Quirini +had presented him with his share of the stockfish, a silver seal, +and a silver girdle, he received in return a hat, a pair of boots +and spurs, a leathern cloak-bag, a small axe, with the image of +St Olave, and the lieutenants coat of arms engraved on it, a +packet of herrings, some bread, and four Rhenish guilders. +Besides the two horses from the lieutenant, they received a third +horse from the bishop; and, being now twelve in number, they set +out together on their journey, with their guide and three horses. +They travelled on for the space of fifty-three days, chiefly to +the south or S.S.E., and frequently met with such miserable inns +on the road, that they could not even procure bread at them. In +some places they were reduced to such shifts, that the wretched +inhabitants grinded the bark of trees, and made this substance +into cakes with milk and butter, as a substitute for bread. +Besides this they had milk, butter, and cheese given them, and +whey for drink. Sometimes they met with better inns, where they +could procure meat and beer. They met with a kind and hearty +welcome, and most hospitable reception wherever they went.</p> + +<p>There are but few dwellings in Norway, and they often arrived +at the places where they were to stop in the night, or time of +repose, though broad daylight. On these occasions, their guide, +knowing the customs of the country, opened the door of the house +without ceremony, in which they found a table surrounded by +benches covered with leathern cushions, stuffed with feathers, +which served them for mattresses. As nothing was locked up, they +took such victuals as they could find, and then went to rest. +Sometimes the masters of the houses in which they stopt would +come in and find them asleep, and be much amazed till the guide +acquainted them with their story, on which their astonishment +became mingled with compassion, and they would give the +travellers every thing necessary without taking any remuneration; +by which means these twelve persons, with the three horses, did +not spend more than the four guilders they had received at +Drontheim, during their journey of fifty-three days.</p> + +<p>On the road they met with horrid barren mountains and vallies, +and with a great number of animals like roes[1], besides +abundance of fowls, such as hasel-hens, and heath-cocks, which +were as white as snow, and pheasants the size of a goose[2]. In +St Olave's church at Drontheim, they saw the skin of a white +bear, which was fourteen feet and a half long; and they observed +other birds, such as gerfalcons, goss-hawks[3], and several other +kinds of hawks, to be much whiter than in other places, on +account of the coldness of the country.</p> + +<blockquote>[1] The Rein-deer, Cervus tarandus, +Lin.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] Probably the Tetrao lagopus, +Lin.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] Falco Gyrfalcus, and Falco +astur.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Four days before they reached Stegeborg, they came to a town +called Wadstena, in which St Bridget was born, and where she had +founded a nunnery, together with chaplains of the same order. At +this place the northern kings and princes have built a most +magnificent church covered with copper, in which they counted +sixty-two altars. The nuns and chaplains received the strangers +with great kindness; and, after resting two days, they set out to +wait on the chevalier Giovanne Franco, who relieved them in a +manner that did honour to his generosity, and did every thing in +his power to comfort them in their distressed situation. A +fortnight after their arrival at his residence, a plenary +indulgence was given at the church of St Bridget, in Wadstena, to +which people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and even from +Germany, Holland, and Scotland, came to partake; some of whom +came from a distance of more than 600 miles. They went to the +indulgence at Wadstena along with Giovanne Franco, in order to +inquire if there were any ships bound for Germany or England, +there being always a great concourse of people on such occasions. +The chevalier was five days on the road, and had more than 100 +horses in his train. At Wadstena they took leave of their +beneficent countryman, who furnished them amply with money and +clothes for their journey, and ordered his son Matthew, a very +amiable young man, to accompany them eight days journey on their +way to Lodese, on the river Gotha; and where he lodged them in +his own house for some time, till the ship in which they were to +embark was ready to sail The chevalier Franco lent them his own +horses all the way from his castle of Stegeborg; and, as Quirini +was ill of a fever, he mounted him on a horse which had a +wonderfully easy pace.</p> + +<p>From Lodese, three of Quirini's crew went home in a vessel +bound for Rostock, and eight of them accompanied him to England, +where they came to their friends in London, by way of Ely and +Cambridge. After residing two months at London, they took +shipping thence for Germany; and, travelling thence by way of +Basil, in Switzerland, they arrived, after a journey of +twenty-four days, in safety and good health at Venice.</p> + +<h2><a name="chapter1-19">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h2> + +<p align="center"><b><i>Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, Ambassador +from Venice to Tanna, now called Asof, in 1436.</i></b>[1]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North p. +165.</blockquote> + +<p>INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, was sent, in the year 1436, by +the republic of Venice, as ambassador to Tanna, now called Asof, +which at that time was in the hands of the Genoese. This relation +was printed in a small and scarce collection at the Aldus press +in Venice, by Antonio Minutio in 1543, and was afterwards +inserted in the collection of Giovanne Baptista Ramusio. The +following is an abstract of that journey. He went afterwards into +Persia in 1471, as ambassador to Ussum Hassan, or Assambei, a +Turkomanian prince of the white weather tribe, and was sixteen +years among the Tartars; and on his return to his native country +wrote an account of both these expeditions. He died at Venice at +a very advanced age, in 1494.</p> + +<p>These travels are not given in any regular order, nor is any +itinerary mentioned. It would appear that he resided for some +time at Tanna, now Asof, making several journeys into the Crimea, +and among the nations which inhabit between the Don and the +Wolga, the Black Sea and the Caspian; and that he returned home +by way of Moscow, Novogorod, Warsaw, and Francfort on the Oder, +and through Germany into Italy.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<p>Josaphat Barbaro began his journey to Tanna in 1436, and +explored that country with great assiduity, and a spirit of +inquiry that does him much honour, partly by land and partly by +water, for sixteen years. The plain of Tartary is bounded on the +east by the great river Ledil, Edil, or Wolga; on the west by +Poland; on the north by Russia; on the south by the Great or +Black Sea, Alania, Kumania or Comania, and Gazaria, all of which +border on the sea of Tebache[2]. Alania has its name from the +people called Alani, who call themselves <i>As</i> in their own +language. These people were Christians, and their country had +been ravaged and laid waste by the Tartars or Mongals. The +province of Alania contains many mountains, rivers, and plains, +and in the latter there are many hills made by the hand of man, +serving for sepulchral monuments, on the top of each of which +there is a flat stone with a hole in it, in which a stone cross +is fixed. About 110 years before the journey of Barbaro, or in +1326, the religion of Mahomet was adopted by the Tartars or +Mongals; though, indeed, before that period there were some +Mahometans in the country, but every one was permitted to follow +what religion he chose. In consequence of this, some worshipped +wooden images, which they carried about with them on their carts +or moveable huts: But the compulsatory establishment of the +Mahometan religion takes its date from the time of Hedighi, +Edigi, or Jedighei, who was a general under the Tartarian emperor +Sidahameth khan. This Hedighi was the father of Naurus, in whose +days Ulu-Mohameth, or Mahomet the great, was khan of the +Tartars.</p> + +<blockquote>[2] Called likewise the sea of Zabachi, +Ischaback-Denghissi, the Palus Maeotis, and Sea of +Asof.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>A misunderstanding happened between the Naurus and the khan +Ulu-Mohameth, in consequence of which Naurus retired to the river +Ledil or Wolga, attended by the Tartar tribes who adhered to him +personally, and joined himself to Khezi-Mohamet, or <i>little</i> +Mahomed, who was a relation to the khan or emperor. Naurus and +Khezi resolved to make war against Ulu, and accordingly marched +with their combined forces by way of Giterchan or Astrakan, and +through the plains of Tumen, or the great step or desert, which +extends from the Wolga to the Don, and quite down the mountains +of Caucasus. On this march westwards they kept southwards close +to Circassia, and turned off towards the Don and the sea of Asof, +both of which were frozen over. In order to find food for their +cattle and horses, they marched in separate parties, at so great +a distance from each other, that some crossed the river Don at a +place called Palastra, while others crossed it where it was +covered with ice, near Bosagaz, which two places are 120 miles +separate from each other; yet so well were their movements +combined, that they came upon Ulu-Mohameth quite unexpectedly, +and he was constrained to fly with his wife and children, leaving +every thing in confusion behind him, as Khezi Mohameth became +emperor or khan in his stead, and again crossed the Don in the +month of June.</p> + +<p>Proceeding westwards to the left from Tanna or Asof, along the +coast of the sea of Zabachi, or the Palus Maeotis, and then for +some distance along the Great or Black Sea, quite to the province +of Mingrelia, one arrives, after three days journey, at the +province of <i>Chremuch</i>, Kremuk, or Kromuk, the sovereign of +which is called <i>Bisserdi</i>[3], and his son is named +<i>Chertibei</i>[4], which signifies the true or real lord. +Bisserdi possesses a beautiful country, adorned with fertile +fields, considerable rivers, and many fine woods, and can raise +about a thousand horse. The higher order of the people in this +country chiefly subsist by plundering the caravans. They have +excellent horses; the people are valiant, inured to war, and very +artful; but have nothing singular in their manners and +appearance. Their country abounds in corn, cattle, and honey; but +produces no wine. Beyond this country there are other provinces, +which have a different language, and are not far from each +other[5]. These in their order, considering Kremuk as the first, +are, 2. <i>Elipehe</i> (Chippiche, or Kippike); 3. +<i>Tartarkosia</i> (otherwise Tatakosia, Titarcossa, Tatartofia, +or Tatartussia); 4. <i>Sobai</i>; 5. <i>Chernethei</i> (otherwise +Cheuerthei, Khewerthei, Kharbatei, Kherbarthei, or Khabarda); 6. +<i>As</i>, or the Alani. All these provinces extend for twelve +days journey, quite to Mingrelia; which latter province borders +on the <i>Kaitacchi</i> or Chaitaki, who live about the Caspian +mountains; and partly also near <i>Georgiana</i>, and on the +shores of the Black Sea, and on the range of mountains which +extends into Circassia. On one side likewise Mingrelia is +encompassed by the river Phasis, which falls into the Black Sea. +The sovereign of this country is called <i>Bendian</i>, or +Dadian, and is in possession of two fortified towns near the sea, +one of which is called <i>Vathi</i>, or Badias, and the name of +the other is Savastopol[6]. Besides these he has several other +castles and fortified rocks. The whole country is stony and +barren, and millet is the only kind of grain that it produces. +They get their salt from Kaffa. They manufacture some dark coarse +stuffs, and are a gross and barbarous people. In this country +<i>Tetarti</i> signifies <i>white</i>, and the word is likewise +used to denote silver coin: thus likewise the Greeks call silver +money Aspro[7], the Turks Akeia, and the Kathayans <i>Teugh</i>, +all of which words signify <i>white</i>; and hence, both in +Venice and in Spain, certain silver coins are all called +<i>bianchi</i>, which has the same signification.</p> + +<blockquote>[3] This is explained to signify Deodati, or Given by +God.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[4] The <i>Ch</i> is used in Italian orthography +before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> to indicate the letter <i>k</i>. +Hence Cheremuch is Kererouk, and Chertibei, Kertibei, or +Kertibey. In the perpetually varying nomenclature, from vitious +orthography, and changes of dominion, it is often difficult to +ascertain the nations or districts indicated. This is peculiarly +the case in the present instance, and the sequel, which +enumerates a number of the Caucasian petty tribes, lying between, +the sea of Asof and the Caspian, now mostly subject to the +Russian empire, whose momentary names and stations we dare not +pretend to guess at.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[5] This odd expression, that these provinces are not +far from each other, certainly means that they are not +large.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[6] Otherwise called Sebastopolis, also Isguriah or +Dioskurios.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[7] Hence <i>Asper</i>, the ordinary denomination of +silver coin in moderns Turkey is evidently borrowed from the +Greek.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>We must now give some account of Georgiana, Georgia, or +Gurgistan, which lies opposite to the last mentioned places, and +borders on Mingrelia. The king of Georgia is called Pancratius, +and is sovereign of a delightful country, which produces bread, +corn, wine, cattle, and all other fruits of the earth in great +abundance; and they train up their vines around trees as in +Trebisond. The people are very handsome and well made, but they +have the most horrid manners, and the worst customs of any people +I ever met with. Their heads are shaved, except a few hairs all +around, like our rich abbots; and they wear whiskers, six inches +long. On their heads they wear a cap of various colours, with a +feather on the top. Their bodies are covered by a strait-bodied +jacket, having tolerably long skirts, which are cloven behind, +quite up to their loins, as otherwise they could not conveniently +sit on horseback; but I do not blame them for this fashion, as +the French wear the same kind of dress. On their feet and ankles +they wear boots, but the soles are so strangely made, that when a +man walks, his heels and toes only touch the ground, while the +middle of the foot is raised up so high, that one may thrust the +fist through below; and thence they walk with great difficulty. I +should blame them for this, if I had not known that the same +fashion prevails in Persia. At their meals, they have the +following custom, which I saw in the house of one of their great +men. They use a quadrangular table, about half an ell across, +having a projecting rim, on the middle of which they heap up a +quantity of boiled millet, which is without salt or fat, or any +other seasoning, and this they eat to their meat by way of bread. +On another similar table, but having live coals underneath, there +was some wild boars flesh, but so little roasted that the blood +ran out when it was cut, and of this they are very fond. For my +part, I thought it quite disgusting, and was forced to content +myself with a little millet, as we had no other provisions. There +was wine, however, in abundance, which was handed round the +company with great hospitality.</p> + +<p>In this country there are a great number of woods and +mountains. One of its districts is named Tiflis, in which is a +town of the same name, situate on the Kur or Kyrus, which runs +into the Caspian. Gori is likewise a fortified place in the same +country, and lies nearer to the Black Sea.</p> + +<p>Going from Tanna or Asof, by the river Don, and along the sea +of Tabache or Asof, quite to Kaffa, and keeping that sea close on +the left hand, we come to an isthmus or narrow neck of land, +which connects the peninsula of the Crimea; with the mainland, +and which is named Zuchala[8]. This is similar to that called +Essimilia, formerly the Isthmus of Corinth, which connects the +Morea or Peloponnesus with the continent of Greece. Near this +isthmus of Zuchala, there are large salt water lakes, from which +the salt crystallizes in summer, and is taken out in large +quantities for the supply of the surrounding nations.</p> + +<blockquote>[8] Now Precop.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Within the peninsula, and on the sea of Tabache or Asof, the +first province we come to is <i>Kumania</i>, deriving its name +from the people called Kumanians. The chief province is called +<i>Gazzaria</i> or Chazaria, in which Caffa is situate; and the +measure of length used by merchants in all these countries is +called the Gazzarian ell, which is even used at Tanna[9].</p> + +<blockquote>[9] Kumania and Gazzaria, here said to be provinces +of the Crimea, or island of Kaffa, must have been small districts +of that peninsula, inhabited by tribes of the Kumanians and +Gazzarians of the country between the sea of Asof and the mouths +of the Wolga, now frequently called the Cuban Tartary. The whole +of that country, together with the country between the Wolga and +Ural rivers, often bore the name of Kumania. But the destructive +conquests of the Mongals, has in all ages broken down the nations +of those parts into fragments, and has induced such rapid and +frequent changes as to baffle all attempts at any fixed +topography, except of lakes, rivers, and +mountains.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The low country of the island of Kaffa[10] is occupied by the +Tartars, who are governed by a prince named <i>Ulubi</i>[11], the +son of <i>Azicharei</i>. They are able, in case of need, to bring +3000 or 4000 horse into the field. These people possess two +walled towns, which are by no means strong. One of these, +<i>Sorgathi</i>[12], is by them likewise called <i>Incremia</i> +or <i>Chirmia</i>, which signifies a fortification. The other is +<i>Cherchiarde</i> or <i>Kerkiarde</i>[13], which signifies forty +places in their language[14]. On the island, which the Italians +call the Cimmerian Bosphorus, close to the mouth of the sea of +Asof, is <i>Cherz</i>, Kersch, or Kars[15]. Then come Kaffa[16], +Saldaia[17], Grassui[18], Cymbalo[19], <i>Sarsona</i> or +Cherson[20], and Kalamita[21]. Farther on from Kaffa lies +<i>Gothia</i>, and still farther Alania, which is without the +island towards Moncastro[22].</p> + +<blockquote>[10] The ancient Taurica Chersonesus; the Crimea of +our days, now again called Taurida by the +Russians.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[11] Probably Ulu-beg, or the great +prince.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[12] Soragathi or Solgathi, is named by Abulfeda +Soldet or Kirm; and is at present called Eskikyrym, or the Old +Citadel.--Forst. From the name of this place, Chirmia, Kirmia, +Kirm, or Crim, the name of the peninsula and its inhabitants, +Chrimea, and Crim-Tartars, are evidently +derived.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[13] Kerkiardi is the Kerkri of Abulfeda, and +signifies in Turkish forty men. Some call the place Kyrk, and the +Poles name it Kirkjel. It is situated on an inaccessible +mountain, and was one of the castles belonging to the Goths who +dwelt in those mountains, absurdly called Jews by some authors; +of whom some traces remained not long ago, as their language +contained many words resembling German.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[14] I should suspect that this term, here applied to +one place only, had been originally the general appellation of +the <i>forty</i> castles belonging to the Goths, who long +defended themselves in the Tauric Chersonese. The ridiculous +conversion of these Goths into Jews, may be accounted for, by +supposing that some ignorant transcriber had changed Teutschi +into Judei, either in copying or writing from the +ear.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[15] The Pantikapaeum of the ancient Bosphorian +kings. The Ol-Kars of Abulfeda.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[16] This is nearly on the same spot with the +Theodosia of the Greeks and Romans.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[17] Otherwise Soldadia, Soldadia, or more properly +Sugdaja, now Sudak or Suday, by which name it is mentioned in +Abulfeda.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[18] Grasui, or Grusui, now unknown, perhaps stood at +a place now called Krusi-musen, which seems to preserve some +traces of the name.--Forst</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[19] Called likewise Cimbolo, the [Greek: Symbolan +Hormoos] or [Greek: lymaen], the Buluk-lawa of the moderns, or +Limen.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[20] Otherwise Sherson and Schurschi; which was +formerly called Cherson Trachea, and was built 600 years before +the Christian era, by the inhabitants of Heraclea in Pontus. It +was also called Chersonesus, or the Peninsula; but that term +properly signified the whole of the peninsula between this +harbour and Symbolon or Limen, which was entirely occupied by the +Greeks. The Russians took this place in the reign of Wolodimer +the great, and it is called Korsen in their annals. By the Turks, +it is named Karaje-burn. It must be carefully distinguished from +another Cherson on the Dnieper, at no great distance, but not in +the peninsula.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[21] This seems a corruption of Klimata; as all the +towns named by Barbaro formerly belonged to [Greek: chastxa ton +chlimata] of the Greeks, and all belonged till lately to the +Turks.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[22] This is a place at the mouth of the Dniester +called Ak-Kierman by the Turks; Tshelatalba by the Walachians; +Belgorod by the Russians; Aspro Kastra by the Greeks; and +Moncastro by the Genoese. It was the Alba Julia, of the +Romans.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>The Goths of these places speak a dialect of the German +language, as I learned from a German servant who accompanied me +on my travels; for he conversed with them, and they understood +each other tolerably well, just as a native of Friuli in the +Popes dominions might understand a Florentine[23]. From the +vicinity, or intermixture of the Goths and Alanians, originates +the denomination of <i>Gotitalani</i>. The Alanians were the +first inhabitants of this county: The Goths came at an after +period and made a conquest of part of the country inhabited by +the Alanians; and, as the two nations mingled together, this +mixed name became likewise into use. All these people profess the +Greek religion, which is likewise followed by the Tscherkassians, +or Circassians.</p> + +<blockquote>[23] This circumstance was before noticed by +Rubruquis, and is likewise mentioned by Busbeck. Father Mohndorf +met with many slaves in the gallies at Constantinople, who were +descended from the Goths, and spoke a dialect of German. Now that +the Crimea belongs to Russia, it is to be wished that the +remaining traces of the Gothic language may be inquired after; as +this language might serve to explain and illustrate the remains +we still possess of Ulfila's translation of the gospels into +Gothic; while the names and customs of this people, together with +many of their phrases and turns of expression, might throw light +on the manners and customs of the ancient Germans. It is even +possible, that some families among them, of the higher rank, may +still possess some books in their ancient language, which would +be a very important discovery.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Having already made mention of Tumen and Githerean, I shall +now relate some remarkable particulars concerning them. Going +from Tumen eastwards, or rather to the north-east, in seven days +journey we arrive at the river <i>Ledil</i>[24], on the banks of +which stands <i>Githercan</i>[25], a small insignificant town, +laid waste, and in ruins. It was formerly a very considerable and +celebrated place; as before the devastation of it by Tamerlane, +the spices and silks which go to Syria[26] were carried by +Githercan, and thence to Tanna, from whence they were brought, by +six or seven large gallies to Venice; for at that time no other +nation besides Venice traded to Syria. The Ledil or Wolga is a +large and very broad river, which discharges itself into the Sea +of Baku, or the Caspian, twenty-five Italian miles below +Astracan; and both this river and the Caspian, which is tolerably +salt, contain innumerable quantities of fish called tunnies and +sturgeons. One may sail up this river to within three days +journey of Moscow in Russia; and the inhabitants of that place go +every year with their vessels to Astracan, to procure salt. The +passage downwards is easy, as the river Mosco runs into the Oka, +and that again into the Wolga. In this river there are many +islands, and many forests along its banks. Some of these islands +are thirty miles in circumference; and in the forests there are +trees of such vast size, that one of them may be hollowed into a +boat, that will require eight or ten horses, and twice as many +men, to draw it against the stream. Crossing the river Wolga, and +going fifteen days journey to the north-west, along the river, we +meet with innumerable hordes of Tartars. But in travelling +northwards, towards Russia, we come to a small town called +Risan[27], which belongs to a relation of the grand duke of +Russia. The inhabitants of this place are all Christians, and +follow the usages of the Greek church. This country abounds in +corn, cattle, honey, and other good things; and they import a +species of beer called <i>Bossa</i>[28]; and the country abounds +in woods and villages without number. Somewhat farther, and about +half way between Riazan and Moscow, is a town called Colonna. The +fortifications, both of Riazan and Colonna, are built of timber, +as are also the houses; as nothing is to be seen in these parts +constructed of brick or stone. Three days journey from Colonna, +to the north-west, we come to the city and province of Moscow, or +Mosqua, where the great Duke Jvan or John resides; and through +this province there runs a river of the same name, having several +bridges over it; and from which the city and province have +probably acquired their names. The castle of Moscow is situated +upon a hill, and is encompassed round with woods[29].</p> + +<blockquote>[24] Otherwise called Erdir, Erdil, Atel, Athol, +Etilia, and now the Volga or Wolga.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[25] Likewise named Citracan and Astrakhan, +Astracan.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[26] There is an obvious blunder here, for this +account of the trade must be understood as follows: "That the +trade in silks and spices from the East, which now come by way of +Syria, came over land by way of Astracan to Tanna, whence it was +transported by sea to Venice." The concluding sentence, "That no +other nation but the Venetians then traded with Syria," is quite +inexplicable; as the Syrian trade could not possibly come to +Venice by way of Astracan and Tanna. The various routes of trade +from India or the East to Western Europe, before the Portuguese +discovered the way by sea, have been well illustrated by Dr +Robertson; and will be explained in the course of this +work.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[27] Riazan on the Oka, the capital of a province or +the same name.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[28] Even at present, they make an inebriating liquor +in Russia, from millet, called busa, which is very heady, and is +probably what is named bossa in the text--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[29] I strongly suspect that this passage is wrong +translated, and that it ought to have been, that the castle as +encompassed with wooden walls, as it is well known that the city +of Moscow environs the castle or Kremlin.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>The fertility of this country, in respect to corn and cattle, +may be understood from this circumstance, that flesh is not sold +by weight, but they give it out in large pieces, as much as would +weigh four pounds[30]. Seventy hens may be bought for a ducat, +worth four or five shillings; and a goose may be had for less +than threepence. In this country, the cold of winter is very +severe, and the rivers are long frozen over: Taking advantage of +this circumstance, they carry oxen and other beasts to market in +winter, ready slaughtered, skinned, and embowelled; which they +set up on their feet in the market places, frozen as hard as a +stone, and in such numbers, that one may buy 200 or more of them +at a time. Cutting them in pieces, as in our markets, is quite +impossible, as they are as hard as marble, and are delivered out +whole. The only fruits to be met with are apples, nuts, and small +walnuts. When the Russians have a mind to travel, especially if +the distance is very great, they prefer the winter season, when +the whole country is covered over with frozen snow, and all the +rivers are passable on the ice. They then travel with great +convenience and expedition, being only subjected to the severity +of the cold. At this season, they use sledges, which are to them +as waggons are to us; and in them they take every thing along +with them, with the utmost ease, that they have a mind to. In the +summer, the roads are extremely miry, and full of inequalities, +proceeding from the country being extremely woody; and they do +not therefore take long journeys at that season, more especially +as it is very thinly inhabited. They have no grapes, but make a +species of wine from honey, and a kind of beer from millet, into +which they put hop blossoms, of which the odour is so strong, as +to occasion sneezing, and which intoxicates like wine. I must not +omit to mention in this place, that, about twenty-five years ago, +the great duke, on finding that his subjects were much addicted +to drinking, which made them neglect their affairs, gave orders +that no more beer or mead should be made; by which means, he +obliged them, to live sober and regular lives. Besides this, he +did many other things for the advantage of his dominions.</p> + +<blockquote>[30] This expression has no meaning. Barbaro probably +wrote that four pounds could be had at Moscow for the same money +that would buy one in Venice.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Before the reign of this prince, the Russians paid tribute to +the Tartars; but they have now conquered a country called Kasan, +which is 500 miles to the east of Moscow, and the chief city of +which lies on the left bank of the Wolga, in descending towards +the sea of <i>Bochri</i>, or the Caspian[31]. This country of +Kasan enjoys considerable trade, especially in furs, of which +large quantities are carried from thence by way of Moscow to +Poland, Prussia, and Flanders. These furs come from a great +distance to the north-east, out of the empire of Zagathai[32], +and from Moxia[33]; both of which northern districts are +inhabited by Tartars, part of whom are idolaters, particularly +the Moxians, who continue so to this day.</p> + +<blockquote>[31] The Caspian, besides the names of Bochri and +Bakhu, is likewise called the sea of Khozar, and the sea of +Tabristan.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[32] Zagathai was one of the sons of the great +conqueror Zingis Khan, and received that part of the empire for +his share, which comprehended Turkistan, Mawaralnahar, and +Kuaresm; which extensive country took from him the name of +Zagathai.--Forst.<br> + The furs mentioned in the text could not be brought from this +country, which besides, is to the <i>south-east</i> of Kasan. To +the north-east lies Siberia, the true country of fine furs; and +which Barbara, by mistake, must have named Zagathai: though +perhaps it might at one time form part of that extensive +empire.--E.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[33] Moxia is the country of the Morduanians, one +tribe of whom call themselves Mokscha, or +Moxa.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Having received some account of these Moxians, I shall relate, +what I know concerning their religious customs. At a certain +season they lead a horse into the middle of their assembly, and +fasten it strongly by the head and feet to five stakes, driven +into the ground for that purpose. After this, a particular person +goes to some distance, with his bow and arrows, and shoots at the +heart of the animal till he has killed him. The horse is then +flayed, and the flesh eaten after the performance of certain +ceremonies. They then stuff the horses skin with straw, and sew +it up, so as to appear entire, fixing pieces of wood under the +skin of the legs, that the stuffed animal may stand up as it did +when alive. They next construct a scaffold, amid the branches of +a large tree, upon which they fix the stuffed horse skin, and +worship it as a god; offering up to it the furs of sables, +ermines, grey squirrels, and foxes, which they hang among the +boughs of the sacred tree, just as we offer up wax-lights to the +images of the saints. The food of this people consists mostly of +flesh, and that chiefly of venison, got by hunting; but they +likewise catch abundance of fish in the rivers of their country. +Many of the Tartars are idolaters, and carry the idols which they +worship about with them, on carts, in their moveable huts; and +some of them have the strange custom of worshipping each day, the +animal they meet first in a morning, after going out of their +houses.</p> + +<p>The grand duke of Russia has likewise conquered Nowgorod, or +Novogorod[34]. This is an extensive province, about eight days +journey to the north-west of Moscow, which was formerly a +republic. The inhabitants were without sense or reason, and had a +great many heretics among them; but at present, the catholic +faith makes its way among them by degrees, though some are still +misbelievers. In the meantimes, however, they lead more rational +lives, and justice is properly administered.</p> + +<blockquote>[34] This word signifies the New Castle; of this name +there are two cities and provinces in European Russia, Novogorod +proper, and Nisney Novogorod: The former is the one here +meant.--E.</blockquote> + +<p>Poland is twenty-two days journey from Moscow; and the first +place we come to in Poland is a fortified town, called Trocki, or +Trozk[35], to which we arrive through woods, and over hills, +travelling a long way in an uninhabited desert. There are, it is +true, certain places by the way, in which travellers may rest a +while, and make a fire, if ordered before hand; and sometimes, +though very rarely, one finds a small hamlet or two, a little way +out of the road. Going beyond Trozk, one meets with more hills +and forests, in which there are some habitations; and nine days +journey beyond Trozk, we come to a fortified town called +<i>Loniri</i> or Lonin[36]. After this, we quit that part of +Poland called Lithuania, and come to a district named +<i>Varsonich</i>[37], which belongs to certain lords, who are +subject to <i>Kazimir</i>, or Cassimir, King of Poland. This part +of the country is fertile, and contains a great many walled towns +and villages, but none of any great importance. From Warsaw, it +is seven days journey to the frontiers of Poland, through a good +and beautiful country; where one meets with <i>Mersaga</i>[38], a +tolerably good town, where Poland ends. Respecting the towns and +provinces of Poland, I shall say nothing farther, for want of +proper information; except that the king and his sons, and whole +household, are very good Christians, and that the eldest of his +sons is king of Bohemia.</p> + +<blockquote>[35] This is near Wilna in +Lithuania.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[36] I imagine that Slonym is here meant; formerly a +place of note, and which used to be the appanege of one of the +Lithuanian princes. --Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[37] Varsonich is an evident corruption for +Varsovich, or Warsaw, the capital of Masurea or +Masovia.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[38] It is not easy to determine the situation of +<i>Mersaga</i>; but, as on the borders of Poland, towards +Brandenburgh, and in the direction of Francfort on the Oder, it +is probable that Meseriz, or Miedzyrzyez, is here +meant.--Forst.</blockquote> + +<p>Travelling four days more beyond Poland, we came to Francfort, +a city which belongs to the Margrave of Bandenburgh. But having +reached Germany, I shall say nothing of it, as we are now in a +manner at home, and in a country with which most people are well +acquainted.</p> + +<h2>END OF VOLUME FIRST.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<hr align="center" width="25%"> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10600 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + |